LS5S HoUinger Corp. pH8.5 _ 835 .P2 N7 Copy 1 REPORT / ON THK I EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS PAEIS EXPOSITION OF 1878. By JOHN E. BRADLEY, Ph. D., Comixiissioner. TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE FEBRUARY 19, 18711. ALBANY : CHARLES VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS. 1879. REPORT LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK John E. Bradley APPLIOATIOJSr OF ART TO mDTJS^iRT. By JOHN E. BRADLEY, Ph. D., Commissioner. TKANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE FEBRUARY 19, 1879, ALBANY: CHARLES VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS. 1879. REPORT LKGISLATURE OF THE STATK 0¥ NEW YORK EDLITIOML EIHIBIIS iT THE Ml EXPOSlIIi OF 1878, AND THE APPLIOATIOK OF AET TO mDUS^lET. By JOHN E. BRADLEY, Ph. D., Commissioner. TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE FEBRUARY 19, 1879. ALBANY: CHARLES VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS. 1879. <^^^ titp 28 m? 0, Of a k Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the gen- eral diffusion of knowledge. — Washington. I have no conception of any manner in which the popular republican institutions under which we live can be preserved, if early education were not fully furnished to all, by public law, in such form that all shall gladly avail themselves of it. As the present tendency of things almost everywhere is to extend pop- ular power, the peace and well-being of society require at the same time a corresponding extension of popular knowledge. — Webste7\ STATE OF NEW YORK. No. 71. IN ASSEMBLY, Febeuary 19, 1879. REPORT OF JOHN E. BRADLEY, COMMISSIONER, ON THE EDUCA- TIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1878 AND THE APPLICATION OF ART TO INDUSTRY. Albany, N. Y., February 18, 1879. Hon. Thomas G. Alvord, Speaker of the Asserribly : Sir — In accordance with the joint resolution of the Legislature under which I was appointed a commissioner to represent the interests of the State of New York at the International Exposition at Paris and report to the Legislature upon the progress of education as illustrated by the exhibits of the nations participating in said exposition, I have the honor to transmit my report. Very respectfully. Your obedient servant, JOHN E. BRADLEY, Commissioner. REPORT. To the Legislature of the State of Neio York : The department of education was honored in the position assigned to it, at the Paris Exposition of 1878. The foreign educational sections were situated, for the most part, on the " Street of the Nations," in a prominent part of the main building on the Champs de Mars. The French department of public instruc- tion and the other educational exhibits of France were located in a long gallery and series of rooms by themselves on the opposite side of the art buildings, quite removed from the other exhibits of the same class. A considerable portion of the French educational display was also to be found in the large separate building of the Ville de Paris. Whatever unity of arrangement may have been at first intended was also much impaired by allowing other departments of the exhibition to encroach "X somewhat upon the space originally set apart to the department of Education. / The nations principally represented were France, Austria and Hun- / gary, the United States, Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, England, Italy, / Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and Spain. Of these, after / France, which made a large and somewhat brilliant display of educa- / tional progress and results, Austria and Hungary, and the United I States, made by far the most creditable exhibit. It is to be regretted ) that Germany did not participate more fully in the exhibition, and give ^ to the world the benefit of her educational organization and advance- ment. It was also a source of regret that the nations did not contribute more generally and extensively in the way of bound volumes of " Stu- dents' Work," which indicate more clearly than anything else that can be exhibited the actual quality and efficiency of the instruction given. The department of free-hand and industrial drawing was naturally the most fully exhibited, leaving little here to be desired ; but in many of the exhibits one sought in vain for information relative to the progress of education in other equally important branches of study. The United States educational exhibit, under the efficient organization and man- agement of Hon. John D. Philbrick, the superintendent, was highly creditable to the country and satisfactory to visitors especially interested in the work of education, as well as to those seeking information upon 6 Report on tee specific points in our edncational system. The space which it occupied was quite too small, but the articles exhibited were so classified and arranged, and every foot of space was so utilized, as to elicit the hearti- est commendation and command respect for our educational system and results. While the space was very meager, the location was most desir- able. It was in a prominent corner, near the main entrance from the Street of Nations, fronting on a wide passage which separated it from the office of the commission, and was admirably lighted from above. On three sides the exhibit was surrounded by a partition some twelve feet in height, while between and over the two entrances on the fourth side portions of the inclosing wall were retained to afford a suitable place for prominent articles in the exhibit. Around the sides of the room thus inclosed ran a line of book-cases, containing sets of national, state, and city school reports, together with other educational literature and mate- rials, while above them the walls were hung with plans of school buildings of superior excellence. Prominent among the designs thus exhibited were those of "Vassar Female College," "Wellesly College for Young Ladies," the Boston " Latin " and " English High " School, the Albany " High School," " Girls' Normal School " of Philadelphia, Milwaukee " Public High School," " Mount Holyoke Female Seminary," "Illinois State Normal University," "Pardee Hall," the building of the Scientific Department of La Fayette College, Easton, Pa., " Normal Institute," Hampton, Va., and others, together with maps, charts, dia- grams, photographs, etc. In the center of the room, upon a revolving ^ table, was a large model of a "Primary School Building" in Washing- ton, D. C, and on the shelves beneath it were a set of the text-books used in the public schools of all the various grades in Washington. On tables to I extending round the room, as well as in the book-cases, were many vol- umes of students' work. This department of the United States exhibit was very full and satisfactory. It furnishes the best means of judging of the quality and efficiency of the instruction given in the various schools represented, and suggests by comparison methods and means of improvement. Many of the towns and cities of this country contributed volumes or portfolios of such work, either especially prepared for the purpose or such as had been previously used at the Centennial Exhibi- tion at Philadelphia. It is to be regretted that so many schools and school boards contented themselves with sending only specimens of industrial drawings, and did not make a complete exhibit of students' work in all departments. It is a great mistake to suppose that the diffi- culties in preparation of such volumes of pupils' work are insurmount- able, or that they are not carefully examined by professional educators and experts. In the book-cases, besides extensive collections of reports and text-books, of which more special mention will be made in another place, were many books and documents of value, mostly furnished by the United States Bureau of Education. Catalogues and pamphlets Educational Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 7 relating to public libraries, charts and diagrams for various purposes, histories of educational institutions, bound volumes of college catalogues, reports, and other documents relating to scientific and learned societies, and treatises on educational subjects constituted a large portion of the contents of these book-cases. In this general survey of the American Educational exhibit mention should also be made of volumes of courses of study in different depart- ments, some of them very extensive and elaborate ; articles for special instruction, including Kindergarten articles and specimens of children's work; books on the instruction of the blind and a considerable variety of letters for their use and specimens of their work, some of them beauti- fully executed ; a case of philosophical apparatus ; a case of minerals, labeled and classified; models for drawing and sculpture ; specimens of shop work from the industrial schools, and a great variety and number of articles which were classed as " teachers' aids." Some of the articles included in the exhibit were sent by enterprising manufacturers for the purpose of advertisement, but the larger part of the collection was sent by institutions and departments of education solely to show to the world the present condition of education in this country. As a whole the educational exhibit of the United States, if small, was, nevertheless, highly creditable, and, judged by the report of the International Jury, very satisfactory. The luimber of awards to this section was twenty- eight larger than that awarded to the educational section of any other country except France ; and, although our educational exhibition occu- pied only a little more than one-hundredth part of the American section, it took nearly a sixth part of the prizes which went to American ex- hibitors. Any bare enumeration and description of articles brought together in the educational departments of different countries would be uninterest- ing and comparatively valueless ; while on the contrary a careful com- parison of these exhibits and a brief consideration of some of the topics which they suggest cannot fail to afford useful lessons. If improvement is to be made in our organization or methods of instruction, it must be by patient examination and inquiry at specific points, not by a cursory view of the whole subject. Instead, therefore, of long catalogues of the reports and text-books, and descriptions of students' work, and apparatus, and the educational materials, and appliances exhibited, it will be our pur- pose to give such facts .relating to these exhibits as may be of service to the teachers of this State, and in the light of these facts to present certain educational topics for their consideration. We note first and in general The Educational Value op such Exhibitions. The great International Exposition of 1878 is said to have had its origin in a movement among the mechanics and artisans, tluoiigh their 8 Report on the trades-unions, who urged upon the government the educational vahie of such an exhibition. It will be remembered that the same reason was extensively urged in favor of our recent exhibition. Aside from its his- torical significance as a centennial celebration, no argument in its favor was so successfully employed as that it would be a means of diffusing valuable information among the people. That such proved to be the case cannot be doubted. The opportunity for the comparison of the prod- ucts of diff'erent nations, and especially of the various manufactures which they exhibit, stimulates thought and leads not only to the more extended introduction of improvements, but also to new inventions ; for, more fundamental than the knowledge of machinery and processes of manufacture, are general information and the habit and spirit of free inquiry among the people. Each new fact becomes not merely so much added to one's stock of knowledge, but also a new center from which new thoughts and inquiries may radiate in all directions. To the com- munity, as well as to the individual, knowledge is cumulative. Facts which are of no interest to the ignorant are full of significance to the intelligent, and they who have developed mental vigor in the acquisition and study of new truths will see laws of matter and force, and far- reaching applications of them, where one not thus trained to habits of observation and reflection will receive no valuable suggestion. In one of the reports of the Commissioner of Education in the United States Edu- cational Exhibit at the Exposition, a large collection of facts and state- ments of the observations and opinions of superintendents of large manu- facturing establishments is given, from which it appears that a common school education adds fifty per cent, and such an additional education as can be obtained in most of our union schools and academies adds two hundred per cent to the productiveness of the ordinary unskilled laborer. If this is the case, no room is left for doubt that such a diffusion of special information as is possible through a great international exhibition will prove of great value. Especially should it be true that teachers and others interested in the great work of education will be on the alert to discover and apply whatever will promote the great object in the pro- motion of which they are engaged. The Object of Education. What is the end to be attained in education ? This is a fundamental inquiry. No one can act intelligently and with vigor who has not a clear appreciation of the object to be accomplished. The best results in edu- cation, as in other enterprises, can only be obtained by well-directed and persistent effort. Clearly, all interested in the work of instruc- tion — parents, teachers, and legislators — must unite in intelligent co-operation. One could not but reflect on the nature and aims of education, as he surveyed the vast collections in the educational exhibits of many of the Educational Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 9 European nations ; and, not iinfrequently, it was painful to observe the unworthy aims which they indicated. Grovernments, institutions, and sects are everywhere making persistent efforts to bias the infant mind ; and not only this, but the various kinds of education are so differenti- ated, and such diverse results are exhibited, as constantly to suggest the inquiry : What is the object to be attained ? " The object of education is to prepare children for the work they have to accomplish," says an eminent authority. But what kind of education will prepare children for the work they have to accomplish ? What constitutes success ? Set- ting aside special and often questionable aims, we may say that the work of education in Europe, as in this country, seems to be conducted with one of two ends in view : first, to train the mind and draw out the faculties to their full development; or, second, to furnish the learner with special knowledge and skill in some one department. What shall we say of these objects ? Is one right and the other wrong ? Granting that " the endowments that belong to all are more important than the peculiarities of any ;" granting that "man is the trunk, and the occupa- tions and professions are but the different kinds of fruit which it yields ;" and granting, too, as we must, that the advocates of " practical educa- tion " have often rendered their cause absurd, is it not true that the question of the utility of certain branches of study is' often too mucli ignored ? Might not instruction in certain branches of industry be advantageously added to the course pursued in the public schools, or substituted, to some extent, for certain branches which now receive dis- proportionate attention ? In most public school systems children are required to study arithmetic seven or eight years, and then the results are so meager and unsatisfactory that many demand that more atteiition be given to this important study. No one will claim that our pupils learn too much arithmetic, but is it necessary to devote so much time to it ? The objection that time is wasted has been strenuously urged against the study of the classics in college ; and yet more time is spent by every pupil who completes the course of study in one of our graded schools upon arithmetic alone than is given to Latin or Greek in any college course, including the preparatory course. Now compare the results. Instead of a considerable degree of culture, which is usually attained by those who have completed a classical course of study, these long years spent on arithmetic have too often yielded little, if any, intel- lectual improvement. Who is to be blamed ? Not the child, for lie has simply acted out the promptings of his nature, and has been under the guidance of others. Not the teacher, for he has faithfully striven, according to his ability, to teach the child, never daunted nor discour- aged by the pupil's seeming dullness and indifference. No, the simple fact is that an effort has been made to teach the child a study which he was not yet prepared to learn. Hence the meager result. Arithmetic calls into exercise a range of faculties which are not much developed in 10 Report on the childhood. Between the ages of six and fourteen the perceptive facul- ties, the memory, and the imagination act spontaneously and with remarkable vigor and certainty ; the reasoning powers, on the other hand, act slowly and feebly, and only under an effort of the will which the child possesses little power to put forth. Many a bright, promising boy or girl will read a story-book for three hours with ease and delight, to whom it is an utter impossibility to give fixed attention to the more intricate work of arithmetic for thirty minutes. Now, we repeat, it is not our intention to disparage arithmetic, nor to propose that pupils in our public schools should be taught less of it ; but is it neccessary or right to give so much time to it ? Why should we insist upon trying to teach the pupil that which he is not qualified to learn ? Might we not draw a useful lesson from European school systems in this matter ? Why not devote some of the weary hours which children now spend upon their arithmetic to teaching them designing, needle-work, or something ■else which will be useful to them in their daily life ? Some of the school exhibits of needle-work at the Exposition were very extensive, and all of them (from nearly every nation represented, except the United States) highly creditable. The little girl who leaves school with a dexterous skill in the use of the needle has no small advantage over one who has received no such instruction. The limits of this report will not permit us to dwell further upon this subject, except to say that the fact that the vast majority of the pupils in our public schools are surely destined to gain a livelihood by some manual employment should not be so utterly ignored as it has been in our elementary education. Of industrial drawing further mention will be made in another part of this report. But aside from the question of industrial and technical training, it should be observed that many sub- jects relating to elementary science and natural history can readily be so simplified as to be most interesting and attractive as well as useful to the child. The same is true of history, and emphatically true of the modern languages. There is not the slightest doubt that a child of ten can learn French or German with one-half the study that will be neces- sary ten years later in his life. Perhaps these languages cannot be taught in primary and grammar schools as now organized, but there is no difficulty in teaching the elements and practical applications of many of the sciences to classes of very young children, and there is very little doubt that studies of this kind might be advantageously substituted for much that is called "practical" arithmetic, for it is probable that all of the subject of arithmetic that is ordinarily taught in school could readily be learned by an average scholar in one year, if taken at the most favor- able age. Instead, then, of sneering at children's text-books on familiar science, as is too often done, we ought to encourage the production of such books, and endeavor to introduce them in the early years of the pupil's school life. Nor should it be overlooked that the eager curiosity Educational Exhibits at hie J'akis Exi'osition. \\ of the child, which will so greatly aid his teacher, is powerfully evoked by the elementary facts of natural science. To return, then, to the question, what is the object of education? we answer, that, so far as light was thrown upon it by comparison of the edu- cational exhibits at Paris, the graiid and paramount aim should be to awaken and quicken the intellectual powers, not to teach the " bread and butter sciences ;" but that, on the other hand, utility is too often ignored in this country, and the laws of psychology and mental development entirely overlooked. Not only the pecuniary value of education, but also the culture it affords are greatly enhanced by duly considering the pupil's stage of mental developmerit. Of numerous facts which might be quoted to indicate the drift of public sentiment abroad upon this question of scientific as opposed to classical education, the following is selected as fairly representative : In the Gymnasia (classical) of Hungary in 1867 there were 83,908 students ; in 1877 the number of institutions and of professors had increased, while the numberof students had fallen to 29,800. In the Real Schools (scientific), on the other hand, the number of students had increased from 2,661 in 1867 to 7,197 in 1877. Besides this growing tendency to adopt scientific rather than classical study, there has been a rapid multiplication of industrial schools and schools of technology, of late, in the leading countries of Europe, of which we shall have occasion to speak in another place. In general it does not appear that "practical studies" are held in any higher repute as a means of mental discipline and culture in Europe than in this country; but the disposition is too often apparent to train men for special branches of industry rather than to educate them for intelligent citizenship. Primary Education. Infant schools of various names and grades abound in the large cities of Europe. Indeed, not to mention the hospitals and asylums, multi- tudes of children come more or less under the guardianship and instruc- tion of teachers and nurses in the creches long before they are old enough to go to school. Creche is the name given to the public nursery, where poor working-women can leave their infants in the morning when they go to their work and take them home at night. One might at first regret that these children should thus be deprived of a mother's tender- ness all day, but it is probable that they receive quite as judicious care and attention as the children of the wealthier classes who are left so largely to the tender mercies of servants and nurses at home. At all events, such institutions seem to be, if not a necessity, a most benevolent provision for both mother and child. Attention is given to all things that bear upon the health and comfort as well as the physical, mental, and moral development of the child. The nurses are chosen with the utmost care, and physicians regularly visit each 'creche and inspect all its 12 Report on the sanitary arrangements as well as prescribe for the sick. After the creche come the Kindergarten and the Salle cVAsyle, the former being generally designed for those who are able to pay tuition, the latter for those who are too poor to pay, the former more distinctively German, the latter more largely French. The Salles cCAsyle receive their pupils at a very early age and make very little attempt to grade or classify them. The number of pupils is generally small, and as little restraint as possible is imposed upon their freedom. The children are received in a large entrance hall where they leave their outside gar- ments. The school-rooms themselves contain very little furniture except the long, low benches for the children and the chair for the teacher. There is usually a case in which the objects used in teaching are kept, a small black-board, a stand for pictures or figures, and a few cradles for the younger ones when they grow weary. A considerable portion of the room is kept free from incumbrance, to afford an open space in which the children perform their evolutions and exercises. A yard or play-ground, carefully adapted and arranged for the purpose, is considered essential to the /Salle cVAsyle. The teaching is, of course, far from systematic. The little ones are taught a variety of calisthenic exercises, some of which border on the military drill, and various games and exercises. Object-lessons and stories on a great variety of subjects — often includ- ing theology and demonology — are given at brief intervals. Learning to read, count, draw, and sing seem to be largely postponed, though some attention is given to these subjects. The underlying theory appears to be to awaken the child's curiosity and supply it with something which will gratify it and lead it to further acquisitions of knowledge. In the oral lessons, the pupils are constantly questioned upon what they have been told, and encouraged to express their ideas in language of their own. While open to some grave objections, it must be confessed that the Salles d'Asyle are in the main well managed and adapted to meet the require- ments of a very large class in every country where they exist. About 25,000 children are in the Salles d'Asyle of Paris. The companion institution, the Kindergarten, is already widely and favorably known in this country ; indeed, some of the best Kindergartens in the world are to be found in St. Louis and other American cities. In the United States educational exhibit, were some fine specimens of children's weaving and drawing, and other scholars' work from such schools in various parts of the country. Besides these articles, schools of this class in France, Hungary, and Belgium exhibited specimens of children's needle-work and many fine models in clay and plaster pur- porting to have been imade by pupils. In some respects the instruction in the Kindergarten is quite similar to that in the Salle d'Aayle. Objects are substituted for books, the child is trained to observe the properties of familiar objects, and his imitative and constructive instincts are guided and developed in the production , EmiCATioNAL Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 13 of articles of almost endless variety. Large quantities of these articles were to be ^ound in most of the educational exhibits, but it must be con- fessed that many of them were rude, and but few gave evidence of much progress. It is safe to say that multitudes of mothers and little ones all over the world are, fortunately, engaged in the construction of just such ligures and toys, sometimes with, oftener without, a knowledge of the fact that it is the best way to train the senses and budding faculties of the child. The products of these home schools are often little inferior to those exhibited at Paris ; but their artistic excellence is a minor consid- eration. The little girl who is taught in the nursery or at the fireside the mysteries of paper dolls, birds, animals, and houses ; the little boy who learns in the fields or woods to make a whistle, a jack-o'-lantern, or a trap ; the little one who learns to build houses of blocks, tents of cards, or, in short, to extemporize new playthings out of the materials at hand, is being trained in the Kindergarten method, and his pleasure and improvement bear constant witness to the excellence of that method. Not only are the hand and eye trained, but the perceptive faculties are admirably developed and the imagination stimulated to. a vigorous activity. As an indication of the pleasure and advantage derived by the child from such employment of his time, the advocates of the Kin- dergarten confidently point to the superior intelligence and gentler dis- positions of the children trained in these schools. And in this connec- tion it is well worth our while to note the necessity of toys to the child. How warped and one-sided has been the manhood and womanhood developed by those whose parents and teachers overlooked or denied the importance of play and playthings for little children ! In such persons the imagination lies almost dormant, and every event or experience is clothed in the most somber hues. Their lives constitute a most prosaic round, which steadily grows more dull and monotonous from beginning to end. Children who have no toys grasp the realities of life slowly and imperfectly, and never idealize. The art instinct is developed very young, if at all. Those nations which have produced many celebrated artists have provided their children with an abundance of toys. The French toys illustrate the peculiar characteristics of the nation. The same is true of the Italian, Swiss, and English toys. And it is a signifi- cant fact that those nations which have produced the greatest variety of playthings have been able to compete most succearfully in the markets of the world in the sale of the finest fabrics and productions of artistic skill. If it would not lead us into too lengthy a digression, it would also be interesting to note the eff"ect of an abundance of suitable toys upon the child's emotional nature. Deprive him of playthings, and he becomes uncivil and morose, morbidly introspective, and often suspicious and repulsive. The English educational exhibit was small and significant of the undeveloped state of public education in England. Singularly enough, 14 Report on the the term "public school " is not used there in any such sense as we employ it, but always to denote one of the nine large endowed institutions like Eton, Harrow, and Rugby, which are no more "public" than Phillips Academy or Wil listen Seminary. The representation was priucipally from the London Board Schools, which were first orgaiuzedin 1870, under the moulding influence of Professor Huxley. Previous to this date, the only interest manifested by the government in public education had been the grant of small sums to those towns and cities which had adopted cer- tain measures for the education of indigent children. Parochial and char- itable schools were numerous, but ignorance was extremely prevalent, and public opinion at length became so exercised that Parliament was- driven to adopt new measures, the most important of which was the provision for a school tax. The opponents of the tax for school purposes, when they fou; d themselves defeated, joined with the more advanced advocates of popular education in the enactment of a most radical com- pulsory law. And it is worthy of note that, while a royal commission was visiting the German and French schools, and preparing an elaborate report against compulsory education as impracticable, the law was passed and immediately vigorously enforced, with the approval of all classes. Since the London School Board was created in 1870, it has provided 278 schools, many of them of great size. It employs 2,378 adult teachers, 1,479 pupil- teachers, and 272 candidates for teaching. The pupil-teach- ers are fifteen years of age or upwards, former pupils in the schools where they are employed, and selected on account of their proficiency and ambi- tion to continue their studies further than the school curriculum yet pro- vides. They recite to the head-masters and other teachers outside of the regular school hours. One reason urged for their employment is that they are able to know many of the pupils personally out of school. Many particulars with reference to the parents and homes of the children are required of them by the inspectors. The head-masters and inspectors generally speak favorably of the work accomplished by these pupil- teachers. Two objects in the exhibit of the London School Board were of special iiiterest. One was a large map of London, giving the location of each school, and showing all the central portions thickly dotted over with them, and school buildings for 54,000 more children in process of erection in the outskirts. The other was a large blackboard (suspended over the entrance) giving the following statistics : District of the School Board for London. Total population 8,577,000 Area in statute acres 75,490 Ratable vahie £23,584,728 School places in efficient schools 466,678 Children on the school rolls 432,924 Children in average attendance 342,837 Percentage of attendance on roll 97.1 Educational Exiiinns at the Paris Exposition. 15 School attendances in the year, mornings of three hours' duration 225 School attendances in the year, afternoons of two and one- half hours' duration 225 C'liildren sent by the board to industrial school and train- ing ships 3,213 Number of pupils in cooking classes 201 Summonses to parents to compel attendance of children.... 3,705 Sui)eriiitendents 11 Inspectors 208 The branches required to be taught in the Board schools are reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, singing, grammar, history, geography, literature, religious knowledge, drawing, physical exercises or drills, kindergarten exercises, and needle-work. Sir Charles Reed, the presi- dent of the London School Board, has recently expressed the hope that this list of subjects of study may soon be considerably extended. Too great credit can scarcely be awarded to him for the extraordinary prog- ress in educational affairs in London during the last few years. The impression, which prevails to some extent in this country, that he is not sustained by public sentiment in London is a mistake. While it is true that the well-to-do class do not yet patronize the "Board Schools" to any great extent, they are regarded with favor by nearly all classes, and no features of the school law are more generally approved than the school tax and the compulsory clause. Even the canal boats, lying at the piers along the Thames, are regularly visited by the truant officers to compel attendance of all children of school age. Secondary Education. It will not be possible within the limits of this report to give any adequate account of the means provided for secondary education in the leading nations of Europe. Our survey must necessarily be limited to a few particulars. In most of the nations of Europe no department of education is so well organized and efficient. As compared with primary education especially it is greatly superior, being of older date, and more harmoniously and completely developed in its different branches. It should be observed, in the first place, that " secondary education " is a somewhat equivocal expression, and is used abroad with considera- ble latitude of meaning, but always in a more comprehensive sense than with us. In this country it denotes that grade of education that lies between the elementary and the collegiate generally given in high schools and academies. The course of instruction in secondary institu- tions in this country generally extends over three or four years. In France, Austria, Prussia, and the other German States, on the other hand, the course of instruction in the institutions of secondary grade usually extends over eight or nine years, including much that is in this country considered collegiate. 16 Report on the Considerable variety is found among the secondary schools, in many particulars ; but in France and the Germanic nations they may be said to fall, for the most part, into the two classes of classical and scientific, or " classical " and *' non-classical" institutions. In France the whole educational system is called the University of France, and is under the. immediate supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction and a council of nine members. Twelve inspector-generals visit all parts of the nation to ascertain the condition and wants of the schools. Great pride and enthusiasm are everywhere felt for the sec- ondaiy schools comprising the lycees and communal colleges. They are principally attended by the middle class, although the upper, and to some extent the lower, class are represented among their students. They gain dignity and efficiency by their intimate relation to the gov- ernment, and under the republic have received a pew impetus. At the annual concours of these iiistitutions at the Sorbonne, in Paris, the Minis- ter of Public Instruction presides and presents the prizes, of which sev- eral hundred (many of them of great value) are distributed. The learned faculties of the University, numbering five or six hundred, and student representatives of many institutions from all parts of France, mostly " honor men," are present ; and, as the prizes are announced, great enthusiasm prevails. Last summer this grand concours received additional eclat from the presence of many distinguished foreigners and its relation to the Expo- sition. The platform was crowded with official representatives of for- eign governments. Huge piles of elegantly bound books lay immedi- ately in front, the galleries were crowded with the friends of the stu- dents, and an orchestra of nearly a hundred pieces furnished the music. The pictures and other decorations of the hall, the showy robes of the learned professors, the uniforms and much-coveted badges, the historic associations of the place — all things connected with the occasion seemed adapted powerfully to impress the imagination and fire the ambition of the young Frenchmen who were assembled to receive the rewards of superiority. Each successful competitor was taken by the hand and warmly congratulated by the Minister of Public Instruction, a wreath of laurel placed upon his head, and a package of books placed in his hands, unless, as was sometimes the case, the bundle was too large for one person to carry. Hour after hour attendants brought in new sup- plies of books, and the presentation of prizes and the enthusiasm and applause continued. In connection with the award of prizes various lit- erary exercises were held, among them an address by the Minister of Public Instruction. During the delivery of this address the enthusiasm was intense. Cheer followed cheer, and at times the vast audience, young men of eighteen, gray-haired professors in their robes of dignity, and members of the institute and other learned societies in their embroid- ered coats, would rise to their feet as by one impulse, and wave their Educational Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 17 hands and rend the air with cries of "bravo." And what were the sen- timents which called forth such burets of applause and wild excitement ? Simply neat and effective expressions of the familiar truth that educa- tion is the safety of the State ; that it is not a personal possession sim- ply enriching its owner, but that the wealth of the nation is in the intel- ligence of its citizens. He said it was •' the function of the University to make citizens worthy of the name," and expressed the belief that '' it Avas solving the hitherto unsolved problem of a deraoci-acy." The Avhole scene was an admirable illustration of French character, "and of the interest taken at present in educational affairs. France has 86 lycees and 252 communal colleges, which, together with 162 normal schools, constitute her means of secondary education. These institutions afford this grade of education to about 170,000 students, of whom the vast majority are young men, all, in fact, except a very limited number in the Art and other special schools. It is noteworthy that while France has for many years had a system of secondary schools for boys, so little effort has been made to provide corresponding advan- tages for girls. Nothing but the convents and private boarding-schools have been available to them. Much interest, however, has recently been aroused in France with reference to the higher education of girls, and a bill is now before the Chamber of Deputies to establish in each of the T'^ Departments of France one or more higher schools for girls. The Joposition is favored by the new Minister of Public Instruction, and is Jxely to become a law. J Frenchmen have long been justly proud of their secondary schools, and L the present time they are exerting a powerful influence upon French ,, )ciety. They furnish the men who fill the positions of influence and ^sponsibility all over the country. The industries of France are pros- jberous mainly because they are efficiently organized and superintended. '. Her ability to pay the German war indemnity was due not to the in- , lustry and thrift of her peasantry, for they are both ignorant and poor, /but to the shrewdness of her intelligent manufacturers. Mind, not inuscle, has earned the money. J The public secondary schools of France are of two kinds — lycee or jyceums and communal colleges. The lycee are maintained by the state ; .Ithe communal colleges are maintained by the municipalities, but may ^be aided by the state. The instruction in both is classical and modern, Iwith some tendency in favor of the latter, which is intended to suit the irequirements of practical life by teaching the natural sciences and mod- ern languages in place of Latin and Greek. In both classes of institu- , tions all the teaching staff have to furnish evidence of their capacity to teach the subjects of instruction confided to them. The guarantee takes, , .generally, the form of a university degree, varying in kind and rank according to the post to be filled. 18 Report on the With reference to the French educational exhibit at the Exposition from this grade of schools, it is scarcely necessary to say more than that it was as large and as excellent as was to have been expected. Abun- dant evidence was furnished that good work is done in nearly every de- partment of study. Theses and general essays on nearly every subject embraced in the curriculum, drawings, crayon sketches, paintings in oil and water colors, sculpture in wood and stone, models of steam engines and various other mechanisms, and collections in various departments of natural history were exhibited in large quantities. By an elaborate system of examinations, similar to our " Regents' examinations," great uniformity and thoroughness of instruction are secured. The exhibit was especially full and excellent in the department of industrial draw- ing and all applications of education and art to industry — subjects of which further mention will be made in another part of this report. France made extraordinary efforts for a comprehensive exhibition with extra- ordinary success, as is evinced by the awards of prizes. Turning now to the Germanic nations, we find a general correspond- ence in their systems of secondary education. It has developed into two branches; the "classical," including the gymnasia, pro-gymnasia, lyce- ums, Latin schools, and pedagogical seminaries; and the " non-classical," embracing real-schools, burgher-schools, and middle schools. Different nations have shaped these institutions somewhat in accordance wi^''^ national peculiarities. The most perfect development has been attaint?' in the large cities of Prussia and Austria. " A complete gymnasium has at least six classes, the highest three r which are subdivided into two divisions, a higher and lower. Such t course of study extends over nine years. In many gymnasia the fourt, is also divided, giving a ten yeai's' course. A complete pro-gymnasiur has the five lower classes, its course of study embracing seven years Many pro-gymnasia have but the four lower classes of the com plete gymnasium and a course of five years. Preparatory schoolt are usually connected with these institutions in which scholars can ac- quire the elementary knowledge necessary to enter class six. A student in a gymnasium gives ten hours a week to Latin for nine years ; six hours a week to Greek for seven years ; four hours a week to mathe- matics for nine years ; two hours a week to German ; two hours tq French ; two to history ; two to religion, for most of the course, and a smaller portion of time to various sciences, drawing, etc. A complete real-school has six classes, the same as the gymnasium, and a nine years' course of study. The burgher-schools omit the last two, or, in some cases, the last four years of the course in the complete real-school. The middle school is somewhat lower than the gymnasium, ' or real-school in grade, and has a mixed course of study. In the real- school Latin is taught throughout the course, but only half as much time is given to it as in the gymnasium. Greek is omitted entirely. More Educational Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 19 time is given to German and French, and English, which is not gen- erally included in the gymnasium course, receives three hours a week for five years. Natural sciences receive a large share of time. The classes are kept together in all these various courses of study, very little option being allowed the student beyond the choice of his school. Classes are divided, however, in recitations if they inimber more than 30 in tlie upper grades, or 50 in the lower grades. The method of instruction, especially in the real-school, is more largely oral than with us. Mr. Maun gives a graphic account of a geography lesson in one of the mid- dle schools : " The teacher stood by the blackboard, with chalk in his hand. After casting his eye over the class to see that all were ready, he struck at the middle of the board ; with a rapidity of hand which my eye could hardly follow, he made a series of those short diverging lines, or shad- ings, employed by map engravers to represent a chain of mountains. He had scarcely turned an angle or shot off a spur, when the scholars began to cry out : ' Carpathian Mountains, Hungary ;' ' Black Forest Mountains, Wiirtemberg;' 'Giants' Mountains,' 'Riesen Gebirge,' 'Silicia;' 'Metalic Mountains,' ' Erz Gerbirge ;' ' Pine Mountains,' ' Fichtel Gebirge ;' ' Central Mountains,' ' Mitel Gebirge,' ' Bohemia,' etc. In less than half a minute, the ridge of that grand elevation, which separates the waters that flow northwest into the German ocean from those that flow north into the Baltic, and southeast into the Black Sea, was presented to view, executed almost as beautifully as an engraving. A dozen crinkling strokes, made in the twinkling of an eye, represented the head-waters oft the great rivers which flow in different directions from that mountain- ods range ; while the children, almost as eager an 1 excited as though they had actually seen the torrents dashing down the mountain sides, cried out : ' Danube,' ' Elbe,' ' Vistula,' ' Oder,' etc. The next moment :^Jheard a succession of small strokes or taps, so rapid as to be almost i.Jdistinguishable ; and hardly had my eye time to discern a large num- ber of dots made along the margin of the rivers, when the shouts of 'JLutz,' 'Vienna,' 'Prague,' 'Dresden,' 'Berlin,' etc., struck my ear. At this point in the exercise, the spot which had been occupied on the blackboard was nearly a circle, of which the starting point was the cen- t(ir; but now a few additional strokes round the circumference of the iijicipient continent extended the mountain ranges outward towards the jbiains, the children calling out the names of the countries in which they r espectively lay. With a few more flourishes, the rivers flowed onward towards their respective terminations, and, by another succession of dots, npv cities si^rang up along their banks. By this time the children had biBcome as much excited as though they had been present at a world- mlaking. They rose in their seats, they flung out both hands, their eyes ki|ndled, and their voices became vociferous, as they cried out the names of j the different places which, under the magic of the teacher's crayon, 20 Report o.r the rose to view. Within ten minutes from the commencement of the lesson, there stood upon the blackboard a beautiful map of Grerraauy, with its mountains, principal rivers and cities, the coast of the German ocean, of the Baltic and Black seas, and all so accurately proportioned that I think only slight errors would have been found had it been subjected to the test of a scale of miles," The gymnasium is at the head of all the secondary schools, and leads directly to the university, while the real-school leads to the higher tech- nical schools. The former is intended for those who desire to study principally the ancient languages and mathematics, and whose aim is to prepare for higher positions in the service of the State or the Church. The latter is intended for those who desire to study the natural sciences, mathematics, and modern languages, with a view to become civil engi- neers, architects, etc. They, therefore, do not pass to the university, but finish their education in the higher technical schools. In all secondary schools examinations are held at the end of every year by the director, in the presence of the teacher, to determine wdiether the scholars are qualified to pass into the next class. Scholars who fail twice on the same examination, after spending two years in the same grade, are dismissed. At the end of the whole course a final examina- tion is held by a committee. Students are not required to attempt this examination, which is very rigorous, but those wishing to enter a uni- versity or polytechnic school must present a certificate that they have passed it. The public schools are very popular, being greatly preferred to private schools. They have the great advantage that their teachers are gen- erally graduates of universities or of the pedagogical seminaries, are employed by the government, and hold their position for life. Moreover, all professional men must have passed through a university, the entrance examination of which is based upon the public school course, ~ , In order that the teachers in these secondary schools may give theij^- selves exclusively to their important duties, without anxiety with respect to sickness or old age, pensions have been very generally established which are proportioned in amount to the previous salary and length of service of the recipient. After a service of 15 to 20 years the pension is four- sixteenths of the salary ; after 20 to 25 years, six-sixteenths ; after 25 to 30 years, seven-sixteenths ; after 30 to 35 years, eight-sixteenths ; after 35 to 40 years, nine-sixteenths ; after 40 to 45 years, ten-sixteenths ; after 45 to 50 years, eleven-sixteenths ; after 50 years, twelve-sixteenths. The following are the latest statistics on secondary education for Prussia : Number of students in pe 5 "a o o p S S a ■5 9S CO "5 S c p c a S 5 p a a s a 20 93 422 4 121 102 89 26 13 56 29 10 6 23 7 2 m "i 3 1 1 8 32 "ie 5 5 2 3 3 (i 1 1 1 3 8 52 1 25 7 14 3 2 7 2 "5 60 2 25 55 ■■■3 5 10 31 1 7 7 7 1 7 24 1 5 38 1 5 42 3 7 2 14 19 1 4 4 4 6 1 2 26 2 16 1 Fiance Japan United States u ^7 17 18 1 1 7 11 20 13 13 3 1 1 3 10 3 12 7 7 "i 5 1 " 2 1 3 11 8 10 1 8 5 "i 1 2 1 8 1 3 8 6 4 1 Italy « Holland 5 I 2 "i 1 1 1 I {. 3 ?, Canada 5 1 1 ' i 4 1 2 1 '""8 2 ] 4 3 2 1 1 1 5 Sweden 1 1 1 I 3 4 7 3 8 2 3 5 1 5 11 1 1 1 1'>, 16 4 5 12 1 2 3 1 5 2 3 5 1 2 2 1 Peru 1 1 1 2 1 Aigenline Republic 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 i 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 .... 1 1 2 1 1 ::::i:;;; ....|-... Educational Exhibits at the Paris Exposition. 37 Conclusion. Without attempting to summarize tlie excellence and defects of Ameri- can education, as compared with European systems and results, we should not fail to note, in conclusion, that the effect of such international exhibitions should be, and no doubt always has been, to evoke mutual respect and appreciation among the competing nations. Patriotism which assumes the form of national conceit is weak and puerile. It is essential to our progress, and a prime ccadition to our success in compe- tition with other nations, that we should recognize our deficiencies. There is no European nation which cannot learn something in educa- tional matters from America. We, in turn, can learn much from them. Let it be the patriotic endeavor of the teachers of this State, while avoiding the errors, to imitate the excellencies and emulate the strength and thoroughness of the schools of the old world. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, Your obedient servant, JOHN E. BRADLEY, ' Commissioner. 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