# LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. #4''»P- |to5bm §° -• I J ^^ c // .,C*.i ! UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, f Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/teacherspocketmaOOchri THE POCKET MANUA CONTAINING AN OUTLINE. WITH THE DEFINITIONS, ARITHMETIC, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND GRAMMAR, r — ^ — - BY P, L. CHRISPELL HACKENSACK : Wil. H. BLEECEEE, BOOK AND JOB PBINTEB, iS7a L&ISSJ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, By P. L, CHPJSPELL, in the CfUce of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. CONTENTS. PART I.— ARITHMETIC. Divisions of Arithmetic 8 Tables of Weights and Measures 9 — 12 Problems in Percentage 13 Mensuration 14 Multipliers 15 Progression 16 Rules, Miscellaneous 17—19 PART II.— GEOGRAPHY. Chart Xo. 1 .-. 22 Definitions to Division, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 23—28 Notes on Days and Nights, etc 29 Topical Reviews 30—3". PART III.-HISTORY. Eras of the History of the United States 38 Chronological Tables of Eras 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 39—51 Revolutionary Y\~ar 52 Y» T ar of 1312; Missouri Compromise, etc 53 Mexican War ; Civil War 54 Seven Wise Men ; Seven Wonders of the World 55 PART IV.— GRAMMAR. Chart No. 1, Orthography, with Definitions 58 — 59 Chart No. 2, Etymology, with Definitions 60—61 Chart No. 3, Pronouns and Adjectives, with Definitions. . 62 — 63 Chart No. 4, Verbs, with Definitions 64 — 65 Chart No. 5, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjec- tions, with Definitions 6G — 67 Chart No. 6, Phrases and Sentences, with Definitions . . . . 08—69 Chart No. 7, Order of Parsing, Rules of Syntax . . . . . 70—71 Chart No. 8, Prosody, with Definitions ■ . . 72—74 Chart No 9, Versification, with Definitions 76 — 77 Chart No. 10, Utterance and Pronunciation, with Definit's. 78 — 81 MISCELLANEOUS. Settlement and Admission of States 82—83 Presidents of the United States 84 Table of Principal Lakes 85 Table of Principal Rivers .. .. 86—88 Table of Principal Mountains 89 Origin of the Names of the States .. • 90—91 Rule for the Use of Capital Letters 92 Rules g 93 Signers of the Declaration of Independence 94—95 Flag of the United States .. •. 96 PREFACE. The only excuse 1 nave for offering this little Manual to an appreciative class of teachers, pupils and others, whose business require definite knowledge, is the clear conviction that there is a demand for it. An experience of fifteen years in the schoolroom has convinced me of the need of a book of general information; of convenient size for the pocket, and furnished at such a price that every person in the land may possess it. In this I hope I have ac- complished my object, and send it forth to assist teachers in their work of elevating humanity from its primeval state of ignorance to that degree of intelligence that it may be able to help itself; to assist the pupils in their arduous task of storing the mind with useful knowledge; to assist printers and lawyers in .their search after facts and dates. In conclusion, I desire to make especial acknowledgement of the valuable services rendered in the preparation of this little work by E. P. Seely, of Rome, Pa. P. L. CHRISPELL. MANUAL. May the Teacher within me find, All he may need to help his mind ; Nor would the pupil be disgraced, Unless these pages he defaced ; And should you search me through and through, Love me you would, both YOU and YOU. P. L. C. TO THE TEACHER. I.— THE OBJECT OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 1.— To Promote Good Order. 2.— To Make Progress, and Moral Improvement. II.— TO PREVENT DISORDER. 1.— A Competent Teacher, who must respect the Pupils and have the respect of them. 2. —The School-room must be Comfortable. 3.— The Teacher must Educate the People. 4.— The Children must have plenty of Work, and have Merit for what they do. 5. — Have but few Rules, and execute them. 6. — Do not Govern too much, in.— LAWS FOR TEACHERS. All Ideas of Outward Objects must come through the IV.— IDEAS MUST PRECEDE WORDS— OBJECTS MUST PRE- CEDE NAMES — THOUGHTS MUST PRECEDE SEN- TENCES — KNOWLEDGE MUST PRECEDE DEFINI- TIONS V.— INSTRUCTION MUST PROCEED FROM KNOWN TO UN- KNOWN—FROM CONCRETE TO ABSTRACT— FROM THINGS TO CLASS— FROM SIMPLE TO COMPOUND— FROM FACTS TO PRINCIPLES. PART I. ARITHMETIC. ARITHMETIC. I— dotation. ( Roman ] Arabic. II— ^Numeration. ( French. | English. Iir— Addition. f Q H W H H I IV— Subtraction. ' 1— Sign ( 4 ) is plus, signifies more. 2 — Units of the same order only can be added. 3 — Similar numbers only can be added. i — The sum is like the numbers added. 5— Sign (=) signifies equal to. f 1 — Sign (— ) minus, signifies less. J 2— Difference equals the Min. Subtr'd. 3 — Subtrahend equals Min— Difference. [ 4 — Min. equals the Sub.+Difference. 1— Sign (X). alL'a m'Mplied by. V— Multiplication 9 — Multiplicand may be either abstract or concrete.- 3 — Multiplier must always be abstract. 4 -Product is always like the Multipli- cand. VI— Division. 1 — Sign (-;-) signifies divided by. 2— Quo. = Dividend. ~ Divisor. 3— Divisor = Dividend -f- Quo. , 4— Dividend = Divisor X Quo. TABLES. UNITED STATES MONEY. 10 Mills maif 1 Cent 10 Cents ■• 1 Dime 10 Dimes " 1 Dollar 10 Dollars " 1 Eagle marked ct. a. E. ENGLISH MONEY i Farthinrs (far.) make 1 Penny marked d. 12 Pence ■< 1 Shilling " s. 20 Shillings '•' 1 Pound £. ATOIKDUPOIS WEIGHT. 16 Drams (dr.) make 1 Ounce marked oz. 16 Ounces •• 1 Pound " lb. 25 Pounds ■'•' 1 Quarter *' qr. 4 Quarters " 1 Hundred Weight .... " c.vt. 20 Hundred Weight 1 Ton " T. TROY WEIGHT. 24 Grains (gr.) make 1 Pennyweight 20 Pennyweights '•' 1 Ounce .. 12 Ounces " 1 Pound marked pwt. " oz. lb. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 20 Grains (gr.) make 1 Scruple marked sc. or .9. 3 Scruples "' 1 Dram " dr. or 3- 8 Drams " 1 Ounce " oz. or 3. 12 Ounces " 1 Pound " lb. or lb LONG MEASURE. 12 Inches (in.) make 1 Foot .. .. marked ft. 3 Feet " 1 Yard yd. 5J4 Yards, or \(>% Feet. " 1 Rod or Pole rd. or 40 Rods " 1 Furlong fur. 8 Furlongs, or 32ft ^of.s " 1 Mile .. .. m. 3 Miles " 1 League .. lea. miwtmf^n ■■ \ ii,e ¥:z.z ae } deg. 01 360 Degrees " 1 Great Circle of the Earth. 10 CLOTH MEASURE. 2*4 Inches (in ) make 1 Kail 4 Ka-.s 4 Quarters 3 Quarters 5 Quarters 6 Quarters 1 Quarter of a Yard 1 Yard 1 Ell Flemish . . 1 Ell Eii«j!Isb 1 Ell French .. .. marked na. qr. yd. E. F. E. E. E. F. SQUARE MEASURE. 144 Square Inches (sq. in.) make 1 Square Foot . . marked ft. 9 Square Feet " 1 Square Yard ,: j'd. 30 J4 Square YarJ.s " 1 Square FvOdorPole " p. 40 Square Hods " 1 ivood .... " R. 4 Root's " 1 Acre .. .*. .. ■' A. 640 Acres " 1 Square Mile . . " S. M. SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 7 92-100 Inches (in.) make 1 Link 25 Links " 1 Pole . 100 Links, 4 Poles or G6 Feet " 1 Chain 1C Chains <■" "1 Furlom 8 Furlongs, or 80 Chains - ; 1 Mile marked 1. p. ch. fur. '« in. SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE. 625 Sqiiare Links (sq. 1.) make 1 Pole . .. marked P. It 1 Pules " 1 Square Chain " sq. ch. 10 Square Chains " 1 Acre .. .. " A. 640 Acres " 1 Square Mile '.' sq. m. 36 Square Miles (6 Miles Square)" 1 Township " T. CUBIC MEASURE. 172S Cubic Inches (cu. in.) 27 " Feet 40 " Feet of Round Timber, or) 50 " " Hewn " j 16 " 8 Cord Feet, or) 128 Cubic Feet, ] make 1 Cubic Foot, mar'd cu ft cu.yd 1 " Yard, ' 1 Ton 1 Cord Foot 1 Cord of Wood' 24?£ Cubic Feet make 1 Perch of Stone or Masonry T. cd.ft Cd. Pel*. 11 WINE MEASURE. 4 tills (gi.) make 1 Pint .. .. . . marked pt. 2 Tints " 1 Quart .. .. » qt. 4 Quarts " 1 Callon " cal. £1 i Callous •« 1 Barrel bbl. 2 Barrels, cr G3 Gallons " 1 Hogshead hhd BEER MEASUKE. 2 Pints (pt.) make 1 Quart .. .. marked qt. 4 Quarts " 1 Callon .. " gal. 3G Callous " 1 Barrel .... " bbl. 1'/, Barrels, or 54 Gallons " 1 norshead .. •' hhd. DRY MEASUEE. 2 Pints (pt.) make 1 Quart marked qt. 8 Quarts " 1 Peck " pk. 4 Pecks " 1 Bushel " bu. or bush. MEASUEE OF TIME. 60 Seconds (sec.) make 1 Minute .. .. . . market min 60 Minutes " 1 Hour " h. 24 Hours " 1 Bay .. da. 7 Pays " 1 Week . wk. 3G5 Bays " 1 Ccmmcn Year .. yr. 3GG Pays ' 1 Leap Year " yr. 12 Calendar Months « 1 Year .. yr. 13 Lunar " ' 1 Year . . " yr. ICO Years • 1 Century .. «« c. CIRCULAR MEASURE. (") 60 Second 60 Minutes 30 De-rees 12 Signs, or 330 = make 1 Minute marked ' " ' 1 Begree . . " ° " 1 Sign " S. 1 Circle " C. 12 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHTS. TROY. AVOIRDUPOIS. APOTHECARIES. 1 Pound — 5760 Grains = 7000 Grains = 5760 Grains. 1 Ounce = 480 " == 4=37.5 " = 480 " 175 Pounds — 144 Pounds = 175 Pounds. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF MEASURES OF CAPACITY. CUBIC IN. IX CUBIC IN. IN CUBIC IN. IN CUB. IN. IN ONE GAB. ONE QUART. ONE PINT. ONE GILL. Wine Measure, =231 57% 28% 7 7-32 Dry Measure {% pk.)=.268 4-5 67 1-5 33 3-5 8 2-5 SIX PER CENT. METHOD FOR COMPUTING INTEREST. Rule. — Call every year $.06, half the number of -months cents, and every 6th day a mill, and multiply the principal bj the rate. If you wish the interest at any other rate per cent., increase or diminish the result by as many sixths of itself as the given rat© may require. m Elements of . Per enta?e. j *--- Base 1.— Rate per cent, represented by R. 2.— Percentage. P. B. 4. — Amount, " A. 5. — Difference, £). Problems in j Percentage, j I.— P.=B.VR. II.— R =P.^-B. III.— B.=P.h-R. IV.— B.==A.-^1 + R. V.— B.=rD.-hl— R. Elements of J n _ .-. . . Interest. 1 3— Principal 1. — Rate per cent, per Annum, represented by R 2.— Interest, " I. P. 4.— Amount, " A. 5.— Time, « T. Problems in Inferest. I. — P.=The given I.-f-I. of $1 for given Tt at given R. II.— P.=The given A.-f-A. of $1 for given T. at given R. III.— R.=The given I.-f-I. on the P. for given T. at 1. per cent. IV.— T.=rThe given I.-f-I. on the P. for i year; the quotient will be the required time in years and decimals. u I —Surfaces. II. -Solid? i 1.— Area op a PAEALLELOGBAM=Tlie Base Xby the Altitude. 2.— Area op a Trapezoid — y s of the sum of parallel sides -by perpendicular distance from each other. o.— Area of Triangle, when Ease and Al- titude are given = half the product of Ease and Altitrde. When three sides arc given. From half the sum of the sides take each side separately; Multiply together the three remainders and half sum, and find the square root of the product ' 4. — Area op a Trapezium and Polygon — 1st, If the figure is irregular sep- arate it into triangles by diagonals, then find the sum of the triangles. — 2d, If the figure is regular, separ- ate it into triangles by drawing- lines from the centre to each angle; then find half the product cl the perimeter and the perpendicular, from the centre to one side. 5.— Area op an Ellipses =Tho product of its two diametersxby 0.7854. 1.— Surface of a Prism cr CylinderXthe perimeter of its end byit3 altitude, and add area of both -ends. The volume is found by multiplying the area of its base by its altitude. — Convex surface of a Pyramid <^r Cone is found by multiplying the perimeter of the base by half of t_e slant height. To find the volume, multi- ply the area of base by one-third of altitude. .— To find the surface of a Frustrum, mul- tiply the sum of perimeters of the two ends by half the slant height, to the product add the areas of the ends. To find the volume, find the square root of the product of the areas of the two ends; t3 this ro t add the two areas, and multiply the sum by one-third of the altitude of the frustrum. 15 i I H M 1 H Hi D t 1— The Circumference— 3. 1416XDiameter. 2— The Cirdfcifercnce=6.2832> Radius. 3— The Area =3. 141 6 > Radius Square. 4— The Area = 0.7854 -.Diameter Square. 5— The Radius =0.1592 < Circumference. G— The Radius =0.5642 • v of the Area. 7 — The Diameter =0.3183 ■ Circumference. 8— The Diameter =1.1284X v / of the Area. 9— The Area =0.0796 >( Circumference Square, 10— Side of an Inscribed Equilat. Triaugle=1.7321 K Radius. 11— Side of an Inscribed Equilat. Triangle =0.8603xDiame'r 12— Side of an Inscribed Square =1.4142 -Radius. 13 — Side of an Inscribed Square =0.7071xDiame'r 14 — Side of an Equal Square =0.8862 >'Diame'r 15 — Diameter that shall contain the area of a given Square =T.1283bXside of the given square. { 1— The Surface 2— The Surface 3— The Surface 4— The Radius 5— Diameter 6 — Circumference 7— Solidity 3— Solidity 9— Solidity 10— Radius 11 — Diameter - j 12 — Circumference : 13 — Side of an Ins-r'.bed Cube: [ 14 — Side of an Inscribed Cube = :12 5664 X Radius Square. = 3.1416 :■; Diameter Square. : 0.3183xCircumf. Square. : 0.2821;; v /of Surface. 0.5642Xv / of Surface 1. 7725 X v/of Surface. 0.5236; 1. — Terms. f a = first term. | l = last term. -{ n = number of terms. r = ratio. I s = sum of the terms. 2. — Fundamental For- mulas fr-)l = ar" U-) Transposed from Fundamental (1 and 2) (3) (-M ■r: — a r-1 a = rl— (r— 1) ! S— a '&- 1* None. — The Formulas for the m;mli«r (n) of terms would require a knowledge of logarithms for their application, therefore they are omitted. 17 TO EXTRACT THE SQUARE ROOT. Rtle.— Separate the given number into as many periods as pos- sible of two fig - . by placing a point over the place of units, another over the plac - of hundreds, and so on. Find the greatest square in the left-hand period; write the root of it at the right of the given number after the manner of a quo- - in division, and subtract its square from the left-hand v Bring down the next peri d t f the remainder I dividend, a:". - : r a trial dr Find 1- - sor is contained in 1 : :"_. ; ! right-hand figure, and write the qu tienl i next figure of the root. Annex th lasti t figure to the trial divisor for the true divisor, which multiply by the last r and subtract the product from the dividend. T - vn the nest period for a new dividend. Double the r oot alrea It found for a new trial divis >r, and continue the operation as before, till all the periods have been brought down. CUBE ROOT. Rele. — Separate th - given number into as many periods as pos- - - units place. Fin 1 the gi sa si in the] sft-han I j 1, and write its root required root. From that period subtract ■ I to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend. Take 3 times the square of the root already for a trial dl" isoi which find thee ad figure of tl T : tri " - add thirty tiro - multiplied by the s the square - - nd, an 1 the sum wi] " ivisor. Multiply the t livisoi - idfigu . the root, and subtract the { . iuct from t. deud, and bring down the next period for a second divi Take 300 times the square of the figures of the root found, for a trial divisor, and continue the pre ;ess till all the periods have been used MISCELLANEOUS RULES. TO FIND THE AREA OF A SECTION OF A CIRCES. Multiply the 1-ngth of the arc by hall th i a "ins of the circle. TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. Find the area ** the sector which has the same arc with the seg- ment; and also the area of the triangle formed b? the chord and 18 radius drawn to its extremities. The difference of these areas, when the segment is less, and their sum, when the segment is greater than the semi-circle, will be the area of the segment. Or, to two- thirds of the product of the height of the segment by the chord add the cube of the height, divided by twice the chord. TO FIND THE AREA OF A ZONE OF A CIRCLE. From the area of the whole circle subtract the area of the seg- ment of the side of the zone. TO FIND THE AREA OF A LUNE OR CRESCENT. Find the difference of the areas of the two segments formed by the area of the lune and its chord. TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF THE THREE LARGEST EQUAL CIRCLES THAT CAN BE INSCRIBED IN A CIRCLE OF A GIVEN DIAMETER. Divide the given diameter by 2.155. DEFINITIONS. An Arc is any portion of the circumference of a circle. A Chord of an Arc is the straight line joining its extremities. The Segment of a circle is the portion included by an arc and its chord. The Sector of a circle is the portion included by two radii and the intercepted one. A Zone is the space between two parallel chords of a circle. A Lune, or Crescent, is th* space included between the intersect- ing arcs of two eccentric circles. BTJLES. TO MEASURE HAY IN THE MOW. Multiply the length, breadth and thickness together, and divide the product by 512. TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB. Two cubic feet of sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of shelled corn; hence, multiply the length by the breadth, and the product by the height, measured inside the rail, and divide the product by two, the quotient will be the number of bushels of shelled corn. 19 TO FTN~D THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF POTATOES, APPLES, tc. Do as above with the length, breadth and height, and multiply the product by 8. and point off one figure in the product for decimals. PART II. GEOGRAPHY 22 CHART No. 1. Land ® an Ocean. A Gulf is a portion of water somewhat confined by land and opens into the Ccean ui Sea. A Bay is the same as a Gulf. A Lake is a body of water almost surrounded by land. A Sound is a shallow channel or Bay. A Strait is a narrow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water. A Biver is a stream of water flowing through the land An Animal is an organized living being, endowed with sensation and the power of voluntary motion. Man, to think — an organized living being endowed with reason and the pow r er to think. One of the human race. The Caucasian is the most enterprising and enlightened race, and are meetly whita. The Mongolians arc of a yellowish color. The Africans arc black. The Malays arc of a redish-browu color. They aro savage and treacherous. The Americans are copper-colored. 24 DEFINITIONS TO DIVISION NO. 2. Mathematical Geography refers to the Earth as one of the plan- ets which revolve around the Sun, and to the position of places on the Earth's surface. Its form is nearly round, like a ball. Motion is the act or process of changing place. The Earth's motion on its axis gives us day and night. Its mo- tion around the Sun gives us the Seasons. The other two motions do not affect us, and, for a definition, see your Astronomy. A Circle is a plain figure bounded by a single curved line called its Circumference, every point of which is equally distant from a point within, called its Centre. A Great Circle divides the earth into two equal parts. The Equator is a Great Circle which divides the earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The Ecliptic, in Geography, is a Great Circle on the globe, which is always in the plane of the earth's orbit. A Meridian is but half of a Circle, extending from Pole to Pole, and two of them make a Great Circle. A Small Circle divides the earth into unequal parts. The Tropics are parallel with the Equator, and about -23>£° dis- tant from it. The Polar Circles surround the Polls, and are 23 1 2 ° distant from them. The Parallels are small circles parallel to the Equator. Zones are belts or divisions of the Earth's surface formed by the Tropics and Polar Circles. Tiie North Frigid Zone is between the North Pole and the Arc- tic < lircle. The South Frigid Zone is between the South Pole and the Ant- arctic Circle. The Notsth Temperate is between the Torrid and the North Fri- gid Zone. The South Temperate is between the Torrid and the South Fri- gid Zone. 25 The Torrid Zone lies between the Tropics. Political Geography describes the divisions which are formed for the Purposes of Government. Society is the union of a number of rational beings. Savages live by hunting and fishing. Barbarous live on cattle, sheep, etc. They understand a few of tb> most simple arts. Half-Civilized understand argrieulture and many of the arts very well, and have a written language. Civilized live by agriculture, and the arts and sciences are well understood. Enlightened are those who have made the greatest progress, and are known by their line buildings. A. Country is the whole territory of a Kingdom or a State. An Empire is a Country governed by an Emperor. A. Kingdom is a Country governed by a King or Queen. A Duchy is a small Country governed by a Duke. A Principality is a small Country governed by a Prince. A Republic is a Country whose laws are made by representatives elected by the people. Government is a rule or set of rides or laws directing what we may do and what we may not do. A Monarchy is a government in which the supreme power be- longs to one person. Aristocracy is a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a few persons. Democracy is that in which the supreme power is in the hands of the people. An Absolute Monarchy- is one in which the ruler has absolute power, A Limited Monarchy is one in which the power of the ruler is limited by law. A Puke Democracy is a Country where all the people assemble and make their own laws. A Representative Democracy is one in which the laws axe made by repreeeotaavee elected by the people. The Easts is the planet on which we live. It is called + v o "World. Th£°, one month; in latitude, 70°, two months; in latitude 80 & , four months; and at the Poles, six months. The longest day of Samm»r corresponds in length with the longest night of Winter. 2.— LENGTH OF DEGREES. A Degree of Latitude being measured on a meridian, is always 69X statue or 60 geographical miles. Longitude is measured on parallels, and the length of a degree, at the Equator, is 69.!^ statue, or 60 geographical miles; but north or south from it, they become less; in latitude 30°, a degree is about 52 geographical miles; in latitude 60", it is 3 ' geographical miles; but at the Poles, it is nothing. 3.— THE EARTH IS KNOWN TO BE NEARLY ROUND. 1st. — Because it casts a circular shadow, which is seen on the moon during an eclipse. 2d. — Because the Tipper parts of distant objects on its surface can be seen at the greatest distance. 3d. — Because it has been circumnavigated. 4th. — In digging long canals, an allowance of eight inches to the mile, must bo made, or the water will not run. m c o En a -91 5 s o a . 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III. — Era of the Revolu tionary War — Extending from 1775 to the adoption of the Constitution, 1787. o }H IV. — Era of the United States of America — Extending Ph q from 1787 to the Civil War, 1861. H £j ~ iT . — Era of the Civil War — Extending from 1861 to the w [ surrender of Lee's Army, 1865. VI.— Era of Reconstruction and Passing Events — Ex- tending from 1865 to the present time, and to continue until some great event in the his- tory of the United States shalT constitute another Era. £ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 07 1st ERA, 1492 — Columbus discovered the New World. October 12. 1497 — The Cabots discovered Labrador. 1498 — The Atlantic Coast explored by the Casbots; and South America discovered by Columbus. Yasco de Gamo sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and discovered a passage t j India. 1512 — Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. 1513— September 29. Balboa sa v the Pacific Ocean. 1519-21— Cortez conquered Mexico. 1520 — Magellan sailed round Soul . . . . a aid circumnavigated the Globe. 1524 — Verranzani explored the coast of North America. 1528 — Xarvaez explored part of Florida. 1534 — Carrier discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1541 — De Soto discovered the Slississip] i river. 1540-42 — Cabrillo explored California. 1562— r.ibaut attempted t > plant a Huguenot colony at Port Royal. 1565— Melendez f mnded a colony at St. Augustine, Florida — first permanent settlement in the United States. 1576 — Frobisher tried to find a northwest passage; and twice at- tempted to found a colony in Labrador, but failed. 1582— Espejo founded Santa Fee: second oldest town in the United States. 1602— GcsiiOld discovered Cape God. 1605— Pe Monts established a colony at Pert Royal. Nova Scotia— first permanent French settlement in America. 1G07— Enrl'sh settled Jamestown — first permanent English settle- ment in America. 40 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 2d EEA. 1609— Hudson discovered Hudson river. 1613— New York settled by the Dutch. Pocahontas married Rolfe. 1615 — Culture of Tobacco commenced in Virginia. 1619 — First Colonial Assembly was called in Virginia. 1620— Slavery introduced at Jamestown. Puritans land at Ply- mouth. First Permanent English settlement in New England. 1622 — Indian Massacre, in Virginia. 1623— New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth. 1629 — Charter granted to Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1630 — First house built in Boston, under Governor Winthrop. 1632 — Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore. 1634— Maryland settled at St. Mary's. 1634-6 — Connecticut settled at Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield. 1635 — Clayborne's Rebellion in Virginia and Maryland. 1636 — Rhode Island settled at Providence. 1637— Pequod War. 1638— New Haven Colony founded. Delaware settled by Swedes. 1641— New Hampshire united with Massachusetts. 1643 — Union of New England Colonies. 1644 — Second Indian Massacre in Virginia. 1655— Civil war in Maryland. New Sweden conquered by Dutch. 1660— Navigation Act passed. 1662 — Charter granted to Connecticut. 1664— New Netherland conquered by the English, and called New York. New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown. 1670— South Carolina settled on Ashley River. 1675— King Philip's War. 1676—Bacon's Rebellion. 1679— New Hampshire made a Royal Province. 41 1680— Charleston, S. C, founded. 1682 — Pennsylvania settled. Delaware granted to William Penn by the Duke of York. 1683— Philadelphia founded by William Penn. 1686 — Androa arrived in Boston, r-s Governor of New England, I J 3! -King William's War. Andres seized and sent to England. tady bnrned by Indians and French.. 1692— ialeni Witchcraft. 1 97—3 f ' - terminated King William's War. 1702— '- War commenced. 1713 — Queen Anne's War closed by treaty with Uetrecht. 1732 — Washington Bora, February 22. 1733 — Ge rgia s 'ttled by Oglethorpe, at Savannah. 1739— Th 8] finish War began. 1744 — Kii _ - - - - began. 1745— L raisburg captured by the English. 1748— Ki ._ George's War ended by treaty of Aix la Chapelle. 1733 — Ws shmgt n 3ent with letter, by Dinwiddle, to St. Pierre. 1754— Battla of Great Meadows. Fort ^ejessit" captured by the French. 1755 — Bradd ek lefeated in the Battle of ilonongahela. British defea i at Lake George. 17.36 — War first formerly declared between English and French. French, under M adFori ■ rego. 1757 — I He . - _. red : Montcalm. 1758 — Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Tieonderoga. Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe. Fort Frontenac captured by Color.- - : rtDn Juesne taken by English. 1759 — Tieonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by French. Niag- ara surrendered t the English. Battle of the Plains of Abraham, September 13. Quebec surrendered to English September 18. 174 )— Montreal surrendered to English, September 8, 1763— Peace of Paris, 1765— The Stamp Act passed, March 8. 1766— The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18. 17G7— A tax imposed on tea, &c, June 29. 1770— Boston Massacre, March 5. All duties, except on tea, re- pealed, April 12. 1773 — The tea thrown overboard in Boston Harbor, December 16. 1774 — Boston Port Bill passed, March 31. First Continental Con- gress met at Philadelphia, September 5. 1775— Battle of Lexington, April 19. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 3d ERA. 1775 — Battle of Lexington, April 19. Ticonderoga taken by Allen and Arnold, May 10. " Crown Point taken, May 12. " Washington elected Commander-in-Chief, June 15. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. " Washington took command of troops before Boston, July 2. " Montreal Surrendered to Montgomery, November 13. " Battle of Quebec; Montgomery kiUed, December 31. 1776— Boston evacuated by British troops, under Lord Howe. March 17, ' " Attack on Fort Moultrie, June. 28. " Declaration of Independence, July 4. • { Battle of Long Island, August 27. Battle of White Plains, October 28. " Washington's retreat through New Jersey, November and December. ' " Battle of Trenton, December 26. 1777 — Battle of Princeton, January 3. Murder of Miss McCrea, July 27. *« Battle of Bennington, August 16. 43 177?— Battle of Brandyn-ine, September 11. " First battle of Saratoga, September 10. " Philadelphia captured by the British ;: I r./ :r 23. " Battle of Germantown, October i. Second battle of Saratoga. October 7. " Surrender of Burgoyrie, October 17 ITT— Battle of Monmouth.. June - American independence acknowledged by France, Febru'y G. •' Massacre of Wyoming, July 3. '•' French fleet arrived in Xarragansst Bay, July 29. " British captured Savaunah, Ga., December 23. 1770— Stony Point captured by Gen. Wayne, July 15. " Sullivan defeated Tories and Indians, near Eimira, N. X., Augv- Paul Jones's victory, September 23, 1730— Battle of Hanging Bock, S. C, August 6. " Battle of C amden, August 1G. " Andre executed, October 2. Battle of King's Mountain, October 7. 1781— Kichmond burned by Arnold, January 5. Battle of Cowpens, January 17. " Battle of Guilford Court House, March 15. '• Fattle of Eutaw Springs, September 8. " Surrender of Cornwallis, October ID. 1783 — Savannah evacuated by British, July 11. " Treaty of Peace signed at Paris, September 3. '•' New Yori evacuated by British, November 2 J. " Charleston, S. C, evacuated, December li. " Washington resigned his commission, December 23. 1787— Shay's Bebellion in Mass. ; and the Constitution of the United State* adopted, in convention, September 17. u CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 4th ERA. 1789 — Washington inaugurated, April 30. 1791 — Vermont admitted to the Union, March 4. 1792 — Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1. " Discovery of Columbia River, by Captain Gray, May 11. 1793 — Difficulties with Genet. 1794 — Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20. _" Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. 1795— Jay's Treaty ratified, June 24. 1796— Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1. 1797 — John Adams inaugu rated, March 4. " Washington died, at Mount Vernon, December 14. 1800 — Capitol removed to Washington. " Treaty with France, September 30. 1801 — Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4. " .War declared by United States against Tripoli, June 10. 1802— Ohio admitted to the Union, November 29. 1803 — Louisiana purchased from France, April^O. " Fleet sent Against Tripoli. 1804 — Lieut. Decatur destroyed Frigate Philadelphia, February 15. Hamilton killed, by Burr, July 11. 1805 — Treaty of Peace with Tripoli, June 3. 1807— Chesapeake fired into, by Leopard, June 22. " Embargo on American ships, December 22. " Fulton first ascended the Hudson, September 14. 1809 — James Madison inaugurated, March 4. 1811 — Action between the President and the Little Belt, May 16. " Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7. 1812— Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 8. ..««..- VWar declared against England, June 19, 84 Hull invaded Canada^ July 12. 45 1812 — Mackinaw surrendered, July 17. " Detroit surrendered, August 1G. Battle of Queenstown, October 13. " "Wasp captured Frolic, October 13. 1313— Battle of Frenchtown, January 22. " Capture of York, April 27. " Siege uf Fort Meigs, May 1. " Sackett's Harbor attacked, May 29. " American Frigate Chesapeake captured, by the Shannon, June 1. " Battle of Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2. " Massacre, of Fort Mims, August 30. " Perry's victory, on Lake Erie, September 10. " Battle of the Thames, October 5. ' ' Battle of Chrysler's Field, November 11. 18U— Battle of Horse-Shoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27. " Battle of Chippewa, July 5. ii Battle of Lunday's Lane, July 25. Washington captured by the British, August 24. Battle of Plattsbui'g and Lake Champlain, September 1L Bombardment of Fort McHenry, September 13. Hartford Convention, December 15. Treaty of peace, December 24. 1815 — Battle of New Orleans, January 8. " War with Algiers. 1816— Indiana admitted to the "Union, December 11. 1817— James Monroe inaugurated, March 4. •* Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10. 1818— Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3. 1819 — Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14. * J Florida purchased of Spain , February 22. IB 1820— Missouri Compromise passed, March. 8. *■ Maine admitted to the Union,- March 15. 1821— Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10. 1824- Visit of La Fayette, August 15. 1825 — John Quincj' Adams inaugurated, March 4. 182G— Adams aad Jefferson died, July 4. 1829— -Jackson inaugurated, March 4. 1832 — Black Hawk war. Nullification in Couth Carolina. 1835— Dade s massacre by Seminoles, December 23. 183G — Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15. 1837 — Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26. Martin "Van Biiren inaugurated, March 4. Battle of Okechobee, Seminoles routed by Taylor, Dec. 25. 1841 — Wm II. Harrison inaugurated, March 4. President Harrison died, April 4. John Tyler inaugurated, April 6. 1342 — Dorr rebellion. 18-45 — Florida admitted to the Union, March 3. *' James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4. " Texas admitted to the Union, December 27. 1846— Battle of Palo Alto, May 8. " Battle of B,esaca de la Palma, May 9. " Congress declared war against Mexico, May 11. " Monteroy captured, September 24. " Iowa admitted to the Union. December 28. 1847— Battle of Buena Vista, February 23. " Vera Cruz captured, March 29. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. e< Battle of Contreras, August 20. " - ■ Capture of Chapultepec, September 13, " Mexico surrendered, September 14. 47 IS43— Treat] »f peace •.-:.::- " :r?2. " Col J discovered in California. February. YTisconsin z in : Fnion, Mc 1G43 — General Taylor inaugurated, ill r b 1S50— President Taylor died. J Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 1 5 " California a Imitf . : the Uni n 3eptem1 1S53 — Franklin Pierce inaugurated, Mar-: 1 i : I — Comraodor el - r ; b . Eansas-Nibraska Bill passed, May 1857— James Buchanan inaug r i: : 3— Hian : Hota admitted to the Union, May 11. 1 1 : ." — I regon admitted to the Fnion, February 14. i; : : — .. :.:Ii Carolina seceded from the Fnion, Decern' r : l?6i — E ;team :-r Star of th: I ur^on, Jamie: " Fenra* admitted to the Fnion as a State, Janca: . " fJcuther- : : r:._ rlz'.ll . ..- j I ".. : CHRONOIiOGICAIi TABLE OF 5th I 18G1 — Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. " Fort Sumter fired upon, April 12. ' ' Lincoln called for 75,000 volui.: - ers, Aj ril 13. Confederates seized Har_ n - Ferry, April M - ■ ■ C onfe ierates seized Norfolk Xa~ Yard, April 20. " 3att'.o of Philip?!., "a,, Juno 0. " Battle < Big Bethel, Va., Jane 10. Battle of Booneville, Mo., June 1 7 . Bt - I . _ _ . - M 48 1861— Battle of Rich Mountain, Va., July 11. " Battle of Carrick's Ford, Va., July H. " Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va , July 20. Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21. *' Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 " Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, captured, August 29. " Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., September 10. " Battle of Lexington, Mo., September 20. Battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., October 21. " Port Royal, S. C, taken, November 7. " Battle of Belmont, Mo., November 7. " Seizure of Mason and Slidel], November 8. " Skirmish of Dx-anesville, Va., December 20. 1862— Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 21. " Fort Henry, Tenn., taken, February 6. " Roanoke Island, N. C, taken, February 8. " Fort Donaldson, Tenn., taken, February 16 Battle of Pfa Ridge, Ark., March 7. " Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9. " Newburn, N. C, taken, March 14. Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6, 7. " Island No. 10, captured, April 7. ' New Orleans captured,. April 25. " Beaufort, S. C, captured, April 25 " Yorktown, Va., taken, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg, Va., May 6. " Norfolk, Va., surrendered, May 10. -' Corinth, Miss., taken May 30. <« Battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, Va., May 1, June 1. " Lee assumed command, of Confederate armies, June 3 « Memphis, Team, surrendered* Juoe & 1862— Seven Days' Battle, June 25, July 1. " Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va., August 9. " Second battle of Bull Bun, Va., August 29. Battle of Richmond, Ky., August 30. " Battle of Cbantilly, Va., September 1. " Battle of South Mountain, Md., September 14. " Harper's Ferry surrendered, September 15. " Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17. " Battle of Iuka, Miss., September 19 ; «« Battle of Corinth, Miss., October 4. " Battle of Perryville, Ky., October 8. " Battle of Fredericksburg, Ya., December 13. *< First attack on Vicksburg, Miss., December 29. " Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., December 31 and Januarv 1. 1863. 1863 — Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 " Arkansas Post taken, January 11. " Fort Sumter, S C, bombarded by fleet, April 7. " Grant "a campaign before Vicksburg, May 1, 17. Battle of Cliaacelorsville, Va., May 2, 3. " West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 20. " Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1, 3. " Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered, July 4. " Port Hudson surrendered, July 8. " Draft riot, in New York city, July 13, 16. " Fort Wagner, S. C, taken, September 7. " Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20. " Battle of Chattanooga. Ga., November 24, 25. " Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised, December 3. 1864— Battle of Olustee, Fla., February 20. " Grant made Lieutenant-General, March 3. 50 1864— Fort de Russy captured, March 14. " Fort Pillow, Term., captured, April 12. " Butler landed at Burmuda Hundred, May 5. " Battle of the Wilderness, Ya., May 5, 6. Battle of Spottsylvania, Va., May 8, 12. " Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15. " Battle of New Market, Va., May 15. Battle of Dallas, May 25, 28. Battle of Cold Harbor, Va., June 3. " Battle of Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15, 17. " Battle between the Kearsage and Alabama, June 19. " Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27. " Battle of Monocracy, Md., July 9. Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28 " Chambersburg, Pa., burned, July 30. " Mine Explosion, Pittsburg, Va., July 30. " Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Aug. 5. " Weldon railroad seized, Aug. 18. " Atlanta, Ga., taken, Sept. 2. Battle of Winchester, Va. , Sept. 19. Battle of Fisher's Hill, Va., Sept. 22. Battle of Cedar Creek, Va., Oct. 19. " Nevada admitted into the Union, Oct. 31. Fort McAllister, Ga., taken, Dec. 13. Battle of Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15, 1C. 1865— Fort Fisher, N. C, taken, Jan. 15. " Columbia S. C, taken, Feb. 17. " Charleston, S. C, taken, Feb. 18. " Battles of Averysboro and Bentonsville, N. C, March 15, 18. " Attack on Fort Steadman, Va., March 25. Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1. 51 1865— Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3. " Lee's army surrendered April 9. " President Lincoln assassinated, Aprii 14. " Johnston's army surrendered, April 26. " Jefferson Davis captured, May 11. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 6th ERA. 1865 — Andrew Johnson, inaugurated, April 15. " Conditional Amnesty proclaimed, May 29. «' Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing Slav ery, declared to have been ratified by three*fourths of the States, December 18. 1866 — Civil Eights Bill passed. Fenian invasion of Canada. Four- teenth Amendment of the Constitution proposed. Ten- nessee restored to her relations in the Union. 1867 — Nebraska admitted. " Russian- America purchased from Russia. 1868 — Impeachment, trial and acquittal of President Johnson. " Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiania, North and and South Carolina, restored to the Union. " Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution ratified. " Proclamation of unconditional amnesty to all concerned in the secession movement. 1869 — General Grant inaugurated, March 4. Note. — From this time, keep posted on passing events, and note them down in a book kept for this purpose. CAUSE AND RESULT OF THE REVOLUTION. England Claimed— 1st. That she had an undoubted right to tax her colonies. '2d. That the colonies were but a portion of the British Empire. 3d. That the colonies had ever submitted to the jurisdiction of the mother country. 4th. That the inhabitants of the colonies were as much repre- sented in Parliament as the great majority of. the English nation. 5th. That the taxes proposed were but a moderate interest for the immense sums which had already been bestowed in the defense of the colonies, and which would still be re- quired for their protection; and that protection itself is the ground that gives the right of taxation. Colonies Claimed— 1st. As a fundamental principle, that taxation and representa- tion are inseparable. 2d. That they were neither actually nor virtually represented in the British Parliament. 3d. That, if their property might be taken from them without their consent, there would be no limit to the oppression which might be exercised over them. 4th. That they supposed that the assistance which Great Brit- ain had given them was offered from motives of humanity and not as the price of their liberty. 5th. The colonies had full confidence in their ability to defend themselves against any foreign enemy; and that taxa- tion without representation they would submit to no longer. Notwithstanding the murmurs which had arisen from every quarter, Great Britain passed numerous oppressive acts, among which was the Stamp Act of 17G5. This act ordained that instru- ments of writing, such as deeds, bonds, notes, printed pamphlets, almanacs, etc., should be executed on stamped paper, for which a duty should be paid to the Crown. The war began April 19th, 1775, with the battle of Lexington, and continued until the treaty of peace, signed at Paris, September 3i 1783. The colonies gained their, liberty. Great Britain lost the colo- nies, 50,000 of her best soldiers, and £100,000,000 sterling. 53 CAUSE AND RESULT OF THE WAR OF 1812. England Claimed— 1st. That a man once a. subject was always a subject; and that no act of his could change his allegiance to the Govern- ment under which lie was born. ■ •2d. That she had the right to search the vessels of other nations, and to take from them, and to impress into her service, those who had been naturalized, and were claimed to be citizens of other countries. United States Claimed — That man Avas born free ; and if, when he arrived at years of reflection, he preferred some other government to that of his native laud, he had a right to withdraw himself, and break the bonds imposed by his birth: and that to the so-called right of search and impressment she would submit to no longer. June 18, 1812. America declared war against Great Britain. A treaty of peace was concluded in December 1814. Great Britain virtually relinquished her pretentions to the right of search and impressment. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 1821. Missouri applied for admission into the Union. A proposition in Congress to prohibit the introduction of slavery into the new State, arrayed the South against the North— the slaveholding against the non-slaveholding States— and the whole subject of slav- ery became the exciting topic of debate throughout the Union. The Missouri question was finally settled by a compromise, which tolerated slavery in Missouri, but otherwise prohibited it in all the territory of the United States, north and west of the notheru limits of Arkansas. THE SOUTH CAROLINA NULLIFICATION ACTS OF 1832. The South Carolina State Convention declared that the tariff acts, passed by the Congress of the United States, imposing additional duties on foreign goods, were unconstitutional, and therefore null ami void; that the duties should not be paid: and that any attempt 54 on the part of the general government to enforce the payment, would produce the withdrawal of South Carolina from the Union; but a proclamation of President Jackson's, declaring that the laws must aud should be executed, soon caused South Carolina to recede from her hostile position. CAUSE AND EESULT OF THE MEXICAN WAR. The cause of the Mexican war, which began as early as the 2Gth of April, 1846, was the annexation of Texas and the claim of a cer- tain tract of land by both the United States and Mexico. The tract was In Texas, between the Neuces river and the Rio Grande On the 2d of February, 1846, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the United States obtained from her late enemy a large increase of territory, embracing all New Mexico and Upper California. For the territory and privileges thus obtained, the United States sur- rendered to Mexico all castles, forts, teri'itories, places andnossr - sions, not embi'aced in the ceded territory; and agreed t > pay Mex- ico fifteen millions of dollars, and assume the liquidation of a.l debts due American citizens from the Mexican government. CAUSE AND EESULT OF THE CIVIL WAE OF 1861. The authorities of the Southern States sought to withdraw those States from the Union, claiming they had a right to do s >; aud the United States government denying the right of any State to secede, raised armies to enforce its authority. The war began in April, 1861, and virtually closed with the sur- render of Lee's army, April 9, 1863, and resulted in a complete vic- tory to the United States government. 55 NOTES. 1. The Seven Wise Men of Greece — These were seven perso: s noted for their sagacity as philoso- phers and statesmen at an early period of Greek history; they were Periander, of Corinth ; Pittacns, Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilon and Cleobulas. 2. The Seven Wosdees of the World — ) The Greeks considered them to be: 1st — The Pyramids of Eg; pt; 2d., the Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon; 3d., the Pharos at Alexandria; 4th., the Temple of Diana, at Ephesns; 5th., the Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Sculptured by Phidias, and composed of ivory and gold; 6th., the splendid Sepulchre, erected by Queen Artemisia to her husband, Mausolus, 353 years B. C. — hence the English term mosoleum; 7th., the Colossus, of Rhodes. 3. U. S. Gov- I. Executive II. Cabinet. •{ (President .. .. ( Vice-President. . Secretary of State . . '•' Treasury War ' ' Navy " Interior j Attorney-General . | Postmaster-General ( 1 Chief Justice , Salary III. Judiciary. ( 8 Associate Justices 550,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,600 6,000 6,000 Court meets first Monday in December, at Washington PART IV. GRAMMAR, 58 CHART No. 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, i ORTHOGRAPHY. ETYMOLOGY; SYNTAX. PROSODY Words Letters Syllables . . 1. Vowels. 2. Consonants. 3. United Letters. Monosyllables. Dissyllables. Trisyllables. Polysyllables. Primitive. Derivative. Simple. Compound ( Semi-Vowels. ( Mutes. Diphthongs. Triphthongs. ( Proper. ( Improper. ( Proper. ( Improper. Spelling. 59 DEFINITIONS OF CHART No. 1. 1. English Grammar is the art of speaking and Writing the English language correctly. 2. Orthography signifies writing words correctly. It treats of letters, syllables, xyor&s and spelling. 3. Etymology treats of the parts of speech — their classilication and modification. 4. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement and government of words in sentences. 5. Prosody treats of punctuation, elocutiou, figures and versifica- tion. 1. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words and spelling. 2. A Letter is a character used to represent an oral sound — called vocal. 3. A Vowel is a letter representing an unarticulated sound. 4. A Consonant is a letter representing an articulated sound. 5. A Semi-Vowel is a consonant whose sound may be prolonged. 6. A Mute is a consonant whose sound cannot be prolonged. 7. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable; as oiin oil. 8. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable; ajiew in view. 9. A Proper Diphthong has both of the vowels sounded; ft/ir of them oi, oy, ou and ow 10. An Impropf a noun. An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun or a pro- noun. A Verb is a word that signifies to he, or to do. An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, adjec- tive, or other adverb. A Preposition is a word used to show a relation of a noun or pro- noun to some other word. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses^ An Interjection is a word used to express some emotion of the mind. A Proper Noun is a particular name. * A Common Noun is a general name. A Collective Noun is the name of two or more together. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality apart from its object. A Verbal Noun is the name of a state of being or action. Gender is a modification to distinguish objects in regard to sex. The Masculine Gender denotes males The Femine Gender denotes females. The Common Gender denotes either or both sexes. The Neuter Gender denotes things without sex. Person is a modification t > distinguish the speaker, the object i addressed, and tho object spoken of. The First Person denotes the speaker. The Second Person denotes the object spoken to. The Third Person denotes the object spoken of. Number is a modification to distinguish unity and plurality. The Singular Number expresses but one. The Plural Number expresses more than one. Case is a modification to distinguish the relation of nouns and pronouns to other words. The Nominative Case denotes the subject of a finite verb. The Possessive Case denotes possession, origin, or design. The Objective denotes the object of an action, or a relation. The Independent Case has no governing word, and is not grammati- cally connected with other words. nouns— have a genera! 62 CHART No. 3. Pronouns. ' I of the firjst. Personal Thou, or You of the second He, She, and It, of the third And their declined forms. Who. Which. Relative • What. That. * As. fWho. I Interrogative . ■{ Which. I What. Adjective ( Is a common specifying Ad- ] jective, used as a Pro- Adjectives f ( Descriptive. Greater Class. J ( Definitive. f Common. Proper. Participal. Compound. Numeral. Pronominal. Smaller Class . - { Positive. I Degrees of Comparison . . \ Comparative. [Superlative. 63 DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 3. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. A Personal Pronou* is one that by its form denotes its person. There are five— I. of the first person ; Thou, or You, of the second; He, She, and It, of the third, and their declined forms. The simple pronouns are compounded by adding the word self or selves to them. They are used in the nominative or objective cases, but never in possessive. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to an antecedent, and unites clauses. Who is applied to persons. Which to things and brutes. What is a double relative, equivalent to thing or things which. That is a relative when it can be changed to who or which. As is a relative when it follows such, many, or same. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used in asking a question. Who, as an Interrogative Pronoun, is applied to persons. Which and What, to persons, things and brutes. An Adjective Pronoun is a common specifying Adjective, used as a Pronoun. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or a pronoun, and defines or limits, and expresses quality. A Descriptive Adjective expresses qualit; , kind, or condition, A Dejlnitive Adjective defines or limits. A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet. A Proper Adjective is derived from a proper noun. AParticipal Adjective is a participal placed before the noun which it describes. A Compound Adjective is two or more simple words joined together. A Numeral Adjective expresses number. A Pronominal Adjective is a definitive adjective which represents a noun understood. Comparison is a variation to express degrees of quality. The Positive is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. The Comparative is higher or lower than the positive. The Superlative is the highest or lowest of all contrasted. 64 CHART No. 4 Vekbs in relation < to their ( Regular. { Irregular. ( Neuter. Subjeet, are ] Active. ■ y , f Transitive. Object, arc. j Intransit ive. Verbs are modified by Mood Tens Person . Active. Passive. Indicative Potential \ Present. Present Perfect. Past. 1 Past Perfect. Future Futnr ■ Perfect. Present. j Present Perfect. 1 Past. Past Perfect, Subjunctive., j p resen t. [ Imperative Present. Present. Present Perfect. Past. Past Perfect. Future. Future Perfect, First. Second. Third. Number,... [ pSf^ 65 DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 4. Verb.- A Regular Verb is one -\vliose past tense , nds in ed. An Irregular Verb is one whose past tens.- i!o< 3 not end in ed. A Xeuter Verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or state of being An Active Verb expresses action. A Passive Verb represents its subject as being acted upon. A Transitive Verb expresses an action which has an object. An Intransitive Verb expresses an action which has no object. The Subject is that of which something is asserted. The Object is the word or words on which the act expressed by the verb terminates. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject does or receives the act. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting. The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon. Moon is the manner in which the action, being, or state is asserted. The Indicative asserts a thing as actually existing. The Potential Mood asserts the power, liberty, permission, necessity, or duty of acting, or of being. Tin- Subjunctive Mood asserts a thing, as conditional, or doubtful. The Imperative Mood asserts a command, an entreaty, or a per- mission. Tense primarily denotes the time of an action, or an event, in re- lation to the moment of speaking. The Present Tense represents what takes place in present time. The Present Perfect Tense represents a past event, as completed in present time. The Past Tense represents what took place in time wholly past. The Past Perfect Tense represents. a past event as completed in time wholly past. The Future Tense represents what will take place in future time. The Future Perfect Tense represents an event as completed in future time. Person and Number of a Verb is a change in form to agree with its subject, and the noun. There are three persons and two numbers. m CHART No. 5. Time. Place. Adverbs < Legree. Cause. _ Manner. f Prepositions I iscuss the use of . . . -\ Conjunctions [ Interjections. SYNTAX BEGINS. Natural Order op Writing . . 1st. Adjective. 2d. Subject; nouns are taken together, a verb or pronoun, to agree with them, must be plural; but when taken separately, a verb or a pronoun, to agree with them, must be singular. XV. Conjunctions connect worJs, phrases, and clauses. XYI. Interjections have no dependence ia construction. n CHART No. 8. Syntax Figures...... .. - PROSODY . . Rhetoric \ purification. Utterance. Punctuation. Aphceresis. Syncope. OBTHOO^HV.. \ XXsiS. Paragoge. Ellipsis. Aposiopesis. Zeugma. Pleonasm. Enallage. Inversion. Archaism. Mimicry. Simile. Metaphor. Allegory. Metonymy. Synecdoche. Personification Antithesis. Irony. Paralipsis. Hyperbole. Climax. Allusion. Euphemism. Interrogation. Exclamation. Apostrophe. Vision. Onomatopoeia. ,73 DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 8. A Figure is any deviation from the grammatical, or ordinary form, construction or application of words. Figures of Orthography are deviations from the ordinary spelling, or pronunciation of words. Aphteresis shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word. Syncope shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the middle. Apocope shortens a word, by taking a letter or syllable from the end. Prosthesis lengthens a word, by prefixing a syllable. Paragoge lengthens a word, by annexing a syllable. Tmesis inserts a word between the parts of a compound word. Figures of Syntax are deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Ellipsis is the omission of words; usually must be supplied in parsing. Ajjosiopesis is the leaving of something unsaid. Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones, when in direct syntax it can only agree with one of them. Pleonasm is the use of more words than the sense requires. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of_one form of a word for another. Inversion is inverted syntax, or the transposition of words. A rchaism is a word or expression, imitative of ancient style, or usage. Mimicry is the imitation of another person's improper use of language. Figures of Rhetoric are deviations' from the ordinary meaning of words. A Simile is an express comparison. A Metaphor is an implied comparison. An Allegory is a fictitious story about one thing, and is a con- tinued metaphor. 74 Metonymy is the name of one object applied to a different one, from some other relation than resemblance. Synecdoche is the name of a part applied to the whole, or vice versa. Personification represents as persons, objects that are not such in reality. Antithesis is the contrasting of different objects, actions, qualities or circumstances. Irony is the sneering use of words with a contrary meaning. Par alipsis is the pretended omission, or concealment of what is thus really suggusted and enforced. Hyperbole is exaggeration. Climax is a gradual climbing, from things inferior, to greater or better. Allusion is the use of an expression, that recalls, incidentally, some interesting fact, custom, etc. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what would be disa- greeable, or offensive, if told in the plainest language. Interrogation is a mode of strengthening a statement by an appeal in the form of a question. Exclamation is designed to express more strongly the emotions of the speaker. Apostrophe is a sudden turning away, in the fullness of emotion, to address some person or thing. Vision represents something that is past, future, absent or imag- ined, as if it were really present. Onomatopoeia is such an imitation in the sound of the words as may correspond with the sense, or suggest it. Note. — To say what we mean, and nothing more, never can con- stitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words; therefore, there can never be an ellipsis of anything which is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the sense. Ellipsis, as a figure of Syntax, can be only of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written them. To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really oc- curs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's ignoi'ance of th? principles of Syntax. 76 CHART No. 9. VERSIFICATION -> Principal... - Iambus. Trochee. Anapest. Pobtic Feet. Dactyl. f Spondee- Secondary . -j Pyrrhic. 1 Caesura. Monometer, a line of one foot. Diameter, a line of two feet. Trimeter, a line of three feet. Poetic Likes. \ Tetrameter, a line of four feet Pentameter, a line of five feet. Hexameter, a line of six feet. Heptameter, a line of seven ft. . Octometer, a line of eight ft. ' Poetic Pauses Final. Caesural. r i Single, when one syllable. RHYilM .... \ Double, when two syllables. 1 1 Triple, when three syllables. Vekse ) i Stanza. ; Blank. Heroic. ' Spelling. Pronunciation. Choice of words. Poetic License Meaning of words. is allowed in * Idioms. Syntax. Figures. i Versification. DEFINITIONS TO CHART No. 9. Versification is the art of making verse. A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists of two or three sylla« ables, one accented. Iambus is a foot of two syllables, accented on the second. Trochee is a foot of two syllables., accented on the first. Anapest is a foot of three syllables, accented on the last. Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, accented on the first. Spondee is a foot of two long or accented syllables. Pyrrhic is a foot of two short or unaccented syllables. Caesura is a long or accented syllable, used as one foot. Poetic Lines are named according to the number of feet composing them. See Chart. Poetic Pauses are made to improve the rhythm. Final Pause is a slight pause made at the end of each line, even ■when the grammatical sense does not require it. Cozsural Pause is a slight pause made within the line, most fre- quently about the middle of it; and it chiefly belongs to long lines. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between. the endings of poetic lines. Verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular accent. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. Heroic Verse is verse that consists of iambic pentameters. A Stanza is a combination of three or more poetic lines that usually make a distinct chime of rhymes, and a regular division of the poem. Scanning is dividing the verse into its feet. Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the correctness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws of versification. •Note.— The names under this last topic suggests the deviations to be made. 78 CHART No. 10. UTTERANCE PUNCTUATION. f Articulation. Degree of Loudness Degree of Rapidity. < Inflection. Tones. Emphasis. [ Pauses, f Period. Colon. Semicolon. Comma. Interrogation. Exclamation. Dash. Curves. Brackets. Quotation Marks. Apostrophe. Hyphen. Acute Accent. Grave Accent. Circumflex Accent. Macron. Breve. Diaeresis. Cedilla. Tilde. Caret.- Brace. Section. Paragraph. Star, Dagger, or Double Dagger. Ditto. Hand. Asterism. Leaders. Underscore. 19 DEFINITIONS TO CHAET No. 10. Utterance is the art of vocal expression. Articulation is the distinct utterance of the oral elements, sylla- bles and words. Degree of Loudness and Rapidity must depend on circumstances — ■ such as speaker, hearer, discourse, and the place. Inflections refer to the passage of the voice from one pitch to another. Tones are modulations of the voice. Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words, word or part of a word. Pauses are of three kinds : Sentential or Grammatical, which show the grammatical • Rhetorical, which are used for effect; and Har- monic, which are used in po'etry. The Period (.) denotes the longest pause, or a full stop; and is put at the end of every word, phrase, or sentence, complete in itself, and not interrogative or exclamatory; also, after all abbreviations. The Colon (:) denotes the next shorter pause, and is used as an intermediate point between the semicolon and the period; after a statement that ends with asfolloivs, the following, thus, these, or other words of the same -meaning; also, after an address that begins a discourse or letter, and before an important remark added to a sentence. The Semicolon (;) denotes the next shorter pause, and is used to separate parts that require a point greater than the comma, and less than the colon; also, the parts of a loose series; and they may consist of subjects, predicates, modifiers, or clauses. It is fre- quently placed before and, but, for, though, yet, nor, nay, hence, therefore, or similar connectives, when they unite clauses that are rather long, and make but one sentence. The Comma (,) denotes the shortest pause, and is used to separate the parts of a complex sentence, when the auxiliary precedes the principal sentence ; to separate words of the same construction, when used consecutively; but the adjective next to its noun must not be separated; to separate words, phrases and clauses thrown in between the parts of a principal sentence; to separate a phrase or a sentence from the verb, when they are its subject; to separate words used in direct address; to separate adjunct sentences, phrases, and sometimes words, not in their natural position. 80 The Interrogation Point (?) is placed after every complete direct question, whether it forms a complete sentence, or only a part of a sentence. The Exclamation Point (I) is p'.acM after every word, phrase, clause or sentence that indieat. s s irprlse, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker. The Dash (— ) denotes emphasis or abruptness. The Curves ( ) eueloe some explanation, or remark that can be omitted. The Brackets ([]) enclose some correction, or explanation, that is generally inserted by another person. The Quotation Marks ("") enclose words taken from another person. The Apostrophe (') denotes possession, or the omission of some letter or letters. The Hyphen (-) joins the parts of most compound words, and is placed at the end of a line, when a part of a word is carried to the next line. The Acute Accent ( ') marks stress of voice. The Grave Accent ( x ) shows a sinking of the voice. The Circumflex Accent (* or ") is a union of the other two accents. The Macron (-) marks a long sound. The Breve ( ~ ) makes a short sound. The Dioeeresis ( ") separates two vowels into two syllables. The Cedilla (c) is a French mark joined to the lower part of c, to give it the sound of s. The Tilde (n\ is a Spanish mark, placed over n, to annex to it the sound of y. The Caret ( ") is used in writing, to show where words or letters are to be inserted. The Brace (—> — ) serves to connect parts. The Section (§) is sometimes used to mark the small divisions of a book. The Paragraph (H) shows where a new subject begins. The Star, Dagger or Double Dagger (*~\ i) are used as marks of reference. 81 The Stars, Double Dash, or Periods (**. , . . .) denote omission, or suppression. The Ditto (") is used instead of repeating the word or words. The Hand (i£g=) directs special attention to something. The Asterism ■(%.*) is sometimes placed before a note that has a general reference. The Leaders ( ) lead the eye from one part to another, over a blank space. The Underscore ( ) is a line drawn under words in writing, that are to be printed in italics, or capitals. MEASURES. Stanzas of four lines, the 1st and 3d, four feet; 2u and 4th, three feet, is C. M. Stanzas of four lines, the 3d, four feet; the others three feet, is S. M. Stanzas of four lines, four feet in each. L, M. Stanzas of four lines, fire feet in each. 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P X L— i— I »£3 OS XX XX M O "* "* "* ■* **< -sH ■* *# -3H -* ■># •*♦! -* 2-d.d _d aaa ,d,d -d-d ,d,d,d S h h f-i P-i ?-i ?-( f-i ?h f-iSn ^^53 •tj a a s^ a So® a a a a -a^fi fi fif^fi Jdd £rd,d ft^^fi'^^fifif^ co co cT ri - -o . £ ^ s &3i a e -i*h « :j ( n ■ Sco -IZIk- M*g)0 gh K d | '" j? ^ f^ ^ ^ £ M W « h C5^S ft o o T] w S5 '%..< < Is ^ « tf s w e pq Ph pq pq *»o3 ooohhooooowoowo^ i -7 a _ if e3 - to c3 Cffli X < a go t» co w J32-2 ^OOcSeS®S'S o fc fc pq pq g PQ I sS I — a -2 a in e S -^ S 5 5 s ° 2 '1 ° o c ^ o '3 •-• '3 •-> '3 ■" >iH u >■ ^ .35 s. * "3 j* » § * "S * 3 33aS5a-2lS^a3a=Bf ® o '42 S3 "2,3 c3 N e8 a- 3^2 c qs fc a & w is .2 -d .3 .S 43 HooHWO 03 cS Hi* 5 » ft !§ "3 2 ; 2-3 3-S &>§ >Q S S'H o ct h 89 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. NORTH AMERICA. Vol. Popoeatapetl. Mt. St. Elias Vol. Orizaba Mt. Brown Mt. Hooker Mt. Fairweafher . , Fremont's Peak. .. Pike's Peak Mt. Shasta Mt. Linn Laramie Peak Mitchel's Peak Round Top Mt. Marey Mansfield Washington IN WHAT COUNTRY OR STATE. Mexico Alaska Mexico British Ameri Alaska U. S. Wyomiu California IN WHAT RANGE. Sierra Madn Cascade .... Sierra Madr< Rocky Cascade . Rocky... Wyoming . . N. Carolina. New York . . Vol. Acongacua. Mt. Sahama Vol Gualatieri. . Chimborazo Mt. Illimani Vol. Cotopaxi . . . Vol. Areguipa... VoL Tolima Mt. Itambe Vermont New Hampshire . . . SOUTH AMERICA E. Chilli Bolivia Peru Ecuador Bolivia Ecuador Peru Colombia Brazil Cascade Cost Range Black Hills Alleghany ; Catskill Mts Adirondac Mt... Green Mts White Mts | Andes I 17884* 17860 17374 15990 15675 14900 13570 14500 14400 10000* 8000* 6711* 3804* 5379* 4430* 6428 Serra Doespin'co Mt. Konjakofski. Mt. Elboorz Skagestoltiud . . . Mt. Blanc Mt. Corno Mt. Maladetta... Mt. Mulahaceu . . Ben Nevis EUROPE. E. of Russia .... S. of Russia E. of Norway . . , E. of France Italy N. <>f Spain Spain Scotland Mt. Everest Hindoo Koh Vol. Demavend Mt. Arjich Mt. Hermon Mt. Kunchinginga Mt. Ararat Mt. Sinai ASIA. N. of Hindostan. . N. of Afghan is tin. Persia Turkey Turkey N. of Hindoostan. Turkey Turkey Ural Mts Caucasus Mts . . . Scandinavian Alps Apennines Pyrenees Sierra Nevada. . . Grampian Hills . Himalaya I Hindoo Koosh. . . Elburz Mts Anti-Taurus Mts Anti-Lebonon Mt Himalaya Zagros 23910* 22350 12000 21420 21149 18887 18400 18336 5960* 5397* 17796* 8153* 15810* 9523* 11168* 11678* 4370* 290021 20230* 14700* 13000* 10000* 28178 17210 7497 AFRICA. E. of Ethiopia E. of Ethiopia- . .. Mts. of the Moon Atlas Mts Snow Mts 20000 Mt. Kilimandjaro . . Mt- Miltsin. . . 20000 11400 Spitzkop Cape Colony 10250 Highest. t Highest in the World. 90 OKIGIN OF THE NAMES OF THE STATES. Maine was so called as early as 1623, from-Maine, in France, of which Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., of England, was at that time proprietor. Popular names— The Lumber, or Pine Tree State. New Hampshire was the name given to the territory , conveyed by the Plymouth Company to Captain John Mason, by patent, Nov. 7th, 1629, with reference to the patentee, who was governor of Portsmouth, in Hampshire, England. Popular name — The Granite State. Vebmont was so called by the inhabitants, in their Declaration of Independence, January 16, 1777, from the French word verd mont, the Green Mountains Popular name — The Green Mountain State. Massachusetts was so called from Massachusetts Bay, and that from the Massachusetts tribe of Indians, in the neighborhood of Boston. The tribe is thought to have derived its name from the Blue Hills of Milton. " I had learnt," says Koger Williams,- " that the Massachusetts was so called from the Blue Hills." Popular name— The Bay State. Rhode Island was so called in 1664, in reference to the Island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Popular name — Little Rhody. Connecticut was so called from the Indian name of its principal river. Connecticut is a Mocheakannew word, signifying long river. Popular names— The, Nutmeg, or Free Stone State. New Yoke was so called in 1664, in reference to the Duke of York and Albany, to whom this territory was granted by the King of England. Popular names— The Empire, or Excelsior State. New Jeksey was so called in 1664, from the Island of Jersey, on the coast of France, the residence of the family of Sir George Car- teret, to whom the territory was granted. Pennsylvania was so called in 1684. It is compounded of two words, Penn, and the Latin word salvania; it signifies Penn's woods. Popular name— The Keystone State. Delaware was so called in 1703, from Delaware Bay, on which it lies, and which received its name from Lord de la War, who died in this bay. Popular names— The Blue Hen, or Diamond State. Maryland was so called in honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I, in his patent to Lord Baltimore, June 30, 1632. Virginia was so called in 1584, after Elizabeth, the virgin Queen of England. Popular names— The Old Dominion, or Mother of States. Georgia was so called in 1732, in honor of King George II, 91 v Carolina was so called by the French, in 1564, in honor of King Charles IX., of France. Popular name of South Carolina — The Pal- metto State; of North Carolina— The Old North or Turpentine State Alabama was so called in 1S1L from its principal river meaning here we rest. The name is of Indian origin. Mississippi was so called in 1800. The name is of Indian origin, signifying, according to some writers, the great river; according to others, the great father of waters. Popular name — The Bayou State. Louisiana was so called in 18G2, in honor of Louis XIV of France. Popular name— The Creole State. Tennessee was so called in 1796, from its principal river. The word Ten-as se is said to signify a curved spoon. Popular name — The Big-Bend State. Kentucket was so called in 1796, from its principal river. Pop- ular name — The State of Dark and Bloody Ground. Illinois was so called in 1809, from its principal river. The word, an Indian one, is said to signify the river of men, or a perfect and accomplished man. Popular names — The Sucker, or Prairie State. Indiana was so called in 1809, from the American Indians. Pop- ular name — The Hoosier State. Ohio was so called in 1802, from its southern boundary. Popular name — The Buckeye State. Meaning, of Indian word Ohio-i, Beau- tiful. Missouri was so called in 1821, from its principal river. Indian name, meaning muddy water. Michigan was so called in 1805, from the lake on its border. Indian name, meaning, according to one writer, a weir for fish ; ac- cording to another writer, it is formed from two Indian words, signifying great lake. Popular name — The Wolverine State. Arkansas was so called in 1812, from its principal river. It was the name of a tribe of Indians. Popular name — The Bear State. Florida was so called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1572, because it was discovered on Eastei Sunday; in Spanish, Pascua Florida. Wisconsin was so called from its principal river. The river was first called, by Marquette, in 1G73, Masconsin ; it became changed to Onisconsin, and finally to Wisconsin. Indian name, meaning wild rushing river. Iowa was so called from its principal river. Indian name, mean- ing, according to some writers, the sleepy ones • according to others, here is the place. Oregon was so called, says one writer, from its principal river. Indian name, meaning river of the west. Another writer of note says the name was probably invented by Captain Carver, who made an early exploration of the region. A third writer gives it as his opinion, that the name was derived from the Spanish orcgano, wild sage, which grows in great abundance on the Pacific roast. Minnesota is an Indian word. The name was first applied to the river. It signifies, according to one writer, the whitish water; ac- cording to another, it is compounded of two Indian words, signify, ing sky-colored water. California is a Spanish word; according to one writer it was named from an arm of the Pacific coast; another writer says: "A romance was published in Spain in 1510, in which the word Califor- nia, applied to an imaginary island, for the first time occurred. Cortez had read the book, it is supposed, and when he sailed along the coast of Mexico, in 1535, supposing he was in the region of the island, he called the country California." Popular name — The Golden State. Iexas, says one writer, was a Spanish word applied to the Bepub- lic; according t i another, the name, Texas, was derived from Las Tekas, supposed t > have been the name of a petty tribe of Indians, living in Eastern Texas. Kansas is said to signify smoky water. It "was the name of a tribe of Indians. West Virginia — so called after Virginia. Nevada was named from the mountain range on the west of it. It is a Spanish word, meaning white with snow. Nebraska was a name applied to the Platte river, which runs through the State. It is of Indian origin, signifying Ne, water, and braska, wide or shallow. EULE FOE THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTEES. The subject of discourse, words of special importance, every dis- tinct sentence, all proper names, words derived from proper names, every line of poetry, all appellations of Deity, the words I and O, and the chief words in the titles of books, should begin with a capital. f'3 BULES FOE SPELLING. I, Primitive. 1st. — Monosyllables ending in f, I, or s, double the final consonant, when preceded by a single vowel. 2nd. — Words ending in any other consonant than./', /, or s, do not double the final letter. 1st. Prefixes. II. Derivative. <{ 2d. Suffixes. 1st. —The final letters of a prefix is sometimes omitted. 2d. — The final letter of a prefix are often changed to one which will harmonize in sound with the initial letter of the root. fist. — On receiving a suffix begin- ning with a vowel, the final consonant of a monosyllable or any other word accented on the last syllable, is dou- bled, if the root ends with a single consonant, preced- ed by a single vowel ; if not, it remains single 2d. — In words ending in e, silent, the final vowel of the radi- cal is droped, on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel. 3d.— If preceded by a consonant, the final y of a root is generally changed to i; if hot, it usu- ally remains unchanged. m w o W ft w Ph PH o s EH P3 OOC001! tS t-t-t-OOOOOOOOOOt-QOt-t-QOt-OOt-OOt-t-t-t-t-t-OOOO .2 ^ o6» * ■* « ^i h co n 10 n io el rji ■£*: **-»«" «2 1- : DC 3 ® " a . - cs -J u £L « § ^ 9* . S co .* • a pi HI t3 - a I" § 15* sSSO hIOos- cS ^ :Og ; 6* . © • d S'StiflM a £ 95 - co 5c t- t-i t eo i-T kT » X C- t- L- I a ^ i««. -aj i? < O O 25 O ^S >9 Sfrs r i S O ffl ^S 4h? h h h h h i, ;- - a; a; c; a? 0) q;q}Q} ££££-£ ££3 ^ c3 u u h Sh ® .a © e a a £.■3 5» >, p~. >, fe n fe te te te 5s ® i I § § 1 1- ;^ji i o S^S ■ = - 55 : • ~? ■S 3^-a : £ O X IH t- o 5 s s _ - i-sf 2S « S "3 3 1- 1- £ ~ -a ^ i° 5?> ffiSMWlt^l a » a is >.~ c3 c3 c3iH P< 5 -S 2 5 ' ?H ^ Ti d r. " r. eS a _ U :c a CO X X — ~ > 96 UNITED STATES FLAG. Congress, in July 1777, adopted a National Flag,, consisting of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, with thirteen white stars in a blue field. A new star was added for each new State admitted. The thirteen stripes represent the thirteen original States. SIGNIFICATION OF FLAGS. A red flag, displayed to an enemy, is a sign of defiance. A white flag, displayed to an enemy, signifies an invitation to conference, or for the purpose of making some communication, not hostile. A black flag, when displayed to an enemy, signifies that no mercy will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given. A flag hung one-half way to the top of the mast or staff, called half-mast high, or half -staff, is a token or sign of mourning. Pulling the flag down upon the cap, called striking, or lowering the flag, signifies a token of respect, submission, or, in an engagement, of surrender.