Class _TX-L4_£ Book U-Z GoKiighti\" COPfl«GHT DEPOSIT. / A MANUAL OF HOME MAKING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO Plate I. — Digniiird houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted fur country lioinis A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING COMPILED BY MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER FLORA ROSE HELEN CANON OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS, NEW YORK COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Nrm fork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1919 All rights reserved <^' a6 ■4^ COPYRIOIIT, 1919 By the MACMILLAN COMPAQ V Sot up unil c'lectrot.\'ped. Published February, 1919 FEB 26 1919 ©CI. A 5 I 1743 STATEMENT BY THE EDITOTl Herein is brought together a collection of precepts and ad- vice on the setting up and management of a home. The book is written and compiled primarily for those women who are managing households, not for those who are teaching or who are students in the class-room. It has been the purpose to bring together from many reliable sources the guiding rules to be followed in making the home a place where the family can live a thrifty and joyous life. It is compiled by those who understand the subject and the situation. Chapters on hygiene and sanitation were prepared by the authors, but space would not allow of their inclusion. This is a source of much regret, but the omission allowed a fuller treatment to be retained in the remaining chapters. The book is intended primarily for rural conditions. The country home should receive as careful and considerate atten- tion as the farm itself. The home is inseparable from the farm. Yet, as the principles and practices of home-making are the same in country and town, the book should actually meet the needs of a wide range of people. The Editor is glad to add a book in his series on the work and welfare of women, and he hopes it will not be the last. The woman's work and the man's work together make the welfare of any people secure. L. H. BAILEY. CONTENTS PART I THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS CHAPTER I The Modern House Arrangement of the house The farmhouse Farmhouse planning Exterior design . Cost of building . Suggestions for making alterations CHAPTER II Home Furnishing Structural consideration of rooms Color Pattern Selection of furnishings Furniture . Arrangement of furnishings Character of rooms expressed by furnishings CHAPTER III Planning the Home Kitchen Use of the kitchen Exposure Size . Doors Windows Arrangement of equipment Discussion of plans PAGE 1 2 7 8 21 25 27 29 30 45 51 54 78 92 95 100 100 102 103 103 104 105 110 \ 111 CONTENTS Pantries and closets Interior finish i'a<;k 112 lis PART II HOUSEHOLD MA N A CiEMENT CllAi'Ti:!; i\ Cahk of Tin; House . Cellar. Kitehen LivinK-rooin and dining-room Sleepinp-rooins Bathroom Suggestions for sweeping and dusting Repair kit . Some special directions for cleaning CHAPTER V Household Measurements and tiieik Use Measurements for commodities Temperature Time ..... Measuring gas Measuring electricity . Measuring water. Density of liquids Ivitchen measures CHAPTER VI Household Records How to keej) household records Household ac(>ounts .... CHAPTER VII Heat and Light Care of fires Radiation . VI \ r_'i r_'2 vi:i vii 123 124 124 125 120 12<> 131 138 143 147 lol 153 loO 17.-1 17(i 177 191 im 191 CONTENTS IX Comparative cost of various methods of heating Factors governing consumption of fuel and convenience of oper- ation .......... Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace . . . . Advantages and disadvantages of various fuels Lighting ..... . . . . PAGE 192 193 198 200 200 CHAPTER VIII Stoves and Cookers 207 CHAPTER IX Methods of Keeping Foods Cool 220 CHAPTER X Kitchen Utensils ...... Utensils best adapted to various cooking processes Special utensils and equipment Arrangement of utensils How to prepare new utensils for use How to protect metals not in use . Materials and their care 225 225 228 230 231 232 232 CHAPTER XI Table Setting and Serving Table setting Table service Some table manners and customs 240 240 244 247 CHAPTER XII The Laundry Fabrics Water Soap Starch Bluing Washing 249 249 250 253 257 261 261 rnxTKXTS Mlcacliiiin .... E(iiii|)in'"li<''i iirraiiK<'niciits li;i 3S. A coiniilctc and convenient kitchen for any house 114 31). Tiic |>a.s.«-|)atitry or .servinn-pantry .115 40. Comparison of scales for ineasurinj^ temperature 1.T2 41. The index of a pa.s meter . . 1 13 42. Clas meter index reading 7!),.')()<) cul)i<' feet I 1 1 43. Dial of a watlhour motor ....... ^117 44. Dial of a watlhoiir motor ....... 148 45. Ordinary form of wator-motor dial ..... 151 46. Comparison of amount of li^ht niven liy dilTorent gas lamps 202 47. Comparison of amount of li^lit nivon \>y difToront electric lamps 203 48. Cost of producinf!; a jj;iven amount of lifiht by various illumi- nants at usual prices ...... 204 49. Diagram of a homo-mado firolo.s.s cookor .215 50. An iceloss rofrigorator ....... 222 51. Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator 223 52. Methods of folding underwear ...... 275 53. A method of folding sheet.s and tablecloths .... 276 54. Another method of folding shoots. ..... 277 55. A method of folding nightdresses and shirts . 278 56. A sleeve-board ...... 280 57. Cotton fibers, showing the characteristic twist . 308 58. Linen fibers, showing the characteristic nodes and longitudinal striations ......... 313 59. Wool fiber, showing the characteristic scales and the serrated surface ......... 316 60. Silk fiber, showing the two minute filaments from the .spinnerets of the silk worm ........ 319 61. Method of .shrinking fullness out of a garment . 336 62. Method of taking measurements ...... 338 63. Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern .... 342 64. Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern .... 343 65. Cutting and opening a .shirt-w;ust pattern to throw in fullness . 344 66. Increasing or decreasing l)ust measure of a shirt-waist pattern . 345 67. Method of decreasing the size of a shirt-waist pattern 346 68. Method of lengthening a waist pattern for a very full bust or round shoulders ........ 347 69. Method used in modeling garments over a flat pattern . 348 ILLUSTRATIONS XlX FIG. PAGE 70. Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders. ..... 349 71. Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern ..... 349 72. Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling effect . . 350 73. Changing length or width of skirt pattern .... 351 74. Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern . . . 351 75. Decreasing the size of the hips of a gored skirt pattern . . 352 76. Adjusting a skirt pattern for a person who has a prominent abdomen or hips ........ 353 77. Another method of adjusting a gored skirt pattern for a figure with prominent abdomen ... ... 354 78. Method of adding material to a gored skirt pattern . . . 355 79. Designing narrow or full circular skirt pattern . . . 356 80. Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce . . . 357 81. Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress . 359 82. Combinations of simple embroidery stitches .... 366 83. Set-in pocket 368 84. Method of making a bound buttonhole . . % . . 370 85. Method of making an arrow ...... 371 86. Plain seam with edges overcast ...... 374 87. Plain seams 374 88. French seam 374 89. Hemmed fell . 374 90. Overhanded or French fell ....... 374 91. Flannel fell 374 92. Methods of finishing the bottom of drawers .... 377 93. Methods of finishing the bottom of an underskirt . . . 377 94. Sateen underskirt with cotton-backed satin flounce finished with scalloped facing ........ 377 95. Bound placket 379 96. Bound and faced placket ....... 379 97. Continuous bound and faced placket with fly. . . . 379 98. Two methods of making a hemmed placket .... 380 99. Methods of marking positions of buttonholes . . . . 380 100. Methods of stranding buttonholes 380 101. Buttonhole stitch 380 102. Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, and coat . . 383 103. Suitable designs for dresses for children from three to five years 385 104. Suitable designs for dresses for children from six to ten years . 385 105. Suitable designs for dresses for children from ten to twelve years .......... 386 XX ILLUSThATlOXS via. KM). Suitfthlp (IrsiRns for drrsscs for cliildnn fnim twelve to sixt( yi'ura 107. Corrpct sizo of a rrowii, sliown hy tin' heavy line. lOS. Incorrect size of crown. ... 1(H). Correct i)laciiin of a hat, .shown hy tlie heavy line 110. The prominent lines of tlie hat .shoiilil liarmoiiizi- with the lines of the face 111. Correct placing of a turlian ...... ll'J. The outline or decoration of a hat should not repeat or paralh undesirable lines in the face ..... 113. Decoration and structural lines of a hat 114. Simple decorations ix».ssible in straw trimming 115. Simple use of ribbon to decorate or change a crown slightly 116. Stitches for folds, for sewing down facings, and for decoration 117. French fold, used for decoration around crowns and brims 118. Cuts of beef 119. Cuts of mutton . 120. Cuts of pork 121. Cellar ventilation 122. The storage trench 123. Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack 124. Commercial hot-water canning outfit for out-of-door w(jrk 125. Steam cooker ........ 126. Manner of testing a jar ...... 127. Position of clamp during sterilization . . . . 128. Position of clamp after sterilization .... I'ACE .3S7 :VM 395 395 396 39(j 397 399 404 404 405 406 511 511 512 583 586 601 602 603 605 605 605 PLATES PLATE I. Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country homes ........ Frontispiece FACING PAGE II. Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or country home .......... 24 III. A group of furnishings showing uncrowded arrangement and unobtrusive background. A similar group showing how ob- trusive background and crowded arrangement may obliter- ate effect of even well-selected furnishings ... 48 IV. Types of rugs with suitable pattern ..... 52 V. Types of textile pattern that may be used for upholstery or 64 80 84 88 96 104 112 336 344 376 400 416 VI. Good types of desks and sideboards .... VII. Types of furniture ugly in proportion, etc. . VIII. A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools . IX. Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture X. A good kitchen arrangement ..... XI. Shelves for materials to be stored. Utensils in which foods may be cooked and served ..... XII. Use of form in draping dresses before and after fitting . XIII. Draping a waist; a simple skirt with cascade effect on sides dress form used in draping ..... XIV. Finishes for nightgowns ...... XV. Simple and effective designs in small hats. Finishes for corset covers ......... XVI. Showing lOO-calorie portions of some common foods A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING PART I THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS CHAPTER I THE MODERN HOUSE By Helen Binkerd Young A SOUND house plan is fundamental to the economics of the home. A common impulse toward rational living has made it necessary to simplify the paraphernalia of existence; to eliminate useless tasks and trappings and to arrange the remaining neces- sities into an orderly scheme of household life. The arrange- ment of the modern house is a direct expression of this point of view. The snug, compact dwellings of the present day are eloquent records of the scientific trend in home-making. Theoretically, the administration of a household under con- servation methods implies a perfect dwelling — one in which there is an exact adjustment between the worker and the work- place; where there is no friction between the housekeeping and the house structure; where the interior space and equipment fit perfectly the operations of the home. The gap that exists be- tween an effective scheme of work and a poor arrangement of space represents a permanent element of inconvenience or waste; hence the value of a well-considered floor plan. The comfort demanded by modern standards of living has brought into the erection of the house many new materials, many new trades and a great deal of fixed equipment in the way of heating, plumbing, and lighting systems, hardwood 1 2 .1 M.WIWL or llnME MAKISC lloois, and vaiioiis types of liiiilt-iii closets iilid liii iiit iiic. TIk' iiiodeiii house is Mccordiiifily a dilTereiil and a more costly prod- uct than the dwellings of our fathers. This increase in the cost of a cubic foot of the house of to-day, together with the necessity to build, heal, and maintain the home economically, has had a marked elTect on the size, shape, and arrangement of dwellitifis. Small hovisekeeping units, scjuare floor plans, small halls, con- tlensed stair arran{z;ements, compact kitchens, Kroujx'd chim- neys, and ^i-ouped window treatments are the natural results of straightforward i)lannin comfortably maintained when all the living ai'rangemenfs are on a single floor, is re- sponsible for the populaiity of various forms of apartments, flats, two-family dwellings, and even cottages witli bedrooms on the flrst floor. Mo.st of these are, however, rented ilwelling- places anfl must not be confused with the type of house tiiat it is desirable to build and own as a permanent home. THE MODERN HOUSE The three arrangements shown in the accompanying illus- trations are typical examples of houses planned for modern conditions. In Fig. 1 are shown both floor plans of a small house 26 by 1 1 1 - a 1 rot CM -Tt=H »■ *i J CILit ^ 5^*5, KITCHEH T 1 r G-l 1 cus- yi — — J 3' ^ -^Ita.l.I _ rj- 1 — — — i-r4 CHI.P«.E C ifsET m R - 1 1 1 — — — ^=^^ w^ a-^ I'' ^ 1 LIVINO X.OOM HAU 1 ii 1 1 ji 1 "^ 1 1 1 si""^ ^-^ i Fig. 2. — The first floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accomodation of a family with little children. 30 feet. Here the spaciousness of the living area and the adapt- ability of the working parts may be instantly noted. The contrast in the size and shape of living- and dining-rooms, together with the long vista through both rooms and porch to the yard beyond, form a pleasing development of the space. The stairway is screened from the front door and is arranged in a separate stair-hall which serves also as passage to the coat- room and the kitchen. Such an arrangement greatly assists smooth and noiseless housekeeping. The second-floor plan shows an arrangement of four rooms, closets, and bath de- veloped from a central hall. In Fig. 2 is shown the first-floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accommodation of a family with little children. 6 .1 1/ l\r.l/. OF HOME M.\KI\(: The panel of space across (lie fiorit, ciniipiisiii^ liviii^r-roorn, hall, and diniii^i-rooiM, is suppleiiieiited liy a similar anaiiKC- ineiit of rooms in llie rear, in the form of nursery and kitchen. The front of the house can thus he kept in order wliile MP K.0OM L^ % I II II e Bi 4- HAIL KITCHEN ^4rW|— I' I I I 1. 1 jiwiNG m* Fig. .3. — A typical arrariKement of all rooms on one floor. The livinK-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open from a retired hall. the rear part is in use. The nursery is so located that it can be watched by the worker in the kitchen, and the stairs are very accessible. With such an arrangement properly equip])efl, a mother could do her own work without exhaustion or loss of time. The children's luncii could be served in the nursery and the mother's couch and sewinjj; materials would always be ready. The nursery could later be transformed into a study-room or lilirary, or in case of illness into a down- stairs bedroom, since toilet facilities are at hand. Tlie house also adjusts itself to hired help. A typical arrangement of all looms on one Hoor is shown THE MODERN HOUSE 7 in Fig. 3. The living-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open from a retired hall. Such a plan is suitable for a one-floor cottage arrangement in temperate climates. Another one- floor arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. BED RQQM lIcOAL KIN E Fig. 4. — A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor, with a cellar beneath for the furnace and for vegetable storage. THE FARMHOUSE * No building can be discussed intelligently apart from its surroundings. The best placing of the farmhouse depends on the location of the barns and other outbuildings. The rela- tion of these buildings to one another and to such considerations as sunlight, view, roadways, and garden should be carefully studied. Obviously, a general farm scheme that unites into one workable system lands, barns, and dwelling is the wisest beginning for the development of any property. Each im- provement will then take its place in the final scheme, and * The remainder of this chapter is taken from Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 39. 8 .1 .\/,i.vr.i/. iiF iinMi: .\!.\K/.\(; pciinaiit'iit ('coiioiiiy will loull. <)uiici> ol citlicr old or new fannslcjuls will profit liy adliciiiij; to a simple and dinrt wcjik- iii^ plan for the farm ^froimd.s. The farmlK)iis(' is merely one unit of the whole farmstead. The practical value of a working; plan <-an liaidly be over- estimated. The haj)hazard farm f^roups commonly seen hear eloquent testimony to the futility of developiiif; property with- out jilan. Failure to plan involves waste of mone}' and labor; it means a continuous process of tearing down, reconstructing, and makeshift. Under all circumstances, hit-and-miss methods of work have i)rove(l unfailingly wasteful. Organized farming and organized housekeeping are the present tendency, and to this end an organized arrangement is necessary. A well-planned farmstead is more economical, more orderly, more beautiful, and more salable than one wliich, like Topsy, "just growed." FARMHOUSE PLANNING A farmhouse is more difficult to plan than either a city or a suburban dwelling, because it must provide for so many needs. The city or the suburban house is merely a home; it is supple- mented by an outside place of Ijusiness and by outside markets. The farmhouse, on the other hand, must be not only a home, but also the business center and to a limited extent the store and the market. This means that, planned as compactly as may be, a farmhouse is necessarily larger in floor area than a suburban house for the same family need be. Much thought and planning are, therefore, required in order to arrange this laiger aica in such a manner that wasteful methods of work will be avoided. Traditional types. It may truly be said that the problem of the American farm- house is still unsolved. For the building of new aj)proi)riate farm dwellings, there is almost no precedent to guide one. Most of the rural houses now standing are failures as farm- houses l)ecause they were not planned for farm conditions. In fact, many of them were not planned at all. They were THE MODERN HOUSE 9 merely built, and built in about the following fashion: an outer shell was constructed and roofed over, the inside was divided into rooms, and somewhere a kitchen was attached. If the house became too small, more rooms were added to fit the growing; needs of the family. With each addition to the house, the kitchen retreated to the rear of the structure, where, by its very distance from the living-rooms, it confined the housewife to her post of duty. As the family decreased in numbers and helpers became few, the front part of the house was closed and home life was centered within the radius of the kitchen and its activities. Such of these old structures as are soundly built are worth replanning and equipping with running water, electric light, sound floors, and a good heating system. Alteration should be undertaken only after the complete project has been worked out on paper. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a rambling plan of the traditional farmhouse of the upright-and-wing type previously described. The original and the remodeled an-angement are shown in A and B, respectively. The main faults of the old plan. A, are two: first, the plan is deficient in correctly located hall space; second, the distance from the kitchen to the front of the house is too great. Since a person must pass through one room in order to reach another, the whole floor virtually becomes a passageway. This condition destroys privacy, interrupts work, and entails much extra cleaning. The correct amount of hall area placed in the heart of the plan would give separate entrance to each room and would save the whole house. Hall space should be regarded as the developer of the plan. If the plan is compactly arranged and the hall centrally placed, great service may be obtained from even a small allowance of hall space. The presence of five, six, or seven doors in a room in- dicates poor hall-planning, and therefore poor house-planning. It is well to remember that the number of doors in a room diminishes in proportion to the excellence of the plan. In plan B there is introduced enough central hall area to give direct access to each of the rooms. The kitchen is placed TME REMODELED PLAN T/iE OLD PLAN Fig. 5. — A icinoilclid faiinliolisc, to illu.stratc .stc|)-s:i\iii THE MODERN HOUSE 11 centrally at the rear of this hallway. This brings the kitchen nearer the living rooms and shortens all working distances. If the distances from the center of the kitchen to the center of each room in plans A and B are computed, it is found that the remodeled plan saves an average distance of fifteen feet a round trip over the old plan. In the remodeled plan, such modern improvements as heat, light, and running water have been added; closets also have been provided. The whole plan is now arranged so as to en- courage wholesome Hving. Under the old plan the house contained two cellars, one under the square upright and one under the kitchen, with an unexcavated area under the dining-room. A long journey was thereby involved in going from one excavated part to the other. The new plan simplified this difficulty by excavating under the dining-room wing. A study of new types. Attention must now be fociised on more economical arrange- ments. The plan of any building is based primarily on its needs. Broadly speaking, family life makes three demands on a house plan: that it shall provide living area, working area, and sleeping area. The living area includes such parts as sitting-room, dining-room, library, office, and porch; the work- ing area includes kitchen, pantry, laundry, hall, and stairs; the sleeping area includes bedrooms and bath. It is the func- tion of a good plan to organize these three elements into a compact arrangement, allowing each requirement an area to itself. Spaciousness must be expressed in the living area, com- pactness in the working area, and privacy in the sleeping area. The farm cottage shown in Figs. 6 and 7 aptly illustrates these principles. Here is a compact plan with its three areas clearly defined. In the living area a feeling of spaciousness is obtained by the use of wide doorways and groups of windows through which vistas are seen indoors and out. No interior, however small in actual dimensions, need appear cramped if long vistas are planned for. Good interior design is also 12 .1 MAM AL f)F noMi: MAKISa cvidciit ill I'"iji;. »l. Ii is iiidicalcd \)\ llic Ital.-inccd aiialiticincnt of the stiuctmal pail> (tl each room. ( )ii the rear wall of the liviii^-rooiii is seen a <('iitial lircplacc flanked liy hioad door- ways of ('(Hial width, while the front wall opposite expands into a generous hay window cenlially placed, with huilt-in Fig. 6. — First floor plan, showing living area and working area. bookshelves to right and left. These features so unite as to make of the living-room a composition at once so dignified, so orderly, and so effect ivc that little furniture is needed to complete it. In the dining-room, l)alanced design is expressed by the long flower-box, the bay window, and by the central door on the opposite wall, flanked by diagonal corner features of THE MODERN HOUSE 13 equal width. In general, diagonal corners should be avoided except where they are a practical necessity or where they are deliberately used for reasons of design, as in Fig. 8. Of the working area (Fig. 6), the kitchen, pantiy, and stairs BARNS are: in • THIS DIRECTION- SECOND FLOOR- Fu;. 7.— ^Second floor plan, showing sleeping area. are the parts most constantly used by the woman of the house. Hence they are compactly grouped and are placed next to the living space. Woodroom and washroom are of intermittent use to the housewife but of constant use to the farmer. Conse- quently they are placed away from the living rooms in the direction of driveway and barns. 14 1 \/.l \ / W. OF HOME M.\lllar on fjrade level. Tlie hedi-oom jjlan is compact, private, hjilit, and airy. Other i)lans ma}' he analyzed in a similar maiuier, tlie strength and the weakness of various arranf»;einent.s noted, and a sense of pjood planninfi; acciuired. The lar{j;er farmhou.se shown in Fi^. 10 has been inserted for personal study on the i)art of the readers. It n^presents a well-or{j;anized airan<:ement with a new feature introduced in the rear — a hired man's room with separate stairs leading to it. The dignified, .simple, and well-designed exteiior shown in Plate I, upj)er figure, will stim- ulate the imagination and serve to make the plan more realistic. It must not be supposed that the plans shown in Figs. G, 8, and 9 are perfect in every respect. No Ijusiness office is in- cluded and they contain fewer bedrooms than farmhouses of the past have provided. It must be remembered that each of these houses was designed for a particular family and for a particular farm site, as all successful houses should be. Con- sequently they are not intended as models to be copied, but as illustrations of the principles of house-planning. If the principles of planning are understood they may be applied, whether to new w'ork or to alterations. In general, an intricate or confused plan is alwaj'S a poor one; the more carefully an arrangement is studied, the simpler it should become. Briefiy stated, the final test of a good plan is its extreme simplicity. Starting at the main entrance, one should be able to proceed mentally through the plan with ease and comprehension. For the most part the w^alls should be in continuous, straight lines and should show an absence of jogs, angles, and diagonal corners. Windows may ho grouped or single, but should be disjwsed in an orderly manner with relation both to interior and to exterior appearance. THE MODERN HOUSE 19 The plans shown are a reasonable protest against the old wasteful types of farm dwellings. Study of these plans will serve to show in what respects the modern rural house should differ from former arrangements. A living-room now com- bines the unused parlor and the overused sitting-room for general family life; an office where the farmer's business is transacted is provided in a place convenient to roadway and bai-n, but outside the path of housework travel; the kitchen arrangement is compact and well organized; the downstairs bedrooms open, not from other rooms, but from a private hall, thus insuring quiet and privacy (Figs. 5 and 8); a bathroom is provided on either the first or the second floor, according to w^ater pressure; if possible all the bedrooms are provided with windows on two sides; the large hall with open stairs has given way to a more condensed arrangement; a generous porch or uncovered terrace is placed where it either commands the best view or is most useful during the day; the family hearth has literally returned in the living-room fireplace; and the whole plan is so arranged that the rooms lived in most are the sunniest. A dwelling combining the above features is illustrated in Fig. 11. Wisely studied and frankly arranged, without a foot of waste room, this structure represents a type of farmhouse that is economical to build, to heat, and to work. The staii's for the whole house are contained in one vertical shaft; the hall is reduced to a small area; an office is placed near the roadway and away from the housewife's work, which is accom- modated in a dining-room and kitchen combination; a man's room is provided at the extreme end of the plan, away from the family; a washroom is on the line of travel between the back porch and the dining-room; and a spacious living-room, with fireplace and window groups, is located on a desirable corner. On the second floor, the stairs land centrally in a square hall, which gives direct entrance to each of the four bedrooms and to the bathroom; the bedrooms are provided with good closets; light and ventilation are everywhere abun- dant. 20 .1 .\/.i,v/ .1/. or iioMi: M.\ie. I,ike\vi>e, a coM, (|eaei| in ina^s. 'I'he chief lactfir to lie a\i)ii|e(| in paintinji houses is an ef- fecl of patchiness. I-'or example, in the ease of a poi'ch pcrst or column, the cap and the base should not he |)ainted ono color and the shaft another. The whole porch should he one idea. Cornices, brackets, and moldiii;;s should not he i)ickeij out by color, as li{z;ii1 and shade interpret them sufliciently. r.seless bi'ic-a-brac an' lioiix' i> (•(iiii|ilctc witlioiit ;i ircrirroiis [»<»icli or other Icahirc tliat will t'onii :i center for outdoor family life. A viiie-co\cre(| arhor, a |)a\C(l spot, or merely a .shaded stretch of lawn near tlie house may lie made fully as livable as the usual porch. The usual type of American porch, a covered |)iatforni attached to the house, built hif^h and dry, inclosed l)y a railing, and reached by steps, has artificially confined outdooi- life to the house apart, from yard anrl Karden. If comfort and beauty arc both to be served, neither porcii nor garden should be sacrificed; they should rather be arranged adjacently so that the lawn adjoins the porch and the vistas down the garden paths are continuous with the main vistas from the porch, or are related to views from the imiwrtant windows of the house. In other words, house and ground.s should i)e planned as one continuous design, u.sing as a con- necting link the porch. The chief difficulty with a united porch and garden scheme arises from the usual difference in height between the porch fioor and the yard level. These two levels may be brought near together either by setting the hou.se low on the ground and Ijuild- ing areas around the cellar w'indows (Plate I), or by raising a flat, graded terrace to within a step or two of the porch floor. Both the.se schemes are ficquently and successfully practiced, and in no way prevent light and air from entering the cellar. In order to be commodious, a porch should be room-shaped, rather than long and narrow. A porch 10 to 12 feet wide and 14 to 20 feet long will give greater comfort than one 6 to 8 feet wide and extending aroimd two sides of the house. Further- more, a rectangular porch will not darken so nuich of the in- terior as will one extending along the full length of the house. If the porch occupies a sunny position, it may be shaded and eml)Owered by screening with latticework, over which vines may be allowed to grow. A cement or biick fioor is desirable for porch use. If an upstairs sleeping-porch is planned, the I'ailing should be built solidly from the floor for 2 or 8 feet, and the oj^en part above should be provided with window .sash and awnings in Plate II. — AppK.^-ji.iu types of architecture for a suburban or country home. THE MODERN HOUSE 25 order that storms and early morning light may be excluded. This arrangement can be made comfortable for year-round use. Outside entrance doors should be sheltered by a hood on brackets, by a portico, or by a porch (Fig. 12). It is usually de- sirable to separate the living-porch from the main entrance. Fig. 12. — A modest farm cottage of good design. Here, if anywhere, a little genuine design should be afforded. A portal is an intimate feature and should express dignity, hos- pitality, and beauty to all who enter. A natural-finish oak door with plate glass panel can hardly be considered appro- priate for a decorative doorway, because it is out of keeping, both in material and color, with the remainder of the exterior. COST OF BUILDING The actual cost of building a given house is determined largely by local conditions. The cost of labor, the cost of ma- 20 .1 MAMM. or noMI: MAKIMi IcriHls used, the (li>t;ilii'(' of the new huildiiiff iVoiu tlic \)ii>v. of siijiplics, and the mihoihiI of hauling involved, arc items lliat vary with every enterprise, 'i'lms no fixed price may Ix; flUf)led as to the cost of a ^iven l)uil(hii^i, the year round and ill all locahties. The readiny; puhhc should, therefore, place jio faith in the buildinfj; fif^ures (juoted in popular magazines. Tlicy are misleading; in the extreme; for they usually represent eitluM* a set of conditions which have not been fully tcjld or which are so unusual that they may not he (hiplicated. In general it may safely be said tiuit a modest house of usual construction may be built for considerably less money Ijy rural than by city labor. One way of estimating the j)rol)able cost of a new house is to compare it with another dwelling recently built in the local- ity. If the size and cost of the house already built are known, one may compute the average cost a cubic foot by dividing the total cost by the numl^er of cubic feet that the house con- tains. If the house that is planned is to be of better grade than the one figured on, it will cost more a culjic foot; if it is simpler, it will cost less. A rough estimate maj'- thus be reache I hou^ih ii were phiiined ihrouRh- out li\' one person for one loeiihtN', one f;miily, one purse. If the house is in a southeiii lalitiide, coiufort is exi)ressed by lurfjo spaces, lonp; vistas, shadows, cool colors, linht drapery, few and li^hl-wei^;!!! rufis and lij^ht furniture. If the liousc is in a northern climate or is used chieliy in winter, couifort i.s expressed 1)V a lar«!;e firei)lace, warm colorings, lar^e ru^s, heavi(M- and richer drapery, and some upholstereil furniture. Ill the ciiN' house, space ant! lij;ht are hixurics that must bo conseived hy every jiossihle means. In the country there are fewer limitations of this sort, hut there are varying; condition.s in the enxiioiinient of country houses that should influence their treatment. In p:eneral, simplicity of treatment in finish and furnishing preserves tlu^ di.unity of the house and is always in fz;oo(l taste. An interior should also be fitted to its use in ever}' part, should appear consistent, genuine, and hannonious throughout. The environment can thus be made to typify the qualities to which a family aspires. STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATION OF ROOMS Size The old ideal for a room was the largest, "squarest" room possible for ev(My use — for a family room, bedroom, or kitchen. Changed conditions of living and the increased cost of labor and building material have reduced the size of the modern house. According to the varied nature of their use, it is evident that rooms should vary in size and in shape. Living-room. The living-room for the family should be the largest room in the house, since it serves a greater variety of purposes and a larger number of persons than any other room. The restful effect of an appearance of ample space is one of its charms. Sacrifice of spaciousness in other parts of the house may well be made in order to provide a spacious living-room. The actual size for a living-room is a matter allowing great variation, but HOME FURNISHING 31 rooms varying from 14 to 16 feet in width and from 18 to 24 feet in length suggest good sizes. Dining-room. The dining-room is also a gathering place for all the members of the family. It, however, has but one center and serves only one function. It may, therefore, well be considerably smaller than the living-room. For the comfortable serving of the meals, at least three feet should be allowed between the edge of the table and the sideboard or any other furniture in the room. Kitchen. The kitchen should be small and compact in arrangement and should not contain a foot of unnecessary space. A good size for a kitchen in which the work is done by one person is estimated to be from 100 to 150 square feet of space (page 102). Bedrooms. The bedroom of the modern house may be relatively small because the convenience of built-in closets, of lighter types of furniture, and of bathrooms makes a large size unnecessary. In a bedroom, after sufficient space has been allowed for pur- poses of ventilation, sleeping, dressing, and storage of clothes, convenience is better served by compactness than by size. Halls. Halls are used to give direct access to all parts of the house. After this purpose has been accomplished, space may appro- priately be economized here in a home of moderate size. Shape and proportion Simple rectangular shapes for rooms are the natural outcome of building conditions. Any extension or projection should be a coherent stinictural feature and should be used only to satisfy a need in the function of the room. A chimney seat, a recess necessitated by a dormer window, an ingle nook when it works out naturally on plan, are often reasonable features. A bay- window built to add space or to improve the lighting conditions of a room, if well designed may furnish an interesting decorative 32 .1 M.w iM. or iioMi: \L\Ki\(; Fig. 13. — A typical low room in an old-fa-shionod cottago, showinR how even a good horizontal! arraiiKcmont of lines and furnishings decreases the ap- parent lu'ight of the room. Fk;. 11. — The same typo of low room as in Fig. 13, showing how a vertical ar- rangement of lines and furnishings tends to increase the apparent height of the room. HOME FURNISHING 33 feature both inside and outside the house. No excrescences or protuberances should be built merely for the sake of original or ornate effect. An oblong is in general a more pleasing shape for a room than is a square. A pleasing relation between the three dimensions — length, breadth, and height — should if possible be maintained. A room that is very long is' not easily adapted to general uses and is lacking in an effect of intimacy. A room that is too high is wasteful of unused space, is hard to heat, and is unfriendly in appearance. In a room in which all the dimensions are equal or nearly equal, the shape is obvious at once; nothing is left to the imagination, and the result is stupid and uninteresting. However, a square may sometimes be the most convenient and economical shape for a room. For a small dining-room with a square or round dining table, a square may be both a conven- ient and a fitting shape. An oblong in which one dimension is perceptibly longer is much more pleasing than one in which there is a doubt as to comparative dimensions. An excellent proportion for an average room is one in which the width is more than half and less than two-thirds the length. In a house of moderate cost and size, it is not always possible to plan so that each room is of ideal proportion. Persons must often live in homes which they themselves have not built. In such cases there are many devices by which the apparent pro- portion may be improved. Devices for changing apparent proportion (Figs. 13-16). The eye naturally tends to follow any continuous line. By establishing lines in any particular direction, therefore, that direction is emphasized at the expense of the others. Rooms that are too high may be made to appear lower by introducing strong horizontal lines, for example: 1. By bringing the ceiling color down on the side wall. This is successful only when the ceiling color is happily related in hue and value to the side wall, and when its width corresponds to the width of a moderate border 10 inches or 12 inches, in a room of ordinary dimensions, say 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet. 34 .1 M.WCAL or HOME MAKIXC Fig. 1.3. — A tall room of the late iiinetcoiith fcntury typo showiiiR a placing of picture molding and a selection and arrangement of furnishing.s that tend to decrease the apparent height of the room. Wall coverings of .-^uch dig- nified pattern and harmonious color as are shown in Plate V, may some- times be used above the molding with decorative effect. Note the relation of the shapes of the pictures to the spaces. Fig. 16. — A typical modern living-room in which a group of casements and a built-in scat dominate the furnishing effect. HOME FURNISHING 35 2. By using a molding at the intersection of side wall and ceiling, and by making the picture-molding continuous with the top of doors or windows. 3. By a wainscot or dado, the top of which is on a level with the window-sills. 4. By using a valance in the window drapery, if this is con- sistent with the style of the room and the other furnishings, and by hanging all draperies so that the width of the opening is emphasized. 5. By using furniture in which the horizontal lines dom- inate, such as long low bookcases, davenports, sideboards, or tables. 6. By using pictures which are horizontal oblongs in shape, or by grouping several smaller pictures so that either the lower or upper edges of their frames will establish continuous horizon- tal lines. Rooms that are too low may be made to appear higher by emphasizing the vertical lines, for example : 1. By placing the picture-molding at the ceiling, leaving the side wall undivided. 2. By using vertically striped wall paper. Stripes should always be of nearly the same color or value in order to be un- obtrusive. 3. By using as long draperies as are consistent with the use and structure of the room, and by hanging these in straight folds and so arranging them as to make the openings high and narrow in effect. 4. By the use of tall and narrow bookshelves, cabinets, and other furniture. 5. By the use of pictures that are vertical oblongs, or by grouping the pictures with each other or with pieces of furniture so that the vertical is emphasized. In a room that is square or is too short an oblong, emphasis may be given to one dimension, for example: 1. By opening up a vista through a door or window, or by planning interesting features in the furnishings in order to emphasize the long axis of the room, A mirror may perform ■?^==^ 1 ■aess r ■ - i;, 1 Dl _ k 1 11 1 - + 1 Fio. 17. — A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space. First frroup: A single window in the middle of a short wall: a .small doui)le-hun); window of bald design; a generous doublo-hunK window with pleiusing wall space around it; an interesting and %vell-placod casement. Second group: Two separate wimlows in a generous wall space: a good arrangement both for (list ribut ion of livrht and for the placing of furniture; a poor arrangement both for lighting and for furnishing. Third and fourth groups: Pairs and groups of windows in a generous wall space: a fair arrangement for a pair of double-hung windows, providing good light and good wall space; an interesting group of casements, dominating the wall space and furnishing abundant light; a pleas- ing group of double-hung windows; a pleasing arrangement of French windows. The use of moldings in any case must be related to the proportion of the room and the Structural line of the openings. HOME FURNISHING 37 a valuable office in adding to the apparent length of a room. The French have understood this and have increased the ap- parent size of dance-hall and dining-room by the skillful use of many mirrors. 2. By placing the long dimension of a rug in the direction to be emphasized. If the room is sufficiently large and the other conditions warrant it, two narrow rugs so placed as to emphasize the length of the room may be used. 3. By placing the long pieces of furniture in the direc- tion to be emphasized. Seats or shelves may sometimes be built in. In rooms that are too long, the apparent width should be increased and the apparent length diminished by every device possible, for example: 1. By placing openings or important structural features centrally on the long sides, thus breaking the length of the room into two or more furnishing centers. 2. By using more than one rug, placed with the long edges parallel to the short side of the room, in order to break up the space and establish lines across the room. 3. By placing the long pieces of furniture or by grouping furniture so that the width rather than the length of the room is emphasized. Location of windows and doors (Figs. 17, 18). The location, style, and proportion of windows and doors are structural considerations that affect every mterior. The amount and shapes of the remaining wall spaces after windows and doors have been placed define the possibilities of the fur- nishing scheme. It is, therefore, important to arrange windows and doors in such a way as to leave usable wall spaces. These spaces should be so pleasing in shape and proportion that the bare room is in itself a design. Many doors in a room are an evidence of poor planning. While there is no rule about windows, an amount of window area equal to about one-fourth the floor area will in general be found a reasonable guide. :is ,1 \/.i.vr.i/. or iioMi: M.\Ki\(! r i "t^T"^ = nTIr^ ::: :i .... i . j:ii_ - 1 r - ,'"h-i \\ \\ II 1 .-^^V- D E — I ^ t 1 n Cl m H m i i ' i 7 Fig. 18. — A-B: Two types of liay windows. C: A woll-placed croup of hiph casements. D-I: A study of si-t windows showing how the appearance of the window is aflfccted by the division of the glass. HOME FURNISHING 39 Structural surfaces. The structural surfaces of the room are walls, ceiling, and floor. Walls include plaster walls, windows, doors, and trim. Plaster walls. The usual finish for the walls of a dwelling is plaster. Plaster may be rough or smooth. It may be left in the natural color, painted, or papered. 1. Rough plaster: The irregularities in rough, or sand-finished, plaster produce an effect of texture that makes such a wall an attractive background. The natural color of rough plaster varies according to the color of the sand used in mixing it. Sometimes it is a pure gray, sometimes it is tinged with soft tones of warm color. Powdered color may be mixed with the plaster when it is wet, if the mason is sufficiently experienced to handle it. Rough plaster should be applied by a skillful workman in order to produce a uniform effect. Rough plaster is rather harsh in texture and is not suitable in all rooms or with all woods. It is more akin to hard woods like oak, waxed or stained, than to mahogany or satinwood or painted woods. It is incongruous with delicate or very luxurious hangings. It is better in family rooms than in bedi'ooms or small rooms in which hands come often in contact with the wall. If rough plaster is spotted or discolored, it is not so easy to clean as smooth plaster. If the discoloration is only on the surface, it may be removed by pumice stone. If it is desired to change the color of rough plastered walls, oil paint is a very good medium; a coat of glue-size applied before the paint will facilitate the work and will economize the amount of paint. 2. Smooth plaster: Walls finished in smooth plaster present an even flat surface, not so interesting as the rough plaster, but with many advantages. It is easier to apply and is easily cleaned. Smooth plaster should be painted or papered, since its glaring white surfa.ce is a trying element in almost any color scheme. 40 -1 U.l\7 .1/. OF HOME \1M a jxxir choice for intciidi- work, for it is loo restless and insistent to take its place (luietly in any decorative selienie. Fortunately, the item of expense is a protect i(ni against tiie use of woods so an^res- sive in color as inahot^any, curly Midi, and the like. Such woods should be reserved for furniture. Tlic woodwork should i)lay a definite part in the decorative scheme of the room, harmoniziiif; with the walls hotli in char- acter and color. If the haiiuony camiot he secured by tran.s- parcnt stains, the woodwork should he j)ainted. In fact, in many old or rcadj'-made houses, paint for woodwork is tlie only means of securing a harmonious interior. Filler, stain, thin shellac, and wax are conmionly used to se- cure the transj)arent finish desirable for iiard woods. Wood.s with large or open grain, such as oak, chestnut, cj'press, and pine, require a filler to make a smooth even surface. This filler may be kept the same color as the wood, or it may be stained darker, or a very light whitish filler may be u.sed. The effect of this filler is to tone, to modify, or to emphasize the natural markings of the wood. Woods with a clo.se inconspicuous grain, such as maple and birch, do not require a filler, but can be toned by staining. Wax is a more pleasing finish for hardwoods than is varnish, wliich should be us(m1 only on bathroom floors or other places where dural)ilit3' is ])erhaps more important than appearance. The soft dull finish of a waxed surface is more appropriate to w'ood than the glaring shiny finish of varnish. Paint is an opaque finish used to cover w^oods having an un- pleasant or no visible grain. Such woods as soft pine, white wood, and cypress are good foundations for painted woodwork. By means of paint, any w^oodwork can be adjusted in color to its surroundings. This flexibility of paint in relation to color schemes is a strong recommendation in its favor for both old and new work and for all types of rooms. Doors. Doois of good pattern in various woods may be obtained read3'-ma(l(; in stantlard sizes. They should be of the same gen- HOME FURNISHING 43 eral finish as the trim and other woodwork. Doors of uniform height on each floor contribute to unity of effect. The width may be varied for convenience. Mantelpieces, cornices, and picture-moldings. Any wood used in connection with such features as fireplaces should be consistent in character and finish with the other trim of the room. The mantel should be planned with and for the room, not purchased ready-made and grafted upon it. Like- wise any tile or brick facings used in the fireplace should har- monize in texture and color with the entire decorative scheme. A cornice of wood like the trim may mark the intersection of ceiling and side wall and should of course be finished like the other woodwork. A picture-molding marking this intersection is an effective finish for low rooms or those of ordinary height. A picture-molding so placed should be heavier than one lower on the wall. In some cases, a second molding may be used on the wall some distance below the one at the ceiling. This second molding then becomes the picture-rail. Ceiling. The treatment of the ceiling should harmonize with the finish of the walls and woodwork. Ordinarily the ceiUngs in dwellings are finished with plaster. This lends itself through the use of calcimine (water color paints), to any color scheme. Paper is a less desirable finish for ceilings. If it must be used, as sometimes happens in old houses where the ceiling has cracked or become discolored, a plain tone should be chosen. If a ceiling is cracked, canvas or burlap may be put over the old plaster and then paint or calcimine applied to it. Beamed ceilings produce an interesting structural and dec- orative effect. The beams should preferably be finished like the other woodwork in the room. If peculiar problems are presented by the woodwork, the finish of the beams may be considered only in relation to the ceiling. Beamed ceilings are often found in houses of early colonial architecture. They are also a feature of the new Craftsman houses. In the first case 44 .1 MAMAL OF IIOMK MAKIXC tlicN' Wdiild ii-ii;ill\ tic |);iiiiici|, >iiic(' iiiosl ol llic u (Kxluork is |);iintc(l: ill tlic laiicr, tlicy woiiM Itc linislicd like the o.-ik or similar woods generally used. ( 'ciliiifis of wood, except in slieatlied or paneled rooms, ai-c likely lo look heavy and op|)ressivo. In summer coltaKc-; and in some parts of the (•(Hintry, rooms sheathed and ceiled in yellow pine or cypress are often finished in the natural color and varnished. Paint is the only antidote and should he \ised on the ceilinjz; at least, after "cutliiiK'" the vai-nish. White metal ceilings are in line with the progress toward fireproof construction. They cannot as yet be obtained in pleasinp; pat- tern except for very larjre rooms, and even liere their construc- tion is unpleasantly obtmsive. Floors. Floors are made to be walked upon and are subject to hard usage. They should, therefore, be (kual)le. Floors cannot i)e easily changed; therefore they should be permanent in material and finish. Since they contribute to the color scheme of the loom, they should be finished accordingly. Floors continuous in color as far as the c}- e can see have a unifying effect. Wood is the material most used for fioors. Wood that is hard, of in- conspicuous grain, and responsive to color treatment should Ijc chosen. Well selected oak is probably the best. ]\Iaple and birch are very dural:)le, but light in color; hard pine is also possible and relatively inexpensive. The matter of color and finish can be regulated to some extent to suit the character of wood selected and the color scheme of the room. Hardwood floors should in general be finished like hardwood trim, except that caution should be observed in attempting dark stains, because all floors through usage tend to wear back to the natural color of the wood. Since all wood floors tend to darken in time, the rather light appearance of a new floor should be endured with patience. If after a period of time the tone of the floor still appears too light, it is easier to darken it slightly than to remove a dark mussy stain. Furthermore, rugs can always be relied on to remedy the color effect of the bare floor. HOME FURNISHING 45 Softwood floors t)f pine, such as are often found in old houses, can be finished by filling the spaces between the boards with either a standard or home-made crack-filler and then applying two or more coats of good hard paint, such as the ordinarj^ deck paint. Some housekeepers have had success with a crack-filler made of flour paste into which a pulp of damp newspaper is beaten. Under all conditions, however, a painted floor is a compromise and will require frequent renewals. COLOR Color is more potent in creating the atmosphere of a house or room than is any other influence. Harmonious color will cover a multitude of sins in design, while no amount of good design will atone for discordant color. Color produces a distinct reaction on the human system; it is cheering, depressing, irritating, or restful, as the case may be. It is, therefore, of primary importance to understand the right use of color in the home. Since the question of color is involved in the finish of walls and of woodwork, it is the first factor to be considered in the treatment of an interior. Color has three generally recognizable characteristics: First, that quality that gives it its general or popular name and dis- tinguishes it from other colors — as red from green, or yellow- reds from purple-reds, j^ellow-greens from blue-greens, and the like. This quality is named by the scientists, hue. Hues, or colors, may in general be classed as warm or cool. Yellow, orange, red, and colors strongly tinged with these, connected as they are with ideas of sun and fire and blood, are the warm colors. Blue, green, and violet, and colors strongly tinged with these, associated in thought with cold and distant things like ice, the sky, the woods, and .purple hills, are the cool colors. A second characteristic or quality of color is the strength or brilliancy, termed by the scientists, chroma or intensity. By this quality, a strong or bright color is distinguished from a soft, dulled, or grayed color, as the red in the upper from the red in the under side of an autumn leaf. The third characteristic or quaUty is that which distinguishes 4G .1 M.WIM or IIOMI: M.\KI\<; li^lii tioiii (l;iik colors, tcnncd \>\ the scientists, value. A popular iciiii toi- liiilit coloi's is tint ; i"or dark colors, shade. licamnizcd influences of colitr Hue. Colors ill wliicli llicrc is a .sii^ji;('stioii of yellow or orange or red, the waiiii colors, such as tones ol' tan or liuff or old fi;okl or hrown or 3'ello\v-tj;reeM, or the "wiirni grays," siicii as taupe or ''sand" or "mode" colors, are likely to pnjduce u warmth of atmos])liei-e that makes them in K<^'neral agreeable to live with. These colors are likely also to harmonize with the wood- work ill the average house and to furnish a becomnig back- ground for the usual wood and willow furniture. Red or reddish coloi's are too aggressive and insistent to be used in large quantities. lied also tends to diminish the ap- parent size of a room. Yellow and yellowish colors are in general light, bright, and cheerful in (>ffect. Jiluc or bluish colors, while they tend to increase the ap- parent size of a room, are inclined to absorl) the light and to be forbidding if used in large cjuantities. Green, which is a mixture of yellow and blue, and greenish colors are in general quiet and restful in effcn-t without l)eing depressing. Violet is the color characteristic of mystery and shadow and royalty, and should ])e avoitled or used with great dis- crimination in a home. In general, colors comjioscd of two or more colors, whether of paint, of dye, or the interweaving of colored threads in a fabric, are more interesting, more refined, and more atmos- pheric in effect than the very evident reds and yellows and blues. Intensity or ehroma. Strong or bright colors are not appropriate for use in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are too insistent and aggressive and they do not easily harmonize HOME FURNISHING 47 with the furnishings in the average home. These strong colors may be used in small masses, such as a bouquet of flowers, books, or a textile, to add a note of interest or to accent a color scheme. Dulled or grayed colors are in general appropriate to use in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are restful in effect and keep their place as background. A greater variety of these grayed colors may be used harmo- niously in the same room than would be possible with a com- bination of bright colors. Value. Light colors in general tend to increase the apparent size of a room, to make a room seem lighter, and to produce an effect of daintiness, of cleanliness, and of cheer; they also are more luminous and, therefore, very effective in artificial light. Used to excess, or inappropriately, light color may produce an effect of bareness or aloofness. Dark colors in general tend to diminish the apparent size of a room, to produce an effect of dignity or richness. Colors that are too dark are likely to be oppressive or to produce an effect of gloom or dinginess, and are very difficult to illuminate by night. Middle values, that is, colors that are about half- way between the extremes of light and dark, are in general more appropriate for the furnishings in living-rooms. Strong contrasts in light and dark, such as light woodwork with dark walls, or dark woodwork with light walls, dark figures on a light ground, or the opposite, produce a distracting and unrest- ful effect. Considerations governing color selection From the foregoing discussion it follows that : 1. Southerly rooms with a superabundance of light and sun- shine need in general cool and dark colors to temper the light. 2. Northerly rooms with no sunshine and too little light need in general light, yellowish colors to introduce a feeling of cheer and sunshine. 3. Rooms that are comfortably lighted and sufficiently sunny are open to a variety of color treatments. 4S .1 M.WCAL or U()\!E MAKISC 4. Koonis tluit tiro ovci-lainc mikI yet arc coiiifortably liKhted may Ix' |j;iven a more frioiully aspect hy the use of warm colors that arc medium dark. 5. In rooms that arc too small and yet are comfortaldy lifihlcd, a fceliiiL!; of space can i)e su^^icslccl l»y the use of liKht. or l)luisli colors. (■). In rooms in uhicli the woodwork is already finished and cannot he chanfi;ed, the color scheme is within limits prede- termined. I''rom it walls and fmiiishinKs must take their cue. 7. Rooms that are comfortably larfi;e and li{i;ht and with no hampering conditions are open to a variety of color treatments. 8. The living-room adapted to many uses and many pci-sons should be more diiinified and impersonal in color scheme than the other looms of the house. It sliould be more neutral in its general scheme in order to be adaptable to a greater variety of coloring in the smaller areas. Books, pictures, an open fire, flower arrangements, and other changing and accidental conditions inevitably bring man}' touches of brilliant and varying color into the living-room. 9. A dining-room devoted to good cheer and used onlj' for short periods admits a livelier treatment. Sometimes dishes that have a decided color may well give the kejTiote to the color scheme. 10. Since the bedroom is for sleep and rest, even though it is for personal use and allows a larger margin for individual preference than do other rooms, nothing should take precedence over those qualifications that fit it for its purj^ose. The white bed, white towels, and light furniture characteristic of the daintiness desirable in bedrooms, call for lighter colorings than do the family rooms. For bedrooms used also for both study and sitting-room, compromises nuist be made. The white bed is no longer suitable; the bedroom takes on the functions and, therefore, should assume the ai)pearance of a living-room as far as possible. 11. Since the bathroom should appear, as well as be, im- maculate, all white or white with other light colors is most suitable. White with yellow for a bathroom on the north side 3 M HOME FURNISHING 49 of a house, white and l)hie or white and green for a sunny- bathroom, are good. 12. For the kitchen, hght colors are cheerful and cleanly in appearance. They have the added value of so diffusing the light both by day and by night that there need be no dark corners to work in. It follows from all these manifest influences of color, that the rooms to be treated should be examined as to exposure, lighting, size, proportion, and use before determining the color scheme. Color for the whole interior A uniform coloring for the walls of a series of connecting rooms contributes to unity of effect. A sufficient variety in effect may be secured by varying the color or pattern of dra- peries and other furnishings in the different rooms. It seldom happens that all the rooms on a floor have the same exposure, or the same amount of light or the same use. Every need may be considered and yet a friendly harmony obtained by the use of closely related colors that may range from light to dark in value and through a series of related hues. The parts of the room as a background The ceiling, the side wall, and the floor form the background of the room against which all the furnishings and the occupants of the room are seen. Like the frame of a picture, the back- ground should be subordinate in color as well as in amount of detail. This limitation, far from minimizing the importance of the background, gives it an added distinction, and demands for it the most careful consideration. The function of the back- ground is to serve. While not obtruding itself, it should through its color supply a pervading influence that may be felt like an atmosphere. This province of the background is best filled, as has been said in the discussion of color, by subdued warm colors, not too dark, that harmonize with the more usual types of furnishings and methods of lighting. (See Plate III.) Ceiling, side walls, and floor are parts of one whole. They should, therefore, be keyed to the same color. This important 50 .1 .U.l.Vr.l/. OF IIOME MAKISC point has often Itccii disrc^ardcil. Tlif cciliniis have hccn much* while, the lloois eolistriicf ed of aii\' eoii\eiiieiit wood withoill reference (o its eol(»r; (he color of the walls has heen chosen with- out reference to either floor or ceiliiifz;. In the dislrihiition of color \alues in the l»a(km-ounping in mind not its origin from nature, but its purpose as decoration. Any pretense at naturalistic modeling or shad- ing should be very formal in character. That it is pattern and not picture should never be lost sight of in judging a design for a flat surface. Medallions, scrolls without beginning or end, baskets of flowers or fruits, fluttering ribbons and bowknots, are all absurd substitutes for real design. The figures in a design are parts of one whole and should be connected or related in some way. Widely separated motifs tempt the eye to jump from one spot to another and provoke one to count rows, and mentally rearrange the pattern. All effect of restfulness is thereby lost. Patterns that cover the ground well are in general better for furnishings than scattered spots. Some patterns that would be ol)jcctionable on a fiat wall, however, may be used acceptably in drapery, since the fulln(>ss of the folds rearranges the design. One of the characteristics of a good design is its appropriate- ness to the material in which it is developed. Patterns may be Plate IV. — Types of rugs with suitable pattern, developed in line and in mass, in self tones and in contrasting and vari-colored effects. HOME FURNISHING 53 woven, embroidered, or printed — stenciled, stamped, or stained — on a fabric. The pattern may appropriately declare the material in which it is developed. Woven patterns should pref- erably suggest warp and woof. The design in a rag carpet, for example, naturally appears in stripes made by the woof, which is much more prominent than the finer threads of the warp. There is a great variety of patterns appropriate to printed wall papers that may be selected in preference to those that imitate leather or burlap or silk or oilcloth. A pattern may be expressed in lines alone on a background of another color, or it may be in masses or spots that are lighter or darker or different in color from the background. In such patterns the shapes rather than the details are important. Sometimes the pattern is of masses that are broken up by a variety of detail and color. Pattern as used for walls and floors Walls and floors are flat solid surfaces. Their effectiveness and comeliness depend on this structural fact and this must be borne in mind in the selection of pattern for them. Any varia- tion of surface would impair the function of wall or floor. Any suggestion by the pattern of such defects is manifestly out of place. Wall patterns of trellises and vines, of realistic flowers or fruit or landscape, of simulated columns, or of panels made of pictured moldings should, therefore, be avoided. For the same reasons, realistic flowers and animals are out of place in pattern. The more realistic these motifs are, the poorer is the design. Because the effect of solidity in walls and floor must be maintained, the pattern should seem very flat. Since both walls and floor are backgrounds, the pattern should be unobtrusive in color and design. Fantastic ornament, violent color, or strong contrasts of any sort are out of place in a background. Since walls are upright surfaces, stripes, if inconspicuous, flgures in which the vertical dominates or that are so arranged as to give an up-and-down rather than a crosswise or diagonal movement, are good types for wall pattern. 51 A MAM AL OF HOME MAKlSd Floors arc horizontal surfaces that arc viewed from every (lircclion. The patlerii on (he lloor should, Ihereforc, he efTect- ive from any anj^le. (loenielric or very conventional j)at terns {•(lualiy fiood from every j)oint of view are tlie best choice for dooi' coverint's. SELECTION OF FURNISHINGS M'all coverings A textile may he used lo cover smooth plastered walls. All sorts of materials that give the desired effect, from the cheap- est to the most expensive, have been employed for this purpose. Canvas, burlaj), frnisscloth, antl other weaves of jjleasing text- ure are effective when appropriately used. None of these, however, compares w'ith paper in popularity as a wall coverinp;. Paper is comparatively inexpensive, is easily hung, is made in an innnense variety of colorings and pattei'n and a wide variety of textures. Wall paper has an advantage over paint in that the exact effect may be known before it is purchased, by ex- perimenting with a roll of it in the vciy room and light in which it is to ])e used. If there is cause for doubt, a i)lain i)ai)er should be selected for walls. There are many plain pajiers of good color from which to choose. The oatmeal textures jjroljably offer the most desirable and satisfactoiy coloring among the inex- pensive papers. The silk-fibered papers, while more expensive, compen.satc in color and quality for the greater investment of money. Another safe choice in paper is one nearly plain in effect but the surface of which is broken by dots or dashes or splashes or other slight variations that give a little "bloom" or vibration of color. Paper with strii:)es that are not too wide or of too conspicuous contrast are good, especially in low rooms. A plain paper sometimes show-s up too conspicuously the un- evenness in old walls. In such a case a paper with a small con- ventional figure, or one with a self-toned foliage pattern is better. A jiaper with a good pattern may be very effective in a hall or corridor or a room with few or no pictures and plain draperies. It helps to furnish the room. A large-figured paper HOME FURNISHING 55 in a small room is out of scale and makes the room look smaller. A figured wall-paper may be used as a frieze in a large room. Such a frieze is generally more effective than one of the stock border patterns, and is more easily adapted in width to varied requirements. A figured frieze is often a decorative finish above a high paneled wainscot. A border of unobtrusive pattern and color may serve on oc- casion to define an edge or emphasize a direction. But the idea that every room must have a border because fashion so decrees is absurd and unreasonable. Festoons of flowers and conspicu- ous ornament of any sort that tend to draw the eyes upward unpleasantly is out of place. In rooms of ordinary height, borders should generally be omitted. They are the offspring of the traditional cornice whose oiiginal office was to make the division between ceiling and side wall. A picture-molding placed at this intei'section is an excellent finish in a low room or one of ordinary height. If the 'room is too high, the ceil- ing color may be brought down on the side wall and the picture-molding placed at the intersection of ceiKng and wall colors. Hangings for windows and doors (Figs. 19-23) Hangings are useful to temper the light, to obstruct an un- pleasing view, to preserve privacy, and to furnish a decora- tive effect. Door draperies are used for the temporary separa- tion of rooms or for decorative effect. The types of window hangings are shades, curtains, and val- ances. The purpose of a shade is to regulate light and to secure privacy; therefore, a shade should always be opaque. A glare of color in a room through a shade of intense hue is sometimes more trying than a flood of sunshine. Shades, being next to the window, affect the exterior color scheme of the house and should be chosen with this in mind. Shades need not on that account be at variance with the interior coloring of the house, for a neutral tone may be chosen that will not violate any color Fio. 19. — A method of haugiiiy twu Sv.-t:> ui curtains in recessed windows. HOME FURNISHING 57 scheme, or double-faced shades may be used. These are only a little more expensive and may, if necessary, be colored to order. In buying for a permanent home, it is economy to select shades of a good quality. Shades should be hung inside the trim as near the glass as possible without interfering with the operation of the window. If this is not possible, the shades should be hung near the inner edge of the casing or window trim. Shades may be hung so as to pull up from the bottom instead of down from the top. There are also fixtures which make it possible to adjust the shade so that it may cover any portion of the window at any time. These adjustable shades are particularly desirable for schoolroom win- dows exposed to direct sunlight for a large part of the day, for kitchen windows on the south side of the house, and for windows in any sunny workroom. Besides shades and blinds that shut out the light, the windows of most rooms need draperies to soften the hard Unes of glass and wood, to temper the light, to veil a view, to complete the background of the room, and to add a decorative note in color or pattern. Each room presents an individual problem in curtains. Harmony, simplicity, and suitability are the guiding thoughts in the solution. Taste is more effective than money. With the modern ideas of the home as a place in which lives are to be lived, of rooms rationally furnished for everyday use, windows swathed in festoons of draperies, sweeping the floor, harboring dust, inviting germs, and excluding the air, have no place. The much trimmed, festooned and lambrequined draperies are not now much in use; their return should never be allowed. How- ever rich the material used for draperies may be, they should be simply made and so hung as to fall in straight folds. In a case of doubt, the simplest solution of the problem of window draperies should be accepted. The choice in material ranges from filmy nets, transparent gauzes, scrim, and muslin through soft silk and cotton fabrics, linens and coarse canvas weaves, brocades, damask, and tapes- trj^ velvets and velours; in color and design from one un- ill \l D ... t= ^ -L .U. .=r llf- ' I 1 il 1 1 JuJLJ ', . -i Fir,. 20.— Four methods of curtaining a douhlc-hung window: A, straight curtains hung within the w'indow trim. B, a half, or sash, curtain often used for privacy. C, an inconsistent way of hanging draperj', which could he remedied by raising the rod, and extending it to the length of the top molding. D, a method of hanging curtains to cover an ugly trim or to widen the window in effect. HOME FURNISHING 59 broken neutral tone to the most complex variation of hues and patterns; in price from a few cents to many dollars a yard. Any fabric may be used, provided it is suitable. Effects in design, color, texture, and pattern that harmonize with the room and its furnishings are the distinguishing characteristics of the most tasteful selections of hangings, rather than rich and costly materials. Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty wash- able material is appropriate for a bedroom. Bright or gaily- figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer and occupied for only short periods, such as a dining-room or a porch sitting-room. Patterns and colors that are entertaining in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For rooms in constant use, or for rooms that should be reposeful in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study, near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential. A city dwelHng, close to the street and overshadowed by other buildings, a country house situated on a hilltop, or in a valley, or by the sea, or in a setting of open fields or gardens sur- rounded by trees and shrubbery, present different problems in window treatment. Velvets, damasks, and handsome linen are appropriate for the city house, and the greater formality and reserve which are its natural characteristics. An effect of freshness is in keeping with the environment of the country home. Cretonnes, chintzes, and printed linen with brighter coloring than would be appropriate in the city home, are in harmony with the birds and flowers and outdoor country. Simple curtains of unbleached cotton for the small-paned cottage window with its ledge of flowering plants suggest the charm of the little house across the sea. For the house used only in summer, curtains should of course be of washable materials. The lighting of the room is an important consideration in selection of window draperies. If the room is poorly lighted, thin draperies light in value, tending toward yellow — the most luminous color — will be the most effective choice, provided it is consistent with the color of the walls. If the room is too light Fig. 21. — Two methods of curtaining a group of windows. HOME FURNISHING 61 and sunny, darker and cooler colors and heavier fabrics should be used. Curtain material should never be chosen without hanging a large sample in the window of the room in which it is to be used, because the color effect is frequently quite dif- ferent under transmitted light. Material with a black thread is likely to look dull and dingy; a fabric woven with blue and yellow threads becomes green when seen against the hght. The effect of artificial light on the draperies should also be considered, since colors change surprisingly from their day- time effects. Valance is the term used for a short drapery hung at the top of the window. It should preferably extend across the en- tire curtain space, or in emergency cover only that space be- tween the curtains. Valances are decoratively useful in fur- nishing a continuation in color and line between curtains that hang too far apart, or in emphasizing the shape of the window. They may serve as a decorative connecting link between the outside curtains at a group of windows, making it possible to dispense with other drapery in the group. Valances emphasize the horizontal in a room. Portieres, or door draperies, sometimes serve in place of doors in the openings between rooms where only a temporary separation is required. They may serve also to soften the lines of the trim, to cover an expanse of objectionable wood in the doors, or to add a decorative note of color or pattern. There is a wide variety of fabrics to choose from. Generally a heavy fabric hangs better and seems more appropriate in a doorway than a light one, and a double-faced material is simpler to make up. Manifestly, skeleton draperies composed of cords and tassels, strings of beads and shells, are an absurd substi- tute for a useful drapery. Door draperies may continue the color of the walls, or, like the window drapery, may be of a contrasting color. If the rooms connected by the opening require different color treatment, the portiere may be made double. The same considerations regarding pattern that guide the selection of window hangings are applicable to door drapery. 02 .1 MAMM. or Ill/Ml-: MAKJMJ Color and jxittrni. C'oloi is f)f first iiiipnii.incc iti t lie dccoiativc clTcct of window- han^iii^s. AN'liifc ciiifaiiis may he ai)i>n)i)nafc in a room with white woodwork, white ccihuK, Jmd hy;ht wails, for they arc in such ca-c in harmony with the general color scheme, Imt they are not JwI .,.jL_LJ-pl. "" < i 1 " V t4 i Fig. 22. — Tlufu arraiiKciiu'iil.s of \;i1;iik'o and curtain, the first being the least desirable. :.4>«^ O M HOME FURNISHING 65 If two sets of curtains are used, one pair is hung next the glass. These are called glass, or sometimes sash, curtains. As the function of these is to cut out the view but admit the light, they should be of thin material, such as net, plain lace, scrim, gauze, thin silk, mercerized cotton, sunfast fabric, or casement cloth. Such an inner curtain should be consistent in texture with the outer drapery; for example, with velvet or silk or any rich material, net of good quality or possibly mar- quisette is a good choice. With linen or cretonne, scrim is better. With cretonne or similar patterned hangings, the inner curtains should match the ground in tone; white, if the ground is white, cream or ecru if the ground is of that color; otherwise, one is likely to look faded or discolored. In thin materials, too coarse a mesh should be avoided on account of shrinking; an even weave is more easily made up and hangs better. These glass curtains soften the glare and are a pro- tection for the heavier window draperies. They are always in evidence on the outside of a house and should be selected with this in mind. If all the glass curtains in the house are alike, or if in the city those in the front of the house are alike, a pleasing unity of effect from the outside is conserved. The over, or outer, pair of curtains which is in more direct relation with the walls of the room may be made of any of the heavy materials already mentioned. This over-drapery may be used to regulate the light during the day, and, by shutting out the outside world, to give an effect of intimacy at night. At any time it may furnish a decorative note in the room. Hanging of draperies. If the woodwork of the room has been so selected and finished as to make of it a structural decorative feature, it should bear somewhat the same relation to the draperies as a picture-frame to a picture, outlining and defining that which is inclosed. In this case the draperies, if there is only one set, should preferably be hung inside the trim; if there are two sets, the outside one would probably need to be hung on the trim, but should be kept as near the inner edge as possible. 66 .1 MAMAL or IIOMK-MAKISC \';iryiii^; types of window const luct ion rcciuirc (lifTcrcnt mctliods of liaiininj; draperies. Often in the ease of ready- made dwellings, the wood is so (hsturhirjK in color or finish, or tht! size and placing of the various openinfjs in the room arc so unfortunate that it is necessary to cover the trim in order to jinxkice a }z;ood result. If all the windows in the room are of the same size and the same kind and placed on the same level, the problem is simple. If there are two .sets of curtains, the problem is varied only l)v the sort of fixtures u.sed. The question is more c{)mi)lex when there are several varieties of windcnvs in the room, with doors requiring draperies besides. The most important or dominant opening should in general indicate the treatment. Casement or French windows that open out are comi)liant to the .same treatment and arrangement of draperies as douljJe- hung windows. If casement windows open in, only one set of curtains can be managed easily. The.se may be hung di- rectly on the windows, and be confined by rods with rings at both top and bottom. If a .second set of draperies is used with such windows, the rod from which the\' are suspended must reach from the outer edge of the trim or even beyond this edge so as to free the curtains when the window is opened. Draperies should always hang straight; fashion should never be allowed to be a determining factor. A\'hen curtains are looped back, disturbing lines at variance with the structural features of the room are produced and simplicity is lost. If it is desirable to draw curtains ba:ck, the folds may still hang straight. Curtains ju.st long enough to escape the sill arc appropriate in most cases but if for any reason they must be hung to cover the trim, they should cover sill and apron as well. Sometimes when the design of the window contains a paneled space below, long curtains just escaping the floor are more consistent with the type of window than those of sill length. Valances hung between curtains are appropriate onl\- when these curtains are not to be drawn; in such cases they should be of the same fullness and should hang in the same sort of HOME FURNISHING A 67 B Fig. 23. — Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim. A, a simple gathered valance; B, a simple type of formal fitted valance; C, a type of valance in which the figure governs the method of hanging. 68 .1 M.wiM. or iioMi: MAKixn folds as ihc curtain. Xalanccs .should picfcralily We extondod acros.s tlio wliolc window and .sliould liaiiK <>'> a scparale rod in order not to interfere with thr independent adju.'^tinent of the curtain.'^. The \alance usually han^s from the .same height as the curtain; liut in the ca.se of a window with a transom, the vahmce ma>', if the? construction of the window allows, hang from the top of the transom and fall only far enough to cover comfortably the top of the ciu'tains. Portieres are hung in the same general way as curtains; .sometimes on the trim but more often between the door jambs. Mcasurinfj draperies for ivindows and door.s. The space to be covered bj' the drapery should be measured accurately. livery measurement .should be taken with a yardstick or four-foot rule. A tape-measure is liable to stretcli. A diagram of the window should be made and the measure- ments indicated upon this. Length. The space that the curtain is to cover from the top of the heading to the bottom of the hem when finished should be determined. An allowance of 5 or G inches should be left for "crawl" and for the making up of any unlined curtain that is to have a shirred heading, a run for the rod, and a 2-inch hem at the bottom. If the curtains are to be \vashed frequently, and especially if the>' are of material with a coarse mesh, more should be allowed for shrinkage. This extra length may be disposed of by making three thicknesses in the hem. If .sewed by hand, the hem can be ripped easily and rehemmed after washing. If there is no heading, only 4 inches need be allowed for making. In estimating the quantity of material, allowance must be made for the "repeat'' of the pattern in matching the design. Sometimes w^hen there is a large design and con- siderable waste, the parts cut out can be used in the valance. If the pattern has a figure conspicuous in size or shape or color, the drapery .should l)e planned .so that this figure comes at the same distance fioin the top in both curtjiins of one wijadow ;uid HOME FURNISHING 69 preferably in all the windows in the room. The drop in differ- ent patterns varies from a few inches to several feet and is an important consideration in measuring and cutting figured materials. Materials suitable for window drapery come in many widths, from 31 inches to 52 inches or even 72 inches. For windows of average width, 50-inch material may be used to good ad- vantage if pattern and texture permit, by cutting it in two lengthwise and making both curtains in the pair from one length of drapery. Width. Window drapery should, theoretically, be sufficiently wide to cover comfortably the whole window even if it is seldom necessary to do this. The width of the whole space plus from one-third to one-half the space to be covered, according to the thickness of the material, furnishes an agreeable fullness. When the curtains are purely decorative, as is sometimes the case with the outer drapery, or when only one pair is used with a valance in a group of windows, less fullness may be sufficient. Lining. If the curtains are to be lined, allowance should be made for the heading at the top and, ordinarih^, for 2 inches to be turned up at the bottom, that is, as much for making as in the unlined curtain. If the curtains are to be finished with a gimp or fringe, 1 inch is enough to allow for making, since in this case the fining should come nearly to the edge. For the lining, the same length should be allowed as for the curtain, minus the width of the heading. If the material is heavy, more must be allowed for the lining, since the outside is likely to sag. If the outside is considerably heavier than the lining, or if there is a difference in the elasticity of the two materials, the curtains should be sewed only at the top and allowed to hang for two or three weeks before finishing. Fifty- 70 .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKL\(! incli sjitcoii sMital)lc for lining ciirtriins is to he found in flu' upholstery dc'j)artMK'nl>. \ alaiiccs. The onhiiary valance of cretoinie or thin material is gathered or j)laited and made with a iieadin};. Such valances vary from 12 to 18 inches in vertical lenj^th, accordin- he sewed on. Attractive e(lfrinfrs for chintz are oh(ainahl< . and when cliintz curtains are used in livinj^ or other family rooms, tliese f^imps make an effective finish. In this case, the wi(hh of the fiimp is enouizli to allow at tlie bottom for makiiifr. In jfeneral, tiie hemstitcliin, tliounh lifi;lit in color can l)e made to lake I he place of a hare wood floor ospocially in bedrooms or rooms wiiere white or li^ht painted wood is used. Ingrain jUliinj. Ingrain fillinp; or other plain carpets may also he used as a background for ruj^s in the absence of a good w(jod floor. FURNITURE (Platcs VI-IX and Figs. 24-29). Furniture is perhaps the most distinctive of all the movable furnishings of the home. Well-made furniture is very durable and should, therefore, be selected with the care which perma- nence calls for. Furniture of reliable workmanship and made from choice material is rarely cheap, but is the best investment in the end. If the family })urse is limited, it is better to buy at the start the few essential pieces and to add to these from time to time. No article of furniture should be purchased unless a need for it exists, and then the one that will best fill that need should be sought for until it is found. At the time of purchase, each article should be judged on its intrinsic merits and its adaptal)ility to the need and place that it is to fill. The fundamental considerations in the selection of furniture are three: the function or use of the article selected; its construc- tion and design; and its relation to the room and other furnish- ings. Function. The usefulness of a piece of furniture is paramount to every other consideration. For example, a chair of whatever materials constructed, is made to sit in. If it does not answer this use coinfortably, it is utterly unworthy as a seat. In its simplest form a chair has a seat, legs, and l)ack, hut it is often developed into forms with arms, rungs, rockers, and upholstery as well. Fig. 24.— a group of typical side chairs of substantial and pleasing form and of varied finish. From these, selections might be made for dining-room living-room, or hall. ' 80 1 1/ 1 \/ 1/. or nu.ME MAKISC Fig. 25. — Four good tabic forms for use in dining-room or lilirary. Even 1 he most elementary type should afford a seat wide enough to at'connnodate the body comfortably, should have legs of a height that allow the feet of the occupant to rest easily upon the floor, ami a back that accords with the curve of the sjiine. These requirements would seem so obvious as not to need mention, were it not so rare to find them all combined in one chair. Since the adult members of a single family may vary greatly in height, B H Plate VI.— Good types of desks and sideboards. HOME FURNISHING 81 size, and proportion, no exact rule as to the measurements of chairs can be formulated. In general, however, the seat of an ordinary straight chair should measure from 15 to 20 inches across the front and may be usually 2 or 3 inches narrower at the back. In height the seat may be from 15 to 20 inches from the floor, inclining slightly backwards. The lower the seat, the greater should be its depth; and conversely, the higher the seat, the more shallow its depth. The height of the back from the seat may vary from 12 to 30 inches. Arms should be of a height to support the arm of the occupant comfortably — about 10 inches usually from the seat. Rails or slats or ban- nisters in the chair-back should be tested with reference to the ribs and shoulder-blades of the user. Rungs are usually added for strength, but a well-made chair may be quite adequate to its purpose without them. The varying purposes for which chairs are used are another element in the decision. A sewing chair, a slipper chair, and a nursery rocker are preferably low. A short-backed chair is convenient for a dressing-table or for the kitchen. A chair for lounging may be as deep and high-backed and as luxuriously upholstered as the user fancies. No chair is good that is not comfortable in service. With a table also, the first thought of the buyer should be its use. A dining-table, a table for the library, a sewing-table, a table for bedroom, hall, or kitchen, each has a special service to render and should be chosen with that service in mind. Every table, however, should be stable. A bureau, a chest, a sideboard, or any container should be thought of in terms of the storage space afforded and facility of access to that space; doors should open and shut easily; drawers should run smoothly. Construction and design. The first requirements in construction are strength and du- rabilit}^ These are essential elements also for efficient service. Good furniture must be sincerely built from honest material, should be designed for a definite purpose, and should avoid 82 .1 MAMAL OF IlOMK-MAKIXa Fig. 26. — Types of Colonial chairs, usually developed in mahogany or cherry, which may ho found in good reproductions. 1, 4 and 6, Chippendale; 2 and 3, Sheraton; 5, Hepplewhite. superfluous ornament and shiny varnished finishes. The con- si ruction of furniture should be evident; that is, the necessary upright and horizontal elements should not be distorted by curves and ornament that impair the function of the members. Variations in contour, such as low flowing curves, should accord with the main outlines. Of all the necessary pieces of furniture, chairs and seats are the freest in form and may deviate farthest HOME FURNISHING 83 from straight-line design. Curved lines and rolling contours adjust themselves easily to the human form and are usually more comfortable than the rigid lines of straight chairs. This does not imply, however, that fantastic shapes are justifiable. Since no piece of furniture is stronger than its weakest joint, it is important to observe that all joints be strong and genuine even though hidden. The legitimate use of screws, wedges, and glue has brought about such sound and inconspicuous join- ery that there is no longer any excuse for wobbly, insecure furni- ture. In general, the tendency of modern furniture design is toward easily movable forms such as metal beds, closets instead of wardrobes, and various types of reed and willow furniture. The parts of which furniture is composed should seem reason- able for the function which they are to perform. The legs of chairs and tables should not be heavy enough for porch posts like those in some pieces of mission furniture, nor should they be frail and "ladylike" as in the case of the little gilt parlor chair. The woods most used in modern furniture are ash, oak, ma- hogany, walnut, and other woods finished to imitate these, also pine and whitewood for painted pieces. Bird's-eye maple and curly birch, being sport growths, should not be used as a structural furniture wood. Of these woods, oak is heavy, durable, susceptible to color modifications, easily kept in good condition, of a sturdy character, appropriate to everyday conditions, and not too expensive. Mahogany is durable, but needs much care, is too "dressy" in appearance for the stress of modern daily Hfe, and is not so adaptable, except in its browner tones, to usual color schemes. Contrary to the usual belief, there is no intrin- sic merit in the fact that a piece of modern furniture is called mahogany. Many of the best looking pieces are only birch stained red, or if made of the genuine wood are often less at- tractive than their birch substitutes. Only in antique pieces, valuable because they are good and not because they are old, and in modern copies or adaptations of fine design and finish, is the real sentiment and beauty of mahogany preserved. In general, oak is the most representative wood for modern furni- 84 .1 1/ 1 \ r I/, o/- no mi: \i \Ki\r; \i Fig. 27. — Conifortahle arm-chairs for general use. ture, just as black walnut was the typical wood in our mothers' day and mahogany in the day of our grandmothers. The finish of all woods .'should l)e soft and dull, rubbed, not varnished. A shiny polish is often used to hide blemishes in the wood and is of a nature pertaining more to metals and to glass than to wood. 5 '1 r Plate VII.- -Types of furniture ugly in proportion, erratic in line, over- decorated in finish, that should be avoided. HOME FURNISHING 85 There is much good painted or enameled furniture. It lends itself to charming and unusual color schemes. This finish is especially appropriate with the light clean effects so suitable in bedrooms in countr}^ homes, and in rooms with painted trim. Willow, because of its elasticity, is an excellent material for seats, but not appropriate for tables, desks, beds and other furniture forms in which firmness and smoothness are essential qualities. Though not so durable as wood, willow is light in weight, has unlimited color possibilities, and fits satisfactorily into many varying types of furnishings. The simple designs are always the best. Upholstery. Well-disposed springs and padding add much to the comfort of a lounge or chair, and a textile covering may contribute most attractive notes to the color scheme of a room. Upholstered chairs with a well-built frame that is frankly evident, are the best choice. Fat-looking, dimpled, padded, buttoned, and fringed upholstery should be avoided. Too often it covers weak construction. Upholstery furnishes a good opportunity to amalgamate the various colors in a room, such as the contrasting colors of walls and hangings, or to emphasize one of these, or to introduce new colors that will enliven an otherwise monotonous room, or to distribute the color interests when there is too much color massed on one side of a room, as sometimes results from a series of door and window draperies. For ordinary home use, plain, striped, or figured fabrics are more appropriate than leather, which finds its best use in offices and men's lounging rooms. A slenderly built chair should not be upholstered in a large figured, strong-colored fabric. A chair or any other furni- ture may be excellent in design with no decoration. Any decoration should be an integral part of the whole design, an outgrowth of the construction, a refinement of the propor- tions, or an emphasis of an essential element by a bit of enrichment. FiQ. 28. — Three koocI forms of couches. Top, a willow davenport, comfortable, reasonable in price, and easily moved. Center, a type of upholstered davenport cxceodincly comfortable but likely to be costly. Bottom, an inexpensive box-couch arranRement that may be made both comfortable and attractive by the use of good springs, upholstery, and cushions. HOME FURNISHING 87 Fig. 29. — Typical small tables of good form and finish from which a suitable selection might be made for various types of living-room, bedroom, or porch. 88 .1 MAMAL or IKiMi: \I\K/.\'(J liclnllon to ttUii r fitniishitK/s. To s(H'ur(> a lioiiioffciuKjiis rcsull in lioiisc lUniisliiiifi, flic fit- ness of each purchase should Itc thoufj;ht of in rchitioii to the loorn in which it is to fz;o and in fclation to the other furnishings of that room. As has been previously pointed out, the proportion of furniture has a notable elTect on the apparent jjroportion of the room: very iarj^e pieces of furniture seem to crowd a small room; very small pieces, unless ^•■'JHP<^'<'' iipp^^'ur dwarfe;s have a distinct use and may introduce the one decorative note needed to complete the scheme, safety lies in restraint. These small things .should be selected with as nmch care as the larger furnishings. The lesson of .sacrificing heirlooms, mistaken purchases, and even misfit gifts for the sake of the unity of the whole .scheme should be early learned. Constructive forms with lines that are slightly curved for the sake of grace while the general direction of support or economic outline is kept, are pleasing. Whatever is added by way of ornament must follow or fit, not conceal, this structural shape. ATasses of decoration applied without re- gard to the form, cheai)en the appearance and confuse 'the intent of the object. In the choosing of a clock, a clearly marked dial and a support- ing case of pleasing contour and form are the essential considera- tions. The general design will vary according as the clock is intended to stand on th(> mantel or the floor or to be affixed to the wall. The real function of a vase is to .serve as a container for flowers. The design of the vase should, therefore, anticipate the flower, though it may be so distinguished in color and form as to be by itself a decorative note in a room. The color or decoration on the vase should not attempt to compete with the flower. Lamps are indispensable to comfort, whether oil, gas, or electricity is used foi- illumination, and are one of the most decorative and intimate features in a furnishing scheme. Three elements enter into the design of lamps; the light, its shade, and its support. The support should both be and appear adequate for its use and should harmonize both in size and HOME FURNISHING 91 shape with the shade. Broad bases or heavy bowls give stability to the design of a lamp. Metal and pottery are eminently suit- able materials for lamp standards. The height of the lamp and the flare of the shade should be related to the space that is to be lighted. Tall lamps with broad flaring shades illuminate a large circle, while low lamps and snug shades confine the light to small areas (Fig. 30). In general, warm or yellowish tones for shades are more genial and more in keeping with the idea of light than are cool colors; they are also more becoming. Paper or parchment and Fig. 30. -Good types of lamps with substantial bases and attractive shades that are serviceable in use. fabrics are less stiff in material and more flexible in color scheme than are glass and metal for shades. Complex shapes and millinery treatment for shades should be avoided. The waste-basket serves a humble but important use. It should be so made as to stand firmly, conceal its contents, and be unobtrusive in color and design. Sofa pillows are valuable if they are useful. Plain or figured materials of agreeable texture, harmonizing with the general coloring of the room, are more decorative than those elaborately made. The much-abused tidy has in a few cases a real use in pro- tecting the backs of upholstered chairs from the hair; it should be trim in outline, of washable material, of inconspicuous color, and fastened securely in place. 92 .1 MAM AL OF IloMK MAKI.\G Merc furiosities should he kept in a closed cahiuet or a UlUSl'Ulll. AlilUNGKMKNT OF FrKMSIII.NCS (PKiS. 'M'.V^) The character of eveiy looni should be obvious at tlic moment of eiilraiu'c. It should be iininediately evident whether the room ill ([uestiou is used for a family fi;atheriiiji; room, for literary or social pursuits, a playroom, or a workroom. All parts oi the loom should contributp to this simple and sustained im- l)ression. It is for the moment a complete ])icture in which no one ol)ject compels undue attention because of conspicuous size, color, or decoration. Unity is the whole idea. The contents of the room should show first of all, orderliness of arrangement. The distribution of the furnishings should be adjusted to the structural lines of the room; rugs parallel with the walls of the room, draperies lianging in straight folds in rectangular oj)enings, tables, couches, bookcases, beds, bureaus, and dressers following and fitting the available wall spaces. Pictures, single or grouped, arranged with direct relation to the furniture and to a continuous line of a given height, table I'unners and books straight witli the library table, square lunch cloths and doilies straight with the edges of the dining-table, — all are manifestations of order in arrangement. Diagonal lines introduced by curtains looped back, rugs askew on the floor, furniture placed across the corners, or at ol)lique angles to the wall, pictures hanging in steps, set at defiance the rectangular lines of the room and disturb the sense of order. The furnishings of the room should be so arranged as not to crowd all the interest on one or two walls, leaving the other parts of the room emptj^ and dead. Instead, the interest should be distributed throughout the room by a balanced arrangement. For example, heavy features, such as a fireplace on one side of the room, may be balanced by a long davenport on the oppo- site side, with bookcase, table, and desk occupying end po-;itions. The next step is to consider the arrangement of furnishings from the standpoint of convenience and use. The comfort of a room dejDends on the grouping of the pieces that are to be used Fig. 31. — Top, a typical square living-room showing an erratic but not unusual arrangement of rugs and furniture. Bottom, the same room arranged in a reasonable and orderly v/ay. '.II A MAM AL (IF IU»ME MAKlSd tojictluT. Thus a jiciuTous living-room may provich; a hoartli criitrr, a rcadiuf? (■ciilcr, a music center, and a sowing center if the furnishings are properly grouped; or, in the case of a bod- room, a bed, ni^ht table, and lamj) mi^ht, form r)ne j^roup, with dresser, chair, and closet in another. The arran{i;ement of the furnishings depends v(;ry Kroatly on the location of windows and doors. The j^oofl lifj;ht nece.s.sary for readinfi, writing, or sewing puts a premium on the po.sitions near the wintlows, for, while theoretically it is possible to sec in all parts of a comfortably lighted room, the direct light from a window is the l)est for all kinds of close work. The furniture grouping must, therefore, adjust itself to this recjuirement. Desks arranged with a good light from the left side, the prin- cipal reading seats within comfortable distance from the win- dows, and adequate lamps or lighting fixtures provided where most needed, insure satisfaction in this respect. Care should also be taken to arrange furniture groups away from drafts and paths of travel. Bookcases, cabinets, and the like, may occupy odd bits of wall in locations where it is not comfortable to sit. Just as the form of a chair may ha less rectangular than other pieces of furniture, so its position in the furnishing scheme is more free. The very use of chairs implies that they cannot in general occupy fixed positions, with the exception perhaps of an occasional upholstered or straight-backed chair. This flexibility of chair arrangements introduces enough variety to keep the room from looking stiff. Nothing in the room is so insignificant as to escape the need of thoughtful placing; vases, clocks, lamps, and pictures, all are elements in the scheme. Arrangement, however, is as much concernoti with the elimi- nation of superfluous features as with the proper disposal of the essentials. Souvenirs, trinkets, and family photographs, no matter what their personal significance, cheapen the effect and lessen the dignity of rooms intended for general use. A room is a good design only when nothing cAn l)e added and nothing can be taken away without marring its com- pleteness. HOME FURNISHING 95 CHARACTER OF ROOMS EXPRESSED BY FURNISHINGS The hall, living-room, dining-room, and library, if there is one, represent one group of interests, and may be considered to form the social, recreative, or living area of the house. The general character of these rooms should be spacious and decorative in effect. Though each unit of this group should have its own dis- tinctive character, these living-rooms, on account of their inter- relation and common use, should show some harmony in color and treatment. The hall is the threshold of the house. It serves as an intro- duction. This first impression should be one of welcome and dignity and, above all, of order. Good light, genial colors on the walls and floor, a sense of free space for the passage of per- sons, an ample provision for the necessary wraps and umbrellas in a tidy and concealed form, are the essential characteristics of a well-considered hall, regardless of its size. If a regular coat closet is not provided in the hall, a generous rod with coat hangers arranged in an angle behind curtain or screen is far neater and more satisfactory than some form of mongrel hat rack exposed to view. The movable furnishings necessary to equip the hall of a dwelling for its use are very few, a rug on the floor, carpet on the stairs, a chair or seat, a well-lighted mirror, a clock perhaps, and a small stand with drawers for gloves, time-tables, pad and pencil, and other incidentals. Decorative touches may be intro- duced by a figured wall paper, a potted plant, or a spray of flowers. The character of the modern living-room should unite the dignity of the old-fashioned parlor and the genuine homely qualities of the old-time sitting-room. The large living-room of the modern house is an attempt to amalgamate into a single space the interests formerly represented by separate rooms, such as reception-room, music-room, parlor, sitting-room, and hbrary. Its character should accordingly represent dignity, hospitality, comfort, and recreation. This room must be gen- eral not personal, in its decoration and furnishing. Walls and Fig. 32. — Top, a room showiriK the effect in furni.sliinK of one large rug, a fireplace in the center of one long inside wall, and the other furnish- ings W(>11 related to these. Bottom, a room showing a good arrange- ment of two rugs; a fireplace in the short inside wall, and the furniture well arranged in occupational centers. ^ r; Plate IX. — Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture that may be developed in different woods suitable for rooms with varying finish.. HOME FURNISHING 97 rugs sufficiently neutral in color to form a good background, harmonious furnishings adjusted to the space and suitably- arranged for the interests to be accommodated, and a method of comfortable lighting both by day and by night are the essen- tial considerations. The position of such structural pieces as the fireplace and the location of the windows give the cue to the general arrangement for the room. The selection of the furnishings in each case will depend on whether the main interests of the household are youthful or mature, studious or musical, industrial or social. One or two large rugs are more appropriate for the living- room than a number of small ones. Small rugs in a living- room are an aggravation, because of the tendency to slip about, turn up at the corners, and give a scrappy appearance to a floor. In general, a typical living-room for general family use should include a fireplace, some form of lounge, bookshelves, a generous table with lamp, a place to write, and plenty of comfortable chairs. A piano or victrola, a sewing-table, small or folding tables that can be. moved around to serve a cup of tea or for games and the like, may also be needed. Added to these are a number of small furnishings that should be thoughtfully selected to complete the comfort of the occupants as the room is used, Footstools or hassocks, a dictionary-stand, lamps and candle- sticks, a waste-basket, a neat wood-box or basket, a few pillows, a vase or two for flowers, a clock, are all worthy adjuncts to the family room. A place should also be provided for the ciuick dis- posal of transient paraphernalia, such as father's newspaper, mother's mending, and the children's toys. The artificial lighting of the room should be adjusted to the spaces that are used at night. A general diffusion of light over the whole space can be provided most simply by some central form of ceiling light. In addition to this, lamps will be needed for reading or close work. The soft light of candles or the open fire are sufficient when the room is used only for conversation. The character of a dining-room should above all be cheerful. Eastern windows admitting the morning sun, light colors on the walls, plants or flowers, are a real aid to good digestion. 08 A MAMAL OF lloMEMAKlSd Haii- HALL Fig. 33. — Top, an effective and Icgical arrangement of furniture in a square dininK-rooni. Bottom, a well-planned bedroom .showiiiK a -serviecahle arrangement of dressing and sleeping equipment, with plenty of free space for passage. HOME FURNISHING 99 In contrast to the living-room, the dining-room has but one function and therefore but one center of interest. The dec- oration and furnishing of this room should focus on the idea of the table in use. A dining-table capable of enlargement, a rug perhaps, chairs, a serving-table, and a place to keep the dishes, against an interestingly papered or paneled back- ground, constitute the real requirements of the dining-room. Anything provided in addition to this is purely by way of decora- tion which implies that the added features must enhance the general appearance. Clean linen — white, cream, or gray — ■ simple forms of knives, forks, and spoons, china with refined outlines and restrained decorations, furnish a dining-room with more distinction than an abundance of ornate furnishing. Unlike the living area, the rooms of the sleeping area stand each one by itself, a complete unit, both in furnishing and in decoration. A sleeping-room should above all be personal in its use, light, airy, and intimate in character. Sufficient window space, light colored walls and woodwork, fresh looking curtains, furniture stained or painted to accord with these, carry out this idea. A clean comfortable bed, conveniences for dressing and storage of clothes provided by dressing-table, bureau, chiffonier and closet, a well-lighted mirror, a comfortable chair or two, a bedside table, and rugs in the open spaces are the essentials. Facilities for writing or sewing may also be needed. Whatever accessories are introduced are of a personal nature. Bed and dressing arrangements should be located with special reference to good lighting both by day and by night. The bed should be so placed as not to face the light, while the mirror should be so placed that the person dressing is in full light. Side lights are a particularly appropriate type for bedroom use. The character, equipment, and use of the kitchen are discussed in connection with its planning on pages 100 to 120. rilAPTET: HI PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN* By Helen Binkerd Young Any honic-niakcr should he ahlc to |)laii a kitclioii iiitclli- jionlly. 'I'liis means a kilchcn lliat nieasuros up to somo stand- aid tests on general (;ssential points. The details are of small moment when compared to such fundamental considerations as the size of the kitchen, the amount of light and air, and the general organization of the work. Too much or too little floor space, too many doors, too few windows, and too little wall space are basic matters that may bi-eak up the entire conven- ience of the place, no matter how perfect the details of equip- ment may be. Naturally, it is too late to begin to plan a kitchen after it is built, for the structural conditions are then fi.xed and the possibilities of arrangement are accordingly limited. This is not meant to discourage the remodeling of old kitchens, Init merely to emphasize the importance of planning the kitchen correctly at the start. USE OF THE KITCHEN Properly speaking, the kitchen is a scrupulously clean room intended for operations connected with food materials, and for this purpose only. It is not the province of the kitchen to pro- \ ide space for eating, for washing and ironing clothes fji lava- tory purposes, for removing boots, wraps, and overaliS, or for passageway from the back of the house to the front. For the sake of cleanliness and speed, such activities should i)e provided for elsewhere. It is poor logic and poor economy to plan for such features as laundry tubs and cleaning closets in the kitchen, for they are too unsanitarj^ ami too umclattnl to food work to *Coriiol! Ro;uling-C)Mr-c> for llio Farm Home, Bull. lOS. 100 PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 101 have a place there. Moreover, in order to include the laundry work, the kitchen must be made larger than it would otherwise need to be. A separate room for laundry purposes should be provided, either in the basement or, as in the case of the farm- house, on the same floor as the kitchen and adjacent to it. DINING Fig. 34. — A large kitchen, 14 by 18 feet, so rear- ranged that food and laundry work are sepa- rately grouped, while the stove is common to both. This room can also be used for the storage of cleaning mater- ials and as a direct entrance into the main part of the house, thereby eliminating constant passage through the kitchen. Therefore, by taking out of the kitchen proper all operations foreign to foods, a smaller and more convenient room may be planned. Even in altering an old house, this idea of planning the kitchen proper for food work only, should be the guiding thought. Thus, a large kitchen in which the family washing has been done 102 .1 .1/ 1 \ / .1/. or lit I Ml-: MMiic!i :i way llial all ruiid uoik is grouped a( one {-wd ami lautidiy wcrk and passajii- at t lie ot her cud, with the slovi' as the coiiiiiioii jjiccc ol" ('(luipiiii'iit Itct wccii. If tlic room is larjiic ciiou^h for it, :i lliiii paitiiiou wall nia>' he used to compU'tc the division. This makes ji more cleanly and more eeonomieal arranp;ement lluin does tlie single lurp;e room wifh the two kinds of work crossing each other. Such a kitchen al- tera! ion is sliown in l-'i^:. 3 [. Tlie same idea of grouping the food woik in an alcove and using tlie remainck'r of the space for another purpose can be apphed to a combination kitchen and (Hning-room, such as is shown in Fig. 14. The compact kitchen end coukl be made Hght and washal)le in character, and the chning-i-oom end more like a sitting-room, with passage through the room halfway between, thus disturbing the comfort of neither part. It is evident from the foregoing explanation that the intelligent ))laiining of a kitchen involves a number of side issues, which, in the case of the farmhouse, unite to make of it a very complex problem. If the kitchen is to become a compact, businesslike compartment for one use only, the entire working arrangements of the house must be thoroughly studied in order to make sure that there is a definite place allotted to every need (Fig. 37). EXPOSURE The location of the kitchen will of couise depend on the re- mainder of the house plan and on the location of the other rooms. Theoretically, the best exposure and location for a kitchen is toward the north, the northeast, or the northwest, with at least two outer walls for light and air. This implies either a corner location or a separate wing. South, southeast, and south- west are less desirable exposures for a kitchen, because they are likel}^ to be hot and glaring and are usually hard to ventilate. Furthermore, southern exposures are usually at a premium for the more important living-rooms. If the arrangement is such that the kitchen can have but a single exposure, it can still be made a very comfoi-tabl(> one as regards light, air, and coolness, if it faces north and is provided with plenty of windows; whereas, PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 103 a kitchen having but one outside wall, and that facing directly south, is in the very worst situation from every viewpoint. SIZE The size of the kitchen is determined chiefly b}^ the number of workers and by the kind of fuel to be used for cooking. In general it should always be large enough to accommodate two workers in emergency, and yet at the same time as small as convenience will allow. A kitchen in which coal is to be used for fuel is normally larger than one in which gas is to be used, because of the larger size of the range, the need for a convenient supply of fuel, and the fact that for reasons of comfort the other pieces of furniture cannot be placed too near the stove. Years of experience in planning, equipping, and using kitchens under conservational methods, show that a gas-fuel kitchen with a pass pantry need not exceed 150 square feet of floor space, and that a coal-fuel kitchen, together with a pass and food pantry, ordinarily need not exceed an area of 200 square feet of floor space. This area may be arranged in such shapes as 9 by 12 feet, 10 by 12 feet, 10 by 13 or 14 feet, 11 by 11 feet, 11 by 12 or 13 feet, or 12 by 12 feet, for the kitchen proper, and 5 by 7, 8, 9, or 10 feet, or 6 by 6, 7, or 8 feet, for the pantry, according as these measure- ments best fit into the plan for the remainder of the house. In general, approximately square shapes for kitchens and pantries are more convenient than are long, narrow ones. Eight feet should be the minimum width for a kitchen. Of course the areas given are merely guides to help determine the probable amount of space needed for kitchen developments and to serve as a sort of check on wasteful or crowded planning. It is very easy to plan a kitchen that is too large; it is also pos- sible to plan a kitchen that is too small, where freedom of motion is cramped and where one tires of standing always in one place or position. DOORS After the size and the location of the kitchen have been de- termined, the placing of the openings is the next step to be con- 104 .1 MAX I'M. or //O.UA .1/.1A7.\V; sidcrctl. 'I'lic subject of dooi-s especially should he jiiven (Ik; most deliberate :it tent ion, t'oi- the iiiconveiiieiice of many kitch- ens can l>e liai*e(| haik to the presence of too many or wrongly j)iace(l doors. It is evident that a kitchen should {lave as few doors as pos- sible in order to avoid breaking up the wall space and to avoid passage through the kitchen to difTerent parts of the house. Ordinaiily. five or six doors an; needed in connection with the kitchen work: an outside door, a pantr}' door, a cellar door, a door to the dining-room, and perhaps one leading to a rear stair- wa}-" or hall. Fortunately, all these doors need not be located in the kitchen proper. DifTerent combinations can be arranged where!)}' one door can be made to serve two oi" three purposes. Thus, the cellar or the rear-stair door might open from a pantry or from an outside entry, which might also contain the outside door. Two or three doors of passage are all that are needed in a well-planned kitchen. These should, as nearly as possible, be arranged at one side, corner, or end, thus leaving a continuous wall space in an alcove form for the arrangement of equipment. WINDOWS The function of a window is essentially twofold — to admit light and air. Naturally that arrangement of windows will be most reasonable which provides for the best diffusion of light and the best ventilation with the least amount of glass space. For, while it is poor economy to have too few windows, it is also poor economy to have too many. It has been found that for effective results, a sort of flexible relation exists between the amount of window space to l)e used and the size of the room to be lighted. Accordingly, the total window area for a kitchen should in general l)e about 25 per cent of the floor area. For example, a kitchen 11 by 11 feet, having 121 square feet of floor area, should be provided with about 30 square feet of window space, arranged on the two outer walls. This space may be divided into two windows 3 by 5 feet each, or three windows 2J^ by 4 feet each, or three windows 2 by 43^^ feet each, as the case may require. The PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 105 necessary window space for any given kitchen may thus be approximated. Ordinarily, kitchen windows should be located as far apart as possible. In the case of a corner exposure, they should be placed near the partition walls rather than near the corner of the house. This arrangement insures a strong diagonal sweep of air and an even distribution of light. The tops of the windows should be not more than a foot from the ceiling, so that the lising heat and odors can easily escape. Broad, short windows, built high from the floor, are an excellent type for kitchen use. The dis- tance from the floor to the sill should be from three to four feet, in order to allow for table space beneath the windows. While not so picturesque as casements, double-hung windows are usually the easier type to operate in a kitchen. ARRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT Having planned the kitchen that is structurally suited to its use, further convenience depends on the selection and arrange- ment of the furniture, or equipment. In this, as in the case of any industry, the aim should be to do the most work in the least time without friction and with the fewest workers. The equipment should line the walls, leaving a free central space for working. Theoretically, every change in working level, w^hether of floor or table, and every gap between two pieces of equipment, cause loss of efficiency; that is to say, the more continuous the arrangement of equipment, the more con- venient will be the work. Having dispensed with all unneces- sary doors and deliberately preserved one or two continuous wall spaces, the disposition of the equipment becomes an easy matter. Indeed, it would be difficult to make a really incon- venient work-place of a compact, well-lighted kitchen of Hmited size, having few doors and generous wall spaces, such as has been previously described. But in order to reach a standard of maximum convenience, the work and the equipment should be organized so that all things pertaining to a given operation are grouped together. The table, the stove, and the sink represent the three essen- KKi .1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISd tial operations canicd on in a kilclicn; (he preparation f)f the food, the cooking of tlie food, and the elcaninj^-uf) [jroccss that lollows. This ('(|uii)nK'nt and this work form the nucleus of three operation centers: (1) the food center, (2) \\\v. lieat center, and {'M the water centei'. This organization is the basis of convenient arrangement for every home kitchen, lar^e or small, whether it belonj^s to apartment, suburban home, or farmhouse. 1. Tho fond ronton roquiros the following oquipmont: a. Tal)lo space, from 8 to 12 square feet exclusive of sink-boards b. Storage space (l) For cold foods. Ico-l)ox Dmnh-waiter Food pantry (Any or all of these) Drawers and shelves (In form of closet or cabinet) b. Storage space. (2) For dry supplies and utensils needed in food preparation The heat center requires the following equipment: a. Stove or range, from 2 l)y ;i feet to 2^ l>y 5 feet Fuel box or bin, if coal or wood is to be used Pan closet for utensils Water boiler The water center requires the following equipment: a. Sink, 2 by ;3 foot, more or less b. Drain-board, iiUTinn the iialuru uf lliis room and its ijiuiiy uses, it shouM he made ;is larj!;o lis can lu' alTordod, and should be provided, if possible, uilh a ceineiit floor aud a painted wall so that splash- ing will not injure it. The room shown in I'iji. M is in reality Fig. 36. — A kitchen for a suburban houso, dcvelopod in accord- ance with the princi[)Ie.s of good arraiigenieiit. the old washhou.sc and woodshed, fitted more completely than formerly, and is an important part of the plan. P.\NTRIES AND CLOSETS No part of the kitchen equipment has been so evaded in planning as has accurate and .systematic storage space. The habit has been acquired of using every corner and tuck-away place for a closet, the idea being that the more clo.scts, the greater would be the convenience. Too much or inaccessible storage space invites slack housekeeping and is, theivfore, more de- structive to the general scheme than is too little closet room. Plate XI. — (Above) Shelves of suitable size for the materials to be stored. (Below) Utensils in which foods may be both cooked and served — casseroles and meat plank. PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 113 Limited storage space compels one to organize, to eliminate, and to arrange compactly, the general result thereby favoring conservation. Only such storage space should be planned as LIVING ROOn Fig. 37. — Plan in which principles of kitchen arrangement are clearly expressed. is really needed to complete and assist the operation of the kitchen. There are three general types of storage space that may be used in connection with the kitchen arrangements: (1) the pantry, (2) the cupboard filled with shelves, and (3) the cabinet, or dresser. Of these three, the pantry is by nature the most capacious, the cupboard next, and the cabinet least. An analy- sis of these three forms should enable one to plan intelligently the storage space for an individual kitchen. The pantry may be defined as an enlarged closet through 114 A MAMAL (JF IKJMK MAKIXO which one passes or into which one steps instead of merely reacliiiij!;. Its purpose is primarily to furnish more generous storage space than is provided hy the onhnary cuplxjard. Tlicrc are in general two types of pantries, the (ood pantry and the pass pantry. The food pantry is intended primaiily for the storage of food sujiplies that nmst be kept cooler than the tem- MTTIMC mmo \DOt\ 'M4Mm'—^^^, Fig. 3S. — A complete and convenient kitchen for any house. perature of the kitchen. The pass or butler's pantry is used for the storing of china and for the serving of meals. Often these two pantries can be combined into one without breaking up the organization of the work. Whether a food pantry, or a pass pantry, or both, or a com- bination of the two shall be planned for any given house, de- pends on the conditions of that special case. In general, a food PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 115 Fig. 39. — The pass pantry or serving-pantry, shown on plan in Fig. 38. pantry is always needed when coal is used for cooking, because the temperature of the kitchen then becomes so warm that certain foods will not keep; whereas, when gas is used, the temperature is likely to be fairly cool and even, which often allows for the food pantry to be replaced by an ice-box, a dumb-waiter, or both, placed directly in the kitchen. If the ventilation of the room is good, such an arrangement will re- quire very little more ice a year than the amount needed if the re- frigerator were placed in a separate entry or pantry or on an outer porch. If the family is large, however, or the house located at a distance from the markets, a food pantry is almost necessary to store sufficient supplies. Often one tier of shelves in the food pantry is reserved for utensils, which makes a separate cupboard unnecessary. Owing to the nature of its use, the food pantry should preferably be located on a northerly outside wall and should be provided with a window. The pass pantry (Fig. 39) is for several reasons an almost invaluable adjunct to the kitchen. Not only does it provide closet space for china and aid the smooth serving of meals, but it also shuts off the noise and the odors of the kitchen from the remainder of the house. Owing to the nature of its use, the pass pantr}' should be located on the partition wall between the dining-room and the kitchen. It is of course desirable, but not really necessary, to arrange the pass pantry so that it touches the outer wall and is provided with a window. Where this is impossible, an inside serving-pantry painted white and lighted through a glass panel in the door leading to the kitchen, will be found to be light and satisfactory (Figs. 35 and 36). Sometimes in place of, or in addition to, the pass pantry, a no .1 MAM AL OF IK IMF MAKlXd cliiiKi closet opening!; Ixtlli \v;iys is hiiill into llic wall hctwoen llu- (iininji-rooii) and llic kilclicii (Fig. :i7). AIiIioukIi con- venient, (his destroys the quiet ing efTeet of the pass pantry, as it provides direct eonnnunication between the ( lining- room and the kitchen, and danfier of noise and odors. A simple and dii-ect arranfreinent for meal service is shown in Fi^s. 'A') and 'M't, wliere the pass pantry is used and tliere is a slide through to the sink drain-hoard. In neither ca.sc are the dishes carried aeross the kitchen; they are delivered, washed, and returned within the shortest pos.sihlc line of service. Cdass china closets and plate rails should he used sparingly in the design of the dining-room. The cupboard — a clo.set filled with shelves — is a valuable place of storage for pans, china, or supplies. If intelligently shelved, it can be made almost as capacious as a small pantry. The arrangement of shelving is perhaps the most important feature in the planning of storage space. For the best results, shelves should be designed only wide enough to hold com- fortably one row of supplies, of whatever kind considered. An arrangement of narrow shelves spaced close together will prove to be more capacious, accessible, and easy to clean than wide shelves spaced far apart. From every standpoint, deep shelves are a great mistake, because one must then arrange for two or three rows of materials in order to use the space. It will be found that the area of comfortable reach is between one and six feet from the floor, leaving about five feet of quickly available space. For the sake of efficiency, this space should be as compactly shelved as is feasible for the use intended. A cupboard provided with one or two broad shelves l)elow and a series of narrower shelves above, will hold a large numi)er of articles, both effectively and accessibly displayed. A cupboard with doors for pans, china, or supplies is ample if made from 10 to 15 inches deep; a series of open shelves, if made from 8 to 10 inches deep. Shelves as narrow as (i inches are good for single rows of dry supplies. From 7 to 10 inches bet ween shelves is a safe average distance for spacing; but in ortler to make the most out of a given space, it is best to think out carefully PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 117 the materials that are to be stored, and to space the shelves accordingly. The kitchen cabinet, or dresser, brings a new element into the storage arrangement. It introduces a work shelf at table height, thereby dividing the storage into an upper and a lower part. The deep under part may be arranged for either closet or drawer space; the upper part may be arranged as a shallow cupboard for supplies. The most valuable form of storage for the lower section of a cabinet is an arrangement of drawers, for these pull out and expose their contents from the top so that one need not stoop to reach them. From four to six well- planned drawers will be adequate for the ordinary kitchen: a broad, shallow drawer subdivided for small utensils, such as knives, forks, spoons, egg-beaters, and the like; a deeper drawer for kitchen linen, such as towels, clean cloths and aprons; and two or three deep, narrow drawers, or bins, for storing flour, sugars, and other dry supplies of a bulky nature. Appropriate drawer space for the pass pantry is about as follows: a broad, shallow drawer with subdivisions for the different kinds of table silver; one, two, or three broad, shallow drawers for table linen; and a deep drawer for miscellaneous needs, containing perhaps a compartment for string, one for wrapping paper, and so on. It should be realized from the foregoing discussion that the cabinet, or dresser, is an appropriate form of storage only when table space is needed also; that is, the emphasis is here placed on the work shelf rather than on the storage capacity. To equip a pantry, whose function is to furnish maximum storage space, with closets of the dresser type is therefore a mistake, since it furnishes an excess of table space at the expense of cupboard room. An ordinary cupboard or a series of open shelves, sup- plemented by a small table or work shelf with drawers below, is a much more appropriate arrangement than to break up the most valuable part of the storage space by the intrusion of a work shelf. The cabinet form is chiefly valuable in the kitchen proper. lis A MAMAL or IKtME MAKIXd 'riu' suhjccl ot kilclicii st(»r;ijrc sIkhiIcI iinl he (jisiiiisscd willi- oul ciiipliasi/.inn I he usefulness of llic dunih-wailcr. This is ail alinosi iii(lisj)ciisal)l(' coiivcniciicc when a portion of tlio cellar is used for food sui)plics. TIk* dunih-wailcr will carry wood, coal, and food Ix'lwccu floors, and is a f^rcat lahor-saver. With such an arran^icnicnt, a cold part of the cellar may l»e substituted for the food pantry, even taking the jilace of an ice-l)OX satisfactorily. One trip a day to the cellar is enough to keep the lift supplied. IXTEUIOR FINISH Any kitchen that is to give full .satisfaction must be sound in arrangement, sightly in appearance, and smooth in opera- tion. Within reasonable limits, anything that can be devise(l to enforce this triple standard, must be considered worthy of trial. The demands of convenience will of course always come first, thereby deciding matters of arrangement and of manage- ment; but the less insistent needs for a work place that shall be a fit and lovely spot, must also be met. A clean, level floor, walls and furniture with smooth washable surfaces, anil a pleas- ing color scheme are elements that eliminate mental friction and that add the touch of refinement which makes of anj- work a joy. Up to the present time, no perfect flooring that is cheap enough for use in private homes has been evolved. The ma- terials most available are wood and linoleum. Of the two, linoleum is thought to be preferable, because it can be cemented tight to the under floor, it is practicallj' crackless, and it is ciuiet and easy to walk on. Plain brown ''battleshi])" linoleum is a reliable, standard j^roduct, or a modest inlaid pattern may be used instead. Experienced housekeepers claim that linoleum with a pattern is both more attractive and easier to keep clean than is the plain color. Although good linoleum is not a cheap floor covering, its satisfactory and lasting nature commends it in spite of its cost. A maple or a beech floor of narrow boards is the next best material. Yellow pine and oak ai-e too opcMi grained to make a PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 119 satisfactory floor for kitchen use. Maple and beech are both hght in color and do not make a very attractive floor under hard use, but they can be scrubbed and kept clean. A maple floor should be finished by saturating it with hot linseed oil for a number of hours; then all the extra oil should be thoroughly wiped up. In this way, the wood is practically impregnated against the absorption of grease. Kitchen woodwork should be plain, with as few grooves and moldings as possible. Wooden wainscotings in kitchen and bathroom should never be used. For the interior finish of the kitchen, nothing is comparable to clean, light-colored paint for walls and woodwork. Warm grays, buffs, and other soft, neutral tints may be used. Some- times walls, woodwork, and furniture are all painted the same color, thereby uniting the whole effect. Even ready-made .cabinets, tables, and refrigerators are far more attractive if painted a light color. A kitchen finished in stained oak or varnished pine, like the remainder of the house, is unnecessarily monotonous. It should be differentiated from the other rooms in color scheme and general atmosphere. Light colors, mixed on a basis of white, are not only cheering and restful to look at, but have the further advantage of reflecting and distributing the light so that there are no dark corners. Such a room becomes also an easy and economical one to light well at night. When gas or oil lamps are used, light colors are positively invaluable in the kitchen. Each wall then becomes in reality a huge reflecting surface, so that a given amount of light is virtually used several times over. If an elec- tric fixture for indirect lighting — an inverted metal bowl — is placed centrally on a white ceiling, the entire kitchen is evenly lighted so that there are neither heavy shadows nor dark cor- ners to impede the work. Naturally, the lighter the general color scheme, the less the current that will be needed. Light colors may, therefore, be considered as having a practical, as well as an aesthetic, value. A MAMM. or HOME MAKlSd Hefekencer Cliild, ("icorj^ic Moynton. Tin- l^lficiciil Kilchrn. 1!>14. I'rcdcrick, C^hristiiic. The N'l-w Hoiisckfcpiiin. I'.Mii. ('■oodiiow, Rul)y Ross, and Adams, Kayiic. Tlic Honest Mouse. 1911. Whiti', Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and llow to Build Theni. l'J12. PART II HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT CHAPTER IV CARE OF THE HOUSE By Helen Knowlton For convenience as well as efficient work in housekeeping, a schedule of regular daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly proc- esses should be made out. Time can then be well planned, and a routine established that simplifies the machinery of house- keeping. CELLAR To keep the cellar in a sanitary condition, as much sunlight as possible should be admitted. The windows should be made as large as possible and be on opposite sides to insure cross- ventilation. If the house is banked for the winter, dry clean material should be used and the windows should not be covered. If the cellar floor is of concrete and is proof against dampness, it can be washed. The cellar walls should be whitewashed once or twice a year. Whitewash is a disinfectant. If the cellar walls admit moisture, it is recommended to wash them with a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (1 part acid and 5 parts water) , and then apply a plaster of oil-mixed mortar. A cellar containing a heating plant should be divided into compartments. By constructing one of these compartments with an insulating wall of hollow tile, a cool room for vegetables may be secured. It is sometimes best to construct an outside cellar for such storage (page 584). 121 IJJ A MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC KITCHKN Sink. A sink without ninriirij; water is unjust ifiahlo for tho busy housewife. A (h'aiu connection with a trap and a sanitary (hs- posal outside for wastes should he provided. 'I'he lu'st kind of sink and the pi(»pei- height for plaeini; it aic (Hscu.ssed on pafi;o lOS. After eacli disliwashinfj;, the sink should he washed with hot soapy water, and the sink-trap flushed with a ^cktous supply of hot water. This trap must he cleaned occasionally with kero- sene. At least one gallon of hot water should he poured down and while the i)ipe is still warm, one-half cup of kerosene poured in. This should .stand for at least five minutes and then the trap mav l>e flushed with a second gallon of hot water. A solu- tion of washing-soda should not be used .since it tends to form a hard soap with the tircase and to stop up the pipe. Kerosene forms no soap, Init simply an emulsion. The sink should be kept .so far as possible for purposes con- nected only with the preparation of food and the cleaning of dishes. Walls and woodwork. Painted walls and woodwork are most easily cleaned. They ma}' be wipcnl with a broom covered with a soft cloth for fre- quent cleaning. A long-handled brush is better than a broom. Occasionally they may be scrubbed with a soft brush, warm water and borax, and rinsed before being dried. Floors. Floor finishes best adapted for the kitchen are discussed on page 117. A mop-wringer is a great convenience in the work of mopping the kitchen floor. Dishwashing. Since the aim of dishwashing is to clean the dishes and to kill the bacteria that may be present l\v the use of .soapsuds and scalding water, special care should be taken in case of ton- silitis, colds, and other infectious diseases. Unless the dishes CARE OF THE HOUSE 123 of the patient are boiled, the germs may infect the whole family. Kitchen towels and cups. The roller towel for family use as well as the common drink- ing-cup must be discarded, if the health of the family is to be safeguarded. Kitchen dresses. Washable work dresses are the only land suitable for wearing in a kitchen. They have been proved to be economical of both money and time. They may be made of various inexpen- sive and satisfactory materials (page 368). Short sleeves and turndown collars or no collars at all add to the comfort of the worker. The design should be the simplest possible. LIVING-ROOM AND DINING-ROOM The window shades of the living-room and the dining-rooin should be raised more than halfway to let in the sunshine, and the windows should be opened frequently to air out and to keep the temperature below 70'^ F. SLEEPING-ROOMS The ideal sleeping-room is the outdoor porch with only cur- tains for protection. An indoor sleeping-room should have simple furnishings. Unnecessary draperies collect dust and exclude air and sunshine. The floor should be bare save for a few small, easily cleaned rugs. The wall paper should be of a soft restful color, either plain or with small inconspicuous figures. An iron bed is better than a wooden one because it can be more easily cleaned. A mattress is more healthful than a feather bed, because the body is not so enveloped as to hinder the escape of waste matter from the skin. The bed covering should be warm but light. Several light-weight blankets or comforts are better than fewer heavy ones. BATHROOM Absolute cleanliness and abundant ventilation are essential in a sanitary bathroom. Kerosene applied with a special brush 124 A M.WIWL OF HOME MAKIXG or rlotli to the liatliliil), l.'owl, and toilet and wasliod o(T with a irooir places. 8. Wash the scis.sors and duster and hang the duster to dry. Gather all trimmings in the paper and burn both trimmings and paper. They are not safe to leave around. To oil a kitchen stove. 1. Put a little light oil on a wad of cotton waste and rub it on all the iron parts of the stove. 2. Rub it ofT with fresh waste, an old cloth, or some crumpled paper. 3. Polish it with a dry flannelette or woolen cloth until all oilincss is gone. 4. Burn the waste, old cloth, or paper because oily waste and oily cloths are a frequent cause of fire through spontaneous combustion. 5. Wash out the polishing cloth. To clean a gas stove thoroughly. This process requires the following apparatus: A stove apron, a few old newspapers, a wire sink-brush, a monkey wrench. CARE OF THE HOUSE 127 whisk, dustpan and brush, a sink towel, several pieces of old cloth, soap and washing-soda, and the oil bottle. 1. Put on the apron and spread the papers on the table. 2. Turn off the gas at the main supply pipe with the monkey wrench. 3. Fill a large dish-pan with strong, hot soap-suds, put into it to soak the dripping-pan and rack and any movable nickel pieces of the stove. 4. Fill a tub half full of strong, hot soda-water. Put the drop tray in the bottom to soak, and on top of it put the top grates, doors, and all movable black parts of the stove. 5. Brush out both ovens and all parts of the stove frame. 6. Wet one of the old cloths in hot water, rub it on the soap, and wash off the stove. Dry it, if necessary, with an old cloth. Then oil the black parts very lightly with the oil and polish it off thoroughly with another old dry cloth. 7. Remove the pieces from the soda-water, rinse them in the sink in fresh warm water, and scrub the doors and other black pieces with the wire brush. Dry them off, oil and polish them, and put them back on the stove. 8. Let the dirty water out of the sink, transfer the nickel pieces, dripping-pan, and rack to the sink, pour in the soapy water, scrub the pieces thoroughly, dry them with the sink towel, and return them to place. 9. Scrub, rinse, dry, and return to place the drop tray. 10. Oil the stove after all the parts are put together. 11. Burn the old cloths and wash the sink out carefully. It is especially necessary to be careful about burn- ing oily cloths that are not washed after using, because they have been known to take fire spontaneously and are therefore dangerous when tucked into corners out of sight. To dean windows. A high stepladder, fiber tub, damp flannelette duster, scrub cloth, soft linen towel, chamois leather, ammonia, and warm water are necessary to clean windows. 1. Fill the tub half full of warm water and add a tablespoonful of am- monia or a few drops of kerosene. 2. Carry the ladder to the window, roll up the shade, and take it down. Unroll it on the floor or over a table, then roll it up, dusting both sides as it rolls. Stand it aside, marking to which window it belongs if more than one is being cleaned. 3. Dust the window, especially the surrounding woodwork, with the damp flannelette duster. 4. Wash the glass, especially corners, and dry with the linen towel. 5. Polish mth the chamois leather. 6. Replace the shade, testing carefully, and make sure the spring works properly. 7. Wash out the tub, towel, cloth, and duster. Hang the cloths to dry and put everything else away. 8. If chamois leather is not available, use crumpled newspaper. 9. The following mixture may be used instead of ammonia and water, but the resulting white dust must be carefully wiped up: 1 tablespoonful pre- cipitated whiting; 2 tablespoonfuls household ammonia. 128 .1 MAM .\L or IIOMI: MAKI.XC Ti> (It (III ii jiiiiiii) <(is( . A holt \r of olive oil, .1 Imt t Ir of :ilcoliol, xMiic lirw or pcifcctly clciin (•;iiilon tiaiiiicl, a pcifccl ly clean clianiois leather, and a biusin of water will he nettled (o clean a piano. 1. Wet :i smiiU |)i('r-o of I lie flaiiiicl and drop on it a few drops of nil. 2. Riili, with the wet flannel, a small seetion of the case at a time, and immediately rub it (lioroiij;hly with a dry piece of the flannel, before proceeding to a fresh section. 3. Polish it finally with I he chamois or a fnsh piece of the flannel. Rul) with the ^rain of the wood, and breathe on it occasionally to help remove any oiliness that may remain. A very little flour nibbed with the p;rain of the wood will also help to remove oilinesjs, but its use should not be necessary. 4. Wash the piano keys with a corner of the flannel wet with alcohol. Be careful, however, to avoid toucbiog the wood with the alcohol, as it will ruin the varuLsh. To wax a floor. In w'axing floors, the following apparatus is necessary: a can of floor wax, a waxing flannel, a half yard of heavy flannel or a piece of old brussels carpet, and a weighted brush. 1. The floor must be clean and free from dust. 2. If nece&sary, stand the wax can in a dish of hot water in order to soften the wax. 3. Rub the waxing flannel on the wax and put a very thin, even layer of wax on the floor. It is better to rub along the boards than across. Start at the corner farthest from the door, and do not step on the waxed part. 4. Put away the wax and flannel, and keep off the floor for at least three hours. The polishing can be done after standing an hour, but is more work. 5. Fold the piece of heavy flannel twice, making four layers, put it down on the floor, put the weighted l)rush on it, and rub each board, with the grain, until it shines. The piece of carpet makes an excellent substitute for the flannel. The polishing can be done on the hands and knees without a weighted brush, but is much harder work. CHAPTER V HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE The modern household should be equipped with well-selected measuring appliances which can be intelligently used not only to help standardize the daily housework and living conditions in the home but also to insure and promote just dealing in the community. The exact value of units used must be clearly known. Since the use of the metric system (page 167) is for- tunately becoming more widespread, future generations may escape the problems arising from the vagueness and ambiguity of the systems now in common use in this country.* MEASUREMENTS FOR COMMODITIES Measuring apparatus for household commodities should be tested and sealed by the local sealer of weights and measures, at the time of purchase. Weighi7ig scale. A weighing scale should have a capacity of 10 to 30 pounds or more, and should be graduated to 1 ounce or less. Among good types on the market are the hanging-pan spring scale, the counter beam scale, and the beam scale of the steelyard type designed to hang from a bracket. The cheap scale in which the commodity pan stands above the spring, is likely to be inaccurate. To use the scale properly, the following precautions should be observed: (1) Handle it carefully, and keep it clean and dry, (2) Keep it in balance. A properly constructed scale will rarely get out of balance, but the proper way of adjusting a particular *The following material in this chapter, with the exception of the tables indicated, is condensed from Measurements for the Household, Circ. 55, published by the Bur. of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 129 130 A M.WCAf. OF IIOME-MAKISG kind of scale slioiiM lie lcariic(|. {'.\\ Krrp the eye sf|Uar('ly in front of the point of tlic scale tliat is heiny; read. (4) Df) not weigh a connnodity in cardhoard or other heavy covering wilh- oul weighing the covering separately and de(hicting its weight from the total weight. Liquid measures. The suppl}' of h(iui(l measures siiould include a quart, a pint, aikl a half-])int measure, and a4-ounceglass graduate suhdivided to 1 dram or less for measuring small (juantities of licjuids and determining the eiiors in hirger cjuantities. The measures should be cylindrical or conical with the top diameter smaller than the bottom, and made of metal, enamelware, composition, or similar and suitable material. The}^ should be strong and rigid enough to withstand ortlinary usage. To test the quantity of a licjuid as delivered, the following directions will be useful: Pour the liquid into the measure. If it does not fill the measure, pour it out and fill the' measure with water to the same point that the purchased liquid I'eaciicd. This can be done by obsendng the wet ring left around the measure. Then put a definite quantity of water into the gradu- ate, and complete the filling of the measure. The difference between the quantity of liquid remaining in the graduate and the original quantity put in is the shortage. If the quantity of liquid ordered more than fills the test measure, the check for error is made on the last portion poured into the measure. To avoid mistakes in reading cone graduates, it should be noted that these are sometimes more finely sulxlividcd at the base than at the top. A graduate should be held level in filling it or reading it. It should be read at the main surface of the liquid, not at the point to which the small amount of licjuitl creeps on the sides of the glass. Dry measures. A nest of dry measures holding from 3 2 bushel to 1 quart may be necessary, although the growing tendency is to sell ilry commodities by weight. 'I'he weight of a bushel of certain HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 131 common dry commodities, as fixed by law in certain states, is given on page 162. Dry measures should be of metal, or of well-varnished wood with a metal band around the top, or of some similar and suitable material. They should preferably be cylindrical. If they are conical, the top diameter should exceed the bottom diameter by an amount not greater than 10 per cent of the bottom diameter. The diameters should in no case be less than the following: For }4 bushel 13V4 inches For 1 peck ICVs inches For 32 peck SV2 inches For two quartr, G^/s inches For 1 quart 5^8 inches For 1 pint 4 inches Length measure. For measuring length, a yardstick and a tape 3 or 6 feet in length are recommended. TEMPERATURE The following thermometers should be a part of the equip- ment of every household : Room-temperature thermometer. To give a fair measure of the temperature of a room, a ther- mometer should be placed about four feet from the floor, away from a stove, radiator, or ventilation flue and not on an out- side Avail. Under certain conditions fifteen minutes or more may be required to show the correct temperature if a thermometer is moved. Outdoor thermometer. To indicate the real temperature of outdoor air as given in the weather reports, a thermometer must be mounted in a specially well ventilated house or box four feet from the ground and so built as to shield the thermometer entirely from direct sunlight. Nearly the same results may be secured Ijy placing a thermometer in an open shady place, possibly at the north of a building, several feet away from the walls and four feet from the ground. 132 A MAMAL OF llOMEMAKLSd 'O -zy — Auti^rSe 248 105 -138 -H3- ( 7/// iral Ihrnnomckr. The usual clinical thermometer is a "maxi- mum" thermometer, that is, the uuTcury in the stem registers the highest teiniK-rature reached and does not return when the ther- mometer is cooled, hut nmst l)e shaken hack before another temperature can be measured. For this reason the thermometer may be removed from the mouth and read later. The usual type of "lens-front" thermome- ter is so made that the front of the kI^ss tube acts as a lens magnifying the width of the mercury thread. To read such a thermome- ter, it should be held in the hand and turned until the mercury column suddenly appears magnified to considerable width. This will occur when the clear corner of the triangular tube is directl}^ in front. The reading can then be made, remembering that the smallest divisions of the scale are usually 0°.2. The mercury should then be shaken back into the bulb by holding the thermometer firmly be- tween thumb and forefinger, Inilb outward, and giving a few very l)]-isk shakes from the wrist, or with the arm, and then seeing that the thermometer reads as low as 96° F. or 35°.5 C. The thermometer should never be tapped against a hard substance, as this is almost certain to break the bulb. Bath thermometers. Bath thermometers usuall}'" have their scales printed on paper or milk glass contained in a large glass tul^e w^hich incloses the ther- mometer capillary. The}' are often jirotected by a wooden cage to prevent breakage. When thus protected, it may take some time to ol> Fio. 40. — Comparison f)f Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales for nioasiirinK tem- perature. :>s- -15- tJ -1.^ -?5 -2; HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 133 tain the real temperature of the water unless the thermometer is kept moving. The temperatures in different parts of a tub of water may differ many degrees unless the water has been well mixed. A bath thermometer should be read while it is in the water because the readings will change very rapidly when the ther- mometer is taken out of warm water. Milk thermometers. Milk thermometers are useful in measuring the temperature of milk or cream, for the control of pasteurizing milk, churning cream, whipping cream, and the like. These processes are best carried out at definite temperatures. Some of these milk ther- mometers are purposely made large and light so that they will float, making their use more convenient. Candy-making thermometers. These thermometers are for use in making candies, boiling sirups, and the like. The thermometer should not be too near the bottom or the sides of the kettle, nor yet should it be at the point where boiling is most violent. Some of the tempera- tures at which boiling sirups should be removed from the fire to make different kinds of candies, as well as other useful in- formation as to temperature, are given in Table II. A candy-making thermometer may be tested for accuracy as follows : First find the boiling, point for any altitude from Table I (thus at 2,000 feet elevation the average temperature is 208° F. or 98° C.) ; then hold the thermometer with its bulb well immersed in a dish of briskly boiling pure water, and read the highest temperature reached. If this differs from that found in the table, the thermometer is too high or too low by this dif- ference. Oven thermometers. Various kinds of thermometers are used for reading oven temperatures. One kind is placed in the oven door and has a dial with a hand for indicating the temperatures. These ther- mometers may not indicate the true temperature of the oven because the door never becomes as hot as the remainder of the \M A M.WfAL OF HOME MAKIXd oven, ;iml (iftcii tiikcs niiicli litiijicr in lical iii}i; up. However, since leinperal uics soiiicl iiiics tieecl not, Ik- known more !u;eu- rately llian within 10 or 20 (le;:;rees, such iherniorneters un^ use- ful and are more convenient than those which have to he himj!; inside (he oven. One kind of thorniometer which reads uj) to 550° F., is made to screw into a special opening in the range. It may bo hun^i inside the ov(>n, hu( in this case the door must be oj)cncd or a window provided in order to read it. Tests for thcnnomctcrs. Household thermometers from i-oliablc makers are usually correct to within 1 or 2 dof^rees at room temperature and below, although sometimes they are several degrees in error. Any thermometer which has 32° F. or 0° C. on its scale may be easily tested at this point by scraping a tumbler full of clear ice, saturating this with ice-cold, pure water, and placing the ther- mometer ])ull) in this mixture until it reads as low as it will go. Clean snow' saturated with water may also be used, Ijut if the snow is left dry it may be much colder than 32° F. If the thermometer tested reads 32° F. or 0° C, it is correct at this point. If higher or lower than this, it is too high or too low by the amount of the difference observed. Such a test is reliable to a tenth of a degree if carefull}' made. For other temperatures there are no tests which are quite as convenient or reliable as for the ice point. The steam point, 212° F. or 100° C, is used in the testing of thermometers in the laboratory, l)ut the steam temperature depends on the baro- metric reading, which varies with the weather, and with the altitude of the place where the water is l)oiled. For places within 500 feet of sea level, the temperature shown by a ther- mometer immersed in a steam l)ath over briskly boiling water, or in the water itself if the same is pure, should be between 210° and 212° F., or between 99°, and 100° G. For higher alti- tudes the temperature will be lower, as may be seen from Table I. The temperatures given in this tal)le are averages only and vanations of 1° 1'. or 0°.G. C. may take place from day to day because of changes in the barometric pressure. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 135 If a tested clinical thermometer is at hand, a fairly accurate test at about 100° F. may be made. A thermometer which is correct at the ice point and at about 100° F. will probably be correct at other temperatures. Clinical thermometers should be tested by a competent testing laboratory, such as that at the United States Bureau of Standards. TABLE I. — BoiLixG Point of Water and Average Barometer Readings for Different Altitudes Aliunde Temperature of stemn Corrected barometer Average readings Degrees F. Degrees C. Inches Millimeters Sea level 212.0 208.3 204.6 201.1 197.6 194.0 100.0 97.9 95.9 93.9 92.0 90.0 29.9 27.8 25.8 24.0 22.3 20.7 760 2000 feet 706 4000 feet 655 6000 feet 610 8000 feet 566 10,000 feet 526 T.A.BLE II. — Useful Temper.\tures Mercury freezes Freezing cold storage Water freezes Danger of frost Household refrigerator, proper temperature Churning Gymnasium, or rooms where occupants are actively engaged in physical work or exercise Ripening of cream . . : Rooms where occupants are not exercising Normal temperature of the human body determined by thermometer under the tongue Incubator temperature . Degrees Fahren- heit i;i(i .1 .u.i.vr.w, or no mi: mm0 ■_'12 •J 19 236 240 240 300 310 315 365 250 350 350 400 400 450 450 550 621 121.S TABLE III.— A Tahlf, of Tkmperatures * Process Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit P'reezing of fruit ices (temperature ol —5 to — S 3 to 10 15 to 16 26 to 40 23 to 18 Freezing of water Whipping of cream 32 37 to 50 60 Raising of bread (temperature of 70 to 104 * Williams, Anna W., and Gray, Cora E., Cooking Temperatures, Bull. 47. Univ. of 111. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 137 TABLE III. — Continued * Process Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit Cheese-making Coagulation of albumin Simmering of water 37 to 60 (Depends upon acidity) Begins 56; completes 71 82 to 99 82 to 84 89 to 94 100 103 113 111 113 to 115 ■ 117 125 122 250 175 46.5 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 175 to 190 185 to 205 190 to 195 175 to 190 150 to 170 200 180 to 220 98.6 to 140 133 to 160 180 to 210 Soft custards 179 to 183 Double boiler, top part 192 to 201 Boiling water at sea level Jellies (boiling point of water 100° C.) Sugar cookery (boiling point of water 100° C.) Fondant 212 185 235 Fudge frosting, boiled 1 egg white to 1 cup sugar . 2 egg whites to 1 cup sugar 1 egg white to 1 cup of dark brown sugar 232 235 to 239 243 257 1 egg white to % cup of dark brown sugar, }4 cup white 252 * Roasting of meat Temperature of oven First 15 minutes 450 Remainder of time Temperature of meat interior Rare done 347 115.7 to 140 Medium 140 to 158 Well done 158 to 176 Deep-fat frying. Temperature of fat for Uncooked foods 347 to 374 Cooked foods 365 to 401 Cold, wet, uncooked foods Baking. Temperature of center of oven for Sponge cakes 374 to 383 347 to 374 Angel food cakes 302 to 338 Souffles (surrounded by water) Bread 392 356 to 428 * Sprague, Elizabeth, and Grindley, H. C, "A Precise Method of Roast- ing Beef," Univ. of 111. Bull., Vol. IV, No. 19. i;is .1 MAMM. or HOME M.XKISC TAHI,!; \U.--('orainm:d Process Degrees Cenligrddc Degrees FcJircnheil Butter rakos Loaf I'.tO 210 220 to 235 235 235 235 to 2 10 235 to 200 210 374 Layer 410 Muflins 428 to 455 Parkcrhouso rolls Baked pot atoes Bakinp; powder biscuit Popovers 455 455 455 to 4()-l 455 to 3'i2 * Pastry 104 * Sjiranue, l']lizal)('tli, ".Studies of Methods in Food Preparation," Journal of Home Economics, Vol. Ill, No. 5, p. 446. TIME The usual clocks found in the home may be divided into two classes, the mantel or wall clock type, which has a pendu- lum, and the common alarm-clock type, in which the movx'mont is controlled by the vil)ratic)ns of a balance wheel, as in a watch. The second variety is (juite portable and will usuall}^ run in any position, but the pendulum clock must be kept fixed in an up- right position and must be adjusted every time it is moved. Moving a pendulum clock. The pendulum clock usually has its pendulum suspended by a thin flat spring, and to avoid breaking this spring when the clock is to be moved from one place to another, it is best either to unhook the bob from the pendulum rod or to secure the pendulum tightly to the clock works or case so that it cannot swing. In setting up such a clock after removal, it is necessary to put the clock "in beat"; that is, to make the successive vi- brations of the pendulum, or the time between successive ticks of the clock, of equal length. This must be done by carefully leveling the clock on its support, unless the clock is provided with adjusting thumbscrews at the top of the pendulum by the movement of which one way or the other it can be made to beat uniformly. HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 139 Setting a clock. The setting of a pendulum clock is usually best done by turn- ing the minute hand forward, several revolutions if necessary, to bring the hour hand to the correct hour. If the clock does not have a striking mechanism, the hour hand, which is usually held on its slightly conical shaft by friction, may be moved forward a sufficient number of hours, and the minute hand ad- justed to the correct minute. As the hour hand may have be- come loosened on its shaft by this procedure, however, it should be pressed tightly into place after it is set correctly. In some clocks with a striking mechanism, the minute hand should not be moved backward across a striking point, although it can, without injury, be moved back short distances in other parts of the dial to set it correctly. Regulating a clock. Few clocks of either the pendulum or the alarm-clock type are made with devices to compensate for changes in temperature, and as these changes will alter the rate, it is desirable to keep the clock in the part of a room where its temperature will be most constant. Even with the best conditions in this respect, it will be necessary to regulate the clock's rate frequently on account of the changes of temperature with season oi with the conditions of heating or cooling of the room. A rise of tempera- ture will lengthen the pendulum rod and make the clock run more slowly. It will be necessary, therefore, to raise the pendu- lum bob by turning the supporting nut, unless an adjustment device is provided by which a contact point on the suspension spring at the top of the pendulum can be changed. This is done by turning a key to right or left in a small keyhole in the face of the clock, usually near the upper part of the dial. This has the effect of shortening or lengthening the pendulum. In the alarm-clock type, the regulation is done by moving a small lever, usually at the back of the clock, which engages with the hairspring on the balance wheel, and so decreases or increases the effective length of the spring, thus controlling 110 A MAMAL (li llttMK MAKIXG llu' (imc of a vihrat.ioii of the halaiicc The lever should bo moved toward the leller "S" \vh(;ii oiu; wishes to make IIk; clock run more slowly and toward "F" when it should rim faster. The same rule applies in the regulation of a watch. \\'hen rej^ulatiiiji; a pendulum clock hy the key device, tho key should he turned overhand toward the letter "S" or "F," aecordinp; as one wishes to make tho clock run more slowly or faster. If there are no indicatinjj; letters ("F" and "S") pro- vided, the usual rule is to turn the key in the direction the hands move to make it go faster or counterclockwise to make it run more slowly. The amount of movement required to correct the rate must generall}' be found by trial. Thus, if the clock gains five min- utes a da3% and one turns the key of the retiiieiit and rate. All sikldon changes of motion should he avoided, and a fall is liable to bend some of the pivots and seriously chan^fc the rate. The ptjsition in which it is kept also makes a lat{i;e dilTerence in its rate;, especially with the unadjusted cheaper types, lioth the watch and the clock should best be kept in an upright position, both day and night, as uniformity of practice is the chief e.ssential. All timepieces should, of course, be kept protected from dust and dirt. They should be wound rejjularly. It is perhaps better to wind a watch twice a day than once a day, if it is done regularly, and the last part of the winding should be done slowly to avoid in- jury to the mechanism. An alarm clock. An alarm clock may be made very useful in giving a warn- ing of the necessity of inspecting a given process which other- wise might be overlooked, and when food materials are fre- quently spoiled in preparation from lack of attention, the use of an alarm clock will soon save its cost. In using the alarm feature of an alarm clock, the setting mechanism should be turned in one direction only, for the same reason as in the case of setting a clock with striking mech- anism to correct time, to avoid locking or breaking the setting device. Occasionally the indicating hand of the alarm will not be placed correctly on its pinion and the alarm will sound at a different time from that expected. This error will be a constant one, however, and its amount having been once learned, allowance may be made for it in setting the hand; or a watch repairer can correct the fault very quickly. Many alarm clocks have the dial for setting the alarm of very small diameter, making it difficult accurately to set the hand. For this use it is desirable to secure a clock with as large an alarm- hand dial as possible, preferably one having the alarm hand set on the central pinion with the hour and minute hands. With such a clock the alarm can be set quite accurately HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 143 for giving a signal at short intervals and can be used to give warnings of the time to inspect certain processes of the kitchen, for the taking of medicine at regular intervals, and the like. MEASURING GAS How to read a gas meter. The index of an ordinary gas meter, which is similar to that of an electric or a water meter, is shown in Fig. 41. The smal- F&ET ^T^» ^s5Tr4S4. >;y52¥sa*, Fig. 41.— The index of a gas meter. Each dial is marked with the volume of gas passed a revolution. The smaller top dial, which is marked "Two Feet" inside of the circle, is generally called the ' ' testing circle " or " prov- ing head" and is used principally in testing the meter. ler top dial, which is marked "Two feet" inside of the circle, is generally called the "testing circle" or "proving head," and is used principally in testing the meter. One revolution of the hand of the testing circle indicates that 2 cubic feet of gas have passed through the meter. In some meters one revolu- tion of the hand of the testing circle represents more or less than 2 cubic feet of gas and the testing circles are correspond- ingly marked. The indication of the hand of the testing circle is ignored in the ordinary reading of the meter. Of the large dials the first one at the right is usually marked "1 thousand." This means that during one complete revolu- tion of the hand, 1000 cubic feet of gas has passed through the Ill A MA.\r.\L or IKf.Mi: MAKIXa meter. This dial is dividctl into ten (-(lual parts so that the pas- sape of the liand over eaeli part indicates th(^ passage of one- tenlh of lOOO cubic feet, or 100 cuhic feet. For most meters, it may 1"' said of the other .^ 5 V V_5_V W? / Fig. 42. — Gas meter index rcadiiiK 79,500 cubic feet. marked "1 thousand," the second dial will be marked "10 thousand," the third " 100 thousand," and .so on. The reading of the index, as illustrated in Fig. 41 is as follows: Reading of " 1 thousand" dial 200 cubic feet Reading of "10 thousand "dial 5 000 " " Reading of " 100 thousand" dial 30 000 " " Complete reading of the meter 35 200 " It is not necessary to WTite down separately the reading of each dial, but it is much shorter to set down from right to left the figure last passed by the hand of each dial, commencing with the dial of lowest denomination and then — if the dial of lowest denomination is marked "1 thousand" — appending two zeros to the resulting figures. If a hand is very nearl}^ over one of the figures on a dial, it is impossible to tell without consulting the dial of next lower HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 145 denomination whether the figure under the hand or that just previously passed by the hand should be read. For example, in Fig. 42 the hand of the ''100 thousand" dial is over 8, and considering this dial alone the reading might be taken as 8; but it is seen that the reading of the "100 thousand" dial cannot have reached 8, since the hand of the dial to the right (the "10 thousand" dial) has not reached zero. The reading of the "100 thousand" dial is therefore 7, and the correct reading of the entire index is 79 500 cubic feet. To satisfy one's self that the gas company does not make a mistake in reading the meter, it is well for the consumer, oc- casionally at least, to read his meter at as nearly as possible the same time that the gas company reads it. Usually the gas company's bill will state the meter readings on the dates be- tween which the bill applies, so that checking meter readings will be easy. If the meter readings are not given on the bill, the consumer can determine what the amount of his bill should be if he knows the meter readings and the price of gas a thousand cubic feet. Should the consumer take one meter reading at the proper time and then miss the next one or two, it is obvious that he can still check up the gas bills by taking a reading at the next convenient time when the company's reader calls, cal- culating the cost of gas used between the dates of his readings and comparing this cost with the sum of the amounts of the bills rendered for gas between the same dates. Cost of gas consumed an hour in appliances. With only a little trouble one can determine the cost an hour of operating a gas light, heater, or other gas-consuming ap- pliance. To do this, one should have in operation the appli- ance in question and all other gas appliances supplied through this meter shut off. Then, by observing the "testing circle" of the meter, the time in seconds required for 1, 2, or more cubic feet of gas to pass should be determined. The number of cubic feet of gas used an hour is then determined in the fol- lowing manner: (1) Divide the number of cubic feet burned during the test by the number of seconds, thus determining the Mf. ,! M AXIAL or HOME MAKISd number of ciihic feet of fj;us used u socoiid, and (2) multiply the result hy 'M'A)() (the number of seconds in an hourj. I'Jxdin/ilc: It is oh.scrvud that with a ^as watf-r-hcatrr in oprTation, die meter indicates the pjussanc of 2 cuhie feet of k;us in 1 minute and 10 seconds. Aiiplyitifi; the al)ove rule, 2 (cul)ic feet) is divided l)y 100 (seconds) (the (•(luivalent of 1 minute and 40 seconds), which Rives y^^; ^Jj is irmltiphed l)V 3(i00, nivin^; Vo"o", <>r 72. The water-heater is, tlierefore, usinn 72 cuhic feet of Kas an hour. Knowing the cost of 1000 cubic feet of gas, one can easily calculate the cost an hour for gas used in the heater; for exami)le, if gas were SI for 1000 cubic feet, the 72 cul)ic feet w'ould cost 72 timeAyjigjj of SI, or 7.2 cents, which is the cost an hour for gas. Causes of high hills for gas. If a consumer's gas bill for a certain period greatly exceeds that of the previous period, it is due to one or more of the fol- lowing causes: 1. An increased consumption of gas. A careful considera- tion of the use made of gas during the period covered l)y the bill will very often reveal the fact that an unusual amount of gas has been consumed. Baking, canning of fruit, entertain- ing, the coming of long winter evenings, and the like are a common cau.se of increased gas consumption resulting in larger bills than usual. Leaks in the gas pipes of the house may produce the same results. 2. An error of the gas company in reading the meter or in office work. If the consumer reatls his own meter and checks the bill, the question as to whether tliis cause is operative can be quickly ascertained. 3. A fast meter. If the two above causes apparently do not exist, the consumer will naturally consider that his meter is fast. The best procedure for the consumer who thinks his meter incorrect varies with the locality. Many of the larger cities are provided with meter-inspection departments, under the supervision of the city or state, and the consumer can have his meter tested by this department. If his meter is found to be fast in excess of the established tolerance, the company HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 147 usually pays the fee for the test and refunds to the consumer a certain amount, depending on the magnitude of the error of the meter and the probable length of time that the consumer has been thereby overcharged. If the meter is found to be within the tolerance, or "slow," the consumer usually pays the fee (about $1), and may have to pay the gas company for the probable amount he has been undercharged. MEASURING ELECTRICITY How to read an electric meter. A view of the dials of a modern electric meter is given in Fig. 43. The method of reading is similar to that for the dials MLOWATT MOUR5 Fig. 43. — Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hands are correctly set on their shafts. The reading is 538 kilowatt hours. of a gas meter as explained on page 144. The reading in Fig. 43 is 538 kilowatt hours. In taking down these figures one should read the dials from right to left; that is, in the reverse of the usual order of writing numbers. The pointer on the dial at the extreme right points to 8; the number 8 is written down as the figure in the units place. The index of the next dial to the left has passed the 3, but has not reached the 4, as shown by the fact that the units' dial reads 8; the figure 3 is accordingly written in the tens' place. The index of the third dial has passed the 5, and this figure is to be written in the hundreds' place, giving 538 kilowatt hours as the reading of the meter, since the index of the dial at the extreme left has not reached the figure 1. If the index hand of the second dial in Fig. 43 be turned slightly so as to point to, or even slightly past, the figure 4, it becomes more difficult to read the meter correctly, as a hasty 14S .1 MAXIM, or lloMi: MMc' as mndi < nncnt as a new (inc, an■(' sIkjuUI he placed on a level with the surface of the li(}uicl and llie line where this surface appears to cut the stem of the hy(h\-\ OC o S S o ?~-\§-2 -H CJ •• X ■ ■ cor 2 2 ^_\ ^z O \-f ^-^ """— ^ — c ~ (a "" C-^ ^- *J -t X tc C — ta ^- ^- F" ^ i oc :o vp< •r ^-^r^— ^ CO O 3 c -Hrt o« Sg m — «M -r X -,r 2J C ec i L - X u ^ < > s- S''~^ — ?! -t X -riM Tt C t; c 1 c sN C-4 n\-- WC •« 2 :i» -H — -j.oooN'txecrc k%, c ■-< W O IN 'O 1^ n — r^ d < jj^ . E- ■ • ■ ■ ._2 ' ' 03 " ' ■ ui ■ ■ a 3 . nil.:? a 3 u . -^ §£S : "-^ lililllHli HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 159 TABLE VI.— Equivalent Weights and Measures of Certain Foods * Food Beverages: Chocolate Cocoa Coffee Tea Water Bread stuffs: Bread, white Bread crumbs Crackers, graham . . Crackers, oyster . . . Crackers, soda Saltines Cereals : Barley, pearl Corn-meal, granu- lated Corn-starch Flour, graham Flour, entire wheat . Flour, white Hominy, or samp . . Hominy grits Macaroni : . . . Oatmeal Oats, rolled Rice Whole wheat Dairy products: Cheese (American) A. P Cream, 40% Milk Eggs (whole) A. P.*. . . Fats: Butter Lard Measure of 1 pound Measure of 1 ounce 5 1/3 cups, grated 1 square or 1/3 cup, grated 4 cups Mcup 5 1/3 cups 5 1/3 tablespoons 63^ cups 6J^ tablespoons 2 cups 2 tablespoons 16 slices, 14 inch thick 1 slice, }/2 inch thick 4 cups Jicup 57 cl-ackers 3J^ crackers 9 2/3 cups 2/3 cup 49 crackers 3+ crackers 124 crackers .7 crackers 2 1/8 cups 2 tablespoons 2^ cups 2% tablespoons 3 cups 3 tablespoons 4 cups M cup 43^ cups 1/3 cup 4 cups Mcup 2}/2 cups 2K tablespoons 2M-1- cups 2M+ tablespoons 43^ cups H+ cup 3-|- cups 3-|- tablespoons b]/2 cups b}/2, tablespoons 2 cups 2 tablespoons 2 1/3 cups 2 1/3 tablespoons 4 cups grated M cup grated 2 cups 2 tablespoons 2 cups 2 tablespoons 9 J^egg 2 cups 2 tablespoons 2 cups and 2 table- spoons 2-\- tablespoons A. P. means as purchased; E. P. means edible portion. ICO A M.WIM. or HOME MAKlSd lAHIJ-; W. -donliniied Fowl ( 'risen Oil, olivo Oil, Wesson Suet, beef Fruits, dried: Apples, A. P Apricots Curranls, A. P . . . Dates, A. P FiRs Prunes Ilaisins Fruits, fresh: Apples, A. P Bananas, A. P. . . Cranberries Grapes, mala 59 halves 4 halves 3H cups 34 cup G8 4Ji 24 VA 40 to 60 3 to 4 3 cups 3 taljlespoons or 18 raisins 3 appl(>s, or 4 cups M apple, or 1/3 cup diced diced 3 medium bananas 1/6 (scant) banana AYz cups 1/3 cup 120 grapes 1 1 1/3 to 2 cups lYz grapes 2 tablespoons 2 to 3 Z]/2 cups 3H tablespoons 30 slices 2 slices 40 slices 23^ slices 2/5 cup or 16 nuts 1/5 cup or 24 nuts J^ cup or 15 nuts 1/S cup or 40 nuts 1 14 tablespoons 3H nuts 15 halves or % cup 1 3 2 tablespoons 2 tablespoons 3 tablespoons 3 tal:)lesi)oons HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 161 TABLE Y I. —Continued Food Measure of 1 pound Measure of 1 ounce Tapioca, pearl 2)4 cups 1/8+ cup Minute 2H cups 23^ tablespoons Vegetables, dried: Beans, navy, A. P. . 2-f- cups 2 tablespoons, or 1/8 cup Beans, lima 2 1/3 cups 2+ tablespoons or 1/8+ cup Lentils, A. P 2 1/5 cups 2+ tablespoons Vegetables, fresh: Beets, A. P 2 medium beets 1/8 beet Cabbage, A. P 1/3 to }/2 medium head or 53^ cups shredded % cup shredded Carrots, A. P b]/2 carrots 1/3 carrot Celery, A. P 4 bunches 1 stalk Onions, A. P 6 to 8 medium ]/2 medium Parsnips, A. P 6 medium 1/3 parsnip Potatoes, A. P 23^ medium 23^ tablespoons, dried Potatoes, sweet, A. P 3 medium 1/5 potato Water 2 cups 2 tablespoons TABLE VII. — Approximate Measure of 1 Ounce of Certain Spices, Leavening Agents, and Flavoring Substances (Mary F. Henry) Substance Measure of 1 ounce Allspice (whole) }/i cup Allspice (ground) Baking powder Mcup 3 tablespoons Celery seed 3^ tablespoons Cinnamon 3% tablespoons Cloves (whole) 4+ tablespoons Cloves (ground) 3^ tablespoons Cream of tartar 3 tablespoons Mustard seed 23^ tablespoons Mustard . . 4 5/8 tablespoons Pepper (whole) 4 tablespoons Pepper (ground) 4 1/3 tablespoons Salt 1^ tablespoons Soda 23^ tablespoons Vanilla 2 tablespoons 1()2 oiivm JO ujoj uvtfiuj A MAS I'M. or HOME MAKlSd J3g UOIJOJ I ;dji« ujoj IIJ03 /'•'IpiJS ut iC »o »o »o i-C z "■"',) IJ33H JJJOJJ ceo ceo 'C c o -w c a c c cc o S}OJJVJ MO C-1 >D o c< o a; c ^ ]D3^.n.yjng p33s ssvjB-snig s)33g o cocco o (Z ;r -— '.£ c o o rujuvg tzi r- 'O X o X ■» ^ '^ Tj* ^ lO "^ 'J' X (^XXjCX XXt-XX xxxxx sjlddv pnJQ o OOOO OOOOO oo CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO COCO -co CO ooooooooco oooocot^ 00 (N. o p_« ^■z > & ^ ^ ^ u t^ 0) c; QJ O O B O C >i — -jr o 2 T, ■V.B5 Co o '"^^ 2 3 = ?: to CO CO CO 'O to to to to »o OO ooo CO CO CO CO CO 00(N (NIM O T}^ to Tj^ to tO (Sjs B MC ti _ S-K c c> d-= 3 ^ p E j3J«!t-a) -Coc'u ai*f(U.s >i>iti.-i. OOOftH WmwH EhP» ^^p^ cd fl 2 o &0c '^CJOj — -OOSri "3 -a ^ S ■"■ a '33 O QJ .^ O ; S 5 yoo o. c _ - o a g o g £ I'g'?^ ^^z IGl /wv.ii 1 MAM AL sssss nr Home MAKISC SSS :S SSSSS SSSSS SSSSS S mtitunj^ u^iifvmnj^ s COO • QtO • }>.>3g niftoiuij^ I/; iC *C •C ^C *o »"« tS O O ® !£ (loi p.>}j O O '-O O C 'O g30)D)0^[ }33mg c T c '.': T ^c CC >.• I.t L- O Ut O w O O 1 O C 3 C CO C O - ■? P- wSofSo IGO .1 MAMAL OF llOMl-: MAKlSd TAHI.KS OF WEIGHTS AND MKASIRES A pothecarira' Fluid Measure: Apothecaries' Weight: (Ml iiiiniiiiM u I fluid (Iriiiii S lliiiil ilruniH = I Muid ouiiri- l)j lliini otiiiccM = 1 li<|iiiil itiiil 8 li(|ui(l piiitH = 1 Kiillun (lirilmh iiKiiuturc-d diflcT from above) Avoirdupois Weiylit: 27 \\ Kraiiw ll> drams 10 ouiicu.s 25 poundM 28 pounds 4 quarters 20 ((ruins '.\ Krrupli's K drums \2 ounces "^ 1 scruple = 1 drum = 1 ounce = 1 ixjund = 1 dram = 1 ounce = 1 pound = 1 short quarter = 1 long quarter = 1 hundredweight 20 hundredweight = 1 ton {^h-'^to" ^ ^^,^^ ^^^^ Circular Measure: CO seconds 00 minutes 90 degrees 4 quadrunts Cubic Measure: short hundredweight = KX) pounds long liundredwcight = 112pouJld9 2000 |K>unds = 1 minute = 1 degree = 1 (juadrant = 1 circle or circumference 1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard 144 cubic inches = 1 board foot 128 cubic feet = 1 cord Dry Measure: 2 pints = 1 quart 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel 1 barrel (for fruit, vegetables, and other dry commodities) = 105 dry quarts Kitchen measures. See pages 157 and 158 Linear Measure: 12 inches = 1 foot 3 feet = 1 yard 53-12 yards = 1 rod or pole 40 rods = 1 furlong 8 furlongs = 1 statute mile (1700 yards, or 5280 feet) 3 miles = 1 league Linear Measures (special): 1000 mills = 1 inch 72 points = 1 inch 4 inches = 1 hand 7.92 inches = 1 surveyor's link 9 inches = 1 span G feet = 1 fathom 40 yards = 1 bolt (cloth) 10 chains = 1 furlong 0080.20 feet = 1 nautical mile = 1 . 1510 statute miles Liquid Measure: 4 gills = 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 gallon 31 l-^ gallons = 1 barrel 2 barrels = 1 hogshead Paper Measure: For small papers the old meiisure is still in use: 24 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 ream (480 sheets) 050 cubic inches = HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 167 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES— Conhnwed For papers put up in cases, bundles, or frames the following measure is now used: 25 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 standard ream (500 sheets) Sqtiare Measure: Surveyor's Measure: 144 square inches = 1 square foot 9 square feet SOJ-i square yards 160 square rods 640 acres 36 square miles 1 square yard = 1 square rod or perch = 1 acre = 1 square mile = 1 township (6 miles square) 7.92 inches = 1 link (Gunter's or surveyor's) 100 links = 1 chain ( = 60 feet) 80 cliains = 1 mile Surveyor's Area Measure: 625 square links Time Measure: Troy Weight: 16 (square) poles 10 square chains or IGO square rods 640 acres 36 square miles = 1 (square) pole or square rod = 1 square chain (surveyor's) = 1 acre = 1 square mile = 1 township 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour 24 hours 7 days 365 days 366 days 1 day = 1 week = 1 year = 1 leap year 24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 pound (Troy) Carat (for precious stones) = 200 milligrams. The carat was formerly an ambiguous term having many values in various countries. Karat (fineness of gold) = 1/24 (by weight) gold. For example, 24 karats fine = pure gold; 18 karats fine = 18/24 pure gold. INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM In the international metric system the fundamental unit is the meter — the unit of length. From this the units of capacity (liter) and of weight (gram) were derived. All other units are the decimal subdivisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related; e. g., for all practical purposes 1 cubic decimeter equals 1 liter and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram. The metric tables are formed by combining the words "meter," "gram," and "liter" with the six numerical prefixes, as in the following tables: Prefixes Meaning Vnils milli- = one thousandth 1 1000 1 0.001 "meter' ' for length centi- — one hundredth .01 100 1 deci- = one tenth 10 .1 Unit = one 1 "gram" ' for weight or mass deka- = ten 10 hecto- = one hundred 100 "liter" for capacity kilo- = one thousand 1000 ' One meter = 39.37 inches; 1 liter = 1.0567 liquid quarts; 1 gram = 0.035 avoirdupois ounce. 168 y\ MAM AL ol' HOME MAKISC INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM— Con/«nu«f L'nila of Length OnUii of Capacity UniU of Wriijlu ( 020 coro CO CO IN <2 ^ o^^-^ W N W CO CO ^TflTjtUS io«r»aD« 1 ■* CO Tt( CO r-l (N 05 OO 743205 657607 572009 -H CO ■* 00 CO o OO o >0 CO IN CO lO 05 .-1 IN CO IN Oi-4t^N (NMCO'^ ■* lis 1.0 » CO r»t^oeocos 1 CO II II II II T-l IN -^ IN O (N CO t^ 05 00 O rt II II II II 11 CO ■^ CO ■* 00 ■* o ■* 00 t^ (N CO II II II II CO t^ lO o o o 00 1-1 CO CD 655278 = 748889 = 842500 = li iHrHNC^ Mco^-*ia lO WOI^ t^«oosso> o 1 1 OOO OOOtji OO-^ C0C0 03 219202 524003 828804 133604 OO rfCJ 00 CO co^ OOOfH ■-I --I --I N W INiNW^ i«wr»ocas II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II l-l 00 «5»r««« 1 ^-^ININ oooo oooo •01 00 IN CO CO CO T^ Tt^lO O C' o o o OC OOO Ot)0(N050CO OOtNlOOlCO CO CO lO •<)< •<»< OSCOI^^HIO rt CSINCOCO "-( 1 oooo ooooo rtWM'S" USWfODOS 170 .1 .1/ i\r.i/. or iioMi: MAKixr; i-ii g 1 £ 1 Ipil W O * P M _ — ^ fi CI ^■5? C s 1/5 « us ic « r. »-oe«io II II II II II n II II II II n II II n II II H It — c^ « •r i-j « 1- is OM CO •ro tsci cj ^■- cd»« — ^--Mcici «rerc^ usWr>K« ^ 5 ^ " -< M -r "i t^ cc=> C CI v3 5 O CI cc -r o ?;ci C-. lO « 1- o -r oc — lO 2 S? r?5 cc o ID n ^ cao II II II It CI ^s M ^ t II II II II II II II II II c; r» t^ ae es II II II II |[ o o c O C-. o oo CO o t/j n o 1-: Ol (N ce CC' 1- 1- 1- cc -^ rt o lO l» o — CO L-; t» *- J5 ro c-« »M--N ■ MP!'* -J-IO i.-: ce r» t^ CC 00 OS e c ^1 CI 1^ t^ CI CI N M C3 S « 5»tto lO -1" re CI —1 CI lO M -H 3ftS5§ I'l r: x 1- 1- c; — ciro IT o -s t^ CO o odd II II II II d = o c d II II II II II II II II II •r M CI i.T CO CI C-- ir^ us « r« X S5 It It It It It O C5 h- — I.- t^iCCIO xicro — X "«NM'»' m » r- X « O — Cl« cc -no d -i — MCO'* ■•t X t^ X o O"^ '■C * 1 « CI rei^h~ X O — cc U5 V3 ^ 5 COO •O -H -.C — CO ■«< C5CC00 cir^ — eo WNM^ us » -o f» ac OS CI d in CI X 'C — X II II 11 II II II II II II — — CJ II II II II CO C<3 •<»• L- U5 II II It It II oooo oo oo ■n o 'o o o t^ w cci- >n §-^ — rc^Cs t-o> CCI o c^ 5- i C' C w o dd-« — — o«^ US cs r. « OJ v^ ■;; "■ « , 0= '■cnc.'n ^X'^OCD ^ ^ -^ — COtjM•)< i/s ;5 r- X 8> iridiod cc cios'O -h'„"ci >r; d d -- d Cl t~ — cc O CI x_'.o--oq COC<5t)<"u5U3 II II II II II II II II II II II Ih, II It II It It It >c o .o o ,»_,-_,^ ^ ^ 1.': ^ ;c Ci 1-^ ?: jc ir ci t^ C-. CJ CI M 8S8S dddd ooooo ddodd -"->r->f '•; CS r. X «5 HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 171 03 1^^ •-I t- T)< — 00 •OiN g03 -^ 00 IMOOO) i^cq rt (N(NCO co^ ■^ •?)<00 (M OtJ.00 •* o> Tfl 00 CO 00 IN t^ C^J 1 < b _,W(NM ^Tt^usser. r-ao«ci IN Tlo ^00 s t^ to oq 000 in CO -■00 II II II II II II II II 11 11 II II 11 to to r» 00 as II 11 11 II II m O) 00 00 r~ 1^ to r^ 10 CO ^ 05 1^ I0i0«0 -^ IN CO CO ^ lOCO" CO to (N 10 00 .-tDl^ ■^t^ wt^tici nn^uno cStor»t^ ODOSO) ■ • — »-i •— I s, ■J^ ** (MMiOr^ OCaO0s II II 11 II II (Nl^rt too t^QCO — CO lOXlNOOO 'S "W »NNM^ ui(ep>xs» d lo -^ to-HNiNr^ 0^ COt^O Tf t^-H ^OO-H s -^INNINCO ij ^ ' l-i 0)00^ C^^ 00 Tl< O^^IN cocOTfTjilo ^•s 6666 doodd rtWM^ u»wr>aOA M (Ncomo OOO^COiO •^ V i^Tf— 100 iocoor»Tf< •«» ocr^cDT)! COIN — 0100 r^ S cor-_'-<_io_ ajco_t>.0'* O;:^ »«NW»* l«!SF'CK)P> tDcq"o;io" — oo"'*''—"r>-" rtCO'tio OOCOr-CO^ s II II II II cOiMOCi" 305 = 360 = 427 = 488 = 549 = II II II II II II II II II •S g 0000 00000 ■§1 0000 00000 0000 00000 ^•S 6666 66066 rt WMtX •awt^xe: .1 .\/.i.vr.i/. or HOME MAKisa •« CO r- ©•r ■ > — ? X » t z 8 ~ R X 5 ? ■tl Si i.* *^ «9* •J 1- ■rj M — ri It II II ^ «» • r» r>. II II II II II II II II II II II II II 1' — Sio a; ir> M CI tCM o x c — ««o = C5 n n 1- 'M 05 00 CO r~ 1^ tc o »C i* b-<'-N M W ro * '!• iai«e« f» t^ Ot X • II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II 11 II S fo ■o n — o t^ o -r O 1^ S g i^ -r — o ■^ o o CO « c o -< 1- fl X- •>• c-. 'r. — /; 5"C o -< — C-1 CI n cc -^ ■•: •■^§ « ->NM MMf-rus i.- «e d »- r- X X « r. --i"- o. , CI ".T e-i -■ t^ cr. — :i5i C'l -r o o '^ rt ^ f^ O M o o CI ..; 2 >• H O b> ^ O CI <-> n CO X o »«—WM WM^tia «or.t^ « X • C-. — < B. < II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II lO -- o -H r^ N t^ m 00 -H M ^ o t^ o o CI CO "■C ^ .2 "n. -- (N « -r -n CO X c. o JO O ■r (N O 00 o "T CO • ^ t^ = -&2| O^-hN (NMCO^'* Trusinw CO r» 1^X09 C0:S.^ S 1.-3 O lO O 'C — o --CD o-- — CI c^M ^c »»••<)• . o !; o r^rf.-l 00 '.-^ c^ o oco ::5&2-S (NIC 00 ccco 00 l-iT}« II 11 II II II 11 II II II II II II II ie«r>xa II II II II II r^ ^ -- TT — X I-: n ^.-^ t »N*»WM ^t«csr>t^ ocas — ■* X CI i;^ o; CO «^~~-' ^Cl CI CI CO V3^ 2 — w-ro t- X O — M OCO-J-C^ c X r- 'O CO C-. C^ O C -1< M-3o« cc oror^o oo — -• -« C^C^MCO oddd II II II II odddd II II II II II II II II II t^'. (N U5 ts r-X 05 II II II II II OCICDOCO ^ 5; X0> ocixoo r^ 1^ 1^ CO CO C^UJX -< -j-r-ccoco •^~^^ ilrHMMM HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 173 k. 00 to M -H 05 h~ lO IN o 1 ^ <1J t^ lO CO -H 00 CO T). IN O O -H IN CO CO Tf< IC CO t^ ^ CO ^ r~ Tt< -H 00 lO (N Ol CO CO 00 I^ OS osoo •* 00 rt LO Oi CO !-» «>0 00 to lO CO -H o 00 t^io Tf O Tt< o ^ o> CO ooco ^|s r- IM ^ lO t- 00 o --ICO ^J| »h-^'nin MCO"* 'tut loseco r- CCOCSSOSO o » a>a^ CO t^ra CD 10 T»< Tf t; fe cor^ —1 ■ 05 CO t^ —I lO IN'*' t^ 0=1 ^o a> '-< 55-2 lOO lO OO rt o rt t^ cot^ o •*!> --H-* 00 ^ uswr-ooas II II II II II II II II II ^ -h' N IN IN II II II II II IN M CO ^ II II II II •^ 00 CO 1^ ,-llOOrJa •o o lo o o o •o CO CO r^ O -f t^ •-> -11 cr .-1 -H IM T}< lO o 00 OS OIN rH--ie«iM PSCO^-*US lose CO t» t^ooososo II II II II o o II II II II II a Oi Oi II II 1! II 05 OS II II II II II OioO rt -H OS t^ O CO J- 05 OS CS OS OS 00 00 00 00 o .-icgco Tt««r>Geco sst^coio Tlo >o CD r^ >: 00 O ■* IN O 00 CD Tf IN ■O tc O -H (N CO -^ •^ m CO t^ -1 OS 00 t^ CO "O •>*" CO IN rt 0^-hS« INWCO^Tjt u9io»d r»t^ocooos j^O. .1 MAM AJ. Ol IIUML MAKI.\(/ ^i ! CO « i i -> — »» CJ Cl CIWCO* •« ce r> X • .-2 « CJ § c<; CI " '#. ! : ."? H u ^1 « c - - - Ti ~ is 0) QC '.C ii i 1- Oi.T 1.0 -r CO — 1- CO 1:2 § CO— — II II II II — e» M w » II II II II II coco^"r II II II II u:wr>x A II II II II II 3 _ ■5 as o e^ 00 O CO «* •*" le ee d 00 roxoca c fi ^ -i r. 1 •< n 5 o codoco OO-"- — rjco -r = '^ t •; s -r ic CO z CO — S CI c-i CO lO -C 1^ X C-. »«f»M»t" i/t ;c 1- X OS CO i cr. 6i lo e r^ X C-. 10 X — -r r^ — — C-l Ol M h II II II II II II II II II o a 2g5§ CO ID C!C^ OOO — ICOO — o t^ C-. O C^ CO O fJ '~ 1^ o tc C-. c-i ••': » — — IM OJ Ol OOOO oocco *«e»W'»i i«ar>x« cf. C-. X X -r cs f Ci eoocco cr Ol h- c-i t^ 1- 1~ --z rs: lO ■* c: -r c: -r I^O'^t^'i II II II II II II II II II oceicco WiO oc — II II II II — o X -no -r i~ c: 01 'O i-i — — OlOl II II II II II a 0- ■f'l 1 (N lO GC — CO — -1 CO -.r c: — f O — '— f» I" t-- — -r ac -H — M CI c^ ^3 OOOO coooo »-^>^5'^< uster>xe» c cc c o ce ■£ -r M O O Ci C> O) O t^ 'O CO -- cocc coocco M cc lO — OD CO CO •>• 1.0 uO ocooo »"?>?;■>»■ ■0 « r» X es II II II II II ^ coo CIM X — lo cr. Ol — ■^tcx- cr c: Ol lo o — lO- O T X CO ^w«* us5er»ac« 10 etc — 1-iCO-r o r^oixco X t^ C. C Ol CO CHAPTER VI HOUSEHOLD RECORDS BY Edith Fleming Bradford The business of housekeeping needs its records, not only those deahng directly with finances — the whence and whither of the income — , but those showing such facts as the quantities of staple supplies bought each season and the amounts i-emaining on hand. These records should include tested recipes, varying in quantity or cost from the originals, and such data as the comparative cost of supplies, and the time required to carry on different kinds of work in the routine of housekeeping. The fihng of correspondence helps to prevent the accumulation of unimportant letters and acts as a reminder that replies are due. It also gives latest addresses, thus replacing the address-book which, of necessity, shows many alterations and is frequently not up to date. Magazine and newspaper clippings become of greater value when systematically arranged than when allowed to accumulate in a desk drawer or when pasted in a scrapbook. Many housekeepers try to preserve data of this nature by mem- ory, dreading the thought of systematizing records to so great an extent. Such organization, however, may be carried out gradu- ally, beginning with the data most frequently used and extend- ing to other subjects of interest. The following list of subjects may suggest a classification of household records: (1) accounts; (2) financial papers, such as insurance policies; (3) inventories of furniture, linen, and the like, with a separate card for each type of equipment, such as chairs, sheets single, sheets double; (4) comparative cost of foods having approximately the same value in the diet; (5) stock of staple food supplies; (6) tested recipes; (7) dishes suitable for each of the three meals, those quickly prepared being 175 17(i .1 MAM AL ur lloMi: MAKISa listed separately; (8) household hints on laundry, dyeing, and the like; (0) storage reeord; (10) time record for certain kinds of household woik, when no interruptions occur, valuable not only to the woman who supervises the work of others, hut to the (»ne who tloes her own housework; (11) medical and dental recortl; (12) correspondence; (i:^) gift record, of special value to those who send many g;ifts at Christmas; (14) plans for the future, such as making fjardens; (15) amateur photop;raphy. Films may be classified according to place or subject. Prints may be placed with films or separately under a similar classifi- cation. HOW TO KEEP HOUSEHOLD RECORDS A small filing cabinet of pasteboard or wood, in which the information is recorded on cards arranged according to the classification chosen, may be used. The general headings should be written or printed on cards known as guides, which are of heavier paper than are those for the records and which have on their upper edge a projection which serves to call attention to the name of the subdivision w^ritten upon it. Both classes of cards should be arranged alphal^etically. Cards 3 by 5 inches may be used for all records, although they are rather small for recipes and accounts. ]\Iany house- keepers use a card 4 by 6 inches for recipes and one that is 5 by 8 inches for accounts; but as far as possible the same size should be used in order to avoid having many filing cases. One cabinet of wood that will harmonize with the study desk or table will be found very convenient. Such a cabinet of one drawer, will accommodate several hundred cards. A desk, with a drawer adapt(xl to the purpose may be bought, or a drawer of suitable depth may be subdivided so that the cards will fit it. In buying a desk it is well to choose one in which the drawers may be so subdivided as to conform to the standard sizes of cards and papers. These sizes are 3 by 5 inches, 4 by 6 inches, 5 by 8 inches, and 83^^ by 11 inches. The last size permits the filing of papers such as clippings, receipted bills, and correspond- ence in the manila folders generally used in offices. These HOUSEHOLD RECORDS Vll manila folders may be classified in the same way as are the cards, the topics treated being noted on the upper left-hand edge of each. The names of the classifications, if there are several, may be written or printed on large guides placed in front of each section of folders. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS The advantages of keeping household accounts include: (1) an accurate knowledge of the use of the family income; (2) a check on wasteful expenditures; (3) an encouragement to form a proper relationship between the various classes of expendi- tures; (4) an encouragement to save; (5) a protection against paying a bill twice; (6) a settlement of disputes. Equiyment. Equipment for keeping accounts may be of the most simple kind. In the kitchen there should be a hanging hook file on which to place delivery slips and bills to await entry in the ac- counts. A small pad for memoranda, to which is attached a pencil, is found to be a timesaver. Either a desk or a small table with a drawer should be provided in the study or in the living- room for keeping the necessary records, which include an ac- count book and a check book. A filing case, with compart- ments indexed alphabetically, serves to keep bills in order. If it is possible to have the best equipment, a desk with a drawer sufficiently large for the fifing of papers, including not only bills but correspondence, is desirable. At least some equipment is necessary in order that there may be a place for everything, a factor which contributes greatly to the satisfaction, as well as to the profit derived. Forms of keeping accounts. Accounts may be kept in book form, either bound or loose leaf, or on cards. The simplest method of keeping accounts is one that records merely receipts and expenditures, each in its own column, no entrj^ being made for charged items until pay- ment is made. For this purpose pages like form 1 (page 183) are good, receipts being kept on the left-hand page and ex- 178 .1 MAMAJ. or HOME MAKISC IMMulilurcs on the lij^lit-liaiid pa^c. A book in wliidi the rc- c'CMpIs arc kept on I lie left half of tli(! pa^c and llic expenditures on tile ri^lit half of the same pa^j;*' iiiay he used, hut such a lKK)k generally does not. allow sufficient space for all details of itemi- zation. 8om(; jH'rsons like to use a hook with two columns at the li^hl-hand sid(^ of the pa^e, one column for receipts and one for expenditures, hut with this form more care nmst he taken to enter the fij^ures in the proper colunm. Such a record, however, gives merely \\w. total income and expense for any period of time without answering; such questions as the amount of hank balance, of cash balance, liow much has been paid for footl during a certain period, how the expenditure for food compares with that for rent, how much has been spent, for medical service, for wages, for recreation, for education, the amount owed, to what extent the family has been supj)lied with produce from the home farm or garden; or a (luestion of dietetic significance, such as liow the expense for meat and similar foods compares with that for fruit and vegetables. In order to answer such questions, the expenditures must be analj'zed. In the t^'pe of account shown in form 1 (page 183), such an analysis is difficult, and in a busy household the tune is lacking to accomplish it at the end of a month or a year. If, therefore, it is agreed that little satisfaction is to be de- rived from a mere list of daily expenditures, a Xypa of account that readily gives the desired information must be considered (form 2, pages 184 and 185). Expenditures may be divided under the headings shelter, food, clothing, and miscellaneous, and as many subdivisions as desired ma}' be used under these headings. Under shelter, for example, there may be rent, heat, light, wages and laundry, furniture and furnishings. In case the house is occupied by the owner, the rent column may be replaced by one in which are recorded such items as repairs, taxes, and insurance. The head- ing food may be subdivided into meat and eggs, milk and cream, fruits and vegetables, groceries and miscellaneous items. Under the heading clothing may be entered all the expenses for such supplies for the family, or an account may be opened for each HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 179 individual. Miscellaneous will include such items as education, traveling expenses, medical services, allowances to children, recreation, and benevolence. In the foregoing types of accounts all cash is entered in the receipts column; therefore, in order to prove the accuracy of the record, the difference between receipts and expenditures must agree with the sum of the bank balance, as shown by the check- book, and the cash on hand. In the plan outlined in form 2 (pages 184 and 185), the totals of the columns showing the sub- division of expenditures must agree with the total of the ex- penditures column. If the number of columns is too large to be accommodated on one page, a separate page of columns may be ruled for each of the divisions: cash account, charge account, produce, shelter, food, clothing, and miscellaneous (form 3, pages 186 to 189). This necessitates the entering of dates on the proper page of subdivisions, as well as in the cash account, the charge account, or the produce account. The ruling of pages in form 3 (pages 186 to 189) will explain this matter more fully. As much detail as is desired may be given in the itemization columns. More than one item may be written on each line, if dates are inserted where there is a change. The charge ac- counts of a household are generally with so few firms that either of the forms shown on pages 184 and 187 may be used satis- factorily. If the firms with whom charge accounts are kept are numerous, however, it may be well to devote a separate page to each firm. If it is considered desirable to keep a separate record of the bank account and the cash account, another subdivision may be made as shown in form 3 (page 186). The advantage of this method is that it serves as a test of the accuracy of the bank book and the check book, and it a^-so shows the state of the bank account without reference to any other record. The opening entry of a cash account must be "balance on hand," the bank balance being shown in the deposits column, and the cash balance in the receipts column. Later entries will be as follows: ISO ,1 MAMM. or HOME MAKISd Hank deposits in tlif d('|)()sils folumii. \\ itlidniwals from tlio hunk in Ixttli the witlidrawals and llic rfceipts cohnnns. I{c((ipts for cuncnt use in the rccf'ipt.s coliunn. Kxpcndilnrcs, wlicllicr l)y {'heck or in r-iusli, in tlir- fxi>cnditijri-.s colnnin, as well as in the jjropcr i-olnnin on the paj^c of the siilxiivision of cxpcndiliin's. Goods for wliitli payment is not made, in the ri>ilit-liand column of the charge aecount and also o I si .1 u.i.vr.w. or HOME makisc g S -r •*■ c ^ ? ' 5 S c >>«J •^ -r ?= 3 O CO O lO C - O to O ?!• C -" *(** u o -r — IN 2 R. H fe3 o O O o cc o o S s. ■§ ro o o S? S o iC CC CO 65 CO 1 CO r^ > • O I— ( c3 • ja , 1 M ,*^ o C3 . o >> c as LO r-n' OC CO ^C ^ =3 -^ , C IT ^ 3 Cs 1^ -^ s c3 tc « u s ^ • d rt o • _ _ t:-^ s-d N r- ■£ T. ^ ri-i-i 23 o 3ct^OC?=--S.X £ c3 . a^< tf W Es; h^ -<■ Q cc to ■» - M CO >0 sl E Ci -a a fli ■^ c ff e C3 3 .C O fe; V i\ 3 u _^ 3 T3 .^ a •r « n a o X a o S 2 ~Z 3 S :3 -3 :5 c i c E HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 185 w p H I— I Q W Pm >. . _ . > k< c5 K J ^^ _C ^ ;::^ g >> c3 a to •^ ^ ^ "- S rt S .— --a "S s /-^ Q^ • rt -^-' "^ ►^ •^ "rt -TT- ^i ^ ^ rlT ^^JL S 2 bil ^ > 'Z ^ X •'^ 0^ t c. c - - . ~ . tfi ?i ^ i2ca:<1>:«SJ.S^ WW ' — < ci cc o >, k^ f^. •H.S ■S| ■o a HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 187 O O O < o < CO S oi 03 CO (D rj a> o . o c -^ o .- -f= J3 -P ^ ^ a O P Q O Cm 1:0 'a 2^Q BZ 3 fi Tl 2 p. to xi Ul is e3 0) -s 13 03 P. 0) a 3 >J > -^ CI is 03 o _ c a 03 M 0) ■72 SE - T3 (U .,-1 T) *J C3 73 S O c3 d C t. " 188 .1 MAMAL OF IIUME-MAKIXC; Groceries and miscellaneous o (M OS ■2 -2 If o o (N "a s O as ?0 'ii §1 c-i CO »o >> O 3.2 o. 4* t! bC C3 .5 « u u 3 g| a tf •£ W :.-t3 E- a ffi m a C/J -w CO §1 c^ ^ s HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 189 I— I w H O O 1 c • »0 J^ SI lO May C a) 5 tn O & t. a c5 CI a;- o _o > o o o J/3 O w o K5 2^Q I'JO -1 MAMAL UF llnMi:-MAKl.\(; Rkki;uk\( Ks FicdiTick, ("linstiiic. I'lir New IlousckccpiriK. lOl.i. Pattison, Mary. I'rinriplos of Domestic KnuincfrinK. lOlf). ShoalTcr, William Adam. H<)U.s<'li(iI(i Acf/)initinK and Econoaiif-'^. lUlO. Bradford. Edith Fleming. Household Accf)unts. Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 110. I'JIG. CHAPTER VII HEAT AND LIGHT The enormous waste of fuel in the homes of this country is coming to claim the attention of thoughtful householders. In both the heating of dwellings and the cooking of food, careful choice of equipment, intelligent operation, and forethought in planning will go far toward saving one of the world's most valuable commodities. CARE OF FIRES A few general rules for controlling heating and cooking fires are as follows: 1. To increase the amount of heat, open drafts which let air into the ash pit, and with soft coal and wood when fresh fuel has been added admit some air by draft immediately over the fire to help burn the combustible gases coming from the fresh fuel. For all fires burning without flame keep this draft closed. 2. To decrease the an^ount of heat, close all drafts tight, being sure that ash-pit door and drafts particularly are tight and that the ash pit itself is free from air leaks; if this is not sufficient, open a check draft in the smoke pipe — never the one in the fire door or the door itself, as this practice is ex- tremely wasteful of fuel. 3. To insure economy of fuel, see that all flues and surfaces which the hot gases pass on their way to the chimney are cleaned every two or three weeks. 4. Be very careful in the use of the damper which closes off the smoke pipe, as such a damper is dangerous if closed too tight and can be left wide open or taken out entirely provided the ash pit is tight and the above directions are followed. 5. Keep the direct draft in a cooking stove or range closed except in hot weather, or when starting a fire. RADIATION * Hot objects, like stoves and steam pipes, lose much of their heat by radiation, and the blacker the object the more it will * From U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55. 191 1 •.)•_' .1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC lose; liciicc, stoves juid steam i)i|)es should l>e hlack if tlicy are intended to ^ive out heat, hut hot-air |)ipes and cooking uten- sils should he l)ri}j;ht, for example tinned or nickeled, in order to lose as little heat, as possihle. A slove nickel plated all over will jii\c out only ahout half as much heal as the same stove at the sMUie temperature if hlack. A bright nickel or aluminum kettle will cool \'erv mucli more slowly tiian a black kettle. On a coal or wood slove or directly over a coal or wood fire, a kettle is iieatcd lar}>;ely by heat radi- ated from the stove or fire; therefore, if the bottom is black the kettle will heat more rapidly than if bright. Over a p;as, gaso- line, or similar ])lue flame the condition of the bottom will not make so much dilTerence, since here most of the iieat is received by contact with the hot gases. The best kettle for general use is, therefore, one with the bottom black and the remainder polished, but for use on a gas stove it makes little difTerence whether the bottom is black or not. COMPARATIVE COST OF VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING The ideal heating system is one that will give a uniform tem- perature throughout the house, if desired. Furnaces are more likely to produce this result than are stove^^. A stove seldom heats more than two rooms and often only one. A "drum," or radiator, for utilizing otherwise wasted heat, will remove the chill from an upstairs room but generally will not give warmth enough for a sitting-room. The care of several stoves is greater than that of one central plant. "IWBLK X. — Comparison Between Stoves and Hot-air Furnace Melhod of healing Inilial cost including in- slallalion Coal xised dur- ing one year Number oj rooms healed Temperature Two stoves Hot-air furnaco $90, and drums for upper rooms, $8 SlOO to SloO 12 to 14 tons of more ex- pensive coal S to 12 tons 5 Sto 10 Uneven Fairly ovon HEAT AND LIGHT 193 A hot-air system is the cheapest system to install but the most expensive in the amount of fuel used. A steam system costs about twice as much as hot-air but it requires less fuel. A hot-water system costs about three times as much as hot- air but requires less fuel than does either a hot-air or a steam system. FACTORS GOVERNING CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND CONVENIENCE OF OPERATION * Climate. Variable weather and high winds make difficult the economi- cal use of fuel and convenient operation. Size and type of dwelling. Fuel consumption varies with the size of the house, the number of rooms heated, the thoroughness of construction, to a certain extent the building material, and the distribution of the radia- tors. Location of dwelling. A house standing alone on a hill requires much more heat than one in a closely built row standing in a hollow. Heating and ventilating system used. Convenience of operation of any house-heating apparatus is largely dependent on the system of heating and ventilation em- ployed. The cost of heating will also depend, but to a less de- gree, on the type of equipment. Fuel economy and convenience are against a separate fire in each room unless the house is small or only a small part of it is to be warmed, except in those locali- ties where natural gas is available at low rates or the duration of cold weather is brief. In comparatively few homes is any special provision made for removing the foul air, leakage from windows and doors being the usual reliance, particularly in a house heated by a hot-air furnace. If an indirect steam or hot- * Condensed from Saving Fuel in Heating a House. L. P. Breckenridge and S. B. Flagg. Bur. of Mines, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Tech. Paper 97. I'Jl .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKISG water syslcm is iiistallcl, means of reiiioviiin foul air are nioro freciueiil ly provided, eil her hy veril stacks leading; into t lie attic or throiif^l) the i-oof, with icf^ister oi)eniiiji;s in dilTerent rooms, or hy open fi;rates, the Miies for which can l>e e(iMii)ped with damj)- ers to rep;ulale ihc iiiii(»\al of foul aic. The system some- times fails to work satisfactorily if provision is not made for the escape of foul air from a room, as tlie fresh warm air will not con- tinue to flow in unless an etjual amount escai)es. The first cost of heatinjj; by the hot-air furnace is less than that of either the steam or the hot-water system, but to maintain equal tempera- ture conditions may require the burning of more fuel, whether the furnace heats air taken from outdoors or reheats air al- ready in the house. Evidently, reheating air will require less fuel, and consequently less attention to the furnace, than heat- ing fresii air, but the ventilation will not be good. In homes heated by steam or hot water, the method of heating, wiiether direct or indirect, and the provision, if anj', for removing foul air will affect the consumption of fuel, which will vary with the percentage of the total radiation that is indirect and with the amount of warm air i-emoved through vent stacks or grates. A furnace-heating system maintains a less even tem|)erature l)ecause less heat is stored in it. In this respect, hot-water heating has a distinct advantage over both steam and hot air l)ecausc the large quantity of water in the boiler, pipes, and radiators can maintain the temperature throughout the house for a considerable time after the fire dies down. In addition, the maintenance of an even temperature in mild weather is easier with the hot-water system because the temperature of the water in the radiators, hence the amoimt of heat given off, can be controlled within wide limits. Size of boiler and furnace. If to supply the necessary heat requires the consumption of 20 pounds of fuel an hour and the lioiler or furnace is to keej) this up for eight hours without attention, it is evident that the fire pot must be large enough to hold 160 pounds of fuel, and in addition the quantity necessaiy to rekindle a fresh charge, HEAT AND LIGHT 195 this quantity being ordinarily assumed to be 20 per cent of the quantity of fuel in the fire pot after the firing, or in this case 40 pounds. Hence the fire pot must hold 200 pounds of fuel and still leave space for combustion. If anthracite coal, bituminous coal, and coke are available and each has such heating value that 20 pounds of it will be required an hour to supply heat, the fire-pot space occupied by an eight-hour charge of each fuel may be figured by dividing 200 by the weight a cubic foot of each fuel, the space thus cal- culated being approximately 3.6 cubic feet for anthracite, 4.0 cubic feet for bituminous coal, and 5.7 cubic feet for coke. Therefore, if the fire pot were designed for anthracite, it would hold coke enough for a firing period of approximately five hours instead of eight. Not only is the capacity of the fire pot important, but its depth should receive consideration. If the full-rated load is to be carried without attention to the fire for a minimum period of eight hours, the depth of the fuel-bed should be at least 12 inches. A heater that is to burn coke should be designed for a greater depth — probably 24 inches — on account of the bulkiness of the fuel and the different combustion conditions required for burning it satisfactorily. In fact, one of the largest manufacturers of boilers for heating houses by steam or hot water now designs such equipment for a fuel-bed 18 inches deep when anthracite is to be used. Regarding the necessary size of fire pot, another detail that affects both economy and convenience of operation is the com- bustion space above the fuel-bed. Any unburned combustible gases that leave the fire pot are rapidly cooled in passing over the heat-absorbing surfaces between the fire pot and the smoke pipe, and their temperature is quickly brought below that nec- essary for ignition. If either anthracite coal or coke is to be burned, a relatively small combustion space above the fuel- bed will be required because combustion takes place in or close to the fuel-bed. If bituminous coal is to be used, however, more space should be provided for burning the combustible gases rising from the fuel-bed, or a considerable part of these IVMJ .1 MAM A I. OF I/O.MI-: MAKIXC gases will osrapo unhurnod, the fliu^ surfacos will hornnio coat eel with soot, and the heat losses will he iar^e. Aiiotliei- iiiiporlant detail, if ititumiiioiis coal is to he used, is the cross section for the gas passages hetween the fire i)ot and the smoke pipe. If the passages arc not large enough, the (haft may he cut down hy the accumulation of soot in the flues, l)ossil)Iy to such an extent that the lire will go out. Also, if l)ituminous coal is to he used, the flues should he of such size and so arranged as to invite frequent and easy cleaning. Ohviously, if the heater is smaller than the proper size, fire at shorter intervals will he necessary, drafts will have to be kejit open, and the temperature of the escaping gases will be higher than if a heater of proper size is installed — between 375° and 475° F. in ordinary winter weather. The inconven- ience resulting from too large a boiler or furnace is less than from one under size, but careful handling will be necessarj^ to control the fire satisfactorily in niikl weather. Each heater has a particular capacity at which its efficiency is highest, but if the heater be properly designed, within a cer- tain range of capacity the efficiency will be practically equal to the maximum. The equipment selected should 1k' one that dur- ing most of the heating season will be operated within these lim- its, but will take care of maximum demands for a short time. Kind of fuel used. The most desirable fuels are, as a rule, the most expensive. It may be possible to burn some of the smaller sizes of anthra- cite with the furnace or egg size and thus effect a saving. The price a ton of these smaller sizes is less in jirojiortion to their calorific value because they are in less demand and thej' can be used to advantage in banking the fire overnight or in carry- ing a slow fire in moderate weather. Pea coal is probably the best size for such use, l)ut unfortunately it and the smaller sizes are obtained with difficulty in many of the markets where the larger, or domestic, sizes are sold. Among the various kinds and grades of Ijituminous coal, the differences in fuel value and in their physical character- HEAT AND LIGHT 197 istics are much greater than among anthracites, and for that reason should receive especial attention. In every locality a number of coals will be available and the most satisfactory one in any particular case will usually have to be determined by trial, unless the characteristics of each and the effects of these are known. Uniformity of size is a desirable characteristic, as it permits easier control of the fire. This is particularly true of anthracite, a mixture of sizes often accounting for poor results from a cer- tam lot of coal. Sized or screened bituminous coal may be bought for its greater convenience, even though its cost may exceed that of lump coal or run-of-mine. In some localities slack coal has been burned successfully, although it is believed that this would not ordinarily be possible because of the strong draft required. Care of furnace. The heater should receive regular attention, and if the de- mands for heat are intelligently anticipated, as they ordinarily can be, the house can be warmed with minimum trouble and fuel. When the rooms become too warm, the fire should be checked by stopping the admission of air under the grate and decreasing the draft by opening the "check damper." If, as often is done, the ash-pit damper or the ash-pit door be allowed to remain open, and the draft reduced by opening the fire door, the combustion of the fuel continues, although at a slower rate, but the cold air entering the fire door chills the heater so that little heat is realized from the coal. Sometimes the draft is so strong that the difficulty of con- trolling the fire is increased, especially when the demand for heat is small or the fire is to be banked. To facilitate control under such conditions, it is usually advisable to have, besides the check damper, a plain damper in the smoke pipe. This damper should fit the smoke pipe loosely and must never be en- tirely closed; during most of the heating season it can be kept partly closed, but during severe weather, when more heat is required, it can be opened wide. Sometimes the draft may be 198 .1 M.\siM. or iiDMi: MAKisa insufTicicrit to l»uiii I lie ncccssaiA' (|u:iiitif\- oi the |)articiil;ir fuel used. If siicli a coiulition is always noticed iti severe weather, the heater may he too small, th(; smoke pipe may l>e choked or he poorly fitted to the iieater or to the chimney, or the chinin(\v may he too small or he ohstriicted hy so(jt or dehris. if the (haft troul)le proves to l)e due to leaky connections or to ol)st ructions, it can readily he corrected. If the heater or tlie chimney is too small, the difficulties may be lessened either by firinfi more frequently and keeping the fuel-bed thinner, or by using larger coal, or fairly uniform size, in order that the air may more easily flow through the fuel-bed. Conversely if the draft is very strong, a smaller size of coal may possibly be used to good advantage. Under no circumstances should the top of the chimney be lower than the highest part of the roof, or a current of air may l)c forced down the chimney and the base- ment be filled with smoke when the wind blows in certain directions. Similar trouble may be experienced if the chimney is not as high as an adjoining building. If the bottom of the asli pit is on a level with the floor, or only a short distance below the grates, as is ordinarily the case, ashes cannot be allowed to accumulate under the grates for more than two days, or possibly more than one day, except in moderate weather. Brightly tinned hot-air furnace pipes often lose less heat when bare than they do when covered with one or two laj'ers of asbestos paper, since the latter radiates heat so much mon^ readily than the bright tin as more than to balance the insulat- ing effect of the thin asbestos covering. Of course if the pijx's were originally black, the covering would l)e useful, and if the insulating material \vcrc thick enough ('Vs inch or more) it would save heat even on bright tin pipes.* SUGGESTIONS FOR FIRING AND CLEANING A FURNACE t Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace that apply re- gardless of the fuel used may be given as follows : * U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. .5.5. t L. P. Breckcnridgc and S. H. Flagg. U. S. Rur. Minos, Tech. Paper 97. HEAT AND LIGHT 199 The fire should be attended to regularly, and not left until it has burned low and heat is needed throughout the house. Often the need can be anticipated and by attention at the proper time trouble can be avoided. In addition, economy of fuel is more likely to be obtained by fairly uniform rates of burning than by attempting to supply a large amount of heat in a short period and then suddenly checking the fire. The size of the coal fired should be as nearly uniform as pos- sible. Using coal of uneven size prevents an even flow of air through the fuel-bed and increases the tendency of the fire to burn through in spots. One should try to keep the fuel-bed free from air holes, as they cause waste of fuel and may prevent the heater from main- taining the desired temperature. Excessive shaking of the grates should be avoided and thus the amount of coal lost by falling into the ash pit reduced. Ordinarily, the shaking of the grates should be stopped as soon as bright particles begin to drop through or, under some conditions, as soon as light from the fuel-bed begins to show in the ash pit. When the demand for heat is urgent or the fire must be built up quickly, the fuel-bed must be kept uniformly thick, but not too thick, using the coarser part of the coal and all the draft available. Air will then flow freely through the entire fuel-bed and burn the coal at a maximum rate. Under such conditions, the firings should be made at frequent intervals and small charges used, so that the fresh fuel will only for a short time chill the temperature of the fire pot. When heavy firings are made the fresh fuel not only increases the resistance to flow of air through the fuel-bed, so that the rate of combustion is low- ered, but it acts as a cold blanket to screen the heating surface 3 from the radiant heat of the fuel-bed. In mild weather it is well to leave on the grates a layer of ashes under the active fuel-bed. This layer will increase the resistance to the flow of air through the fuel-bed and facilitate the maintenance of the low rate of combustion required in such weather; also, it will cut off some of the grate surface. Clinkers should be kept worked out of the fuel-bed, for they •J(i() I MAMWI. oy //OU/.' M.\KI.\(; nils! iiicl I he How nl all' I liinim,li it , rlo^, t lie grilles, :in', and, therefore, shonid not be al- lowed to accumulate. Asluis should not he allowed to pile up under the grates in the ash pit, for they will seal ofT the air from part of the grate surface; and may cause the grate-bars to be burned and warped. Coal as free from slate and ash as possible should be pur- chased. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FUELS Some of the advantages and disadvantages of various fuels for residence heating have been mentioned. These and some others are sununarized in the table on page 201: LIGHTING Although electricity is in many ways the most desirable fonn of artificial light, other lights may still have certain advantages. The most effective use of any type of light should be studied for both economic and hygienic reasons. Types of lights and their care. Candles. The use of candles is now limited almost entirely to decora- tive lighting. Candle light is expensive in comparison with other lights. Kerosene. Kerosene gives a soft light that is easy on the eyes if it is properly shaded l)y a slightly bluish chimney. The disadvan- tages of kerosene lighting are the labor of cleaning and filling the lamps, the odor and the vitiation of the air, and the danger of explosion. Following are some suggestions for th(» care of kerosene lamps: HEAT AND LIGHT 201 TABLE XI. — Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Fuels and of Electricity ' Fuel Wood . Anthracite . Bituminous coal Subbituminous coal and lignite. Peat. Coke. Oil. Gas Electricity. Advantages (a) Cleanliness, (6) cheerful fire, (c) quick increase of heat, (rf) cheap in some localities. (a) Cleanliness, (b) easy control of fire, (c) easier to realize heat in coal than is the case witli other coals, (d) steady heat. (a) Low price, (6) availability, (c) high heat value (in the best grades), (d) low percentage of inert matter (in the best grades). (a) Relatively low price, {b) availability (in some regions), (c) responds quickly to opening of drafts. (a) In general, the same as for wood. (a) Cleanliness, (h) responds quickly to opening of drafts, (<) fairly high heat value. (n) High heat value, (6) imme- diate increase of heat, (r) clean- liness, (rf) small storage space necessary. (a) Ease of control, (6) cleanli- ness, (c) convenience, (d) im- mediate increase of heat. (a) Every advantage Disadvantages (a) Low fuel value, (6) large stor- age space necessary, (c) labor in preparation, (d) scarcity, (e) does not hold fire long, (/) unsteady heat. («) High price, (b) difficulty of ob- taining, (c) slower response to change of drafts. (a) Dirty, (6) smoke produced, (c) more attention to fire and furnace necessary than with anthracite. (a) Slakes and deteriorates on ex- posure to air, (b) ttikes fire spon- taneously in piles, (c) heat value generally low, (d) heat in fuel dif- ficult to realize, (e) fires do not keep well, (/) gases generated over fire pot sometimes burn in smoke pipe, causing excessive heating. (a) Low heat value, (6) bulkiness. ((() Bulkiness, (6) liability of fire going out if not properly handled, ((■) fire requires rather frequent attention unless fire pot is deep. (o) High price, (6) difficulty of safe storage. (a) High price in many places. (fi) High price. 1 L. P. Breckenridge and S. B. Flagg. U. S. Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 97. 1. Fill lamps daily if they are in use. Do not fill_them too full. 2. Keep the wicks low when lamps are not lighted. 3. Do not turn the wicks lojv when the lamps are lighted, because too little air is allowed for burning, and ill-smelling gases are given off. 4. Blow out a lamp by a cross-wise motion at the top. Do not blow into the chimney. A paper may be held at the top on one side and a current of air directed against it. 5. Occasionally boil the burners in a solution of washing-soda or in strong soapsuds. Acetylene, air gas, and Blau gas. Lishtins by acetylene, air gas, or Blau gas is fairly common in village and country homes. It is, however, in general more expensive than the gas or electric light available in larger towns. Acetylene gives a brilliant white light. Its greatest disadvan- tage is the danger of explosion from careless handling. The products of combustion are not given off in great amounts. •JO J .1 MAM A I , OF IKiME-MAKISC i;ns. Maiillo >lniiil(| ,il\v;i\s he used oil ^;is l)urM('rs, since tlicy ^ivc iiuicli iiioic and a >tca(li('r liKlit for a ^ivcn amount of Ras than (Iocs an oju-n llanic ( Imk. Ki). The saviiiK in k^s will more than pay for the lanip and mantles. The tubes of droj) lights and stoves should l)e handled carefully in order to prevent their cracking and allowing gas to escape. Electn'citif.* Of electric lamps three kinds are common in household Inverted mantle Open flame Upright mantle ^- = 20 CANPLEPOWtR Fig. 46.* — Comparison of amount of linht given by difTcrcnt gas lamps. Each lamp is supposed to burn ."> cubic feet an hour, costing ' n cent if gas is •SI .00 a 1000 cubic fcot. Note that the mantle lamp gives four or five times as much light as the open flame. The inverted mantle gives more light downward and less upwartl than the upright mantle. use. These are the ordinary carbon, the metallized carbon rtr "Uem," and the tungsten lamp. Nearly all of the last kind sold in this country bear the trade name "Mazda." All three kinds are commonly marked with the number of watts (power) the}' take when used at the number of volts (electrical pressure) also marked on the lamp. When electricity is paid for at a certain rate a kilowatt hour, the cost of current for any lamp is easily calculated. The kilowatt hour is 1000 watt hours, and the number of watt hours used by any electrical device is .sim{)ly the watts times the luimber of hours burned. For ex- ample, a oO-watt lamp in twenty hours uses 1,000 watt houis or 1 kilowatt hour; at 10 cents a kilowatt hour current for such a * U. S. Bur. Staiulards, Circ. 55. HEAT AND LIGHT 203 lamp costs one-half cent an hour. This is true of any 50-watt lamp without regard to the kind of filament it has. The amounts of light produced by different kinds of filaments are, however, decidedly different (Fig. 47) . If the voltage supplied is lower than the lamps are intended for, the watts taken by the lamps are reduced somewhat, but the light is reduced a great deal more. The amount of light obtained from a given amount of electric Gem ]amp Tungsten lamp = 20 CAHPLErPOWErR Fig. 47. — Comparison of amount of light given by different electric lamps. For comparison a consumption of 50 watts is assumed, although tungsten lamps are not usually made in this size. Fifty watts at 10 cents a kilo- watt hour costs 3^ cent an hour, and gives 12 to 16 candles in a carbon lamp and 40 to 45 in a tungsten lamp. All lamps give different candle-power at different angles. Each arrow in the figure is proportional to the candle- power in its direction. energy depends, therefore, on the voltage. Under fair conditions the amount of light and the corresponding cost for current (at 10 cents a kilowatt hour) would be about as follows : TABLE XII Kind of lamp Candles per watt Cost for 1,000 candle hours in cents Carbon 25 to 33 30 to 40 Gem Tungsten About 0.40 0.80 to 1.00 25 10 to 12.5 From a 60-watt lamp, for example, the candle power obtained is 15 to 20 for a carbon lamp, 24 for the Gem, and 56 for the tungsten. 2(11 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or HOME makixg Comixintlirc nisi of ninou.s (nnunun lighls * (Vlfl,. IK). For the |)i»)(lMcti<)ii of lij^lil ;i >irc;il v;iiicly of laiiips :ir<' :i\ ailalilr, :iii(| in some kinds rcni;irk:il)l(' iri|)rovciiicnts liavc Imcii made in the last few years. Tlicsr iniproNrnicnts liavo made it possible in many caso.s either to inipioNc llie linhtiiiK of I 111- home wilhout increasing the cost or to re(hice the cost. Candles ^^I^^I^^^^^^^^ZII^^^^I3 I I c Kerosene f"lame Kerosene Mantle -■- Gas Open F'lame --■ Gas Mantle Carbon Electric — Gem' Electric. Tun^ten Electric - 5 10 15 eo 25 50 ^5 4 Cost ^1000 candle -hours in cents Fig. 48. — Relative cost of producing a given amount of light l)y various illuniiiKints at usual prices. Costs are based on the following prices: Candles, 12 cents a pound; kerosene, 1.5 cents a gallon; gas. SI for 1000 cubic feet; (>lectricity 10 cents a kilowatt hour. The solitl lines represent cost of fuel or of current, the shaded [xirts the cost of the mantles and liulbs. Where prices are different from those given above, costs will be correspondingly dilTerent. The total economic ^ain wliicli is made po.ssihle by douhlinp; the efficiency of production of Hfi;ht is ahiiost incalculable. To consider only one item, it has been estimated b}' good author- ities that the liberal use of the newer lamps might reduce the yearly consumi)ti()n of coal in the United States by $8,000,000. The general tendency has l)een, however, not to reduce the amount of power used, but rather to use more light. The abil- ity to produce so much more light without increasing the cost has encouraged the development of methods of lighting in which attention is given primarily to artistic appearance and * V. S. Bur. Staiulanls, Circ. 5'). HEAT AND LIGHT • 205 to the comfort of the user rather than to getting as much Ught as possible out of a fixture. The cost of hghting by any method depends to some extent on local conditions, and the statements of cost given below will apply only approximately in any particular case. The cost will naturally depend on the candle power of lamps used and the time the lamps burn. In order to make comparisons be- tween different kinds of lamps, it is convenient to consider a definite amount of lighting, which is obtained by multiplying the candle power of the lamps burned by the number of hours they burn. For example, 1,000 candle-hours of lighting may be obtained l)y burning a 10-candle lamp 100 hours or a 50- candle lamp 20 hours, but if the lamps are of the same kind the cost will be about the same. Calculations of the cost of producing 1,000 candle-hours by different lamps are sometimes useful in choosing between lamps, but of course it does not necessarily follow that the lamp for which this cost is lowest is most economical for household use. Methods of distributing light. The three methods of lighting, direct, indirect, and semi- indirect, are dependent for their efficiency on the type of shade or reflector employed. By means of reflectors, light may be concentrated on a small spot or spread out over a large area. In the direct method of lighting, the light falls or is reflected directly on the objects to be lighted. Although the maximum amount of light is furnished by this method, the disadvantages of a light that is too brilliant and concentrated are now recog- nized. If a drop light is used for close work, it is advisable at the same time to have another light for the general illumina- tion of the room in order to prevent a strain on the eyes pro- duced by the contrast of a small brilliantly lighted area in a practically dark room. In indirect lighting all the light is reflected upward by an opaque reflector and returned to the room diffused generally from the ceiling. This method is the most comfortable for the eyes, but the most expensive. L'Oli .1 M.WI AL or IIOMI: MAKISC In scmi-iiulircct li^htin^; a dilTusiii^ Ixjwl allows sonio of llic lij!;lit to pass tliroiiffji the l)o\vi to the room and the rcinaindcr to he thrown up to the ceilinji. This is a good method for the general illumination of a room. CHAPTER VIII STOVES AND COOKERS Every kitchen should be equipped with a good range and a fireless cooker. If a coal or a wood range is used in combi- nation with a fireless cooker, the two should be near enough together to prevent much loss of heat in transferring the food from the range to the cooker. Sometimes the two pieces of equipment are combined in gas or electric stoves, the oven being insulated so that after it becomes thoroughly heated the heat may be retained long enough to cook food without the use of more fuel. Such stoves are more expensive than the or- dinary type, but the saving of fuel throughout the lifetime of the range would doubtless justify the increased cost in the be- ginning. A coal or wood stove which is used in winter for heating as well as cooking should be supplemented by a kerosene stove or some other kind that will help to keep the kitchen cool in hot weather. With a kerosene stove and a fireless cooker, the discomfort of a hot kitchen in summer and the waste of un- necessary heat may be avoided. Any kind of kitchen range should be as free from dirt-collect- ing crevices and grooves as possible. In selecting, attention should be paid to the possibilities of convenient and thorough cleaning. Kerosene, gas, and electric stoves are often built with the oven at such a height that stooping is unnecessary. There is no reason why such a location should not be better in every way than the customary one which has been borrowed from coal stoves. Ovens higher than the working surface of the stove can be heated quite as efficiently with these fuels as when placed below the main surface of the range. A good height for 207 •JOS .1 .i/.i\n/. nr iiDMi-: \i\iIl as to tables and sinks. It may Ik* necessary to raise the stove on Mocks to briny; it to this lovol. if a ran air in the stove, stove- pil)e, and chimney, the iieated air rises, forced up by the cooler air from the room and from outside. Admitting air l)eIow the fire box gives a draft and helps the fire to burn. Admitting air through the opening in the stovepipe checks therhaft by ad- mitting cold air and by causing less air to pass through the stove. The oven and the hot-water reservoir, if there is one, are heated )\y opening a damper which allows the hot smoke from the fire box to pass over the oven, imder the hot-water reser- \oii-, under the oven, then up behind the oven and into the stovepipe. Utensils for fuel-saving. Special utensils are made for use on kerosene, gas, and elec- t ric stoves, which are so shaped as to make it possible to cook two or three foods in as many utensils at one time over one 1 )urner. A pressure cooker cooks food in from one-third to one- fourth the usual length of time. Although its initial cost is some- what high, the amount of fuel that may l)e saved by its use during a year greatly decreases this cost. A steamer in which several kinds of food can l)e cooked at I lie same time ovei' one burner saves fuel if the meal is planned lo that (Mid. S('i( ctioN of in II til. In general, the greater llie(lr\ weight of ;i iion-i-esinous wood, the more heat it will give out when imrned. W Is ha\'ing STOVES AND COOKERS 209 high fuel values are osagc orange, locust, liickory, oak, apple, black birch, 3^ellow birch, hai'd ina]ile, beech, long-leaf pine, and cherry. One cord of wood such as the above, weighing when tlry about 3,500 to 4,000 pounds, is requiied to equal the heating value of one ton of coal. Of other woods, such as ash, black wal- nut, short-leaf pine, hemlock, red gum, sycamore, or soft maple, which weigh al)0ut 2,500 to 3,400 pounds a cord, it requires about a cord and a half to ecjual one ton of coal, while of wood such as Norway pine, cypress, basswood, spruce and white pine, two cords weighing when air dry 2,000 to 2,500 pounds each are" required. The available heat value of a cord of wood depends upon the extent to which it has been dried. If the wood is green part of the heat is taken up in evaporating the water. Therefore the drier the wood, the greater is the available heat. A cord of wood occupies 128 cubic feet of space. If air spaces between the sticks are large, if the sticks are of small diameter, finely split, or twisted and knotty, or if the wood is loosely stacked, less wood is secured in a cord. If necessary to bui-n wood in a stove or furnace intended for coal, it may be done by covering the grate partly with sheet iron in which holes have been punched, or with fire brick, in order to reduce the draft. If this is not done the wood is wasted by being con- sumed too fast, producing a hot fire which may damage the fire-box. Hickory is generally first choice among the non-resinous woods, because of the high fuel value to a unit volume of wood, even burning, and lasting quality. White oak is next, followed by black locust, hard maple, beech, birch, and "white ash." The white pines have a relatively low heat value, but ignite readily and give out a quick hot flame. Kerosene stove. Kerosene is obtained by distilling crude petroleum which con- sists of a variety of inflammable liquids. The more volatile it is, the more brilliant the light. Kerosene which can be heated *J1() .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKIXd to 1 lO*^ l'\ without yielding a vapor, will not take (ire even if the coiitaiiicr' is Itrokcii and oil spilled. '^riu' follow injj; rules for opeial iii;^; a UemscMic stoxc >liould he observed: Select the ItesI huiriers possible; do not blow direelly down on the llanie hut blow across it ; wash burners f)ccasionally in a little washinj^-soda and if wicks are kept clean, smoke may be avoided; do not leave the burners with the (lame turned down; ehansc the wicks when they become clogged with im- pui'ities; do not fill the kerosene lamp or stove near a fire or bui'nin^ lamp; burners should allow aii to gain access to the wicks to create a current to carry ofT products; air holes and tul)es should be free from dust and dirt; containei-s should be kept nearly full but if too full the oil expands with the heat and oozes out. Coal range. A coal range w^hich has as much insulation as possible should be selected to avoid waste of heat. Over 90 per cent of the heat generat(Hi in the ordinary kitchen range is usually lost. Ashes should be shaken down gently, leaving a thin layer of half-burned coal in the bottom of the grate, or if the coal is burned out, a thin layer of fresh coal may be placed upon the bottom of the grate. Usually a half turn of the grate is suffi- cient to shake down the ashes without shakiiiii out any half- burned coal. In keeping a fire in a range, it is better to add a small amount of coal each time and fire often. The bed of live coals should not be entirely covered w'ith coal but spaces should be left through which enough heat can pass to fire the gases as they distill off from the new coal ; gases that go up the chimney are lost. The grates should be kept clean and clear of clinkers, and caking of ashes and cinders at thel)ottom of th(> fire should be avoided. In kindling a fire, crumpled paper or shavings may be used, across which kindling is laid in a way to pi-ovide air spaces; a few pieces of hard wood are added to the kindling and a little coal, followed by more later. STOVES AND COOKERS 211 Gas range. Gas-stove burners should be adjusted so that the blue- green central part of the flame is about half the height of the entire flame. If the flame is very long and is bright yellow in parts, too little air is being admitted; if short and inclined to make a slight roaring noise, there is too much air. In the latter case the flame is liable to "strike back," under which condition much carbon monoxide is formed. In all gas burners the vari- ous openings should be kept clean. The amount of air supplied to gas burners is usually adjusted by- moans of a small damper or slide to be found at the base of the burner. Insulated ovens. It is estimated that 90 per cent of heat supplied for baking in ovens is lost through the sides of the oven. A considerable saving of heat can be effected b}" insulating the oven, as is done in the case of most electric and some gas ovens. An ordinary gas oven may be fairly well insulated by means of sheet as- bestos cut to fit all the sides with the possible exception of the one occupied by the door, and attached by wires to the corners of the oven. The so-called automatic cookstove, or insulated oven, has the advantage over the ordinary fireless cooker of being still more eco- nomical in regard to heat and labor and of eliminating an addi- tional piece of equipment in the kitchen, because, as ordinarily made, it has top burners also, and hence takes the place of the usual range. In the commercial insulated oven, both the pre- liminary heating of the food and the complete cooking process are accomplished; consequently, both the loss of heat occasioned by transferring the food container from the stove to the cooker and the labor of this motion are eliminated. Moreover, the walls of the oven itself are heated and do not draw the heat from the food. There are now on the market insulated ovens adapted to the use of gas, electricity, and kerosene. The heat supply in some of these ovens is controlled by a dial hand that may be adjusted for the number of minutes for which the heat is re- quired, at the end of which time the heat is cut off without .1 M.Wr.M. or HOME M.\KI\t; TAHLI-: XIII.— liENKHAL COOKINO PnOCKHHKH • rookhifi Drfinituin ^'"'' "^ " ' ' Can Miorr raiiw (1) Dry liiiil HniiliiiK Cooking Mlii-i'M or Hinal! piccci* .v liol air from rcd-liol I'oal.s or flanic. I'an liroiliiig: cooking on Ii.'UKmI inrtal. Over bed ol hoi coals. In hciited fr.vinK |)an on stove. 1 iider brrjiler of gas oven. In heated fryinR pan. (2) lioitHtiiiK Cooking large |jiccc.s or whole careas-s of meat or fowl liy hot air from open lire or in hot oven. No water adiled. In very liol oven. Inder broiler or in very hot f)ven. (3) UiikiiiK Cooking meal, vegetahle.s, or hatters an) nrowiiing Healing of flour to l»rowii in the first or last period of cook- ing of dredged meat or crumbed dish. In hot oven. In hot oven or under broiler. (fi) Moi.sl h.nl BoiliiiK Cooking I>y immersing in \v;iter which is bubbling well. In kettle on top of stove. In kettle ov.T bvirner. (7) SimmeriiiK Cooking in liot water that slightly bubbles but docs not boil. In kettle or pan on stove or in double boiler. In kettle or pan over small burn- er. In double lioiler. (S) Slcwirifi Long, slow cooking or sim- mering of meat, fish, poultry. In partly closed kettle on back of stove. In parll.v close! kel tie over low bur- ner. (!») i^tcaniing Cooking in steam above boil- ing water. In steami'r over kettle on stove. In steamer over kettle on burner. (10) Poaching Cooking of eggs or egg mix- tures in hot watcr-;-boiling as they are dropped into it and simmering to cook. In s.aucepan or iron frying pan on range. I n .saucepan or iron frj-ing pan over burner. (11) Braising Cooking of meat by a com- bination of baking and stew- ing. Bake in hot oven 15 minutes, add water and con- tinue cooking. Cooking bv immersing in hot fat. Cooking in frying pan in small amount of fal, searing and turning often. ( )ven. ( )ven. (\2) In hentril fat Frjing In frving kettle on stove. In frving kettle over burner. (13) Sautfing In frying i)an on stove. In frying pan over burner. II) Kri<-a.s- SM'f'illJI Cooking of n.'sl. food by saul^'irig and then slewini;. ill frying pan on slovi'. In frying pan over burner. I'l) f'a.sSfTi.lr i-ot)kinK Fricasseeing in oven. Brown in fat in fr.ving pan, place in covered earthenware or gla.ss dish and cook several hours in oven. Top of stove and in slow oven. Top of stove and in slow oven. Anna .\I. Kast STOVES AND COOKERS 213 TAHI-K XIII. — General Cookino Processes — Cnnlinur,! Oil istinT Open fire Fireless cooker Pressure cooker III lic;i(cd frjint; p;iii. IJefore open fire in fireplace. Over open camp fire. (1) In very hot oven. On spits or crane over open fire. (-) Oven or griddle over burner. Dutch oven or on griddle over fire. By means of heat- ed stones. (3) On heated metal stand over burner. Held in wire rack before open fire. (4) In hot oven. (">) In kettle over burner. In kettle sus- pended over fire. In kettle .set on heated stone. 1 •) In kettle or pan. In double boiler. In kettle or in double boiler over fire. In kettle of cook- er. (7 In partly closed kettle over low burner. In closed kettle on heated racks in open fire. Best use of fire- less cooker. (8) In steamer over kettle on burner. In steamer over kettle on open tire. Pudding can, set in boiUng water. .Set iu rack above (9) water in pressure • M.f)ker. In saucepan or iron frying pan over burner. (10) Oven. Dutch oven. Brown first and put in cooker. Brown first and put (11) in cooker. In frying kettle over burner. In suspended fry- ing kettle. In frying pan over fire. (12) In frying pan over burner. (13) In frying pan over burner. Brown in fat and put in cooker. Brown in fat and (14) put in cooker. Top of stove and oven. (ir,) L'l 1 .1 MAMM. OF IIOMi: MAKISd luit.licr at tciilioM. A lar^ic iiisiilalcd oven, iiiodclcd somewhat like ail onliiiarv fi;a.s stove, is more (^xjM'iisive than is a fireless cooker; hut the cost of a moderate-sized raii^e witli an insii- hited oven is practically lli<' same as lliat of hoth a f^as ranK(! and a fireless cooker. This is a suhjeet worthy of investigation by one who is purchasinfi; new kitchen equipment. Fireless cookers* The commercial fireless cooker costs more than does tlu^ iiomc-matie one; on the other hand, it is likely to l)e moic dural)le, it seldom has anj^ absorbent material exposed to the odor and the steam from food, the cooking compartment can be kept clean more easily, and it is frequently prf)vided witii a ventilating valve or some such device that makes baking and roasting possil)le. However, the home-made fireless cooker has proved to he wholly satisfactory for such footls as cereals, vege- tables, dried fruits, custards, fowls, and certain cuts of meat. There is practicall}' no danger of (ii'e from a home-made cooker unless very hot radiators are used. Since thermometers are not used in the average home, and the radiators may be heated to an imnecessarily high temperature, it seems safest to advise against the use of radiators unless the insulator is not inflanmiable. Under no conditions can a veiy hot radiator above the food be safe, l)ecausc it is too near the muslin of the cushion. While baking is impossible without the use of radia- tors, there are sufficient other processes for which the home- made cooker may be used, to warrant the trouble and the small cost of making one. The cost of a home-made fireless cooker may range from about SI. 50 to $8.00 or more, depending on the materials used. If several sizes of ahnninum pails with clamps are bought for food containers, the cost may ecjual that of a small commercial cooker. In buying a fireless cooker the following points should be considered: insulation, exterior case, interior lining, cooking utensils, vent valve, hot plates, locks and hinges, size, and cost. * Canon, Helen, and Brewer, Lucile. The Fireless Cooker and Its Uses. Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 95. STOVES AND COOKERS 215 The following materials and utensils are needed for making a fireless cooker (Fig. 49) : For the case, or cabinet: A wooden box, a trunk, an ice box, a galvanized iron ash-can, a wooden candy-bucket, or the like. Any kind of case that is used should be provided with a tight-fitting cover. If an ordinary box is Fig. 49. — Diagram of a home-made fireless cooker. A, outer case; B, cushioQ; C, cooking com- partment; D, food container; E, packing material. used, it should be of sufficiently heavy material to permit the use of good hinges and fastenings. For the lining of the case: Sheet asbestos 1/8 inch thick, or heavy wrapping paper. For jiacking material: Ground cork, sawdust, excelsior, mineral wool, paper torn in small pieces and crumpled, powdered asbestos, shavings, straw, hay, wool, cotton batting, or some such non-conducting material. Mineral wool and powdered asbestos are both good non-conductors of heat, and they have the additional merit of not being inflammable; but they are harder to work with than are the oth'er materials. Gloves should be worn by the person doing the packing, and care should be taken not to allow the material to enter the nose and the mouth. For the cooking compartment: A deep bucket or kettle of agate, galvanized iron, or tin, of such a size that there may be a space of at least three inches between the case and the top, the bottom, and the sides of the bucket. This bucket or kettle should have a tight-fitting, flat cover. In place of a bucket, two thicknesses of 1/lG-inch sheet asbestos or heavy wrapping paper JKi .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISd iiiiiy Ih- sliMpcd Id f(iriii llic cooking; riiiii|i;irliMr'iil ; Iml a Itiicki-I is mitri- l(' and iiiii l>c kcpl in a inure sanitary runilili<>n. |'(ir till' ruukinn nlmsil: A cuvinil kitilc |)li<-e haked successfully in the cooker, l)Ut, since tho lieat retjuired to raise tho radiators to tho proper teinpeialiiro will hake the biscuits in an ordinary ovon, there sooins to ho no justification for its use in this case. However, for foods that re(iuiro long cooking in order to he made more palatable and digestible, the tireless cooker is admirably suited. Cereals such as rolled oats, cracked wheat, and hominy, give excel- lent results when cooked in a sufficient quantity of water in a fireless cooker (page 506). The tough cuts of meat, which require long cooking at a low temperature in order to be made |)alatable are good when j^ropcrly cooked in a fireless cooker. Steamed breads and puddings are well adapted to this method. Hot beverages antl sauces may be set a«idc in the cooker to be kept hot for serving. The use of the fireless cooker for canning fruits is recom- mended by some. The juices of fruits may l)e satisfactorily extracted for jelly-making. Various conditions, however, de- termine the practicability of its use for this purpose. As a means of enabling one to have warm water at hand without keeping a fire, the fireless cooker is of use in homes where there is no boiler connected with the range, and especi- ally when the fuel used is coal or wood, which necessitates building a fire. Tai)Ics of proportions and time of cooking foods in a fireless cooker are given in Table XIV on page 219. Thermos bottles. Thermos bottles may be used as miniature fireless cookers for a small amount of cereal or other food reciuiring long, slow cooking. STOVES AND COOKERS 219 TABLE XIV. — Time-Table fob Use with a Fireless Cooker Food Cereals : Corn-meal Cracked wheat Cream-of-wheat Farina Hominy grits Macaroni Rice Rolled oats Vegetables : Beans, dried (soaked and cooked in the same water) Beans, string Cabbage Carrots Onions Potatoes Dried fruits : Apples Apricots Peaches Prunes (soaked and cooked in the same water) Meats: Beef, boiled Beef, pot roast Chicken, stewed Ham, boiled Mutton, leg or shoulder, boiled Mutton stew Breads and puddings: Brown bread Cup custard, steamed Suet pudding Propor- tion of food to water 1 to 6 1 to 5 1 to 6 1 to 7 1 to 5 1 to 4 1 to 4 1 to 3 1 to 4 1 to 1 1 to 1 1 to 1 1 to 1 1 to 1 1 to2 1 to2 1 to2 1 to 2 Minutes Hours for boiling in the on the stove cooker 10 6 or all night 25 8 or all night 5 2 or all night 5 2 or all night 15 8 or all night 5 2 5 2 5 3 or all night 5 6 or more 2 2 2 1^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 4 or all night 2 4 or all night 2 4 or all night 5 . 4 or all night 15 3 30 5 30 . 3 20 7 20 6 10 4 30 5 1 30 5 ('HAi»'ri:ii ix METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL SoiiK^ of llic mclliods of keeping foods cool that wore used by jiriiiiitivc people are still resorted to, sometimes with certain iiiodilications. The use of v^essels jxMMiiiMiiifz; evaporation, the niDiiiufi water (jf streams, caves or holes in the ffroiuid, i)ackin^ with {i;rasses, all have lent their |)rinciples to more elal)orate cooling methods and refrigerating systems of to-day. Refrigerators. Oi'dinary household rofri A MAM M. OF HOME MAKIMI .screen door to file fourlli side. The eliieieiic y will lie ureafer if IIk- uliclvos and the liottom arc mado of roinforrod srreoniriK t*) allow fn-er eireulation of air. Cover the four sides entirely with cintoii li.innel, smooth side out, Imt- toniriK it closely to the frame. This may he done cjLsily liy .scwinR huttons on tape and tacking this tape firmly .iroiind the ujjper edne of the ea.so on three sides, also down each side of the framework next the door and on the upper and outer ed^es of the door. Allow a flap of flannel to extend past Fig. 50. — An iccless refrigerator. the outer edge of the door to he buttoned over on the framework. It will be necessary to unbutton and button thi.s flap when openinR the case. Make l)uttonh()les in the flaimel covering corresponding to the buttons on the ca.sc. Around the top of the covering .sew four flaps of canton flannel a little narrower than each side of tlie case and large enough to extend up over the top and ilip into the pan of water. The.se will serve as wicks to keep the entire .surface of the flannel moi.st. If the refrigerator is to be .set on the i)orch, a pan must be placed underneath the refrigerator to catch the water that drijis down. An extra flannel covering should be made for the case so that one may be washed each week. METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL 223 It is desirable, but not essential, to paint the case with enamel paint. A non-rusting wire must be used for the screening. The following dimensions are suggested, and the amount of material required is indicated. Height: 4 feet, 8 inches. Base: 24 inches square. Space between shelves: 11 inches. ok |„ o Fig. 51. — Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator. The buttonholes are placed to correspond with the buttons on the framework. Materials: 3 yards of 24-inch opal zinc screen wire, 1 pint of flat coat white paint for first coat, 1 pint of white enamel paint for second coat, 50 feet of board M x 3 inches for frame and door, 16 feet of board 1 x 12 inches for 4 shelves, 4 feet of board 1 x 24 inches for top and bottom, 46 feet of screen molding, 2 hinges, 1 cabinet catch, 2% dozen white china buttons, 10 yards of white cotton tape, nails, tacks, 13 yards of 30-inch canton flannel (two covers). Unglazed earthen vessels* If the air is dry, evaporation is quite rapid even when water is cool. Thus, when water is placed in a slightly porous un- glazed earthen vessel, a small amount constantly filters to the outside and evaporates, keeping the contents several degrees * U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55. 2_'l A M.WI AL oh lloMI: MAKIXd cooler llian \\w suiroiiii .1 .\/.i.v/ .1/. or noMi: makj\(; |t( rat me (luring hakiiig. 'The round tin with a tulic in tlic cen- ter, known as an an^j;el-cake tin, produces the most level and eNcniy liaked caki', owing to the heat icai-hing the center of the cake as >oon as any other part, and the "pull" hetween niefal and hatter heing more even at every i)oint than in lins of other consi ruction. A plain round tin, not too deej), gives the next hest result; a square tin is next, wliile an oblong tin requires very careful regulation of heat in order to produce a well-baked cake. Bread. — Tlie choice of utensils for bread baking lies between tin and russia iron (a sheet iron treated by a process that orig- inated in Kussia, having a polished blue-black surface). Since bread requires a hotter oven than does cake, the russia iron l)an sliould have first choice; it absorl)s more heat than does tin, is less affected l)y high temperature, and is more durable. Pie. — Experiments have shown that in baking the lower crust of juicy pies, the best results are obtained by the use of granite-ware plates, that old tin plates are next in order, while ]HMforated and wire plates come third. Cookies! — Cookies are ])est baked on russia iron sheets cut to fit the oven, with lieavy tin sheets as second choice. The sheets are kept in better condition and produce more delicate results if, instead of being gicased with l)utter or lard, they ai-e warmed and rubbed very lightly with parafhn. If kept scrupulously clean, they require no greasing. Cooking of meats. Roasts. — Koasts require a high temperature at the start in order to sear the surface; for this reason the best choice is a pan of iron or high-grade granite ware. An oval pan can be more carefully cleaned than one with sharp corners. There is less danger, therefore, if this shape is chosen, that particles of fat will adhere to the pan, grow^ rancid, and give an unpleasant odor to the utensil and a taint to the food. Pot roasts. — The iron kettle with tight-fitting cover, called also the "Dutch oven," best supplies the steady heat that a KITCHEN UTENSILS 227 pot roast needs. Although a casserole may be used, or a bean pot with waxed paper tied tightly over the top, in either of these there is more evaporation than in the iron kettle and the roast is, therefore, drier, although just as tender. Meat stews. — Since in stews more liquid is added than in pot roasts, the casserole may well be used, or a shallow aluminum or graniteware stewpan with close-fitting cover, straight sides, and very short or loop-shaped handles. The long, slow cook- ing may thus be done either in the oven or on top of the stove. In brown stews, the meat is first sauteed in an iron pan in order to give the desired color and flavor. Stewing fruits or vegetables. Aluminum, granite, and enamelware are equally good for stewing fruits and vegetables. A wide, shallow type of sauce- pan, with a well-fitting cover, should be selected for fruits and for such vegetables as must be cooked in a small amount of water; while a deep saucepan, without a cover, is best for the cooking of strong-juiced vegetables that need a large amount of water. Sauteing. A rather heavy iron or steel frying pan is best adapted for this purpose. In a thin pan, or in one of graniteware, the fat passes too soon from the temperature at which it forms the de- sired golden-brown crust on the food to be cooked, to the point where it begins to decompose and becomes irritating to the di- gestive tract. Frying. For frying in deep fat an iron or steel frying kettle is best. It may be bowl-shaped, or it may have straight sides. The latter shape accommodates a greater number of articles at a time, and is more convenient for use with a wire frying basket. In using the bowl-shaped kettle, a long-handled skimmer may be more convenient for removing the food. The kettle should be deep, so that when it is two-thirds full of fat the food to be cooked will be entirely immersed. 'J2S .1 MA MA I. or HDMi: MAhl.\(,- Cnndij-intiki/Kj. Prorcssioiial coiifi't-lioDcrs use a copper kettle connected with an appaiatus that makes a partial vacmiin in the kettle and allows the suji;ar to l)oii at a lower teinpeiatuic than the ordi- nary boiling point, thus lessening the danger of scorcliing the simar. For the home candy-maker, aluminum is the l)est sub- stitute for copper as a conductor of heat. Sirup lioile\v('\cr, (•;iiiii()l he li;ikc(| in as with tin and iron, since it wduld nnt lie ali>y are easily kept clean antl l)riKht. ;>. They do not ru.st. I)i.s(i(lrtiiitn(}cx: 1. Niekel-phited utensils are heavy. 2. They are exponsive. General care: Wash nickel utensils in hot soapsuds and rinse them in very hot water. Special care: 1. Polish nickel with a paste made of lard and whiting. 2. Apply wliitinp; moistened with ammonia or alcohol, and [)olisli the utensil with soft cotton waste. PoUcry Porcelain, stoneware, and earthenware have clay for a foundation, hut ditTer in a])pearance and ([uality according to the fineness of the clay used, the kind of {^laze applied, and the length of time taken for firing. Advantages: 1. Pottery utensils are excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat, such as slow baking. 2. They can l)e used for both cooking and serving food and therefore save dishwa.shing. S. The good grades are nonab.sorbent. 4. Pottery utensils are comparatively cheap. .5. They are relatively durable. G. They arc easy to clean unless they arc cracked. Disadvantages: Pottery utensils are not good for u.se over dinn't heat that is unsteady or intense, such as on top of a stove. General care: 1. Pottery utensils should be kept exceedingly clean. 2. If they are allowed to dry without being wiped, they should be rin.sed in very hot, clean water to i)revent their becoming covered witli a thin film which in time .sjioils the glaze. KITCHEN UTENSILS 237 Silver or plated silver Advantages: 1. Silver is an excellent conductor of heat. 2. It does not tarnish readily. Disadvantages: 1. Silver is too costly for ordinary use, although plated silver is used to a hmited extent in baking dishes and the like. 2. It becomes tarnished if sulphur is allowed to touch it. General care: Wash silver in hot soapy water, rinse it thoroughly in clear hot water, and wipe it with a clean dry cloth. Special eare: 1. Use a brush in cleaning raised patterns. 2. To remove tarnish, use silver polish according to directions given on the package, or use whiting moistened with alcohol, ammonia water, or water. Rub in the paste, allow it to dry, and rub it off with a soft cloth, chamois skin, or tissue paper. Scald the silver. This method gives a bur- nished appearance. 3. Boil the silver until the tarnish is removed, in an enamelware kettle containing a piece of aluminum and a solution made of 1 teaspoon of salt, 1 teaspoon of either washing or baking soda, and 1 quart of water. Alum- inum kettles of any value for cooking .should not be used, since the process corrodes them quickly. A piece of zinc is sometimes used in place of aluminum, but it becomes corroded and inactive in a much shorter time. This method gives a satin finish rather than the burnished appearance obtained by an abrasive silver polish. This electrolytic method, however, causes no loss of metal and requires less time. It may be desirable, there- fore, to use the solution with aluminum as frequently as it is necessary to remove tarnish, and the abrasive polish occasionally to restore the bur- nished appearance. Soapstone Advantages: Soapstone gives a good even heat for cake griddles. Disadvantages: Unless it is of excellent quality and is well cared for, it is likely to be too absorbent to be sanitary. General care: Soapstone should be cleaned occasionally with soap and water, and thoroughly dried. The pores should always be kept well filled with oil. Tin Advantages: 1. The utensils are light. 2. They are comi)arativc-ly inexpensive. •_';{,S A MAMAL IJF HOME MAKI\(! :{. Tlicy :irc ;illr:H-tiv<' in apprarancc when new. I. 'I'licy iirc UDod coiKhicldrs of heat; (liis ullows ffxxl cooked in tlicni to l)ccoiii(> «>V('iily li('atcc best grades of tinware an- not corroded by water. Disinlfdiiltuifs: 1. Tin doi's not (iidurc intense heat, wliicli makes it unsuital)le for fryiriK and makes drying it hy setting it on the stove a liad |)raetice. 2. Scratches expose the steel and make rust possible. 'I'herefore, metal .spoons and .'^crapers .should not be used on tin. 3. Tin utensils are in (general not good for cfKikinn acid foods bccau.sc even the best tin is likely to Ix; acted on by hot acid. Ctcneral rare: 1. Wash tinwar(> in hot suds made with neutral .soap. 2. Use scouring powders if necessary to remove food that has IxM-n liurned on. 3. Do not scour tin to restore its brightness because the tarnish acts as a protective coat and makes the utensil wear longer. Special care: Boil tin utensils for two or three minutes in a solution of washing-soda made in the projjorticn of G quarts of cold water to 1 pound of washing-soda. Wood Advantages: Wooden spoons arc lighter tlian metal spoons and not .so noLsy, they do not scratch saucepans, they do not discolor the hand, they are non- conductors of heat. Disndvanlnges: 1. Wooden utensils may become dented, rough, or darkened. 2. They ;ire likely to be unsanitary and to take up odors because of improper cleaning. 3. If wood is not well seasoned, it cracks and splinters easily. General care: 1. Fine sand is better than soap for scrubbing wood because the alkali in soap combines with wood to form a dark stain. 2. Never u.sc hot water on wood. 3. Scrul) wood with a circular motion, but rinse it and dry it witli the grain in order to leave the fibers fiat. 4. Rub steak planks thoroughly with .some food oil, until the wood has absorbed all it will. Special rare: 1. To remove dents, i)ut a wet pad of several thicknes.ses of cheese-cloth or mu.slin on the dent and cover it with a hot iron. The steam will raise the fibers of the wood nuich as it rai.ses the pile of velvet. KITCHEN UTENSILS 239 2. To smooth aAvay a rough place, rub it with steel wool, following the grain of the wood. 3. To restore the color of wood that has become darkened, use steel wool and weak hydrochloric acid. Ziitc or galvanized iron Advantages: 1. Zinc makes a good sanitary covering for table tops. 2. It does not become tarnished readily by action of the air. 3. It is rust-proof. Disadvantages: 1. Zinc becomes tarnished by the action of damp air and is affected by salt, which prevents its lasting well on the seashore. 2. It is acted on by acids. 3. It cannot be used for cooking utensils because it is affected by both acids and alkalis. General care: Wash zinc with hot suds made of mild soap. Special care: 1. Kerosene dissolves a film of grease and helps to remove inclosed dirt. 2. Bath brick may be used for food bins, in which case it would not be desirable to use kerosene. 3. Scour zinc with a paste made of kerosene and baking soda, and rinse it thoroughly with hot water. 4. Acids, such as vinegar, sulphuric acid in the proportion of one part of acid to twelve parts of water, or alum and acetic acid may be used to remove tarnish, but they eat into the zinc. The metal should be rinsed thoroughly with hot water. The tarnish is likely to appear soon again. ('iiai»'im:i; xi table setting and serving in' I'^LOKA HosK When an attempt is made to lormalize any household ])rac- tiee, there is always the danp;er of red tape. Yet some forinah- ties, if based on a strong foundation of eonmion sense, make hfe more unselfish and delijihtful. A safe^uaid aj^ainst useless for- mality is to keep eonstantly in mind this faet — every p;ood rule should have a fi;ood reason. When the rule is being applicMJ, the reason should be made to appear. If in any household no good reason is forthcoming for the foi-mal rule imposed, the rule should be discarded. This is particularly true in table setting and serving where mere formality may have developed to such an extent as to obscui'e original good reasons for doing things. Yet most of the fundamental rules in good table set- ting are built on a sovnid foundation of reason. TABLE SETTINt; The table itself maj^ be bare wood or it may be clothed in finest linen or oilcloth. It should be clean. For each person, 20 to 30 inches of lengthwise space should be allowed, unless the table is round or square and seats only four or eight persons. Less than 20 inches means uncomfort- able crowding; more than 30 inches means difficulty in talking across the distance. Covering for the tabic The nnisons for covering a tal)le with tablecloth, table- S(iuai'e, runners, doilies, or napkins are: (1) to |)rotect the sur- face of th(! (able; (2) to hide the surface of the tal)le; (3) to in- sure fjuieter service; (4) to reflect the light; (5) to improve the 240 TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 241 appearance of the table. If any covering is used, it should be clean. A rough, I)are, clean table is better than soiled, rumpled linen, no matter how fine and expensive. A tablecloth may make a more homogeneous picture than either doilies or runners, and its unbroken white surface re- flects more light than a partly bare, dark table. There is no other good reason, however, why doilies or runners may not always be used in place of the larger cloth to protect the table. Any rule such as using only a tablecloth at a formal dinner is pure form. Doilies and runners have some great advantages. Small pieces of linen are easy to wash, and if one is spotted it alone may be washed. Furthermore, the table is easier to set with doilies, particularly for a small family. To set the table If a tablecloth is to be used. A tablecloth keeps clean and unmussed longer if a heavy cotton or padded cloth, called a silencer or protection cloth or "husher," is used under it, than if it is placed next to the table. An old clean sheet may serve this purpose if no other cloth is available. The table should first be covered with the silence cloth, care being taken to arrange it so that it will not hang below the tablecloth. The tablecloth is then stretched on the table so that the center fold is uppermost and so that the cloth hangs evenly on both sides and at both ends of the table. Care should be taken to see that the cloth is straight. If possible to prevent it, a cloth should not hang over the sides and ends much more than 12 or 14 inches, since otherwise it will not clear the seats of the chairs and will spoil the appearance of the table. Furthermore, it is in the way at mealtime. If dollies are used. Doilies that are rectangular are better than round or square ones, since they give a wider space for the an-angement of silver and glasses on the table and are a better protection to it. The doilies should first be arranged at one end and on one side of the table. On the side one should try to space the doilies 242 A MAM' A J. OF JKJMK MAKI.Xd so lluit Ihcy arc ('(lually distant from each oihcr. 'I'licii, ex- actly oi)positc these doilies, those to he used at the other end and on the othci' side of the tahie should he placed. Doilies should he placed so that one edge is ahout at the edge of the tahle. The individual cover. The place arranged for each individual at the tahlc is called the cover. After the cloth or doilies have heen placed, each individual cover should he arrangetl. It is desirahle, as a rule, to place at the individual cover as nmch of the silver and china as nia}' add to the convenience of the meal. If, for example, spoons are placed at the individual covers instcatl of in a holder, considerable confusion may be prevented at mealtime. Knives are placed at the i-ight of the cover with the sharp edge of the blade toward the plate. This is because the knife is usually lifted with the right hand. Forks are placed at the left of the cover with the tines up. This is because the fork is lifted in the left hand when something is being cut with the knife and fork. If only a fork is to be used, a very good reason may be found for placing it at the right of the plate. It is in general a good rule to try to keep a balance be- tween the silver on each side of the cover, since all the silver on one side makes a heavy-looking design. Spoons may be placed at the right of the knife or in front of the plate with handles toward the right hand. The knife and fork nearest the plate should be far enough apart to permit the largest plate used at the meal to be set between them without pushing them out of place. They should not Ix* spread unneces- sarily far ai)art. All the silver in one group should l)e compactly placed. The glass may be placed at the tip of the knife and slightly to the right. There is no reason why it should not be placed at the tip of the fork and slightly to the left if j)referred in that place. The butter-plate may he i)laced at the tip of the fork and slightly to the left. Butter-plate and glass may be made to change places if preferred. TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 243 The napkin may be placed at the left of the forks, at the right of the knives, in the center of the cover, or in front of the cover, according to convenience. The napkins should be so placed that the corners of each face the same way, if they have been so ironed that this is possible. The plate. — If a plate is set at the individual cover before the meal begins, it should be placed ^ to 1 inch from the edge of the table. This is to prevent danger of tipping through any thoughtless movement of the individual. Relation of covers. — All the glasses on one side of the table should be in a straight line. The same is true for butter-plates, silver, and napkins or other utensils. On looking down the table, a straight line running from the center of one utensil should strike the center of the next utensil of the same kind. This makes a well-ordered, trim table. If each side of the table has the same number of covers, the center of each cover on one side should be exactly opposite the center of the cover on the other side. The ends of the handles of all the silver used at the covers should be 3^ to % inch from the edge of the table and should be in a straight line. This is a basic principle of good design. General equipment. There is a certain amount of general equipment which must go on each table. This varies with the simplicity of the meal and with the formality of the service. As formality decreases, food is left to be served on the table. If possible, salt-containers should be allowed for each two persons and should be placed inconspicuously and within reach of each. If jelly or pickles are placed on the table, a dish of jelly at one end and at one side of the table may balance a dish of pickles at the other end and on the other side of the table. If spoons or forks are placed for serving these, they should be placed straight and parallel with the silver at the sides or ends of the table, not on the bias. A good general rule is not to cross any of the extra silver to L'l 1 .1 M.WIM. OF IIOMI: MAKIXa lie ibcd lor .-.('i-viii^ ;in(l never In pl;u'e it on ;i Mas line. If, for example, a small l)iif ter-sprea(i(''r is usi'd, it should he j)laee(l on the hutlcr-plale parallel lo all the other silver, or placed next to the other knives. The reason for strai^^hf ness is ^ood desifrn. As far as possible, silver for service should he arranged on the main tal)le or on u side tahle heforc the meal l)OKins. This silver may he placed on the rif^ht and left of the cover of the server ant! in the same way and line as the I'emainder oi the silver at that cover. If cups and saucers are put on the taljle hefore the meal, tiiey should he arranfjed in such a way as to facilitate the i)ourinp; of the hevera^e and the jiassinjj of the cups, 'i'he handles of llu; cuj)s should all l)e in line and in a position for the server to take hold of them most conveniently. Place should he left for the pot and for cream and sugar serv^ers, and these should ije placed in such a way as to facilitate service. ^J'he handle of the pot should he towartl tlie hand of the server. After the tahle is set, the chairs may he arranj^ed. They should he in straight rows and sufficiently far from the table to re(iuire hut slight moving when the persons are seated. Just l)efore the meal, the glasses should be filled with cold water, the butter may be placed on the plates, and the bread may be cut. T.\BLE SERVICE A few simple rules will greatly facilitate attractive and con- venient serving. No attempt will be made here to discuss service of the extremely formal type. To pass food V()(h\ should he passed at the left of the pei*son sitting at the 1al)le. This is because it is easier to reach across than around with the i-ight hand. The opposite procedure is more conven- ient foi- left-handcnl jxM'sons. W Ik II food is passed, th(> dish siioiild lie held close to the table with the edge of the dish slightly over the edge of the plate of the person to be served. This jjrevents accidents and is con- venient for the person served. TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 245 A (ray is not iieecssaiy for passing single vegetable dishes, salad bowls, or platt(!rs. In fact, safer service results if the sci'ving dish rests on the palm and spread fingers of the left hand. The hand should be protected with a folded napkin. This leaves the right hand free to rearrange the spoon between servings and to guard against possible movements of persons at the table. To place food In general it may be more convenient to place food from the right of the person served. This is because it can be placed by the right hand. If it is more convenient to place from the left, there is no reason against so doing. When a cup and saucer are placed, the handles of the cup and the spoon should be in a position most convenient for the user. To remove dishes In general it may be more convenient to remove dishes from the right than from the left of the person served. They may be removed from either side. To serve food carved or served at the table Semi-formal method. It is more convenient for the carver if only one plate is placed in front of him at a time. Hot plates should be kept on the side table, one set in front of the carver, and a second held in the left hand. The waitress should stand at the left of the carver, unless he prefers the opposite side. When the plate in front of the carver is filled, it is removed from the left with the right hand, and a hot plate put in place with the left hand in order to reduce interference with the carver. After placing the filled plate, the waitress should secure a fresh plate from the side table and return to the same position by the carver. This method means slow service and should not be followed unless the number to be served is few or there is more than one waitress. It may be hurried by having the vegetables served at the other end of the table. In this case, the plate must be carried from the carver to the server and then placed at the 241) .1 .\/.Lvr.i/. OF IK KM I : u.i/v/.vr/ intcndt'd cover. If the vcuctablcs, K^ivy, :iii(l hrcad are to l>e passed, the followiliu onler may Ite oloerved: |K)ta({>(>i, ^ravv, liread, (itlier \("j,elal»lc>, coiidiinriil , siifli as jcllx' or piekles. InfoniKil method. For the informal metliod, all the plates are placed in front of the carver. It is wisd(Mii on the part of the carver, with tliis type of service, to cut the entire mnnln'r of portions before i)e()(|y si(|c ;iii' lliis sliu\('l :iii(| tratis- IciTcd l»y rolaiy iiiotioii ol I lie urisl (o the niniitli. Th( knife was liisl used In ciil lood and to handler it t(J tlio inoutli. When the fork was iiiliodiiccd, the knife lost caste as an implciucnt for transporlin^ food. Its only acccptaMc use al present, is to cut and spread. The knife is held in the ripht hand in the same way as the fork in the left one. Knife and for/:. — \\'hen the plate is passed hack to the carver for a second servinji;, the knife and fork should he placed to- gether and sent alonfz; with the plate. This is because no other place is .so safe for tlu'ni. At the close of a nieal the knife and fork should be placed close together on the plate, the knife at the right, the fork at the left, and the handles facing the same direction in which they were originally placed on the table. The spoo7i is useful foi' mixing lifjuids and for transferring soft foods from the })late to the mouth. The spo(Mi should never be left in a cup or high glass dish after its use as a stirrer or feeding implement has ceased, since it gives a loose handle which endangers the safety of the dish. With beverages, the function of the si)oon is as a stirrer and taster, and not as a vehicle. This is because it is (nisier to sip a beverage quietly from the cup than fiom the spoon. Soup should Ik; sipped from the side of the spoon. When, however, a soup is full of solid substances, and if the spoon is a soupspoon and not a tal)lespoon, it may l)e necessary to eat the solid part of the soup from the tip of the spoon instead of sipping it from the side. Fork and Kpoon. — With many desserts it is desirable to give both a .spoon and a fork. For example, if pie is served with cream, both are needed. If baked apj^le or prunes are served, the fork helps to steady the food on the plate while the soft flesh is being removed from the core or seeds. This avoids the removal of prune seeds fi-om the mouth. The (ilass.- — Ikifore drinking, the lips should be wiped with a napkin. Otherwise the number of sips ma}' register them- selves on the sid(! of the glass. CHAPTER XII THE LAUNDRY* By Flora Rose Washing has a threefold purpose: to remove dirt and thus reopen the pores of the cloth, to dry the cloth so as to renew its power of absorption; and to destroy any bacteria that may be in it. FABRICS A first step toward gaining necessary knowledge of laundry methods is to learn something of the nature of the fabrics to be laundered and how they respond to the cleansing agents or solvents generally used in the laundry (p. 305). The common fibers used for clothing are of vegetable and animal origin. The chief vegetable fibers are cotton and linen; the animal fibers, wool and silk. Among the common laundry cleansing agents, called reagents, are two classes of chemicals known as acids and bases, or alkalis. Even cold dilute mineral acids may seriously injure cotton and linen if allowed to dry on the material. Fruit acids have no action on cotton and linen unless allowed to dry and then moistened and ironed dry. Dilute acid does not affect wool, but it weakens silk. Weak alkalis, such as dilute washing-soda solution, borax, and soap, have little or no harmful action on cotton and linen, but lye is more destructive. Dilute solutions of borax or a mild soa}), if only lukewarm, have but a slightly injurious ac- tion on wool, but they weaken silk and destroy its luster. * From Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 11. 249 !'.">() .1 .\/.i.vr.i/. OF iioMi-: MAKixr; WATKU Water is tlic natural sdlvciif for nnicli of tlic dirt that acm- iinilatcs on clothing; moreover, it ads as a carrier to rid tlu; (•lotluii. 'J'he fat used in home-made soap is often filled with imj)uriti(>s and they arc not always removed before the soap is made. As the fat in kitchen waste varies proatly in composition, it is impossil)le to ^ive the exact amount of alkali rcfjuired for home-made soap. It is evident, then, that home-made soap is likely to he filled with impurities and to be both greasy and excessively caustic, "eating," because of the presence of free fat and an undue amount of free alkali. For the benefit of those hous(>kccp(M-s who wish to try its manufacture, however, a formula is given on page 256. Soap substitutes and accessories. Soap is the best all-round cleansing agent to use in the laun- dry, but there are other sut)stances with similar cleansing prop- erties that may be used with good results in its place: In the leaves, stems, roots, or bark of some plants occurs a soap-like substance that is closely allied to soap in its power to remove dirt. Soap-bark (quillaia bark) is a familiar example of this kind of cleansing agent. When powdered soap-bark is ]iut into water it gives a good latiier, and it acts quickly and effectively to remove dirt and stains. Another substance with soap-like characteristics, but of animal origin, is known as ox-bile, or ox-gall. Soap-bark and ox-gall are doubtless well known to the housekeeper, for they are often used to wash garments easily injured by the strong al- kalis, for example, woolens, and fabrics printed in delicate colors. Bran, rice, jwtatoes, and starch are frecjuentl}' recommended as good substitutes for soaps in washing delicate fabrics and coloi's. Various substances are used with soap to facilitate or acceler- ate the washing process. Among them may be mentioned lye, washing-soda, borax, and ammonia; turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine; and fuller's earth. THE LAUNDRY 255 Alkalis are often used in connection with soap, in excess of the amount needed to soften hard water, to facilitate the re- moval of dirt by their direct action on it. In many cases it is a mistake to pursue such a course if the alkali used is lye. The same objections may hold with washing-soda, but in lesser degree. If the fabric is of such nature that limited amounts of lye or washing-soda will not seriously injure it, a strong soap will contain all the free lye that is safe to use. Borax and am- monia are mild alkalis and may be very useful when the pres- ence of some free alkali is needed and the effect of a strong soap would be injurious. They are often utilized in connection with a neutral or mild soap for washing flannels and delicately colored fabrics. Turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine are all valuable aids to the laundress, for they exert a solvent action on matter of a fatty nature and thus soften and loosen dirt, materially facilitating the washing process. The disadvantage in the use of these substances is, that clothing in the washing of which they have been used may be insufficiently rinsed afterward and retain the odor of them. Benzine is dangerous to handle because of its inflammability, and cannot be used with very hot water because it evaporates. Fuller's earth is a valuable adjunct in cleaning, and is some- times used partly to replace soap in the washing process when the articles to be washed are in a very greasy condition and the use of a strong soap is not sufficient, and when the use of a strong alkali is not advisable. Manufacturers have put on the market various soaps and powders that have incorporated with them some one or more of the above substances. Naphtha and borax soaps and soaps con- taining fuller's earth give satisfaction. Good results may be obtained at less cost by the use of soap and the accessory ma- terial uncombined, though it may often be more convenient to use the manufactured article that is a combination of the two. Washing powders are mixtures of soap and some alkali such as lye, washing-soda, and borax, and may have incorporated with them some one or more of the substances of the nature of 250 .1 .iy.i.\/.i/, or iio.Mi: makim: lurpcntiiio, pnraffiii, fuller's (';irlli. In the i.i-r <>\ tho poorer powders u "filler" is used, fliaf is, a siihstanre jriviii*; weiiihf to tlie j)o\vder and very properly considered an adulleranl. Tliir hest powdeis eontain iar}z;e amounts of soap and only small amounts of alkali. A reiwrt is mad(> of one of the i)oorer varie- ties of wasliinj:; jK)wder containinK only 10 per cent of soap. l!nou}z;h has heen said in comiection with the elTect of alkalis and their use to guide the housekeeper in her purchase and u.s(! of these powders. There may ho occasions when a washing powder is dcsiral)le, but indiscriminate use of these strong cleans- ing agents is inadvisable and should not be generally indulged in. Directions and foDnulas. Ilomc-mudc snap: 1 pound can lye dissolved in 3 pints cold water 5 pounds fat molted, IH tahlespoon.s borax, J 2 Pup ammonia When lye mixture has cooled add it to fat, stir until as thick as honey, pour into wooden or pasteboard Ijoxcs lined with oiled or waxed paper, set away to harden. Soap-hark: 1 pound soap-bark ('(juals 2 i)()unds soft soap. Use in place of soa]). Bran: 1 cup bran 1 quart water Hoil y^ hour. Strain, boil liran in a second cjuart water ' 2 hour. When needed, reduce with warm water. Potato water: Grate two larpe-sized i)()tatoes into 1 pint dean, clear, soft water. Strain into 1 gallon water, let liquid settle. Pour off and use. Soap sohdion for irashincj colored goods: J4 pound mild or medium soap to 1 gallon water. Soap soltdioii for ordinary pnrpoaes: 1 bar ordinary washing .soap 2 to 3 quarts water Shave soap and put into saucepan witii cold water. Heat gradually until soap is dissolved (about 1 hour). Soap solution for noakinr) elotheft: 1 bar ordijiarv soap 3 gallons water j2to 1 talilespoon turpentine 1 to '{ lalilespooiis ammoni:!. THE LAUNDRY 257 Soap solution for u'dsfdiig much-soiled ivoolens and delicate colors: }/2 pound VQvy mild or neutral soap J4 pound borax • 3 quarts water. Soap jelly intli lurpenline incorporated: 1 bar soap 1 quart water 1 teaspoon turpentine or kerosene. A liquid for washing delicate fabrics and colors may be made from laundry starch, grated potatoes, rice, flour, and the like. The water in which rice has boiled may be saved and utilized for the same purpose. The cleansing liquid after cook- ing should be as thick as cream and should be diluted from one to four times, according to the amount of dirt in the clothing. Clothing should be rinsed in a more dilute solution, which may be blued for white clothes. STARCH There is a twofold reason for the use of starch in laundry operations: (1) the glazed surface of a starched garment keeps clean longer than an unglazed, or unstarched, surface; (2) the increase in body of the starched garment gives it increased re- sistance to moisture and some garments are considered corre- spondingty more attractive in appearance. In the commercial laundry and in those industries in which the finishing of fabrics is a consideration, use is made, not of one kind of starch, but of several, according to the nature of the work to be done. The American housekeeper uses, as a rule, only cornstarch, because of its cheapness and a lack of knowledge of the char- acteristics of the other starches. The several varieties of starch vary considerably in their ability to penetrate fabrics. The reason for the use of rice starch with finer fabrics by those con- sidered to do a superior grade of laundry work, is because of its penetrative quality. It is said to penetrate the pores of a fabric more completely than does any other starch and to give a finer, smoother finish. Next to rice starch in penetrability comes wheat starch. 'Cornstarch is the poorest of the three starches; it has a tendency to lump and show starch spots after ironing. •j:)S A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC Hicc starch ^ivcs a iiatmal, i)ur(' wliilc color to fabrics, whilo cornstarch ^ivcs a yellow color, and wheat, starch a color he- Iweeii the two. Since wheat, starcii anody, together with more lasting stiffness, than it would otherwise have. Alum is used alone, or with borax, in starch to improve color, to increase penetrability and pliability, and to thin the starch mixture. When alum is cooked with a starch paste it causes the paste to Ijecome thinner. " Cooking thin " with alum does not affect the strength of the starch mixture and is an advantage when a stiff starch is desirable and the thick mixture would be inconvenient to handle. By the use of alum, starch may be made thin without dilution. Alum has been objected to by some persons as Ixung somewhat injurious to fabrics. THE LAUNDRY 259 Oily substances, such as wax, paraffin, turpentine, lard, or butter, are used to add a smoothness, gloss, and finish, to pre- vent the starch from sticking to the iron, and to aid in prevent- ing the absorption of moisture. Substances resembling glue, such as gum arabic and dextrin, are used with starch to increase its stiffening power. They are sometimes used alone when the white color of starch is con- sidered a disadvantage in stiffening colored fabrics. Directions for using starch, starch substitutes, and starch ac- cessories: In making starch, a naturally soft water is greatly to be de- sired, but if the water furnished is hard it should be softened with borax, not with washing-soda or lye, since these tend to produce a yellow color with starch: 1. )4: cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, light, durable finish. 2. J<^ cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives moderate body stiffness. 3. 3^ cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, firm finish. 4. ]/2, cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives stiff body finish. A mixture of the two starches may be varied, to produce any desired result. Directions for cooking starch: Starch should first be mixed with a little cold water and then stirred slowly into boiling water and cooked in accordance with the following directions: 1. If wheat starch, is used, cook slowly at least 25 or 30 minutes. 2. If cornstarch is used, cook slowly 15 to 20 minutes. 3. If a mixture of wheat starch and cornstarch is used, the wheat starch should be added first and cooked 15 minutes. The cornstarch should then be added and the mixture cooked 15 minutes longer. Stir the mixture fre- quently, to prevent sticking and formation of a film. Thorough cooking of starch is very desirable in laundry prac- tice, for it increases the penetrability of the starch and decreases its tendency to stick to the iron. If borax, lard, butter, kerosene, or other like substance is used, it should be cooked with the starch, to insure thorough mixing. 260 .1 w.iA / .1/. I If iioMi: M \hi\(; Thick sltnrli: ' 2 Clip slatcli, iiiixt thickness of cheese-cloth e.r through flannel. I'se while hot. The most satisfactory starch for tlelicatc fabrics is rice starch, and it may be used in place of clear starch. (line for stiff ciiino dark clnllns: 12 ounces dark glue 1 <|uart water Boil together until glue is dissolved, cool .som(>what. Dip the garmenl to be stifTened into glue and wipe oil" excess of glue with piece of black cheese-cloth, .sateen, or calico. After sprinkling, roll garmenl in bla.l: THE LAUNDRY 261 clotli and iron on ironing l)o;mI covered with black doth. Any glue left over may be saved and used again. To increase diffmss: 1. Partly dry garment before starching. 2. Add 1 tablespoon powdered gum ural)ic reduced (o liquid in l-^ cup boiling water, to the stiff starch mi.\ture. 3. Use borax. 4. Add a small amount of glue to starch mi.xture. 5. Dry quickly. Gum arable as a starch subslilute: 4 tablespoons pulverized gum arabic 1 pint cold water 3 tablespoons alcohol. Put water and gum arabic in saucepan and set into saucepan containing boiling water. When dissolved, strain through cheese-cloth, cool, add alcohol, pour into a bottle, cork, set away for use. The alcohol acts as a preservative and the mixture may be kept for any length of time. BLUING White fabrics have naturally a creamy tint, which may be deepened to an unpleasant pale yellow by careless washing, by insufficient rinsing, or by lack of exposure to the bleaching influence of sunlight and fresh air. Bluing is used to hide the yellow color, because blue and yellow are complementary colors and when used together in proper proportions give the effect of whiteness. Bluing is unwarrantably used to hide a yellowness which comes from careless washing. No one kind of bluing may be recommended to the house- keeper. She must experiment for herself, choose one good variety, and learn to use that one properly. Sufficient bluing should be used to make a little of the bluing water taken up in the cup of the hand show a pale sky-blue color. More than that amount of bluing should not l)e needed. It is always best to make a small amount of strong bluing in a bowl of water, then draw from it to color the water in the tub. WASHING While Monday has long been chosen as the home day for washing, there may be good reason to postpone the process 2(i'2 .1 MAXIM, or IK) mi: MAKlXr; iiiilil Tiicsday. i'x'tdrc \v:i>liiiiji e used is ji nialtiT for experimentation liy the launderer. Clothes should not he allowed to stand in tlie hilling water, as tliey minht become streaked. If a hall l)luinK is u.sed, tie it in a thick cloth, wet, and sc|ueeze it into a bowlful of hot water. U.se a iiart of the resulting solution for hluiiiK the water. More of the hluinK in the howl should lie added to the MuiiiK in the tub from time to time a.s the rlotiiinn takes it up. As some kind.s of bluing are in the form of minute particles, the l)luing \vatcr .should bo stirred each time Ix'fore adding clothes to it. After they arc wrung, ini-starched clothes will then be ready for drying. 9. Make the stiirch according to directions on pages 259 to 2()1. Starch tho.sc garments requiring thick starch first, Vjecau.se moisture from the clothing gradually tliins the starch, and a medium stiff, medium thin, and thin starcli gradually result. St iff .starch: Collars, cuffs, sliirt l)o.soms. Medium stiff utarch: Shirt waists, collars and cuffs, coarse lace curtains. Medium, thin .starch: White petticoats, duck skirts, and some drcs.se.s. Thin .starch: Skirts and dresses when a stiff finish is not desired; shirt waists. Clear starch: Infants' dresses, fine laces, curtains, light-weight table linen when it is desirable to give it souk; body. Raw starch: Collars, cutis, shirt bosoms when an extra stiffness is desired; some light curtains. The starch should l)e thoroughly worked into the cloth .so as to distribute it evenly through the threads of the fabric. Such working insures a smooth, even stiffness and jirevenfs starch spots in ironing. All garments starched with boiled starch should be dried thorouglily l)efore being dampened. They should be dampened several hours before Ix'ing ironed. If articles are to be raw-starched, they should l)e thoroughly dried first. They are then dipped into the raw starch and rul)l)ed as for washing, .squeezed dry, and si)read out on a clean sheet or cloth, but not one over the other. They should cover only half the sheet. The other half of the sheet shoiild be folded over them. Then the .sheet with its contents should be rolled tightly and allowed to stand for two or three hours to insure even distri- bution of moisture. 10. When possible tli(> j)rocess of drying should accomplish more than the mere removal of moisture. Clothing should l^e hung where it will be freely expos(>d to the action of fresh air and sunshine. Such exposure puri- fies and bleaches at the same time. The launderer should hv provided with a clofhe.s-pin bag or, better still, with a clothes-pin ajjron having a deep wide pocket. When possible, lines should i)e taken down each week, but when they cannot be, they should be well wiped with a damp cloth before hanging THE LAUNDRY 267 up clothes. The clothes-pins should he clean. Each article should be turned wrong side out and liung with the threads of the material straight; the garment should be shaped as nearly as possible in its natural shape. Avoid hanging pieces by corners, for thus hung they would be puUed out of shape. Fasten garments by their bands when possible. Table linen, bed linen, and towels should be well stretched and hung very straight; the larger pieces should be pinned in at least four places, as it is nearly impossible to iron properly a piece that has been improperly hung. Careful hanging greatly reduces the labor of ironing. When the clothes are brought in from the line, the clothes-pins should be put into the apron or basket kept for that purpose and placed where they will be clean. Starched pieces should not be allowed to freeze and should l)e removed from the line as soon as dry. Long hanging reduces their stiffness. If flannel underwear is properly stretched and hung, it may be folded and put away without further treatment. 11. Clothes should be dampened some hours before being ironed, because during the interval between moistening and ironing the moisture- becomes distributed evenly and does away with the necessity of using a superfluous amount of water. The dampening is best done at night, but only as many articles should be sprinkled as can be ironed next day, for damp fabric will mildew if left wet for a few days, especially in hot weather. Although clothes should be well dampened, they should not be drenched. Very often, trouble in ironing starched pieces is owing to overwetting. The starched part is soaked and made limp and sticky. A clean whisk- broom kept for the purpose is the best thing to use for sprinkling clothes. Some persons have used a toy sprinkling pot. There is, however, a danger in its use, for it may rust and give rise to rust spots on clothing. Large pieces should be sprinkled and folded separately. Small pieces may be sprinkled and laid together before folding. Care should be taken to fold and roll garments smoothly, since this aids in their ironing. The rolls of dampened pieces should be packed closely in a basket lined with a clean cloth and covered with a clean cloth. Table linen and other linen should be made very damp, not wet. If table linen is sprinkled with a mixture of one part alcohol and four parts water, the result after ironing will be a slight stiffness resembling that of new linen. If an ironing machine is used, unstarched pieces may be removed from the line while still damp and ironed immediately without the preliminary sprinkling. Washing colored clothing. Colored goods require more careful treatment than do white goods. The conditions that most affect the stability of colors in fabrics are: long-continued action of water and soap; strong 268 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or homi-: makixc alkalis or acids; slioiiu; suiiliiihl, uliicli i'- a powerful Itlcadiiiit; ajj;(Mil and is used ficciuciit ly lni- l)lcacliiii^r. In wasliinji; colored cloliiiii^, I lie lachds jii>t (•niiiucralcd should he k('j)t in mind. ( 'oloicd clolliinjz; should noi Ix- soaked for any lenjj;lh of time unless its color is known to he very slahlc. Any soap used in the washing process should he a mild soap in solution, or if the color of the ^^oods to be wasiied is very delicate the soap solutioji should l)e replaced hy soap- bark, bran, rice water, potato water, oi- cooked-starch water. The washiufz; process sliould be conducted (luickly. and in water not very hot. After washiufz;, colored garments slu.'uld 1)0 turned inside out and lumji; in a ver}^ shady or dark jjlacc, and should be taken in as soon as dry. Fading is more often due to careless dryin}:; than to any fault in washing. \\'ashing powders and strong alkalis should never be used with colored clothing. If the water needs softening, borax should be u.sed. If starch, bran, rice water, and the like, are substituted for soap, the mixture shoukl be employed as if it were soap- suds. In starching colored clothes, the starch should be rubl)ed in thoroughly, and any excess of it wiped off; no difficulty will then be experienced with white starch spots. Sometimes a fabric shows a decided tendency to fade even under the best washing conditions. It is always well if there is any doubt about fading, to test a small piece of the cloth before washing it. If the color fades, an attempt should be made to s(»t it. With most colors, the dyer uses chemical substances which cause a firmer union between the color and the cloth. Such substances arc called mordants. The proce? of making a color fast may sometimes satisfactorily be used by the housekeeper to strengthen weak colors. The household mordants are vinegar, brine, and sugar of lead, used in the fol- lowing proportions: To 1 gallon water add: 3^ cup mild vinogar; most otTortivp for liluo.« 2 cups salt; most offcctivc for hrowns, hlacks, and pinks 1 tablespoon sugar of lead ti)()ison); most effective for lavcndprs. THE LAUNDRY 269 Small pieces of cloth should be tested in each of the above solutions and a choice made after the test. The cloth of which the color is to be made fast should be left in the mordant solu- tion overnight and may be left in for several days with good results. It should be thoroughly dried before being washed. Even with relatively strong colors, soaking a fabric overnight in a brine solution before washing it for the first time may render it far less susceptible to fading influences than it other- wise would be. The effect of brine, however, is said not to be lasting. Colored goods are often rinsed in a dilute salt solu- tion just before being dried. Washing woolens. Strong soaps should never be used in washing woolens, nor should soap be applied directly to the garment. The soap should be used in solution, A great deal of stress is laid on having the water used in washing flannels not much more than lukewarm, for at a lukewarm temperature soap and water have a less detrimental action on wool. It is even more im- portant than the lukewarm water to have all the waters used of the same temperature, in order to avoid changes from hot to cold water, or vice versa, as sudden changes in temperature cause shrinkage. To wash flannels, two receptacles should be used. Into one of them water not too hot for the hand to bear comfortably should be poured and enough soap solution made from a neu- tral or mild soap or a wool soap added to make a good suds. If the water is hard, or the clothing is very much soiled, a table- spoon of borax or ammonia should be added for each gallon of water used, the garment shaken or brushed free from dust, and put into the water to soak for ten or fifteen min- utes. Before beginning to wash the flannels, a second tub of water should be prepared having the same or a slightly higher temperature than that of the first. One garment should be washed at a time by drawing it through the hands and wash- ing it up and down in the water; rubbing should be avoided if possible since this mats the fibers. The garments are passed 270 A MAM M. OF IK) Ml-: M.\l pushed l);i('k and f(MMh with a \viip;{ilin{; motion to {iivc softness and pliability to the silk. It isf)ften host to iron silk under a cloth; to do so fi;iv(!s less body and a .softer finish. Ribbons, if of fjjood (juality, may be very succe.ssfully washed. "^I'o iron them they should be covered with a dry cloth and the iron moved frequently back and forth over the .surface of the cloth above them. Washing laces. It is often best to dry-clean fine laces, as they thicken slifjlitly in washing. To wash them, a warm neutral .soap-solution should be used to which ha.s been added ammonia or l)orax. The dirt is squeezed out by pressing the lace in the hands but should not ])c rubl)ed; rubbing breaks the delicate threads. A good way to wash fine lace is to baste it to strips of cheese-cloth, being careful to catch down all its points. It should then be put to soak overnight in warm soapy water containing a little borax or ammonia. It should be washed by squeezing, then rinsed free of soap. Old yellow lace may l)e l)leached by stretch- ing it, while wet, around a bottle, and standing it in the sun, rewetting the lace occasional^. Javclle water maj'^ be used to bleach lace. Lace may be stiffened by rinsing in a mixture of two tablespoons of alcohol to one cup of water; by rinsing in borax water, two tablespoons to a cup; or by using gum arable, one-eighth teaspoon to a cup of water. If a yellow color is desired, the lace may be dipped in coffee or tea. Black lace should be cleaned by squeezing it repeatedly in a mixture of one cup of strong coffee and one tablesjwon of ammonia. It should l)e rinsed in gum arable water made with coffee, to give natural stiffness. Lace curtains should l)e washed with as near an approach to the care given to lace as is practicable. They shoulil be clear- starched, stretched, and piinied out on .sheets, one curtain over another. If available, it is better to use curtain-stretchers than .sheets, but if care is taken to .square off the first curtain THE LAUNDRY 273 and stretch it straight and even, good results may be obtained by pinning the curtains to sheets. BLEACHING Occasionally, even in the household, it may be necessary to supplement the natural bleaching process accomplished by sunshine, fresh air, and green grass, by the use of chemicals. If a garment has yellowed by age or by being packed away with starch in it, it may be expedient to use a chemical bleach. The best bleach to use is Javelle water, which should be made as follows : 1 pound washing-soda 1 quart boiling water J^ pound chloride of lime 2 quarts cold water. Put soda in granite pan; add boiling water and stir until dissolved; let cool. Dissolve chloride of lime in cold water; let settle and pour the clear liquid into the soda; let settle. Pour off clear liquid, bottle, and put away in dark place. Use, mixed with equal parts or more of water, and do not let the garments stay in over 3^ hour. Rinse thoroughly in several waters and lastly in dilute ammonia water. Moisture is necessary if clothes are to be bleached by the action of the sun. After a garment dries, it should be made wet again and hung out. It may be necessary to repeat, the wetting operation a number of times before the yellow tinge yields. It is said that clothes are whitened if they are allowed to freeze out of doors on the line. The reason given for the bleaching action is that freezing causes the clothes to retain moisture, hence the time of their bleaching is prolonged. IRONING For ironing, the following equipment should be provided: a flat, firm, unwarped ironing-board or table, tightly covered with a blanket and clean sheet, securely fastened underneath; clean irons; an iron stand, which may well be a clean brick; two pieces of old cloth for cleaning irons; a piece of paper folded several 271 .1 .u.i.vr.i/. or HOME m \iy exposure to air. A lar^o paper should he spicad or a haskel place(| under the iroiiiiiji- hoard to receive the clothes while they are heiufj irf)ned. For ordinary ironiiifz; a j^ood liim surface is dosirahle. A thin woolen hiankot and an outside linen cover are sufficient. For embroideries or wool, a thick covering is f)etter, because the faliric should sink in tc) a soft foundation lo bring out the pattern in one case and to give a soft finish in the other. Method and order of ironing. Th(> following simple lules for ironing may be followed : Iron fiist that part of the garment which will be least mussed l)y fuithei' handling or in which a little wrinkling will not seri- ously interfere with good results. If the garment is trimmed, iron laces and embroideries first, as they dry out quickly because of their porous nature. Leave as much of a gai'ment folded as j^ossible, to keep it moist. Sometimes it may be convenient to la}' a piece of damp- ened cheese-cloth over any unironed \x\\\ to keep it moist. Figs. 52-55 give somoof the methodsof foldingvarious gannents. The method and order of ironing various articles is some- what as follows: Xij^ht clross(>s: Embroidery; sloeve.s; yoke; ])ody. Dniwor.s: Triinniint!;; tucks; body; band. Skirts: Rutfto; hem; body. Shirt-waists: Cuffs; eollar-ljand; sleeves; yoke; Ixxck; front. Silk waists: Iron as a shirt waist on the wronj? side while it is still damp. Embroideri(>s: Iron on wroiifz; side on a soft foundation, to allow the design to stand out. Laces: Iviy on a i)iece of flaiuifl covereil with a i)iece of cheese-cloth. Iron on the wronp; sid(>, and i)ull out points with the tip of the iron. Lace should be stretched and pinned out on a hard surface. Pull it out at each point and catch it down with a pin; or stretch it and roll it on a bottle. Tablecloths: I'se heavy irons, iron on both sides, iron partly dry on the wroiifi side and comj)lete the process on the right side, to bring out the ])attern. Fold the selvages together first. Fold all edges evenly, except THE LAUNDRY 275 when folding the lengthwise folds in half. Draw the upper half back about }4 inch in making the last fold, or that part will be pushed out of place, giving an uneven edge. The same rule applies to sheets, napkins, handker- chiefs, and the like. Tablecloths may be folded lengthwise twice and then rolled to avoid creases. Naplcins, handkerchiefs, and towels: Iron and fold as for tablecloths. Sheets : The hems of sheets must be smoothly ironed. It is a good plan to iron only the hems when time is a consideration. Flannels: Iron after laying a dampened cheese-cloth over them. If , _ ....._^.) [ZP hv'T\'r{ jyrsx^n^ h-.rv--r<'A^ prTr^v^ Fig. -Methods of folding underwear. they are not covered with a damp cloth, iron them on the wrong side; have the iron only moderately hot. Pillowcases: Iron smooth. Colored garments: Iron on the wrong side, when practicable, as to do so prevents fading. Do not have irons too hot. Silk garments: Iron on the wrong side; to do so prevents shininess. After being ironed, each article should be hung on a frame or clotheshorse to dry and air before it is put away. If hung '2H\ .1 U.l.Vr.l/. or HOME M.\l\l\(! ill ;i poorly vciililnlccl room, the clotlics will have :i had odor. Spriiikliiij; may not he iicccssary when an iroiiiii^-macliinc is iisrd for iroiiiiifi, if the operator will remove the clothes from the line just at the rijiht time, that is. wiiiie they are still damp. 'I'he process can he carried throutih so (piickly that it is unneces- sary to keep one jiarineiit damp while the otiier is Ijeiufi; ironed. KCjlll'MJONT FOR TIIH LAUNDRY It is always best, when po.ssihle, to have a separate room for laundry purposes. Much of the apparatus can tlien he made Fk;. 5.3. — A method of foldiiiK slicets and tablefloth,s. stationary and many little labor-saving conveniences devi.^ed. Some dairy farms have running water, drains, power, steam, and cement floors. It would be a simple matter on such a farm to equip a small room in the barn with the necessary laundry apparatus. Good litihtin.iz; (paRC 201) and good ventilation are (juite as necessary in the laundry as in other parts of the house. The floor and \valls should be of such a nature that they can be kept dry and clean with the least labor. ]Many of the sup;r power. Washing-machines are now on the market with wringer at- tached, which lun by power. On many farms the gasoline en- {•ine has already become a fixture for grinding corn, separating THE LAUNDRY 277 milk, and the like. The same source of power might also be used to lun the washing-machine and turn the wringer. If running water is brought to the barn, it should be continued to the house, and, if the water-power is sufficient, a water motor may be purchased that can be used for running the washing- machine. Washing-machine. The home laundry should be equipped with a washing-ma- chine and at least one stationary tub. If running water has not yet been introduced into the house and the barn, at least it is possible to provide a drain for the kitchen sink and the laundry tub. This makes easier the problem of getting rid of dirty water. Washing-machines in c 1 u d e Fig. 54 five types: (1) The Dolly type, which cleans the clothes by agitation, (2) the friction type, somewhat like double washboards; (3) the two-cylinder type, which cleans the clothes by agitation; (4) the suction washers, including the simple hand machines; (5) the cradle type which rocks and throws the clothes from side to side. A washing- machine should never be overloaded if it is to do good work; and the process should not be unduly hurried. Clothes should be removed carefully from the machine to prevent tearing. Cheese-cloth or net bags for small pieces and fine materials save trouble. Ironing-ma chine . The ironing-machine, or, as it is often called, the mangle, is another device for making laundry work easier. It may suc- cessfully take the place of the hand iron for a larger part of the family ironing. There are two types of ironing-machines on the market: (1) cold-roll ironing-machines, in which the rollers be- tween which the garment passes are made of wood and are un- Another method of folding sheets. 'J7S ,1 .\/.i.vr.w. or iin.Mi: mak/xc lic;it('(l, (Icpciidiiiji oil llicir wci^lil :iii wrinkles; {'2) liot-roll iioniii^-niMcliiiics, in wliicli oiif roll is cold ;iii(l is cox'crcd with ;i hiaiikcl ;ind clolli, just as for an ironin^i-hoard, and the other roil or concave j)lale is niiule of smooth iron and is heated. The cold roll revolves iiKuinst the heated metal plate. This is the more economical and satisfac- tory ironing-machine, although its original cost is greater. The Fig. 55. — A mctlunl of folding niglitdrc'tiSL's and shirts. hot-roll machine may be heated by gas, or gasoline by a slight change involving a small expense. If power is available, the machine may be run by power. The use of one of these machines reduces greatly the time required to iron in the usual way. (Jarments with gathers and sleeves cannot be thus ironed to look jierfectly smooth and well shaped, l)Ut all bed and talile linen, towels, handkerchiefs, stockings, such underwear as may not require perfect smoothness, kitchen aprons and the hke, may l)e done successfully and satisfactorily'. Irons. A number of irons are now on the market for summer use when it is not desirable to have sufhcient tire in the range to THE LAUNDRY 279 heat the irons. Some of these are elect lic irons, gas irons, and flenatured-alcohol irons. For general laundiy purposes, one size of the ordinary sadiron is sufficient, but it is advisable to put several irons into a well- equipped laundry, to use for the various kinds of work to be done. Among them should be heavy, medium heavy, and small-pointed irons, the last for ironing ruffles and laces. A frequent cause of poor ironing is the condition of the irons. They must be kept clean and free from rust to do good work. New irons should be heated thoroughly and rubbed with wax or grease before using. If irons are to be put away for any length of time, they should be covered with a thin coating of vaseline, clean grease, or paraffin, or wrapped in waxed paper. If starch cooks on, it should be removed immediately with a dull knife. If irons become dirty from careless use, or from being left on the stove during the preparation of the meals, they should be thoroughly washed with soap and water and care- fully dried. To keep irons smooth while using them, they should be rubbed with wax or paraffin and wiped immediately with a clean cloth. They improve with wear, if they have good treatment. Tubs. Although a washing-machine may be used, there should be one or more tubs in a laundry. Stationary tubs are best, even though running water is not available, for some simple method of draining them can be devised. The tubs are best made of porcelain, enameled iron, or alberine stone. White tubs are a good background for bluing clothes. Wooden tubs may be more cheaply constructed; but there is danger of the wooden tub becoming unsanitary from careless handling. A stationary tub should always be set with regard to the height of the person who is to use it most. Many tubs are set far too low and necessitate too much back bending on the part of the operator. If stationary tubs are not available, fiber tubs are the best 280 -I .u.i.vr.w. or iio.Mr: mmoar(l, using short brass-headed THE LAUNDRY 281 tacks. It is a good plan to have a separate blanket and sheet also, which fit the table used in the laundry, because a table is a convenient place for ironing large pieces. The ironing sheet should be kept clean. Sleeve-hoard. A sleeve-board (Fig. 56) is good not only for sleeves, but for gathers and for small dresses. It is not difficult to manu- facture at home. Character of utensils. As far as possible, all utensils that are to come in contact with clothing or to contain material to be used on the clothing, should be non-rustable. Tinware is not good for laundry use because of the ease with which it rusts. The boiler should have a copper bottom at least, and is best made entirely of copper. It then conducts heat better and does not rust. Other equipment and supplies. The miscellaneous equipment necessary for efficient laundry 'work is given in the following list : Rubbing-board Wooden spoon Dipper Dishpan, enamel Tea kettle Measuring cup Quart measure Iron holder Teaspoon Clothes basket Strainer for starch Beeswax or paraffin wrapped in cloths to keep irons smooth Clothes-pins References Balderston, L. Ray. Laimdering. Chambers, Mary D. A Guide to Laundry Work. Laundry bags Clothes stick Pail, enamel or fiber, for emptying water and carrying clothes 2 saucepans, enamel, one for starch and one for soap solution Iron stand Tablespoon Case knife Clothes-horse Scrubbing brushes Clothes-pin aprons, best made of ticking CHAPTER Mil STAIN REMOVAL* With some stains prompt troatinont is nocessarj' in order to save the article in question from being riiine(l, and in most cases it is (lesiral)le, since all stains are removed more easily when fresh. Changes in the character of the stain, brought about by drying, exposure to air, washing, ironing, or in other ways, often make it necessary to use chemicals in removing old stains, whereas in man}' cases much simpler methods are successful if the stains are treated when fresh. The nature of a stain shoukl be known, if possiljle, before its removal is attempted, since this determines the treatment to be adopted. Moreover, if an unsuitable stain-remover is used, the stain may be "set" so that its removal l)econies dif-- ficult or even impossible. For example, if hot water, which easily removes most fresh fruit stains, is applied to stains con- taining protein, such as stains of milk, blood, eggs, or meat juice, it coagulates the all)umin in the fibers of the cloth and makes it extremely difficult to remove. Similarly, soap, which aids in the removal of grease spots, sets many fruit stains. The Jcind of fal)ric upon which the stain occurs also should be known. The method of treatment adopted depends as much on the nature, color, weave, finish, and weight of the fai)ric as on the kind of stain. Cotton and linen are destroyed by strong * Tliis cliaptcr contains almost tlio whole of l''arii\crs' Bull. S(il, Rcinoval of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles, iiy Harold L. Laufj; and .Vnna M. Whittelsey of the l'. S. Dej)!. of A^r. Since this huiietin is fiie rejiort of the most extensive anil careful work on stain removal that has heeii done for the benefit of hou.sckeepers, it has been only slightly adapted for reprinting here. 282 STAIN REMOVAL 283 acids and attacked to some extent even by weaker ones. Con- centratetl acids, therefore, sliould never be used in removing stains from these fal)rics, and when dikite acids are used they should be neutralized afterwards with a suitable alkali or removed by thorough rinsing; otherwise the acid may become concentrated on drying and destroy the fibers. Generally speaking, alkalis do not attack cotton or linen fabrics to the extent that acids do. However, long-continued or repeated exposure to alkalis, especially in hot solution, weakens the fi- bers. The damage to fabrics resulting from the careless use of strongly alkaline soaps, washing powders, washing-soda, or lye, is well known to the housekeeper. Wool and silk, being more delicate than cotton and linen, re- quire more careful treatment. The use of very hot water must be avoided, since it turns both wool and silk yellow, shrinks wool, and weakens silk and injures its finish. These materials also will not stand much rul^bing, as this felts together the wool fibers and results in a shrinking or thickening of the ma- terial, while the silk fabrics, as a rule, are too delicate to stand much rubbing without breaking or separating the fibers. Both wool and silk are dissolved by strong alkalis and are injured even by washing-soda or strongly alkaline soap. The only alkalis which should be used in laundering or removing stains from wool and silk are the milder ones like borax or dilute solu- tions of ammonia. Acids, with the exception of nitric which weakens and turns the fibers yellow, do not attack wool and silk readily. In general it is more difficult to remove stains from wool and silk than from cotton or linen. In removing stains from ma- terials made from two or more kinds of fibers, such as silk and cotton mixtures, the effects of the stain-removers on all of the fibers should be considered. No chemical should be used which would injure the most delicate of the fibers present. It is also much more difficult to remove stains from colored than from white materials, for the reason that most of the bleaching agents which must be used to remove persistent stains are likely to destroy the color of the material as well. 284 A MAMAL or no Mi: w.iA/vr; MKTIIODS Foil TUKATMKNT OK SIAINS I.N OKNKUAL Tlic following p;iiM^;i;i|)lis deal with met hods and icaj^ciils commonly used in I he rnndxal ol a miniltci- of this to the stain with a medicine-tlropper, a gla.ss rod, or a clean cork, and allow it to remain for about five minutes. Remove any pink or l)ro\vn stain left by tiie permanganate, by appl^ying one of the following chemicals: 1. Hydrogen per- oxide, made slightly acid (if not already so) with oxalic acid. One drop of the acid usually is enough to acidify 3 tea.spoons of the peroxide. 2. Oxalic acid in saturates! solution or lemon juice for cotton, linen, or silk. Hj'drogen peroxide is more sat- isfactory for wool. The treatment should be followed by thor- ough rinsing. One or more repetitions of this treatment may be necessary in the case of persistent stains. Oxalic acid is poisonous and should be used carefully; the bottle in which it is kept must be marked '"Poison" and kept out of the reach of children. To prepare a solution of oxalic acid for use, as man}^ of the crystals of the acid as i)ossil)le should be dissolved in a j)int of lukewarm water. This should be put into a bottle, stoppered tightly, and used as needed. This solution nia\- be applied to the stain with a medic-ine-dropper or glass rod and after allowing it to remain for a few minutes the garment should be rinsed thoroughly in clean water. Hydrogen peroxide, as obtained foi- medicinal purposes, usu- ally is made slightly acid, to give it l)etter keeping (juality. STAIN REMOVAL 287 For use in removing stains a small amount of the peroxide should be made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Since hydrogen per- oxide affects the fiber also, in the case of cotton and linen ma- terials, it must be followed by very careful rinsing. It may be applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper, a glass rod, or a clean cork, or the stain sp'onged with it. The method of using it in neutralizing potassium permanganate is described above. SPECIFIC METHODS FOR INDIVIDUAL STAINS In cases in which the nature of the stain is not known, it should be attacked first by sponging with cold water, provided, however, that the fabric would not be injured by water. If the stain is not removed by cold or warm water, chemicals should then be applied. Often the behavior of a stain, when treated with cold water, will give some indication of its nature; for example, a grease spot will not absorb water. Hot water should be avoided in treating unknown stains until after other sub- stances have been tried, since hot water will set many stains and make their removal more difficult. Adds. With the exception of nitric acid, acids do not generally produce stains upon white fabrics but often change or destroy the color of dyed materials. However, cotton and linen fil:)ers are destroyed readily by some acids, especially by those of greater concentration or strength. Dilute acids do not attack wool and silk fibers to any great extent unless they are allowed to dry on the cloth and become concentrated, but they do some- times affect the color of the fibers. It is essential, therefore, that acid spots on textiles be neutralized at once by some alkaline solution. For this purpose any one of the following should give good results: 1. Water. Rinse the spot several times in a large volume of water. This treatment serves to stop any further action of the acid on the fabric, but usually has no effect on any discoloration due to the acid. 2. An alkaline substance, such as washing-soda, ammonia, or borax. Apply an alkali to the acid spot. The alkali forms a salt with the acid and this must be removed later by rinsing or sponging with water. The acid should be neutralized coinpletely with thi^ alkali or the discoloration may reappear after a wliilc. Either of the following alkalis may be used: (a) Ammonia. If the spot is slight, neutralize it by holding it in the fumes from an open bottle of strong ammonia. (6) Sodium l)icarbonate (l)aking soda). Sprinkle this on the stain — on both sides, if possible — moisten 288 .t MA. MM. OF ii().\ir: ]!.\iliowii in this casf Ity tlic ci-a-sirig of tlu' ('tTcrvcscfiirc); and remove the cxfcss l>y rinsing; with water. Dilute alkalis have little elTeet on cotton and linen, i)ut strong alkalis cause the fibers to swell and heeome" yellow, and the cloth to contract. The fiber, however, is not weakened unless the alkali is allowed to remain a lonn time upon the cloth or to l)econie very concentrated throuj^h eva|)- oration. Wool and silk, on the other hand, are yellowed or destroyed by strong alkalis even in dilute .solutions. Even if the fiber is not affected by the alkali, the color may be changed or destroyed. It is iinj)ortant, therefore, to neutralize alkali spots at once. Any of the following agents may be used: 1. Water. Rinse thoroughly. Frequently this is sufficient in the case of such alkalis as washing-soda and ammonia. 2. A mild acid. Apply the acid with a cloth until the fabric changes back to its original color, or until the stain is .slightly acid as shown liy the odor or sour taste. Then rinse the fal)ric thoroughly in water. In the case of colored goods it is helpful to rub the stain dry, using a piece of the same material as the; stained fabric, if po.ssiblc. Use either of the following mild acids: (a) Lemon juice. Squeeze the juice on the stain. As long as the .spot remains alkaline the juice is a bright yellow in color, but when the spot becomes acid the color disappears almost entirely. Apply the lemon juice until this color change takes place. (b) Vinegar. If the vinegar itself leaves a spot, remove it by sponging with water. Blood. Any of the following agents may be used: 1. Cold or lukewarm water. Either soak the i)lood stains or rub them in the water until they turn light l)rown in color; that is, until most of the coloring matter is dis.solved. Then wash the materia! in hot water, as in the ordinary jjrocess of laundering. For stains on silk or wool, sponge in cold or lukewarm water. 2. Soap (for washable materials). Rub the stained portions with soap and place in cold water, either allowing them to stand in it until llie stains are loosened or bringing the water very ,sh)wly to th(> I)oiling point. 3. Ammonia (for washable materials). Use about I ounce (2 tablespoon- fuls) of hou.sehold ammonia to 1 gallon of water. Saak the stains in this until they are loosened ;ind then wash in the usual manner. For old stains ammonia is .somewhat more satisfactory tlian soap. 4. Hydrogen pero.xide. Sjionging with a little hydrogen peroxide often will remove the last traces of blood stains after the main part has been STAIN REMOVAL 289 removed as described in No. 1 above. This agent can be used on wool and silk, provided it does not injure the color of the material. 5. Raw starcli mixed with cold water to a paste is efficient for stains on thick materials, such as flannel and blankets, which cannot conveniently be soaked in water. Apply the paste thickly to the stain and brush it away when it becomes dry. Repeat the application until the stain is removed. Bluing. Three types of laundry bluing are in common use, namely, ultramarine, Prussian, and aniline blues. Since they differ chemically, spots due to them require different treatment. It is not difficult to determine to which type a blue belongs, and methods for doing this are suggested in the following paragraphs : The commercial blues which come in balls or blocks with directions to wrap them in a piece of flannel or other cloth and shake them about in the water to be blued are generally ultramarine. To remove such stains, the following procedure may be followed: 1. Cold water. Soak fresh stains or rinse them in an abundance of cold water. 2. Soap and water. Wash the stains as in ordinary laundering, with an abundance of soap, and rub thoroughly. This treatment will remove stains which are not removed by soaking. Liquid bluing, which is used commonly in the home laundry, usually is a Prussian blue. It is greenish-blue in color and soluble in water. Clothes are occasionally overblued with Prussian, as with other bluings, or may become streaked with the bluing if it has not been mixed evenly with the water. To overcome this condition the following treatment is recom- mended : 1. Cold water. Rinse the stains in an abundance of cold water. This is effective only for very fresh stains. 2. Boiling water. Boil the stained material for about half an hour, or until the stains disappear. Prussian blue is sometimes the cause of yellow discolorations or spots upon white clothes. If the clothes are not rinsed free from strong soap, washing-soda, or other alkali used in washing, before they are blued with Prussian blue, the alkali remaining on the clothes precipitates ferric hy- droxide from the bluing which is deposited upon the clothes. This is set by subsequent drying and ironing, and is identical, chemically, with iron- rust. For methods of removing these stains, see " iron rust " staina, page 297. The aniline or coal-tar blues probably are used less commonly in the household than the other blues, but are employed frequently in commercial laundries. They are sold usually in the form of small crystals or of a powder having a dark blue or iridescent color and are soluble in water. To remove aniline blues, one of the following methods should be used: 200 .1 MAXIM, or llOMi: MAKIXC I. ('iilcar. liiitln-. Stains dm- to Ixitlcr arc essentially t;rease spots and should receive the same treatment. Canillc iriix {colored). These .stains consist of jjarafTin in which an oruanic dj'o i.s (li.ssolvfHl Remove the paraffin as completely as j)ossii)le (pa^e li(K)), and then dis.soIvo the colorinf!; matter remainiiiK in the fil)er hy sponfiin^ it with alcohol. If a slij^lit grea.se spot still remains, remove it hy siMJiiginn with .soap and water. C'liocohtlv and cocoa. For removin}! chocolate" and cocoa stains the following agents are satis- factory: 1. Soap and hot water (ordinary laundering; see |)age 2S4). 2. Borax and cold water. S|)rinkle the stains with liorax and soak them in cold water, then rinse them thoroughly in boiling water. This method is api)lical)le only to stains on wa.shal)le materials. 3. Luk(>warm water. For stains on delicate fabrics, sponge with luke- warm water. Coffee. Cream in the coffee sometimes necessitates the use of grea.se solvents in addition to other reagents. One of the following agents .should be employed: 1. Soap and water. Fr(>sh stains and most okl ones on wa.shable ma- terials can be removed by ortiinary laundering. A slight trace of the stain sometimes remains in the case of very heavy or old stains. Drying the material in the svm freciuently heljis to remove the last traces. 2. Potassium permanganate. Slight stains remaining after treatment with soap and water can be removed with this agent. 3. Boiling water, poured on the stain from a height of 2 or 3 feet. This is effective on stains which are not more than a few hours old. 4. Cold or lukewarm water. Sponge the stains from wool or silk ma- terials. If a grease spot from cream remains after the spot has dried, remove it by the use of grease .solvents. 5. Damp cloths and a hot iron. Fairly good results are obtained in removing small coffee stains from light-colored silk material by placing the stain between clean, damp cloths and pressing the whole with a hot iron. Dye and running colors. As the dyes of textiles differ greatly in chemical composition, different methods mu.st be tried, begiiming with the simplest, until the stains disappear. For washable materials, No. I may be tried. STAIN REMOVAL 291 1. Cold or warm water and sunlight, for stains on washable materials. Rinse the stains in water, or soak them (for 10 or 12 hours, if necessary), and then dry them in the sun. Repeat the treatment if the stains are not removed entirely by the first treatment. Spots on woolen and silk ma- terials sometimes may be removed by soaking or washing in cold water. 2. Javelle water. 3. Potassium permanganate. 4. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia, for stains on white silk or wool. Soak the stains in this solution until they disappear, and then rinse thoroughly. Egg. Egg stains should be washed or sponged with cold or lukewarm water before any hot water is applied. Sometimes a large part of the stain hardens on the surface of the material and may be scraped off with a blunt knife. One of the following agents should be used to remove egg stains: 1. Cold water followed by hot water and soap, as in ordinary laun- dering. 2. Cold water followed by a grease solvent. Allow the stained place to dry after being sponged with cold water. Then apply the grease solvent (pages 292 to 293). Fly paper (sticky). See "resinous substances," page 301. Turpentine and kerosene are especially effective. Fruits and berries (fresh). Practically all fruit stains, when they are fresh and still moist, can be removed with boiling or even warm water. After they have dried, they become much more difficult to remove. The color of some materials may be affected by the organic acids present in certain fruits like the grapefruit and lemon. In such cases the color can generally be restored by the methods used for acid stains. The following agents are satisfactory for fruit or berry stains: 1. Boiling water, for white or fast-colored washal^le materials. Stretch the stained material over a bowl or other vessel, holding it by a string or an elastic band, if necessary, and pour boiling water upon it from a tea- kettle held at a height of 3 or 4 feet so that the water strikes the stain with some force. With some stains, especially those in which fruit pulp was present, a little rubbing alternat(>d with apjilications of boiling water is helpful. A stain remaining after this treatment frequently can 1)e bleached by hanging the wet material in the sun to dry. 2. Warm water, for silk, wool, and other delicate materials. Sponge the stains. 3. Lemon juice and sunlight. Stains remaining after treatment with 2!)2 .1 MAM AL OF IJOMK MAKIXC l)nilinn water can often lie l)ieaelie(l liy iiiDisteiiinn willi lemon juiee and I'xposinn to the l)rinlit siinlifilil. 4. I^'inon juiee or (txalic acid. A stain wliicli turns blue or ^ray and cannot he removed readily by boilinn water sometimes ean l)e loosened by moisteuinn with a little aeid, which restores its oriRinal color and renders it more easily soluble in the boiling water. If necessary, apjjly the acid several times, alternatiiifi with boiiinu water. 5. Potassium permanganate (p. iJStt). Treat the stains first with boiling water (sec No. 1). (j. Javelle water (p. 285). 7. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Stains re- maining on silk or wool (white or fast color) after spon^^in^ with warm water frequently can be removed with a little hydrogen peroxide. 8. Warm water as in No. 2, followed by alcohol. Sponge the spots (p. 284). Fruils and berries (cooked). In many ca.ses (;hanges in cooking render the stains from cooked fruit much easier to remove than those of fresh fruit. In fact, the\' often are removed from a fabric by ordinary laundering. Stains from some cooked fruits, however, especially tlu- dark red and purple fruits and berries, such as cranberries and l)lack raspberries, are similar to the fresh fruit stains in being set l)y alkaline substances. One of the following agents should be employed: 1. Boiling water (see No. 1, under "fresh fruit stains"). 2. Warm water. Sponge delicate fabrics. 3. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This does not apply to the dark-colored (red or purple) fruits and berries. Treat them in the same way as fresh fruit. Glue. One of the following agents should be used in removing glue spots: 1. Water. Either soak the spot in warm water or, if small, sponge it. Occasionally it is necessary to boil tb.e stained material. 2. Vinegar. Sponge the spot or soak it in vinegar. Grass and other fresh green foliage. One of the following agents .should be used in removing stains of this character: 1. Hot water and soaj), as in ordinary lainidoring. Remove the stain mechanically, l)y thorough rubl)ing. 2. drain or wood alcohol. Apjily l)y sponging. Tiiis is especially useful upon materials which laundering might injure. Grease. Sometimes it is possible to .scrape or wijx' much of the adhering grease from a stained material. STAIN REMOVAL 293 One of the following agents should be used in removing grease spots: 1 . Warm water and soap, as in ordinary laundering. Grease spots usually can be removed from washable materials in this way, provided care is taken to rub the particular spot thoroughly. Soaps containing naphtha or kerosene o.re efficient. 2. Absorbent substances — blotting paper, fuller's earth, brown paper, French chalk, powdered magnesia, or white talcum powder, for fine ma- terials; cornmeal or salt, for carpets, rugs, and other coarse materials. The use of absorbents generally is effective only on spots of grease or oil unmixed with particles of dirt or metal. The advantages of using them are that the fabric is not wet and there is no danger of leaving a ring, as in the case of grease solvents. In using an absorbent, such as a clean blotter or a piece of unglazed brown paper, lay it on each side of the stain and apply a warm iron. The grease is melted and is absorbed by the paper. To use the absorbent powders, lay the stained fabric upon a flat surface and spread a layer of the absorbent over the stain and work it around gently so as not to pull the fibers. As soon as it becomes gummy, shake or brush it off and repeat the process until the bulk of the stain is removed. Then apply another layer of the absorbent and allow it to remain over- night, or longer if necessary. This removes all traces of the stain, and in the case of slight stains the preliminary treatment is unnecessary. Then dust or brush off the absorbent thoroughly. If it is not convenient to let the stain stand overnight, place a layer of cloth or brown paper over the absorbent and apply a warm (not hot) iron for several minutes. In the case of stains made by solid fats, which must be melted before they can be absorbed, the use of the warm iron is necessary. 3. Organic solvents. Chloroform, ether, and gasoline or naphtha. The first is the safest to use, since it is not inflammable. It is a better solvent of tarry substances than is ether or gasoline, and therefore more satisfactory for general use. Gasoline and naphtha are obtained easily and are com- paratively inexpensive, but they are very inflammable and likely to con- tain impurities and to leave an odor in the cleaned fabric. Ether is ex- pensive and inflammable, but it is clean, and usually it leaves no odor. The greatest care should be taken in using inflammable solvents. It is best to use them in a shady place out of doors, and if in the house by an open window and away from all flames. Place a pad of clean cloth or a white blotter beneath the stain and change it as soon as it becomes soiled. Sponge the stain with a clean cloth, preferably a piece like the stained material, moistened with the solvent. To prevent the spreading of the grease and solvent, it is best to use small amounts of the solvent at a time and to work from the outside of the spot toward the center. It is well also to surround the stain with a ring of French chalk or any of the absorbents mentioned in No. 2, and to rub the stain with a clean cloth until it is thoroughly dry. In removing grease spots which contain dirt or fine particles of metal, 2'.tl .1 MAM'AL OF HOME M.XKlSd llinr<' nililuilti .iml ;i freer use of llie solvent lire lieee>s.ity. It is l)esl tu .•iliply tliesdlveiit from llie w roiiK side of llie iii.ilerial, so lli.it the particle will lie washed iiieclianieally from llie lihers onto tlie pad of cloth placed iiiiderneatli. If the spot does tiol yield to this treatment, inimers<- it in a small howl of the solvent and hrush it gently with a small, soft hrtish. The hnishinn serves to loosen the insoluhle |)arlicles, which then fall to the hottom of the bowl. In general, when the stained |)larn must he dipped in the solvent, it i- more satisfactory to immerse the whole article finally in c-lean solvent, which prevents the formation of rings. If sufficient solvent is not at haml for this, tlie ring usually can he removed l)y careful and patient sponging with small (luaritities of fresh solvent, taking clean cloths, pads, or blotters, as suggested above, and working from the wrong side of the material. 4. An absorbent (sec No. 2) mixed with a solvent (see No. 3) in the form of a thick paste. The white absorbents d'Yciich chalk or magnesia) are most satisfactory. Spread the paste over the spot, leave it until thoroughly dry, and brush it off. Repeat this treatment if necessary. The spreading of the .solvent and the formation of a ring will be avoided to a consideralile extent in tliis way. The method is especially u.seful f(jr cleaning light- colored luiwashablc! materials, laces, and the like. Gums. See "resinous substances," page 301. Ice creaJti. One of the following agents may Ite em])Ioyed in removing ice-cream stains: 1. Soap and water as in ordinary laundering. Use this for wash ma- terials in the ca.se of stains in which no chocolate or highly colored fruit or other substance is present. 2. Cool or lukewarm water, followed by agents u.sed in removing grea.se spots. Sponge the stains thoroughly with water. If, on drj'ing, a greiusc spot from the cream remains, remove it by any of the methods suggested for "grease spots," (page 292). 3. Agents suggested under "fruit and berries (fresh)," "fruit and lierries (cooked)," "coffee," "chocolate and cocoa," and the Uke, according to the stain in question. Indelible (copying) pencil inarks. The dye and the reagents used to remove such stains may vary with different makes of pencils, but for those us(>d in these experiments the following reagents arc .satisfactory: 1. Alcohol (grain or wood). Soak the stains for a few minutes or until they are di.s.solved. The graphite marks then nMuain, but can be removed by washing with .soap and water. The alcohol is effective also after the.se stains have been washed ami ironed. STAIN REMOVAL 295 2. Javcllo water. This destroys the dye. Remove the graphite either before or after applying tliis ageut by washing with soap aud water. Ink (India). The treatment for removing India ink from textiles is the same as for "ink (printing)" (p. 295). Ink (marking). So-called "indelible" or "marking" inks are of two common types, namely, that containing silver nitrate or other silver compound and that with an organic dye, usually "aniline black," as its basis. Silver nitrate ink may be known generally from the directions for its use, which state that articles marked with it must be laid in the sun or pressed with a warm iron before they are washed. This is to bring about the precipitation of metallic silver, which gives the black or brown color to the marks. Javelle water may be used to remove stains from silver nitrate inks (p. 285). Apply this repeatedly until the color of the spot disappears. Then soak the stained place in ammonia to remove the silver chloride formed. Aniline black ink may be known also from the directions for its use, v.'hich generally state that the articles marked with it must not be ironed until after they have been washed. Aniline black inks are remarkably fast and it is practically impossible to remove them after they have once become dry. The method given above for the removal of silver nitrate ink stains is not effective in removing aniline black ink stains; neither are satisfactory results obtained by trying most of the methods used for ordinary writing ink stains. Ink, black (printing). One of the following agents should be used for removing printing-ink stains : 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Remove fresh stains by applying an abundance of soap and rubbing thoroughly. 2. Lard, followed by soap and water, as in No. 1. Rub the stained place with lard, and work it well into the fibers to loosen the stain. Ink {writing). For an ink spot of unknown composition, it is necessary to try various agents, beginning always with the simplest and that least likely to injure the fabric. One of the following agents may be utilized: 1. Absorbents: Cornmeal, salt, French chalk, fuller's earth, magnesia, talcum powder, and the like. The application of such substances serves to remove any ink not absorbed by the fibers and keeps the ink from spreading. For a large ink spot, apply one of these substances before trying other agents. Work the absorbent around with some blunt instrument and renew it when it becomes soiled. When dry absorbent fails to take up more ink, make it into a paste with water and continue the application. 2% .1 i>i.i.\r.iA oi' noMi: MAKixa 2. S();i|) ami wadT as in onliiiaiy lauiKlcrinn. Tliis is salisfaclnry f<»r some ty|M's of school inks, wliidi can In- washed from falirics; for carl)oii inks, which arc unalTcctcd liy chcinicals and lan Im- removed only mechan- ically; and sometimes for the fresh slains of other inks. 'A. Milk. Soak tin- stains for a day or two, if n<'ce.ssary, in milk, channinK the milk as often as it hecomes di.scolored. This is efTective for .sotiu' stains. The foret^oiiiK methods may Iw used safely on all wjushuhlc fabrics. If they fail to remove the spot, apply one of the chemicals mentioned below: 4. Oxalic acid, saturated .solution. Soak the stain for a few seconds, then rin.se in clear water, and finally in water to which a few droi)s of ammonia have been added. 5. Potassium permanf!;anate. This is satisfactory for .stains upon many delicate fabrics as well a.s on ordinary materials. G. Javclle water. 7. Commercial ink-removers generally are .satisfactory if the directions furnished with them are followed and the excess of the substance is re- moved by thorough rinsing in clean water. 8. Lemon juice. Keep the stain moistened and exposed to the sun. For ink on carjjet, first apply absorbents, as in No. 1 ; follow by repeated applications of oxalic acid, as in No. 2, or potassium i)ermanganate, as in No. 5, or by rul)bing with the cut .surface of a lemon, squeezing on the juice and rinsing between applications with a clean, wet cloth until no more ink can be removed. Rub the spot then with a clean, dry cloth. After the carpet is dry, brush up the nap with a stiff brush or a cloth. Iodine. One of the following agents may be used in removing iodine stains from unstarched materials: 1. Water. Wash th(» stain in an abundance of water or soak it for a number of hours in cold water. The.se stains can be removed also by wetting with wat(>r and drying in a warm place, such as over a radiator, repeating this if necessary. 2. Ammonia. Sponge the stain with dilute ammonia. 3. Alcohol. Sponge the stain. This agent frequently can be ased on materials which water would injure. 4. Starch, prejjared as for laundry jiurposes; for washable materials. Immerse the stained place in the starch and boil; it first turns blue and then disappears. .5. Flour, us(>d in the .same manner as starch. For removing iodine stains from starched materials one of the following agents may l)e employed: 1. Ammonia. Soak the .stains in dilute ammonia until tliey dis- appear. 2. Water. Roil the stained material for .') or 10 niinules. STAIN REMOVAL 297 Iron-rust. For iron-rust stains on white washable materials one of the agents given below should be used. In the case of colored materials, the effect of the agent should be tried first on a sample or in an inconspicuous place. 1. Hydrochloric acid, made by diluting the strong acid with an equal volume of water. Spread the stained place over a bowl of hot water and apply the acid drop by drop until the stain turns bright yellow; then im- merse at once in hot water and rinse thoroughly. Repeat the treatment, if necessary. Add a little ammonia or borax to the last rinsing water to neutralize any acid which may remain in the goods. 2. Oxalic acid, in saturated solution, used in the same way as hydrochloric acid in No. 1. Or apply the crystals directly to the stain and moisten. 3. Cream of tartar. Boil the stained place in a solution of 4 teaspoon- fuls to 1 pint of water, until the stain disappears. This agent, owing to its cost, is practicable only for stains upon small articles which can be immersed and boiled in a cup or two of solution, though it may be used in the case of larger articles by holding them above the solution in such a way that only the stained portion is immersed. 4. Lemon juice. Spread the stained place over a vessel of actively boiling water, and then squeeze lemon juice on the stain. After a few minutes rinse the stain and repeat the process. This method is rather slow but does not injure delicate white cotton or linen fabrics. 5. Lemon juice and salt. Sprinkle the stain with salt, moisten with lemon juice, and place in the sun, adding more lemon juice if necessary. 6. Acid fruits or vegetables. Those mentioned below are satisfactory and have the advantage of being found in the home garden or easily pur- chased. Others cannot be used because their juices are so highly colored as to leave stains themselves on the fabric. The use of lemon juice has been described above. (a) Rhubarb stalks. One stalk, cut up and l:)oiled in one cup of water, gives a solution strong enough to dissolve iron-rust. If the stalks have highly colored skins peel them before using. Boil the stain in the solution for 15 minutes or longer, if necessary. (b) Begonia. Place several leaves, together with the stems, in a saucepan with only enough water to keep them from burning. Boil the stain in the infusion until it disappears. (c) Pineapple. Cut up a round slice, about one-half inch in thickness, and boil with enough water to keep it from burning. Boil the stains for five minutes or until they disappear. {(i) Grapefruit. Use the pulp and juice from one-fourth of a fresh grapefruit in the same way as the pineapple. Lead foil. One of the following agents may be employed for this purpose: 1. Soap and water, for washable materials. Use the soap freely and rub the stain thoroughly. Sponge woolen materials. 2US A M.WIM. or no Ml' M \l\l.\(; ■J. ( 'lilorufdriii or ntluT cli'aii ornjiiiic w»lve usents imtil one is found wiiich serves the purpose. Each of the following agents is satisfactory in removing some medicine stains: 1. Boiling water, ]ioured on tlie stain from a considerable height, as for fruit stains (]). 291). 2. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering. 3. Acids, such as hydrochloric, or oxalic. Dilute solutions of these acids sometimes are useful for stains containing metallic salts. 4. Alcohol. Spong(> the stain with alcohol or soak it in alcohol. 5. Javelle water. This agent sometimes will bleach a stain that resists treatment by other means. .^[ilral times if necessary. Light stains can be rcunoved in this way. 3. Lemon juice. Moisten the stains with lemon juice and allow them to remain in the sun. This, is effective in removing slight stains. 4. Javelle water. Use this agent for bleaching old stains. 5. Potassium permanganate. Use this agent upon old and persistent stains. Milk and cream. One of the following agents should be used in removing spots from milk and cream: 1. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by hot water and soap (ordinary laundering), for stains on washable materials. For spots on other fabrics, sponge with soapy water and then with clean water. 2. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by chloroform, gasoline, or some other grease solvent. For fabrics which ordinary laundering would injure, first sponge cafefully with water, allow to dry, and then sponge with a grease solvent. Mucus. To remove mucus stains, soak in ammonia water or in salt and water, then wash with soap and cold water. Mud. Allow mud stains to dry and brush carefully before any other treatment is used. Sometimes no other treatment is necessary. The following agents are satisfactory: 1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering, for washable materials. 2. Alcohol. Sponge the stains with alcohol. 3. Water. Sponge the stains. 4. Cut raw potato. For black silks of firm weave, after brushing, rub the spot with the potato. This leaves a thin film of starch on the surface of the cloth, which can be brushed off when dry. This treatment is too harsh for any but rather smooth, firm goods and leaves a spot on all but black materials. Paints and varnishes. Before using any agent upon paint or varnish stains, it is best to scrape off as much of the stain as possible from the surface of the material. One of the following agents may be used for the removal of paint and varnish stains, not including "alcohol stain," which is discussed separately: 1. Soap and water. Fresh stains, especially on washable materials, are removed easily by carefully washing with plenty of soap. Older stains sometimes can be removed in this way if they are first softened by rubbing oil, lard, or butter into them thoroughly. 2. Turpentine. Sponge the stains with pure turpentine, or wash the 30() .1 .\/.i.\r.i/. or IK I. mi: MAKixr; wholo luiiclc ill it, if the s|M.ts an- lar^r or sruttcnd, and llnii rinse it M'vcral liiiu's in fn"
  • nts are fairly successful in removing these stains from materials like finished silks, which would be injured by washing. .-Vlthough it is almost imi)ossil)le to remove all traces of the stains, the appearance of the spots may be improved greatly. 2. Gasoline. Dip the stained jK)rtion in gasoline and rub vigorously. 3. Glycerin and water. Sponge the stain with glycerin until the water color is removed and then with lukewarm water to remove the glycerin. In case a water ring is left, treat tliis as described under "water spots" (page 306). Paraffin or paraffin wax. For removing the part of the stain which has penetrated the fiber, use one of the following agents: STAIN REMOVAL 301 1. Blotting paper or an absorbent powder and a warm iron (No. 2 under " grease "). 2. Grease solvents. If a trace of the stain remains after treatment, as ia No. 1, sponge the stain carefully with a grease solvent (see No. 3 under " grease "). For colored paraffin see " candle wax (colored)," page 290. Perspiration. While the perspiration from most of the body is acid, that from the armpits is alkaline. For treating colors changed by this, see " alkali," page 288. The yellow stains sometimes caused upon white material by perspiration are removed by the following agents : 1. Soap and water. Exposure to the sun helps to bleach the stained material. 2. Javelle water. 3. Potassium permanganate. Pitch. See "resinous substances," below. Resins and resinous substances. One of the following solvents may be used: Turpentine, chloroform, alcohol (grain or wood), ether, kerosene, gasoline, and water for water- soluble gums, such as gum arable. In each case sponge the stain or im- merse it in the solvent and rub. Salad-dressing. Salad-dressings usually contain oil, vinegar (or lemon juice), and condi- ments, and may contain egg or cream also. If egg or cream is present, hot water must not be used. For discoloration due to the acid of the vinegar or lemon juice, treat in the same way as acid stains (p. 287). One of the following agents should be used for salad-dressing stains: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials. Sponge delicate materials with lukewarm water, using soap if the material is not harmed by it. 2. Grease solvents. Scorch. Scorch upon cotton and linen sometimes can be removed, if the fibers are not actually burned. Wool and silk are disintegrated at a lower tem- perature than cotton and linen and cannot be restored to their original condition after being scorched. For removing slight scorch stains from cotton and linen, use one of the following agents: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This is sufficient to remove very slight stains. 2. Water and sunlight. Wet the spot with water, or soap and water, and expose to the sun for a day, or longer, if necessary. The scorch dis- appears much more slowly if the material is not moistened before exposure. MO'J .1 y.wiM. (>!■' iioMi: \i.\i\i\'(; ;i. Hifail cnist. \crv slinht scorfli on tin- .siirl.ici' of inntcrials whicli arc not especially delicate soiiietiiiie.s can l)e ruhhed away with u bread crust . Shoc-ftrcasi n gs . One of the foilowinn ajicnts should he used in removinK stains from tho hlack shoe j)olishes: 1. Soap and water for the pastes. If the stains are fresh, sponge or wa«h them thoroujjhly with an abundance of soap (p. 2K4). 2. Turpentine only frusli the stain, then l)lace on tlie stain aiworbcut powders, such as fuller's earth, I'Vcnch chalk. STAIN REMOVAL 303 cornstarch, cornmeal, or salt, work them around until they become soiled, and brush them away. Then wash or sponge the stain. 2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvents, for materials injured by washing. First brush the stain lightly or treat it with absorbent powder, as in No. 1, then immcrso it in the solvent and 'rub gently, or brush with a small, soft brush. For the treatment of rings caused by organic solvents, see "grease," page 292. Soup. Stains from soup should be treated in the same way as those from white sauces (page 306). Stni>e-polish. The following agents are fairly satisfactory: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Rub the soap thoroughly on the stain. 2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvent, for materials injured by washing. Immerse the stain in the solvent and while immersed rub it gently or brush it with a small soft brush. Sugar sirups. One of the following agents should be used in removing sugar sirup stains: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials. 2. Sponging with clear water is satisfactory for other materials. Tar, road oil, creosote oil, asphalt, asphalt paint, and the like. The stains from these substances are grouped together because they are somewhat similar in their chemical composition. In general, the same solvents are used for all. The stains are rather difficult to remove from textiles, especially from cotton, and after the oily or tarry part of the spot has been removed, dark-colored organic or mineral impurities are likely to remain. One of the following agents may be used : 1. Turpentine. Sponge the stains or immerse them in turpentine, and rub. The latter treatment is best if the fabric is not too delicate. For stains on carpet, scrub with a cloth soaked in turpentine, changing to a fresh cloth as soon as it becomes discolored, and continuing as long as any color comes off. 2. Turpentine, as in No. 1, followed by thorough washing in soap and hot water (p. 284). 3. Chloroform, applied in the same way as turpentine in No. 1 and No. 2. 4. Lard. Rub thoroughly into the stain, then wash in hot water and soap. Repeat the treatment if necessary. Tea. One of the following agents should be employed in removing tea stains: 1. Borax, Ijoiling water. If stains are on cotton or linen and not more :;()l A MAMM. or ikimi: m\ki.\(; llian a few days old, snak llicrn in a Ixirax sdIiiIkxi (32 '"^ 1 If.'UJpoon tn 1 cup of water) and then rinse in Itoilinn water. ■_'. A stronn soap solution, containing a lialf-inch eul)0 of soap to each (ii|i of water, lioil the staineii material in this .sohition. Stains 2 or '.i weeks old are removed succe.s.sfully if they are on small articles of white wa.sh material which can he boiled in a small quantity of li(juid. 3. Potiussium i)ermanK:uiate, for stains which resist other reaKont.s. 4. Javelle water for persistent stains. This is slightly less satisfactory than the pota.ssium permanganate. 5. Lemon juice and sunlight. Keep the stains moist witli lemon juice and exjjosc them to the sun for a ilay (jr two. They will 1)(; i)ractically removetl. Tobacco. One of the following agents may he utilized in removing tohncco-juice stains: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Sponge materials which cannot he washed. If a .stain on washable materials cannot l)e completely removed liy washing, bleach it in the sun. Moistening it with lemon juice makes it disapp(uir more quickly. 2. Wood or grain alcohol. Traces of color remaining upon wool fabrics after sponging with water can be removed sometimes by sponging with alcohol. 3. Potassium i)ermaiigaiiate, for stains whicli washing will not remove (p. 286). 4. Javelle water, for stains which washing will not remove. Tomato vine. One of the following agents should he used in removing such stains: 1. Lemon juice and sunlight. First w;ish the stains carefully, then moisten them with lemon juice and e.\j)ose them to the sun for several days if necessary. This is satisfactory for stains on white washable ma- terials. 2. Alcohol (wood or grain). Sponge the stains with alcohol, which removes the green part of the stain. Stains on wool or silk are practically removed by this treatment. 3. Pota.ssium permanganate. First wash the stains with soap and water or sponge with alcohol. 4. Javelle water. First wash the stains with soap antl water or siJongc with alcohol. Tunncric. Turmeric is a constituent of many pickles and of curry powder, to which it is added for its yellow color and aromatic flavor. To remove such stain.s, one of the following agents may be used: 1. Dilute ammonia. Remove fresh stains on white materials by soaking in this reagent. STAIN REMOVAL 305 2. Alcohol (grain or wood). Apply in the same way as No. 1. These agents are very satisfaetory on old stains. 3. Javelle water. 4. Potassium permanganate. Varnish. See "paint and varnish," page 299. Vaseline. One of the following reagents may be employed in removing vaseline stains : 1. Turpentine. Sponge fresh stains with this agent. Old stains, even those which have been washed and ironed, usually can be removed by soaking in turpentine, if care is taken to immerse them completely. 2. Agents used in Nos. 2, 3, and 4, under "grease," page 292, for fresh stains. Ordinary washing (No. 1, under "grease,") is not usually sufficient to remove the stains. Verdigris. The blue-green tarnish on copper, brass, and bronze, consisting of basic copper carbonate, is known commonly as verdigris. In removing it from textiles use the following agents: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Stains that are merely on the surface of the material can sometimes be removed in this way. 2. Dilute acids, such as vinegar, or lemon juice. Apply one of these to the stain and rinse off as soon as it has dissolved the verdigris. Vinegar. See "acid," page 287. Walnut, black. Fresh stains, which are still moist, usually can be removed, provided the material is strong enough to stand the treatment, but old stains or stains on delicate fabrics in many cases cannot be removed by any of the reagents tried. The following reagents are satisfactory in some cases: 1. Concentrated soap solution, prepared by shaving about 1 cubic inch of laundry soap into 1 pint of hot water and stirring until dissolved. Boil the stain in this solution. This treatment is successful only with fresh stains upon cotton or hnen. In the case of week-old stains, a gray color persists. 2. Soap solution as in No. 1, followed by bleaching with Javelle water. This treatment is effective in removing the gray stains mentioned in No. 1, in many instances. 3. Javelle water, diluted with an equal volume of hot water. Soak the stained place for 114 hours in this solution, then rinse thoroughly, treat with dilute oxalic acid, and rinse again. This is effective in removing a week-old stain and the fibers of the material are not seriously injured. 300 A MAsr.M. or iiomemakisc; Sojikinn the stain in .Iiivrllr water n|" full stniiutli, liowfvcr, ruts tlic material. Wnhr f^/Hils. Sonic silks and wools an- s|)ottf(l \>y water, 'i'liis proliaiily dissolves some r)f the linishinn or weinlitinn sul)stances present and on evuponitinn these substances arc de|)((sited irregularly or in rin^s. A sati.sfactory inetliod for rcinovinji such spots is to dampen tlic entire material evenly and press it wliile still damp. Either sponge the material carefully with clean water or shake it in the steam from a briskly hoilin^ teakettle until it is thoroughly damp, then jire.ss it. While sduces, crcnvi soups, gruel, and the like. These usually consist cliioHy of milk and liuttor, thickened with flour. Flavorinfj; materials and vcKf'tables, which may he addetl, d<^ not a.s a rule afTcct the character of the stain. The presence of the starch and gluten of the flour make.s it particularly hard to remove such stains from materials that cannot be washed. Use one of tlie following agent-s for treating the.se stains: 1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). 2. Hot water. Sponge the stains. Follow this by a grease solvent when necessary. Whitewash. Whitewash stains should be treated in the same way as alkali stains (page 288). Wine. See "fruit and berries (fresh)," page 291. When the stain is first made sprinkle salt on it to keep it from spreading. PART III CLOTHING CHAPTER XIV TEXTILES * By Beulah Blackmore The word textile as used in this chapter is applied to the common fibers and the woven goods produced from them. Since the making of fabrics has been taken out of the home, the house- wife's knowledge of materials has become very limited, while the industry has been steadily advancing. In fact, the manu- facturer can so disguise, substitute, and adulterate a textile that even the expert may be deceived by the appearance. No objection should be raised to any fiber that is suited to its pur- pose ; the point for contention is that the buyer frequently pays for one kind of material and receives another. Textiles cannot be standardized until the consumer is ready to train himself through study, experience, and observation, to recognize good materials and to demand a fair return for his money. COTTON Cotton has short, flat fibers with a spiral twist, character- istics that give elasticity and the possibility of being spun into * In this discussion are frequent quotations, as indicated, from Some Points in Choosing Textiles, by Charlotte M. Gibbs (Baker), Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. Acknowledgment is also made for valuable suggestions from The Study of Textiles, by Nellie Crooks in the Proceedings of the Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics, 190S, and from Hints on Choosing Textiles, by Bertha E. Titsworth, Bull. 45, in the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home. 307 30S .1 M.Wl'AL OF lln.MI-: MAKIXC line I lucid (I-'i^- •'»7). 'I'lic (|u;ilily of cotton materials (iepemls on the sticiifidi of the lilxTs, the fiiiciicss or coarsoncss of the material, the weave, the color and desij^n, and the adultera- tions.* AduHcrntion. Cotton, hi'ins the cheapest fiber, is not adulterated with any other fiber when the material is to be sold as cotton cloth, but it can be made to appear heavier by the addition of mixtures called siz- ing. Starches, gums, de.xtrin, glue, china clay, as well as other ingretlient.s in var3'ing proportions, constitute this sizing which may atkl a large per- centage to the weight of the cloth. The spaces between the threads are filled U{). and a good finish is given to thecloth,althoughtiie wearing cjuality Fig. 57.— Cotton fibers, show- is not improved. If present in large iwist. ' ^ ' characteristic ^^..^tities, the cloth is greatly reduced in weight and firmness after the first washing. Adulterations of this kind can l)e detected by the feel- ing, a large fiuantity imparting a hai-shness to the material.* If material suspected of being heavily weightetl or sized is rubbed vigorously ])etween the hands, the white chalky specks of sizing may be seen on the hands. If the material is held up and torn (luickly, a small cloud of starch or sizing may be seen. If very heavily starched material is touched b}' the tongue, the starch may be tasted or a sticky spot left on the material. In very thin fabrics the sizing may often be detected by hold- ing the cloth up to the light, when the starch shows between the threads. Washing or thoroughly boiling a sample in soda water will show the amount of sizing present. Another method of adullerating cotton is shown in certain kinds of dotted swiss. A good swiss has thread dots woven or embroidered in the cloth. These dots are generally woven *Univ. of III.. Hull. 15. TEXTILES 309 with continuous threads on the back of the cloth; and in a later process of finishing, the threads between the dots on the wrong side of the material are sheared off, leaving only the threads which catch through to make the dots on the right side. Oc- casionally one finds a piece of swiss selling at the regular price, on which the dots instead of being woven as just described are merely dots of very stiff paste. In washing, these dots dis- appear; or if they do not disappear entirely, they are made brown from the heat of the iron. Occasionally cotton cloth which has been on the market for some time is weakened by the action of the chemicals used in bleaching, dyeing, or in the sizing. This may be easily detected by tearing the cloth.* Mercerization. Mercerized cotton is cloth produced by the action of a strong alkali on cotton fiber rinsed under tension. The process of mercerization is generally carried on while the fiber is still in the yarn. Mercerized cotton is actually stronger than cotton which has not been so treated. The characteristic twist of the cotton fiber is taken out, and the cell-wall is thickened by con- traction. The result is a stronger fiber, a long slender cylinder which reflects the light, rather than a flat' twisted, ribbon-like filament. The cellulose of the fiber is changed into another kind of chemical substance which has a much greater affinity for dye substances; therefore, beautiful colorings may be found in mercerized cotton materials. The cost of producing a high grade of mercerized cotton, it has been stated, is about three times that of unmercerized cot- ton; consequently if a piece of this material is offered at a very low price, it is well to test it for true mercerization before buy- ing. This may be done by thoroughly washing a sample or ex- posing it to friction and the weather. The gloss of proi;)erly mercerized material will not disappear on hard wear or launder- ing. An imitation of mercerized cotton may be made by the action * Opus cit. ;{l(l A MAMM. or HOME MAKISC of vciv licMvy ;iM(| very liol (\\liiKlcis on oidiii.iry cofton cloth. This iiiiil.-ilioii will not uilhstaiiij Irictioii or laiiiKJcriiiK. Slnii(hirtl Ciitldii iiuiU rials * Slaiidard cotton materials such as muslins, orfiiatuiics, jxt- calcs, calicoes, aiul sheet ings difTer ouh' in the \vei>i;ht of the mateiial, fineness of tlu'cad, hanhiess of twist, and metiiod of finish. Ciinf^hams have tlie thread dyed hefoic weaving and fancy weaves are frecjuently used. Duck, denim, and some otlier heavy materials have very hard twisted threads and are frequently woven with a twill. Silkolene is a trade name for a fine cotton cloth with a silky finish {j;iven after the cloth is woven. Mercerized cottons make lustrous materials, such as poplin, imitation pongee, and numerous attractive house-fur- nishing materials. India linon is entirely cotton, as are outing flannel and canton flannel. ]\Iany tussahs, voiles, and economy linens and other materials with rather deceptive names are cot- ton materials mad(^ to imitate silk, wool, or linen. Uses of cotton materials. Cotton fiber is 'covered ])y cotton wax, which serves as a pro- tective coat and renders cotton material very slow in absorb- ing water. For this reason, cotton dish-towels are imsatis- factory. If a cloth to absorl) moisture is desired, it must be made of a fiber that is not water-repellent. In aljsorbent cotton the wax has been removed. Cotton is Hght in weight and inexpensive and affords a most desirable fabric for general wear. It is especially desirable fc)r undergarments and house dresses, since it is not impaired by frequent laundering. Starch is absorbed by the cotton fil^eis as readily in the process of laundering as at the time of manu- facture. It is, therefore, possible to keep the garments as fresh as when new. Cotton fabrics shrink for the first few times that they are laundered. The percentage of shrinkage varies with the type of fiber and the method of manufacture of the material. A loosely woven material will often shrink more than a closely woven piece. * Opu.-< rit. TEXTILES 311 Some of the more common cotton materials are as follows: Shediny should have rouiul firm threads closely jjac-ked tof^ether with the warp and filling; threads ecjually balanced. Little sizinji; should be used. Unbleached sheeting will give better wear than the bleached, be- cause fewer chemicals are used in finishing it. It will become white in time. It is used for bed coverings. Long cloth is a soft, firm fabric with a close weave made of a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. The material is dull in finish and has a rather fuzzy surface, making it imdesirable for outer garments. It is used for undergarments and aprons. Cambric is a plain weave with a smooth surface on one side. There are many grades of this material. Because of its smooth surface it sheds the dust. It is a most desirable material for undergarments, aprons, waists, and baby clothing. Nainsook is a very soft, light cotton fabric with one surface slightly calendered, or pressed with heavy hot cylinders to give a gloss. It may be distinguished from cambric, long cloth, or batiste, because its construction is not so firm nor its finish so smooth. It is used for infants' clothes, lingerie, and undergarments. Batiste is a sheer, lustrous cloth in white and dainty colors. There is often a mercerized thread introduced in the better grades. It is used for waists, dresses, and baby clothes. Canton flannel is a heavy cloth with twilled surface on one side and a soft nap on the other. It is used for children's underwear becau.se of warmth and durability, and for linings in order to add warmth to other garments. Flannelette is a soft cloth with a nap on both sides of the weave and with figures printed on plain backgrounds. It is low in cost and launders easily. It is used for nightgowns, underwear, and children's clothing. Because flannelette is .so popular for children's garments and because it is so in- flammable, manufacturers have been working for a long time to find a process wherel)y they may render this material permanently fire-proof without injuring the feel or durability of the cloth or causing it to appear damp or making it dusty. The process must not affect the colors or the design that are woven into the cloth or dyed or printed upon it. After many investigations, this permanent fire-proofing has been accomplished. Calico is a cotton cloth with a design printed on one side. Calicoes may be seen in almost any color. The colors are generally not fast and will often run or fade when subjected to water. This material is usually heavily sized. It is used for inexpensive dresses, aprons, and wrappers because of its low cost, its durability, and the ease with which it is laundered. Percale is much like calico, but much superior in quality. Gingham has a plain weave with warp and w^oof of variously colored threads that form plaids, checks, and stripes. It is used for dresses, aprons, and shirts. 312 .1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC ('hdmhrdii is :i staph' falnicof many yi-ars' shiiidin;:. It is a linlil-wcinlit silicic cIdIIi that is always wovrn with a plain weave anil always h.-is ji white selvage. Its elTect is that of a doth woven with one color in (he wiirp and a while lillinn. It is used for dresses, men's shirts, and aprons. GnUiUn is a heavy firm sutecn weave with d(«ign printed on one side. It is used for ehildren's clothe.s, outing .suits, and the like, when a cloth of stronntli and durability is desired. Cutldti (lavutslc has very much the .same api)earanee as linen damask before it is washed. This excellent finish is lirou^ht about l>oth by mer- cerization and cloth finish. However, one who buys cotton damask di"- feats his own purpose in K<"ttinK a material that will take a Kood poli.sh and retain its smoothness, from the very fact that the cotton fiber is .short and the ends of the fibers cannot be held in jjlace as can the fewer ends of the linen fibers. Therefore, after a few washings the cotton damask hxs a fuzzy surface, it refuses to take or hold a polish, and it is very limp and easily soiled. Cotton damask is used for tablecloths and doilies. Velveteen is a material woven in imitation of velvet, but it is made wholly of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits. Other cotton materials are: For house)iolil purposes Awning Chintz Crash Cretonne Denim Diaper Mummy Rep Scrim LINEN Liiicn was formerly the most important vegetable fiber, and was commonly used for all household purposes. Of late years it has been largely replaced by cotton, with which it may be compared, although there are still uses for which linen is demanded, and others for which linen is preferred to cotton. The linen fiber is long, smooth, and quite lustrous (Fig. 58) when spim into a thread. It is very strong and there are not so many fuzzy ends as are found in cotton. Cloth made from it is not only lustrous and rich-looking, but because of its smooth- For dret >.SC.S' All)atross Lawn Bedford cord Linon Buckram Mull Canvas Muslin Cheese-cloth Organdie Crdix- Percale Crinoline Percaline Dimity Piqu6 Drill Poplin Duck Sateen Gauze Silesia Khaki Tarlatan TEXTILES 313 ness stays clean longer than cotton. The snowy whiteness of linen, obtained with some difficulty in bleaching, is quite per- manent, and since the fiber takes dyes with difficulty and parts with them quite readily, it also does not retain stains as per- sistently as does cotton.* Adulteration. Linen is much more expensive than cotton, and when linen prices are paid, linen should be received. Since the two fibers are rather hard to distinguish, espe- cially when heavily starched and given a good finish, it is easy to deceive the buyer. " Linen " collars are frequently largely cotton, ''linen" handkerchiefs may not have a thread of linen, as is apt to be the case with rather inex- pensive embroidered handkerchiefs, and table ''linen" may be mercerized cotton, cotton and linen, or even or- dinary cotton. To distinguish linen Fig. 58.— Linen fibers, show from cotton, the threads should be ex- amined carefully; cotton is made up of short fibers which project from the surface of the thread, and become fuzzy when the thread is rubbed between the fingers; when broken, cotton has a tufted end, while the linen fibers break more unevenly and leave a more pointed end. The linen thread should be stronger than the cotton; it has more luster, and is usually more uneven. Some kinds of linen have fl'at threads, but cotton is frequently finished in imitation of flat-thread linen.f Color. Linen is more easily disintegrated than cotton, and therefore does not withstand the action of boiling alkali solutions, bleach- ing powder, and oxidizing agents. This characteristic together with its slow reaction to dyestuff, makes it difficult to obtain ing the characteristic nodes and longitudinal striations. Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. t Opus oil. MM .1 .l/.l.\ / .1/. or IKiMi: MAK/XC ;i fast color tlinl will take hold of tlic lil)ci-. Natural color and white arc, thcrcl'orc, more likely to ^ive coinj)lele fsatisfactioii than any applied color in linen fabrics.* Sizing. Linen always contains a certain amount, of sizing, for the yarn would become rouji;h in the weaving if it were not so treated. Often sizing is used lo (•oiiccal imperfection, coarse weaving, or the use of cotton or meicerized cotton fibers. Selection . Good linen yarn is round and twisted: if the yarn is loosely twisted and flat, the maleiial will not wear so well. Linen fiber absorbs moisture readily; it is, therefore, very suitable for towelings and for other materials that are used to I'emove moisture fi-om sui faces. Huck, an imeven weave giving a good surface for the absorption of water, makes good towels, and, decorated with designs in damask w'eavc, may be very handsome. Many linens in plain weaves are available for clothing, or embroidery, while the coarse Russian crashes are becoming popular for decorative purposes. The texture of linen is such that the heavier kinds hang well in folds, lie flat on a table, and are very artistic for many j)urposes. The old test for iden- tifying linen by moistening the finger and putting it under the cloth is not always a sure one, since the moistui'e will not come through a heavy linen, or one with much starch in it, and it will come through a sheer, tightly twisted cotton. A better test is to put a drop of olive oil on the cloth and press it between blotting papers. The linen becomes more transparent than the cotton. Th6re is a peculiar leathery feeling about good table linen, which cotton will not give, and the luster is different, although this is difficult to describe.f It is more difficult to choose medium-priced linen wisely than to choose the finer and n)ore exjjensive grades, because substitu- tion for strong fiber and vai'ious finishes may be used to lower * Conu'll Hciiiliiig-Coiirst' for the Farm lloinc, Bull. lo. t rr.iv. of 111., Bull. 15. TEXTILES 315 the price while they maintain the appearance. Shoppers for institutions as well as for the home are often lacking' in ability to judge and consequently buy towels and table linen which will not give satisfactory wear. Without training, the only safe procedure is to keep strictly to reliable firms rather than to be attracted by what seem to be better values at lower prices elsewhere. Many housekeepers prefer to buy the un- bleached tablecloths and bleach them for themselves. There is economy in this, because the chemical bleaching used almost exclusively for medium grades, weakens the fiber. The quality to be avoided is poorly spun, flat, rather thin yarn, heavily sized, the cloth loosely woven and light in weight, sized and beetled so that it looks substantial and glistening.* Characteristics and uses of some common linen fabrics. Butcher's linen is a heavy, coarse weave. It is used for skirts, waists, and aprons. Cambric is a fine, sheer material. It is used for dresses and handkerchiefs because of its sheer texture. Crash is a coarse material, the yarns being irregular in size and slightly flattened. It is used for toweling, skirts, runners, and upholstery. Damask is a fine satin weave with figured designs. It is used for table- cloths, napkins, and towels. Huckaback is an uneven weave with much of the filling showing. It is used for toweling because of its rough surface which easily absorbs moisture and causes a glow to the skin. Handkerchief linen is a firm, even weave but a sheer material. It is used for waists, handkerchiefs, and baby dresses. WOOL In point of quality wool belongs next to cotton, although in price there is a long distance between them. A scaly structure on the surface of wool (Fig. 59), especially marked in sheep's wool, gives it virtues possessed by no other fiber. It is by rea- son of these scales that wool mats together, that air is held in the spaces of a woolen garment, that it absorbs a great amount of moisture without seeming wet — characteristics which all have * Medium priced linens for institution and home. Mary Schenck Woolman. Journal of Home Economics, 9:10:447-451. 31G .1 .\/.i.v/M/. (tr iioMi: MAKixc; their value in clolliiiin. I'llasl icily, sfrenf;th, and liisler also are atliiTnites of wool, and the kink, more or less conspicuous, aids in spinning; and also in identifying; the filiec. The finish given to the l)e' Kiirfacc. It is us(h1 for dresses, suits, and wraps. Chinchilla. — Heavy coating material with row^h wavy surface. Covert. — Heavy twilled cloth generally in natural undyed .shades. It is used for suit.s and coats. Fc//.— Fabric made hy pressing a ma.ss of wool hl>er together. It is used for padding, banners, and table-covers. Flatuicl. — Coarse-threaded, loosely woven, light-weight fabric morr- or less spongy and elastic. It is used for baby dres.ses and garments. French flannel. — A fine soft twill-woven variety dyed in solid colors, also printed. It is used for dresses and waists. Shaker flannel. — .\ variety of white flannel finished with a nap. Cotton warp and woolen filling. It is used for bal)y dresses. Mackinaw. — A very lieavy blanket-like material u.sed by lumbermen and outdoor workers for overshirts and jackets. Silk-icarp flannel. — A high-grade, pure variety of flannel woven with a silk warp. It is used for infants' wear, shawls, and vmdergarments. Baby flannel. — A light-weight variety of flannel. It is u.sed for children's and infants' wear. Gloria. — Plain weave of silk and wool, or silk and cotton. It is used for umbrella coverings. Grenadine. — An openwork net-like fabric in fancy designs. Woven of silk wool, mohair, or cotton. It is used for dresses. Henrietta. — A twilled cashmere of light weight. It is used for dresses. Homespun. — A rough, loosely woven material. The yarns are often quite uneven. It is used for men's and women's suitings and coatings. Kersey. — A felted satin-finish woolen fabric with a satin weave on the back. It is used for overcoats. Linsey woolsey. — A coarse cloth of linen and wool. It is used for inex- pensive skirts and dresses. Melton. — A thick heavj' woolen fabric with a short nap. It generally comes in black or dark blue. It is used for coats and suits. Panama cloth. — Woven of worsted yarn in a plain weave. A solid color usually piece-dyed, or dyed after it is woven. It is used for dre.s.ses and suits. Prunella.- — A rich, satin-faced worsted fabric, usually in i)lain colors. It is used for suits and dresses. Serge. — Worsted material with twill weave. This material comes in many weights and qualities. It may be obtained in any color. It is used for suits and dresses. Sicilian. — Heavy-weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. It is used for dresses and linings. Tartans. — Plaids of various Scottish clans. They are worn as diagonal scarfs. Tweed. — A soft, woolly, rough-finished woolt^ii material. It is usually TEXTILES 321 Avovon of }\irns of two or more shades or colors. It is used for suits and separate skirts. Velour. — -A thick, soft, felted material. It is used for suits and coats. Viama. — A soft wool cloth with a teasled surface, resembling cheviot. It is used for waists. Voile. — Material woven with a plain, even weave and a hard twisted yarn. It is dyed in plain colors. It is used for dresses. Whipcord. — Whipcord is much like serge with a pronounced diagonal line. It is used for suits and dresses. Diagonal. — A material with a serge weave. The diagonal effect is made very prominent. It is used for suits, dresses and separate skirts. Unfinished worsted. — A fabric woven with yarn of little twist. The twill effect of the weave is covered with loose fibers. This material is very dense. It is used for suits and coats. Finished worsted. — Woven in much the same way as unfinished worsted but with a much tighter twisted yarn. The weave may be distinctly seen. It is not so dense as the unfinished worsted. It is used for suits and coats. Zibeline. — The better grades are woven with a worsted warp and camel's hair filling. These long hairs from the filling spread over the surface. It is used for suits. SILK Silk is commonly known as the fiber of luxury. It is the most expensive to cultivate, the most beautiful, and the strongest fiber. Since it is the most expensive to buy, and the demand for it is so large, the temptations to adulterate are also naturally very great. The long, strong, lustrous silk fiber which bleaches and dyes beautifully, and is fine as a spider's web is not to be du- plicated (Fig. 60). The besfc grade, or "reeled silk," is taken from the cocoon in one continuous thread which may be several hundred yards long. In manufacturing reeled silk, many de- fective cocoons are found in which the fibers are not perfect or are broken. The silk from these cocoons may be treated like a short fiber and spun into threads varying in strength according to the length of the fibers. This so-called Fig. 60. — Silk fiber, showing the two minute filaments from the spinnerets of the silk worm and the gum which at first holds these two filaments to- gether. :V22 A MAXIM, or noMi-: makisc, "spun" silk lias not. I lie lii^li luster nor siicii^lli of "rccird" silk, l)ii( is often usetl as warp with reeled silk (illitiji. or in imilation pon^;i'e, and hack of satins, \-el\'et>, and in nian\' other ways.* In the raw state, silk is sold hy the pound. Three thousand silkworms are re(|uired to spin one pound of silk, and one to two pounds are re(iuired for a dress, ^^'ll<'n tiicso figures arc, considered, it will he seen wli\- ^ood >ilk must neces.sarily he expensive. There is, however, a demand for a product at a moderate price, and in oider to satisfy it, the manufacturer resorts to methods of adultei'ation.f Adulteration .% In olden times the price of silk was mucii p;reater than now, hut the material was nuich more durahle. Silks which have heen laid away for a hundred years are still in fairly fj;ood condition. At present silks are much cheaper, l)ut the result is that when they arc put away, even for only a few montiis they may fall into l)its, and their weariiifz; (luality cannot he compared with old silks. The rea.son for this chanfi;e is not hard to find. The cost of raw silk is al^out thirty times that of raw cotton and the waste at least five times that of cotton. The manufacturer must make up in some way if he is to sell silk at the prices de- manded by the puhlic. Silk has a very great abilit}' to absorb dyes and metallic salts without apparently changing the quality of the material, and since dyes and metallic salts arc much cheaper than pure silk, the manufacturer makes great use of these materials. Loading is the common name for this process of treating silk, and it is common practice to add 30 per cent of foreign material, just the percentage lost by the silk when the gum is removed, while it is possil)le to add 250 or even 300 jxm* cent. When one buys novelties and does not care how short their life is to be, these heavily weighted silks answer the purpose very * Univ. of 111., Bull. 1.-). t Cornoll Rciidinn-Courso for the F:vrin Home, Bull. 45. X Univ. of 111., Bull. lo. TEXTILES 323 well, but they are not durable. Practically no silk can be found on the market entirely free from loading, but there is a great difference in the amount present. Another method of adulterating silk is with cotton and mer- cerized cotton. The fibers are not spun together here as the cotton and wool, but the threads of the two materials are woven together. In satins, velvets, and brocades the cotton is entirely covered by the silk threads on the surface, and appears as the back of the cloth. In cheap silks a fine cotton thread sometimes forms either warp or filling. Pongee is a material made from the cocoon of the unculti- vated silkworm; rajah, tussah, and other uneven, coarse mate- rials are from the same source. These silks are very strong, but do not have a high luster. Mercerized cotton looks quite silky and is sometimes mixed with these silks, or a material of mer- cerized cotton and spun silk may be sold for pongee, or even a material entirely of mercerized cotton. Characteristics and uses of some common silk fabrics. Bengaline. — Very similar to cotton rep. Woven entirely of silk but often padded with wool or cotton. It is used for waists and dresses. Brocade. — A fabric woven with raised figures on a plain ground. Often a combination of plush and satin weave. It is used for coats and dresses. Brocatel. — -A kind of brocade often having wool figures on a silk back- ground. It is used for draperies and upholstering. Chenille. — Cloth woven with a soft fuzzy face. It is used for curtains. Chiffon. — A thin, transparent silk material with plain weave. It is used for dress trimmings, fancy work, and miJlinery. China silk. — A plain woven, light-weight silk. The warp and filling are evenly balanced. This silk may be obtained in any color. It is used for gowns, waists, and underclothing. Cripe de chine. — A soft lustrous silk woven with tightly twisted threads. The threads are so twisted and woven as to make a crdpe. It may be ob- tained in printed designs or plain. It is used for dresses, waists, and under- garments. Foulard. — A plain silk cloth, very soft and' highly finished. This silk wears excellently. It is used for dresses. India .silk. — iVery similar to China silk. Originally woven in India. Japanese silk. — Similar to China and India silk. ■Jersey cloth. — This material is a soft knitted fabric in plain colors. It is used for dresses, suits, and gloves. 321 .1 M.wiM. or iio.Mi-: m.\ki.\(: Mitcnr. — ('rep<' ili- iiu-tror is similar tvin(; a lii^h luster. It is used for coats, evening dres.ses, and millinery. Pcaii (k Koic. — .\ heavy, soft-finished silk material. It is .so woven that fine close ribs may be seen rumiinn with the (illiiiK. Better grades are the same on both sides. It is used for dre.s.ses and coats. Plmh. — Long-piled fal)ric resembling velvet. It is used for wraps and dre.s.ses. Pongee. — A soft plain unl)leached washable silk. It is u.sed for wai.sts, droivses, and coats. Poplin. — A ribbed material resembling cotton poplin. It is u.sed for dresses, waists, and suits. Sarcenet. — An open, i)lain, rather stiff silk resembling cotton mull. It is used for hat linings. Satin. — .\ silk material with a very high finish cau.sed by the floating of silk threads over the surface. There are many qualities and variations of this material. It is used for dres.ses, Unings, and trimmings. Taffeta. — Taffeta is either plain or woven in lines so fine as to appear perfectly plain. It may be obtained in a great number of ornamental patterns such as fancy cords, plaids, and stripes, both printed and woven. It is used for dresses, suits, and trimmings. Trdle. — Openwork silk n(>t. It is used for draperies iind evening dressers. Velvet. — Material so woven that the surface is covered with jirojecting fibers. The better qualities are made entirely of silk. It is used for dresses, coats, and suits. Velveteen. — A material woven in imitation of velvet, but made wholly of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits. AIITIFICI.\L SILK For 3'cars chemists of America and I'Airope have endeavored to make a fiber which would compare favorably with .silk. A number of so-called artificial silks have been made synthetically, but each has lacked some desired ciiaracteristic. One has not withstood moi.sture, another lacked streno;th, a third was not sufficiently pliable, and so on. It is only recently that a .satis- factory fiber, which can be manufactured at a reasonable price, has been developed. The artificial silk now commonly found on the market is a coUodian-like substance, made fn^n cotton or wool fiber, put through capillary tubes, hardened in the air and TEXTILES 325 so treated that it will withstand moisture. This fiber may be manufactured at a cost below that of pure silk, and has the promise of a great future.* The -artificial, or fiber, silk is used in many knitted sweaters, scarfs, dress braids, fancy ribbons and is combined with both pure silk and cotton. It may always be detected by its bril- liancy and stiffness. If the burning test is used, artificial silk is found to burn with almost explosive rapidity. It also dis- integrates if it comes in contact with water; but this deficiency is being gradually overcome by science. RAMIE Ramie, a vegetable fiber of antiquity, has until very re- cently been used almost exclusively in China and Japan. A highly lustrous fiber, in this respect surpassing linen, and very white, its use has been limited by the difficulty with which the fiber is removed from the surrounding woody tissue. Ramie has been used in combination with silk and cotton, its luster making it hard to distinguish when woven with silk, and adding rich- ness when combined with cotton. Japanese and Chinese em- broideries on this material have been common in the markets for some years, but only recently has ramie linen, by the piece, been sold in this country. As methods for producing the fiber are improved, more of it may be expected to appear on the market, and the shortage of European linen due to the war may give an impetus to the importation of ramie from the Orient.f At present, ramie is combined with cotton or Hnen or used alone in making dress materials. JUTE Jute, another vegetable fiber, is familiar in sacking, twine, and door-mats, but it is not expected in finer materials. The natural color of this fiber is somewhat darker than linen color, it is harsh and coarse, yet it has considerable luster. In burlap the fiber is used alone, while in monk's cloth it is combined with * Baker, Charlotte Gibbs. Seven Textile Fibers. Journal of Home Economics, 8:3:144-147. t Journal of Home Economics, 8:3: 144-147. :V2{') A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC cotloii in a heavy inalciial. In its nalnral color il adds a ph-as- in^; fonc to a incuc dcniin-likc cotton and jute fabric, j)afticu- laily ulicn the cotton is in soft tones.* IKSIS I'OK rAHKKsf A general conipaiison of fabrics nuiy \k\ made, but this will mean little even to the expert, since each class includes so great a variety' of fabrics which dilTer widely in appearance, feel, and strength. Feel The feel of many fabrics very closely resembles that of the raw fiber. Cotton material: TnrcsyKnisivo, soft, and inelastic. Cotton bccau.so of its inelasticity cru.she.s easily. It may be made to look and feel .scjmewhat like wool, but it always retains its inelastic characteristic. Wool material: Springy, harsh, and elastic. The elasticity of wool is one of its most desirable qualities. If a woolen garment becomes wrinkled, many of the creases fall out if the garment is merely hung away. This responsiveness is caused by its elasticitj*. If woolen material is combined with much cotton or shoddy in cither s])iiming or weaving, it lo.ses much of its elasticity. Silk material: Smooth, cool, and very clastic. If silk is of good quality, it is the most clastic material. For this reason, silk garments hung away will look very smooth and fresh in a .short time. Silk loses this quality when adulterated with mercerized cotton or heavily weighted. Linen material: Firm, stiff, smooth, cold, very inelastic, and leathery if woven with a firm weave. The very inelastic (luality of linen causes it to crush readily and thus to require continual i)ressing. If adulterated with cotton, it loses somewhat its firmness and smoothness. Artificial silk material: Very smooth, wiry, and cold. Artificial silk material is very unyielding. If combined with another fiber, it is much more satisfactory. Ra-mie: Firm and stiff. It resembles both linen and cotton. It docs not crush quite so easily as linen. Strength. No satisfactory comparison of the sticniith of diff(M-ent fal)rics can be made, since this depends on the size ami (iiiaiity of the * Journal of Home Economics, 8:3:144-147. t This material is condensed from Tests for Fabrics as discussed in Dressmaking, l)y Jane Falcs, pul)Iished by Charles Scribner's Sons. TEXTILES 327 yarn and the kind and quality of the weave. The strength of a fabric has much to do with its wearing quahty, but there can be no fixed standard. Each fabric should be sufficiently strong for the purpose for which it is intended. The warp and filling threads should be equally balanced either in numbers or size of yarn. Dimity is an example of unbalanced warp and filling; it is well known that after a few washings, dimity breaks along the heavy threads. The weaving should be well done with the threads closely enough woven to give firmness and body to the cloth without any adulteration and sizing. The strength of the warp and the filling threads may be tested by breaking the threads after raveling. The size and twist of the yarns should also be observed. The threads should not slip out of place with a slight strain. To test durability in this respect, two edges may be pinned to- gether as for a common seam, and the material opened apart and pulled on both sides of the pin. If the pin makes conspicu- ous holes in the material, one may be sure the cloth cannot be satisfactorily used for a garment that would have strain at the seams. Color. Color is affected by various factors, chiefly by washing, boil- ing, soap, hot irons, wear, friction, and exposure to sun and air. Cotton and linens must generally be tested for laundering. A sample should be cut in two, and one-half kept fresh. The other half should be subjected to vigorous soap and water washing, dried, pressed, and then compared with the original sample. The sample may be exposed to strong sunlight by placing it outdoors for a few hours or days. Half of the sample should be kept covered so that the degree of fading may be observed. Materials worn next to the skin should have sufficiently fast color to withstand friction. They may be tested by vigorous rubbing with a piece of clean white cloth. 328 .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISU liiirni'iHi. Buniiiij; ;i small sample of clotli ^ivcs alxml the same result as burning the fiber. The closeness of the weave may somewhat retard the rapidity of the burning. This is one of the l)est arul most reliaijle tests for the housewife. Cotton: Since cotton is cellulose, it l)urns like paper or wood. Cotton material l)iirns rapidly and with a steady j-ellow flame leaving a pray !i.sh without residue. Wool: Wool burns much like hair, .smoulderiiiK and heeoming extin- guished often. Woolen material leaves oily, gummy globules as a residue. Silk: Since silk is an animal fil)er, it burns much like wool, although more rapidly, witii a blue leaping flame. It leaves an oily, gummy globule. Unless silk material is weighted, when burned it is similar to the silk fiber. If the silk material is heavily weighted, (he burned fal)ric leaves a shell-like residue slightly smaller than the sample. This remaining shell is the weighting which does not burn easily; it crumbles at the slightest touch. More sati.sfactory than lighting a silk sample is to place the sample on a tin dish and set it in a very hot oven. The silk will burn away leaving the weighting in the shape of the original sample. Linen: Since linen is a veg<>table fil)er, it burns in much the same way as cotton. It is slightly less inflammable than cotton, because it has more oil; it leaves al)out the same ash. Union goods: In testing union goods, or materials made of several dif- ferent fibers, the problem is more didicult. In this case the material is frayed and both the warp and the filling tested .separately. To carry the test still further, both the warp and the filling threads may be untwisted and the various fibers in each yarn tested. Tearing. The tearing of material will help to determine in a fj;eneral way the kind of fiber as well as the strength of the material. Cotton material: Cotton material tears easily witli a shrill sound. The torn edges are fuzzy and have a tendency to curl. W^ool material: Wool material tears with a dull or mufHed .sound. The ease with which the cloth tears depends on the weight of the yarn and the weave. If cotton .nnd wool arc woven together, the kinds of fibers may often be distinguished along the tear. Plain silks: Plain silks tear with a rather clean edge and give a shrill sound. If corded, the silk tears with difficulty if at all. Linen: Linen tears with difTiculty, leaving the ends of the broken threads with long straight smooth fil)ers projecting. If cotton is present in a linen fabric, it may often be distinguished along the torn edges. ■■'"""" TEXTILES 329 WEAVE * The weave affects the appearance and often the wearing quality of cloth. A close twill weave makes a firm, durable ma- terial, while the loose basket weave gives quite a different effect and is frequently lacking in firmness. The satin or sateen weave makes a beautiful surface especially in linens or silks, but may cover up defects in the hidden threads. Fancy weaves in cotton novelties, in shirt-waist materials, and in fancy mulls, often leave loose threads which become soiled easily and may not be as attractive after washing. A cloth with a very heavy cross thread or filling, and a very fine warp, or vice versa, may split because of the great difference in the strength of the threads. Sometimes figures are woven in such a way that when the cloth is finished each figure has short ends of thread. For ex- ample, in weaving madras curtain material, the filling thread which makes the figure, jumps from one figure to another, and after the material leaves the loom, the loose threads on the back of the material are cut off. Often these short pieces wash out, or the ends become rough and fuzzy looking. * Univ. of III., Bull. 15. CHArn:H \v THE MAKING OF CLOTHING By liKi laii Blackmokh To the woman uciicially falls the responsibility of tho wise or unwiso exiKMulituro of that i)art of the family income ap- portioned to clothing. Whether she spends wisely depends on her knowledge of all phases of the clothing problem. One of the first questions that arises is whether she shall buy ready-made garments or buy the materials and make similar garments at home. The conditions surrounding each indivitiual or family are so different as to make impossible an answer to this question which will suit all cases. Probably skill, time, and the Umitation of one's purse are the most influential factors in such a choice. When selecting materials or garments, one should l)e able to judge the durabilit}-, including the quality of the material, their suitability to the occasion for which the garments are to be worn and to the wearer, the becomingness of color and line, and the price in relation to the clothing allowance from the income. Clothes have the jiower to make persons feel comfortable and at ease or to make them conspicuous and unhappy. This does not mean that the costume need be new or old; it means that it should l)e appropriate and becoming. It means adapting the prevailing style to one's own type of figure and personality. A person may be just as conspicuous in an ultra-fashionable costume as in one that is very out-of-date; but eitlier may be adapted to conform with good taste, without a great e.xpendi- ture of time or money. To be well dressed the woman who makes her own garments must depend largely on familiarity with the principles of design, a critical, discriminating, and thoughtful attitude toward cloth- 330 THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 331 ing, common sense, skill in the manipulation of fabrics, in draping, or in cutting cloth by a pattern, and knowledge of the best equipment to be used. ''Right dress is, therefore, that which is fit for the station in life, and the work to be done in it, and which is otherwise graceful, becoming, lasting, healthful and easy; on occasion splendid; always as beautiful as possible."* Dictates of fashion too often outweigh one's good judgment, which in this case should have as a background the principles of design. Clothing should interpret the personality of the wearer and emphasize pleasing elements of face or figure rather than exhibit the prevailing fashion, which often exaggerates defi- ciencies instead of concealing them. No costume can be artistic or picturesque, although it may be considered fashionable, if it perverts the natural lines of the figure. In good design it is generally possible to emphasize the good points or lines of the figure and to make the less de- sirable lines inconspicuous. This necessitates careful considera- tion of the silhouette. Simplicity in silhouette, in line, in the divisions of the costume made by line or dark and light, and in decoration, cannot be overestimated. The search for greater simplicity and for original detail are the two principles followed by the greatest designers. Of equal importance with line and the spaces formed by these lines is the study of color, texture — an extremely subtle surface quality of a fabric often confused with color — and dark and light values (pages 45 to 47). This is a problem for each individ- ual; it can not be studied too much. After deciding, then, on the type of gown necessary for the occasion for which it is to be worn, the following phases of costume design must be considered, if the result is to be harmonious and beautiful: silhouette; line, including space division and balance; dark and light spacing; color; texture. It is unwise to lay down hard and fast rules for the use of suitable color in costumes for different types of persons, be- cause general rules may have many exceptions. The following table, however, may be suggestive. * John Ruskin. Arrows of the Chace. 332 .1 MAXIM, ol- IIOMK MAKfXn Hair Red Auburn Eye» blue brown a 2 a o C It C 3 3 ;, 2 2 ^ " c "a .5* c ^_: — Cms DO u c 2 a i 1 25 fcl - M 1 = III a ~-3 =; o -■^ o £ C3 1 & 1 «7 s c t a S a E a bS a. >• E- U a b. b. Q 5 =^ =» E g c ■= = ^ .1 > aT3 a C3 -§ C2 a u s o e: B. a. < m a o > 03 < •569 89 |,a;;o 55 . fej ■3 O O O IS -a 7 Z: ■mm ■C a C3 C ■3^ '" » 9 ■a s^'Z! Ill c- 8 C 4- ^= c u^2„2 1=5 6q O i 3-5 "3 ll £ II 1- -a a g = " i a ■^ M &o£ t = M u u ^ 5 Ic ^ 2 K c THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 333 Hair Red Auburn Eyes Blue Gray Brown -a — «! O in ■o ^-a ^2-2 p s 0, ■0 >> a e ^ i- 2 s •S c 1 o a b. O » H b >< H H I =3 C i!l — C3 0) S a is a ■3 a 03 d *" — ^ a >. ' .gS.S oj-^ o-r- " T3 a a ■q. -0 J3 *^ a tn t~i S p o2 1 SB a)'' 3 C3'~' -0 -3 ■3 ^ : T3 — ■g.^O-3 l-s;? § 03^ .2 >> .a 2o ^11 U s O IS < K >J O > >< w ►J pa <; H ^1 .. eg so S5 6q 0) '3 S .S >> § -3 bO b > 7. Cardinal and clear rose good if skin is clear. If rosy cheeks red may reflect too much color t." .s s g Almost all shades of violet and purple are good if white is worn next to face ^1 1 -J 2 „2 O m (U -3 & a ■3 g^-g Ills If rich color in face, warm browns are good. Use neutral or grayish brown if sallow "3 .^ — > 3 M r^ '^ a |:l 111 c *»1 M C3 3a . Oi ■£0, 3 •> ag -3feS E P3 T3 C a 3 PL, 3.^1 .1 .l/.l.\/ .W. or IKiMi: MAhlXC KQl'II'MKNT FOli THK SKWlNii HOOM Good oc|uipiii('n1 is iicccssMrv if flic lioinc worker is lo lurii oiil jrood work with the Ic.i-t drain on Imt own strciiKtli. In addition to the ciistoinary pieces of e(|uipin('nt , a floor cloth, a dress form, a sleeve form, and pressinfj; hoards are almost neces- sary conveniences. A floor cloth is a Iar{z;o square of clf)th or a sheet which may he placed on the floor under the machine to catch ravelin^s and cuttinjis. This cloth may then he folded around the hase of the machine at night and opened when work is resumed, or it may he shaken. A dress-form is almost incHspensahle, when good work and time are considered. This may he ohtained at a department store, or ordered directly from a manufacturer. A dress-form is bought by size, the number corresponding to ready-made gar- ments. A form one or two sizes too small should be selected and padded out to the correct size. Only in this way is one able to make a form showing individual measurements. A tight- fitting lining must be made of some very heavy material, such as unbleached muslin or drilling, and fitted on the person. The normal armhole, n(>ck, bust, waist and hip-line should be marked. The lining should be made to extend about 10 inches below the waist-line or to fit well down over the fullest ]iart of the body. This lining should then be placed on the form and padded out with tissue paper, hair, or excelsior. The lining should be overhanded firmly together in the back, from the top of the collar to the bottom of the peplum. It is also desirable to make a skirt for the figure which will fit tightly around the hips. A sleeve board and a skirt board, well padded, are very use- ful. It is also convenient to have a padded broom handle over which scams may be pressed without markuig the remainder of the garment. Sewing machine* There are two types of sewing machine in use — the auto- matic, or single-thread, and the lock stitch, or two-thread * Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Ayr., I'niv. of 111. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 335 machine. The single-thread machine makes a chain stitch, which requires about a half more thread than the double- thread machine. The stitch on the former is a very fine, pretty one, and for thin cotton and linen materials it cannot be ex- celled. The ends of the thread must be fastened to prevent the stitching from ripping out. The two-thread machine, which makes a lock stitch, has a greater variety of uses, as the tension is adjustable to the material which is being used. The thread- ing, operating, and biUng of the machine, and the use of the at- tachments are all described in the instruction book which ac- companies the machine. The following suggestions will be of assistance to those who are unfamiliar with the operation of the lock stitch machine: (1) Practice treading until it can be done easily and evenly; (2) practice stitching, first on paper before the machine is threaded, then on material, either plain or striped; (3) be able to remove the bobbin, thread it, and replace it, and always draw up the bobbin thread before beginning to stitch; (4) practice threading the machine, and then stitch until good straight lines can be made; (5) to turn a corner, have the needle at its lowest point and use it as a pivot; (6) in removing the work from the machine, have the needle at its highest point, raise the presser foot, and draw the material back and to the left, cut the threads with the thread-cutter or with scissors; (7) where there is no cross stitching, always draw the ends of the threads to the wrong side and tie them; (8) good stitching depends on several factors: (a) Correct length of stitch: The length should conform to the material. Heavy cloth requires a longer stitch than does a thin material. The length is regulated by a screw, (b) The tension: The tension is also governed by the material. In a perfect tension the bobbin and the spool threads lock in the center of the thickness of the cloth. If the bobbin thread is drawn to the upper side of the cloth as it lies in the machine, the tension is too tight; and if the spool thread is drawn to the lower side, the tension is too loose. The tension is regulated by a screw which turns either from right to left, or from front to back, (c) The needle: The needle should be the correct size to carry the thread which is being used. :{;?(i .1 M.WIM. or llnMi: M.\Kl\(; Fi He sui'c that tlic point i> ji«»-line. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 345 2. Spread the material out as much as possible, and place the entire pattern on it, in order to determine the most economical way of cutting. This is always advisable for economy in cutting, and if it is necessary to piece the garment, the piecing may be planned to come in the least con- spicuous place. 3. If the material is easily cut and does not slip when several thicknesses are cut at one time, it may be folded end to end and most of the pieces may be cut double. Care must always be taken not to cut two pieces for the same side. This difficulty may be obviated by placing the two right sides or the two wrong sides of the ma- terial together when cutting it. Then, when the two pieces of material are taken apart, one is for the right side and the other for the left. Folding the ma- terial together is not always the most economical scheme, for often the parts of the pattern may be fitted into irregular places if cut singly. 4. Always place the largest pieces of the pattern first with the largest end of the pattern toward the cut end of the goods. This is economical be- cause it leaves the irregularly shaped pieces attached to the Fig. 66. — Method of increasing or decreas- ing the bust measure of a shirt-waist pattern without increasing the length of the shoulder. The opening should ex- tend from the bottom of the waist in a .straight line to the deepest curve of the armhole. In the front it is often better to make two slashes than to spread one slash too far. This method of adjust- ment necessitates lowering the armhole and, if the second slash is made, slightly lowering the tip of the shoulder near the armhole. large piece of the goods. Often the smaller pieces of the pattern may then be fitted into these irregular pieces, which would be u.seless if detached. 5. Observe carefully the nap or design of the material, placing the pattern so that the design runs in the same direction, on all the pieces. The nap generally runs down, but velvet and velveteen are exceptions to this rule. Different color effects are produced if the surface of the material does not reflect the light in the same way. 6. A conspicuous design in the material, such as a plaid, must be identical on the two sides of the garment to prevent destroying the balance or in- troducing undesirable lines. Most important of all is keeping the grain of the material identical on both sides of the garment; otherwise the set of the garment will not be bi-symmetric. 7. After the pattern has been placed in the most economical manner, pin it carefully, trying not to lift the material and the pattern from the 34(i .1 U l\/ .1/. OF HOME MAKIXC table wlifii piimiiiK flicni. Do not n.s«» loo many i)ins; thoy not only take time to place, hut tlir-v often make noticeable holes in the material, es- pecially in silks. 8. The actual position of the pattern on the ^oods depends lar^cely seam edges are brought together. Any sleeve after being basted should lie perfectly flat when folded. In a yoke or collar: a. Center front or center back of yoke or collar. The center back of a waist yoke or collar is generally cut on the lengthwise fokl, although often the lower front edges are cut on the straight grain, causing a bias seam in the center back. b. In a skirt yoke there may be all sorts of combinations in cutting. Probably the most successful way is to cut the material with the straight grain in the center back and the center front, giving a bias seam over the THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 347 hip. Sagging may be disguised by making the yoke longer over the hip, if this gives a becoming hne. The bottom hne of a skirt yoke must be carefully considered with reference to the figure. Avoid allowing the lower edge to fall in a straight line around the fullest part of the body. Either an irregular yoke-line or the line joining a front or back panel is generally more becoming. In a cufT: The direction of the grain of the material in the cuff depends greatly on the design of the waist and of the material. For beauty of design, the cuff is generally cut with the lengthwise grain running with the depth of the cuff; for greater strength, how- ever, the cuff is cut with the lengthwise grain running from fastening to fastening. In a skirt: a. Center of front panel. Generally the front edge of each succeeding gore, in order that a straight edge may be sewed to a bias edge. This method will help to keep a skirt from sagging. In skirts of two gores the center of each gore is often placed on the straight lengthwise fold. b. If a rounding or tube- like effect is desired in a skirt of many gores, the center of each gore is placed on the straight lengthwise grain of the material. Fig. 68. — Method of lengthening a waist pat- tern for a very full bust or round should- ers. This method may be used on a shirt- waist, also, with slight alteration of the under-arm seam. When great strength is desired, the lengthwise grain of the material is always used. Skirt-bands, apron-bands, neck-bands, bands in all under- garments, and cuffs, are cut with their longest measurement on the length- wise grain of the material. 2. Lines of a simple pattern placed on the straight crosswise grain of the material : In a shirt-waist: a. Width of the chest b. Width of the back c. Waist-line of the under-arm piece of a tight-fitting waist In a sleeve: Generally around the fullest part of the arm. 348 .1 MAMAl. OF HOME MAKl.XG In culTs: Depth of (lie cufT, wlicn the (Icsiiiii of (lie \v;iis( rc(|iiircs it. In yokes: Depth of the yoke, when the (lesijrn of the waist retpiires if. In skirts: Skirts an! seldom made with a eonst ruction hue falhn;; on the ('ros.swise prain of the material. For children's dre.s.ses ami for fancy silk dre.sst's, a skirt is occasionally niade on the crosswi.so urn'iu of the material. Chiffons, georRi'tto crfipe, net, or voile, on which there is a heaufiful selvuK'" f' lino wliicli is lo !)(• marked, even liastiu^ stitches should he taken, li'a\iii^ ;i ^eiieioijs loop of thread between each stitch. The l)attern should be folded back when one is niarkiiifi; lines in- dicated by perforations in the pattern. The two e liias edne towards her. 3. When haslinn u gathered part to a strainht ed^e, the worker should always hold the gathered |)art towards her. If an esixrially nood line on the strai^;ht edge is desired, the work may be held with the straight piece toward one, as is often done when basting in a slwve. 4. In hasting l)ias edges, such as the edge of a gore, start the ba-sting opposite the widest end of the gore, if possible. In this way, the hand will not ravel or push off the warp threads. To basic a shirt-waist or other simple waist. 1. Baste and stitch all flat decorations, such as tucks, plaits, and set-in laee, before basting the seams. 2. Pin the scams before basting them, bringing together the correspond- ing points, such as the waist- lines and armholes- of each. Whether the waist is basted with the seams on the right or wrong side depends on the kind of fin- ished seam to be used. In the case of a tight-fitting waist, the seams are basted on the wrong side in order that the lines in the waist may be carefully ob- served when the garment is tried on. 3. In basting together parts of a simple waist, begin with the undcr-arm seam. Pin the parts together at the waist-line, keep the tracing or tailor tacking of T^ -- 4 .. *i 1 f 1-. ♦■• „ the front and the back together. Fig. 77. — Another method of adjustmR a , • , ^ i i i gored skirt pattern for a figure with and pin the seam to the armhole prominent abdomen. and down to the bottom of the l)(>plum. Baste the seam from the waist-line up to the armhole and from the waist-line down to the bottom of the peplum, using an even basting stitch. If a yoke is to be u.sed, read the directions under section 4. Baste the shoulder seams first and spread the garment out perfectly flat on the table. Pin the yoke into place, and baste it. Then baste the under-arm seam as already directed. For a tight-fitting waist, pin the side-front seam from the waist-line up tow:ird the ])oint of the bust, and from the shoulder seam down toward THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 355 the same point. This brings a sUght fullness at the correct place over the fullest part of the bust. Divide this fullness through a space of about 2 inches. Adjust the shoulder seams last in this type of waist. 4. Pin the shoulder seams together, first matching the markings of the neck-line and then the armhole. Baste the seams, holding the back of the waist toward you. It is often necessary to stretch the front slightly to fit Fig. 78. — Method of adding material to a gored skirt pattern to form a tuck at the seam. the back. This is desirable, since the waist will then naturally spring down to fit the curve of the shoulder. To haste sleeves. For a shirt-waist sleeve, make the placket and apply it before basting the sleeve. The placket is generally placed about 1 inch back of the center fold, made by folding the sleeve along the seam. After the placket has been placed and stitched, the seam of the sleeve is basted and stitched, and the cuff is sewed on. In adjusting the gathers at the bottom of the sleeve, leave the sleeve without gathers for a space of about 1 inch on each side of the seam. Gather the sleeve to fit the cuff. For a simple cuff or a French cuff, place the two right sides of the cuff 350 .1 M.WCAL OF linME M.XKISd toni'tlur, Miiil stitch the culT across tlic two oiids and the Ijottom. Then inittT tlic corners to remove the excess material. Turn the culT right side out, crease it very sharply around the edge, and biuste it perfectly flat. Acrn.ss the top turn in ' j inch toward the wrong sis. The gores may be spread apart and uneven amounts of fullness thus thrown in. the sleeve. Insert the gathered sleeve between the upper edges of (he cuff, pinning the indicated points together. Pin the gathers toward the front and the back of the cufT, adjusting them as suggested, and allowing the I)lacket of the sleeve to remain perfectly smooth. Baste the right side of tlie cufT to the sleeve. Turn the sleeve to the wrong side, and baste the inner side of the cufT in place 1/lG inch above the outside basting in order that the inside will be caught by (he .s(itching from the right side. Stitch entirely around the culT 1/1(» inch from the edge. Stitch again across the top 34 incli below th(> first row of stitching. For a close-fitting sleeve finished with a facing, baste the sleeve and (ry it on before stitching and finishing the bottom. For a shirt sleeve, onesimilarto thesleeveof a man's shirt without gathers THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 357 at the top, baste the sleeve into the waist before either the seam of the sleeve or the under-arm seam of the waist is joined. In this case the placket may be applied before the sleeve is set in, but the cuff cannot be placed. To baste in a shirt-waist or a coat sleeve. The following scheme of locating the sleeve proves satisfactory for almost any type of sleeve. This is of course only a general rule, since all sleeves must finally be adjusted to the person if they are to be truly artistic. Fig. 80. — Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce. Fit together the gores of a six-gore skirt on top of a paper; trace around the lower edge of the skirt, the center front, the center back, and across the skirt where the flounce is to be attached; remove the pattern and cut along the tracing; from the bottom slash the flounce to within ^2 inch of the top of the flounce, and spread it apart as desired. This flounce is very circular unless it is divided into sections, and if this is done, they should be so placed that a straight edge falls on a bias edge as in a skirt. 1. Measure 1 inch back of the shoulder seam at the armhole. Using this as the dividing point, fold the armhole in half. The point opposite this first point is the point at which to place the seam of the sleeve. 2. Pin the seam of the sleeve in place. • 3. Bring the shoulder seam of the waist down to the under-arm seam of the waist, and fold the armhole flat. The two points thus located on the sides of the armhole are the points between which the gathers of the sleeve should be adjusted. 4. Pin the sleeve in place, working from the seam towards each of the points located. Then pin the remainder of the sleeve, holding the fullness easily between these two points. If there is too much fullness to pin in 358 A M.WCAL OF HOME MAKfXa l>lac<', patlicr it with one tlinail on the tracinn, and a mcoikI thread slinhlly l)cK)\v, or toward the culT of the sleeve. f). Adjust the gathers to fit the ariiihole, making the center of tlie sleeve fall in a perfectly straight line from the highest point of the shoulder. If the pitliers are allowed to fall forward rather than backward, a slight ; formed in the front of the sleeve to fit over the point of the shoulder. li. Tin anti haste the entire sleeve in phice. To baste a collar or other decorations. Haste all parts of the waist as far as possible, in order that they may he ready to try on after this first hasting, and thus avoid repeated fittings. To baste a skirt. Pin the hip-lines, waist-lines, and hem-lines of the gores together. Place as many pins as necessary between these points. If it is necessary to haste the skirt before trying it on, observe the general rules (page 3o.'i). If the skirt is simple, it may be turned at this time on the line of the hem, and the hem may he basted into place. This will give a better feeling when the skirt is first tried on. At the j)lacket extend the hasting of the seam on each side, in order that a good line for the fitting may be observed. The placket is generally about 12 inch(\s deep. If a tuck opening is desired or a seam stitched on the outside, the gore edge or center front of the skirt is generally turned toward the wrong side on the line of marking, hasted if necessary, anil then j)re.s.sed. The gore to which this edge is to he sewed is then placed jierfectly flat on the table and the pressed edge of the first gore i)laced just to the line of marking on the second gore. The waist-line, the hip-lines, and the hem-lines of the gores must be made to coincide. Pin the gores carefully in place, and baste them. In basting darts in a skirt, begin at the point of the dart and work toward the waist. Care must he taken to keep both sides of the dart smooth. When oliserved on the right side, the dart should form a line at right angles to the waist-line or a line with a slightly outward curve like the curve of the body. Darts should not he cut open until after the fitting. KINDS OF SEAMS FOlt GARMENTS Many kinds of .scams ai'e possible in the various types of fjar* meats, some practical and some decorative as well. In this short discussion of the processes in dressmaking it will be im- po.ssible to explain how each kind of seam is made. In ortler to recall the different types of seams the following outline is made. The kind of s(>am to l)e usetl in making a garment should THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 359 be decided before the garment is basted together, in order to avoid unnecessary basting. For undenoear and plain dresses: Plain seam; French seam; stitched fell; hemmed fell; overhand fell. For lingerie dresses and ivaisls: French seam; hemmed fell; seam made with entre-deux; standing fell; rolled seam. For tailored wool or silk garments: French seam; stitched fell; welt seam; double-stitched welt; cord seam; plain seam; slot seam; strapped seam; lapped seam. For silk and fine wool dresses: Plain seam; plain seam bound; plain seam made, edges turned to wrong side and sewed together with running stitch; piquot HOW TO MAKE A FOUNDATION BELT For a dress or a skirt with a raised waist-Hne, a ribbed belting or a cambric belting stiffened with stays of featherbone should Fig. 81. -Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress, end finishes are shown. Two be used. This belting should be as wide as the distance above the waist-line at which the line of the skirt is desired to appear. If the belt is wide, it may be fitted with darts (Fig. 81). The darts may extend from one edge of the belting to the other, the greater depth, about 3^ inch, being in the center of the belt- ing, if one wishes the belt to extend slightly below the waist- line. Or the dart may be taken deep at the top and allowed to taper to nothing at the bottom, if the entire belt is to drop below the waist-line. These darts should be on the side of the belt placed next to the body. The ends of the belting are then turned in and a sufficient number of hooks and eyes sewed on to 'M){) A MAMAL OF lloMK MAK/XC hold the belt in ^ood |)nsiti(»ii. 'I'lic lionUs slioiild he scwod to tin- li^ht-liiiiid end of llic Itclt and on the uron^i; side, the bill of the hook bcinjj; set '/n. '"'1' back from the end of th(* bolting. The oycs sliould extend beyond tlic edne of the belling ut the left-lumd end the same di.stance tliat the liooks are slippec a sci)aiatc Karnieiit. In cither r-iusc the adju.stinjj is about the Siinie. I'in the ccnicr l)ack of the waist to the center hack of tlic hcltinn at either I lie normal waist-line or the raised waist-line, deix'tidinn on whether a skirt is to he made or not. Locate the under-ann seams, and pin them to the hcltinp;. Pin the center front of the waist to the center front of the hclt. Draw the ^athcrinn threails ti^ht, and adjust the fullness. To most lifiurcs a slight hlousiiiff is hccominj;;. As far as jKJSsihle, keep the lines made hy the fjathcring at right angles to the waist-line. This gives the figure a straight appearance. If the waist is too tight over the l)ust, it may he made slightly larger hy letting out the undcr-arm scam; or in case the waist is heing fitted in practice material, fullness at the l)ust may he allowed as shown in Figs. Go and 66. The armhole lino i.s one of the most impf)rtant lines in the waist. From the point of the shoulder, the line .should drop almost straight to the front muscle of the arm. The line then curves to fit the underarm as closely as is comfortable and forms a nearly straight line along the armhole at the back. The greater amount of fullness in the sleeve should fall over the shoulder hone which in most cases is from ^4 to iy> inches in front of the shoulder seam. The straight lengthwise grain of the material should fall straight down from the highest i)oint of the shoulder. If the sleeve is too large or too small, it should be changed at the seam. Observe the length of the sleeve, and try on the cuff. If the sleeve puffs slightly at the hack even when the elbow is Ijent, take the seam in the sleeve deeper, l)Ut not the seam of the waist. If a collar-band is to be used, it should be tried on at this time. A shirt-waist should fit loosely hut smoothly. Overfitting takes away from the informal grace and style of the waist. After a plain sliirt-waist has been satisfactorily adjusted, an excellent plan is to rip it a|)art and either cut a new pattern or correct the old one from it. If this is done, much difficult fitting may be avoided at another time. After the waist has been fitted and before the sleeve has been removed, mark both the sleeve and the waist so that they will go together again without difficulty. Mark on the belt the points at which the under-arm seams fall, and also the line of the waist. Ke-haste the sleeve, finish the waist as nearly as possil)le at the Ijottom, and again baste it into the waist. Baste the collar-band into place, or if a fancy collar is to 1)0 used, baste it together, and try it on at the next fitting. Pin the waist again to the foundation belt. Place the waist on the figure, and make any tinid adjustments. Try the skirt on at this time. Place it on the figure right side out, and THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 363 adjust it to the figure. Pin the center front of the skirt to the center front of the belting, and the center back of the skirt to the center back of the belting. The lines of all darts and gores may be more easily observed if the skirt is right side out, although the fitting is made more difRcult. Pin up the skirt exactly on the indicated lines of the placket. Only the right side of the skirt need be fitted, but the whole skirt should be pinned to the foundation belt. After adjusting the skirt to the foundation belt, take a general survey of the skirt, noting the lines of the gores. The skirt should fit smoothly from the waist-line to the hip-line, and below the hip it should fall in straight lines. All dart and seam lines should be at right angles to the line of the waist. The skirt should not stand out from the figure in one place more than in another. If this should be the case, turn to the illus- trations of pattern adjusting (Figs. 74-77), and alter the skirt as there suggested. The hip-line and the line at the bottom of the skirt should be parallel to each other and to the floor. In the case of a figure with prominent hips, the skirt may stand out at the sides. This may often be remedied by dropping the skirt slightly from the waist-line over the hip. Simple fitting may be done by increasing or decreasing the depth of the seams; however, care must be taken to keep all lines of folds, placket, seams, or darts at right angles to the waist-line. After the skirt has been fitted satisfactorily, always straighten both the hip-line and the finishing line at the bottom of the skirt. Observe the waist-line very carefully to see that the waist blouses suffi- ciently for the arms to be raised easily, and also that the line made by the joining of the waist and the skirt is becoming. The waist-line should either be parallel to the floor or dip slightly in front. Remove the garment from the figure, and mark all alterations and lines necessary for the second adjustment of the garment. Finish the waist except perhaps the final adjustment of some decoration, and fasten it to the foundation belt. Rebaste the skirt and finish the placket, and again baste it to the foundation belt. Try on the garment for the final fitting. Adjust any decoration, such as collar, belt, or pockets. Note all lines, and turn the garment at the bottom. Finish the garment, without further fitting. HOW TO MAKE A SKIRT EVEN AT THE BOTTOM The following ways of making a skirt even at the bottom are suggested : 1. Put the skirt on, and place a yardstick perpendicular to the floor and close to the body. Mark the skirt at the top of the yardstick. Turn around, keeping the yardstick at the same distance from the body, and mark points around the skirt at the top of the yardstick. This gives a ;>(i4 .1 .l/.l.\7 .1/. OF HOME MAKISa liiii' |):ir;illtl to llic lloor. Spn-jid the skirt out on ;i t;ili|c, :iti^XD<3>^X! ^^jT^T*;^-^-^ jjsj=j=j5.l?J^.J=jffji) ±iIl- 1 -i iLll,;;,.,:.:,.. JJ, I Fig. 82. — C(jinhination.s of .simple embroidery stitches to be used in decorating collars, cutTs, aprons, and dresses. 1. The skirt may bo turned H inch to the wrontr side and hasted along the waist-line. It is then stitched 1/S inch below tlie edge. 2. If an outside belt is to be used with the dre.ss, the unfinished edge of the skirt may be jihiced on the waist-line and stitched into place. Taffeta seam-binding is then stitched over tlie unfinislied edges. . THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 367 3. The skirt may be finished with an inserted cord or piping of the same or a contrasting texture. In using piping or cord finishes, care must be taken not to create an unbecoming fine or introduce too many definite Unes. Color and texture must be considered. Finishes for the bottom of the skirt. The following finishes may be used for the bottom of skirts, overskirts, or flounces : 1. Hem. The skirt may be hemmed by hand or on the machine. In wool or silk it is generally preferable to have the hem slip-stitched into place. 2. Hem with one turning. The raw edge of the material may be catch- stitched into place and covered with Prussian binding. Any surplus full- ness may be shrunken out, gathered, or placed in darts which must fall at right angles to the line of stitching. This kind of hem is often used in material which does not fray easily. 3. Fancy hem. The hem may be turned to the right side and finished with a cord or piping; it may be held in place by decorative machine stitching; or it may be scalloped. 4. Facing or false hem. 5. Bindings of various widths. 6. Macliine hemstitching. 7. Piping or cording. Simple designs in embroidery. Simple designs is embroidery suitable for finishing cuffs and collars, holding hems in place, and decorating belts and pockets afe shown in Fig. 82. Set-in pocket. The set-in pocket, suitable for shirt-waists, sport skirts, and middy blouses, is shown in Fig. 83. Bound buttonholes. Bound buttonholes also have their decorative value and are shown in Fig. 84. Arrows. If it is desired to use arrows, the making may be seen from Fig. 85. 31)8 .t .1/1 \l AL or HOME MAKISC Ficj. 83. — Set-in pocket. The landing piece must be made twice as long as the desired depth of the pocket, i)his the amount of material to be used in the Ijinding. This may tje of a contrasting color or material, or a small piece of color, enough to hind the cut, may be placed between the garment and the pocket lining, stitched into place, and later fastened to the lining. A, Marking the garment for the pocket. B, Marking, basting, and stitch- THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 369 SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF DRESSES AND WAISTS For house-dresses: Gingham, chambray, linen, poplin, crepe. For business or street dresses: Serge, poplin, gabardine, fine twilled ma- terial, dull satin. For formal dresses: Broadcloth, velvet, crepe de chine, satin, messaline, taffeta, charmeuse, chiffon, georgette crepe, crepe meteor. For aflernoon dresses: Batiste, swiss, voile, dimity, novelty material, linen, crepe de chine, pussy wUlow taffeta, crepe meteor, challis, nun's veiling, wool crepe, henrietta. For shirt-waists: Tub silk, heavy china silk, habutai, madras, flannel, linen. For fancy waists: Handkerchief linen, voile, batiste, georgette crepe, soft taffeta, chiffon. SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMY IN DRESS It will be found economical to select one color for a season and choose garments that will harmonize. A definite portion of the income should be set aside for clothing and this amount should not be exceeded. It is economy to buy the very best possible material. Fewer clothes may be bought if necessary, but the material and texture should be good. Well-made garments that are bought are expensive; garments of equal quality can be made at home more cheaply, if a woman is skillful and if her time is not more valuable spent in some other way. MAKING SIMPLE UNDERGARMENTS (jULIA GLEASOn) When making or buying undergarments, the points to con- sider are simplicity and durability of materials and design, ing the lining into place. The right side of the lining is placed to the right side of the garment, then basted and stitched. It is often better to taper the corners in stitching, if the material is at all heavy. C, Right side of garment. The lining is pulled through to the wrong side and adjusted as in the bound buttonhole. The upper and lower edges of the pocket should be basted to hold the material in place. ■ D, The pocket is stitched on the machine close to the edge of the garment along the two ends and across the lower side. E, The lower end of the pocket is brought to the upper end on the wrong side of the garment and the two sides and ends stitched together and overcasted. F, The garment is turned to the right side, and the top of the pocket stitched across to correspond with the other stitching. Arrows may be used at the ends of the pockets to cover any fulling of the cloth. c I 1 = ^ Fig. 84. — Method of making a bound buttonhole, whieh may be used also for decoration. A, Marking the line for the buttonhole. B, Basting the binding directly over the mark for the hole. The right side of the binding is phiced to the right side of the material. This binding may be cut on the bias or straight, about 1 inch longer than the hole and about 1 inch wide. C, Stitching firmly around the mark for the hole, aliout 1 8 inch above and l)elow the line of THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 371 with special reference to their laundering qualities. Cheap trimming is not in good taste, nor does it wear well. Trimmings B ^ B B Fig. 85. — Method of making an arrow, a suitable finish for the ends of seams darts, plaits, bound buttonholes and set-in pockets. of the same material as the undergarment save expense and produce attractive results. Materials suitable for undergarments Muslin: Heavy, firm cotton material of plain weave; very durable. Longcloth: Firm, closely-woven cotton material with slightly fuzzy sur- face; finer than muslin, very durable, but difficult to work on by hand. Cambric: Light-weight, plain cotton material of varying degrees of fine- ness; soft, smooth finish; wears and launders well. Nainsook: Sheer, light-weight cotton material, loosely woven, of varying degrees of fineness; plain weave or crossbar; suitable for fine underwear. Crepe: Soft, crinkled cotton material; ironing unnecessary. Rippleetle: Soft cotton material with plain and crinkled stripes; ironing unnecessary. Gingham: Colored cotton material, striped, checked, or plain; suitable for underskirts to wear with dark dresses. Sateen: Soft, smooth-finished cotton material, white or colored, with twill weave; looks somewhat like satin. Silk: Skinner's satin (silk or cotton back), lining satins, taffeta, crepe-de- ■ chine, and the like; used chiefly for underskirts to be worn with wool and silk dresses. Flannel: Cotton or wool; used for warm underskirts and nightgowns. Ldnen: Handkerchief linen or linen lawn; sheer, cool material; makes dainty garments but creases and wrinkles easily. marking. D, The buttonhole is cut along the line of marking through the facing and the garment. At the ends the material is cut diagonally towards each corner, as close to the stitching as possible. E, Wrong side of garment. Pull the binding through, the ends first, letting them form an inverted plait just opposite the cut, leaving only a roll at the ends on the right side. Adjust the sides of the binding so that the two edges just fill the buttonhole. F, Turn in the binding and hem or slipstitch it into place, taking great care not to catch through to the right side. G, finished l)uttonhole. Careful pressing is necessary after each step. 'A7'2 A M.WIAL or lloM E M .\KI Sd Trivi'nujs .siii'tahlc for iDxtrrqarmcnls Triinininjfs should cori-csijonil in fiiicricss with the iiialcrial DM which they aic placed; they slioiild he siiii})l(' in d('sip;n and si)arin^ly used. A vciy lifllc ^Dod lace is far better than a K''f*Jit deal of cheap lace. Laces (edyes, insertions, h((i(li/t(js). — The followin^i; laces are satisfactory for undergarments: 1. \'al('nci('iin(>s, or " Val," a fine cotton lace made by hand and imitated hy inacliine. It may be made with a round mesh, Clerman Val; a diamond incsh, French Val; or a square mesh, Fillet Val. Valenciennes laces are suitaljle for nain.sook or fine linen undergarments, but they do not wear very well when used with heavier materials. In general, round and diamond mesh laces wear l)etter than do scjuare mesh laces. 2. Cluny, a linen lace made by hand and imitated by machine, varying in fineness of thread and design. Cluny laces are suitaljle for nainsook, linen, and cambric imdergarments; the heavier qualities may be used on heavier materials. Tluy are very durable. 3. Torchon, a linen lace made Ijy hand and machine, suitable for all kinds of undergarments and very durable. 4. Crochet, a handmade lace of cotton or linen thread of varying de- grees of fineness. Certain typical patterns made in Ireland are called Irish crochet. Crocheted laces are suitable for fine undergarments when made of fine thread and in dainty design. Clumsj', coarse yokes and edges of poor design arc unattractive, particularly when seen through sheer outer garments; they are too rough to be comfortable when used on a nightgown. 5. Fillet, a scjuare-mesh, linen, handmade lace, imitated by machine. It is suitable for fine undergarments. 6. Footing, a net trimming with finished edges like insertion. It is suitaljle for casings on fine underwear. Tatting is a hand trimming made with a shuttle from thread of varj'ing degrees of fineness. It is an attractive trinuning for simple undergarments. Embroideries {edges, iiisertions, beadi7igs). — Embroideries of various kinds arc suitable. for any type of undergarment. Entre- deux is a seam beading. Bias hands, bi}idings, and facings. — Plain, inexpensive, dur- able trimming may be made of bias bands, bindings and facings. Braid. — Feathcrstitched finishing braid or scallojied braid makes a simple, effective trimming for plain undergarments. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 373 Hand embroidery. — French embroidery, or satin stitch, and decorative stitches, such as featherstitching, chainstitching, and the Hke, may be used on fine Hnen or nainsook undergar- ments when time is not an object. Machine hetnstitching. — Machine hemstitching is effective for sewing in yokes, holding gathers in place, and the Hke. It is done at most sewing machine agencies for a small price a yard. Construction of undergarments Before making undergarments, a good commercial pattern of the correct size should be bought, and the amount of material that the pattern directs purchased. The directions should be read carefully, and the garment cut accordingly. The gar- ment must be basted and fitted carefully, because patterns are not exactly correct for every type of figure. Seams suitable for undergarments. The following kinds of seams are suitable for undergarments : 1. Plain seam (Figs. 86, 87), the joining of two edges with one row of stitching. The edges may be fini.shed by overcasting them together or separate, by binding them together or separate, or by turning them under and stitching them. 2. French seam (Fig. 88), a seam within a seam. A narrow seam is sewed on the right side of the garment, then turned to the wrong side, and a second stitching made just far enough from the edge to conceal the raw edges of the first seam. 3. Fell or felled seam, a flat, smooth seam. There are various kinds of fells: A hemmed fell (Fig. 89) may be used in handmade garments. A plain seam is made on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than the other, and the wider edge is creased over the narrower. The seam is then laid flat and the folded edge hemmed down to the material. A stitched fell is a tailored seam. A plain seam is sewed on the right side. One edge is trimmed narrower than the other. The seam is laid flat and basted and stitched down to the material. A flannel fell (Fig. 91) is used in flannel garments. A plain seam is sewed on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than the other. The seam is laid flat and the raw edge catch-stitched down to the material. A standing fell is used to sew a gathered edge to a plain edge. The gathered edge is first sewed to the plain edge in a plain seam on the wrong 374 A ^f^\r^!. or iiomh-makixc • Fio. 86. — Plain scum with idges overcast. Fio. 87. — Plain Hoanis. Left, pinked odms; right, lx)und edges. ■ Fio. 88. — French seam. Fig. 89. — Hemmed fell. Fig. 'JU. — Overhandcd or French fell. Fig. 91.— Flannel fell. side of the material, the plain ed{2;e extending beyond the gathered edge and the line of stitching coming on the line of gathering. A narrow fold is made on the plain edge and f(jlded a second time so that tlie first folded edge just covers the line of stitching. It is then basted and hemmed or stitched into place. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 375 Uses of seams on undergarments. Undergarments may be made with various kinds of seams: For a corset-cover or combination, the under-arm and shoulder seams may be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams; for drawers and bloomers, the seams of the leg and crotch may be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams; for a night- gown, the under-arm seam and the seam of the sleeve may be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams, the armhole seam may be a plain seam bound, or seam beading may be used with a standing fell and French seam, or a stitched fell may be used in men's nightshirts; for a white cotton underskirt, a stitched fell or a French seam may be used; for a sateen or silk underskirt, a stitched fell, or a French seam may be used, or the edges of a plain seam may be overcast, bound, or opened, turned under, and stitched; for a flannel underskirt, a flannel fell may be used, or a plain seam may be opened and each edge catch-stitched down to the garment. Top finishes for corset,-cover, combination, or gown. (Plates XIV and XV). The fullness at the top of corset-covers, combinations, or gowns may be arranged by : 1. Gathering, (a). The neck may be finished with embroidery ribbon beading, and lace edge, the gathers set into the beading with a standing fell (page 373), and the lace whipped to the beading by hand, (b) The edge may be gathered twice, and finished with featherstitchcd finishing braid and lace edge or tatting, or with bias facing or binding which may be featherstitched by hand. (c) The neck may be finished in either of the ways just suggested without being gathered. It may be drawn up with tape or ribbon, (d) The edge of the garment may be rolled and gathered and whipped to lace beading and edge, (e) Wide lace edge may be appliqued to the garment on the line of the gathering, and fin- ished with seam beading and a casing of either batiste or footing for ribbon. 2. Hand tucks. Hand tucks 1/16 inch wide and 23^ to 3 inches long may be used in several groups or in one large group. Featherstitching, chainstitching, and lazy daisies may be used in siinple designs between the groups of tucks. The neck may be finished with: (a) a French hem, embroidery, beading, and lace edge, (b) embroidery edging used as a facing and edge, (c) lace beading and edge, and lace insertion appliqued 37() A MAMAf. or noMi: makixc ill a siiiiph' (lesion, (|)li(iii(Ml to nivc a yoke cfrcct, with a casing of footirif^ or l)atisto, and cntrc-dciix used hotwccii the ca.siiin and I lie laco. 3. Macliinc tucks. Tho saiiic finishes may he used witli inacliiiic tiu-Ls as witli haml tucks, inachiuc stitchinp taking the ])Iack of the yoke may be finished in any of the ways suggested, without fullness. Fijiishes for nightgown with high neck and long sleeves. A niglitsown with a high neck and long sleeves may have the fullness set into a yoke, which may be decorated with tucks, featherstitching, and the like. The neck may be finished with a small collar having a featherstitched hem. The placket or front closing should be al)out 12 inches long. The sleeves may be gathered into a band at the wrist. A shaped band may be used around the neck and down the front closing, and the sleeves may be gathered into a band. A small collar may be finished with a narrow ruffle of embroidery and cuffs made to correspond. Finishes for lower edges of drawers (Fig. 92) . The lower edges of drawers ma}^ ho finished with a narrow hem and lace edge; a narrow hem, insertion, and edge; a wider hem, with lace insertion set in above the hem; a featherstitched or fagoted hem, shaped or plain; a scalloped finishing braid; tucks and lace oi- a hem; a shaped facing; a easing for ribbon to be drawn up like bloomers; ruffles of embroidery edge or of THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 377 Fig. 92. — Methods of finishing the bottom of drawers. Left, simple embroidery ruffle set on with seam binding; right, ruffle with featherstitched hem and lace edge. Fig. 93. — Methods of finishing the bottom of an underskirt. Left, tucked flounce; right, tucked flounce with embroidery edge. Fig. 94. — Sateen under- skirt with cotton- backed satin flounce finished with scal- loped facing. the material finished in an}^ of the ways just suggested, appUed with seam beading or a tuck finish. Finishes for bottom of underskirt (Figs. 93, 94). For the bottom of a white cotton or gingham underskirt without a flounce or a dust ruffle, the following finishes may be used: a plain hem, a shaped hem or facing, tucks and a hem, scalloped finishing braid, a hem and rickrack trimming, a hem and heavy lace edge, hand scalloping. ;^7S .1 MAX I A L OF llOMh' MAKIXd I'or the l)()tt()in (»f a silk or sateen underskirt without a flounce orailust ruflle, the following finishes may he used : a plain hem, a shaped iiem or facini;, tucks and a hem, hand scalloping. lM)r a flannel underskirt without a flounce or a dust ruflle, a f(>athei-st itched hem or hand scalKjpinp; may he used. An underskirt with a flounce should have the flounce set on the skirt with beadinu; or a tuck or a felled seam. A white cotton underskirt with a straight gathered f^ouru-e may be finished with an insertion and hem, a scalloped hem with featherstitchinK, a shaped facing, insertion and edge, rows of lace edge sewed together, tucks and a hem, embroidery flounc- ing, tucks and eml)roidery edging, hand scalloping, a net flounce with bias bands of gingham. A white cotton underskirt with a circular flounce may be finished with a plain circular flounce finished at the bottom with lace edge and insertion, or with sections or panels joined with insertion or entre-deux, scalloped or straight at the l)ottom. A silk or sateen underskirt with a straight gathered flounce may be finished with a plain hem, tucks and a hem, a scalloped h(^m or facing, hand scalloping, or an accordion- or knife-plaited flounce with a hem. A silk or sateen underskirt with a bias flounce may be finished with a bias strip which is finished with a hem, with one bias luffle sewed to another, or with one bias ruffle trimmed with several small ruffles or puffings. An underskirt may be finished with both a flounce and a dust ruffle. A dust ruffle 3 or 4 inches wide may be used on a white cotton skirt or a silk or sateen skirt; or if desired, the bottom of the skirt may be finished with a hem instead of a dust ruffle. The dust ruffle may be finished at the bottom with a narrow hem or wnth rickrack or finishing l^raid, and the bottom of the flounce fuiished to correspond with it. Finishes for waist-line. A corset-cover may be gathered into a straight band cut lengthwise of the material. A circular peplum may be set into the lower edge of the band. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 379 For a combination, the corset-cover may be gathered into a straight band cut lengthwise of the material, and the drawers set into the lower edge of the band. Drawers may be finished with a straight band cut length- wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish, or with a yoke. Fig. 96. Fig. 95. — Bound placket. -Bound and faced placket. Fig. 97. — Continuous bound and faced placket with fly. An underskirt may be finished with a straight band cut length- wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish, or with a yoke. Plackets and closings for undergarments. A corset-cover may have a plait ^/i to Vs inch wide on the right side for buttonholes, and a hem ^/s to ^4 inch wide on the 3S0 A MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC Fk-. ys. — Two methods of making a hfrnmcd placket. Fici. 99.— M ethod.s of marking positions of buttonholes. Fic. 100.— .4 and S, Meth- ods of stranding but- tonholes; C, overcast- ing a buttonhole. Fia. 101.— /I, Button- hole stitch; B, but- tonhole with fan and bar; C, double- bar buttonhole. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 381 left side for buttons; or it may have a plait and fly for button- holes on the right side and a hem for buttons on the left side. Open drawers may be finished with bias facings. Closed or circular drawers may be finished with a continuous bound placket (Fig. 95), a continuous bound and faced placket (Fig. 96), or a continuous bound and faced placket with a fly (Fig. 97). An underskirt may be finished with a continuous bound placket, a continuous bound and faced placket, a continuous bound and faced placket with a fly or a hemmed placket (Fig. 98). Fastenings for undergarments (Figs. 99-101). Buttonholes and buttons are the best fastenings for most undergarments because they launder well, wear well, and may be an interesting part of the design of the closing of a garment. Single-bar buttonholes are fan-shaped at one end and have a bar finish at the other. They are generally used where there is a strain; the button rests in the fan-shaped, or rounded, end of the buttonhole. Double-bar buttonholes have the bar finish at both ends. They are generally placed vertically in the garment and are used where there is not much strain and where the button slips up and down in the buttonhole. To sew on buttons, the stitches should be taken over a pin placed on the top of the button. The pin should then be re- moved and the thread wound several times around the stitches between the button and the garment to make a thread neck or shank which holds the button up from the material, making room for the buttonhole and giving the fastening greater strength. CLOTHING FOR CHILDREN (bY JULIA GLEASOn) The children's garments described in this chapter are chosen because of simplicity and durability of design and material, and economy of time and money in making them. In making or selecting garments for children of any age the following points should be considered: 1. Hygiene. The garment should be such that it can be easily cleansed, it should not restrict body development in any 3S2 .1 MA.\I.\L or lloMi: MAKIXC WAV. ;iii(l it should lie li^lit in wcinlit in order not to tiro the child. If it is an undcr^iarnicnt, it should be knitted or loosely \v()\(ii to allow for evaporation of the body moisture and thus keej) the skin dry and clean. If it is an oiitsirl(> garment, it should he such that it will keep out the cold air and lH)ld in the body warmth. 2. Suitability of design and material. (Jarments for children should be easily made, easily launderofj, attractive in line and color, (lui'able, and suitable to the child's environment and ac- tivities. 3. Economy. The garment should be the most satisfactory one that can be obtained for the expenditure of the given amount of time, energy, and money. . Materials suitable for infmits^ clothiyig. Materials that are suitable for infants' clothing are as follows: For a nightgown: nainsook, cotton flannel, wool flannel, and wool and cotton flannel. For a petticoat: nainsook, l)atiste, handkerchief linen, cotton flannel, wool flannel, and cotton and wool flannel. For a slip: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen. For a dress: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen, and fine dimity. For a sack: flannel, challis, cashmere, Henrietta cloth. A sack may also be knitted or crocheted. For a coat: challis, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, or corded silk; china silk for linings. For a bonnet: batiste, handkerchief linen, and silk materials of various kinds. For a kimono: flannel and challis. Suggestions for making and decorating infants' clothing. Infants' garments are most suitable and appropriate when made of fine materials by hand and with very little trimming. The very narrow laces — 34 to 14 inch wide — fine tatting, tiny embroidery headings, featherstitching, fagoting, hemstitching, and simple French embroidery may be used for decoration. A nightgown may l)e made kimono style or with set-in sleeves. The seams should be hemmed fells; and the hem should be made by hand. The neck antl sleeves should be finished with THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 383 bias facing for tape, and the}'' may be featherstitched. A hemmed placket may be used. Petticoats are generally made on an underwaist, the neck and armhole of which may be finished inconspicuously with a tiny hem or narrow lace edge. The seams on the white petticoat may be hemmed fells or French seams; on the flannel petticoat, flannel fells. The bottom of the white petticoat may be fin- ished with lace insertion and edge, lace edge alone, a ruffle of fine embroidery of dainty design, or a featherstitched or hem- stitched hem. The bottom of the flannel petticoat may be finished with a featherstitched hem, hand scalloping, or cro- cheting. A simple slip (Fig. 102) is most serviceable for constant wear. It may be made kimono style or with set-in sleeves. The Fig. 102. — Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, and coat. seams may be hemmed fells or French seams. The hem may be plain, hemstitched, or featherstitched, and the placket hemmed. Tiny embroidery beading and tatting or fine linen lace may be used for neck and sleeves. A few tiny tucks, shirring, or smocldng may be used if fullness is desired. A few dresses a little more elaborate (Fig. 102) than the slip may be made for occasional wear. The seams may be hemmed fells, or French seams, or they may be joined with seam beading. The hem may be hemstitched, featherstitched, or fagoted in :iSl .1 .1/ 1\/ .1/. or HOME M.\KI\(! :i slraiplit line; (n* it in:iy lie fcatlicrstilchcd, cliainslitclicd, or fagoted in scalloped or ( Ireek key desi^;ii; a lace ed^;e or lace in- sertion and ed^e may be used. The entire skirt may Ije made of fine eml)r()i(lery of dainty desip;n. Tiie placket may be hemmed. 'J'he neck and sleeves may he finished with lace or em- broidery beading, and lace edge or tatting. The sleeve-s may be set in with seam beading. A round, square, or shaped yoke may be set in with scam beading and decorated with feather- stitching, fagoting, or French embroidery in simple design. A yoke efl'ect may be secured by means of groups of hand tuclcs alternating with a simple embroidery .stitch such a« feather- stitching, or ])y smocking or shirring. The sack may be made kimono stj'le, and the edges finished with hand scalloping, crochet, or riljljon binding. The coat (Fig. 102) may be cut with a large cape collar and may be very plain or decorated with simple embroidery or featherst itching. The bonnet maj' be cut with a flange to turn from the face, and decorated with tiny ruffles of lace, rows of featherst itching and hand tucks, or a lace edge \vhipped to a scalloped edge. The same decoration may be used on a bonnet without a flange. A kimono may l)e made with hemmed fell or I-'rench seams, and finished around the neck and down the front with a shaped facing which may be secured with featherstitching or cliain- stitching in one of the dainty shades of blue or pink; or it may be bound with ribbon which may be secured with feather- stitching or chainstitching. Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from three to five years of age. The one-piece dress hanging free from a yoke or verj'' short waist, or belted in with a loose belt in a long-waisted efTect is a good style for the child from three to five years of age (Fig. 103). The following materials are suitable: For rompers: kindcrgartc^n cloth, chamliniy, gingham, galatoa, percale. For dresses with bloomers to match: kindergarten cloth, chamhr.iy, THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 385 gingham, galatea, poplin, madras, percale, dimity, Swiss, batiste, voile, India linon, and the like. Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from six to ten years of age. Fig. 103. — Suitable designs for dresses for children from three to five years. The simple one-piece dress with a belt is a satisfactory style for children from six to ten years of age (Fig. 104). The wool dress may be worn with a washable guimpe in order to keep it Fig. 104. — Suitable designs for dresses for children from six to ten years. fresh and clean (Fig. 104). The following materials are suit- able: For dresses: kindergarten cloth, galatea, pique, . percale, chambray, gingham, poplin, madras, Indian head, dimity, voile, India linon, batiste, 386 .1 MAXIM, or HOME M.\Kl\(; and the liUc Wool cliallis, hcnrictta clolli, albatross, and ru-shincrc are scrviccalilc linli(-u(inlit \vo(jIcu materials suitahic for winter wear when the laundry |)rol)lenj makes the wearing of wash dresses throuKhout the year impraetieai)ie. For bloomers: If ])ossible, the bloomers should be of the same material as the dress. Sateen may lie used for blopmers with wool dresses. Deaigns and makrinh for (jarmcntH .siiitdhir for f/irls from ten to twelve years of age. The wasliablo initltly blouse with tl)e cloth skirt (Fig. 105) Fk;. H)5. — Suitable designs for dresses for cliildrt'i) from ten to twelve j'cars. and sateen bloomers is a satisfactory combination for the school frock; or the middy, skirt, and bloomers may be made of the same cotton material. The straight plaited skirt is a good design. The one-piece dress in gingham or galatea is also satis- factory (Fig. 105). Knit underwaist and drawers or knit union suits have been found by many to be the most satisfactory undergarments for children from thr(>o to twelve years of age. The bloomers may THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 387 be made on a waist or may fasten on the underwaist. The fol- lowing materials are suitable : For a middy blouse: middy twill, galatea, poplin, Indian head, khaki, Unen, serge. For a skirt: Any of the materials suggested for a middy blouse, or gabardine, rep, or wool suitings of various kinds. For a dress: Gingham, chambray, percale, galatea, pique, poplin, cotton gabardine, voile, batiste, and the like. For bloomers: Any of the materials suggested for a dress or sldrt, or sateen — black, white, or colored. Fig. 106. — Suitable designs for dresses for children from twelve to sixteen years. Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from twelve to sixteen years of age. A middy blouse and skirt or a middy dress may be made of any of the materials suggested for younger girls. The same ma- terial may also be used for a wash dress. Suggestive designs are shown in Fig, 106. A school dress or a street dress of serge, wool poplin, gabar- 388 .1 M.wi'M. or no Ml-: .\i \in severed, whether it he warp or woof, this set alone needs to he supplied. If hoth warp and woof are broken, they must hoth h(> woven in. The stitch whieli is u.sfHl is a short, Itjose lunninjj; stiteli, and, as far as possible, the (hu-n- inj!; is done on the wronj;; side. The ed^es of the tear must he neatly joined together hy passing over and under them in the alternate rows of sewing. The distance which the stitches are carried outside the tear depends on the strength of the surround- ing material. If it is very much worn, the darning must be made to cover the thin places. To form a guide for the darning stitches, a basting thread should be run just outside the area to be darned. The three forms of teais which most often occur are straight, diagonal, and three-cornered, or hedge. Sometimes there is a hole which is too lai'ge for ordinary darning, and it can be re- paired best by placing a patch underneath and darning the edges down over it. The method of repairing these tears follows: Straight tear. — The tear may be across cither warp or woof threads, so the missing ones should toe woven in. Start the running stitches as far above the cut, and carry them as far beyond, as it is neces.sary, in order to reinforce the worn part. When the tear is reached, pas's over and under the two edges in alternating rows, so that they are firmly held together. Be very careful not to draw the threads too tightly as this will cause a puckered api)earanco. Bias or diaoonai tear.— In a bias or diagonal tear both the warp and woof threads an; severed, and so they must l)e supi)lied. The running stitches should follow the warp and woof threads of the clotli', not placed at right angles to the cut. The warp threads shoukl be put in first as far beyond the tear as necessary, and the woof threads then woven in. The woof threads may l)e laid farther apart than the warp. As this tear is on the bias, care must be used not to stretch it. Three-cornered or hedge tear. — In the three-cornered tear, also, both the warp and the woof threads are severed, but not often on the bias. The darning is first done following the warj) threads from one end to the corner, then the woof threads are replaced in the same maimer. .\t the corner, there will be a square darn where the supplied warp and woof threads should be interlaced. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 391 Large Jinic nr worn place. — Cut a piece of the cloth large enough to cover the hole or worn place, and to extend far enough beyond to reinforce it. If the material is figured or has a nap, it should be matched. Baste the right side of this patch to the wrong side of the garment with the warp and the woof threads matching. On the right side darn over the raw edges, without turning them under. If the ragged edges are not entirely trimmed away, the unevenness of the edges will make the darned place less conspicuous. Do not carry the running stitches across the patch if it is a large one. The edges of the patch on the wrong side may be sewed down with long hemming stitches. STOCKING DARNING* A hole in a stocking is repaired by a woven darn. In place of being woven in a loom as cloth is, stockinet is made on a knitting machine and consists of a series of interlocked loops of a continuous thread or yarn. In darning, the loose loops should be caught to prevent fm-ther raveUng. Method of stocking darning. Guide line for the stitches. — As a guide line for the work, outline with bast- ing the space to be darned. Make the darn diamond-shaped, large enough to reinforce all the weakened part surrounding the hole. Materials to be used. — Use darning cotton to match the color and the size of the yarn in the stocking. For the average weight stocking, except thin lisle and silk, two strands of the ordinary four-ply darning cotton is used. Use a needle which is just large enough to carry the thread, and do not knot the thread. If the hole is too large to hold over the first two fingers of the left hand, a darning-ball may be placed inside of the stocking. Be very careful in using a darner, however, not to stretch the edges of the hole. Lengthwise darning stitches. — Darning is done on the right side of the stocking. Start at the right side of the hole just inside the basting which serves as a guide line. Put in first the lengthwise stitches (those parallel to the ribs in the stocking), using short, running stitches. In turning from one row of stitches to the next, loops must be left in the darning cotton to allow for the possible stretching of the stocking and the shrinkage due to washing. When the hole is reached, take up on the needle the loose loop at the edge to strengthen the darn and carry the thread across the hole, taking up the loop opposite. Continue until the inclosed area is filled with these lengthwise stitches. Crosswise darning stitches. — Start in the same manner from the top putting in crosswise stitches. Interweave these stitches with the length- * Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of 111. ;3<)2 A MAMAL OF IfOMF. MAKIXd wise OIK'S, and wlicn tlic hole is reached weave the woof threads over and under alternate warp threads. In the next row, pa.s.s under the threads which were passed over in (lie preceding row. Continue until the Hjjace is coinjjh'tely filled. 'I'he finished darn should he smooth .so that it will !)(' comfortaiile on tlie fool . Refkkences Haldt, Lauru I. Clothing;; for Women. J. P. Li|)pincott Co. Kales, Jane. Drcs.sumking. Charles S<;ril)ner's .Scjms. CHAPTER XVI MILLINERY By Beulah Blackmore Hats should be analyzed, and the peculiar defects of every unsatisfactory hat should be exactly noted. In this way a group of principles may be mastered, which should be followed regardless of the season's vagaries in shape and trimming. HOW TO SELECT A HAT No definite statement can be made as to what should or should not be worn. In selecting a hat, the arrangement of the hair, the shape of the face and its coloring, the relation of the hat to the head and of the head to the whole figure must be considered. Proportion and balance. Of first consideration in the study of hats is the relation both of the hat to the head and of the head, including the hat, to the entire figure. Since the figure may be seen from all sides, the hat should look well, not only from the direct front view, but from every possible point of view. In general, the crown and the brim should be in good proportion to each other, and the hat should be in proportion to the head and to the whole figure. To make broad shoulders appear less broad, the crown of the hat should be fairly high, while the brim should be fairly wide in order to balance the hips. This is but a single example of the relation of the hat to the figure. A hat that is too large gives a top-heavy appearance and thus disturbs the proportions of the human figure. A sufficient sense of balance is inherent in the average person to guide her judgment in selecting a hat, 393 'M)4 A M.WIM. or HOME M.\KI\(! it' she studies in a Inii^ iiiiiioi- it.> relation i unltecominj^, the hat may he faced with a ligiil color. Line and form. Already exaggerated features or un- desirable lines of tlie face should not be accented by a pronounced repetition of the direction of these lines in the hat. For example, if there are heavy downward lines al)0ut the mouth, the lines of the face. If it brim of the hat should not repeat these is desirable to have Hnes (Fig. 112). Again, if the eyes slant the brim tilted it may .,.1 ^ 1. -i be bent as desired, up toward the outer corner, a hat with but the crown should an abiupt Upward curve of the brim theS ''^"'''''^ °" ^^^^^1^^ ""* ^^^ ^^°"^- ^'^^^ ^^^^'^ "^^y be neutralized by the use of opposing lines. The opposition, however, must not be carried too far, because entire lack of harmony in line will i)roduce the same effect as does strong parallelism of line. A person with a square face needs an irregular brim, because a straight brim only emphasizes by contrast the angles of the face. A round face or one of regular features requires the opposite treatment from the square face. A severe, straight brim or upstanding crown may be worn in this case. An oval face needs a curved, irregular line. Rather long curves are most suitable. In order to be practicable, these suggestions necessitate that the hair be arranged to suit the face. Aroreov(>r, when buying a hat, one should be sur(> that it does not require a special arrange- FiG. 111. — Correct placing of a turban shown by the heavv line. MILLINERY 397 ment of the hair to suit it; the hat should suit the customary arrangement of the hair. A softening hne of hair should always come between the harsh edge of the hat and the fore- head. From time to time extreme forms of hair-dressing come into vogue. A beautiful face may or may not be affected by them, but the peculiar types must avoid extremes in shape, whether in area or contour. Neither the round nor the narrow Fig. 112. — The outline or decoration of a hat should not repeat or parallel undesirable lines in the face. Similarity of line may accentuate either good or bad lines. face should have the hair drawn back from the temples. The long oval head needs to have the hair done low in the back, while the person with a round face may wear the hair high. At its best, the hair grows around the face in a graceful line; but when this line is not attractive, the hair may be arranged to supply the deficiency. There is a legitimate use for false hair, if it serves to beautify the proportions and the contour of the head or to create fine surfaces, such as soft waving effects. Any arrangement of the hair that does not tend to augment the at- tractiveness of the face, such as extreme changes of contour, or fussy, kinky effects, is poor design and is in bad taste. For short, broad faces, both round and square, the form as a whole should be built high, as against wide, in shape. The hair should ;v.)s A MAMAi. or iioMr: maki.xc not I)c j)l'('ss('(| cldx- to the temples. The hair should not ho hrought low hut should he kept a\v;iy from the forehead excejjt at the corners where the short ohlicjue lines su^i^est softness of con- tour afi;ainst the face. Tiie scjuare-faced person needs roundini; contours in the hair-dressing; the round face needs crisp reverse <'urves in contour to counteract the round suggestions elsewhere. I'\)r lone;, thin faces, the hair should he ari-angi'd to make the head ai)i)ear as l)roa(l as jjossihle, care l)ein{i; taken not to create too great a contrast, however, between the width of the hair and of the face, lest the hair serve merely as a frame to em- phasize, rather than correct, the narrowness. The hair should be brought low both horizontally and obliquely. The space left between the oblicjue side lines, however, should not be too nai- row. This would only emphasize the length of the face by in- troducing a long vertical line. The hair should never be piled high over a long, thin face. The face that is more or less triangular needs the same treat- ment as the square face. This tj'pe should avoid oblique lines that are produced by parting the hair in the middle, because this repeats in exaggerated form the lower shape of the face. 'J'ho head should not bo unduly broadened in such a way as to create an extreme triangular shape. Color. Color is discussed on pages 45 to 47. It may be said here, how'ever, that in selecting a hat one should be siu'c that it is in harmon}' with the other outer garments with which it is to be worn. In general, if the costume is striking in color, a hat of neutral tone, especially white or black, fiu'nishes a desirable contrast; while if the costume is somber, a bright touch of color in the hat is most interesting. A hat is seldom satisfac- tory when it is of the same color, value, and texture as the cos- tume. A contrast in value, if not in color, is always to be desired. Tri77nning. The foregoing discussion of the jirinciples of design applies also to the trimming of hats. The following suggestions apply MILLINERY 399 to that considered in relation to the entire costume and the wearer, not as an isolated article of clothing. The function of trimming, in addition to its decorative value, is to effect slight changes that may add to the becomingness of hats. Trimming should aid in emphasizing the A good points of the face and hair of the wearer and should mitigate any unfortunate elements. By the addition of a bow, a feather, or other orna- ment, the lines of a hat may be changed and adapted to the wearer. Trimming should be so placed that it gives the impression of being rightly distributed. Color must be reckoned with when balance is being con- sidered: a small bit of in- tense color may balance a larger mass of a more subdued color. The pre- vailing fashion may pre- sent difficulties, but no fashion should undermine good judgment. There should be one general direction of line and a center of interest to which all trimming should appear to converge or to be subordinate (Fig. 113). Cross lines in trun- ming should be avoided. More than one point of interest, unless these points are perfectly balanced, produces a confused appear- ance and causes the eye to jump from one spot to another. The center of interest in the trimming should not be so conspicuous Fig 113. — The decoration should strengthen the structural lines of the hat. There should be but one center of interest and all decoration should appear to converge to that point (A and B). Some con- trast in line is always interesting (B). The proportion of space covered by the decoration should have an interesting relation to the uncovered surface (B and C). 400 .1 M.WIM. or IK) Ml: M.\KI\(; ill (•()!( I r or >izc ;is Id del ract troin t he lace, u liidi after all is flic picfuic for which the hat serves !i,s the fniiiie. If the hat is too heavily triinnied in the buck, t.here is u tend- ency to hciid the head and shoulders forward in an efTort to balance the t.iiinMiiiiji;. If it is too heavily triinined in front, it gives the undesiral)le ai)|)earance of j)itchinK forward, or creates a tendency to place the hat too far back on the head. This is likely to make the most graceful line unbecoming and disturbs the balance of the figure. Hats with the bulk of the trimming at one side may appear to l^e burdensome. RENOVATING MATERIALS When looking over an old stockof hats, the home worker finds that brims change in shape more slowdy than do crowns. Crowns may often be remodeled, howcn^er, by the use of ribbon or silk. Trimming may sometimes be so placed that it changes the line of the crown and gives the effect of a different shape. Good ma- terials should never be thrown away. Storing. At the end of each season when hats are to be storctl for an- other season, they should be examined carcfullj'. Hats to be used in the same way at another time should be well dusted and spots that might tempt moths should be removed (page 283). The hats should be wrapped carefully. If the hat is not to be used in its original shape again, it should be ripped apart. Any wire should be rolled and ril)l)ons and velvet cleaned. All covered wire should be saved, since it is not always easy to obtain a piece of wire when needed. If milliner}'- material is cleaned and rolled instead of folded it may offer a much greater suggestion for remodeling than when it is soiled and crushed. The frame material is not often good enough to be used again, but if it is in fair condition it may be impioved by damixMi- ing and repressing. Good pieces may be saved for making buckles, backs for ribbon decorations, or for piecing out another frame. Plate XV. — Top, simple and effective designs in small hats. Bottom, finishes for corset covers. MILLINERY 401 Straws. If straw braid on a hat is faded, the hat may be ripped apart and the braid dyed and sewed into a new shape. Several good color liquids that dye the straw instantly and finish it in one operation are now on the market. Sometimes an old hat that has faded and lost its stiffness may be freshened for another season with a coating of color liquid. Brushing with alcohol will often brighten a black straw hat. A straw hat may be bleached by being exposed in a closed chamber to the fumes of burning sulfur. An old flour barrel is often used for this purpose by milliners. The sulfur is ignited on a fire shovel or a metal dish placed on the ground. The hat, which has been sponged well in water, is hung in the barrel, and the barrel is turned over the burning sulfur for a few hours. To clean leghorns, panamas, milans, and other fine straws, a solution of oxalic acid may be used in the proportion of one teaspoon of oxalic acid to one pint of water. The straw should be brushed thoroughly and rinsed immediately in clear hot water. As much moisture as possible should be wiped off, and the hat hung to dry in the heat or fresh air. When it is nearly dry, it should be pressed in shape with a hot iron, muslin being placed between the iron and the hat. If a mushroom shape is desired, the hat should be held with the crown up during the pressing, and the brim should be stretched slightly while being pressed, bit by bit. If a flat brim is desired, the hat should be pressed flat on the edge of a table, the crown being allowed to come below the table top. Afterwards it should be laid flat on the table, weights should be placed on the brim, and it should be left until it is perfectly dry. Crowns should be pressed with a small iron on the inside. A sleeve-board is very convenient for this pressing. A white straw that has been sun-burned may be made yellow by being placed for a few moments in a strong solu- tion of soda and water. The hat should then be shaken to remove the water and pressed under a thin cloth until it is dry. 402 A M.WIAL or HOME MAKISd Floivcrs. Flowers may he IriiniiU'd aloiip; llic ('dj^cs and retouched with water color paints or oil paints mixed with jiasoline. Mowers made of silk, muslin, sateen, or velvet can he freshened hy heinp; shaken gently over u steaming cloth. Ribbons. Kibbons may be cleaned with gasoline or washed with soap and water. If they are to be wa.shed, they should be .stretched on a clean talkie, scrubbed with a soft l)rush dipped in neutral soapsuds and rinsed in cl(>ar water. In the linsing, the ribbon should be kept smooth and straight, and the water should be pressed out by running the hand down the ribbon. The ribbon should then be stretched on the table again and allowed to dry. Ribbons washed in this way need only a slight pressing with a warm iron. Velvet. Velvet ma}' l)e cleaned by being sprinkled thoroughly with magnesia or cornmeal and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. It should then be brushed with a soft brush. A .second application of the cleaning agcMit may be necessary. Another way of cleaning velvet is to steam it. This also re- moves any folds. A hot iron is placed so that it rests on the handle, and the base is covered with a wet cloth. The velvet is then passed over the iron, the wrong side of it being held next the wet cloth. In this way the steam is forced up through the I^ile. As the steam is passing through, the velvet should be brushed gently with a soft brush. Laces. Laces should be washed according to the directions given on page 272. Ecru lace may be washed in the same way as white lace, but it should be rinsed in a weak infusion of tea or coffee. Gold or silver lace may be freshened by brushing it with alco- hol or gasoline. MILLINERY 403 Feathers. Feathers may be washed satisfactorily in a good suds of white soap and water. The feather should be drawn through the hand from the stem to the tip with a regular stroke. It should then be dried by shaking it in the air. Before being curled, it should be steamed by being held with the back toward the steam from the spout of a teakettle. The feather should not be allowed to become wet. While it is damp, the stem may be shaped in any desired way. The feather should be held with the right side up. It is then curled by having three or four fibers at a time drawn over a dull knife, with a quick downward and inward curving stroke. Work should progress from the large end toward the tip. Veils. Veils may be washed in warm soapsuds in the same way as laces are washed. Black veils should be rinsed finally in a strong infusion of black tea to which gum arable has been added in the proportion of two teaspoons of powdered gum arable to one pint of water. Veils should be stretched in shape, pinned, and dried. Chiffon. Chiffon should be washed in a light suds in lukewarm water. It should not be rubbed, but shaken and squeezed lightly in the suds. It should be stretched to dry, and when nearly dry should be pressed with a warm iron on the wrong side. Chiffon may also be washed in pure alcohol and stretched to dry. White felt. A white felt hat can be cleaned satisfactorily with cornmeal or magnesia. The hat is covered with the substance, and left for two days. The meal or powder is then brushed off. It may be necessary to repeat this process. Art gum removes spots that are not of long standing. 404 .1 MA.MM. OF HOME MAKIXG SIMl'lj; IIA.NDMADK IKI .MMI>fGS The ability to trim a hat artistically is a ^ift. Tho placinR of triiiiininK sluMild he practiced l)efore a mirror and the general |)riii('ipl('s of design thus studied. Ideas may always he ol> tained from magazines. IMcasing color coml)inations in pic- tures and in nature are often the origin of good effects in Fig. 114. — Simple decorations possible in straw trimming. Fig. 115. — Siniplo vi.so of ribbon to dcforatc or change a crown .^liglitiy. The ribbon may be held in place by a ba.sting stitch of wor.-^tcd or silk thread in a contrasting color. hats and costumes. Examples of simple hats are shown in Plate XV. Trimming sliould always be sewed with as few stitches as possible in order to avoid a stiff aj)pearance. Large pins can often be used to advantage. Milliners' glue may be used in- stead of stitches for holding the fabrics of trimmings in place. Buckles. Effective })uckles can be made by first cutting a shape in buckram and covering it with shin-ed ribbon, silk, or velvet. The buckles may be padded slightly with sheet wadding and wound with a lacquered l)i'ai(l. Two such buckles may be placed back to back, inclosing the etlge of a plaited ribbon. MILLINERY 405 Lace straw. Lace straw may be plaited and sewed to the edge of a straight strip for trimming (Fig. 114). The edge of lace straw may be drawn up to make a series of loops (Fig. 114). Ribbons. There is a wide range in the variety of ribbons. Vegetable silk ribbons are very satisfactory, because they hold their color better than do those made of real silk, and they keep their shape Fig. 116. — Stitches for folds, for sewing down facings, and for decoration. A, catch stitch; B, lacing stitch* C, saddler's stitch. better. They are woven as a heavy grosgrain ribbon or with long, overshot threads. The whole crown may be covered with horizontal rows of ribbon, or vertical rows may extend from the tip of the crown to the brim (Fig. 115). Folds. Folds made of velvet have many uses. They are more easily manipulated if made on the true bias than with the grain of the material. For the simple milliner's fold (Fig. 116), the velvet is cut twice the desired width of the finished fold. The raw edges are brought together and held with a saddler's stitch or 40() A MAXCAL or HOME MAKISC a catcli-.-lilcli. The shiclics should not Ix' (hauii so li^^ht that they will show on the v'\\i\\\ side. The l-'rciich fold ( I'ifz;. 117) is slijrhil\- more decorative than the milliner's fold. A strip is cut three times ;i,s wide as the finisJKHl width. ()iu!-tiiird of the strip is folded up to the wrong Fig. 117. — Frcnfh fold, u.sod for decoration around frowns and lirims side. The other edge is folded in and brought down to meet the first edge. The strip is then folded once more on the line where the two edges meet. It is sewed in place with a sliji-stitch. Care must be taken not to pull the thread so close that a dent is made in the edge of the velvet. The fold must be kept even. A stitch taken through the fold will cause it to twist. Measures for the length of folds are taken in the same way as for bindings, in order that the joining may be made first. Bows. In general a bow is much more effective when tied than when cut and sewed. In making bows, one should always work from side to side, and should always bring the end of the ribbon through the knot in the direction in w^hich the end was lying before the knot was made. Refeuencks Hammond, Edith Gary. Industrial Drawing for Girls. 1912. Yflsuf, Anna Ben. The Art of Millinery. 1909. PART IV FOODS AND NUTRITION CHAPTER XVII PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS By Flora Rose Any person who has to choose the food that he is to eat him- self or that is to nourish others should know at least a few simple principles of food selection. Food is too important in human welfare to be chosen in a haphazard way. Fortunately, recent scientific work on foods has done much to make it comparatively easy to acquire at least a practical simple working knowledge of food values. The daily meals must supply three things : 1. Fuel. The body must be kept warm, and it must have some source of energy for the work which it must do. The greater the amount of work which the body has to do, the greater is its need for fuel. If the food does not supply sufficient fuel to do the work of the body, some of the body's tissue will be burned as fuel. If too much fuel food is eaten, the body may store some as fat or it may become upset by it. 2. Building materials. All the tissues of the body — muscles, nerves, bones, blood-cells — must receive a constant supply of those substances from which they are built. Children cannot grow without a liberal suppl}'- of building materials, and the tissues of grown persons will deteriorate if they are not furnished with sufficient building material to keep them in good repair. 3. Body regulating substances. The body not only needs fuel and building material, but it must also be supplied with substances which regulate its various activities and keep its 407 408 A MA.MAL or lluMi: M.\KI\(; niacliincrv in ^ood ruiiiiiii^ order. Tlicsc rctiulaiiiifi; suhstancos arc iicccssarv to make (lie fuel hiirii norriially, to help set the l)iiil(hii^; materials in place, to aid in eliminating; the wastes of the hody. to enalde the l»ody to }iro\v, and to keep its machinery runninji at all. If no foods were include*! to supply l)ody- rcjiulatinfi substances in the daily meals, the body would so(jn become damajfcd. GOOD FOODS FOR SUPPLYING THE liODYS NEP:D8 To supply these three needs of the bod}', different foods are necessaiy. The hoii.sewife should know the function of the various food materials in order to make up a balanced and healthful ration. ■ Fuel foods Foods rich in starch. These foods should supply most of the body's energy, because starch is the cheapest and most al)undant of all fuel foods, and furthermore the body can use moi-e of this fuel than any other without danger of injury. All the starch eaten is changed to a form of sugar called glucose, before it reaches the blood stream. This change occurs slowly, and under normal condition the machinery of the body is amply able to liandle and transport to the tissues the small amounts of sugar produced at any one time. The starch-rich foods are: Cereals and cereal foods of various kinds, such as breakfast foods — oatmeal, cornmeal, wheat, rice, rye, barley — and breads; macaroni, tapioca, and other manu- factured foods; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils; vegetables rich in starch, such as the potato and the dasheen. Foods rich in fat. These foods should supply a part of the day's energy. Fat seems to be necessary for two reasons: because it helps to regu- late the rate at which food passes along the digestive tract; and because certain fats are carriers of a l)ody-regulating sub- stance necessary for growth. Children particularly need this type of fat. Fat-rich foods which carry growtli-promoting substances are: PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 409 milk, cream, butter, eggs, cod-liver oil, meat fat, to a certain extent, and fat in soybeans. Other fat-rich foods are: bacon, lard, drippings, fat meats, vegetable oils or food rich in oils. Foods rich in sugar. Foods containing much sugar may furnish a part of the day's energy. Sugar as such is not an altogether necessary food, though it is very desirable because it adds palatability to the day's meals and it is a quick fuel. It is not entirely necessary, since all the starch eaten is gradually changed to a form of sugar, glucose, befoi-e it reaches the blood. Large quantities of sugar eaten at one time may seriously damage the body, since its machinery is not adequate to care for large amounts at one time. Little children receive all the sugar that is neces- sary for them if they have a quart of milk a day. If more sugar than is contained in one quaj-t of milk is used, it should be diluted with other foods and should not be used as candy except occasionally as a dessert. Large quantities of sugar may be injurious both to adults and to children. Foods containing sugar are more wholesome than sugar as such. Foods rich in sugar are: milk, sweet fruits and vegetables, honey, molasses, sirups, sugar as such, preserves, desserts, candy. Foods rich in protein. Protein foods must always furnish a part of the day's energy, from 10 to 15 per cent, not because the protein is needed for the energy which it furnishes but because it has value as building material for the body. The energy which it gives is a by- product. Although protein gives energy, it should not be used as a main source of fuel, since it is more scarce and, therefore, more expensive than other fuels, and large amounts may over- tax the powers of the body to care for it. Building foods There are many building materials needed by the body. Four of these play most conspicuous parts and should be con- sidered in planning the day's meals. 410 A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC Protein. Protein is a name Kivcii lo a Iarp;o variofy f>f siihstarifcs in foods. Casein in milk, albumin in e^;^;, milk, and meat, gluten in wheat, are illustrations of types of protein. I'rofcin is a sub- stance necessary to llie Ijuiidin^ of all living parts of the body. All proteins have not the same; value. Some are much in- ferior to othei's as tissue builders, and in some foods the pro- teins are of such poor (juality that they cannot build tissue until a food containinji a better (|ualify of protein is combined with them. Some of the day's protein should lie >uppli(il by animal foods, as these contain the best (juality of j)rotein. .Vnimal foods used for their protein may replace one another and will supplement the poor quality of less valuable protein foods. Animal foods that are valuable sources of protein are milk, egps, cheese, and meat. Much of the remainder of the protein may be supplied by cer- tain plant foods. None of the foods here listed, with the e.xcep- tion of the soybean and the peanut, may be regarded a.s com- plete substitutes for an animal food, since they contain an inferior cpiality of protein. Sonu; animal food shouki be used with them to improve the quality of their protein. Phmt foods that may be used to supply part of the day's protein are: cereals of various kinds, such as breakfast foods, breads, mac- aroni; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils; and nuts. A part of the daj^'s protein should l)e supplied by fruits an 1 vegetables. The (luantitj^ of the protein supplied l)y vegetaljles is small, but it helps to improve the quahty of proteins from plant foods mentioned above. Lime. T.ime is a necessary buildiiiii- mat(>rial. Many dietaries ai'e low in 1 his substance. If it is not suppli('(| in sufficient amounts, the l)ony structures of the body sutler and the wi'Ifare of other tissues is also interfered with. It is possible that the hard water of man}' localities helps to protect the body against the PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 411 nutritive disaster of a lime-poor diet. This should not be depended on, however, Many children, and adults also, suffer from poor teeth because of a lack of lime in the diet. The most valuable lime foods are: milk, the cheapest lime food (a glass of milk contains more hine than a glass of saturated solution of lime); cheese; and eggs. Next in lime value are leaves and stems of plants, such as spinach, Swiss chard, lettuce, celery, onions, cabbage. The dis- advantage of using these latter foods as a main source of lime is that they are too bulky to be eaten in the needed amounts. Iron. Iron is a necessary building material. An iron-poor diet means a poor quality of blood, weakened tissues, and a run- down body. Many dietaries are poor in iron. The most valuable iron foods are: green vegetables, the most valuable source; fruits and vegetables in general; breakfast foods and breads made from meals which include the whole cereal grain, the cheapest source; eggs, which are excellent but expensive; meat, rich in iron, but the value of its iron has been questioned. Phosphorus. Phosphorus is a necessary building material. If enough animal food, whole cereal grains, and legumes are used in the dietary, it will not lack phosphorus. Foods that are best to supply phosphorus are: milk, eggs, meat, breakfast foods and bread made from the whole grain, dried peas, beans, and lentils. Regulating foods Just as much attention should be paid to selecting body- regulating foods as to fuel and building foods. Fortunately there is an overlapping of all three of these needs, and a single food often supplies several. Regulating foods should be selected from each of the follow- ing groups : Foods containing laxative substances, as fruits and vegetables, breakfast foods and breads made from the whole 412 .1 MAMAL or HOME MAKIXU Uraiii; foods coiitaiiiiiifi needed salts, acids or flavors. a.s fruits and \'e|ie( aides; foods coiitaiiiiii^; .1 wo unknown factors, wliidi have heen callecl \itaniiries and f;rowlli-|)roniot inj^ factors, l>otli of wliicli ai-e necessary for health and for growth. (I'rnwth-prninnlind fdclors The (list unknown factor, or vitaniiiio, essential for growl h and health, oficn called the fut-soluhle growth-promoting sub- stance, is found, in amounts sufficient for human needs, dis- .solved in the fat of certain foods such as milk, butter, cream, eggs, meat (if enough of it is eaten), cod-liver oil, so^-beans. The following foods contain this unknown substance, or vitamine, in amounts which will help; they are too bulk}' to be used a-s its main source by the human being, but as a class they are the main source of this important substance in the diet of mo.st of the domestic animals: leaves and stems of jilants, such as spin- ach, Swiss chard, dandelion greens, cabbage, onion, celery. The second unknown factor, or vitamine, essential for health and growth is soluble in water and is found in amounts sufficient for human needs in milk, eggs, breakfast foods and breads math; from the whole cereal grain, peas, beans, and lentils. In fact, this substance is found in practically all naturally occurring foods. It is often called the water-soluble growth-promoting substance. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF FUEL It is not possible in any simple waj^ to estimate tlie daily fuel need with entire accuracy. The approximate fuel need may be easily estimated, however. To do this, it is necessaiy to have some understanding of the unit which measures the energy value of foods. Many units of measure are familiar to the average person: the ounce and pound as units of weight, the pint and quart as units of volume, the inch and foot and yard as units of distance, the degree as a unit of temperature. These units are used again and again until the mind remembers the approximate amounts they measure. The same must be true of the unit of measure for the fn(>l value of foods. It is a basis PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 413 by which one may compare one food with another and with which one may measure the incUvidual fuel needs. The unit of measure for the fuel value of foods is the calorie. If a given portion of food has a fuel value of 100 calories and in a day 2,000 calories are needed, one immediately begins to ap- praise the fuel value of that food. For all practical purposes the following tables are very serviceable in giving an approximate estimate of daily fuel needs. The average adult person spends about the following amounts of energy under stated-conditions: Asleep j'^ calorie an hour for each pound of body weight Sitting (reading, sewing, knitting) 3/5 calorie an hour for each pound of body weight Standing ^ calorie an hour for each pound of body weight Light exercise (dish-washing, cooking for small family, bed-making, sewing by foot power, walking at moderate pace on level road) 1 calorie an hour for each pound of body weight Moderate exercise (cooking for large family, sweeping, ironing, scrubbing by hand, work of carpenters, meat carvers, house workers) 1 J<4 to 1 J^ calories an hour for each pound of body weight Active exercise (cooking for large groups, ironing and scrubbing with heavy imple- ments, work of farmers, masons, black- smiths) 1 % to 2 calories an hour for each pound of body weight. Severe exercise (heavy muscular exercise, such as that done Ijy lumbermen, ex- cavators, and stevedores) 3 or more calories an hour for each pound of body weight 414 A MAM M. (if CnlnrieH a pound each day For first .'5 iiioiiths 45-50 Fur scc( 111(1 3 months 40-45 For third ',\ months 40 For fourtli 3 montlis 35-40 l-'or 2d yoar 40 For ;ird and 4th years 35-40 For 5th year " 35-37 For Oth year '. 34-35 For 7th yoar 32-:i4 For Sth year 30-35 For 10th to r2th years 28-32 For 12th to 14th years 2.>-30 F'or 14th to 17th years. 20-25 A simple way of estimating adult needs is as follows: The avera{!;e adult spends: Calories a jKnind each day At complete rest 14-16 Light exercise 16-18 Moderate exercis? 18-20 Hard exercise 20-23 The lOO-calorie portion is the short cut in dietary' calculations. With the knowledge of lOO-calorie portions of common footls, it is very simple to estimate the fuel value of a given meal or of a day's meals. Plate XVI and Ta])les XVI to XXI will be of service in learning to make this estimate. now TO ESTIM.\TE THE DAILY NEED OF PHOTEIX The average daily allowance of protein may be estimated in two waj^s. Both have disadvantages as well as good points. One way of estimating the jji-otein allowance is on the basis of the actual amount of protein needed in a day. The average adult probai)ly needs daily about 2 or 3 ounces of protein. Or to state the matter in a more accurate way, the protein in the day's meals should furnish daily 2 to 2)^ calories for each poinid PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 415 of body weight. If animal proteins are generously represented, the lesser amount may be adequate. For economy not more than one-third of the total protein in the adult diet should be furnished by animal foods. Less than this may be used. One egg, one glass of milk, and an ounce of cheese or a small piece of meat, give a liberal amount of animal protein in a day. Less than this may be sufficient. If plant proteins predominate largely, the greater amount may be needed. About one-third of the daily protein should be taken from the cereal grains — -wheat, corn, rye, oats, rice, barley. After the allowances for animal and cereal proteins have been made, the remainder of the protein may come from nuts, legumes, and fruits and vegetables. If wise combinations of animal and plant proteins are made, the amount needed will probably lie between the two extremes. Another way of estimating the protein allowance is on the basis of the proportion of total calories which protein should furnish. The average adult should receive daily from protein 10 to 15 per cent of the total calories in his food. If plant pro- teins predominate, 15 per cent of the total calories should be furnished by protein. If the number of calories needed is great because of much exercise, only 10 per cent, or even less, of the total calories need be furnished by protein. The tables of 100-calorie portions (Tables XVI-XXI) may be used in estimating the amount of protein food that is required to meet the needs of the body, since one column states the number of calories a given food supplies in the form of protein. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF LIME, IRON AND PHOSPHORUS It is more difficult to estimate the daily need for lime, iron, and phosphorus than for energy and protein. Yet these are no less important than energy and protein, and some quantita- tive estimates have been made. In general, however, if liberal amounts of foods that contain lime, iron, and phosphorus are included in the daily meals, it is unnecessary to make any quantitative estimates. The following figures are given as a matter of interest and general information : lie. .1 .1/1 \/ AL or iioMi: \iMat Cracked Shredded Puffed Wheat flour Patent Entire (Irahain A pproriiiifil' iiiciixurr of 10()-calori(i portion 2 tablespoonf uls . Slice 1x3x3 inchc; Slice 1x3x3 inchc: 3 tahlespoonfuls . . . 3 tahlespoonfuls , . 1 34 cupfuls 3 table.sjioonf uls . . . . 1 ]4, cupfuls ]/i cupful 1/3 cupful, scant. . . 2 tahlespoonfuls .... 1 medium . 1 small . . . 2 tahlespoonfuls 1 1/3 cupfuls. . . 2]'^ tahles{)oonful.-^ 1 hiscuit 1 2/3 cupfuls '4 cui)ful 'i cupful ]i cupful, scant "f calorics furnished Iirolriri 26.1 14() 1.5.,s 10 4 ti 1 9 4 (i.O 14.8 16 1 27.7 10 G 5.S 14.0 lo.O 1.").4 r. Wcighl in ouncat OH bought 1.0 13 1.4 10 1 10 10 1.0 1.0 .9 1.0 5.3 3.6 10 1.0 10 10 10 1 10 1.0 ' Some of the measurements in Tallies XVI to XX were made hv Miriam liird.seye, while others were compiled from various .sources iiicludinn Im'C(1- iuR the Family, hy Mary Swartz Hose. The other data in the.se tallies are based on the table of 100-calorie portions in Food Products, by Henry C. Sherman. iisSiiiii^ ^Pi.ATE XVI. — Showing 100-calorie portions of some common foods. Top, reading from left to right: 1 and 2, whey; 3, evaporated milk; 4, condensed milk (sweetened); 5 and 6, skimmed-milk; 7, whole milk; 8, 18-per-cent cream; 9, 40-per-cent cream. Center, reading from back to front: spinach, cream, olive oil, peanut butter, butter, lard, cocoa, chocolate, potato, shredded codfish, egg, gelatin, Cheddar cheese, navy beans, rolled oats, bread, crackers, shredded wheat, macaroni, wheat flour, rhubarb, molasses, cranberries, oranges, onions, carrots, lettuce, bananas, prunes, dates, raisins, sugar. Bottom, lOO^calorie por- tions of foods, raw and cooked. Sugar has not been added to the foods ordinarily requiring it. Foods in rows 1 and 3 are cooked; those in rows 2 and 4 are raw. Reading from back to front: gelatin, cornmeal, tapioca, macaroni, rolled oats, cream of wheat, navy beans, spinach, rhubarb, cranberries, onions, apples, prunes, lima beans. PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 417 TABLE XVII. — 100-Calorie Portions of Foods Rich in Sugar Food materials Apples, fresh . Bananas Dates Figs, dried . . Grapes Honey Lemons' Molasses. . . . Oranges Peaches Prunes Raisins Strawberries . Sugar Granulated Lump .... Approximate measure of 100-calorie portion 1 large 1 medium 4 large IK large Medium bunch 1 tablespoonful 3 large IJ^ tablespoonfuls . . , 1 very large 3 large 4 large )4: cupful 1 1/3 cupfuls 2 tablespoonf uls scant 3^ lumps Number of calories furnished hy protein 2.G 5.3 2.4 5.4 5.4 .5 ■ 9.0 3.3 6.2 6.8 2.8 3.0 10.2 0.0 0.0 Weight in ounces as bought 7 »5 1 1 4 1.1 11.4 .9 41S .1 MAX CM. or HOME M.\K/\(; I'AHI.l'; .Will. l()()-('.\U)i{iK Portions of SurruLENT Vegetables Fnoil Diotm'dls Beets Cabbage Carrots Celery Chard, Swiss Cucumbers Lettuce Onions Parsnips Peas Fresh sheUed Canned Rhul)arb Si)inach, edible portion Squash Tomatoes Fresh Canned Turnips ,1 pproxinialr nicd.sitrc of I fX)-ralorie ])()}■ t ions ."} medium }/i medium head . . '.i medium 4 (Uipfuls of 14-iiicli j)ieces 2 large 2 large heads 3 medium 1 }/2 medium ^i cupful K cupful, drained . . . 4 cupfuls of 1-inch pieces 2 quarts, approxi- iiKitely 4 small l^i cupfuls 2 cupfuls of }4-\nch cubes Nitnilicr "f calorics fumishetl hy protein ]:{'.» 20 .'{ '.> 7 23.7 ;«.r) . 18.4 2o.l 13.2 9.9 2S.0 2(>.l 10 4 3.5.2 12.2 15. S 21 2 13 2 Weight in ounces a.s bought 9 13 3 in 1 23 7 9.2 23.5 22.3 8.0 6.8 0.4 . 4 14.8 15.6 15 5 15 12 9 PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 419 TABLE XIX. — 100-Calorie Portions of Foods Rich in Fat Food materials Approximate measure of 100-calorie portions Number of calories furnished by protein Weight in ounces as bought Bacon Raw Cooked Butter Chocolate, unsweetened . . Cocoa Cream, 18.5 per cent 2 thin slices 4 thin slices 1 tablespoonful J^ square 3 tablespoonfuls 14 cupful 6.7 .5 8.4 17.4 5.1 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 19.4 10.4 .6 .5 .6 .7 1.8 Cream, 40 per cent Lard 11/3 tablespoonfuls.. 1 tablespoonful, scant 1 tablespoonful, scant 1 tablespoonful, scant 1 tablespoonful, scant 1 tablespoonful, scant 6 to 8 . . .9 .4 Oil Olive Cottonseed Corn .4 .4 .4 Peanut Olives .4 1.6 Peanut butter 11/5 tablespoonfuls . 8 to 16 nuts .6 Walnuts, shelled California .5 i_M» .1 M.WIM. or lloMI-: MAKIXC 'l\H\A] XX.— ^l(KI-( 'ai.ouii: Poktions uf- Focids Hkh in Photkin Food inaUrials lied, lean rfjund . . Cheese Dairy (ehecklar) Cottage Chickens, broilers Codfish Salted Dressed fresh . . Eggs in shell Fowls Ham Smoked Fresh lean . . . Lamb Fore quarter. Hind quarter. Milk Whole Skiiiim(>il . . . . Salmon Canned Fresh Veal, lean Aj)proxi»ial( tncajiure of lOO-cfdorie portions 1-ineh cube. l/:j cupful. . 1 very large or 1 l/ii average 2/;} cupful, scant 1 1/8 cupfuls . . . J/2 cupful, scant Numl)er of calorus furnishcfl l»J jirolein 54 5 24.2 7(5 . 2 79 07 :} %.0 :}6.2 34.5 29,7 44.0 24.2 31.4 19.0 37.0 44 5 43 . 3 54.1 Weight in nunres an bought 2.5 .8 3 2 5 5 4 4 7.6 2 7 2 1 1.5 ].») 1 \ 17 5 1 9.6 2.4 2.5 3 PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 421 TABLE XXI.— Table of 100 Food Units ' Name. of food "Portion" contain- Wl. of 100 Calories ing 100 food units calories (oz.) furnished (approx.) by protein Small serving 1.30 40 Large serving 2.20 90 Small serving 1.60 60 Half serving .65 12 Small serving 1.20 25 Very small serving .88 18 Small serving 1.10 27 Very small serving .87 21 4.00 19 One thin slice .96 23 One small chop .96 24 Orel, serving 1.80 40 Large serving 1.20 35 Small serving .73 14 Ord, serving 1.10 28 Small serving .96 19 Small serving 1.20 33 Small serving .99 23 Large serving 2.40 73 Ord. serving 1.80 40 Small serving 1.10 22 Small steak 1.30 32 Small steak 1.40 31 Ord. serving 1.80 42 Ord. serving 2.20 54 Ord. serving 2.20 47 14.00 78 Large serving 3.20 79 12 to 16 7.40 56 Two servings 4.90 95 Half serving .88 16 Ord. serving 2.80 61 Two sm. servings 2.80 61 Two servings 4.10 78 Ord. serving 2.00 50 Ord. serving 1.80 41 One dozen 6.80 49 Very small serving .97 18 Small serving 1.30 29 Small serving .53 6 Small serving 1.50 30 Ord. serving 2.10 46 Two small servings 3.60 80 Two small servings 1.20 29 15.00 14 19.00 33 7.19 18 Small side dish 2.66 21 Large side dish 4.44 21 Five servings 16.66 15 Three servings 8.70 2 11.00 20 7.60 10 Two servings 5.81 10 11.00 23 19.00 24 One side dish 3.50 13 Cooked Meats Beef, round, boiled (fat) Beef, round, boiled (lean) Beef, round, boiled (med.) Beef, 5th rib, roasted, Beef, 5th rib, roasted, Beef, 5th rib, roasted Beef, ribs, boiled, Beef, ribs, boiled, Calves'-foot jelly Chicken, canned Lamb chops, boiled av Lamb, leg, roasted Mutton, leg, boiled, Pork, ham, boiled (fat), Pork, ham, boiled Pork, ham, roasted (fat), Pork, ham, roasted (lean), Turkey as purchased canned Veal, leg, boiled Uncooked Meats, Edible Portion Beef, loin, av. (lean) Beef, loin, av. (fat) Beef, loin, porterhouse steak, av Beef, loin, sirloin steak, av Beef, ribs, lean, av Beef, round, lean, av Beef, tongue, av Beef, juice Chickens (broilers) av Clams, r'nd in shell, av Cod (whole) Goose (young) av Halibut steaks, av. Liver (veal) , av Lobster (whole) , av Mackerel (Span.), whole, av Mutton leg, hind, lean, av Oysters in shell, av Pork, loin, chops, av Pork, ham, lean, av Pork, bacon, med. fat, av Salmon (Cal.), av Shad, whole, av Trout, brook, whole, av Turkey, av Vegetables Artichokes, av., canned Asparagus, av., canned Asparagus, av., cooked Beans, baked, canned Beans, lima, canned Beans, .string, cooked Beets, edible portion, cooked Cabbage, edible portion Carrots, edible portion, fresh Carrots, cooked Cauliflower, as purchased ; . . . Celery, edible portion Corn, sweet, cooked • Irving Fisher, The Journal of the American Medical Association, 48:16. 422 A MAM AL or HOME MAKISd TAULK XXI.— Taiile of 100 Food Imt» — Cont'd. Name of fuml f 'u'nimlicrx, odilili' portion lOKKploiit. ('(liblc portion l,ciitil.M. ((Mikfd Lcttucr, cdililc portion MushixMieiis, U.M i)urclm.MC(l OnionH. fresh, edible portion. . . . Onions, cooked Parsnips, edible portion Parsnips, rooked Peas, ureen, canned Peas, green, cooked Potatoes, baked Potatoes, boiled Potatoes, mashed, (creamed) .... Potatoes, steamed Potatoes, chips Potatoes, sweet, cooked Pumpkins, edible portion Radishes, as purchased Rhubarb, edible portion Spinach, cooked Squash, edible portion Succotash, canned Tomatoes, fresh as purchased ... Tomatoes, canned Turnips, edible portion Vegetable oysters Fruits (Dried) Apples as purchased Apricots as purchased Dates, edible portion Dates as purcha.sed Figs, edible portion Pnmes, edible portion Prunes as purchiisod Raisins, edible portion Raisins as purciia.sed Fruits (Fresh or Cooked) Apples as purcha.sed Apples, baked Apples, sauce Apricots, edible portion Apricots, cooked Bananas, edible portion Blackberries Blueberries Blueberries, canned Cantaloupe Cherries, edible portion Cranberries as purchased Grapes as purchased, av Grape fruit Grape juice, small glass Gooseberries Lemons Lemon juice Nectarines Olives, ripe Oranges as purchased, av Oranges, juice Peaches as purchased, av inu ItXJ ftHxl unitt (iipprox.) Wt. of KMJ calories (or.) ( nuirua furn iahed by priitnn 2() (¥) 18 12 (M) ■i ir, 17 27 1S(X) 2.5 7 (M) 31 7 10 13 Two large «er\'ings 8 40 12 One one-half serv-ings r, liO 10 r,.Hi 10 Two ser\'inKs (•> .JO 2.5 One ."(erving :roo 23 One good sized :ro."> 11 One large sized ;< 02 11 One serving 314 10 One serving :i.r,7 11 One-half serving . m 4 Half av. potato 1 70 i:{ tw 15 17 (KJ 18 I. "..00 10 Two ord. serN-ings 0.10 1.5 7.40 12 Ord. serving .{ . .00 15 • Four av. servings 1.0. 00 15 1.'>.20 21 Two large ser\-ings 8.70 13 9.02 10 1.20 3 1 24 7 Three large .99 2 1 10 2 One large 1.10 5 Three largo 1 14 3 1 . (X) 3 1.10 3 Two apples 7. 30 3 ■.i . 30 2 Ord. serving 3.(»0 2 .5.92 8 Large serving 4.01 One largo 3 . ,50 ,'■> .5.90 9 4 00 3 .5 .SO 4 Half ord. .serving S 00 fi 4 40 5 7 50 3 4.80 .5 7 .57 7 4.20 9.20 5 7 .57 9 8.77 .5.18 4 About seven 1 31 •> One verv large 9 40 I^arge gla.s,s 0.1>2 Three ordinary 10.00 7 PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 423 TABLE XXI.— Table of 100 Food Units— Cont'd. Name of faoii Peaches, sauce Peaches, juice Pears Pears, sauce Pineapples, edible portion, av Raspberries, black Raspberries, red Strawberries, av Watermelon, av Dairy Products Butter, ordinary pat Buttermilk Cheese, Am. pale Cheese, cottage Cheese, full cream Cheese, Neuf chatel Cheese, Swiss Cheese, pineapple Cream Kumyss Milk, condensed, sweetened Milk, condensed, unsweetened Milk, skimmed Milk, whole Whey Cakes, Pastry, Puddings, and Desserts Cake, chocolate layer Cake, gingerbread Cake, sponge Custard, caramel Custard, milk Custard, tapioca Doughnuts Lady fingers Macaroons Pie, apple Pie, cream Pie, custard Pie, lemon Pie, mince Pie, squash .' . . Pudding, apple sage Pudding, brown betty Pudding, cream rice Pudding, Indian meal Pudding, apple tapioca Tapioca, cooked Sweets and Pickles Catchup, tomato, av Honey Marmalade, orange Molasses, cane Olives, green, edible portion . . Olives, ripe, edible portion Pickles, mixed Sugar, granulated Sugar, maple Sirup, maple Nuts, Edible Portion Almonds, av fortion coiaain- iiig 100 food uniU (,approx.) Wt. of 100 calories (oj.) (^atones furnished by protein ( )rd. serving 4,78 4 ( )rd. glass 4.80 One large 5.40 4 3.98 3 8.00 4 5.18 10 6.29 8 . Two servings 9.10 10 27.00 6 .44 0.5 1J4 glasses 9.70 34 IJ^ cubic in. .77 25 4 cubic in. 3.12 76 114 cubic in. .82 25 134 cubic in. 1.05 22 1J4 cubic in. .80 25 1J4 cubic in. .72 25 }4 ord. glass 1.70 5 0.70 21 1.06 10 2.05 24 114 glass 9.40 37 Small gla.ss 4.90 19 Two glasses 13.00 15 J/2 ord. sq. piece .98 7 J4 ord. sq. piece .96 6 Small piece .89 7 2.51 19 Ord. cup 4.29 26 Two-thirds ord. 2.45 9 Half a doughnut .80 6 .95 10 .82 6 One-third piece 1.30 5 One-fourth piece 1.10 5 One-third piece 1.90 9 One-third piece 1 . 35 6 One-fourth piece 1.20 8 One-third piece 1.90 10 3.02 6 Half ord. serving 2.00 7 Very small serving 2.65 8 Half ord. serving 2.00 12 Small serving 2.80 1 Ord. serving 3.85 1 6.00 10 Four teaspoons 1.05 1 1.00 0.5 1.20 0.5 .5-7 olives 1.10 1 5-7 olives 1.30 2 14.60 18 Three heaping tea- spoons or 1 l-i lumps .86 Four teaspoons 1.03 Four teaspoons 1.20 Eight to fifteen .53 13 .1 \i \\i M. or HOME M \Ki\a lAHI.I-: XXI. -Taiilk ok KX) Foou Vsim -i'nn'Ul. Same of foml llcccliniil.H Mnizil-iiiilM I{||tt)TIIU(.M Coroiiiuils Chestnuts, fresh, av Filberts, uv Hickory-nuts I'i'iinuts Pi'cuns, ixilishod Pine-nuts (pienniiiia) Wulnuts, California Cereals Hn-ad, brown, av Bread, eorn (johnny eake), uv Hread, white, homemade Corn flakes, toasted Cornmeal, granular, av Cornmeal, unbolted, av Crackers, graham Crackers, oatmeal Hominy, cooked Macaroni, av Macaroni, cooked Oatmeal, boiled l-'opcorn Kice, uncooked Kice, boiled Rice, flakes .' Rolls, Vienna, av Shredded wheat Spaghetti, av Wheat flour, ent. wheat, av Wheat flour, Kraham, av Wheat flour, patent, family, and straight, grade, spring wheat av Zweibach Miscellaneous Eggs, hen's, boiled Eggs, hen's, whites Eggs, hen's, yolks Omelet Soup, beef, av Soup, bean, av Soup, cream of celery Consomm6 Clam chowder Chocolate, bitter Cocoa Ice cream (Phila.) " I'ortion" contain- ing IIMf fmMl unUa (approz.) 'I'hn'c ord. size Ten nuts Thirteen, double About eight About eighty About six Ord. thick slice Small sn for little children, althoufih tht; child on a skim-milk diet will not f!;row so normally as one fed on whole- milk. The milk maj' be used as a beverage, or it may be cooked in various ways. The correct amount, not the form in which it is used, is the important point. If the family must economize, the amount of butter may be reduced, l)Ut the amount of milk should at the same time l)e increased to insure the correct total of the fat-soluble growth-promoting factor. Clean, sweet, skim-milk is as valuable as whole-milk for its supply of lime, its good type of protein, its water-soluble growth- promoting factor and for a part of its fat-soluble growth-pro- moting factor. Skim-milk has a lower energy value than does whole-milk because of the loss of its fat. Half of its fat-soluble growth-promoting factor is lost with the fat; therefore, skim- milk has not the same growth-promoting power as whole-milk, although it still contains growth-promoting properties. For this reason, children should have whole-milk instead of skim- milk. Butteiniilk has the same food value as skim-milk. Some persons digest buttermilk more easily than skim-milk because the casein is clotted by the acid in the milk. It is believed that when the casein of milk is clotted before it reaches the stomach, either by natural souring or by the addition of orange, lemon, or other fruit juice or junket, it does not form the large firm clots sometimes formed in the case of sweet milk. The nutri- tive value of the milk is unchanged, and the dotting may make the milk more easily digested by some persons. Cottage cheese, made of the curd of milk, is a valuable food. It contains most of the protein of the whole-milk and is a good PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 427 source of this important building material. It contains a part of the lime and the phosphorus of the whole-milk, and part of the growth-promoting factors, though little can be said as yet concerning the comparative amounts of these substances present in it. As a protein food, it is a valuable meat substitute. Whey also has nutritive value and should never be discarded. It contains the water-soluble, and a small part of the fat-soluble, growth-promoting factors, much of the lime, part of the phos- phorus, and it may contain most of the carbohydrate of the original milk. It should find many uses in the dietary in the form of breads and cakes, gelatin desserts, frozen desserts, and pudding sauces. The American Cheddar, or cream, cheese made from whole- milk contains both the protein and the fat of the milk. Pound for pound, cheese is considerably richer than meat in both pro- tein and fat. Cheese is rich not only in protein and fat but also in lime, phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances. When cheese is served as a meat-saver, that is, cooked in combination with other foods, it is generally easily digested; it is probably the serving of cheese with pie at the end of a hearty meal that has given it the undeserved name of being difficult to digest. Cream, as well as the butter and ice cream made from it, has a definite place in the daily food because of growth-promot- ing substances and the high energy valiie of the fat. The sour- ing of cream does not change its nutritive value any more than does .the souring of milk. One pound of butter is equivalent to five quarts of milk in energy value; but counting the proteins, lime, and growth-promoting factors that milk contains, three quarts of milk will give as much total food as a pound of butter. It is said that not only should three quarts of milk be used in place of every pound of butter given up, but when a pound of butter costs more than the three quarts of milk, it is wise economy to use the milk instead of the butter. In a family where there are three or more little children, no money should be spent for a pound of butter or of meat until after an allow- ance has been made for three quarts of milk. Butter substitutes are made up more or less of vegetable •12S .1 .u.i.vr.w. or iioMr: M.\iniall aniouni of l)utt('r added, varies so greatly that the huttei- sul)slitute siiould not he al- lowed wholly to fephiee huttei- in children's fo(jd. Hutt(!r suh- stitutes in wliidi ve^ctahle oils are the only fat, are entirely lacking in this growth-proinotiiifi; factor. If Initter suhstitutes are used, extra niilk is necessary in order to keep up the supply of these essential jz;rowth-proinotinK factors. Jioiling is Ijelieved to increase the ease of disestion of milk h}'' preventing the formation of large firm curds in the stomach. Brief hoiling is thought not to injure seriously the value of either of the growth-promoting factors. Boiled milk seems in the case of manj' persons to have a constipating effect, which may he offset hy the use of fruit juices. This may he found to explain the cause and cure of scurvy. Boiled milk has all the energy value of fresh milk. Boiling does not seem to affect the v-ilue of the protein sufhciently to he of any serious dis- advantage. Any injury to the value of the protein hy hoiling is probahly due, in part at least, to the coagulation of the al- bumen of the milk. Increasing the amount of milk fed, if milk is the only food, seems to correct any damage which might be produced l)y l)oiling, either on the protein or on the growth- promoting factors. If, as occasionally happens, milk reacts on the individual as a poison, a special study should lie made in order to include in the dietary foods other than milk that are rich in lime. Many times, however, a dislike for milk may be confused with inabil- ity to use it. If it is merely distaste that prevents its use, milk may be included in the dietary by being cooked with other foods. Eggs will i-e|)lace milk, if it is impossible to use the latter. Milk is a valuable sul)stitute for meat. Eggs should be used as long as they can l)e afforded. ^\'hen possible, one egg a day should be used for each child in the family, and, if available, one or two for each adult. The children and PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 429 women of the family should have the eggs first, since they need the most iron. If the cost of eggs makes their use impossible, thought should be given to increasing the use of other foods that are rich in iron. The cheapest of these are breakfast foods or breads made from the whole cereal giain. Frequently it is objected that milk and eggs cause biliousness. If this hap- pens, it is in most cases due not to the use of milk and eggs, but rather to the absence of fruits and vegetables in the dietary. Eggs are not only valuable sources of iron, they are also rich in lime, rich in both of the unknown substances (so-called vita- mines) necessary for growth and health, and the protein of eggs is of the efficient type. Eggs may be used to replace meat or milk. Meat is not a necessary food if other animal foods are used- in the dietary. Its greatest advantage over other animal foods is its palatability. Meat in the diet of little children is always questionable. The protein of meat is very subject to putre- faction, and the digestive tract of the child is particularly sus- ceptible to this condition. The protein of meat is a valuable type })ut not necessary if milk, cheese, or eggs replace it. Meat con- tains stimulating substances not desirable for the normal child. It has a high iron content, but the susceptibility of meat to putrefaction may often destroy its value as a carrier of iron. Iron may often be introduced better in the diet through other foods. Meat lacks lime and has a much more limited quantity of the growth-promoting substance that is carried by certain fats than has either milk or eggs. It contains the second growth- promoting substance (page 412). The protein substitutes for meat are milk, cheese, eggs, and to a lesser extent soybeans and peanuts. Other legumes are not good meat substitutes unless used with milk, cheese, or eggs. Fruits and vegetables should be used liberally in the dietary, for they are among nature's best body-cleansing and regulating agents. They furnish substances which stimulate the activity of the intestine, neutralize the harmful acids produced by the tissues, and keep both intestine and blood in good condition. Fruits stimulate digestion and are appetizing additions to the VM) A MAMM. OF lloME MAKISC (lay's food. ( "oinplaiiil is offcti made that at certain seasons fruit and vcj^ct aides are too expensive to he UM-d liherally. However, their value is not cfjinparahle to the loss of efficiency lesultinji; from a diet that lacks natural laxatives and iron. When apples are cheaj) they should he baked f)r made into ap|)le- sauce and should he canned for use during a season of scarcity. Carrots, l)(>els, turnips, cal)bafj;e, onions, and parsnips arc cheap at a time when other vejj;ctablos are expensive, aiul if carefully prepannl they are easily (li{j;ested; they not only give variety to the dietary, but also furnish the mucli-necded vegetable material. A diet enriched by fruits and vegetables has a tendency to prevent or correct anaemia, to prevent constipation and its attendant ills, and to improve general health conditions in that it increases the amoinit of iron furnished to the Ijlootl and helps to prevent a putrefactive condition in the intestine. The leaves and stems of plants are jjarticularl}- valuable additions to the dietaiy in that they supply lime and fat-soluble growtii- promoting substances. Those cereals and cereal foods that contain the larger part of the grain should be given preference in the dietary. While such a cereal food as white flour retains all the original energy- yielding ingredients and most of the protein, it has lost in the milling process the substances occurring in the outer layers, which stimulate the activity of the intestines, which help in such body functions as bone-building and the formation of red blood corpuscles, and one of which promotes growth. White bread is entirely wholesome if thought is given to in- cluding in the meals, in forms other than l)read, the sulistanccs lost by the flour during the milling process. This may be ac- complished l)y using fruits and vegetal)lcs for their laxative properties, milk for its lim(> and growth-promoting substances, and (\ggs for their iron. The ])r()t(>ins in the cereal grains are not of the efficient typ{> and must, be supplemented in the iliet with animal proteins. Cereal giains also lack both lime and the growth-jiromoting substance soluble in fat. Sweets in the dietary arc unquestionably desirable, but they PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 431 should be served in such a manner as not to reduce the appetite for other foods and not to satisfy the appetite with sweet foods only. Fruits and vegetables, simple desserts of various kinds, jam with bread at the close of the meal, and candy occasionally in place of other desserts, are the best ways of using sugar. The craving for sugar between meals generally indicates a badly controlled appetite or a poorly fed individual ; or it may be the outcome of some diseased condition of the body. Candy or other sweet foods eaten between meals result in poor appetite. Sugar is an abundant source of energy, is easily digested and absorbed, and rightly used it has its place in the dietary. It lacks altogether any building foods, and, if used in large quantities, is very irritating to the mucous membrane. Therefore, it should not be eaten to the exclusion of other foods. The candj^-fed child, refusing as it does other foods at meal- times, is very likely to have poor, decayed teeth, weak bones, flabby muscles, and a disordered stomach. The rule should be to use sugar with other foods and at the close of the meal. Enough water should be consumed each day to maintain the body in a clean, wholesome condition. It is just as necessary to bathe the body inside as outside. Many cases of serious bodily disorder are directly traceable to neglect of the needs of the body for water. Constipation is frequently the result of insufficient water in the dietary. The dietary should be planned to meet the needs of all mem- bers of the family. The main part of the meal may be made suit- able for all, and to this the foods especially needed by each in- dividual may be added. Little children should not eat all foods that are allowable for adults, nor should the grown members of the family be limited to the same simplicity of diet as the chil- dren, for children have undeveloped digestive organs that will be overtaxed by heavy foods. The strength of food in the diet of the child should l)e increased only as the muscles of digestion strengthen and develop. Foods that are too strong overtax the immature digestive tract, and foods that are too weak fail to develop it. Persons working hard outdoors eat more food than those \:V2 .1 M.WIM. or HUM I: M.XKISC whose work is of ;i li^lit, indoor cliiiractcr. Nof only aio they ahic to (litest easily foods that an^ rate*! :i.s diHiciill. to diKcsf, Imt tlie\- nia\' actiiall\- need food (lial will rctpiire at least mod- erate work on the part of the digestive tract. 'I'hey may have a disafireeaMe feeling of hunp;er, even when siifFieiently fed, if the food consumed does not "stay by " them for a certain jK'riod of time. Just the reverse is true of tlu; indoor worker who ases lii^ muscles but little. These facts are often overlooked, and fre(iuently the entire dietary is shaped to the needs of one member of the family. Hard nniscular work increases the need for energy-producinp; foods but does not materially affect the need for othel* types of food. Examples of dcnir able food combumtionH Some simple combinations will serve to show how few foods may l)e put together and yet answer all requirements. Menu I \Vh()lo-\vho;it bread ^^'hole-milk Prunes A dietary must be built on broad lines even if it is simple, and care must be taken not to err by a simplicity which excludes any needed food constituent. Inhere arc many persons who have acciuired a tlistaste for milk unless it is served in some cooked form. When this is the ease and when warm food is desired, a meal but little less simple than the one just suggested may be prepared by making the "hearty dish" a vegetable cream soup. Such soups, which are easy to make, nutritious, and very delicious if well cooked and seasoned, are too little used in the family dietary. Menu II Cream of potato .soup, or any vrpotahlc soup having a milk foundation Bread and butter Fruit or a surrul(>nt vcfictalilc Any one of the following combinations makes a well-balanced meal if sufficient amounts of the food are consumeil. This does PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 433 not indicate that they are ideal for all conditions. Babies, small children, and persons who have a weakened digestive system would not l)e given baked beans and l)rown bread, or bread and cheese. Menu III Menu IV Eggs Oatmeal, with sugar and thin Bread and butter cream or whole-milk Fruit or some vegetable Fruit Menu V Menu VI Baked soybeans Bread and cheese Brown bread Onions Cabbage salad with egg dressing Menu VII Meat Bread and butter Green vegetables While the food combinations just given theoretically answer all dietary requirements, they may not be practical in those cases in which food habits of long standing lead the individual to demand a greater variety. The appetite accustomed to stronger fare might pall if stimulated only with such simple mixtures. A basis for more elaborate menus is as follows : Menu VIII Cream soup Bread and butter Meat Potatoes Cabbage Baked apples and cream FOOD FOR THE PROSPECTIVE MOTHER . The woman's food needs ar-e very little increased during the first months of the growth of the child. Even if the appetite is small and trouble is experienced with nausea, the actual growth of the child is so little as not to be seriously effective at this time, in most cases. During the later months of preg- nancy the increase in food needs of the mother are still compar- atively small, probably not more than 15 to 20 per cent above I.'vl 1 MWl \l. Oh' I in Ml-: \l \KI\(; ii()IIm:iI. This docs not iiiciii tli;it the food tor the prospoffivo Miotlicr is uiiiinportaiit. It i> hi.u;lily itiiport.-iiit tJiat she should h:i\(' :iii ;i(l('(|ii;itc ;iiid wcll-halaiiccd (Hdarv. She needs it lo keep her ediciency ami to produce an cllicicnt child. It should he her problem to maintain a normally eliicient diet, inereiisinj; it towurd the close of the period. Foods needed by the j)rospeclive mother are: (1) Milk. From a pint to a (piart of milk a day should 1k' used to supply liino, efficient protein, and the two {growth-essential substances. (2) Cereals made from the whole f^rain should be used to supply energy, protein, and iron, and to increase the laxative .substance-s in the diet. (3) Fruits and vep;ctal)les. To give flavor, needed salts, lime, iron, and laxative substances, fruits and vegetables are essential. (Ireen vegetables are especiall}' valualjle for the iron that they suj^ply. (4) J\Ieat or eggs or cheese. Once a day meat, eggs, and cheese may be used, although they are not needed if the mother receives fully a quart of milk. (5) Bread and ))utter. The dietary may be completed with l)read and butter. It is of especial importance that the diet of the pro- spective mother should be laxative if she has any tendency to constipation. FOOD FOR THE NURSING MOTHER The food need of the nursing mother is increased in proportion to the amount of milk she produces and the child consumes. It has been estimated that hvv food needs are increased as follows: For the first 3 months al)out 90 calories foi' each i)()und of the bal)y's weight For the second 3 months about 85 calories for each jMiund of the baby's weight For the third 3 months aljout 80 calories for each i)ound of the baliy's weight For the fourth 3 months about 70 calories for each pound of the baby's weight. This means a marked increase in the mother's energy needs. For example, if the bal)y weighs 10 pounds when it is a month old, the mother nuisf increase the caloric value of her diet 10 PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 435 times 90 calories, or about 900 calories. A quart of milk, an egg, two pieces of bread, and an extra allowance of vegetables will accomplish this. The mother's diet must supply not only more energy but also more protein of good quality, more lime, more phosphorus, more iron, and more of the two essential unknown growth- promoting substances, or so-called vitamines. If the diet of the mother does not supply efficient food, she cannot manufac- ture sufficient milk of good quality to meet the needs of the baby. Two of the best foods to increase the amount of protein, lime, phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances in the diet are milk and eggs. Eggs give in addition considerable iron. The diet of the nursing mother should be laxative, and con- sequently fruits, mild-flavored vegetables, and breakfast foods and breads made from the whole cereal grain should play an important part. There is no truth in the old superstition that fruits in the diet of the mother produce colic in the baby. FORMULAS FOR INFANT FEEDING If a baby cannot be fed by its own mother, the next best thing is the milk of some other animal. A study of the food needs (pages 407 to 412) will soon show why milk is practi- cally an essential food for little children. The following sim- ple formulas may be of service to mothers who are unable to nurse their own babies. First week First day: 1 to 2 ounces of water every 4 hours. Second to fourth days: Mix 3 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 2 teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings. Fifth to seventh days: Mix 4 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 3 teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings. First week to third month Mix 5 ounces of milk, 9 to 11 ounces of water, and 3 tablespoons of milk- sugar, and divide the mixture into six or seven feedings. Gradually increasi^ the amounts until at the end of the period the mixture contains about IG ounces of milk, 14 to IS ounces of water, and 43^ tablespoons of milk-sugar. Third month to sixth month Mix 16 ounces of milk, 14 to 18 ounces of water, and 43^ tablespoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into five or six feedings. Gradually I'M) A MAXIM, or HOME MAKISC incrciuso tho Hinount.s until at the closo of tlir- period the ihixturc conUiinH about 24 ounros of milk, !» to l.} ounrcs of water, and t'2 tal to 8 ounces of warm milk; thin piece of crisp toast or twice- baked bread; slightly cooked egg. Mid-afternoon lunch: 2 or 3 tablespoons of orange juice or other mild fruit juice. Supper: 6 to 8 ounces of milk; 1 or 2 tablespoons of thoroughly cooked, strained cereal with top milk. Type of meals for children IS months to 2 years old Breakfast (6:30-7:30 A. M.): Warm milk with lightly buttered bread; or cereal with thin cream, glass of warm milk; or lightly cooked egg, lightly buttered bread, glass of warm milk. Mid-morning meal (10 A. M.): (lla.ss of milk with .slice of bread. Dinner (1-2 1'. M.): Ma.shed i)()tato with dish gravy, breati and milk, very small serving liaked api)le or prune pulp; or liglitly cooked egg, bread and milk, small serving l)ake(l ai)i)le or prune; or mashed s])inach, carrots, or similar vegetable, bread and milk, small serving very simple junket or ri(;e pudding or similar simple de.s.sert. Mid-afternoon meal: tablespoon oi orange juice or .scraped apple. Supper (5-0 P. M.): Bread and milk or milk toast. PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 437 Although the child may be at the family table from about the third year, he should not be allowed the freedom of the family dietary. It is far better for the child to learn that certain foods are not for his consumption. There is no better lesson in self- control or temperance than the one that may be taught in this simple way. Type of meals for children 2 to 4 years old Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, or lightly cooked egg with toast and milk. Mid-morning meal (10-11 A. M.): Bread and milk. Dinner: Lightly cooked egg, buttered baked potato, bread, milk, stewed fruit; or mashed vegetables, such as spinach, puree of peas, or carrots, bread, milk, light pudding, such as rice or bread pudding or junket, or occasionally a simple ice cream; or bread and milk, baked potato and one other vegetable, small serving of pudding. Supper (5-6 P. M.) : Bread and butter, milk; or cereal mush and milk; or bread and milk, and stewed prunes or apple-sauce. Type of meals for children 4 to 8 years old Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Stewed fruit; cereal with whole milk or thin cream, bread and milk; an egg may be added to this meal. Mid-morning meal: Milk with thin slice of bread and butter. Dinner (12-1 P. M.): Lightly cooked egg, spinach or peas or beans well mashed, baked potato or boiled rice, stewed fruit or light pudding. Supper: Well-cooked cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, stewed fruit; or hghtly cooked egg, bread and butter, milk to drink, baked apple. Type of meals for children from 8 to 12 years old Breakfast: Cereal with thin cream; eggs, poached, boiled, or scrambled; milk with bread and butter; fruit may be eaten at this meal. Mid-morning meal: Glass of milk and a cracker. Dinner: Small piece of steak or roast, fish or chicken; potato, rightly cooked cabbage or other vegetable; bread and butter and milk; some simple dessert, such as custard, bread and jelly, or fruit. Supper: Eggs or cream soup or milk toast, bread and butter, milk, stewed fruit or bread and jelly. Type of meals for boys and girls 12 to 16 years old Breakfast: Stewed or fresh fruit; well-cooked cereal with thin cream or whole milk; bread and butter; milk or cocoa; eggs, if available. Luncheon or supper: Scalloped hominy and cheese; bread and butter; milk or cocoa; fruit, raw or cooked. Dinner: Small serving of meat (a meat substitute may be used) ; mashed, baked, boiled or creamed potatoes; a liberal serving of some succulent vegetable; bread and butter; milk; a simple dessert. ciiAiTi:!; will MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD By Anna ITunx The housewife has the duly and j)rivilege of speiidiiiK foi* food on an average of about 30 or 40 per cent of the family income. Hers is the tremendous responsibility of seeing liiat the family is supplied with food necessary for its growth and maintenance at its highest efficiency. Good buying is based on knowledge. This knowledge may be obtained only through practice and study. The housewife should, therefore, be alert and (juick to seize evcny opi)oi-tunity to know more of the production, the marketing, the nutritive value, and the cost of the vast number of articles which she has to buy. She is expected to be expert in the buying of not only one article, but hundreds. She has an unlimitcnl field for study. A good l)uyer plans for the present and for the future. She carefully considers the material in the storerooms, ice-boxes, and gardens, and plans to buy only that which will supplement or enable her to use the food already on hand. The next step is to visit the markets. The good buyer rarely telephones. The exceptions to this rule would be an emergency call or the buying of standard products, such as sugar, cereals, spices, or known brands of goods. The housewife uses the senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell in her final judgment of food. It is quite as essential that she should use the same senses in buying food. To do this it is necessary that she should go to market. For buying commodi- ties it might be well to have the following points in mind: A definite amount should be ord(>r(>d in pounds or definite nieas- ur(>; the unit price of the connnodity should be ascertained; correct scales and measures should be used and the full amount • 438 MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 439 paid for delivered. To check the measures and weights, cor- rect scales and measures should be a part of every kitchen equipment (page 129). BUYING FRESH OR STAPLE FOODSTUFFS Kind of food. The kind of food which the buyer seeks is based on the family's standard of living. Such as may quite properly be bought by those who can afford it, may not be at all suitable for those with a smaller income. In order to choose wisely between two or more foods, the housewife should know the nutritive value, the proportion of edible and non-edible material, and the cost. This knowledge comes only through study and comparison. Grade of food. After the buyer has decided on the kind of food to buy, the next step is to select the grade best suited to individual needs. To be able to judge of grades, it is necessary to know the stand- ard products, or to know the qualities that enhance and the qualities that decrease the value of the food. In the case of fresh fruits and vegetables, the standard prod- uct should be well-matiu'ed, sound, free from blemish, uniform in size and shape, of good color, fresh, clean, and well packed. Most of these qualities may be determined by the eye, some by the touch, and others by the odor and the taste. Among grades, as among foods themselves, there are differences in nutritive value, in proportion of edible and non-edible material, and in cost. These differences may be determined only by study and comparison. Selection of meat is discussed on page 510, and canned foods on page 445. Up to the present time, most food has been graded from the point of view of the producer rather than of the consumer. Few foods have been graded and labeled so that the consmiier and the merchant can talk on the same basis. Until this is done, it will be difficult for the housewife to buy intelligently. She should, however, read carefully the labels on all packages I 10 A MAM A I. or HOME MAKISC >li(>\viii|i llic net \v('i^;lits mihI the coiniKoil idii of llic con- Iciils. Anioiiiit to In hdUijId. After the kind and tirade of food have lKd is to be served; the keeping {[ualities of the food (the amount bought should be small enough to prevent depreciation); the available storage facilitic^s; the amount of money available to in- vest (interest on the money invested in food shouki be added to the cost of the food); the terms of contract; the relative advan- TABLE XXII. — Servings of Vegetables in One Pound Vegetable Asparagus Beans, dry Beans, string. . . Beets Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Celery Onions Parsnips Potatoes Salsify Brussels sprouts . Spinach Squash, summer Squash, winter. . Sweet potatoes. Swiss chard .... Tomatoes Turnips Approxiinale size X umber servings of sennng in one pound H cup 4 H cup 8-9 H cup 4 Vz cup 4-5 M cup 3 14 eup 4-5 ^4CUp 3 H cup 4 Vz eup 4 1 2 eup 4 H cup 3 ^2 cup 3 Hcup 5-6 ' 2 cup 4 ? 2 cup 1-2 ' 2 cup 2-3 1 potato 3-4 J^cup 3-4 }4 cup 3-4 ' 2 CUl) 4-5 MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 441 tages of buying in large quantities; the season of the year (it is best to buy large amounts of food for storage when the new crops come in; this is especially true of dried fruits and many grain products, which come on the market but once a year) ; the cost. Bulk or unit ^package. When the amount to be bought has been determined, the housewife must decide whether to buy in bulk or package, and, if in package, the size of the unit. It is genei'ally cheaper to buy in bulk than in package. (See Table XXIII.) The package costs more because of the container and the labor involved in packing and handling. The package, on the other hand, has the merit of being air-tight and dirt-proof. For these and other reasons it is preferred by some persons. It is possible, however, for the grocer to keep food in bulk in a satisfactory and sanitary condition. Buying in bulk usually necessitates storage in moist- TABLE XXIII.- COMPARISON OF CoST OF FoOD BoUGHT IN PACKAGE AND IN Bulk Food Bacon Cocoa Cocoanut Codfish Coffee Crackers (soda) . . . Crackers (graham) Ginger snaps Ginger Macaroni Peanut butter . . . . Peas (a can) Raisins Rolled oats Saltines Starch Tapioca Vinegar Cost of package .38 .04 .24 .35 .05 .10 .05 .075 .10 .30 .18 .135 .13 .15 .09 .25 .24 Weight or measure of contents of package 9 ounces 16 ounces 3 . 5 ounces 16 ounces 16 ounces 24 crackers 33 crackers 5 ounces 4 ounces 12.5 ounces 20 ounces 2 cups 15 ounces 20 ounces 45 crackers 16 ounces 16 ounces 1 quart Amount obtainable in bulk for the same money 13 . 3 ounces 30.4 ounces 5.75 ounces 20 ounces 17.5 ounces 35 crackers 48 crackers 8 ounces 6 ounces 16 ounces 27 ounces 4 cups cooked 16 ounces 23 ounces 96 crackers 19.5 ounces 19 ounces 2 quarts II 'J .1 M.WIAL (IF IlOMi: M.\KI\(; lire and Ncniiiii-prdol iccrplarlo. Siidi icccptacrlos acciiriiM- lati" in cvciy liouschold and slioiilil l»c sa\'c(| for tlii> purpose. Units of sdlr. Most coiiiiiHiilil ics arc sold l)y llic pound. 'I'lic tciiilcucy is to increase llic nuuiher llius sold, since tlie ix)und is an exact TAHLE XXIW — r.MTs IN WHICH Vecetahlks akk Solo in Ni:\v Vokk State Vcgeliiblc Asparagus Means, striiifi;. . . . Hoans, lima Hoots lirussols sprouts. . ('al)l)aunch; dozen bunches Pound Hushel measure Piece; dozen; barrel Pound Piece Hunch; dozen bunches Pound l*ound Piiund; standard ' j bushel (Tate Pound Hunch; dozen Itunches MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 443 TABLE XXV. — Units in which Fruits are sold in New York State Fruit Unit Apples Pound; standard barrel (3 bushels) Apricots Bananas California crate, 22 pounds Pound Berries Cantaloupes Cranberries . Quart; crate of 32 quarts Pound; crate according to size Pound; 100 pounds in a barrel Piece; box of from 46 to 96 grapefruit Pound Dozen; box of from 300 to 360 lemons Grape fruit Grapes Lemons Oranges Peaches Dozen; box of from 96 to 250 oranges Pound; standard 3^ bushel peach basket Pound Pears Pineapples Plums Quinces Rhubarb Watermelon Piece; case Standard }4 bushel basket By measure Pound Piece measure, whereas the bunch or basket or other container is too often unstandardized. (See Tables XXIV and XXV.) Price. The price to pay depends on market conditions. The market and crop conditions may be learned by a study of the market reports in the daily newspapers. These prices, however, are generally wholesale prices, and since the latter are not always reflected in the retail market, they serve only as a guide. Local crop and local market conditions may be such as either to lower or raise the retail price. In order to obtain the best price, it is necessary for the housewife to study the prices at the local stores and then, if possible, compare them with prices of some out-of- town firm. Where to buy. The question of where to buy may be settled by buying where the maximum value can be obtained for the minimum price. This place can be determined by a study of markets. It is al- ways advisable to know the sanitary conditions surrounding the .1 MAMAL or ll(>\4K MAKISC prddiiclioM and iiiiirki'tiiiji; of tlic |)i(» Iw (•()Msi(|('i('(| t he lactor of discounts, generally l)asc<| on llic amount hou^lit , t he t inic ami place (jf delivery, and I lie dcliveiy diaries. When l)U.\ iufj; from out of (own, it. is necessary to consider the cost of freight and cartage. Cheapness does not always mean ^;ood (juality or full weight. lOvery food at a reduced i)rice is ofTered for one of two reasons: because the market is over- supplied; or because the owner is afraid to li-k further deprecia- tion. In most cases this depreciation has already' set in, and it is unwise to l)uy such food unless it can be used immediately. If the dealer is selling goods below the market price, the goods are generally below the market standards. Only an expert can know a bargain. Ins-pedion of goods on delivery. On arrival at the house, goods should be opened and examined as to grade and c(jn(lition. If not acceptable, they should be returned at once. The goods should be checked with the in- voice for quantity and weight, price of units, and total costs. The invoice sliould be filed to check with the weekly or monthly' bill. Records. In the case of staples, it is often desirable to keep a stock Stock Record — Sugar Price a Total Yearly con- Date A mount pound COfit Inventory sumption (Potmds) (f)ollars) (Dollars) {Pounds) (Pounds) 1910 8/17 .") (I'.t .45 8/2S 10 .OS .SO 9/5 25 .05 1 . 25 9/20 15 .071 2 1.14 1917 2/10 50 05 2 50 4/15 25 i;io 05 1 25 7 :v.) 9/7 is 112 9 '21 100 ()'.» \) 00 MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 445 record. The form of record as here suggested for sugar enables one to tell at a glance the date, the amount bought, and the price paid for the article in question. The housekeeper has in these stock cards a basis on which to buy for the coming year. In case no other records (page 177) are kept, it is desirable to include the name of the firm from whom the goods were bought. Storage. The proper storing of food is very important, because only by having good storage conditions can there be profit in buying in large quantities. It is desirable to have cool, dry, and well- ventilated store-rooms (page 583). Fresh vegetables, fresh fruits, and dried vegetables and fruits should be kept in such a storeroom, and should be so packed as to allow free circulation of air. The exceptions to this rule are sweet potatoes, which should be stored in a dry, warm place, and bananas, which should never be allowed to chill since this causes them to blacken. Staples, such as cereals, flours, sugars, and other dry products should be kept in dry, moderately cool, well-ventilated storage. Meat, fish, butter, and milk may be kept at a lower temperature, 36° F., or lower. Low temperature and lack of moisture both tend to retard the growth of micro-organisms that cause spoilage. Most storage foods should be well matured before being stored and should be looked over at certain intervals for the removal of any decayed or spoiled portions. BUYING CANNED FOODS* Grading fruits and vegetables for canning. Before one can distinguish the relative values of market grades of canned goods, it is necessary to know how these are determined by the packer. For fruits and vegetables the lines of quality determination are much the same and as follows : * The following discussion of canned foods is condensed from Canned Foods, Fruits and Vegetables, by Florence R. Corbett, Tech. Education Bull. 18, Teachers College, Columbia University. IK) .1 MAM AL olHt/Mi: MM fruit, provided it is unifoi-ni and fj;ood in other respects, the higher it will be graded. The smaller vef^etables arc graded highest, since they arc gen- erally younger and tenderer, juicier, and sweeter. Fhivor is an important factor to the consumer, but does not take precedence of size, texture, and color in grading either fruits or vegetables, because the buyer is generall}' infhienced by the handsome appearance of fruits or the delicate appear- ance of immature vegetables which may be quite lacking in flavor. The pul)lic's preference is taken into consideration, and fine-flavored products, not notable for size or color, may be graded lower than those of pleasing appearance and infer- ior flavor. A striking illustration of this is found in the jiri-f- erence for very small peas which consist principally of skins, water, and a little sugar. Because of public preference, these are graded higher than the larger peas of rich flavor and higher nutritive value. Texture. — Fine texture is a characteristic of high-gi-ade fruits and vegetables. Tough peas and l)eans, fibrous oki'a and a-^- paragus are graded low. Color. — The natural color of the jiroduct when at its best is the standard of the high-grade pack. Unfortunately, the attempt to emulate nature has l)een overdone by some packers to the point where most of the public have come to regard cop- per-greened i^eas and beans as superior to those of nature's green. Now that the law requires that the facts regarding the use of coloring matter be stated on the jiackage. the jiublic is in a position to choose between the natural and the artificial, the safe and the possibly harmful. Fortunately, it is the fancy grades of vegetables which receive the copper treatment, such as the MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 447 very small peas and beans in which the nutritive value is low and the piice prohibitively high to the average buyer. Even when the natural color of the vegetable after cooking is the standard sought, grading of the product is still done on color lines. Peas that have an occasional yellow one in the lot are graded lower than those uniformly green, while if many are yellowish the lot is graded lower still. String beans containing an occasional brown or rusty pod are graded lower than those uniformly green. Form, whole or cut. — The fruit or vegetable of suitable size which is sufficiently perfect — free from bruise and spots of de- cay — to can whole is of the highest grade, provided it grades high on other points. Those cut in halves grade next highest, such as peaches, apricots,'^pears, and apples, and those in slices next, such as sliced peaches. Smaller pieces, sometimes re- ferred to as chips, grade lower yet. Pineapple slices afford the highest grade in that fruit, the chunks and cubes grading next and the chipped, grated, and crushed pineapple respectively lower. Preparation; peeled, unpeeled, pitted, corec?.— Those fruits which are improved by peeling are left unpeeled only in the lowest grades. The same is true of pitting and coring, except when the fruit is handsome in appearance but unsound at the pit or core. Medium of packing. — Fruits packed in water are of the lowest grade and generally known as "pie" fruit. Those packed in sirups are graded according to the density of the sirup, 35° to 40° sirup being used for preserves, such as strawberries, 30° to 34° for fancy peaches, plums and other fruit for table sauce; 25° to 28° for high-grade fruits for table sauce; 20° to 25° for a still less rich grade of table sauce, and 10° to 20° for very light sirup suitable only on sweet fruits or those to which more sugar will be added in preparation for the table. Juicy vegetables such as tomatoes are now by law required to be packed in their own juice. Other vegetables must be packed in as little water as is necessary to immerse them completely. A little salt and sugar are allowed in the liquid. 44S .1 MAX I A L OF HOME MAKISC Trade trrnis. "Pie fruit" is the lowest cliiss of fruit. In poachos thoro are two p;racl('s, the unpoolcd and the poc^lcd, the latter hrinjiinji; tlu; higher price. The "standard " f^rade {)f li nil laiiks next. It has t he lij^htest sirup and consists of the iclali\'el.\' infeiioi- fruits in si/e, color, flavor, and texture. "Extra stantlard," "extra," and "fancy" are terms ap|)lie(i to fz;rades increasiuffly ^ood. If fruit.s ^rade liijih as to variety, color, size, flavor, texture, and arc packed in heav^- sirup, they will he graded as Fancy, and fruits less good will fall into the other group grades according to the degree in wliich they ap- proximate the grade called Fancy, and according to the weight of sirup used. That it is quite impossible under this system to depend on the term Fancy representing the same quality of fruit year after year is easily seen, for the crops yielded of various fruits are seldom of the same standard in successive years. The same is true of any grade. In a good year the trade known a,s Standard may prove better than the Extra Standard in a poor year. This makes for uncertainty on the part of the purchaser, and any buyer of large quantities of canned goods finds it nec- essary to see the contents of tins selected as samples and to order according to sample as well as by grade and trade name. The small buyer is at a great disadvantage in being unable to do this. The trade terms for grades of vegetables are in general the same as for fruits. The poorest of southern-grown produce and the trimmings of northern-grown are graded below standard. In tomatoes these sub-standard grades are sometimes known as "pulp" and "purde." In peas they are known as "seconds" and "soaked." This last term refers to peas that have grown too hard for canning purposes, l)ut have lieen soaked in water from twelve to thirty-six hours and then canned. Quality of canned goods. On opening the can the vohniic of the contents in i-elation to the capacity of the can should be noted. The contents should MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 449 fill the can; any considerable space between the top of the can and the surface of the contents should count against the grade of the product. Any excess of liquid, that is, moi'e than is necessary to im- merse the solids, lowers the grade of the package. The presence of any foreign material such as drops of solder or bits of paper, which indicate careless methods in packing, should be looked for. Peas. — In canned peas, a very cloudy or starchy liquid prob- ably indicates that the peas have been "soaked." This would be confirmed by the peas being mealy, large, and with skins easily loosened in the can. Since peas are graded according to size, those known as "sifted," whatever the size, are higher in price than the unsifted, sometimes known as "the run of the garden." A large number of yellowish peas in a can indicates inferior quality and flavor. String beans.— The smaller string beans, less than two inches in length, are high priced and more decorative than nutritious. Those over three inches in length are coarse. Those between two and three inches are generally satisfactory. The "cut" beans ai'e cheaper but not uniformly good in flavor and texture. Lima beans. — The smaller lima beans, bush limas, are higher in price and generally of a better color than the large beans, pole limas. Cor7i. — Canned corn that is very milky or full of Hquid may be sweet, but it does not grade so high as the dry packs and does not keep so well. Okra. — Young okra is tender and the pods are canned whole. This brings a better price than the older pods which are cut before being packed. Spinach. — Good spinach is packed whole, that is, the leaves are not cut. The chopped packs lack the fresh flavor of the other and their quality is less certain. Tomatoes. — Tomatoes "hand packed" and "cold packed" are put whole into the cans while raw and steamed, so that they are cooked in their own juice. If any additional juice is re- quired to fill the crevices, it is supposed to be tomato juice. 450 .1 .U.l.\7M/. or HOME M.\Kisa Toinalocs so packed aic -iipciinr to tliox' cooked before the cans are filletl, and will lie IoiiikI [tract ic;ill\' whole when the can i- opened. /'V(//7.s. -All laij^e I'niits aic inoi-e expensi\'e in tins than are small fruits, heeause the tins are more solidly filled with the latter and more portions can he ser\'e(l from a tin of given size. Of the lar}2;e fruits canned whole or in halves, neither the largest nor the smallest are the most ecftnoinical investment, hut rather the medium si7x>. This is heeause portions are made l)y the piece rather than the spoonful and the very large pieces are few to the tin, while the very small necessitate two or more pieces being served to the portion. Large fruits bought in the cut. form, for example, peach slices, peach chips, and pineapple chips, are most economical of all, for the same reason that small fruits are economical. Safe and unsafe tin cans. ''Sanitary'^ cans. — Until the last few years it was the general custom to seal tin cans by soldering. It was inevitable that some small portion of the solder should be exposed to the action of the contents of the can, and frequently' drops of solder were lost among the contents of the can. The "sanitary" can is now used by the best packers. In this can the food is hermetically sealed without the use of solder by a clever mechanical device which folds and compresses the overlapping edges of the top and sides of the can. Such cans are stamped "Sanitaiy" on one end, and the consumer should discriminate in their favor for his own safety and to encourage the use of the best methods in packing. Lacqucr-lined cans. — To prevent the undesirable reaction be- tween acid fruits and vegetables and the metal of the cans, all tins em])lo3'er of two cans at the same price, he does not know whether it is the heavier can. If it is the heavier, he does not know until he opens it whether th(> extra weight is due to an excess of li(]uid, or solidity of pack, oi- excessive weight of tin can and sokler. Such buying is of course absurdly ex- travagant. MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 453 O s &1 fes fe s -I rt o N N N- ^• ^• ^ o" O o o o ? 3 ^ !N IN v* ^ ^t ■o o (N e -S ^~ '^ IM 05 M g c3^ 2 -fl a M rt "^^ o § T3 a o e3 ►^ =3 U e3 ., rrt .. r^ i^: :^ a a ° 'ft'S^'ft'x'O'is'D.S'o.ajU'p. . s« swasa^sw a^ CO 03 M tB M CO 454 A M.wr.M. or HOME makisc SiKjycKtions far the consutnir. In l)uyiiij; cMiiiicd ^(kxIs, ono slimiM not diofj^c llic fans hc- causo of the pictures on tlie labels. One should not hesitate to recjuirc of llio dealer as much in- formation re^;ardin}i; th(» (|uantity and (lualily of canned food as repirdin^ a purchase of food in any other form. Influence should he u.sed to obtain legislation that will re- (luire uniform standards for all packers in all states; uniform laws regarding labeling for all packers in all states; and labels declaring accurately the quality and ([uantity of the contents of the can, and giving the weight of solid materials and the measure of liquid. References U. S. Dei)t. of Afir., Farmers' Bull., 203. U. S. Dept. of Afir., Bur. of Chein., Circ. 54, Analysi.s of Canned Peas and Beans. U. S. Dept. of Comineree and Lahor: Census Bull, on Manufactures, 1902. Bull. 61, Census of Manufactures, 1905. CHAPTER XIX FOOD FOR THE SICK By Flora Rose Only such directions for feeding the sick will be given as may be of service in minor illnesses treated without the advice of a physician or as may aid in carrying out the directions of a phy- sician in more serious illnesses. In all sickness the diet should be a matter of some considera- tion. A change from the comparative activity of health to the comparative passivity of most cases of sickness means in itself a readjustment of dietary habits. Many disorders are caused partly by diet and are in turn much affected by dietary changes. Colds, constipation, indigestion, and some cases of fever are of this nature. Sick persons need as much energy as well ones who live under the same conditions. Moreover, fever patients are using up considerably more energy than well persons. Nevertheless, at the beginning of any illness which may have been affected by food eaten, it is generally desirable to rest the digestive tract by a day or more of fasting and by several days of moder- ate diet. If there is prospect of a protracted illness, a fasting period is usually limited to one day. If the illness is brief and particularly if food aggravates it, the fasting period may be ex- tended over two or even three days, depending on the response and vigor of the patient. FLUID DIET Generally illness means that the body is below par and cannot stand the strain of even normal conditions. This necessitates reducing all kinds of work which the individual would normally 455 45G .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKlXd do. The (lif^estivo origans, as well as other parts of the l)0(ly, must liavc lost. The food should therefore he rechiced in total aiuounl and should he (»f a kind that is readily digested arid al)soil»e(l. Foods in a fluid or soft condition meet this require- ment most .satisfactorily. They arc dilute and have a.s a rule a rather low food value. A fluid diet has in general a food value lower than actual body needs. This is desiral)le in most ca.se.s in which rest for the digestive organs is of prime imixjrtance. A fluid diet may be so constitutetl, however, as to meet actual food needs. The food value of the fluid diet must depend on the condition and needs of the patient. TABLE XXVI I.— Foods for a Fluid Diet Kind of food Broths, clear soups, beef tea . Beef juice. Milk Cereal gruels . Eggs. Qualifications as food for the sick .\greeable to taste, stitiiulatin);, com- forting. Good as carriers of extra nu- trition, .such as ce- reals and eggs. Low in food value. Easily digested pro- tein food. Expen- sive. Most valuable sick- room food. Ila.s all- round nutritive value. Is a good carrier of other nu- trients, such as eggs, cereals, sugar, cream Good when appetite and assimilation are poor. Rapidly di- gested and absorbed. Easily enriched. If cereal dextrinized, easy way of increas- ing nutritive value becau.se the amount of cereal in gruel can be increased. Valuable to increa.se nutritive value of otlier foods, such ns eggnoRs, egg witli fruit juice, egg with broth or gruel. A valuable all-round food. Proportions for making 1 pound moat gives 3 3 cup juice 1 ounce cereal to 1 qt. water 2 oxmces cereal to 1 qt. water 1 ounce cereal to 1 qt. milk 2 ounces cereal to 1 qt. milk ounces dextrin- ized cereal to 1 qt. water ounces dextrin- ized cereal to 1 qt. milk Comparatire fuel value I cup givet 23 calories 1 cup gives 50 calories 1 cup gives 130 calories 1 cup gives 25 calories 1 cup gives .W calories 1 cup gives 175 calories 1 cup gives 200 calories 1 cup gives OOO-SOO calories 1 cup gives 750-900 calories 1 egg gives GO to 100 calories 1 egg white gives 13 to 14 calories 1 egg yolk gives 77 to St> calories ■ FOOD FOR THE SICK 457 A typical meal plan for a temporary fluid diet having low food value. The following diet is low in calorie value and must be in- creased as soon as possible. Pood should be given every two hours. 1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk or 3^ cup coffee with J^ cup milk. 2nd meal: Fruit juice with egg (K cup fruit juice, 1 to 4 teaspoons sugar, 1 egg white, 3^ cup water) . 3rd meal : 1 cup broth or beef tea. 4th meal: 1 cup cereal gruol made with milk. 5th meal: 3-2 cup fruit juice diluted with 3-2 cup water. , 6th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk. 7th meal: 1 cup broth. 8th meal: 3-2 cup milk mixed with 1 egg and sweetened with 1 teaspoon sugar. 9th meal: 1 cup broth or beef tea. A typical meal plan for a fluid diet for a lasting illness. The following diet may be planned approximately to meet the food needs of the patient. If the illness is to be of long duration, this is necessary. Food should be given every two hours. 1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk. 2nd meal: 1 cup cocoa or milk flavored with coffee. 3rd meal: Albuminized fruit juice (3-^ cup fruit juice, 1 to 3 teaspoons sugar, 1 egg, 14 cup water). 4th meal: Cream soup, with egg added. 5th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel flavored with beef extract. 6th meal: 1 cup milk flavored with orange juice, 7th meal: 1 cup albuminized fruit juice. 8th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel. 9th meal: 1 eggnog. SOFT OR SEMI-SOLID DIET Many sick persons thrive better on a soft diet than on a fluid one. This is particularly true for those persons who dis- like milk. A soft diet is the first step after the fluid diet and may, if necessary, replace it. Foods for a soft or semi-solid diet are : Toast made with milk, cream, water, or beef juice; custards, whips, junket, gelatins, 458 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or ii()\ir: makixc soft piiddiiifis; (»in('l('ts, soll-codUcd {•\n!;s; I li(H()im;lily ••ooked, .strained cereals. LKillT OK ('(JN'VALESCEXT IJIKT Lijilit diet should be f^iven in cDnvaloseenee ff)lIo\vinK the fluid and soft, diets, and in Ihosc^ cases not n(;edin^!; special dietary consideration. It is \hv. normal ' dining this tiiue. When food is resumed, a limited fluid diet siiould he followed for two oi- three days (see fluid diet. paf>;e 455) and gradually chanKcd into a lif^ht tliet. Under- feeding should !)(• the lule until the digestive organs jiavo re- sumed their balance. DIET IN FEVER The old adage, "stufT a cold and starve a fever" has been completely reversed. Colds arc now starved, while fevers arc starved only long enough to rest the digestive organs. There- after effort is made to supply sufficient food to keep the body from any considerable loss of tissue. This is particularly well ilhistrated in the modern treatment for typhoid fever. General directions for feeding fever -patients. 1. Rest tho (ligostive tract for a day or longer by a reduction of total food. Gradually increase the amount of food. 2. At all times give onlj' tho.se foods which are readily digested and al)- sorbed. A fluid diet may be best. 3. Give a small (juantity of liquid very frequently since thirst is great at this time and should be relieved. 4. Give food in small quantities at frequent intervals, from \^2 to 2 hours. The outline of a fluid diet of high fuel value (page 456) will give some idea of the needs of fever patients and ways of meeting these needs. Foods which may he used in fever. 1. Milk may be used up to Ij^^ to 2 quarts a day. It may be modified by diluting it with water, or by adding cooked cereal, cream, milk-sugar, egg, or malted milk. Its taste may be modified by adiling I)eef extract, cocoa, coffee, or tea. 2. Clear soups such as broths, beef tea, and beef juice may be used. 3. Eggs. — Fresh eggs may be used up to 4 or sometimes 6 a day. They may be fed raw, in milk or fruit juice, or they may be very slightly cooked. 4. Cream may l)e used in moderate quantities, and must be used with caution since fat is likely to overtax the digestive organs. 5. Sugar. — The best sugar is milk-sugar, since it is only slightly sweet. Up to 6 or 8 ounces may be used daily. 6. Cereals. — Well-cooked cereals may be steamed and given in milk as gruels. FOOD FOR THE SICK 463 7. Soft, toast may be used in those cases in which difficulty is experienced with a fluid diet. Diet for typhoid fever. A diet high in fuel value is now used for typhoid patients, the condition of the patient governing the amount of food given. The following modified milk diets illustrate high calorie pos- sibilities of a simple fluid diet. Modified Milk Diets for Typhoid Fever * Calories For 1000 calories a day: Milk, 1000 c. c. (1 quart) 700 Cream, 50 c. c. (1-2/3 oz.) 100 Lactose, 50 gm. (1-2/3 oz.) 200 This furnishes eight feedings, each containing: Milk, 120 c. c. (4 oz.) 80 Cream, 8 gm. (2 dr.) 15 Lactose, 6 gm. (1 J^ dr.) 24 For 2000 calories a day: Milk, 1500 c. c. {VA quarts) 1000 Cream, 240 c. c. (8 oz.) 500 Lactose, 125 gm. (4 oz.) 500 This furnishes seven feedings, each containing: Milk, 210 c. c. (7 oz.) 140 Cream, 30 c. c. (1 oz.) 60 Lactose, 18 gm. (4K dr.) 72 For 3000 calories a day: Milk, 1500 c. c. (VA quarts) 1000 Cream, 480 c. c. (1 pint) 1000 Lactose, 250 gm. (8 oz.) 1000 This furnishes eight feedings, each containing: Milk, 180 c. c. (6 oz.) 120 Cream, 60 c. c. (2 oz.) 120 Lactose, 30 gm. (1 oz.) 120 FOOD FOR TUBERCULOSIS PATIENTS Tuberculosis is almost always accompanied by fever. Un- fortunately lack of appetite may be associated with the in- creased food need that is due to fever and wasting tissue. The problem is, therefore, threefold: (1) to increase the appetite * Coleman, American Journal of Medical Sciences, January, 1912. U'A A M.\.\( AL or HOME MAKISC hy fresh air ami mild exercise; (2) lo plan a diet uhicli is eiisily (lip;ost(Ml and which will meet the increased food needs at the same time; and (3) to huild the body by rest. Liberal use of milk, epjuis, cream, butter, p;reen vegetables, fruits, and whole cei-eal grains is desirable. Fats are especially needed, since they have a hi^h fuel value for a limited btilk. Cream, butter, whole-milk cheese, ve}i;et able oils, cod-liver oil, bactjn, and meat- fats of various kinds are useful. The real problem is to provide a temptin?;, well-balanced, high calorie, easily digested diet. CHAPTER XX BEVERAGES By Frances Vinton Ward Coffee and tea have no nutritive value aside from the cream and sugar that may be served in them as beverages. Cocoa and chocolate contain starch and fat and consequently are real foods; moreover, they are generally made with milk, which gives them added nutritive value. COFFEE The standard kinds of coffee include Mocha, Java, Mara- caibo, Santos, Rio, and Bogota. Adulteration. Adulterants are seldom found in coffee that is unground, or in the whole berry. Ground coffee is sometimes adulterated with cereal or chicory root. A mild coffee is impi'oved by the addi- tion of dried chicory root, roasted. Unadulterated ground coffee should be free from dust and chaff. When a teaspoon of ground coffee is stirred into a half glass of cold water, there should be little discoloration of the water and few grains should sink to the bottom. Care. Coffee gives best results when bought in the whole grain and ground just before using. If bought ground, it must be kept in an air-tight container which is never left with the cover off. To freshen a stale or weak coffee, the grounds should be stirred in a hot frying pan until they are well dried but not scorched. Composition. The substances found in coffee include : caffein, a mild stimu- lant; volatile oils, which give flavor and odor; coloring matter, 465 ■U\i\ A MAMAl. or IK IMF. MAKISC (l('vcl()|H'(l in roaslinn; and lannin. pit-cni only in very small (luaiilitics, except in the cliaft'. Den l' hoilinti;. It is also (lepcndciit on the proportion of colTee used. The roasted flavor is hrou^ht out by fresh loastinj!; and (piiek niakinjz;. The aroma from the volatile oils is hroufj;ht out hy slow heating; without l>oilinj^ or the escape of steam. Directions for making. Weak, medium, or strong coffee may be made according to the following proportions: Weak roffcc: 1 level tal)lespoon of ground cofTee to 1 measuring-cup of water (3^ pint). Medium coffee: 1 rounding or 2 level tablespoons of ground coffee to 1 measuring-cup of water. Strong coiTee: 3 level tablespoons of ground cofTee to 1 measuring-cup of water. Some of the more common methods of making coffee are as follows : 1. Cold-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour the cojd water over the coffee, cover it carefully, and plug the spout. Heat the coffee very slowly to the boiling point, and txjil it gently for not more than 3 minutes. Settle it by pouring in a little cold water slowly. Set the pot in a warm place for .8 minutes to allow the grounds to settle and the flavor to ripen. Serve the coffee without further dela\'. 2. Ilot-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour boiling water over the cofTee and proceed as in the cold water process. 3. Quick cold-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour al)out one-fourth of the cold water over the coffee, heat it slowly to the boiling i)oint; then add the remainder of the water boiling hot, set the pot in a warm place for the flavor to ripen, and .serve the cofTee promptly after 8 minutes. 4. Large-quantity process. Tie the coffee, ground fine, loosely in a muslin bag, allowing space equal to the bulk of the cofTee for swelling. Drop the bag in the kettle of cold water, heat the water to the lioiling point, and boil it for not more than 3 minutes. Remove the l>ag, allow the cofTee to stand for 8 minutes, and serve it when needed. Be sure that the coffee does not boil while it is being kept hot, and that it is covered. 5. Percolator process. Use j)owdered cofTee. Heat the water, jiour it BEVERAGES 467 through the grounds in the percolator, and continue heating it for about 5 minutes. Serve it at once. 6. French drip coffee. Use powdered coffee. Pour the boiling water through the grounds, reheat the liquid, and pour it through a second time. If a very strong coffee is desired, this process may be repeated. 7. Caf6 au lait (coffee with milk). Two methods are commonly used: (a) Use coffee ground very fine. Add cold milk instead of water. Heat it slowly to a temperature just under the boiling point, strain it, and serve it at once. Another method is: (b) Use coffee ground medium fine. Add one-fourth the usual amount of water. Heat this slowly to the boiling point, strain it, and add hot milk to make up the other three-fourths of liquid. 8. Iced coffee. Make coffee by any of the methods suggested, pour it off the grounds at once, chill it, and serve it when desired. The best results will be obtained from cafe au lait poured over chopped ice. Clearing the liquid. It is necessary to clear the liquid only when the grounds are steeped in the water loose, not inclosed in a bag. The following methods may be used: 1. Egg-white: (a) Add an egg-white to the dry grounds; stir the mixture well. Use the cold-water or the quick cold-water method of brewing. Add a beaten egg-white to a pound of freshly ground coffee, mix it well, spread it out to dry; then put it in a tight container till it is used. This treatment will also aid in preserving the strength of the coffee. Use the straight cold- water process for this coffee, and soak the grounds for a few minutes in the water first if possible. Coffee so prepared should never be put in a percolator, since it clogs the sieve. Strength of flavor cannot be obtained if the hot-water method is used, (c) Add 1 raw eggshell to each pint of water, and make coffee by the cold-water process. 2. Sifting. A coffee which gives much trouble from muddiness may be sifted dry through a strainer, the coarse part used for boiled coffee and the fine part for drip or percolator coffee. 3. Cold water. Remove the coffee from the fire as soon as it is cooked; pour slowly into it a small quantity of cold water, not more than J^ cup to 2 cups of the beverage, and set it aside to settle. 4. Hot coffee. Pour out a little of the coffee into a cup; return the clear part of this to the pot through the spout. Repeat this process two or three times till no grounds appear in the cup. Allow it to stand for a few minutes to settle. Coffee-pots and their care. Pots for boiled coffee are best made of agate or aluminum. Tin pots of good quality give satisfaction until the tin wears 408 A M.WIM. OF HOME M.\KI\(! olT oil 1 he inside. An .•iliiinimim pot is the most duniblc. Af^ate pots should he hoilcd in a sofIa solution onco a week ancl tin or aluminum pots in mild soapsuds; any scams (jr Kroovcs siiould l)(' carcfull.N- \vi|)cd afterward, and a rag string run through the spout. ■' TEA Teas ma.y be classified as follows: 1. Black tea: tea that has been fermented in the process of drying; it is supposed to con- tain less active tannin than green tea. 2. (Jolong: tea that has been partly fermented in drying and is midway in color and quality between black and green tea. 3. Green tea: tea that has been promptly dried with care taken to preserve the natural green color. This tea is supposed to contain more active tannin than do the other varieties. Formerly it was sometimes colored with copper. The best kno\vn kinds of tea are given in the following classi- fication : From China 1 From Imlin 1. Black a. Assam b. Darjiling 2. Green From Ceylon 1. Black 2. Green From Japan Green a. Pan-fired b. Baskot-fired From Formosa Green a. Gunpowder b. Imperial c. Young hyson d. Hy.son 2. Black 1. Black Oolong a. Congou b. Souchong c. Scented 3. Oolong Grades. There arc six grades of tea, standardized as follows: 1. Flowery pekoe: tip of the stem and buds. This grade seldom reaches this country. 2. Orange pekoe: first open leaf. 3. Pekoe: second leaf. 4. First souchong: third leaf. 5. Second Souchong: fourth Uvif. (>. Congou: fifth leaf. How to judge tea leaves. Dry fresh tea leaves should l)e free from dust, broken bits, BEVERAGES 469 and stems. When the leaves are steeped, they may be judged by their size; the smaller leaves are best. Tea that consists of leaves that are very much broken, or that has many stems or midribs in proportion to the remainder of the leaf, is of low grade. However, tea containing many midribs may be satis- factory and inexpensive. Storage. The container used for tea should be of metal or glass, and should be air and water-tight. Composition. Tea contains: tannin, a bitter astringent substance; aromatic oils, substances that furnish the spicy taste and odor; and thein, (caffein), a mild stimulant. , Directions for brewing. The aims in properly brewing tea are: 1. To extract the aro- matic oils but to prevent their escape from the liquid. The best temperature for this result is just under the boiling point; the best time, 3 minutes. 2. To extract the thein. The best tem- perature is just under the boiling point. 3. To prevent the ex- traction of tannin. Tannin is extracted by boiling or by con- tinued steeping (over 3 minutes) . One level teaspoon of tea should be used for each cup of water. Any of the following methods may be used : 1. Heat the teapot, drop into it the tea, and pour the freshly boihng water over this. Steep the tea in a warm place for just 3 minutes; do not allow it to boil. Pour the beverage off the grounds immediately, and serve it hot. A tea-cosy, or quilted cover which fits the teapot, helps to keep the tea hot. 2. Place the tea in a large tea-ball or tie it in a muslin bag. Put this in the pot, and proceed according to Method 1. Remove the ball at the end of 3 minutes. 3. Place 3^ teaspoon of tea in a silver tea-ball, previously heated. Lay this in a serving cup, and pour boiling water over it. Steep it for just 3 minutes; then remove the ball. Replace the leaves with fresh ones before brewing a second cup. This method is generally unsatisfactory from the standpoint of quality. •170 A M.WIAL or iioMi: \] \KI\'r. I. l{iissi:m tea, for serving a larnc (luaiitily. Measure out the t4'a in tlie pniporlifiu of 1 cup to sixty scrviriKs. Pour over this in a hot rovcrcd kettle ;{ (luarts of hoilinji; water, and steep the tea for 'A minutes. I'our (he liciuid olT tlie leaves, set it in a warm place, and dilute it its norded, usiriR one part of tea to three parts of hot water. T). Iced tea. .\ny of the following methods may he used: (a) lirew fresh tea usinn more tea in proportion to water than for hot tea. Fill fumlilers half full of cracked ice, place a slice of lemon and 2 leaspof)ns of su^ar on top, and j)ovn' the hot tea over this. Serve the tea as .soon a.s it i.s chilled. (I)) Cool tea, and chill it either l)y the addition of cracked ice or by placing it wliere it will he cold. Di.s.solva' the suyar in the tea l)efore cooling it, or add a siru]). (c) Pour cold water over the tea leaves, and let them sriak for several hours. 6. Tea punch. Tea that is to l)e used as a foundation for fruit i)unch should be made in the proportion of 114 tea.spoons of tea to 1 cup of water. To make the punch, use cold tea in i)lace of one-fourth to one-half of the water, aecorilinf!; to the flavor desireil. The use of tea of approximately the .same color as the fruit juice is best; a dark tea may be used to color the h(iuid. Test the tea for clouding l)cforc using it. Clouding. Some teas, expeeially some black kinds, cloud on cooling and standing. Re-heating will clear them temjjorarily, but these teas ai-e not suited for serving as iced teas or in ])iuiches. To test a tea for clouding, it should Ije brewed and the liciuid allowed to stand overnight at room temperature. Clouding is not an indication of inferior quality. Points in judging the beverage. In judging tea, the color, the taste, the flavor, the pungency, and the body must be considered. Serving. Black tea is generally best suited for serving with cream and sugar because of its color and flavor. Green teas are generally served plain or with lemon and sugar. coco.\ Cocoa is foimd on the niai-kct in 1 he following forms: 1. Cocoa nibs: chocolate beans, ci-ackcd. "_*. ('Iiocolate cake: chocolate BEVERAGES 471 beans ground fine and pressed. 3. Cocoa-shells: the thin inner shells of the cocoa bean, cracked off. Very little nutri- ment is contained in them. 4. Cocoa: chocolate from which some of the fat (cocoa butter) has been removed. Composition. Chocolate and cocoa contain fat, starch, tannin and theo- bromine, which is similar to caffein but much milder in its effects. The fat-content of chocolate is much higher than that of cocoa. Directions for making. 1. Chocolate nibs: Use H cup of nibs to 3 cups of water. Pour the boihng water over the nibs, steep them gently, without boiling, for 2 hours. Strain the beverage, and serve it with cream and sugar. 2. Cocoa-shells: Use from 3^ to 1 cup of shells to 4 cups of water. Sim- mer the mixture for 2 hours, strain it, and serve it with cream and sugar. 3. Chocolate: Use ^2 ounce of chocolate, J^ cup of water, 3^ cup of milk, 2 teaspoons of sugar, and salt. Melt the chocolate in a double boiler, add the sugar, the salt and the water. Heat the mixture to the boiling point, letting it bubble well. Add the milk, and set it in the double boiler to heat. When it is hot, beat it with an egg-beater till the top is covered with a fine froth. This will prevent the formation of a film. To make a some- what heavier beverage, add from J^ to 1 teaspoon of cornstarch mixed with the sugar. 4. Cocoa, (a) Thin cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of sugar, salt, and add 3^ cup of hot water, stirring the mixture to a smooth paste. Boil the mixture at least two minutes. Add J^ cup of milk, and heat the mixture in a double boiler. Beat it with a Dover egg-beater till the top is covered with fine bubbles, to prevent the formation of a film, (b) Thickened cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of sugar, salt, }/2 teaspoon of cornstarch, a little cinnamon, and 3^ cup of water, stirring the mixture to a smooth paste. Boil it till it thickens, add J^ cup milk, and place the mixture in a double boiler to heat. Beat it with an egg-beater to prevent the formation of a film, (c) Cocoa paste (prepared cocoa.) Mix 2 cups of cocoa, 3 cups of sugar, and 3 cups of hot water, and stir this to a smooth paste. Place the mixture in a double boiler, and simmer it for 2 hours. Keep the paste in a cool place and use it as needed. To use the paste, heat 1 cup of milk in a double boiler, and stir into it 1 tablespoon of the paste, (d) Iced chocolate and cocoa. Chill cocoa, and pour it over cracked ice in tumblers. Serve it with whipped cream on top. 472 .1 M.WI AL (fF HOME M.\KI\<; I'urn- .HICKS ]\\ MiKIAM I'lUDSKVK The principal cliaiiii of a liuit diiiik lies in (he siiiootli hlond injz; of the various lla\ors. I'lilcss the fruil juices have hccii well swoelciu'd Ix'foro hotllinji; {pa^o Oil)), llic uocdcd sufiar should 1)0 su|)i)lied in tlie fonn of a suji;ar sirup; otherwise tlie juices and the sugar must he mixed and allowed to stand to- Sother for several hours before beinK served. For the sirup, 1 cupful of sugar should he allowed foi- each cupful of water, and the mixture boiled for about 10 minutes. It saves time and fuel to make a quart or so of this sirup at a time and bottle it boiling hot in sterilized pint jars for suljsequcnt u.'^e. A small amount of some strongly acid juice should always be added to the fruit drink to give it the proper degree of acidity. The juice of rhubarb or barberries is sufficienth^ sour to take the place of lemon juice for this purpose. Orange juice may be substituted for lemon juice by adding to it a small quantity of cider vin(\gar. Enough of the sugar sirup should be added to the fruit juices to sweeten them, enough acid juice to contribute the desired zest, and the whok^ diluted to taste with shaved ice or with ice water. Green tea makes a good foundation for a fruit punch. Well-scrubbed skins of pineapples, oranges, and lemons may be covered with water, a little sugar added, and the mixture allowed to stand for several hours to draw f)ut the flavoring matter. This thin juice may be u.sed immediately to make fruit drinks. CHAPTER XXI BATTERS AND DOUGHS By Mary F. Henry When flour and liquid are mixed in such proportions thab the resulting mixture can be beaten, it is called a batter. When the mixture is so thick that it cannot be beaten, but must be made smooth by kneading, it is called a dough. The essential in- gredients of batters and doughs are flour, liquid, and leavening. Shortening, eggs, sugar, and salt are not essential but they con- tribute to flavor and texture. "Light breads" can be made from wheat flour because it contains certain materials which when moistened form a sticky elastic substance called gluten. When a mixture containing gluten is heated, the moisture and the air which may be incorpoiated, expand and stretch the gluten. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the gluten hardens and forms a framework surrounding whatever other ingredients are contained in the loaf. However, it is not safe to rely solely on the expansion of the moisture or whatever air happens to be present in the mixture, either as the result of beating a plain batter or of adding well-beaten eggs. In most batters and doughs a gas which expands on heating is intro- duced by means of the growth of yeasts or by chemical leaven- ing agents. This gas acts more powerfully than does air or steam because it is more abundant. Yeast doughs are discussed in Chapter XXIV. CLASSIFICATION Pour hatters. — Mixtures of about equal parts of flour and liquid, such as those used in making popovers and pancakes, are called pour batters because they can be poured. Drop batters. — Mixtures of about two parts of flour to one 473 171 .1 l/.l \l AL or IloMi: M \KI\i; part n|' li(iiii(|. siirli as those iimm| foe iiiufliiis aii;ikiiiji; jjowdcr is a iiiixtuic of soda and an acid wliidi will yield a ^;as when li(|uid is added. The acid constituent varies witii tile type of the baking; powder. It may bo an acid tar- trate, a phosphate, or an aluminum salt. Most commercial hakinji; powders contain a third injiretlient, starch, which ab- sorbs moisture and so pi-events any premature n-action between the soda and the acid. All l)akinp; powders, whether home- made or commercial, should be kept in a closely covered Bakinj;; jiowder is generally used in a mixture in which sweet milk is used as the li(juid. Tv;o teaspoons of bakinf^ powder will leaven one cup of Hour if no eggs are used. If eggs are u.sed, the total amount of the baking powder may be decreased 3^ teaspoon for each egg used. It is possible to make baking powder at home by combining cream of tartar and soda in the correct proportions. It is not, however, entirely practicable, because of the difficulty in being accurate in measuring and thorough in mixing. The correct proportion, by measure, to coml)ine is 2}^^ parts of cream of tartar to 1 part of baking soda and }/2 part of cornstarch; or by weight, 2-/io parts of cream of tartar, to 1 part of soda and 1^2 part of cornstarch. The ingredients should be very care- fully measured and thoroughly mixed by sifting. Yeast. Yeast is discussed under yeast breads, page 497. Eggs. Eggs give fimmess of texture, lightness, and richness to bat- ters and doughs. Also they act as a leavening agent by entrap- ping air as they are beaten. When heated, the albumen, like the gluten of wheat flour, hardens and helps to form a framework to hold up the other ingredients. The tendency is opposite to that of fat, since eggs tend to bind together the ingredients, and fat tends to separate them. Preserved eggs that have a good flavor and odor vaay be used. One egg may be considered BATTERS AND DOUGHS 477 the equivalent of 3^ teaspoon of baking powder in leavening power. Shortening. Fats, such as butter, butter substitutes, lard, lard substitutes, tried-out meat fats, chicken fat, and olive and cottonseed oils, are used for shortening. Fat makes the texture of batters and doughs more close-grained and more tender than they would otherwise be. It also improves the flavor in most cases. Mut- ton fat may be used satisfactorily under certain conditions (page 521). Fat necessitates the use of more leavening, since it oils the particles of flour and makes it easy for the gas to escape. A cake made with a small amount of fat will be porous and will dry out quickly. Too much fat will make the cake heavy and cause it to crumble. If melted fat is added to a cake batter, it should not be hot, since hot fat is likely to make a cake tough, coarse-grained, and heavy. Since fats vary in their water-content, proper substitution cannot be made by using equivalent amounts. One cup of butter is equivalent to : 1 cup of lard or lard sub- stitute minus 2 tablespoons; 1 cup of chicken fat; 1 cup of cottonseed or olive oil minus 2 tablespoons. If cream is used in place of milk, the fat-content must be allowed for in measuring the shortening. One cup of 18 per cent cream is equivalent to ^ cup of milk plus 33-^ tablespoons of fat. One cup of 40 per cent cream is equivalent to 3^ cup of milk plus 73^ tablespoons of fat. Sugar. Sugar gives flavor to a mixture. It also acts as a liquid. A fine granulated sugar gives a better texture than does a coarse sugar. Powdered sugar is sometimes used for a very close- grained cake. If either powdered or brown sugar is used in place of granulated, the substitution should be made by weight, not measure. Molasses is used in some recipes for part of the sugar as well as part of the Hquid. Corn sirup may be used in the same way; however, to give sufficient sweetness it should •ITS A MAM AL OF lUiME MAKISC Kcncnilly he coiiihiiicd with some sujjar or niolassos. Too inuch simai- results in a heavy, eoarse-^raiiK^d texture, or a jz;iimin\' i)i(t(hi(i . .MKTHODS OF MIXING The iiicihod of coinhiiiiiiK the infj;re(lieiils in Hour mixtures is detennined somewhat liy the iri^^redieMts, and there is no hard and fast rule to he followed. However, experience has shown that I he lullowiii^- methods give j^ood results: Method of niixituj batters. The following method may he used in making giiddle cakes, popovers, and muffins. Even cake may he mixed in this way with excellent results. 1. Mix and sift the dry ingredients. 2. Adtl the milk to the heaten egg, and stir this mixture into the dry ingredients. 3. Add the melted butter and beat the mixture well. Method of miximj doughs. Biscuits and pie crust are best made by the following method : 1. Mix and sift the dry ingi-edients. 2. Cut the shortening into the dry materials with two knives, or mix it lightly with the finger tips. 3. Add the litiuid, mixing it in with the knives and stirring the mixture as little as possible. Method of mixing cakes. Cake is generally mixed i)y the following method, if a cake- mixer is not used. 1. Sift together the flour, the baking powdei-, and the salt. 2. Work the butter with a spoon until it becomes soft and creamy. 3. Add the sugar gradually, creaming it with the butter. 4. Add the well-beaten egg-yolks. 5. Add the milk and the flour in thirds or fourths, alternately. 6. Fold in the wcll-beaten egg-whites. UTENSILS FOR HA KING Kinds. Popovci's are best if l)aked in iron or liottery. Tin may be used, but it is not so satisfactory. Iron baking pans should be heated before the batter is poured into them. - BATTERS AND DOUGHS 479 Muffins may be baked in either iron or tin baking pans. Cake is best baked in tins. The tube pan allows a current of hot air to rise through the center of the cake, and hence pro- motes even baking. A broad, shallow pan generally gives a lighter, drier cake than does a deep narrow pan. Biscuits may be baked on tin or on Russia iron sheets. Preyaraiion. The baking pans should be greased before the ingredients are combined. The fat should be melted, and applied to the pans with a soft piece of paper, a swab, or a brush kept for the pur- pose. The product may often be prevented from sticking by lightly sprinkling the greased pan with flour, inverting it, and tapping it to remove any excess. FILLING THE PANS A pan should never be filled more than two-thirds full of batter. When a cake batter is put into the pan, it should be brought up against the sides by using a spoon or spatula, so that before baking the center of the cake may be lower than the sides. BAKING The pan should be placed on the lower grate of the gas-oven and on the floor of the oven of a coal range so that the greatest amount of heat will reach it from underneath and force it to rise to its fullest capacity before the crust is formed on top. The oven door should not be opened during the first ten minutes of the baking process. When it is opened, it should be closed gently, since a sudden jar or draft may cause the mixture to fall. If a mixture is baking unevenly, it may be turned in the oven before the top crust begins to harden; if it is turned after the crust is formed, the cake may fall and will not rise again. The stages in baking are as follows: The mixture begins to rise; it continues to rise and begins to brown in spots; it rises in the center and browns over the top; it settles to a level and shrinks from the sides of the pan. 480 .1 MAM AL (H' IIOMH ,\/.lA7\Y/ Oven lavpcrdliins. A correct oven tcin|H;raturc is very iinpcMtaiit in hakiii^^. Tlio correct temperature dcpeiids on the size of the loaf and the con- stituents us(>d in the niixlurc. 'Vhv followinjj; classification ol temperatures for baking; vari- ous mixtures is suggested: * 1. Slow oven ('250° to 350° F.), for custards and nicrinKuos. 2. Moderate oven (350° to 400° V.), for broad, ginncrhread, |)lain cake, cookies, all molasses mixtures. 3. Hot oven (400° to 450° F.), for Parkerhouse rolls, and popovers. In baking poj)overs, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes. 4. Very hot oven (450° to 550° F.), for pastry. After the first six min- utes the temperature should bo lowered to "hot." Sponge cake should ho baked in an oven with a temperature between "slow" and "moderate." leaking powder biscuits should be baked in an oven with a temperature between "hot" and "very hot." The following tests for oven temperatures may be used: 1. When glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes TABLE XXVIII. — TiME-T.\BLE for B.xkixc Batters and Doughs Mixture Biscuits, baking powder or soda . Rolls, raised Bread, yeast Cake, layer Cake, loaf Cookies Corn cake, thick Muffins, baking powder Popovers Tarts Pies Time required (minutes) 10 to 15 10 to 20 45 to 60 15 to 30 35 to GO 5 to 10 30 to 40 20 to 25 40 to 50 10 to 12 30 to 60 * May B. Van Arsdale. Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Tompera- atures for Cookery Procos.ses, Tech. Education Bull. 22, pubUshod by Teachers College, Columbia Univ. . BATTERS AND DOUGHS 481 brown in five minutes, the oven is moderate (350° to 400° F.) ; 2. when glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes dark brown in five minutes, the oven is hot; 3. experience will make the hand a fairly reliable tester for oven temperatures; 4. an oven thermometer is essential in learning to bake with the mini- mum of failures. Tests for determining when breads and cakes are done. Any of the following tests may be used to determine when a mixture is done: 1. When the color is a rich golden brown; 2. when the mixture shrinks away from the sides of the pan; 3. when the sides of the pan sizzle when touched with a damp finger; 4. when a clean toothpick inserted comes out free from any particles of the mixture; 5. when a cake springs back if pressed gently on top. 482 .1 .i/.i\r.i/. or //oi/a; \i.\Ki.\a -» ^ ., 1 31 2 2 2 8 \f ^"^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^-f ^^ , c c 1. .1 1 -2^ "' B' ca X f ^ K C OTI^ o P =C "JS 0-^ 2 a* 'C-- s -^2 2 3ro 3 1 (X — — ~ h. O ft. y IN M c^ 1 -i O a ^ 2 -H ■^ ~ s s 1 u 'A ^ ^ ■c •»• o o c c o a u (0 5 li i i « i - o^ ^ ^ ^ o SS2 5 -2 3 §. < **-' 2 &-M C-H C_ a- o CO lo2a2|o|=r 1 P rt*'-H"M°"c^'"rt -f o Q o 1 I'l 1 z . •< ? 5 §. - 2 CM c c m e 5|| 5 '^ 1 1 1 u ^^ n Q, C, * b; 3 o. 3 E s 7:: ^ -^ a - o o 2 3 -' " "" 00 « -^ 2a-3 OS ;?t ;^ ■«- ^ — "■"* o 1 2 n- X ^ 3 ^ - w - '" X « H 1^ m -»; 5 H c 1. a •c w H ^ t, _0 M ^ c t c V 1. .i c 1 c p: a" c £2 E:^ CHAPTER XXII CAKES Cakes may be divided into three classes: cakes made with yeast, sponge cakes, and butter cakes, or cakes made with shortening. CAKES MADE WITH YEAST The points which are essential for success in bread-making (page 495) should l^e observed in mixing cakes lightened with yeast. Since sugar, butter, and eggs have a tendency to retard fermentation, they should be added either to the light sponge or to the light dough. Brioche and raised doughnuts are ex- amples of cakes made with yeast. SPONGE CAKES Sponge cakes are really a variation of a souffle or puffy ome- let. They are made without fat. They may be leavened with eggs alone, or with baking powder and eggs. Plain sponge cakes, choux paste, lady-fingers, macaroons and meringues are examples of this type of cake. Sponge cakes should never be cut with a knife. They should be broken or separated with two forks by placing the backs of the tines together and gently pulling the cake apart. Method of mixing. (1) Separate the whites of the eggs from the yolks; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick and lemon-colored, scraping them down from the sides with a spatula to prevent their drying on the bowl; (3) add the sifted sugar gradually, l>eating the mixture constantly; (4) add the flavoring, if it is to be used; (5) beat the whites until they will stay in the bowl when it is inverted, that is, until they are stiff but not dry; (6) fold the whites quickly into the first mixture, until they are not visible in large amounts; (7) sift the salt and the flour several times. If baking powder is used, sift it with the flour and the salt; (S) fold the dry ingredients carefully into the mix- 483 •ISI ,1 M.WIM. or IIOMK MAKlXa turo. It should iiol !"• Itc;ilcii, hccaus*' the :iir l)ul)bl('.s that make tho cake linht may thus he hroki-ii, hut it should he rut and folded until no dry flour is visihle. ]\I( llioil (if hiiLi'mi. 'i'lic pans for s|)()iifj;(* cake s1k)u1(I he perfectly clean. Thoy should not be greased. The pans should he filled aeeorduig to tho directions on page 479. Sponge cakes should be baked in a slow oven from 1 to 1^2 hours. When the cake is done it will i)egin to shrink from the sides of the [lan, and it will rebound when pressed lightly on top with the finger. Sponge cakes should not be removed from the pan until cokl. The pan should be inverted on a cake-rack and the cake should be allowed to cool gradually in a place that is free from a draft. BUTTER CAKES Recipes for butter cakes call .for various proportions of ma- terials. Results produced by such variations are discussed bi'iefly on pages 474 to 477. With a fair understanding of the possil)ilities of substituting one material for another, cake re- cipes may be varied to make the best use of the materials on hand or to produce the desired result in lightness or richness. Formulas that are good to use as a basis for substitution are given on page 482. Because of the difference in grades of flour, it is difficult to give the exact amount of flour required to pro- duce the best result. Butter cakes include cup cakes, pound cakes, cookies, and wafers. They may be plain or may contain fruit or nuts. Directions for mixing and baking l)utter cakes are given on pages 478 and 470. Directions for fiUing the pans are given on page 479. INGREDIENTS USED IN C.^KES A discussion of the essential materials used in cakes is given on pages 474 to 477. Following are suggestions on certain ac- cessory materials.* * Mills, Katheriiic II. Making Cake. Part I. Cornell Heading-Course for the Farm Home, Hull. 7.'i. CAKES 485 Several types of fruit are commonly used in making cake; first, dried fruits and candied fruits, such as currants, raisins, citron, cherries, pineapple; second, fresh raw fruits, such as blueberries, and cherries; third, cooked fruit pulp, such as apple- sauce and blackberry jam. As a general rule it may be said that when fruit is used in making cake, tfie batter will need to be stiffer than for ordinary cake, the stiffness depending on the weight of the pieces of the fruit to be held in place. A cake dough containing raisins will need to be stiffer than one containing blueberries, and a cake dough containing blueberries will need to be stiffer than one made with apple-sauce or jam. The presence of particles of dried fruit increases the difficulties in baking cake, as fruit scorches easily and some of the fruit will be at the surface of the cake. Rich fruit cakes should, therefore, be baked in a very slow oven. This not only prevents scorching, but also improves the flavor, since the fruit flavor blends with that of the other ingredients. Chocolate contains a hard fat which adds richness to cake, but which tends to make it stiff as it dries out or if the cake is kept in a very cold place. Chocolate cake that is made with sour milk and soda is usually softer and darker in color than that made with sweet milk and baking powder. Chocolate contains starch which thickens the batter, so that less flour is needed for chocolate cake than for white cake. Alkali darkens a chocolate mixture, and a little soda added to the melted choco- late before putting it into the batter will not only darken the cake, but also neutralize any free fatty acid in the chocolate and help to make the cake light. The large amount of soda in some recipes for chocolate cake serves the same purpose. Cocoa should be substituted for chocolate by weight instead of by measure. In manufacturing cocoa nearly all of the fat has been removed from it, so that cakes made by substituting cocoa in a recipe calUng for chocolate are Kkely to be bready unless a small quantity of additional fat is added (the equivalent of about }/2 tablespoonful of butter for each ounce, or }4 cup- ful, of cocoa used) . Nuts are lighter than fruit and are not likely to settle to the ISC) .1 M.wi \L or iKiMi: .u.i/v7.vr; holtoiii of the till', ihcictoir tlic\- do li(»l immmI lo he HoilICfl. They coiilain l';U , and, ulicii addcfl lo licli cake, the aiiKAiiit of fat in I lie i('ci|)(' should he dccicascd in proportion to the riclmcss added In* the mils. I'roin 1 lo \}> taWlcsjioonfuls less of fat to each cupful of nuts is usually sufliciont. A f^ood method of prcpaiiiiK nuts for cake is to {irind them through the coarse knife of tiie food choj)per. When I-Ji^li-'^'i walnuts or other nut meats are l)(nifj;ht already shelled, they should be washed and dried in the oven before beinj; used. Cakes made of f^ood materials recjuire no additional flavoring. If flavoriiifz; is desired, fresh fruit juices or other fre.sh flavors are l)referablc to conunercial extracts. CAKE FILLINGS A layer cake should l)e arranged if possible in such a way that the bottom of the laj^ers will receive the filling;, because the bottom is more porous than the top and consequently takes the filling better. I'illings may be classified as cream fillings, fruit fillings, and pastes. CAKE FROSTINGS A cake may be merely dusted over the top with powdered sugar and the layers put together with a cream filling. The sugar will stick to the cake better if the white of an egg or fruit jelly has been brushed over the top fii-st. Fruit or nuts, and sugar may be sprinkled over the top of a cake before it is baked. Frostings which are made of sugar and li(iuid and which com- pletely cover the surface of a cake, may be either cooked or uncooked. Various kinds of sugar may be used, antl nuts or fruit if desired. Uncooked frostings should be made of confec- tioner's sugar. The sugar should always be sifted. The rules for sugar cookery (page 570) should be followed in making cooked frosting. For cutting a frosted cake, a knife dipped in boiling water should ])e used in order to prevent breaking the frosting. In frosting a layer cake, it has been found helpful to pin a strij) of glazed paper about an inch higher than the cake around CAKES 487 it. This will serve as a retainer when the frosting is poured on the cake. After the frosting has set, the strip of paper should be removed, using a thin-bladed knife that has been wet in hot water. Boiled frostings* In making boiled frosting, just as in making cake, it is possible to vary the amounts of ingredients used in propor- tion to the time of cooking. There are three ingredients essential to the making of any so-called boiled frosting, water, sugar, and white of egg. Cream of tartar may be used with good effect, for it gives the frosting a creamy consist- ency, but if none is at hand the same effect may be produced by substituting vinegar or by increasing the amount of water and thus prolonging the time of cooking. When the amount of white of egg used in a recipe is increased, the temperature to which the sugar solution is cooked should be increased. Recipe 1 cup sugar 1/16 teaspoon cream of tartar }/^ cup water White of 1 egg This is the old standard recipe and it makes a rather dense, sweet frosting. The addition of another egg-white will make a more fluffy frosting. Since eggs vary in size, Ve cup of white of egg may be used to give a definite result. This recipe will make sufficient frosting for the top of a cake about nine inches in diameter. Method I. Dissolve the sugar and cream of tartar in the water over the heat, stirring the mixture only until the sugar is dissolved. If one egg is to be used, let the sugar mixture boil until it reaches the soft-ball stage (238° F.), or until it forms threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. If two eggs are to be used, boil the sugar mixture until it reaches a higher temperature, about 244° F., the hard-ball stage. Do not move the dish or stir the sirup during the remainder of the period of cooking. Cover the pan during the first few minutes that the sugar solution is * Mills, Katherine H. Making Cake. Part II. Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 75.) 488 .1 MAMAL or //oua; \IAK/\a bniliiin, so that steam may follfrt (in tho sides of tlic pan. This will help lo prevent the foruialion of larne crystals that would cause the sirup to crystallize in coarse Rraiiis and that would spoil tlie textun' of the frosting. After rernovinn the cover of the pan, insert the candy therinoinr-ter and wash from the sides of the pan any crystals that may form, using a hrush or cloth that has heen wet with cold water. When the sirup is cooked, pour it slowly on the Ixviten white of the egg, using a Dover egg-heater and heating contiinially while pouring. Continue heating until the frost- ing is cooled and is stilT enough to spread on the cake and remain in [)lace. If the mixture doe.s not thicken properly, it may be cooked again by Method II, twice-cooked frosting. Method II. Dissolve the sugar in the water and boil the mixture without stirring until it reaches the hard-ball .stage (246° F.), or until the sirup when dropped from a spoon will form a long thread with short threads branching from the main one. Remove the siruj) carefully from the fire, and allow it to cool while the whites of the eggs are Ix'ing beaten until they are stiff and dry. They should be beaten in the upper part of the double boiler, as this will save utensils, materials, and time. Pour the sirup slowly over the beaten whites of the eggs, beating the mixture as long as po.ssible with a Dover egg-beater and after that with a spoon, until the mixture is light and stifT. Set the dish containing the frosting over hot water, and allow the mixture to cook. Beat it constantly until it is light and fluffy, rises slightly in the pan, and as it is stirred begins to give a slight scraping sound against the sides of the dish. This scraping sound may be learned only through experience, but it is easily detected. Remove the dish of frosting at once from the hot water. If the frosting is cooked too long over the hot water it will be granular. The frosting will probably be stiff enough to spread at once; if it is not, stir it until it has reached the proper consistency. This frosting may be piled on a cake to anj' ilesired thickness, or it may l)e used in a tube to make ornamental frosting. When it is properly made this frosting will be very light, fine grained, soft and springy. After it has been spread on a cake, it will form a thin crust on top and will keep moist and soft underneath for several days. This method makes a frosting known as twice-cooked. Variations. 1. Allow a thin layer of melted sweet chocolate to flow over the top of the frosting after it has beiMi si)read on the cake and a thin crust ha.s formed on the top. 2. Brown or maple sugar may I)e sul)stituted for white sugar. The sirup must be boiled to a higher temperature {'^^T F.) before the mixture will reach the soft-ball stage. 3. Use 14 cup of dark-colored strained honey and ^^ cup of granulated sugar, or use 3-'^ cup light-colored strained honey and ' j cup granulated CAKES 489 sugar. Add 3 tablespoons of water, and boil the mixture until it reaches the soft-ball stage (240° F.), or until it begins to form threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. Add the sirup to the white of egg in the manner described in Method I. This frosting stiffens but does not grain, and should be spread on the cake immediately before using. 4. Freshly grated cocoanut may be liberally sprinkled on the top of a cake immediately after the frosting has been spread on it. 5. Chocolate frosting may be made by Recipe I for boiled frosting by adding 2 squares (2 ounces) of chocolate to the sugar and water mixture before it has been cooked. The directions given under Method I may be followed. Another method is to add melted chocolate to the white frosting after it has been beaten and is stiff enough to spread. The amount of chocolate may be varied to suit the individual taste. 6. One-half cup of chopped nuts, figs, raisins, dates, or any combination of nuts and these fruits, may be added to the frosting just before spreading it on the cake. CHArTKIl Will PASTRY By Winifred Moses and Lucile Brewer Pastry is a sliortonod (louji;li, a inixturo of flour, sliortciiiiipr, and liquid put toficthcr in dilTcrcnt ways, accordijin to the pur- pose for which it is to be used. Three kinds are in connnon use: (1) Plain pastiy, in which the shortening is worked into the flour by cutting; or chopping; (2) pufT pastry, in which the shortening is worked into the paste by folding; and rolling; (3) flaky pastry, in which the shortening is worked into the flour by a combination of these two methods. INGREDIENTS Flour. Pastry flour, made from winter wheat, makes the best pastry. It differs from ordinary bread flour made from spring wheat in that it contains less gluten and more starch; it is softer, whiter, and more velvety. One of the best tests for winter wheat flour is that it easily retains the impress of the fingers, while spring wheat flour tends to fall apart as quickly as the pressure is removed. Bread flour may be made to approximate pastry flour in effect by substituting two tablespoons of cornstarch for two tablespoons of flour in each cup. Liquid. Water is used as the liquid in making pastry. It should be as nearly ice cold as possible, except when beef drip])ings and warm water are used. To make pastry tender, the smallest po.ssible amount of water that will hold the ingredients together is used. The actual amount depends on the water-absorbing quality of 490 PASTRY 491 the flour, and on the amount of fat used — the more fat, the less moisture required. Fat. The following kinds of fat may be used : butter, oleomargar- ine, vegetable fat, lard, lard substitutes, beef drippings, chicken fat, and suet. When suet is used, it is melted over boiling water and stirred while hot into the flour. The paste is then kneaded and rolled into a rather thick sheet and shaped in a mold. The effects of the various fats are as follows: lard: a soft, tender crust; cottolene: a soft, tender crust, slightly darker in color than if lard is used; vegetable oils: a less flaky crust and darker in color than if lard is used; suet: a more compact and firm crust than if lard is used. It has been found by experiment that more butter than lard is required and more lard than lard substitute, and that less shortening is needed when pastry flour is used than when bread flour is employed. For 1 cup of bread flour one should use: Vs cup of lard; Vs cup plus 1 tablespoon of butter; Ys cup minus 1 tablespoon of lard substitute. For I cup of pastry flour one should use: 3^ cup of lard; 3^ cup plus ^3 tablespoon of butter; 3^ cup minus Ys tablespoon of lard substitute. Lard makes the tenderer crust, but butter gives the better flavor. For equivalent measures of various fats see page 477. Baking powder. Baking powder may be used to help leaven the crust, in the proportion of }4 teaspoon to 1 cup of flour. Usually the only leavening agents used in pastry are the air and water which ex- pand when heated. Salt. If an unsalted fat is used, salt should be added in the pro- portion of 34 teaspoon of salt to 1 cup of flour. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PASTRY Lightness depends on the amount of air incorporated, on the expansion of that air, and on the presence of baking powder. 41)2 .1 M.WI AL or HOME MAKIXa If the materials \i^i'i\ aic cold aiul tlic iiiaiiipulatiuii is carried uii ill a fold room, or if tlic paste is ehilled by beiiiK placed in a re- frifieralor, the expansion of the inclosed air is greater dn linn the; hakin}^ process. Flakitiess results when the ingredients are so mixed a,s to make layers. To accomplish this, fat is not thoroughly mixed into the dry ingredients, l)ut is left in pieces by Ijeing cut in with a knife or rubbed in with a spoon. Tenderness depends on the relative amounts of fat and water u.scd and on the manipulation. The more fat and the le.ss water used, within limits, the tenderer will be the crust. Handling the paste develops clasticit}' by dcveloj)ing gluten, and so makes a tougli crust. If the fingers are used to mix the fat with the flour, the heat of tlie fingers melts the fat and causes it to act as liquid; thus more flour is required, which tends to make a tough paste. DIKECTIONS FOli MAKING PLAIN PASTRY Recipe for plain pastry. 1 cup flour }4 tea.spoon salt 3^-1/3 cup .shortoning Water (1) Mix the flour and salt; (2) cut in the fat, and add only enough water to hold the ingredients together; (3) turn the mixture onto a slightly floured board and turn it with a sjjatula to cover it evenly with flour; (4) if two crusts are to l)e inad(^, cut the paste in two portions and roll them sep- arately and lightly with a rolling-pin, using motions outward from the cen- ter; (5) keep the dough as nearly the desired shape and as uniform in thickness as possible, roll it until the paste is very thin; (0) after each few roUing motions, loosen the dough from the board to prevent sticking. One-crust pie. Place the crust in the pie pan, being careful that it is smooth, but not at all stretched. A perforated pan of tin or agate ware is best. The pan should never be greased. With scissors cut around the edges, leaving a margin of about H inch. Turn this slightlj' under, and jiress it into fancy edges with the fingers. Fill the crust, and bake it in a moderate oven for 40 minutes. Fillings for one-crust pies are made with milk and egg founda- tions, such as custard, cream, and pumpkin, or from cooked fruit, such as apple-sauce. These liquid fillings are likely to .soak into the pie crust during the process of baking, making a soggy crust. This may be avoided by brushing over the crust with white of egg and placing the unfilled crust PASTRY 493 in a hot oven long enough to coagulate the egg-white, thus forming a coating to prevent the filling from soaking into the crust. Or instead of heating the crust in the oven, the filling may be heated separately to such a temperature that on adding it to the crust it will coagulate the white of egg. Crust baked without filling. The crust is sometimes baked first and then filled with a cooked filling. Many persons prefer this kind of pie since the crust is crisp and well baked. Invert a pie plate, cover the outside with pastry, fit it carefully to the plate, and press the edge well to the edge of the plate. Trim the edge if necessary, set the pie plate on a tin sheet to prevent the edge of the paste from touching the floor of the oven. Prick the crust well with a fork, and bake it from 12 to 15 minutes, or until it is thoroughly baked. Slip the crust from the outside of the pan, and put it in place as an under crust. Use any cooked filling, and place over the top strips or figures of baked pastry, or a meringue. Two-cru^t pie. The lower crust is placed in the pie pan as for a one-crust pie, but in this case the edges should be cut close and evenly with a knife. The flavored filling is then added. The upper crust should be rolled rather thick, brushed with butter, and lightly sprinkled with flour. SUts should be cut in the crust to allow for the escape of steam. The edges of the lower crust are then moistened with water and the upper crust laid over the pie, care again being taken not to stretch the crust. The edges then are cut and pressed firmly together into a fancy shape with the fingers or a fork. Allow water to run over the top of the crust to make a flaky finish. If a shiny finish is preferred, brush over the top with a mixture of slightly beaten white of egg and water, without buttering and flouring the top. If the fiUing is of a juicy type, a paper tube inserted in one of the slits in the crust vnU. allow the steam to escape readily and prevent the juice from running out. Bake the pie in a moderate oven (page 480) for 40 minutes. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING FLAKY PASTRY Flaky pastry made half of washed butter and half of other shortening is used for pie crusts, turnovers, cheese straws, and tarts. Recipe for flaky pastry. 3 cups flour 3^ cup shortening j4 teaspoon salt H cup washed butter 3/8 to % cup water (1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and free from milk; (2) sift the flour and salt twice; (3) cut the H cup shortening into the flour with a 494 .1 MAMAL or IKiMi: MAKISa knife; (1) ndd cold w.-ilcr unidiiiilly, mixing it with a knife tn each turn; (11) roll it out to 1/S inch thickness, and bake it in a hot oven (page 480). DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PUFF PASTRY Puff paste is used when pastry of ^rcat fiakiiicss and lip;htnes.s is desirod, as in patty shells, tarts, fruit rolls, tea cakes, Floren- tine meringues, and the like. Recipe for pujf pastry. 1 pound washed butter 13 2 pounds pastry flour 1 cup ice water (1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and squeeze out all the liquid; (2) separate the butter into six parts; (3) take out 32 pound of the flour; (4) cut one piece of butter into the pound of flour, add ice water, and mix the ingredients into a paste with as little handling as possible; (5) knead the dough until it is smooth and elastic, cover it, set it in a cool place for 5 minutes; (G) roll the paste, outward from the center, into a rec- tangiilar piece; (7) place one piece of the l)Utter on onc^half the surface, fold the pastry over, and pinch down the edges to keep in the air; (8) fold the right edge two-thirds of the way back, fold the left edge back over this, pinch down the edges again so that no air or butter can escape, cover the paste, and let it stand in a cool place for 5 minutes; (0) roll it out into another rectangle, and repeat the former jirocess with the next pat of butter, being sure to press the edges each time to keep in both the air and the butter; (10) repeat this process until all pats of butter have been used; each time before rolling the paste, turn it halfway round in order to roll from another side, and always roll from you; (11) after the final rolling, the paste must be chilled on ice or in a very cool place for an hour or two; (12) bake it in a hot oven (page 480) with the heat coming from below, and set it on the floor of even a gas oven for the first 5 minutes. PufT pastiy when leaked should he eight times as thick as when put into the oven. It is very rich and has a surface that is light, flaky, and rather shiny. CHAPTER XXIV YEAST BREAD By Claribel Nye The making of yeast bread has a certain fascination because success depends largely on the proper control of living organ- isms, or yeasts. If dough is left for too long or is kept too warm, the yeast plants become weakened; then the bacteria that may be present grow and produce an acid, making the bread sour. The milk is scalded in order to kill any bacteria present. Proper baking of bread kills all bacteria, yeasts, and molds, and insures its keeping, if it is carefully handled and stored afterwards. INGREDIENTS The essential ingredients for yeast bread are flour, yeast, liquid, and salt. Other ingredients often added for flavor, texture, or keeping quality are sugar, shortening, and potatoes. In place of the customary wheat, corn, barley, oats, rice, po- tatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used. In place of some of the wheat ordinarily used, corn, barley, oats, rice, potatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used. The cereals may be ground and added with the flour, or they may be cooked to a mush before they are added to the batter. Flour. The best bread flour is called strong flour and is made from hard spring wheat. This wheat is grown in the Dakotas, Min- nesota, a part of Iowa, Nebraska, northern Kansas, northern Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. A strong winter wheat is grown in a limited number of states, notably Kansas. A strong bread flour is slightly granular, has a creamy color, and gives bread of maximum volume. 495 I'.m; .i .\/.l.Vr.l/. OF IIOMK'MAKISC W heat and lyc lloiiis arc particularly adapted to hroad-inak- iiit; lu'causc tlicv contain materials which, wlien nuiistened, form an clastic substance, called {gluten. The gluten expands with the pressure of heated p;ases in baking and forms a framework surroundinji; the other inf^redients. A jjood yeast bread K^'uerally contains some wheat or rye (lour, although other cereals can well be useil to a certain extent. The present complex standardized process o{ milling wheat is the result of a gradual remarkable develf)j)ment which bep;tin in the days when women were millers, the mill consisting; of two stones l)etwcen which the ^vixm was liromid. The patent, or roller, process now used produces a flour difTerent in color, composition, and bread-making quahties. Although wheat milled l)y the roller process yields a flour that gives a white loaf and consequent 1}" makes its appeal to the eye, the flour contains less of the entire wheat kernel than that produced by the other method. The patent reduction, or roller, process is so named because the wheat is reduced to flour by ])ei!ig put throvigh a series of steel rollers. The wheat is first cleaned, and then gradually reduced to flour as it passes through a series of steel rollers, each pair adjusted to give a finer product than the preceding. As the wheat passes through each set of rollers, a little of it is reduced to flour and the remainder is called middlings. The middlings are then carried through the next roller; each time the result is flour and middlings. The bran cannot be reduced to flour but is flattened b}^ the steel rollers and separated from the flour. The quality of the flour that results from the blend- ing of the flours obtained from the difTerent rollers depends on the skill of the miller. Flour is sometimes said to be 80 per cent patent. This usuall}^ means that 80 per cent of the flom- obtained from the wheat in the different stages of milling has l)een lilended for market. The term "patent " flour came into use when the roller, or patent, milling process was introduced; its meaning at the present time is not uniform throughout the country. Graham, from whom gi-aham flour received its name, believed YEAST BREAD 497 that the entire wheat kernel should be used for food and de- veloped a milling process by which all the kernel, with the excep- tion of the outer inedible coats, was used. At the present time, most graham flour is made by combining bran and white flour. AVhole-wheat flour does not contain so large a percentage of the entire wheat kernel as does graham. However, graham, because of its coarseness, may be irritating to the digestive tract of some persons. White flour contains less of the wheat kernel than does either whole-wheat or graham. Yeast. Yeasts are very small plants, having a diameter of about 3/1000 inch. In bread-making, yeast serves two functions: (1) by its action on the sugar of the flour it forms carbon di- oxide gas, which makes the dough light; (2) it gives the char- acteristic flavor which is found in bread only when yeast is used. Before yeast was sold commercially, women used to obtain it by exposing batter to the air for several hours. The difficulty with this method was that various yeast plants, as well as other organisms present in the air, might enter, whereas only one type of yeast is best for bread-making. Thus the flavor of the bread was not always desirable. Old-fashioned liquid yeast, or potato yeast, represents the housekeeper's method. The yeasts grow and multiply rapidly in potato water to which salt and sugar have been added. This mixture is then kept in a cool place until needed for bread-making. The disadvan- tage of liquid yeast is that other yeasts and organisms find their way into the mixture and may give the bread a peculiar flavor. For the commercial product, one form of yeast is grown under very carefully standardized conditions. The yeasts are mixed with cornmeal and the mixture pressed into cakes and dried; or the yeasts are mixed with starch or tapioca flour, pressed into cakes, and sold in the form of compressed yeast. In the dried form they will keep in fairly good condition for months; 498 .1 MAMAL or HOME MAKlSd coinprosscd ycasl keeps for only :i few days, Imt tho yeast is much more Meli\-e llian it is in the dry cakes and, therefore, lircad call lie made more (|iii<'kl\' from it. Liquid. Tlie H(|uid used in l)i-ead-makinquently when dry yeast is u.sed. Yeast plants grow rapidl}' in a thin I)atter, and as they are not in an active state in dry yeast cakes, the batter makes possible a quick grow-th of j^east. AVith compressed yeast the sponge method is unnecessary. Straight-dough method. For the straight-dough method, sufficient flour to make a dough is added as soon as the yeast has been added to the liquid. The dough is removed to a floured board and is kneaded until it is smooth and elastic, and until it \vill not stick to an unflonred l)oard. Kneading is for tho jiurpose of thoroughly YEAST BREAD 499 mixing all the ingredients, developing the elasticity of the gluten, and incorporating air into the dough. Mixing bread by a machine. If three or more loaves of bread are being made, a bread- mixer saves time and labor. If the correct proportion of flour to liquid is used, and the mixing is continued until the dough is smooth and elastic, the same result will be obtained by machine- mixing as with equal care by hand-mixing. Frequently too much flour is used. This causes slow rising, and if the dough is made into loaves before the rising is complete, the resulting bread will be compact and inferior in other respects. FERMENTATION The rising of dough until it goes into the pan is called fer- mentation. The best temperature for the growtl\ of yeast is 80° to 87° F. If a strong or good grade of bread flour is used, the dough should treble its original size in the first rising. If a weak or poor grade of flour is used, the dough will only double its original size. The texture and the flavor of bread is improved by a second rising of the dough. The dough should increase its original size by only one-half during the second rising. SHAPING DOUGH No flour should be used in molding loaves. The dough is molded by folding the sides under several times. It is placed in a greased tin with the crease on the bottom. The tins should be only half filled with the dough. PROOFING The rising in the pan is called "proofing." This rising can be more rapid than in fermentation. Com- mercially, loaves are proofed at a temperature about 10° above that of fermentation. olio .1 M.WIWL OF IK) mi: M.\Kl\<; BAKINC; Loaves arc ready to l»e l»ake added and the dough turned into the i)an. It should be allowed to rise in the pan for al)out 30 minutes, or until it rounds uj) slightly. These doughs never double in bulk in the rising as do wheat doughs. .Small loaves made from these heavy cereals are likely to have a better .shape and texture than large ones, although one loaf may be made from the recipes given. Slow baking gives the best results. J>om 114 to Ij^ hours in a fairly slow oven is the time recommended. Barley, oat and rice flour bread {2 small loaves). 2)4, cups barley flour 2 teaspoons salt l^ cup rice flour 1 tablespoon corn sirup IH cups ground rolletl oats 1 cake compressed yeast 1 cup milk M cup lukewarm water Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the salt and siru]). When the mixture is lukewarm, a(Kl the yeast, then the barley flour and rice flour, sifted. B(>at the dough well, and allow it to rise until it is light. Add the sifted oat flour, and turn the mixture into * Lucile Brewer. YEAST BREAD 505 greased pans. Allow it to rise for 20 or 30 minutes, and bake it in a mod- erate oven from 1 to 1 34 hours. Barley and rice bread {2 small loaves). 4 cups barley flour 1 tablespoon corn sirup 1 cup boiled rice 1 cake compressed yeast 1 cup milk 1^ cup lukewarm water 2 teaspoons salt Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the sirup and salt. When the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast. SALT-RISING BREAD An old-fashioned bread, the making of which is almost a lost art to-day, is called salt-rising bread. No yeast is used. Gas from a certain type of bacteria found in cornmeal is the leaven- ing agent. Dough made from freshly ground cornmeal rises much more rapidly than that from old cornmeal; in fact, failure generally results unless fresh cornmeal is used. The bread is handled in the same way as yeast-raised bread, except that the entire process can be carried on at a somewhat higher temperature than is possible with yeast bread. The odor of salt-rising bread during fermentation and proofing is characteristic. No other dough is like it. Salt-rising bread is finer in texture than yeast bread, and some persons believe it is more easily digested. Recipe for salt-rising bread {3 loaves). (1) In the evening make a mush of 2 tablespoons of cornmeal and about ]/2 cup of scalded milk. Keep it in a warm place overnight. (2) In the morning mix together 1 cup lukewarm water, J^ teaspoon salt, 3^ teaspoon soda, 13^ cups flour, cornmeal mush. (3) Cover the mixture, and place the dish in warm water until the mixture is light. (4) To 2 cups lukewarm water add 2 teaspoons of salt and 3 cups of flour. Add to this the cornmeal leavening mixture. Allow the mixture to rise until it is light. Then add sufficient flour to make a dough. Knead it until it is smooth, make it into loaves, place it in tins, and allow it to rise until it is double in bulk. Bake it according to the general directions. (■n.\iTi:i; xxv COOKING OF CEREALS By Mxry V. IIknuv Cereals in Ronoral arc a cheap source of cnorRy but there are wide differences in the cost of the various cereals themselves. Rolled oats, the whole-wheat grain, and cornmeal are, under ordinary conditions, the cheapest enerfry-vieldinfz; foods. The ready-to-eat and the partly cooked cereals are fioni two to ten times as expensive as the raw cereals. Attention given to the proper cooking of the raw cereals and to simple variations in serving them will, therefore, help to keep the food bills low, while at the same time the family is provided with a nutritious and appetizing food. Proportion of cereal and water. No rule for the proportion of cereal and water can be given that will apply to all kinds of cereals, or that will give a con- sistency which will satisfy every taste. The kind of cereal, the method of manufacture, and the method of cooking affect the amount of water that should be used. Cereal cooked in a fireless cooker requires less water than that cooked in a double boiler because there is less evaporation. Cereal cooked in a double boiler requires less water than that cooked directly over the fire, for the same reason. The table here given suggests proportions of water and cereal that may be used. Modifica- tion may be made to suit the taste. The proportion of salt should l^e 14 ^^ 1 teaspoon for every cup of water. Time required for cooking cereals. Cereals require long, slow cooking to make them palatable and digestible. Just as the various cereals call for different rm COOKING OF CEREALS 507 proportions of water, so they require different lengths of time for cooking. The whole grains and the ground grains contain- ing large amounts of cellulose, such as whole-wheat, oatmeal, or Ralston 's breakfast food, require a longer time for cooking than the grains that naturally or because of the process of manu- facture contain less cellulose, such as rice or cream of wheat. The time of cooking may be reduced considerably by soaking the cereal for several hours, or even as long as overnight, to soften the cellulose. This soaking may be esj^ecially desirable in the case of whole cereals. Since the cereal in this way absorbs a considerable amount of water, an equal amount should be deducted from that used in cooking the cereal. Utensils for cooking cereals. A fireless cooker is particularly well adapted for cooking cereals, since it gives the desirable long, slow cooking and makes possible a saving in attention and fuel. A double boiler is the next most convenient utensil. Cereals may be cooked directly over the fire if the temperature is kept low, but since there is a tendenc}^ to shorten the time of cooking because of the attention required to prevent burning, this method is in general not recommended. Even if stirred, cereal cooked in this way is likely to stick to the kettle and make it difficult to wash. Directions for cooking cereals in a double boiler. (1) Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling point in the upper part of a double boiler; (2) when the water is boiling vigorously, sprinkle the dry cereal into it slowly in order not to stop the boiling, as this will prevent lumping; (3) stir the cereal only slightly to prevent sticking and allow it to boil from 5 to 10 minutes, or until it thickens; (4) cover the container, and place it over the lower part of the double boiler, which is filled one-third full with boiling water; (5) cook the cereal for the required length of time, keeping the water in the lower part of the double boiler constantly boiling. Directions for cooking cereals in a fireless cooker. (1) Cook the cereal in the fireless cooker container over direct heat for 5 or 10 minutes according to the directions just given for the use of a double boiler; (2) when the cereal has boiled 5 or 10 minutes, cover the container and place it as quickly as possible in the fireless cooker and 508 .1 .U.l.\7 .1/. OF UOMKMAKlXn illow it to rciiiiiiii overnight. If ii hot soapstoiic is luswl, 4 or 5 hours' iiiokiiiK may Ix' suflicicnt. If nccossary, n'hcat (ho cereal over direct licat or in a contaiiiiT of hoihiin water before .s(?rving it. TABLK XXX.— CoDKiN-o of Ckrkaij* ^feasure (rupn) Amount of water ' Tim,- of C ookinfj Kind of rcrail Over dirrrt hnit (minules) Dmtlilp hoUcr (huura) FircUna cooker Amount after cooking (cupji) Pettijohn's Rolled oats Cream of wheat . . . 2 to 24 2 to 2'2 4 to .5 1 to 5 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 3,4 to 5 -> to 10 .'l to 10 3 to r, 3 to .■> ."> to 10 .-) to 10 5 to 10 .5 to 10 h to 10 r. to 10 5 to 10 .5 to 10 3 3 1 1 2 to 3 to >> .3 (> C. to S '} to (1 1 to 2 3 OvcrniKht Ov<>rniKht OvcrniKht OvcrniKht OvcrniKht ( )vcrniKht Overnight OvcrniKht OvcrniKht OvcrniKht Overnight Overnight 2 want 2 4 want 4 scant C'ornmeal Entire grain wheat. Ralston's 4 scant 3 4 4 scant 34 Hominy grits Samp Wheatena Rice 3 J 2 scant 4 4 scant 4H ' If the tireless cooker is used, from 14 to 14 fup le.s.s water should be added than is pivcn in this table. Variations in cooking and serving breakfast cereals. Cereals ma\^ be cooked in milk, or in a combination of milk and water. Slightly more milk is necessary than when water alone is used. The use of milk in cooking cereals offers a way of increasing the milk-content of a meal and makes the dish more nutritious. Figs or raisins may be chopped fine and stirred in a few minutes before serving. Bananas, berries, or other fiuit may be served with the cereal. Combinations of two or moi-e kinds of cereals are good for variety. Uses for left-over cereals. Left-over cereals maj^ be sei'\'ed in various ways. The cereal may be poured into individual molds and served as pudding with fruit sauce or cream. Dates, figs, or other fruit may be added before it is molded. If the cereal is sufficiently stiff, it may be molded in a loaf, sliced, browned in a small amount of fat, and served with sirup or tomato sauce. Left-over cereal may be used for a part of the flour in muffins, pancakes, or other breads, and in scalloped dishes or croquettes. • COOKING OF CEREALS 509 How to pop corn* For good results in popping, the main requisites are good corn and a good hot fire. In popping, certain precautions may be observed to good advantage. Too much pop-corn should not be taken at one time, not more than enough barely to cover the bottom of the popper one kernel deep. The popper should be held high enough above the fire or heat to keep from burning the kernels or scorching them too quickly. The right degree of heat for best results in popping should make good corn begin to pop in 13^2 minutes. This should give the maximum volmne increase in popping. If it begins to pop in less time or if a large quantity of corn is put into the popper, it will not pop up so crisp and flaky. If it takes much longer for the popping to be- gin, the heat is probably not great enough or the pop-corn is of poor quality, or there may be other interfering causes, such as drafts of cold air. To preserve the snowy whiteness of the popped kernels, the flame must be kept from striking them. This can be done by placing a plate of iron or a stove lid between the corn and the fire if a wire popper is used or by using a pan popper if popping directly over a flame. If the pop-corn is in first-class condition and the heat properly applied, 1 pint of unpopped corn should give 15 to 20 pints of popped corn. * Hartley, C. P., and Willier, J. G. Farmers' BuU. 553. U. S. Dept. of Agr. ('iiAi'ri:i; xwi MEAT AND POULTRY Bv LUCILK liUEWKU Although meat is not a necessity in the diet (page 410), the estimate is that in the United States about one-third of the total expeiuHtuie of money foi' food is for meat. This country' shows tlie lii^hest per capita consumption. Doubtless one of the reasons for this large consumption is that meat has an appetiz- ing flavor and is easily cooked, especially the tender cuts. Amer- ican cooks have not j'et ac(iuired the skill of European and Oriental cooks in flavoring foods, nor do the^^ under ordinary conditions, devote sufficient time and thought to the prepara- tion of meat-substitute dishes. However, with the rising cost of meat, more attention is ])eing paid to the tough, and conse- quently, cheaper, cuts and to the complete utihzation of all meat bought. SELECTION OF MEAT BY APPEARANCE Beef should be firm and fine-grained in texture. It should have a bright red color and be well mottled with fat. The fat of beef should be firm and of a yellowish color. Suet should be dry and should crumble readily. For cuts of beef, see Fig. 118. " Veal should be of a pinkish color. The fat should be firm and white. Mutton should be a bright pink color and fine-grained. The fat of mutton should be hard and flaky. The outside skin should come off e:>sily. For cuts of mutton, see Fig. 110. Lamh. — The bones of laml) are ic^ddish in coloi- while tho.se of mutton are white. 510 MEAT AND POULTRY 511 Pork. — The skin of pork should be white and clear. The flesh should be of a pinkish tint. For cuts of pork see Fig. 120. Fig. 118.— Cuts of beef. Fig. 119. — Cuts of mutton. Poultry. — Chickens should have soft feet, a smooth skin, and soft cartilage at the end of the breast bone. An abundance of pin feathers indicates a young bird. Long hairs indicate age. r)i2 .1 M.\.\ IM. or HOME M.\Kl\<; The feel of fouls aic hard and dry, with coarse scales. The cartilage at the end of the breast hone has hecome ossified. A jiood turkey should Ik^ j)hnni); its iejrs should 1)(! sniootii, and the car- tilage at the end (jf tiie hrca.st hone should ho soft and pliahle. (Pajj;e 524). GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING Meat is cooked to soften connect- ive tissue, to develop flavor, to im- prove appearance, and to destroy bacteria or other organisms. The cuts of meat may i)e divided into two classes, tlic tough and the tender. Although the tough cuts are as nutritious as the tender and are cheaper, more skill and ingenuity are required to make them palatable. Both nutritive material and flavor are retained in meat by searing over the surface at the beginning of the cooking period. This may be done by plunging it into boiling water or hot fat, or by placing it in a hot oven or over an open fire as in broiling, thus using direct heat. Tender cuts. Only the tender cuts should be cooked with dry heat. After the meat has been quickly seared with intense heat to retain the juices, the temperature should be lowered dur- ing the remainder of the cooking. Even thetenderest cuts of meat may be toughened by cooking at too high a temperature. The tender cuts are fine grained and require less time for cooking than do the tough cuts. Fig. 120.— Cuts of pork. MEAT AND POULTRY 513 Broiling and roasting, which develop a fine flavor, can be used only for tender cuts. The best cuts for broiling are porter- house, sirloin, cross cut of rump steak, and the second and third cuts from the top of the round. Porterhouse and sirloin steaks are the most expensive because of the loss of bone and fat. Round steaks are juicy, but they have a coarser fiber and are not so tender as porterhouse and sirloin. Steaks should be cut at least one inch thick; they may be as thick as two or three inches. Most of the fat on steaks should be tried out, clarified, and used for shortening. The best cuts for roasting are the middle of the sirloin, the back of the rump, and the first three ribs. The tip of the sir- loin and the back of the rump make large roasts that are more economical than the sirloin. Rib roasts contain more fat and are somewhat cheaper than other roasts. Tough cuts. The tough cuts are the ones containing muscles which the animal has used most actively and include the shin, knuckle, and round of the leg, the neck, and the shoulder. Methods of making tough meats tender are chopping, adding fat, marinating with oil and vinegar, long slow cooking in moist heat at a low temperature, and breaking the fibers by pounding them with a sharp instrument. Tough cuts of meat require long, slow cooking to be made tender and palatable. Tough ends of the tender cuts, such as porterhouse steak, should be cut off and specially cooked in such a way that they can be utilized, instead of being cooked in the same way as the tender part and then discarded because of their toughness. If it is desired to extract some of the nutritive material and flavor for soup, sauce, or gravy, the meat should be put into cold water and heated slowly. Tough cuts that are to be used for stew may be cut in small pieces and browned before the long, slow cooking, if this browned flavor is liked. Meat cooked for a stew may be drained, rolled in egg and buttered crumbs, and browned for variety. The broth may be thickened and served as gravy. 514 .1 MAXIM. OF IIOME-MAKIXG Swiss ntcak \]/z pounds round sl<';ik, }^-l rup (lour \} 2 to 2 inches thick 3 slicos hjicon 1 small onion Salt and pepper I'ountl the flour into i)oth sides of llur piece of steak. Cook the hacon and sliced onion luitil brown. Add the meat, brown each side, and add water or tomato juice barely to cover the steak. Cover and simmer it on the stove or i)lace it in the oven. When it is half done, season with salt and pepper. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR SOUP-M.\KING Soups may be cla.s.sifiecl as follows: Soups with stock, as bouil- lon, brown stock, white stock, consomme, lamb stock; soups without stock, as cream soups, purees, bisques; and chowders. Only soups with stock will be considered here. Cream soups have white sauce as a basis (page 552). Since the purpose in making soup is to draw out as much food substance and flavor- ing material as possible, the bones or meat should be placed in cold water and should be heated slowly. Bones arc likely to be better utilized if a receptacle is kept for soup materials only; then every few days the soup kettle may be placed on the stove. If the soup kettle is always kept on the stove and especially if the amount of material is large, as in the case of hotel soup kettles, there is danger of food poisoning because the repeated heating and cooling of the meat antl broth furnishes excellent conditions for the growth of certain harmful microorganisms. If sparingly used, fresh pork and ham l)oncs make good additions to soup. If there is a small amount of soup stock on hand, it may lie used with the water from boiled potatoes, rice, celeiy, and the like, to make a delicious soup. Soup stock may be used in white sauce or brown sauce to im- prove the flavor. If clear soup is wished, only bones should be used, because meat would have to be strained out and would probably be wasted. Meat that has been used for making soup has lost its flavor but not its nutritive qualities; consequently, if a house- keeper wishes to be thrifty, she will boil the soup meat for a shorter time, or until it is tender, and serve it with the soup. MEAT AND POULTRY 515 A soup made in this way with the addition of rice, pearl bar- ley, macaroni, or vegetables makes an appetizing luncheon dish. Bouillon 4 pounds of meat without bone 4 pints cold water 1 3^ teaspoons salt 10-12 peppercorns 4 cloves 1 cup canned tomato, if desired H teaspoon pepper ^2 teaspoon sweet herbs Bay leaf IJ^ tablespoons each of carrot, onion, celery To make bouillon : (1 ) Use a kettle with a tight-fitting cover to keep in the flavors; (2) wipe the meat with a damp cloth; (3) trim off undesirable por- tions; (4) cut in small pieces; (5) place the meat in the kettle; (6) cover it with cold water and allow it to stand H hour; (7) bring it to the simmering point, 180° F., and cook it for 5 or 6 hours, never allowing the soup to boil; (8) add the vegetables and seasonings 1 hour before serving; (9) strain off the liquid and set it away uncovered to cool. Brown soup stock 6 pounds shin of beef 3 quarts cold water K teaspoon peppercorns 6 cloves J^ bay leaf 3 sprigs thyme 1 sprig marjoram 3 sprigs parsley Carrots Turnips Onion Celery 1 tablespoon salt J/^ cup of each cut in dice To make brown soup stock: (1) Wipe the beef; (2) cut the lean meat in cubes; (3) brown one-third of it in a frying pan in marrow from the marrow bones; (4) put the remaining two-thirds with the bone and fat in the soup kettle; (5) let it stand for 30 minutes; (6) add the browned meat, and heat it gradually to the boiling point; (7) remove the scum; (8) cover the kettle and cook the meat slowly for 6 hours; (9) add the vegetables 1 hour before it is done; (10) strain the stock; (11) cool it as quickly as possible; (12) clarify it. White soup stock 4 pounds of knuckle of veal 1 pound lean beef 2 quarts boiling water 6 slices carrot 1 onion 1 large stalk celery 3^ teaspoon peppercorns 3^ bay leaf 2 sprigs thyme 2 cloves Follow the directions for bouillon. ,')!(•) .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKlSd TAHLK XXXI. — Mkats vi)\i Son ' AND Hhoth Meal \W-i(jht in piiunila Shin soup lioncs l-l Hind sliiiiik soup hones 1 -i") Knuckle souj) bone Oxtuil :j-7 1 -2 1 ;{ Beef shoulder c1(j(1 Beef round 1-2 1-2 ShouldcT of mutton 1-2 Neck of mutton Shanks of mutton 1-2 1-11 1 J CARE OF MEAT Meat should Ix^ removed from the wrapping paper as soon as it conies from the market , since tlie pa])er absorbs some of the juices. Before meat is cooked, it shoukl be wiped with a cloth wrung out of cold water. It should never be allowed to stand in a pan of cold water, since the juices are in this way drawn out. Meat must ])e kept cool in a refrigerator, a cool cellar, a spring-house or a well. It must also be carefully protected from flies. Since broth offers excellent conditions for the growth of bac- teria, it should be drained off meat that is to be kept for any length of time before lacing served. If conditions for keeping meat are very unfavorable, it may be dipped into a large quantity of boiling water. This does not seriously affect its flavor, and it tends to prevent the meat from spoiling. Veal and pork may be partly cooked before being stored. When canned meats are opened, they spoil more quickly perhaps than fresh meats; therefore, they should be consumed with as little delay as possible. Under no circumstances .should they be left in a tin can after it is opened. MEAT AND POULTRY 517 to CD 10 00 00 I I I I I M (N (N ?; C^ CD O CJ 0 lO M I I I I I Nfi i-H (N C^ \n C^ .-H y-t :^^ I rt " J=3 -ti ^ -^ t ■§ ;§ § a o — i: o o Pu O tZ « H m ^ sis ai o o V V a> > > > r)is .1 u i\r 1/. or noMi: u.i/vV.vr; z K o U \f 2 a fa If ^1 M CI - — — ce X r» -/: -. -j -r -r c« 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 n n n n f c-i -.o n n ?i — 3 1 c For boiling Leg of pork Smoked ham Pork shoulder, fresh Pork shoulder, smoked Pork hoeks Baek bones and neck bones Leg of mutton Shoulder of mutton Shoulder of lamb For stewing Breast of mutton Breast of lamb z o U b« O >< a a o ^ 5 fe a. M M \^ oo--— '"xio — ooo O'»<'>»'oaooe 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L (N cc « \?> M v^ o P5 CO \r< (N ec n;^ lA IS 3 5 a Pork loin Leg of pork Smoked ham Pork tenderloin Shoulder of pork Spare ribs Leg of mutton Loin of mutton Shoulder of mutton I^g of lamb Loin of lamb Shoulder of lamb Crown roast of lamb Hindquarter spring lamb Forequarter spring lamb o o O o B || 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -■ \» -^ ti jC_^^ Pork steak Pork chops Salt pork Fancy breakfast bacon Medium to fat bacon Mutton chops Lamb chops MEAT AND POULTRY 519 KEEPING MEAT * After slaughtering, the meat undergoes several changes. Immediatel}^ after being killed, the flesh, especially in young and well-nourished animals, is juicy and tender. On account of the clotting of the myosin, after a short time rigor mortis ensues and the meat becomes stiff and hard. In the third stage to which the meat soon passes, it becomes again soft and tender, owing in part to the action of lactic acid on the sarcolemma and connective tissue. This process should not, however, be al- lowed to go too far, or the meat will become "high" and have a disagreeable odor and flavor. This development of the lactic acid rendering the meat tender, is called "ripening" of the meat. Refrigeration retards this process, hence meats can be kept fresh for a considerable time at a low temperature (below 40° F.) . The experiments by P. F. Trowbridge,! show that as long as the amount of lactic acid continues to increase, the meat appears to be improving in quality. At a certain stage, however, basic bodies begin to separate, which neutrahze the lactic acid and thus cause a de- crease in the amount of this free acid. The meat is still edible after this decrease has begun, but whenever enough basic bodies are Hberated to neutralize the lactic acid, the meat has then reached a stage of incipient putrefaction and is no longer fit for food. Game is often allowed to "hang" until the changes of de- composition are well marked and in this condition it is highly reUshed by epicures. USE OF MARKET TRIMMINGS AND MEAT FAT IN COOKING | Market trimmings vary with the customs of the locality and the character of the cuts bought, but it is certain that a saving can be made if the trimmings are brought home and used in cooking or for other purposes. * Bailey, E. H. S. The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products, t Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. j Usher, Susannah. Waste of Meat in the Home. Part II. Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 109. r)2() .1 MAXIM. (IF ll'iMi: MAKlXa After licin^ tiicd out and claiilicd, all sweet suet from market and lioiiie I liiiiiiiiiius of Ix'ef and mutton, drippinjis from roasts, liaeon fat, fresh jxirk fat, aiul sausiine fat can lie combined or used sinj;ly in cooking, l-'or frying crofiuettes, Kreaded cliops, Frencli fried potatoes, and tlie like, a mixture of various fats, such as l)eef, mutton, and liaeon, is excellent. The cracklings from tried-out suot arc good for shortening in corn cakes and suet puddings. In buying suet separately, it should he remembered that fats from all ])arts of the animal do not melt at the same tem- perature. For examjjle, cod suet melts at a lower temperature and is, therefore, a softer fat than is kidney suet. For some kinds of cooking the softer fat is much to be preferred. In geneial, fats are almost completel}' digested, although ex- periments indicate that fats with low melting points, such as butter and olive oil, are digested more completely than tho.se with high melting points, such as mutton fat and beef fat. Tenipcrafurc of cooking. More important, however, than the kind of fat eaten, is the method of treatment of fat in the process of cooking. Fat foods that are badly cooked or other foods that are poorly cooked in fat are often unsuspected soiu'ces of digestive troubles. Over- heating fat, that is, heating it to the point where blue smoke is visible, causes decomposition with the formation of substances that are irritating to the digestive tract. It is suggested that the absorption of certain of these materials into the blood stream may cause disturbances more far-reaching than is yet known. On the other hand, cooking food in fat at too low a tempera- ture is not without ill effects, as it causes the fat to be soaked up and the food to be covered with layers of fat; this retards the action of the digestive juices and causes delay in the reason- ably prompt passage of food from the stomach. Flavor and hardness. Two objections are usually offered to the utilization in cook- ing processes of the harder fats, such as beef and mutton, MEAT AND POULTRY 521 namely, the flavor and the hardness. The hardness may be overcome by mixing them with softer fats, such as lard and cot- tonseed oil. The flavor may be modified by careful rendering and by disguising it as in savory fat. Various combinations of fats may be used; for example, one part of bacon fat and two parts of mutton fat, one part of lard or fresh pork drippings and two parts of mutton fat, one part of sausage fat and two parts of mutton fat. Many housekeepers say that they do not have time to mix the fats together in ac- curate proportions; they therefore mix their hard and soft fats in any amounts that happen to be at hand, generally with good results. Of course, such a mixture is softer than either mutton or beef fat alone. If the harder fats are used for shortening, they must be kept in a warm place for some time before they are used, in order that they may become soft; otherwise, extra time and strength are expended in order to work them into the flour for biscuits and pastry and to cream the shortening and sugar for cake. Under any circumstances, it seems a little more difficult to work them into the flour than is the case with butter. In ginger cookies and gingerbread, where the shortening is melted before it is added, this difficulty is not apparent. If other fats are substituted for butter, salt must be added to take the place of the salt in the butter. Mutton fat. Mutton fat combined with the softer fats is most satisfactory for all kinds of biscuits, muffins, and cakes that are to be served hot, or at least on the same day on which they are baked. The "furry" feeling in the mouth that comes from eating hard fats is less noticeable if the products arc eaten with hot drinks or fruit sauces. Lemon juice adtled for part of the liquid in cakes also lessens this "furry" feeling. Mutton fat is excellent in all cases in which a small amount of shortening is used and when spices and molasses help to mask the mutton flavor. In cakes made with mutton fat, vanilla, and chocolate are successful flavors. Cakes do not have r)22 .1 M.wiAL or iinMi; makixc so fine a j^raiii ami do iidt keep so well wlicii tlicy arc nia(I(> with mutton t"a1 as w hen llicy aic made with Imttcr. Certainly nniildn lat can lie iililizcil to a jfi'catcr cxf cnt than is jz;(Mi(M-all\- thoutihl. If handled skillfully in the [jrcparatioii, tlio products arc not only satisfactory hut excellent. Tests for the use of mutton fat gave the following results: * " It would make for economy if mutton fat wei-e more com- monly used in the kitchen. For this reason, tests were made of dilTerent ways of modifying the flavor so that the mutton fat might be more generally used in cooking. The most satisfac- tory method found was to mix some leaf lard with the suet and render with milk. The suet and leaf lard mixture was finely divided by i)assing it through a meat grinder, and was heatcn:! in a double boiler with about one-half of its weight of w'hole milk. The fat was quickly released from the tissues, and, when al- lowed to cool, formed a cake on the surface of the liquid, which was easily removed. Mutton suet and leaf lard, fresh and of good qualit}^, 'tried out' in this way, possessed little, if any, of the characteristic mutton odor and flavor. The best results were obtained with a mixture of two parts of mutton suet and one of leaf lard, finely ground, rendered with whole milk in pro- portion of one-half pint to two jiounds of the mixed mutton and laixl. This fat had an exceptionally good odor and flavor, which it retained when kept foi- weeks in an ordinary refrigerator. It was also of good color and tc^xture, being softer than the mut- ton fat alone, owdng to the milk fat and lard which it contained. If such fats are rendered in an open kettle, a moderate heat is desirable, since the}' 'burn out ' very readil}-. Rendering in a double boiler is much more convenient. In numerous test-s, such fat proved satisfactory either alone or with a little butter for use in cooking vegetables and for other purposes." Clarified fat. Various methods are used to clarify fat. A pinch of baking soda whitens the fat and also helps to keep it sweet. Baking * Langwortliy, C F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Mutton and its Value in the Diot. Farmers' Hull. 526, U. S. Dept. of Agr. MEAT AND POULTRY 523 soda is used to whiten lard in the proportion of about 13^^ ounces to 100 pounds of lard. It is stirred into the hot lard after the cracklings are strained out. The following directions may be found useful in clarifying fat:* "Excepting when the purpose of clarifying fat is to remove flavors, a good method to follow is to pour boiling water over the fat, to boil thoroughly, and then to set it away to cool. The cold fat may be removed in a solid cake and any impurities clinging to it may be scraped off, as they will be found at the bottom of the layer. By repeating this process two or three times a cake of clean, white fat may be obtained." "A slight burned taste or similar objectionable flavors often can be removed from fat by means of potatoes. After melting the fat, put into it thick slices of raw potatoes; heat gradually. When the fat .ceases to bubble and the potatoes are brown, strain through a cloth placed in a wire strainer." Savory fat.'\ "Savory fat may be easily prepared. For each pound of the carefully rendered mutton fat, allow an onion, a sour apple, and a teaspoonful of ground thyme or mixed herbs tied up in a small piece of cloth. Cook these in the fat, at a low temperature in the oven or on top of the stove, until the onion and apple are thoroughly browned. Then strain off the fat, which will be found well seasoned and may be used in place of butter or other savory fat for seasoning or for warming of potatoes, cooking vegetables, and in other ways. Winter or Hubbard squash cooked in the mutton fat until it is brown was also found in this laboratory to impart a savory flavor. The savoriness produced by the use of fruits and vegetables in this way seems to be due to the solution in the fat of specific flavoring bodies present in the fruits, vegetables, or herbs, and to the fat taking up some of the caramelized carbohydrate formed when the fruit or vege- table browns." * Langworthy, C. F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Economical Use of Meat in the Home. Farmers' Bull. 391, U. S. Dept. Agr. ' t Farmers' Bull. 526. .524 A u.t.vr.t/. or HOME m.xkisc ( IIICKKN.S AND FOWLS (kKANCES VINTON WARD) ("liickcMs liMVc soft, smooth Ic^.s :iini feet, a soft floxil)l»: l)rcast hoiic, pin leal hers, few hairs, a tciidcr skin, and they arc lean. I^jwls ha\(' haid scaly feet, a haid liicasi IxjIic, loii):; hairs, a tough, thick skin, and the intestines are surrounded by fat. Dressing and cleaning poultry. Poultry must l)o prepared for eookinp; by careful cleaning and dressing. The following directions may be carried out: Pick out all stray i)in feathers. Singe the liird hy holding it over a flame until the hairs are burned off. Slip the point of the wings behind the .shoulder l)lades, to give steadines.s to the body while working with it. Cut off the head, push l)aek the .skin, and cut the neck close to the l)ody. Through the neck opening, loosen the crop from the skin which surrounds it. If the croj) is full, lift it and cut the tube connecting it with the giz- zard, reaching down between the brea~t bones as far as po.ssible. An empty crop, loosened from the breast skin, may be drawn out with the intestines. If dressing a fowl, cut a lengthwise slit aljout one inch long in the skin of the leg just below the leg joint. In.sert a .skewer, and pick up the white tendons, one at a time, pulling each away from the hip toward the foot until it breaks loose. When all are loo.sened, cut around the leg through the skin just below the joint, bend the joint backward till it breaks, and cut through the cords to remove the leg. Cut a lengthwise slit through the skin and fat at the rear just below the breast bone and toward the vent. Cut around the vent. With the fowl lying on its back, in.sert the hand in this oi)ening, passing it over the intestines, between them and the breast bone. Press the hand forward imtil the heart can be felt, curving the fingers around the internal organs including the heart; pull strongly, holding the fowl in place with the other hand, until the organs are drawn out. Slip the heart from its sack, and cut it free from its blood ves.sels. Cut the intestine close to the gizzard. Cut acro.ss the white tendon on one side of this, being very careful not to cut the inner lining, and turn the outer muscular coat inside out, awaj' from the inner coat with its contents intact. With a 'sharp knife peel off the interlining, and cut away the outer tendons. Cut away the liver in two lobes, discarding the part discolored by the gall bladder. Be careful not to cut the latter. Should this occur, every part of the meat which has been touched by it must lie cut away, after carefully washing the knife which cut it. The l)itter taste is very persistent. Find the lungs, attached to the ribs on the upper side of the body near the head, and remove them carefully. A small amount left will cause discoloration and give an unpleasant flavor. Re- MEAT AND POULTRY 525 move the very dark glands lying in hollows close to the backbone near the tail. Wipe the bird thoroughly, inside and out. Cooking poultry. Chicken may be stuffed and roasted, but fowl should be stewed slowly for a long time, preferably in a tireless cooker. To roasl chicken. — Make a stuffing of dried breadcrumbs, moistened with as much milk as it will absorb and seasoned as desired with 1 table- spoon of butter, J^ teaspoon of salt, a little pepper, and sage or poultry seasoning to each cup of crumbs. Fill the crop region about two-thirds full, and tie the end of the sldn of the neck. Fill the body region about two-thirds full, and fasten the opening by sticking tooth picks across it through both flaps of the skin, then lacing string across the tooth picks. Insert two long skewers through the chicken, one just beneath the legs, the other through the wings (now released from their position behind the shoulder blades) and the breast. Tie the legs together, and draw them down by means of the string to the tail, continuing the string to fasten around the skewers and the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind them around the skewers under the wings, tying them together over the back. Note that there is no string across the breast, and a fowl served breast side up, with the string removed, shows no mark of the string. Place the chicken in a covered roasting pan with a little water in the bot- tom. If the chicken is not very fat, butter or oil the skin, sprinkle it with salt, pepper, and flour, and bake it from 1 to IJ^ hours in a moderately hot oven. Wash the breast, gizzard, neck, and liver. Stew them in suffi- cient water to cover them, adding the liver after cooldng the others an hour. To stew chicken. — If chicken is to be cut up before being cooked, as in stewing, the dressing is much simplified. After cutting the lengthwise slit into the abdominal cavity, bend out the leg and cut the skin between it and the body, following the outline of the thigh up to the hip bone. The leg will separate from the body and when bent far enough back, the hip joint will break and the leg may be cut free. When both legs have been removed, lay them skin down and feel for the joint between the thigh and "drum stick." Cut across this through the tendon and break the joint, separating the two parts by cutting through the flesh. Cut from the mid point of the slit in the abdomen through the thin muscle which under- lay the hip straight to the hip joint. Bend back the back of the chicken, breaking the backbone near this point. The organs may now easily be removed as before. Lift the wing, and cut from the under side up, dis- locating the bone to find the joint. Note the cartilaginous joints in the ribs at each side, and cut through these regions to the shoulder, to separate the back from the breast, dislocating the shoulder blade from the breast bone at the forward end and cutting the two apart. Remove the lungs 520 A MAMAL OF HOME U.l/v'/W/ and glands. Wipo the fowl ius hcfurc. (.'ouk tin- Kil)lits si-panitrly. Add onoiiuli l)uiliiin wattT just to cover the fowl, sitiiiiHT it la niimifcs, add 1 tablespoon of salt, and plaee it in a fireless cooker for a or ti hours. He- move it and if not yet lender, reheat it and cook it again. To .'ly. The meat may be removed from the bones and skin and ground. The liquor may be cleared, well .seasoned, and thickene a fish for cooking; it must ho cloanod, skinned an; an incision as close as possihle to each side of the fin. The tail should then he cut off. If the fish is to he i)akc(l, the head and tail arc left on, hut the eyes removed. The hody is opened hy cutting from the gills along the front to the tail, the entrails removed, the inside cleaned, scraped, and washed out with cold water, and the fish then Aviped dry. To skin a fish the fins should he removetl and the skin slit along the hack and around the head and tail. The hand should he dipped in salt to keep it from slipping. The skin is then loo.s- cncd helow the head and drawn from the head down to the tail on one side of the hody and then drawn from the oth(>r side of the hod3^ To bone a fish it should first he cleaned and skinned as di- rected. One should then begin at the tail and with a sharp knife under the flesh close to the l)ackbone follow the bone its entire length, making as ck^an a cut as possible. This removes the flesh from one side of the fish. The fish may then be turned and the flesh removed from the other side, and any small bones that remain may l)e picked out. Methods of cooking fish Boiled fish . To boil small irholcfish: (1) Clean the fish, loavinp; the head, tail, and fins, but removing the eyes; (2) weigh it; {'.i) plaee it on a raek in a fish kettle or coil it in a frying l)a.sket, and place it in an iron kettle; (4) cover it with warm water (Boiling water causes the flesh to contract and crack; cold water draws out tiie juices. Salmon, however, must l)e plunged in boiling water to preserve^ the color); (.')) for each 2 quarts of water a(kl 1 teaspoon of salt and 1 tal)l(>sp<)on of vinegar or lemon juice; (G) bring the water quickly to the boiling point; (7) .sinuner the fish until it is done, allowing from 5 to 8 minutes to the pound according to the tliickness of the flesh; FISH AND OYSTERS 529 or cook it until the flesh will separate from the bones; (8) drain it; (9) re- move it to a folded napkin on a hot platter; (10) garnish it with parsley and lemon. To boil pieces of fish cut from a large fish: (1) Clean the fish; (2) wrap it in a piece of cheese-cloth and tie it; (3) proceed as in boiling whole fish. Cotirt bouillon is used for boiling fresh water fish that have little flavor. Brown in 1 tablespoon of fat, 1 chopped carrot, 1 chopped onion, 1 stalk of celery; add 2 quarts of hot water, 1 cup vinegar, 3 peppercorns, 3 cloves, 1 bay leaf, 1 teaspoon salt and any fish trimmings; strain the liquid before putting the fish into it. TABLE XXXIV. — Fish that may be Boiled, and Sauces, Garnishes, AND Vegetables Suitable for Each Fish Sauce Garnish Vegetables Haddock Egg Parsley, cress Potato balls Salmon Tartar Cress Asparagus, carrots HoUandaise Lemon French beans Egg Parsley Rice Halibut Bechamel Cress Potato croquettes HoUandaise Parsley Tomatoes, green salad Cod Butter Mashed potatoes Caper Carrots Shrimp Turnips Oyster Beets, greens Mackerel Caper Parsley Flounder Trout Bechamel Horse-radish Chopped parsley Carrots, turnips Sole Bechamel Carrots, spinach Baked fish. To bake whole dry fish: (1) Clean the fish, leaving the head and tail on, but removing the eyes; (2) stuff the fish with any fish stuffing desired; (3) sew up the fish; (4) place the fish on a greased rack or fish sheet in a fish pan or if these are not obtainable, place buttered strips of cheese-cloth under the fish, by means of which the fish may be lifted from the pan with- out being broken; (5) truss the fish in the shape of the letter S, doing this by a means of a long skewer thrust through it from head to tail; (6) cut three gashes on each side of the fish; (7) insert a thin slice of salt pork in each gash; (8) dust the fish with salt and pepper; (9) sprinkle it with flour; (10) put it in a hot oven, and bake it, allowing 15 minutes for each pound; (11) baste it frequently; (12) remove the fish to a hot platter; (13) remove the slices of pork; (14) fill the gashes with parsley; (15) gar- r:.M) ,1 M \ \ IM. or lldME M \KJ\C; hish ihi- \\>\\ Willi li'iiiori; (id) strain tin- fat Id \»- used ;i- .'i fuimdalion fdp sauce. '/'<> IkiLi- fal Ji.sli: Proceed as for dry lisli, hut it.'iiil ihr iturk. TAHM'! XXXV. — l'"i.sii that may hk Bakkd Wiiolk, and SAr«KK, (lAUNisnKS, and Vkc;ktahij:s Suitaiu.k kok Kach Fish •Sauce (Janiiah Wgc tabic Haddock Bluefish Cod Mackerel Shad Sea Ijiuss Tile fish Weak fish DrawTi butt(T Egg Hollandaise Shrimp Oyster Lemon juice Tomato Maitre d'hotel Lemon juice Lemon Parsley Potato hall Lemon Parsley Cucumber Lemon Tomatoes Lemon Parsley Parsley Mashed potatoes Mashed potatoes Tomatoes To bake cutlets and fillets: (I) Wipe the fish dry; (2) dust it with salt and pepper; (3) season it with lemon juice, if desired; (4) sprinkle it with bits of butter; (5) add }/> fnp of water or other liquid; (6) place the fish in a hot oven allowing from 5 to S minutes for each pound, according to the thickness of the fish. TABLE XXXVL — Fish that may he Baked in Steaks, Cutlets, or Fillets, with Sauces, Garnishes and Vegetables Siitaule for EACH Fish Sauce Garnish Vegetables Halibut Haddock Salmon Flounder Cusk Horse mackerel . . Tile Hollandaise Tomato Brown Oyster Bernaise Bercy Lemon juice Lemon juice Tomato Pur6e of peas Tomatoes O^'sters Lemon Parsley Shrimps Siftetl egg yolk Potato balls Onions Green peas, potatoes FISH AND OYSTERS 531 Broiled fish. To broil fi^h rvhole: (1) Clean the fish; (2) split large fish down the back, but do not split small fish; (3) if desired, remove the head and the tail; (4) brush the fish with melted butter or oil seasoned with salt and pepper; (5) place the fish, flesh side down on a well-greased broiler; (6) cook it for from 10 to 20 minutes according to the thickness of the fish, turning it often; (7) if the fish is thick, place the dripping pan under the broiler, and baste the fish with butter once or twice during the cooking and finish the cooking in the oven; (8) carefully separate the fish from the broiler, and slide it on to a hot platter; (9) spread it with maitre d 'hotel butter. To broil slices of fish: (1) Cut the fish into slices 1 inch thick; (2) wipe it dry; (3) season it, and proceed as in the case of broiled whole fish. TABLE XXXVII. — Fish that may be Broiled, with Sauces, Gar- nishes, AND Vegetables Suitable for each Fish Sauce Garnish Vegetables Cusk Bluefish Horse mackerel . . Trout Lemon French fried po- tatoes Cod Melted butter Parsley, lemon Boiled potatoes, Tomato carrots, green peas, beans, beets, spinach Hahbut Butter Parsley Peas, beans, beets, spinach Tile fish Mackerel Maitre d'hotel Lemon, cucumber Mashed potato Scrod Shad.- Maitre d'hotel Radishes, parsley Duchess potato Smelts Bechamel Sword fish Cucumber, horse-radish Shad roe Maitre d'hotel Lemon quarters Pompano Fricassee of clams Potato Sauted fish. To saute fish steaks: (1) Clean the steaks; (2) wipe them dry; (3) season them with pepper and salt; (4) dip them in granulated cornmeal; (5) try out slices of salt pork; (6) remove the scraps of pork; (7) saut6 the steaks in the fat, until they are a delicate brown on both sides. o.'VJ .1 MA.MAL nr HOME MAKIXd Fricil ftslt. To fry s7tinU vholc fi.\h and fillets af fish: (\) ('loan tho fish; (2) wash it; (;}) dry it; (4) season it willi jx-ppcr and salt; {!>) roll it in flour; (ti) roll if in (>kk; (") roll it in hrcadcrurnljs; (K) put in a frying Inuskcf ; (9) dip it in doc'[) hot fat (17')° C), and cook it for (iO seconds or until the fixh is a delicate brown color; (10) drain it; (11) remove it to soft pai)er for further draining; (12) serve it on a folded napkin. Carving fish To carve a baked or hoilod fisli, a silver knifo anrl fork should he used. The head of fhe fisli should first he reiiK)ve(l and then the length of the hack cut down as close as possible to the bone, the nearer half of the fish being cut in tluck slices. When all the flesh is n^nioved from one side, the platter or the fish should be turned and the flesh removed from tiie other side. OYSTERS Oysters arc among the most commonl}- used of the shell fish. The bivalves, including oysters, mussels, clams, and scal- lops, have white flesh and are easily digested. The crustaceans, including lolxsters, crabs, and shrimps, have red fle.sh and are more difficult to digest than are the fish of white flesh. Oysters are in season from September to May. They arc wholesome but not so palatable during the other months. Al- though oysters arc not very nutritious, they have a place in the diet since they serve as appetizers. The tough muscle and gills are not as easily digested as the remainder of the body. When these are removed, as they often are before cooking, the oyster is said to be bearded. Selection and preparation of oysters Only fresh oysters should be selected. Oysters are now trans- ported in containers surrounded by ice. Pre.scM'vat ives are not used. When i)ossible, oysters should be liought in the shell. To open an oyster shell one should first wash the shells thor- oughly with a brush and plenty of water. A thin flat knife may then l)e pushed undci- (he upper valve, the muscle that holds it in the shell cut, and the upper shell or valve, raised and lifted off. FJSH AND OYSTERS 533 To clean the oysters after they have been opened, they should be placed in a colander, the colander placed over a bowl and cold water poured over the oysters, using 3^ cup of water to 1 quart of oysters. Each oyster should be examined carefully, and any bits of shell removed. The liquor is then poured off carefully, and reserved for use in sauces. Methods of serving oysters Oysters may be served either raw or cooked. When raw they are served generally on the half shell, in cocktails, or with vinegar sauce. When cooked, they may be roasted, panned, broiled, sauted, fried, served in sauces, scalloped, served in stews, in pastry cups, in croustades, or bread cases. To serve oysters on the half shell. (1) Use small varieties, such as blue points; (2) serve the oysters raw only when they are perfectly fresh; (3) open the oysters; (4) clean them; (5) chill them; (6) arrange a bed of cracked ice on each plate; (7) arrange from four to six of the deeper valves on this ice bed having the valve side toward the center of the plate; (8) place a chilled oyster on each shell; (9) in the center of the plate, place a quarter of a lemon on a sprig of pars- ley; (10) serve the oysters with salt, pepper, cayenne, horse-radish, tabasco sauce, or tomato catsup. Oyster cocktail. (1) Clean and chill oysters, allowing five oysters for each person to be served; (2) use tomato catsup or mix the following ingredients for sauce (to serve twelve persons) : 1 tablespoon horse-radish 5 tablespoons lemon juice }4: teaspoon tabasco 3 tablespoons tomato catsup 2 tablespoons vinegar IJ^ teaspoon salt 3 tablespoons Worcestershire. (3) Place five oysters in a sherbet cup or sherry glass; grapefruit shells, lemon shells, tomato cups, green pepper cups, or cups of tomato jelly set in beds of ice may be used instead of sherbet cups; (4) add 1 tablespoon of the sauce. Cooking of oysters. (1) Oysters require very little cooking; (2) put them over the fire in their own liquor; (3) remove them as soon as they are plump, or the gills become curled, for longer cooking makes them tough; (4) cracker crumbs are better than breadcrumbs for mixing with oysters. C'ii.\i'ri:i; x.wiii EGGS By WiNiKUKi) Moses Eggs arc one of the best meat substitutes, since they furnish animal protein and are easily prepared for the table. Moreovei . they are especially valuable in the diet because of their hif:h iron-content. Methods of j)re])aring egg^ are practically un- limited for almost any course in a menu. In keejiing eggs and in using them economically, the following suggestions may be useful: Eggs should be kept in a cool dry place; they should always be washed just before being used; left-over egg-whites should be kept in a cool place in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks may be beaten and kept in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks may be dropped whole into hot water, cooked until they are solid, and set aside to serve in soup; cooked egg-yolk may l)e rubbed through a sieve as a garnish for a salad, or for the top of a dish of cream toast or of meat warmed in a sauce; the clean shells from uncooked eggs may be used to settle coffee, or to aid in claiifying fat or soups. All egg dishes should be rinsed with cold water before they are washed. Hot water hardens albumen. TESTS FOR FRESH EGGS The following tests may be used to determine^ whether eggs arc fresh: (1) The shell of a fresh egg is rough, not smooth and shiny; (2) a rcasonal)ly fresh egg will sink in salt water made by dissolving 7.3 cup of salt in 1 quart of water while a stale egg will float; (3) when an egg is candled, that is, held against an opening in a shield around a bright light, a fresh egg will appear clear inside and the air cell will not be larger 534 EGGS 535 than a nickel; (4) a fresh egg makes no sound when it is shaken, EGG COOKERY Beating eggs. To beat well, eggs should be cold and fresh. A few grains of salt added to the whites may hasten the process. In pre- paring egg-white for beating, one should be careful to have it free from every particle of yolk. If a close texture is desired, the Dover egg-beater should be used; it should rest lightly on the bottom of the bowl and the beating should be slow at first. If a loose texture is desired, a confectioner's whisk should be used; or, for a still looser texture, a flat egg-beater. Egg-whites are beaten stiff when the impression made by the beater is retained; they are beaten dry when the gloss has dis- appeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. For thickening. — When eggs are added to thicken a mixture, they should be beaten only until the whites and the yolks are well mixed, or until a spoonful of the mixture can be taken up and held in the spoon. For leavening. — When eggs are added to insure lightness, the yolks and whites should be beaten separately; the yolks until thick and lemon colored, and the whites until stiff, that is, until the dish containing the beaten egg can be tipped upside down without losing the egg white. Eggs cooked in the shell. (1) Cover the eggs with boihng water, and cover the kettle; (2) remove the kettle from direct heat; (3) for a soft-cooked egg, allow the egg to stand in the hot water for 4 to 7 minutes; for a medium-cooked egg, 7 to 10 minutes; for a hard-cooked egg, from 45 to 50 minutes. Poached eggs. Method I: (1) Place in a shallow pan as many muffin rings as there are eggs to poach; (2) turn in enough boiling water to cover the rings; (3) when the water boils break an egg into each ring; (4) remove the pan from direct heat, and let the eggs remain in the water until the whites are jelly-like and translucent (from 10 to 15 minutes); (5) remove the eggs in the rings to a serving dish, with a skimmer or pancake turner; (6) remove the muffin rings; (7) season the eggs with salt and pepper; (8) garnish them with parsley, if desired. 53(1 .1 MAX I At. or IK) Ml-: \IAIon of vinegar (o 1 (piart of water; ('.)} when the water is l)oilinn violently, crack the shell of the eKu;, and holdinn it close to the water, drop the con- tents quickly whore the water is hoiiin^ hardest; (}) when the e^K is firm remove it with a skimmer, draining off the water. Shirred eggs. (1) Butter individual l)akinK dishes; (2) break an epjK into each dish; (3) sprinkle .salt on tiie wliites hut not on the yolks; (4) place the dishes in a shallow ])an of hot water, and place the jian on the shelf in a .slow oven; (5) baste the yolks with a little melted butter, while they are cooking; (6) cook the eggs until the white is set. Variations: (1) Place chopped chicken, ham, mu.shrooms, or tomato pur6e in the bottom of the dish, before the egg is added; (2) serve the eggs on toast, broiled ham, minced meat, or stewed kidneys; (3) pour over the top cream, B6chamel or tomato sauce. (See Sauces, page 552). Fried eggs. (1) Place a little fat in a very clean frying pan; (2) when it bubbles, crack the shells, and drop in the eggs; (3) cook the eggs at a moderate temperature imtil the white is .set. If hard-cooked eggs are desired, turn them and cook them on the other side. Scrambled eggs. (1) Beat the eggs lightly with a fork, just enough to break them; (2) to 4 eggs, add 2 tablespoons of milk, J^2 teaspoon of .salt, and a dash of pepper; (3) put H tablespoon of fat in the top of a double boiler; (4) turn in the eggs; (5) cook them, over hot water, stirring them constantly until they begin to thicken; (B) remove the double boiler from the fire, and continue to stir the eggs until they are of the proper consistency. Variations: (1) When the doul)lc boiler is removed from the fire, add a teaspoon of chopped parsley, or a little tomato sauce or pulp, or minced chicken, ham, bacon, or mushrooms; (2) garnish the eggs with croutons or parsley. Omelets. French omelet: (1) Scour the omelet pan with .s;\lt and vinegar, and wijie it; (2) just before using the pan, .scour it with .salt; (3) beat the eggs just enough to break them (12 revolutions with a Dover lieater); (4) to 3 eggs, add J4 tea.spoon of salt, a dash of pepper, and I2 teaspoon of butter broken into small bits, adding a teaspoon of milk or not as desired; (5) heat the pan; (6) grease the pan with l-i teaspoon of fat; (7) turn in the eggs; (8) EGGS 537 with a fork break the cooked surface quickly, in several places around the edge, or press the egg away from the sides, letting the uncooked part run under; (9) when the egg is cooked, but still quite soft on top, lift the pan on one side, slip a knife under the omelet, and carefully fold it through the center; (10) let it cook a moment to thicken any of the egg that has run out; (11) place a hot dish over the pan, and invert the two in such a way that the omelet will fall in the proper place; (12) press it into good shape; (13) garnish it with parsley and serve at once. Varialions: (1) Sprinkle a little finely chopped parsley over the top; (2) turn t'jmato, Bechamel, or mushroom sauce on the dish around the omelet; sprinkle the top with chopped mushrooms, if mushroom sauce is used; (3) spread the omelet with chopped ham, oysters, or chicken before folding it, and serve it with a sauce; (4) spread the omelet with creamed peas or other vegetable before turning it, and serve it with white sauce; (5) spread the omelet with jelly or jam before folding it. Puffy omelet: (1) Beat the whites of the eggs until they are dry (page 535) ; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick and lemon-colored; (3) add 3 table- spoons of water, M teaspoon of salt, and a dash of pepper for each 3 yolks, and mix the ingredients thoroughly; (4) turn the mixture over the beaten whites; (5) cut and fold the whites into the yolk mixture; (6) turn the mixture into a hot buttered pan; (7) cook it for 2 minutes over moderate heat; (8) set it in the oven to cook the top slightly; (9) when a knife thrust into the center comes out nearly clean, remove the omelet from the oven, cut it across the center of the top at right angles to the handle, fold the part nearest the handle over the other part, and turn it on to a hot platter. Varialions: (1) To 3 egg-yolks, add the grated rind of 1 orange, 3 table- spoons of orange juice, and 3 tablespoons of powdered sugar, garnishing the omelet with sliced oranges and powdered sugar (this is a good chafing- dish recipe); (2) add 2 tablespoons of maraschino juice and 1/3 cup of chopped maraschino cherries to the beaten yolks, and garnish the omelet with strawberry jam and cherries. Omelet with a starchy foundation: (1) Make 1 cup of medium white sauce (page 552); (2) stir into this the yolks of 5 eggs; (3) fold in the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs; (4) melt 1 tablespoon of butter in an omelet pan; (5) pour in the mixture, and cook it in the same way as a puffy omelet. Variations: (1) Finely chopped ham, chicken, parboiled oysters, or mushrooms, may be added with the white sauce to the yolks of eggs; (2) 1 cup of grated pineapple, 1 teaspoon of lemon juice, and J4 cup of sugar, may be added to the yolks; (3) oranges or strawberries may take the place of pineapple, the amount of sugar depending on the acidity of the fruit. Firm custards. Baked custard: (1) Allow from 4 to G eggs or 6 egg-yolks, J^ cup of sugar, }4 teaspoon of salt, and a few gratings of nutmeg, to 1 quart of milk; (2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs slightly, and add the salt and the 5:is .1 .u.t.vr.i/. or home makixc; suRur; (4) stir the scalded milk slowlj' into (he mixture; (5) turn the mix- ture into n pudding dish or individual eups; (ti) urate a little nutmeg over the top; (7) set the dish in a pan of hot water, and bake it in a m(Mlenitc oven; (8) test it by running a knife into the center. If the knife comes out clean, the custard is done. Variations: (1) To each quart of milk, add 1 2 fup "f caramel; (2) use left-over cocoa instead of milk; (3) to each quart of milk, add 3 ounces of melted chocolate. Molded cu{>lard: For a custard firm enough to turn from a mold, use 2 eggs to each cup of milk. Royal c!/.s7an/; For a custard that is cut in slices and served as a garnish use 1 egg to 1 tablespoon of milk. Liquid custards. Soft custard: (1) Allow 4 whole eggs or the yolks of 6 eggs, V-j <"up of sugar, 14 teaspoon of salt, and ^^ teaspoon of vanilla to each quart of milk (if eggs are scarce, substitute 14 tablespoon of cornstarch for 1 egg-yolk); (2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs sliglitly and add the sugar and the salt; (4) stir the scalded milk slowly into the mixture; (5) cook the custard slowly in a double boiler, stirring it constantly, until it thickens and coats the spoon; (G) if the custard curdles, beat it with a Dover egg-beater; (7) add the flavoring; (S) cover the custard with a perforated tin until it is served, to prevent a film from forming. Variations: (1) Just before removing the custard from the heat, fold in the whites of the eggs beaten until they are foamy; (2) caramel, coffee, or chocolate may be added to the milk before it is atlded to the eggs. Uses of liquid custard: (!) Pour the custard over alternate layers of stale cake and sliced peaches, pears, bananas, or oranges; (2) pour the custard over sliced fruit. Garnish the dish with sliced bananas, dates, or nut meats. English custard (for filling cream puffs and eclairs): (1) Allow for each pint of milk, 2 eggs or 4 egg-yolks, 3^2 cup of flour, ^i cui> of sugar, 14 tea- spoon of vanilla, and }4 teaspoon of salt; (2) mix and sift the dry ingre- dients; (3) slowly add the hot milk to them, stirring the mixture constantly; (4) cook the mixture until it boils; (5) cool it, stirring it constantly for 15 minutes; (6) add the egg-yolks, or eggs, and stir it until the egg is cooked. It maj' be necessary to return it to the heat. Variations: (1) }4 ^up "f black coffee may be substituted for }.{ cup of milk; (2) 1 ounce of chocolate cooked with 2 tablespoons each of sugar and water maj^ be added to the milk. Snuffles. Plain souffle: For 4 eggs, allow 1 cup of sugar and the juice and rind of 1 lemon, or its eciuivalent in liquid and other flavoring; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick; (3) add the sugar gradu.illy, and continue l)eating; (4) add the lemon rind and juice; (5) cut and fokl in the .stiffly beaten whites; (6) turn the mixture into a buttered baking-dish set in a pan of EGGS 539 c a 3 O _- M-tf MT3 O M 3 c a O a^^^ 03 yolk, cook Beat gela- va- and 0) a> V o "c3 ^ ta c- t^ i~, 3 p^ O "S 03 rt rt a n 3 _a)_aj . OJ^S^ C MT! T) ^"te 12 & fe fe is := 'c OJ— ' 'S'o 03-^^^ Ml IJ 0! a 3 S K_ Ig Is igig;^ X 2 ;h-h 33 o o o o o If II o o o o : a oj a «i c a 3 03 5r 3 3 o.2.a _2 o o 2 o o l|.i-ag ja 03 o OJ '^ ..3 ■^ z ° z ° O O c oj c a> e ° ^ -n o ■§ 8 l-i.2 Is? •pT* to *rH 0* p4 PS CO w CO M O C ■<^ OO P^ f^ ps 11 d c c J3 0-23 0) a o o a 3 ft ^ Is J3- O ii 8«-a t^ 4^ O 3 S-r c O \^ £j3 o ^ '' o M '"' "^ '"' — \ Ca ::: a r:: a a c 03 -3 d _0 _d ~ 03-G mio m _2 •1 o B a 03 2 OS O 03 1 f^s^s > °^ ao3 a 03 o ^§OT3 > . > > SO V > > 1 t tgf t 1 o h3 V a o3 *^ iScoa :i: ^s^ :^ 1 ::^^ O O 03 3 03 ^:^ a •^ 3 a ^ 3 c- ft cr a a a \f ft a a '^ rt rt -H -^ ^■^ -' '^ '^ ■^ g. a a j£_ a a ft ad a a a ^2 ■u ^ 00 00 OO 00 00 00 oc ^ ^ ■;:? :^ ■;; \* V* 1. a a a ft a a ft ft a a ii 3 s 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 la o o o o o o o u o o ^ ^ ^ X :^ :s; :^^ e^ «\ t. o ■'^ o >> (N(N o o o o - ■* O >,rtl IN N (N !;ar, and salt to tliern, and continu*' hoatinR; (5) turn the mixture into huttered molds, filling them three-fourths full; (G) set the molds in a |)an of hot water, and hake the soulll6 in a moderate oven until it is firm; (7) serve it with or without sauce or whipped cream. \'c(/it(il)lc souffle: (1) Allow :J e^K^ and 1 cup of vegetable pulp, ruhhed through a sieve to 1 cup of thick white sauce; (2) heat the yolks until they are thick; (3) add them to tht^ thick white sauce; (4) arhl the vegetahli-s; (5) beat the whites until (hey are stifT; (ti) fold them into tiie other mix- ture; (7) add the seasoning; (S) turn the mixture into a buttercMl baking- dish set in a pan of hot water, and cook it in a moderate oven until it is .set. Custard souffle (for the main dish or des.sert): (1) Allow 4 eggs, J^ cup of sugar if the souIHe is to be u.sed for dessert, and 14 teaspoon of salt, to 1 cup of thick white sauce; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick; (:i) add the beaten yolks and the sugar to the white sauce; (4) l)eat the whites until they are stifT; (5) fold them into the other mixture; (G) turn the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and set it in a pan of hot water; (7) bake it for about 35 minutes in a moderate oven; (S) serve it at once with creamy or foamy sauce (see Sauces, pag(> 5G0). Fondues are made in the .same manner as soufTies, milk with breadcrumbs l)eing used instead of a wliite sauce. They are not so light as .souffles. Both fondues and souffles should be baked by being set in a pan of hot water and placed in a moderate oven. Meringues. Meringues for pies atid garnishes for desserls: (1) Allow 1 tablespoon of sugar to 1 egg-white; (2) chill the egg-whites; (;j) add a jiinch of salt to them; (4) l)eat them with an egg-whisk until they are stiff; (o) add the sugar gradually, and continue Ix'ating until the sugar is thoroughly dis- solved; (G) add flavoring as desired; (7) cook the meringue in a very .slow oven for about 15 minutes, increasing the heat somewhat toward the end of the period, if necessary, to l)rown the meringue. Snow eggs: (1) Allow 1 ounce of sugar (2 tal)lespoons) to 1 ounce of egg- w'hite (2 tablespoons); (2) beat the whites until they are nearly dry; (3) continue beating, and add half of the sugar gradually; (4) when the mix- ture is very firm, fold in the other half of the sugar; (5) dip a tablespoon in boiling water, fill it with meringue, and shape the meringue in the form of an egg; (G) remove the spoonfuls of meringue to a pan of gently simmering water, and let it .stand where the water will keep hot; (7) poach the mc^ ringue until it is firni tlininirlioul ; lliis rcciuires from 10 to 14 minutes. EGGS 541 ■5 ^ J3 c3 S J3 C3 "S ■?^ ■?5 2ija -a 0.2 .2 '^=-g fe « o tfS^ a) *j °o..e .s ro >-' g 3 |"S £ S'^ :^ T3 01 m '^ 3:a s s g fS M 71 ■S g s .o m 2 O < < '^<, ft 3 3 3 If ■3 cs ro-a 1 §> r— CO (73 2^ 3 "c 2" 0. ►^ ■* CO3 & CO c^ ■*■* ■ OJ ■ 3 i. ■JO >a> ■ -o m E a; ! : ' a ■ 1^ 3 O 3 a 1 ■S 3 2 3 S " 03 "' ^ 3 flj m oJ 3 "-a PL. fe > 542 .1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKJXG Snow ('nns may 1"' |)o:icli((l in milk, and tlir milk may he us s|)read apart in such a way that they will not touch one allot hei'. They should be watched carefully and when dark spots appear, should be cooked af once. I''urt her directions are f^iven on pa}2;e 584. Canned vegetables should be emptied from the can as soon as they are opened, turnerl into a bowl, and allowerl to stand for at least one hour l)efore beinjz; used, in order that the flavor may be inipioved by contact with the air. Dried vegetables should be soaked in c(j1(1 water overnighl and cooked in the same water, more being added, if necessary. COOKING OF VEGETABLES Vegetables may be classified accoiding to flavor into those with strong juices, and those with mild juices. Strong-juiced vegetables. Strong-juiced vegetables, such as caulifiower, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, onions, and turnips, should be washed in cold water and cooked until they ar(> just tender, in l)oiling water in an uncovered kettle to allow the volatile oils to pass off in the steam. In this way the flavor is made more delicate, and the color is kept better. If strong-juiced vegetables are over-cooked, they liecome dark in color, strong in flavor, antl may produce digestive disturbances. Mild-juiced vegetables. Vegetables with mild juices, which include the greater number, should be washed in cold water and cooked in boiling water in a kettle with the cover ajar until they are soft. Salt. If salt is added to the wat(>r in which vegetables are cooked, the flaxor and coloi- will be iniprovecl. Less mineral matter is dissoKcd out in ctxtking when salt is added at the beginning of the period lhane boiled, therefore, plans shouM be made for usinjj; the water in which they are cooked. Unless all the water is to be used, they should be cooked with the skins on, they should not be cut in small pieces, and they should be put on to cook in boiling water. Steaming vegetables effects a great saving over boiling them. However, the most economical method of cooking those vege- tables that allow it, is to bake them. VEGETABLES 547 „ c 2 S 9 S o a ^^ „i " a •" fci^— CI a> 71 P> o am g t/3 aa B! >vl3 u IB t>, O 3 a jaT3 J3 ja ■g C3 fl 0, fl 3 > 03 a o a M ta ■a 3 > 0) ^ t S ^ «j3 a £i t, "* K O m ■ 5-5 e o d I o 03 ^5 3J3 tfiO CD O Iq (JQg MCp,„C. •=-« S g aj -'•5 a iJ m2 t- ? > - ■ o^ ■5 a Gi & o ^■ M-C, >,2 ^- C-3S .lasil ■S^iii ^ C3„53 (U O -i:^!o '<^^^ fc . 0) O fl ft l< ^li-g& a 5 fl"^ 9-w |i a-sQ 1 t^ 2 3 oJt3 0) o ft" Sg ca ftO S.2 2° J3 ft S S-r- J= ft 2 Se :SftQ£ 1^8 ^1 (U 3 m £5 St3 M •g^ iga K Sd O o o 8g ^2t5 O "*" o" 548 A M.WIAl. nr IK) Ml: MAKIMi •O '- c — -3_£ a -=■§ — u = •^ cV 5 =^ •5l mis 111'? IS _ f g = 5 s s S ,;r a X - O si -Sal m 1- •^Sa- em 1- c fi c - o ^ _^ 1 a =-Q •-'^ E.5 -— - c .^ « »- nil O i..--^0 3 2 o -0%^ — a c_ " '3 £ — 12 - -= =^ .--3 O --1 1- J2 |il 113 = 2 £ =i:^=-= - c i- : =- Sf r a 5 t- > k o tn c - ^ -3 O ~ •s Sfc->~ s = = - ^^ .5 o o a. « o a 00 o o. "^ ^2 = g ~ K CJ O II jr ^«.. -7.- Cj ^- » C -^ - .3 p-r _c! H *--- '^ jl; "i = 1 c II- §11 SCO I. i: « - st ^ ^ 1 5 ^- S 3> = 5 T-g 2 -a 1 liai r = > '- C~ t »: 111 T == r. '^ 8:l==-:itl m 3 a o a ») o a> c , a a a c u 1 c ' o VEGETABLES 549 ao G §•0 t. P o is ao a ^. ? g M ^ 4^_ «3 3 0) ■? fl 2 ^ " ^ °^ ?! etc & 2; -M fc^ easo per, serve sauc a) 0. c» W ft. ^ ^ "^ a> o . a o3 >) <3 M E ii (uacDUCfl-f^Pm .2 OT3 - & 8 .sg^l^ ■^ftJ^ii^-^al .- aj c3 — fe.^° :2>a ^■^.S S d &1 - 3 =3^ t. O fc'*Ot.-7^S£jJe3"mt,.-S rt 03 =J g^ '-' «J5 a ")> ■* fe 2J d "U «.:;■'■ m =3.S o^ 3^ SP-H C3 ^ 9 ^ Mrs oj t-"^ . ^ ti ^-' ^ n, I) 03 t; O S C3 M O . '^•i. u IK 3 ""«-* "^ ■^•" "'o ajO— o o3i>-.i: p , &2^ ^s- M,H eshly talks, amp sed °4a .'- Mis 3 1^ £ 550 A MAMAL or lf()Mi:-MAKI.\f; 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 < 1 i 1 1 1 ' M M 1 o i ! I ' a. 1 1 ; 1 1 : j 1 1 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 III MM _2i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ '^ • 1 i 1 1 ! i 1 1. 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 3 5 s « c -J [ a c 'u C a s c X c 1 1 c . a X X a C 4^ if c > c c O z e c ea 1 1 a 1 s o c c VEGETABLES 551 Q 1 1 1 1 S '< 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6, s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 s 3 -5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 3 £ c c ■£ C > P- I 'c (X c t c g 0. p- 1 c c 1 a. t c 1 C c E . X c c 'E P 1 c s a: c c 'c . a: 'o E '5 CIIAl'TKK XXX SAUCES Bv W'lNIFUKI) MoSKS Sauces are relied on in eook(My as a basis for soups, cro- quettes, souffles, certain desserts, such as cornstarch pudding, and as a means of making other foods more palatable or more nutritious. The few types of simple sauces can be varied almost without limit by the imaginative cook. w'hitb: sauce Thin sauce Vp to 3 a 111 C T r. ce^,-. -c .1: .S .i: £ i; o '^ ■ "1^* o ?; i» "^ "^ *^ M — =2 sj - u c. 9-C :4 >- >- ■ T, ' C- o c M . C TJ C. ?. 3^ r r ? o fc !J o 5 ^ - " - M _ 000 o o o ccSoo 5c acta ^.oB cb £. cJt c i a o a c c. 3 3033 = C3 33 — sy o — 1^ 0) |S < < i J a o « SAUCES 555 •g ts -s^- S i TJ 1 Kj •a a c X ^ S i D « a, 1. MT3 - PC rt ^ ^ J8l a 1 a S - O o M 0) ^ c E T3 S f OS g e III liilllil 1 ii^i*|a|li|2J|^i O t. I. t. ^ 3 3 g S k< < s 3 3 3 3 3 O O O c 00 en 1 qS 03 03 03 !C qa •< > a a a fl c 3 3 -2 3 a o ^ o o c 1 II 1 c a C -S ft c O ft $ •^ ^ M^ JD 3 X. 3 i-c; o3 ^ C3 C3 ci cS o E-i 'Z '^Z ^ ■< w » R a E d 5 fl -t. c « « 5 9 ^ o 5 o c ■ij 00 t3 o so 3 c so 00 ft !*. a, j2 a ^ ft J2 ft ft ft J g M d ^ ft — ft - -S -S 3 R X! £ ^ X m ^ J2 J3 03 1 03 J2 CS I o X M -S S a 1 « -3 -§8 £ M .2 .9 c >. B ft. tl s c p. CC e > 550 A MAM AL or HOME MAKIXd 0.2 CQb e a c C3 O O O ?^' C-IM :^:^ :jt ^ >^i o w SAUCES 557 O _o |B ,^X1 m « « o o o « 2 C<3 ro CO o ? o 3-= 3 o 3 o et, o poo o o a 558 A MAMAl. OF HOME MAKISC ~ a la a 1^1 4 1^ o o W % D U u o E b J'4 tsp. salt, cayenne J 4 tsp. salt, cayenne '4 cup grated horse- radish 1/3 cup lobster ' i cup shrimp 2 egg yolks 2 egg yolks 2 egg yolks 2 egg yolks 2 egg yolks 05 U o D •«: 1 > ^ ^ L^ U U U S £ 2 i! — 3 3 3 3 3 x: X X j2 x: a a a a c. 3 3 3 3 3 00000 v?) \?< \N \f< vri B ►J PQ 3 >3 1/3 cup boiling water, 1 tbsp. lemon juice or \^ tbsp. vinegar 1 tsp. water, 1 tbsp. lemon juice, 3^ cup cream 1 tsp. water, 1 tbsp. lemon juice, 34 cup cream 1/3 cup boiling water, 1 tbsp. lemon juice 1/3 cup boiling water, 1 tbsp. lemon juice c Hollandaise, I . Hollandaise, II Horse-radish . . Lobster Shrimp SAUCES 559 ^ -i -i -f +-3 C3 ■s P 3 S aj ^0 g_^ m jS - JJ M M o E 3 3^ af ti 1 ill :^i i S S-a .iiT3 ft ?3 .Sl-g-Sft tB , OJ C^ =^ f^ -*^ C W fc^ p^ -M •C =a a o o'E isSJ 'S^^ ca Pn > OOfe CQ-^-^ tM^-^O ffl CJ -i 5 oJ -^ ■ 03- ;^ C3 ft . 5 >- mi . '3 3 -^vc £• e 03 «'C OJ I- . 2-s s^x^ & a a) >i 03 a-?, -2 m-\j3.3j3^ -3 g 3^ C >- pi |ii ti|:,ili 0~--^ 0^ C 3 \(N-\-^*^ o-!\ , J3 ■g j3 S 2 P ja .^ S 1 oil d ™ & S s ^ -w J3 1 as P a 2 ^ M t, o o a _ !; S •1 s O (U t. t a t- >; m rt en hop =^ ,n " ■§ a m a a a 0. a a a o „ o2 o 1 • III o K 0*^0 a g g.-^ ft oS 9 0) a 03 CC C3 rt 03 o 4, X a o I, o — — •- 1 CJ CJ u b — <: O 1 SAUCES 561 In all sweet sauces except hard sauce, corn sirup, maple sirup, or honey may be substituted for all or part of the sugar with slight adjustment. SWEET SAUCES Sweet sauces thickened with starchy material. Method of making: (1) Mix the sugar and the cornstarch; (2) add the hot liquid gradually; (3) cook the mixture, stirring it constantly until it thickens; (4) continue the cooking over hot water until the uncooked flavor of the thickening agent can no longer be detected; (5) add any flavoring material that is to be used. Sweet sauces thickened with egg. Method of nidking: For sauces in which butter and sugar do not form the basis: (1) Beat the egg slightly; (2) add the milk, hot or cold; (3) add the sugar and the salt; (4) mix the ingredients thoroughly; (5) cook the mix- ture over hot water, stirring it constantly until it coats the spoon; (6) add any flavoring material that is to be used; (7) if the sauce curdles, beat it thoroughly with a Dover egg-beater. For sauces in which butter and sugar form the basis: (1) Cream the butter; (2) add the sugar; (3) add the egg, well-beaten; (4) add the liquid gradually; (5) cook the mixture over hot water until it is creamy, stirring it constantly; (6) add any flavoring material that is to be used. For sauces thickened with beaten egg whites: Add the egg whites to the other ingredients, which are cooked or uncooked as necessary, and beat the sauce until the ingredients are well combined. Sirup sauces. Method of making: Combine the sugar and the water, and put the mix- ture over the heat; stir it until the sugar is dissolved; boil it without stirring it until it forms a good thread when dropped from a spoon; add the flavor- ing or crushed fruit. TABLE L.— Sirup Sauces Sauce Ingredients 'Use Sirup. . . . 3 tbsp. boiling water, 2 cups sugar, 1 tsp. butter, fruit juice for desired flavor J^ cup boiUng water, % cup sugar, 1 quart strawberries put through a sieve Plain puddings, pan- Strawberry cakes Blanc mange, cottage pudding 662 .1 MAMAL or IKtMi: MAh'ixr; Solid smiccs. Milhiiil of mnkiug: (1) ('ream llir IhiMit; (2) ;nl- Har and sold in small l)<)ttl('s. Chcrril: ( 'li(»i)i)cfafo or meat saUuls, or added to salad dressings. They are a small plant of the onion family and grow \vilnion-like leaves. (I'lirlic: The hull) or "clove" is sometimes used to rub the bottoTu of the salad bowl, but more frequently to j)repare a chaixm for ^reen .«alads. A chajion is a thin piece of bread crust, about 1 inch wide and 2 inches long, sprinkled with salt and rubbed with a crushed clove of garlic. It is placed in the bottom of the salad bowl before the salad is put in, and rcmuin.s during the mi.\ing, but is removed before the salad is served. A'd.sturtiian: The flowers arc ased as a garnish; the leaves and young buds are chopped to give flavor. Sometimes young .seeds are chopped and added to mayonnaise dressing with other chopp(vl sea.sonings. Onion: The cut side of an onion may be rubbed over the bowl before the salad is put in to give a slight onion flavor to a green saUul. Oil for dressings to be u.sed with vegetables, meat, or i\s]\ is sometimes flavoreil by allowing a slice of onion or a little onion pulp to lie in it for a few hours; onion juice may be added to the dressing itself if desired. Parsley: Chopjied fine and used with other chopped seasonings in both French and Mayonnaise dre.-^sings. Sage: (,'hopped and used with meat salads. Spearmint: Chopped and sprinkled over cold lamb salad; or use'; mint in a sala it instead of tlie |)lain vinegar in the dri-ssing. 10. For meat, fish, or shell-fish salads, fo 1 cup of mayomiai.se aiid 2 tal)lesf)oon~ each of olives and finely choppeli dish may be garnislied with a red cherry or red jelly. JUNKET One junket tablet will .stiffen about 1 quart of milk. (1) Crush the tablet and (li.s.solve it in eold milk; (2) heat the remaining milk, .stirring it con.stantly, to about 100° F.; a simple test for this temperature, which i.s about that of the body, is to let a drop of milk fall on the inside of the wrist and if there is no sensation of heat or cold, the temperature of the milk about corresponds with that of the body; (3) add the sugar, the flavoring, and the dissolved junket tablet, stirring the mixture well; (4) turn the mixture into wet molds, and let it stand in a warm place until it stifTens, then chill it. Junket may be served with whipped cream, fruit, or fruit sauces, nuts, or preserved ginger. FROZEN DESSERTS Water ices. Water ices arc fruit juices sweetened, diluted with water, and frozen. Frapyes. Frappes are ices made of fruit juice, water, antl sugar, frozen to the consistency of mush. Siherhets. Sherbets are water ices to which ha\-e been added a small quantity of dissolved gelatin or beaten whites of eggs. They may be made of one fruit juice or a combination. The juice of one lemon is generally added to each quart of the mixture in order to accentuate the flavor of the other fruit. Sometimes no water is added to the fruit juice. DESSERTS 573 Sorbets. Sorbets are a kind of frozen punch or water ice to which various kinds of fruit are added. Granites. Granites are water ices to which fruit is added after the freez- ing. Ice creams.* Plain ice cream is generally made of thin cream, scalded or not, as desired, sweetened, flavored, and frozen. Whole eggs or yolks of eggs may be used to make a custard which is then frozen. When cream is not plentiful, four parts of milk and one part of double cream may be jellied with junket tablets (page 572) and used. Eggs may be used with skim-milk in place of cream. Arrowroot, cornstarch, or flour is sometimes used in place of some of the eggs. It should be mixed with a little cold milk or cream, and cooked for 10 minutes, being stirred constantly, before being added to the eggs and sugar. If fruit is used, it should be crushed, mixed with the necessary amount of sugar, preferably in the form of sirup, and allowed to stand for 1 hour. It is then added to the partly frozen cream. Strawberries and peaches may be put through a potato ricer. Berries, like rasp- berries, should be passed through a fine sieve. Fruit flavors are considered by some persons not to harmonize well with eggs, and are therefore not used in custard creams. For each quart of the mixture to be frozen, any of the fol- lowing flavorings may be used: 13^2 squares Baker's chocolate; ]4 cup prepared cocoa; 1 tablespoon vanilla; 2 cups orange juice; -/s quart can of pineapple. A smooth, velvety texture is desired in ice creams, rather than a coarse-grained mass of crystals. Texture is influenced by: (1) The amount of butter-fat present. The richer the cream, the smoother is the product. (2) The rapidity of freez- ing. If frozen rapidly, the cream will be coarse and full of large * For further information on experiments in freezing ice cream, see Bull. 155, Vt. Exp. Sta. 574 A MAM AL OF HOME MAKlSd water crystals. (8) The amount f)f \vliiiii)inn (luring frfozinR. The ail- thus incorporated produces a \\\i}\\, smooth, cusliioijy consistencN'. In propeily made ice cream, the water freezes in very ihie crystals intersjiersed with minute bubbles of air. It should contain from 33 to 40 per cent of air. (4) The age of the cream. Cream fresh from the separator or pasteurizer |)roduces a coarse-grained ice cream. Cream that is 12 hours old, held at 32-35° F., makes a smooth mi.xture when frozen. Frozen puddings. Frozen puddings are ice creams made of thin cream or thin cream and egg-yolks, highly flavored and containing many preserved fruits and nuts. They are generally molded in melon molds, lined with lady-fingers. Mousses. A mousse may be made in either of two ways: (1) heavy cream may be beaten until stiff, drained, sweetened, and flavored; or (2) the whip from thin cream may be folded into a mixture stiffened with gelatin. Mousses are placed in molds, and packed for 3 hours in equal parts of ice and salt. Sherbets are fre- quently combined with them either as the lining of the mold or as a layer of filling. Parfaits, biscuits, and souffles. For a parfait, biscuit, or souffle, yolks of eggs are cookeil with sirup to a thick smooth cream. The mixture is then flavored and beaten until it is cold and light, and mixed with drained whipped cream. It is then poured into a mold and packed in ice and salt for 3 or 4 hours according to the size of the mold. Parfaits are not solid like custard ice creams; they have a spongy texture. They should not be frozen too hard. Biscuits take their name from their size, being in reality parfaits frozen in individual forms. Souffles are parfaits reinforced with gelatin and a larger pro- portion of liquid and frozen in souffle dishes. DESSERTS 575 Freezing. (1) Put the ice in a strong cloth or bag, and with a wooden mallet pound it fairl}' fine. The finer the ice, the more quickly will the mixture freeze. Snow may be used instead of ice. (2) Use coarse salt and ice in the pro- portion of: 1 part of salt to 1 part of ice, for mousse and parfait; 1 part of salt to from 1 to 3 parts of ice for frapp6 and ice; 1 part of salt to from 1 to 15 parts of ice for ice cream. The larger the proportion of ice to salt, the slower will be the freezing and the finer the grain. Fine salt dissolves more readily than coarse, and consequently produces a lower temperature more quickly; but it tends to form crusts and bridges which prevent the ice from settling in place and fitting around the freezer. (3) Fill the can two- thirds full. (4) Place the can, which has been washed with soap and water scalded, and cooled, in the freezer, and adjust the crank. Turn the crank to see that it is in place. (5) Place the freezer in a dishpan, and set the dishpan on a towel to keep it from slipping and to deaden the sound. Spread papers on the floor to protect it from ice and salt that may be dropped. (6) Fill the freezer half fuU of ice, and add a layer of salt, using a long-handled spoon. Add more ice and more salt in layers, placing salt near the top so that on dissolving it may trickle over the ice. If snow is used, pour in 1 cup of water after the freezer is packed. (7) Turn the crank until the mixture is stiff. In freezing water ices it is considered ad- visable by some persons to turn the crank for 5 minutes, to stop for 5 minutes, to turn it again for 5 minutes, and to continue in this way until the freezing is completed. Do not draw off the salt water while freezing the mixture unless the salt water stands so high that there is danger of its getting in the can. Packing. (1) When the mixture is frozen, take off the crank;- (2) wipe the lid of the can carefully, and make sure that the ice and salt are well below the lid; (3) lift off the lid and take out the paddle; (4) fruit or whipped cream should be added at this time if they are to be used; (5) with a spoon or spatula, pack down the cream, a potato-masher being used to make the mass compact; (6) replace the lid and put a cork in the hole; (7) draw off the water; (8) pack the can as described for freezing; (9) cover the freezer with a heavy cloth, and let it stand from 1 to 3 hours before using if pos- sible, to develop the flavor; (10) look at it occasionally to see that the water does not rise above the opening. If properly watched and repacked, the cream can be kept for any reasonable length of time. C'IIAITi:i{ XXXIII SUGAR COOKERY * Hv MAiiV F. Hexuy Success in sugar cookciy, as in all other coDkcrN-, rofiuires iiitclligent work and to work intelligently means that one must understand the nature of the materials used, the changes thai occur during the process of cooking, and the conditions that bring about desirable, and prevent undesirable, clianges. The behavior of sugar under different conditions largely determines the quality of the product. Kinds of sugar. While there are many different kinds of sugar, those of in- terest to the housekeeper are of two classes: in the one group are the familiar granulated cane or beet sugar, maple sugar, and brown sugar; in the other is glucose, commonly' known in the form of a clear, sticky sirup. Corn sirup consists of a mixture of glucose with dcxtrines and other substances. IMolasses con- tains large amounts of cane sugar. These two classes of sugar differ greatly in characteristics. Sugars belonging to the first class are very sweet and crystallize in large crystals, with which all are familiar; glucose is less sweet, and either crystallizes less easily in much finer crystals or remains as a heavy sirup of creamy, consist enc}'. In certain kintls of candy, this creamy texture is one of the requisites. The fact that in the process of cooking it is possible to change a part of the crystalline sugar into glucose with its finer texture is one of the chief factors in making candy. The whole problem of preventing the formation of the undesirable granules, or crystals, is simi)ly to convert some of the crystalline sugar to glucose antl to avoid conditions that may cause candy to grain. * Kpopinfj; Christmas. Cornell iicai ling-Course for the Funn Homo, Hull. 97. 57b SUGAR COOKERY 577 How to make candy jine-g rained. While the simple boiling of sugar brings about to some extent this desired change of crystalline sugar to glucose, the addition of a little acid, such as cream-of-tartar, greatly hastens the proc- ess. It is possible to get the same result by substituting glucose for a part of the sugar in the first place. Overcooking, that is, cooking beyond the correct temperature, causes graining, for glucose contains more water than does crystalline sugar, and overcooking drives off the water and forces the glucose to go back to sugar. A crystal of sugar falling into the solution may cause the whole mass to crystallize. Hence care must be taken not to allow crystals to be carried up to the side of the pan and fall back into the mixture. Washing down these crystals carefully with a swab prevents trouble from this source. Stirring the mixture while it is cooking may cause crystalliza- tion, especially in the case of fondant, which contains only sugar and water. When milk is used, it is necessary to stir the mix- ture occasionally to prevent its sticking to the pan. There is not the danger, however, of graining in this case, for milk and cream both tend to prevent crystallization. Stirring the mixture while it is hot or cooling it too suddenly may cause crystallization. Tem-perature. Another problem is one that concerns the length of time for cooking sugar mixtures. It is well known that when sugar is heated with water a sirup is formed. If the heating process is continued, water is driven off as steam, and the sirup becomes thicker, or more concentrated. As the concentration increases, the temperature rises. The stage of concentration to which the solution is to be boiled depends oh the kind of product that is to be made. The terms thread, soft ball, hard ball, crack, hard crack, and caramel are used to distinguish the different stages. While the ordinary method used by amateurs for testing candy consists in dropping a little of the solution into cold water, more uniform and accurate results may be obtained by the use of a thermometer. A glass A MAX I'M. or no mi: makixc; tlicnnoinctci- iiimv he hoii^flit :i( ;i druK store for :il)onf SI. 2'). In usiiij^ ;i ihcriiioiiu'tcr, (•.■ire should l»c fnkcii that flic luillt is ciitiroly covered hy the sinip ;iiid that it docs not icach the hottoni of the kettle; if the hull) is exposed to the air or touches the metal of the pan, the registered tcinpcrature is lower in iho one case and hifz;her in the other than is the actual tcinix-rature of the siruj). In the absence of a thernionietcr, ho\vc\-er, the t<'st already mentioned, droppinji; a little-of the boiling sirup into cold water, may ho used with comparatively ir,ooi\ results. The following table gives the different stages of concentration, the corresi)ond- ing temperatures, and the tests that may be used to determine the condition of the sirup. The temperatures refer to a sirup made from cane sugar. When glucose or corn sirup is used in l)art, the same consistencies are reached at lower temperatures. TABLE LII. — Deteumixatiox of Stacks in Sugar Cookeuy Slage Temperature Test Thread 230° F. Sirup forms a thread when dropped from 110° C. a spoon Softball 23()° F. Sirup forms a .'^oft ball wlien dropped almost indeiinitel>' under pioper conditions in relatively small space. One bundled pounds of fresh ve well lipened hut not over-iipe. Fruits that are dried with 1h(^ skins on should he \r2 A MAM AL OF llOMl'l MAKISd airy attic The hcst coMtaiiicr is a tin liox, huckct, or can fitlod with a reasonably ti^lit cover. Perhaps the most convenient and cheapest container is the snuili paper \ni]£.. Small amoimts of food should he put in each haji;. This will pn^vent the opening (tf any dried product that cannot ho consumed in a short time. The upper pait of the hap; is twisted to form a neck. The neck is hent over and tied with a string;. The entire hap; is then painted with a coat of melted paraffin by means of a small l)rush or a frazzled end of a piece of rope. This makes the ixig practical!}' proof against insects. To protect them further from in.sect ravages, the hags should i)e labeled and packed in a tin container with a tight-fitting cover. A large number of bags can be stored in an ordinary lard can. Paraffin-coated paper containers of various sizes can be found on the market. If such containers are used, they should be stored as are the paper bags. When vegetal)les are first taken from the drier, if completely dried thej'^ are very brittle. They are more easily handled and are in better condition for storing if allowed to stand from one to three hoin-s to absorb enough moisture to make them pliable before they are put into ])ags or stored otherwise. If it is not convenient to store products immediately and they are allowed to stand for several days, they should be heated to 180° F. to destroy any insect eggs that may ])e on them. Care should be taken not to heat the vegetal)les higher than 180° F. Apples, which absorb moisture readily, should be stored in a tight box or barrel lined with paper in preference to cloth sacks. SALTING VEGETABLES * Equi'pment. A suppl}^ of clean wooden kegs or stone crocks is the first requisite. For home use the smaller sizes are preferable as a rule, because the contents will then be used up more quickly and there will be less chance of molding from standing too long after the kegs or crocks are opened. Wooden kegs holding 5 * Rounil, L. A., and Lanfj;, H. L. Preservation of vegetables by fermenta- tion and salting. Fanners' Bull. SSI, U. S. Dei)t. of Agr. FOOD PRESERVATION 593 or 10 gallons are a convenient size. New kegs are preferable, but old ones, such as beer or cider kegs, may be used if they are thoroughly washed and steamed to remove any undesirable odor or flavor which might be imparted to the foods packed in them. Wooden vessels of yellow or pitch pine are undesirable, since they are apt to give a disagreeable taste to the foods. Stone crocks or jars holding from 1 to 5 gallons are convenient. Stoneware is less likely to absorb flavors than wood, and stone jars may be obtained in smaller sizes than wooden kegs. Wide- mouthed bottles or glass jars, which are not suitable for canning, may also be used for salting or fermenting small quantities of foods. A supply of ordinary fine salt, which can be purchased in bulk for about 2 cents a pound, is most satisfactory for general use. Table salt will do veiy well, but is rather expensive if large quantities' of vegetables are to be preserved. The rather coarse salt (known in the trade as "ground alum salt"), which is used in freezing ice cream, can be used. Rock salt should not be used because it is too coarse and is likely to contain impurities. Clean white cloth (cheese-cloth or muslin) is necessary for covering the material after it is packed into the container. It will be convenient to cut this into circular pieces about 6 inches larger in diameter than the stone crock or keg. Two or three thicknesses of cheese-cloth or one thickness of muslin or heavier cloth should be spread over the top of the vege- tables. Round pieces of board about 1 inch or more in thickness will be needed to put on top of the cheese-cloth. The boards should be a little smaller in diameter than the inside of the crock or the head of the keg or tub, so that they will slip in and out easily. The pieces may be sawed out at a lumber mill, or may be made at home by fastening together several boards with cleats and rounding them with a small saw and a carpenter's shave. Al- most any wood may be used except yellow or pitch pine, which is likely to impart an undesirable flavor to the vegetables. For small containers, if preferred, heavy plates of suitable size can be used instead of boards. 5U4 .4 MAMAL OF llUME MAKING One or nK)r(> clean hricks or soino cloaii stones may bo used as weights to hold down the mass in the ke^ (»r crock. Paradin is needed to jjour over the M(|uid in the containers (after fermentation lias ceased) to prevent mold. A pair of kitchen scalos or steelyards and a (piart or gallon li(inid measmc complete the necessary e(|iiii)ment. Fermcntatio)i with dry •■salting. As has ah'eady boon stated, fermentation with diy salting consists in jxickinfj; the material with a small amount of salt. No Walter is added, for the salt extracts the water from the veRC- tablcs and forms the brine. The method, in general, is as fol- lows: Wash the vegetables, drain ofT the surplus water, and weigh them. For each 100 pounds of the vegetables weigh out 3 pounds of salt; for smaller quantities use the same proportion (3 per cent by weight) of salt. Cover the bottom of the keg, crock, or other container with a layer of the vegetables about 1 inch thick and sprinkle over this a little of the salt. Do not add too much of the salt to the first layers packetl, but try to distribute it equally among the difTerent layers so that the quantity w^hich has been weighed out will be sufficient for the given quantity of vegetables packed. If a Httle of the salt is left over, it can be added to the top layer, but if more has to be added than has been weighed out, the finished jiroduct will taste too salty. Continue adding layers of the material sprin- kled with salt until the container is about three-fourths full. Sprinkle the last of the salt on the top laj'er ancl spread over it one or two thicknesses of cheese-cloth, tucking them tlown at the sides. On the cloth place one of the round pieces of board or a plate, and on this put a clean stone or one or two clean bricks. The size of the weight tlepends on the quantity of ma- terial being preserved. For a 5-gallon keg a weight of 10 pounds will be sufficient, but if a larger liarrel is used, a heavier weight will be needed. The weight addetl should l)e sufficient to ex- tract the juices to form a brine, which will cover the top in about twenty-four hours and sometimes it may be necessary FOOD PRESERVATION 595 to add more stones after the material has stood a while, if a brine does not form. After it is packed, allow the container to stand in a moderately- warm room to ferment. The salt and pressure of the weight soon extract water from the vegetables and form a brine which soon covers the whole mass. The stone and board serve to keep the vegetables beneath the surface of the liquid. If the weight is not sufficient for this purpose, a larger stone or more bricks should be added. As the fermentation goes on, bubbles arise to the surface of the hquid. The rate of fermentation de- pends principally on the temperature. In warm weather it requires only eight to ten days; in cool weather two to four weeks may be necessary. When bubbling stops, fermentation is com- plete. A good way to determine this is to tap the receptacle gently; if no bubbles arise, fermentation is finished. The containers should then be placed in a cellar or other cool storeroom and the surface of the liquid treated to prevent the development of a scum of mold. If this is not done, a thin film will appear on the surface of the brine soon after fermentation ceases, which will spread rapidly and develop into a heavy folded membrane. This scum is a growth of micro-organisms which feed upon the acid formed by fermentation. If allowed to grow undisturbed, all the acid will eventually be destroyed and the fermented material will spoil. This scum must be prevented from forming if the product is to be kept for a con- siderable time. Exclusion of air from the surface of the brine will entirely prevent its formation. There are three feasible methods of accomplishing this. The first method is to cover the surface with very hot melted paraffin. If the paraffin is sufficiently hot to make the brine boil when poured upon it, a smooth, even layer will be formed before hardening, making a perfectly air-tight seal. Before adding paraffin the containers should be set where they will not be disturbed until ready for use, as any attempt to move them afterwards may break the seal and necessitate resealing. Paraffin has the advantage of ease in handling, and of being easily separated from the fermented vegetables when they are ')% .1 .u.i\7 .1/. or lit > mi: mak/xc ivinovod. I'urlhcr, il can Ik- iiscfl over anaiii and thus the ex- pense is small in I he lon^ lun. If it heeonies (lir(y it can he purified by heating very hot and st ruining throush several ihiek- nesses of cheese-elolh. One disadvantaf^e in the use of paraffin is that the formation of f^as Ix'low the layer will break the seal; therefore, it should not be used until fermentation haw cetised. If the paraffin bretdcs, it should \h' removed, remelted, and replaced. The second method is to pack a barrel or kefi; full and then re- place the head. Fill tlu^ barrel or kefj; as full as possible with the fresh material to be fermented and then add the round board and weijj;hts exactly as described on page 594. Let the barrel stand for 48 hours to allow part of the pas to escape. Then remove the board and weili'»iil(l lie fnllducd in aliiiin vc^cl aides: \\;i>li llio V('f;('fal)l('s, drain oil" I he water, and llicii wei^h tlieiM. Vor each 100 pounds of veK^'liil'l*'-"^ weiuli oiil 2") pounds of salt. For sniailei' (|uantifies use the same proportion of salt (one-fourth of the weij^ht of the ve{;<'tal)l(\s). Spread a layer of the \-eji;etal)les al)out 1 incii deep on tlu; bottom of a clean kej;, tub, or crock, and sprinkle heavily with some of the salt. Try to distribute the salt evenly atnonK the different layers packed so tiiat the quantity weighed f)ut will be just enough to pack the vegetables. Continue adding layers of vegetables and salt until the container is nearly full and then cover with the clean cloth, board, and weight, as in the case of fermentation by dry salting. The keg or other container should then be set aside in a cool place. If the salt and pressure of the weight have not extracted sufficient brine to cover the vege- tables, after 24 hours, i)repare a strong brine by dissolving 1 pound of salt in 2 quarts of water and pour enough of this over the vegetables to come up to the round wootlen cover. There will be a small amount of bubbling at the start, as in the case of the fermented vegetables, but this will not continue long. Just as soon as the bubl)ling has stopped, the surface of the licjuid should be protectctl by one of the methods described on page 595. E.xperiments have shown that the following vegetables may l)e satisfactorily preserved by the above method: dantlelions, beet tops, turnip tops, spinach, chard, kale, cabbage, string beans, green peas, and corn. Care and storage. If properly prepared and stored, fermented and salted prod- ucts will keep for a long tiin(>. It is absolutely necessary to prevent mold from growing on the surface of the brine of fer- mented vegetables by the addition of paraffin or in some other way. Protection of the surface of salted vegetal)les is desirable, but not necessary if the containers are covered to prevent the evaporation of the brine. Practically all of the trouble with the fermented or salted products may be traced to carelessness in FOOD PRESERVATION 599 protecting the surface of tlie brine. In case mold sliould de- velop upon the surface or the brine should become evaporated so that the upper layers of the food spoil, this does not mean necessarily that the entire contents of the vessel have spoiled, even though the upper layers may have a very disagreeable odor. The molds and other organisms which cause the spoil- ing do not penetrate rapidly to the lower layers, and by care- fully removing the spoiled material from the top, adding a little fresh brine and pouring hot paraffin on the top, the re- mainder of the contents of the vessel may be saved. After fermentation has ceased, the containers of salted and fermented vegetables should be stored in a cool place. They should be protected from rats, mice, and vermin, which might eat through the paraffin layer and get at the contents. Preparation of fermented and salted vegetables for the table. Some fermented and salted vegetables, like cucumbers, are eaten raw; others, like cabbage (sauerkraut), are usually cooked. In general the fermented and salted products may be prepared for the table in much the same manner as the fresh vegetables, except that before being cooked they should be soaked in fresh water for several hours or longer, if necessary, to remove the salt, the water being changed several times. In some cases it may be necessary also to change the water once or twice during the boiling of the salted vegetables. In this, one should be guided by taste. Fermented vegetables, after being removed from the con- tainer, should be rinsed thoroughly in fresh water and then cooked without soaking if a product having a decidedly acid flavor is desired. If one does not desire the acid flavor, it may be modified to any extent or removed almost entirely by soak- ing the fermented vegetables as directed above for the salted product. CANNING Successful preservation of food by canning depends on two things: first, the sterilization of the food and the can, that is, the complete destruction by heat of all life in or on the food, (i()U A MAM AJ. OF IU)ME MAKlMi and oil all jjailsof (he can thai arc lo conic in contact with the food; second, .sul).sc(|ucnt care to prevent further entrance of niicro-orfianisins. The |)resenc<' of aii' in a can will not cause food to sjjoil, pro- vided the air is sterile, that is, freed from all living organisms. A half-filled can of fruit will keep perfectly if fruit, can, rubber, and cover are sterile, if the air space above the fruit is sterile, and if inicro-orj;anisnis cannot enter the can. The precaution sometimes taken to I'un a knife or a spoon down the sides of a can in order to remove the few bubbles that may be there, is eonse(iuently unnecessary. Unless the spoon or knife has been boiled, its use in removing air may even endanger the keeping (lualities of a can of food, foi- it may hold oi-ganisms that thus find their way into the can. It is now known that some niicio-oiganisnis that cause foods to spoil nvay assume two forms, the spore and the vegetative form. When conditions are unfavoral)le to their growth, they go into the spore form, cease growing and reproducing, and be- come inactive and ver}' resistant to the influence of heat. It is their method of tiding over a hard time. In the spore form micro-organisms are much more difficult to destroy than in the vegetative form, and some of them are able to resist for many hours a temperature even as high as the boil- ing point of water. During a dry season spores occur much moi'e frequently than usual on fruits and vegetables, anil the difficulties of successful canning may, therefore, l)e greatly increasetl. As soon as growth conditions become favorable — when warmth, moisture, and food are supplied — spores liegin changing over to the active, growing, vegetative form, and in their greater liveliness they lose much of tlu^ir power to resist heat, cold, and other unfavorable influences. These facts explain why canned foods sometimes spoil even after long boil- ing and careful and complete sealing; the boiling temperature may not have l)een sufficient to destroy the spores, which .soon change over to the active growing state. The problem of suc- cessful canning is, therefore, how even the most resistant micro- organisms may be kilh^d. FOOD PRESERVATION 601 The commercial canner has solved the problem of steriliza- tion by the use of steam under pressure. In this way a tempera- ture higher than the boiling point of water, and hence more de- structive, is obtained. With a sufficiently high temperature, a relatively short time of cooking is required to sterilize food. Equipment for canning. If canning is to be done successfully, even on a small scale, it is necessary to have some equipment that will lighten labor and save time. Such equipment may be bought especially for Fig. 123. — Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack. the purpose, or it may be made from something already on hand. If possible, a canner should be seen in operation before it is bought. If the so-called cold-pack method (page 606) is used, the first and most essential part of the canning equipment is a recep- tacle in which the cans of food may be steamed or boiled. This receptacle and its parts are generally spoken of as the canner or the canning outfit. Canners suitable for home use are of four general types: (1) hot-water outfits; (2) steam cookers; (3) water-seal outfits; (4) steam-pressure outfits. While a small hot-water canner may easily be devised at CtO'J .1 MAXIM, or HOME M.\KIS(! Iioiiic, as sii^K<'-'^l'''l '" ''"' tollowiii^ paragraph, its usefulness is limilcd by its small capacity and llic ainouiil of fuel thai it rc(Hiiii's. ( 'oiiimcicial outfits capaMc of accoiiiiiiodatiu^; coni- parativcly lar^ic (plant it ics with convenience are hiielly (hs- cussed in succee(iuire(l nutnber of minutes (pages 012 to 614). Only a small quantity of the product - FOOD PRESERVATION 607 should be blanched at a time in order that the water may be kept as near the boiling point as possible. Delicately flavored greens are generally blanched by steam in order to avoid the loss of iron and other nutrients that oc- curs when they are immersed in boiling water. For blanching in steam, the food is placed in some perforated utensil or a piece of cheese-cloth and suspended in a tightly closed steamer. The food should be blanched until no further shrinkage will occur. Blanching in steam generally requires a longer time than blanching in boiling water. The steam must penetrate to all parts of the mass, and for this reason the fruits or vege- tables should not be crowded together. Blanching in steam is not recommended for strong-flavored greens. Blanching may accomplish one or more results: (1) it helps to insure a close pack either by contracting the tissue and making the product flexible, as in the case of string beans and asparagus, or by causing a decided shrinkage, as with greens; (2) it may partly eliminate strong acids or bitter flavors; (3) it may set the color; (4) it begins the sterilization of the food; (5) it loosens the skins of certain fruits and vegetables from the pulp so that they may be slipped or scraped off easily, as in the case of peaches, tomatoes, or carrots. When blanching serves this last purpose, it is frequently called scalding. Blanch- ing may not be necessary but it is believed to give a superior product in many cases. The cold dip is the rapid chilling of the outside of the blanched fruit or vegetable by plunging it into cold water. While the food may need to be cold dipped in order to be cooled sufficiently to make it easily handled and to insure the cooling of the center of the mass, it should not be allowed to remain long in the cold water. Sirups. The thickness of sirup for canning fruits depends on the kind of fruit with which it is to be used and the richness of the product desired. In order to obtain three grades of sirup for ordinary use in OOcS .1 MAM.AL OF HOME MAKISC canninn. rupar and wator may he comhinofl in tlio following |)n)I)()r(i()iis and licalctl only until the su^ar is dissolved. The (luantity of watrr is kept constant in order to show the variation in the (lUantity of sujz;ar used. Thin sirup (al>ont a ^O-pcr-cont solution): 1-V( cups of su^ar and \ cups of wafer. This sirup nia>' he user! for such fruits a.s apples, pears, raspberries, and othei- sweel berries, when a rich pi'oduct is not desiicd. Medium siruj) (about a lO-pei-ceiit solution;: 2';^ cujis of supar and 4 cups of water. This sirup may be used for such fruits as sweet jilums, blackberries, and sweet cherries. Thick siru{) (about a oo-per-cent solution): 5 cups of sugar and 4 cups of water. This sirup may be used for such fruits as peaches, cherries, or pineapples when a sweet product is desired. A still thicker sirup may l)e desirable for rhubarl), goose- berries, currants, sour cherries, and other very sour fruits. Such a sirup may be made l)y boiling the thick sirup until it begins to spin a thread instead of using it when the sugar has just dissolved. Methods of canning. Two methods of canning are commonly used both in the household and in the canning factory, the open-kettle method and the cold-pack method. The open-kettle methotl is so called because the food to be canned is completely cooked in a kettle and then poured into the jar. Unless the jar, the cover, the rubber, and all utensils that come in contact with the food have been boiled for twenty minutes before the jars are filled, and unless the work is carefully done, there is alwaj^s the risk that the food will be reinfected and that it may spoil after the jar has been sealed. For some products, such as preserves, conserves, jams, and marmalades, for which condensation and heat more intense than that of boiling water are needed, the oj)en-kettle method must still be used. For beets, the open-kettle method is recommended, because the skins can be removed after the FOOD PRESERVATION 609 cooking, and thus less color is lost. Many persons prefer the open-kettle method for canning strawberries and tomatoes. In the so called cold-pack method, the uncooked or partly cooked fruit, vegetable, or other food is packed in a can; the food is covered with some liquid, such as water, sirup, or juice; and both the jar and its contents are heated simultaneously in boiUng water or steam. This method may be used for most fruits and all vegetables. It is recommended for meats, be- cause it conserves the flavor and because meat may thus be canned under steam pressure. It is used by all canning fac- tories for simple canned vegetables, fruits, and meats. It is also being adopted gradually by housekeepers, since in general it is a safer, easier way of canning most foods than the old open-kettle method, and since the product keeps much of its natural flavor. Heat may be applied in the cold-pack method in one of two ways: 1. Continuously, (a) The cans may be covered with boiling water and may be cooked continuously for a given length of time and sealed, (b) The cans may be placed in a pressure canner and cooked under steam pressure for a given length of time and sealed. 2. Intermittently. The cans may be covered with boiling water and may be cooked for a stated length of time on each of three successive days, being sealed at the close of each period of heating. When food is cooked in the can for a given period on each of three successive days, the process is called intermittent heating. Acid or sweet foods may be canned safely by one period of heating. It is not always safe to can certain non-acid vege- tables by a single period unless steam pressure is used. They may keep if cooked long enough but there is always a risk. This is ]>ecause of the possible presence on them of resistant spores which are sometimes able to survive even twelve hours of continuous boiling. The intermittent method seems to be safer for these vegetables, but only the steam pressui'e method can be considered wholly safe. Many vegetables ac- cepted by the housekeeper as having kept are poor in both flavor CIO A MA MM. or !UtME MAKISC aiiil t)(l IS (liir t(» >|)(iil;i^c. I'ood lli;i( lias kept should iKil lia\c cilliri- a Hat or a sour taste. JOxpcriiMiMits in cauMiuji; secni to iudicalo that, the or^;atiisiii known as botnliinis may not he dostroy(;d cither by ihe con- liiuious or the intermittent methods of canninfi; in liot water. \\'hen foods are canned at liome, unless the pressure cooker has heeii usctl, it is ur^ed that when tiic contents arc removed from tlie can they he boiled for several minutes before beiiifz; eaten. If, for example, beans are to he used as a salad, they should be boiled first and then cooled. Such a procedure makes for safety. For peas, beans, corn, asparagus, p;reens, pumpkin, and squash, the intermittent method of canning is strongly recom- mended, unless steam pressure is uschI. ]Many camie^c 000), the number of minutes re- quired for blanrliinn bein^ piven in 'I'able LIII; do not blanch cherries, berries, or ])lums; (0) if blanched food is to be cooled, chill ihe outside of the blanched fruit by immersing it for a brir-f period in a iarne vessel of cold water (paj^e 007), and do not attempt to cool the fruit Ihoroujrhly by this cold dip; (7) jiac-k (he fniit firmly in clean, testeT.\HLK FOR Cannin'o Fruits, Acid Vk(;ktables, AND MkATS nv TIIK SlNCLK, OR f'oNTINUOCS, PERIOD OF IlEATINn Food Apple cider Apples .Vpricot.s Blackberries, dcnvlxTri C'herrics Fruit juices C 1 rajjes Huckleberries Peaches Pears Pineapples Plums Quinces Raspberries Ilhubai-b Strawberries Sauerkraut Tomatoes Tomatoes and corn . . Tomato juice Meat Time of hloitclihtij Minutes 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 Time of rooking in jrint jars If the liot-walcr hath is u.s<(l // (he pnsHure cooker w used (5 pounds) Minut e.s Minutes 20 12 20-30 10 10 10 1() 10 10 20 10 16 10 10 8 10 10 20 10 00 40 10 10 00 40 10 8 10 10 10 10 120 60 22 10 90 00 20 15 300 180 FOOD PRESERVATION 615 TABLE LIV. — A Time-Table for Canning Vegetables by Three Periods op Heating, or the so-called Intermittent Method Food Time of blanching Time of cooking in pint jar f First day Second and third days Asparagus Beans * Beets Carrots Cauliflower Corn Parsnips Peas Minutes 5 5 6-10 6-10 5 5-10 6-10 5 5 Minutes 60 60 60 60 60 60-75 60 60 75 75-90 75 60 Minutes 60 60 60 60 60 60-75 (depending on closeness of pack) 60 60 Pumpkin Spinach and other greens Squash Succotash 75 75-90 (depending on closeness of pack) 75 60 * A good method for canning beets is to cook them in the open kettle before they are pared until they are almost done, and then pare them and sterilize them for 1 hour in the jars. t For quart jars 10 to 15 minutes additional time should be allowed each day; for 2-quart jars 30 minutes should be added. (')l(i A MAMAL OF llOMr: MAKl.xa 'IWIJLI^ \j\ . -A 'liMK-'I'.Mii.i; von C'annin*; \'k<;ktaiilks with thk Pkks.si;kk ("ooKKit f jdh/.* ( "iiiraiits, sour apples, cialj-applcs, rasphorrios, I ) lack berries, bluclK'nics, i)arlly ripened f^rapes, and (piinces make f^ood jelly; hut peaches, jjcars, strawherries, and cherries are de- ficient in certain substances necessary to produce a jelly of good consistency and flavor. This deficiency may be overcome, by coml)ininK these juices with those that make good jelly. A fruit juice that is ^[ood for making jelly is one that contains pectin, the essential jelly-makinff suljstance. Juice.s extracted by cooking are apparentl}^ far richer in this substance than juices extracted from the raw fruits. To determine whether a juice contains pectin, 1 or 2 tal)lespoonfuls of the hot juice should be mixed thoroughly with an equal volume of grain alcohol (90 to 95 per cent), and the mixture should be cooled. If pectin is present, a gelatinous mass, which can be gathered on a spoon, will appear in the liquid. Acid is anotlicr requisite for juices that make good jelly. To extract juice from a ver}' juicy fruit, such as currants or raspberries, place the clean fruit, washed if necessary, in an enameled preserving kettle, add just enough water to prevent burning — perhaps 1 cup to 4 or 5 quarts of fruit — cover the kettle, and i)lace it where the fruit will cook rather slowly, stirring it occasionall}' with a wooden or a silver spoon. When the simmering point is reached, crush the fruit further with a well-soaked wooden masher, and continue heating it until the whole mass is cooked through. Allow the juice to drain through a jelly bag or a double j)iece of cheese-cloth into an earthen- ware or enameled receptacle for half an hour or more. It is better not to combine the first extraction with the later. If later extractions are to be made, it is well to reserve a pectin test of first extraction as a standard for concentrating ones later. When the first extraction is fairly well drained out, generally within half an hour, transfer the pulp to the preserving kettle, cover it with water, stir it well, and cover the kettle. Bring the juice slowly to the boiling point, and simmer it for 15 or 20 * Condonsod from Principles of Jell}' Making, bv X. E. Goldthwaite, Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. FOOD PRESERVATION 621 minutes. Strain it through a jelly bag as for the first extraction. If the alcohol test indicates much pectin, make a third extrac- tion. Generally only three extractions can be made, but some fruits will allow five. The second and later extractions may be combined. The boiling juice may be sealed in sterilized bottles and made into jelly in the winter. If a less juicy fruit, such as apples or quinces, is used, wash the fruit, discard any unsound parts, cut it into small pieces, including the skins and the seeds, cover it with water, and ex- tract the juice according to the directions for juicy fruits, mak- ing more than one extraction if possible. For currants and partly ripened grapes, the correct propor- tion of sugar for the first extraction is likely to be equal volumes of sugar and juice. For red raspberries, blueberries, and black- berries, and for fruits to which much water must be added, such as sour apples, crab-apples, and cranberries, the correct proportion by volume for the first extraction is likely to be three-fourths as much sugar as juice. The quantity of sugar required is determined by the quantity of pectin present in the juice. If too little sugar in proportion to pectin is used, the jelly is likely to be tough; if too much sugar is used, the jelly is soft and does not hold its shape. The remedy for having used too much sugar is to add more juice and thus supply more pectin. It is better to err on the side of too little rather than too much sugar. The second and third extractions may be mixed. The mixture should be boiled down until the juice approximates in pectin-content the richness of the first ex- traction, as shown by the pectin test. The juice should then be measured, and the sugar should be added in the proportion suggested for the first extraction. The proportion of sugar to juice, the proportion of pectin in the juice, and possibly the proportion of acid in the juice, govern the length of time for boiling the juice to produce good jelly. Boiling from 8 to 10 minutes may be sufficient for currant juice, while from 20 to 30 minutes may be required for juice from raspberries, blackberries, apples, and the like. The juice in any case should be boiled rapidly. ti'i'J .1 .l/.l.\/.l/. or lluMi: MAK/.\(; Tlic siiji;;ir should he added to the juice wlicu tlie i)criod of hoiliuK is about half completod. If the suji;ar is hot, the cooking; process is not delayed. Care should he taken not to scorch the sup;ar, however. The juice should he stirred fairly con- stantly, after the su{i;ar is added, in order to prevent hurriinti. A iiood jelly te.st is to allow juice to drop from the side of a spoon and when it sheets off, or breaks off, to stop the cooking. If jellies are to stand any lenj^th of time l)efore usiuK, they should be sealed properly from the air. After the fj;la,s.ses have been filled completely with the hot jellies, they should be set in a cool place for the contents to harden. Jellies slightly under- cooked may be covered with panes of fi;lass and allowed to harden in the sun. In either case, when the jellies are well set, the ff lasses should be filled with hot paraffin — the jelly will have shrunken, leaving space for this — not merely melted paraffin, l)ut hot paraffin so that all germs that may have fallen on the surface of the jelly may be killed and future trouble with them obviated. The glasses should be closed with hot, clean tin covers, and kept in a dry, cool place. Jams. The method of making jams is to cook the fruit until tender, add sugar in the proportion of equal quantities or three-fourths as much as fruit, and cook the mixture imtil a drop will jelly on a cold dish. It should then be poured into sterihzed jars and sealed. PKESEKVATION OF MEAT * Directions for canning meat are given on page 613. Keeping fresh meat All meat to be preserved, eitiier fresh or cured, should be thoroughl}' cooled after the animal is slaughtered, for unless this is done the meat will not cure well nor will it be possible to keep it in a fresh state for any length of time. * Soiilko, K. .T. The Curinfj; of Moat and Meat Products on tho Farm, Cornell llcaiUng-Cour.se for the Farm, Bull. 110. ■ FOOD PRESERVATION 623 In cold weather meat may be kept by hanging it in a dark, cool place, where dogs, cats, and rodents cannot reach it. If a temperature below 40° F. is maintained, meat may be kept for weeks; but with the temperature alternating between low and high, it will not keep well. Meat that is frozen will keep in- definitely so long as it remains frozen. Alternate freezing and thawing will spoil the flavor and cause early decomposition. It is important that the meat be kept in a place where the air is dry. A dark, cool cellar, or an attic that is dry and free from odors, is the proper place for keeping meat on the farm. Meat packed in snow may ])e kept for a considerable length of time. The meat should first be frozen hard. After it is frozen, an earthen jar or a barrel should be provided, and a thick layer of snow should be tamped tightly in the bottom of this. On the snow a layer of meat is packed, and covered with another layer of snow. Care must be taken to have a thick layer of snow between the meat and the inner surface of the receptacle. Another layer of meat is then put on, and another layer of snow, and so on until all the meat is packed or the jar is almost full, when a heavy covering of snow should be put on top and covered with a block or some other object in order to keep out rats and mice. The meat may be taken out as needed, and the snow should be repacked on top each time. Another method commonly used with pork and sausage is partly to cook the meat by frying it on both sides, pack it in a jar, and pour hot lard over it in order to seal the whole and keep out air. The meat may be taken out as needed. Care should be taken each time to melt the lard that is taken off, and to pour it back. Curing meats As has already been stated, meat should be thoroughly cooled before it is cured. It is equally important, however, that the meat shall not be in a frozen condition, for if it is frozen the brine or pickling solution cannot penetrate freely and the meat will not be of even flavor throughout. The vessels used for curing meats are of various sorts and 024 .1 M.WCM. OF HOME MAKISa sizes, tlt'iKMidiiiff oil llu' aiiiounl of incut (o Ik- curod and the fxpciiso to wliich tho owner cares to ro. Lar^e eartlien jars or crocks p;ive the best results, hut these are somewhat exix'ii- sive — 8 to 10 cents a gallon of capacity- — ^aiid they are very easily hroken if not carefully handled. Tiglit hardwocKl barrels may l)e used. New barrels or barrels that have containe(l molasses should be used, never vineK^ir or kero.sene barrels un- less they have been burned out on the inside. If niola.s.se.s barrels are used they should be thorouffjily scalded. The principal preservatives u.sed are salt, sugar, and molasses, and their combinations. (Chemicals forbidden by law and tho.se known to have a bad cfTect on health should not be used. Salt preserves meat through its astringent and slightly germicidal action. It hardens the muscle filjers and draws the moisture from the meat. Sugar and mola.sses have an almost opposite effect. They cause the retention of the moisture of the meat, and keep the muscle fibers soft and tender. Therefore, .salt and sugar are commonly used together, as the sugar gives a desir- able flavor and prevents the hardening action of the salt. Salt- peter is often used to retain the natural reddish color of the meat. It is detrimental to health and should be used sparingly if at all. Curing pork. SUG.Ml-CURED HAMS, BACONS, AXD TONGUES Method I. After the meat ha.s been thoroughly cooled, the carcass may be cut up and cured. Sugar-cured pork is preferable to dry-cured or plain salt pork because of its plea-sant flavor and because the meat is not .«o dry and hard. Beef tongues may be cured in the same jiickle with the pork. All the pork carca.ss may be cured excei)t the loins, which are used fresh for chops and roasts, the sjiare-ribs, which are used fresh, and the trim- mings, which are u.scd for lard and sausage. The hams, shoulders, and bacons are sugar-cured, and the fat backs arc dry-cured or pickled in a plain salt pickle. Before the meat is placed in pickle or salt, all corners and ragged edges should be cut off and used for sausage and lard. If they are left on they \y'\\[ be wasted, for they will be thoroughly soaked by the pickle and will be of no use. Rub the pork thoroughly with salt and pack it in a cool place overnight. The next day pack it in a barrel or an earthen jar, with the heaviest hams FOOD PRESERVATION 625 and shoulders at the bottom, the lighter hams and" shoulders next, and the bacons and tongues at the top. For every 100 pounds of meat weigh out 10 pounds of salt, 2^^ pounds of brown sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Rub these together thoroughly, taking care that the saltpeter is finely powdered. Dissolve the whole by stirring it into 4 gallons of boiling water. Allow this brine to cool thor- oughly, and then pour it over the meat. If it does not entirely cover the meat, add more water. The brine should cover the meat at all times. The meat may be weighted down with a block if necessary, for if it is not covered the projecting meat will decompose in a short time. If the brine shows signs of fermenting during the curing process, it should be drawn off, boiled, and cooled, and then poured back on the meat. The bacons and tongues may be taken from the pickle after four to six weeks, and after being washed in warm water they may be hung in the smoke-house and smoked. The lighter hams and shoulders will be ready to take out of the pickle in six to eight weeks, and the heavier ones at the end of the eighth week. Method II. Another recipe for sugar-cured hams, bacons, and tongues that has given good results is as follows: Pack the thoroughly cooled meat in a cool, dry place, on a table that has previously been covered with a layer of salt. Sprinkle salt over each piece of meat, and add alternate layers of meat and layers of salt until all is packed. Allow the meat to remain in the salt for eight to ten days, and then wash off the salt with lukewann water. The meat is now ready to go into the pickle, which is mixed as follows: To 18 gallons of water add 5 pounds of brown sugar, a small handful of saltpeter, and 1 tablespoonful of ginger. Stir the mixture until the solids are all dissolved, and then stir in 12 pounds of salt. Stir until all the salt is dissolved. This amount can be increased or decreased according to the amount of meat to be pickled. Ordinarily one-fourth of this mixture will be enough for 100 pounds of pork. The pickle should test 75° with the hydrometer test. If a hydrometer is not at hand, drop a fresh egg into the pickle; if the egg floats almost submerged, the brine is of the proper strength. Pack the meat in a barrel or a jar, with hams and shoulders weighing over 10 pounds on the bottom, those weighing less than 10 pounds next, and the bacon strips and tongues on top. Pour the brine over the meat so that it is all covered, and weight it with a block so that none of the meat projects from the brine. The bacons and tongues may be removed from the brine at the end of three weeks, the Hghter hams and -shoulders at the end of five weeks, and the heaviest ones after six to seven weeks. After the meat is removed from the brine, it should be washed in warm water in order to remove the 626 A MAXVAL OF JIOME-MAKISC crust (if liriiic :iiul any ■^ciiin iliat may liavc formcil, ami after dryinn for ai> lioiir or more it may he \\\\\\\i, in tlic smoke-hdusf and sriioktHl. HKINK SALT I'f)ltK I'aouiids of meat 10 pounds of salt and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Mix llicsse, and di.s.solvc tiie mixture in 4 nallons of hoilinj; water. .Mlow this brine to oool thorouglily, and tlien i)our it over the meat in the barrel. Place a block on top in order to keep the meat submer{;e-inch square^s. The meat should be left in the brine and be taken out as needed. DUV-CUKKD PORK To dry-cure meat involves more work than lo brine-cure if, although it is a little less expensive in some cases. It is less difficult merely to salt the meat, pack in a jar, and pour the brine over it, than to rub the meat several times with the dry mixture. ALsf), the brine-cured meat is not so dry and is a little more palatable. Brine-cured meat can be kept anyAvhere as lon|; as it is kept cool; dry-cured meat, on the other hand, should be kept in a cool, moist place, in order to insure even curing. With l)rine-cured meat there is no danger from rats and other vennin; but flies must be kept away from meat cured in either way. In dry-curing jiork, weigh out for every 100 pounds of pork G pounds of salt, 2J4 IhhukIs of granulated sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter, and mix thoroughly. Divide the mixture into three portions. Rub one {)ortion on the meat the first day, and pack the meat in a barrel. Leave it for three days. At the end of three days take the meat out of the barrel, rub it with a second jjortion of the mixture, and repack it. Three days later rub the meat with the third and last portion of the mixture, and repack it. Let it stay in the barrel for ten to fourteen days. Then remove it, w:usli it in warm water, and smoke it. PICKLED pigs' feet Take well-scraped pigs' feet, with the toes removefl, and soak them in cold water overnight. The next morning jjut them in a kettle, add enough water to cover them, and let them cook until st)ft. This will require about five hours. Salt should be adtled to the water dur- ing the cooking. When the pigs' feet are soft, remove Ihcm from the water, spUt them, pack them in an earthen jar, and pour hot vinegar over them. Spices of various kinds may be added to the vinegar if desired. FOOD PRESERVATION 027 HEAD-CHEESE Head-cheese is made from the part of the head of the hog that would otherwise be wasted. When properly prepared it is a deUcacy. The feet, as well as the head, may be used for this purpose. Skin the hog's head, remove the eyes and the brain, and split the head through the midhne, or down the center of the forehead and the nose. Usually the jowls are removed and salted. Put the head pieces into a cooker, add enough water to cover the meat, and boil the whole until the meat parts come readily from the bone. Remove the meat, separate it from the bones, and chop it finely. Remove the liquid from the kettle and save it for further use. After the meat is chopped, return it to the kettle, pour on enough of the liquid to cover the meat, and allow it to cook for ten or fifteen minutes. While this final cooking is taking place, season the mixture with salt and pepper to suit the taste. Put the cooked meat and the liquid that remains into jars, pans, or a cold-meat press, place a weight on top, and allow the meat to cool. It will then be solid and can be sliced and eaten immediately. Lard is made from the fat of the hog carcass. Three grades of lard are obtained from three parts of the body: the best grade, leaf lard, is made from the leaf, or layer of fat lying inside the abdominal wall; the second grade is made from the backs, the sides, and the pieces trimmed from the various cuts; the third and poorest grade is made from the in- testinal, stomach, and pluck fats. The last is much stronger than the other two and should not be mixed with them. On the farm the first two grades are usually made together, and sometimes all three are made together. Cut the fat into bits about 1 inch square, and trim out all particles of meat as they give an unpleasant burned flavor to the lard and are the first to scorch if the kettle becomes too hot. Put the pieces of fat into a kettle, and add a little water, not more than a quart, to keep the fat from burning until some of the lard has melted. Keep the kettle hot until the cracklings are brown and rise to the top. Skim off the cracklings, and press out the lard that remains in them. Draw off the melted lard, and add a little baking-soda to help whiten it. The lard should be stirred while it is cooling, in order to make it as white as possible. Curing heef. Beef is not so commonly cured as pork; but when corned it takes the place of fresh beef during periods of the year when fresh beef does not keep well, and also offers a method of pre- serving part of the meat until it is needed and thus saving a 028 .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISC waste or loss of meat, since it is impossible for one family to use an entire beef carcass in the fresh state. Driervinji; meat for future use. Jerked heef is made in the dri«'r regions of the West. The climate of the eastern states is not dry enough nor warm enoujih 1o cure it successfully, and it is not so palatable as dried heef. CORNED DEEP Mctlioil I. Siiico cornod hocf is used for practically the .same (ILshes as fresh b('(>f, only wholesome untainted meat should be use;, because the choicer cuts are more palatable in a fresh condition. Plate, flank, shouMer, chuck, cro.ss ribs, and rump are most commonly used for corning. Frozen meat should not be put into the brine; neither .should the brine be frozen while the meat is in it. Weigh the meat. Cut it in pieces about 6 inches square. Place a layer of salt on the bottom of the ve.ssel in which the meat is to be packed, cover this with a layer of meat, and sprinkle a layer of salt over the meat. Add .alternate layers of meat and of salt until the meat is packed. Seven to 9 pounds of salt will usually be enough for 100 pounds of meat. Allow the meat to stand in the salt overnight. On the following morning make a brine, using 5 pounds of sugar, 2j^ ounces of baking-.socla, and 3 ounces of saltpeter for every 100 pounds of meat. Dissolve these ingredients in 4 gallons of boiling water. Allow the brine to cool thoroughly before pouring it over the meat. If more or less than 100 pounds of meat i.s to be cured, use these proportions for the brine. If 4 gallons of brine does not entirely cover 100 pounds of meat, water maj^ be added. The meat should be weighterl down with a block or a clean stone, since any part that is not covered with the brine will decompose very quickly. If the brine shows signs of fermentation in warm weather, it should be drawn off, boileil, strained through a clean cloth, and, after it is thoroughly cooled, poured back on the meat. The meat should be kept in a cool, dark i)lace. At the end of thirty days the meat will be ready for use. If the pieces are larger than G inches square, a longer time may be allowed, according to the size of the pieces. Method II. The formula given under Method II (page t)2")) for .sugar- (■ured hams and bacons may b(» usee . FOOD PRESERVATION 629 way as fresh beef. If desired, it may be made into pressed corned beef. This is prepared as follows: Remove the beef from the pickhng solution, wash it with warm water, and place it in a kettle. Keep it barely covered with water at all times, and boil it for two hours. Salt and pepper may. be added while the meat is cooking, but usually there is enough salt in the meat from the brine. Take the meat from the kettle and pack it in pans or in a cold-meat press. Strain the broth through cheese-cloth or muslin several times, replace it on the stove, boil it down to one-half its original volume, pour it over the meat in the pans, and allow the whole to harden in a cool place. After the meat has hardened it may be sliced and eaten without further preparation. DRIED BEEF Dried beef is usually made from the round, although any heavily muscled part may be used for this purpose. The inside of the round makes the tenderest meat. In cutting meat for dried beef, the muscles should be separated into their natural divisions. When cured and smoked in this way they can be sliced across the grain, and the meat is much tenderer than would otherwise be the case. A jar or a barrel is the best receptacle in which to pack the meat when curing it. To each 100 pounds of well-cooled beef weigh out 6 pounds of fine salt, 3 pounds of granulated or brown sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Mix these thoroughly, without wetting, and divide the mixture into three portions. Set two portions away for future use, and rub the other portion into the meat. Pack the meat in the jar and leave it for three days. At the end of the three days take the meat from the jar, but leave in the jar the sirup that has formed. Rub the meat with another portion of the mixture, repack it, and leave it for three days. Remove it from the sirup, rub it with the last portion of the mixture, and repack it in the sirup in the jar. After three days remove the meat and hang it in the smoke-house, where it should be smoked until it is dry. It should then be kept in a dry place until it is used. The longer it is smoked and the drier it is kept, the longer it will remain good. PICKLED BEEF TONGUES The recipe given on page 625 for sugar-cured hams and bacons may be used also for pickling beef tongues. Curing mutton and lamb. Mutton and lamb are seldom, if ever cured on the farm. In the larger packing houses, mutton is sometimes partly cured in a plain salt pickle, and then cooked and packed in cans, which are soldered shut while the meat is still hot. iVM) A MAXIAL OF HOME MAKISG SaiVidijcs. Very p;o<)(l s;iusaj:;('s can Itc made from the scraps that would otherwise he wastrd in tlic Itutclier shop and on the farm. Such pieces MS checks, Irimmiiiffs, jowls, pork hearts and tongues, mutton hearts ami t(inji;ues, and many other scraps that are seklom used ficsli, will make a very palatable sausage and will serve for this jjurpose as well as any other meat. IIAMIILIUJ STEAK This is the simplest fomi of sausage made, and consists simply of fresh beef run twice ihrou^h a grinder. It may be seasoned after the first grimi- ing, or left unseasoned. It is never stulTed into casings. Any part of the beef carctiss may be used for hamburg steak, but the best quaUty is made from the round. MIXED SAUS.VGE This is made by mixing beef and pork in such proportions as to suit the tiuste of the consumer. This kind of sausage is usually made if the consumer dislikes the extremely fat undiluted {xjrk .sau.sage. It is .seldom stuffed into casings, but is usualh^ left loose and made into pats when fried. The following j)roi)ortions of beef and pork give excellent results: 2 parts lean pork; 3 i)arts lean beef; 1 part fat pork. POIiK SAUSAGE Pork sausage should be made from clean, fresh pork scraps, or the cheaper i)arts of the meat." The meat should be in the proportion of three jiarts of lean pork to one of fat pork. This should be run through the grinder, spread out and seasoned with .salt, pepper, and .sage, and reground. ILsually 1 J^ ounces of fine .salt, J^ ounce of ground black pepper, and 14 ounce or less of ground sage, for 6 i)oumls of meat, makes a .satis- factory seiusoning. Pork sausage cither is use tl'nl the meat will han^ to 7 feet ai)ove the fire and near enough to the roof to ^et the benefit of the thick smoke and yet be below the level of the ventilator. Thf tiinul:i/i(j process. Moat that has been pickled shouM be r('moveiiii.-<, 17!) fl..tir, 171 formiilii^. IS'J iiiKPfdiiiifs, 17 I li71 Hay-window, 'SI Bean bread, 50;i Beans, IGl, 410, 421 in fireless cooker, 219 Bedford cord, 312, 319 Bedrooms, character of, 99 size of, 31 Beds, 123 Beechnuts, 424 Beef, 420, 421 corned, 628 cuts of, 511, 517 dried, 029 in fireless cooker, 219 pickled tongue, 029 selection of, 510 Beets, 101, 418, 421 Belt, foundation, 359 Bench, for laundry, 280 Bengaline. 323 Benzine, in laundering, 255 Berrj' stain, cooked, 292 fresh, 291 Beverages, 465-472 cocoa, 470 coffee, 405 fruit juices, 472 tea, 408 Bias bands, for undergarments, 372 Biliousness, 429 Biscuits, baking powder, 480 frozen dessert, 574 Blackberries, 422 Blanching, 007 BlanketH, wnsliiiiK of, 270 Blaiiket-w(iMh. 270 lil'iu gUH. 201 Blood Htain, 2SS Blueberries, 422 liluing. in laundering, 201, 2(i6 .stain, 2.S!> Boiling |)oint of watir. 130 lioiivia cloth, 319 Borax, for softening water, 251 in laundering. 255, 25H Boric acid, 5s0 liotulinus in canned foods, 010 Bouillon, 51.5 liows, 400 Braid, for undergarments. 372 Bran, ff)r laundering, 2.54, 256 Brazil-nuts, 424 Bread, yeast, 416, 424. 495 baking, 501 barley, 503 barley and rice, 50.'j barley, oat, and rice flour. 504 bean, 503 breadcrumb, .503 brown, in fireless cooker, 219 corn, 503 fermentation, 499 flour, 495 ingredients, 495 liquid, 498 mixer. 499 mixing and kneading, 498 pans for baking, 225 potato, 503 proofing, 499 recipes, 501 rice, 503 rolled oats, 503 "rope," 500 salt-rising. 505 shaping, 499 sponge method. 498 straight-dough method, 498 wheatless. 504 white, 159, 430, 50l, 503 yeast, 497 Brilliantine, 317 INDEX 637 Brioche, 483 Broadcloth, 319 Brocade, 323 Brocatel, 323 Brushes, care of, 124 for kitchen use, 228 Buckles for hats, 404 Buckram, 320 Building materials for body, 407, 409 Bunting, 319 Burlap for ceilings, 43 Burying, method of storing vegetables, 586 Butcher's linen, 315 Butter, 159, 419, 423 as growth promoter, 408 as source of growth-promoting factor, 412 cakes, 484 food value compared with milk, 427 in batters and doughs, 477 in pastry, 491 place in meals, 427 preservation of, 582 stain, 289 Buttermilk, 423, 426 in batters and doughs, 474 Butternuts, 424 Butter plate, placing on table, 242 Butter substitutes, 427, 428, 477 Buttonholes, bound, 370 Cabbage, 101, 418, 421 as source of growth-promoting factor, 412 as source of lime, 411 in tireless cooker, 219 storage of, 587 Cabinet, kitchen, 117 Cakes, 423, 483-489 butter, 484 chocolate in, 485 classification, 483 cocoa in, 485 fillings, 486 flavoring, 486 frostings, 486 fruits in, 485 ingredients, 484 light, 482 Cakes, nuts in, 485 pans for baking, 225 rich, 482 sponge, 482, 483 yeast, 483 Calcimine, for ceilings, 43 for walls, 40 Calico, 311 Calories, measure for fuel value of foods, 412 portions of foods furnishing, 416- 424 Calves-foot jelly, 421 Cambric, 311, 315, 371 Candles, 200 Candle wax, colored, stain, 290 Candy, in diet, 431 stages in cooking, 578 temperature for cooking, 577 to make fine-grained, 578 utensils for cooking, 227, 578 Canned foods, buying of, 445-454 cans, 450 color, 446 corn, 449 extra, 448 extra standard, 448 fancy, 448 flavor, 446 form, 447 fruits, 450 grading, 445 labels, 451 lima beans, 449 locality where grown, 446 medium of packing, 447 okra, 449 peas, 449 pie fruit, 447 preparation, 447 pulp, 448 puree, 448 quality, 448 quantity value, 452 seconds, 448 sirups, 447 size of fruit or vegetable, 446 soaked, 448 spinach, 449 638 i.\i)i:x C'ainicii foods, standani iiradc. 117 Htriiii; l>caiis, -I I'.t suKKcstioiiw for ronsiiiiKT, A.'}2 swells, jr.] tcxturf, IMi tomatoes, -M!) trade names, -151 trade terms, 44.S Caniiers, (iOl ( 'aniiiiiK. acid in eannirin veKetaiiies, (ill, 017 air in can, (iOO Manchinn. (iOfl liotulinus, GIU cold dip. 607 e-, 491 Cotton, adulteration, 308 fiber, 307 mcrcerization, 309 quality of materials, 307 standard materials, 310-312 tests for. 320-329 uses of materials, 310 Cottonseed oil in baking, 477 Court houillf>n. 529 Cover, individual, at table, 242 Covert, 320 Oackers, 1.59, 424 Crack-filler for floors, 45 Cracklings. 520 Cranberries. 100, 422 Crash. 312. 313 Cream. 159. 419, 423 as growth )iromoter, 409, 412 in baking, 477 place in meals, 427 INDEX 641 Cream, sour, in baking, 47* stain, 299 whipped, 571 Cream of wheat, in tireless cooker, 219 Cream of tartar, 161 Creosote oil stain {sec tar), 303 Crepe, 312, 371 Crepe de chine, 323 Cretonne, 312 Crinoline, 312 Crochet lace, 372 Cross-ventilation in house, 15, 23 Cucumbers, 41S, 422 Cuffs, 364 Cups, common drinking, 123 Curing meat, 623 Currants, 160 Curtains (see draperies) lace, washing of, 272 Custard, 423, 537 baked, 537 English, 538 in tireless cooker, 219 molded, 538 royal, 538 soft, 538 Dado, 35 Damask, 315 cotton, 312 Dampers in stoves, 208 Darning, cloth, 389 bias tear, 390 large hole, 391 straight tear, 390 three-cornered tear, 390 Darning, stocking, 391 Dates, 160, 417, 422 Denim, 312 Density, 153 influence of temperature on, 156 Design, in clothing, 330, 331 of farmhouse exterior, 21 Desserts, 570-575 Bavarian creams, 571 biscuits, 574 charlottes, 571 frappes, 572 freezing, 575 frozen, 572-574 Desserts, frozen puddings, 574 fruits, 570 gelatin, 570 granites, 573 ice creams, 573 junket, 572 mousses, 574 packing frozen, 575 parfaits, 574 sherbets, 572 sorbets, 573 souffles, frozen, 574 . sponges, 571 syllabubs, 572 water ices, 572 whipped cream, 571 whips, 572 Dextrin, in laundering, 259 Diagonal, 321 Diaper, 312 Dietary, balanced, 425 Diet, for the sick (see food for the sick) Dimensions, of rooms, 33 Dimity, 312 Dining room, care of, 123 character of, 99 size of, 31 Dishwashing, 122 Doilies, placing on table, 241 shape for table, 241 Doors, as part of wall, 37 in exterior design, 25 location in kitchen, 103 number in kitchen, 104 number in plan, 9 number of, 37 position of, 16 relation to furnishing, 37, 42 Dormer window, 31 Double boiler for cereals, 507 selection of, 229 Doughs and batters, 473 Doughnuts, 423 Drafts in stoves, 208 Draperies, 57-74 color of, 61, 62 for bedroom, 123 642 /M)i:x Drapi'rio.s, for ciLsciucnt windoWH, (iU )miii;iiiK of, (>."». (i(i, (is Itimth of, )'))> liiiiiic. •>'.», 7 1 iiiiikiim, 7 1 71 iiiiitcrial for, ")7, (V.i, (>'> iiicasiiriiiK of, (iS 7U iiunilxT ill window, ^y^i pattern of, (11, (■>2 .selection of, 57, .Vi, (il, i'l- texture of, (j'2, 03 to incTciuse jieinht of moms, -i') to reciuce liei^ht of rof)ins, ."io Drawers, ironing of, 274 Drawer space, in kitchens, 117 Dress, fittins, 361 fomi, 334 kitchen, 123 suital)le materials for, 371 Dressinps for salads (.sec salads.) Drill, 312 DruKS, for constipation, 459 Drying fruits and vegetables, 588-590 circulation of air, 588 equipment, 5S9 fruits, .')S8, 590 outdoors, 5S9 .storafie, 591 temperature, 588 Dry measures, 1-30 Duck, 312 Duml)-waiter, 118 Dusting, 124 Dustless dusters, 124 Dye stain, 290 Egg-beaters, preparation f)f new, 232 types of, 228 Eggplant, 422 Eggs. 159, 420, 424, 534-542 as growth promoters, 409, 412 as liquid, in batters and doughs, 474 as source of iron, 411 as source of lime, 410 as source of phosphorus, 411 as source of protein, 410 beating, 535 EggB, cure of, 534 cookeower, 470, 477 left-over whites, .534 left-over yolks, 534 meat substitute, 531 meringues, 540, 542 omelets. 536 place in meals. 429 poached, 535 preservation of. 581 scrambled. 53.6 shirred, 536 souffles. 538 stain, 291 tests for freshness, 534 Electricity. for lighting, 202 high bills for, 149 measurement of, 147 Embroidery, for under garments, 372. 373 ironing of. 274 stitch. .306 Enamelware. preparation for cooking. 231 utensils. 234 Environment, home, 29, 30 Equii)ment. arrangement of kitchen, 105-110 for canning, 001 for dr.\iiig, 5.S9 for kitchen. 11.5-118 for laundry. 270- 2S1 for salting vegetables, 592 for sewing room, 334 for stain removal, 285 Exerci.se, relation to food needs, 413, 431 Fabrics, tests for, 320 Fahrenheit scale, 132 Farina, in fireless cooker, 219 INDEX 643 Farmhouse, alterations of, 9, 27 analysis of plans for, 9-19 architecture of, 21, 22 arrangement of structural parts of, 11, 12 cellars in, 1 1 color of, 21 corners in, diagonal, 13, 18 cross-ventilation in, 15, 23 design of exterior, 21 difficulties in planning, 8 doors in, 9, 16, 25 hall, 9, 19 hired man's room in, 18 improvements, modern, 20 inglework, use of, 16 kitchen arrangement in, 17, 18 living area of, 11, 16 location of, 7, 8 modern vs- old types, 19 new types of, 1 1 office in, 19 path of travel in, 16 plan for, 11 porches of, 23, 24 portals, 25 proportion, general, 22 roof lines of, 22, 23 sleeping area of, 11, 14, 23 structural elements of, 23 terrace, use of, 16 test of plan for, 18 traditional types of, 8 vistas in, value of, 11, 16 washroom, in location of, 13 woodroom, in location of, 13 working area of, 11, 13, 16 working distances, shortening of, 11 Farmstead, 7, 8 Fastenings for undergarments, 379 Fat, as liquid, in batters and doughs, 474 clarification, 522 combinations of, 520 digestibility, 520 flavor, 520 foods rich in, 408 growth-promoting substance in, 412 hardness, 520 in batters and doughs, 477 Fat, in cooking, 520 in pastry, 491 mutton, 521 savory, 523 temperature of cooking, 520 trying out, 522 Feathers, renovation, 403 Felt, 320 renovation of white, 403 Fermentation, method of preservation, 598 of bread, 499 of vegetables, 599 Fever, diet in, 462 Fiber utensils, 230 Figs, 160, 417, 422 Filberts, 424 Filing, of records, 176 Fillet lace, 372 Fillings for cakes, 486 Finishes, arrows, 369 bound buttonholes, 370 collars, 304 cuffs, 364 embroidery stitches, 367 for bottom of skirt, 367 for drawers, 376 for garments, 364 for nightgown, 376 for underskirt, 377 for waist-line, 378 . set-in pocket, 368 waist-line, 366 Tireless cooker, 207, 214 care of, 216 commercftil vs. home-made, 214 cost of home-made, 214 directions for making, 215 for cereals, 507 for keeping foods cool, 224 intelligent use of, 217 materials for making, 215 selection, 214 time of cooking. 217 time-table for, 219 use of, 218 use of radiators, 214 Fires, care of, 191 (VII i.\i)i:x Fires, kiiKilins <.f. 210 Fish. ")J7 .WO hukiiiR, .'j1".( iH.iliiiK, ."jL'K l>oiiiii(;. 52K hrf)iliMK, .Wl rare. .')27 ciirviiiK, F)'.V2 chussificatioii. .'527 clfaiiiiiK, .52S rooking, .'}28-5.30 frying, 532 proparation, .528 sautding, 5.'n scioctioii. 527 skinning, 528 Fitting garment.*, .300 hoii.sc-cln's;s. ;j()l shirt-waist, 30 1 Flannel, 371 baby, 320 canton, 31 1 French, 320 ironing of, 275 Shaker, 320 silk-warp, 320 washing of, 269 Flannelette, 311 Flavoring in cakes, 486 Floors, bedroom, 123 care of sewing room, 334 carpets, 74 color of, 44 cork carpet, 77 coverings, 74-77 finish of, 44, 45, 118 functions of, 74 • ingrain filling, 78 kitchen, 118 linoleum, 77 number in house plan, 3 perruaiKuicy of, 44 rugs, 74, 75, 70 to wax, 128 wood-veneer carpet, 78 Flour, bread. 474, 4itO, 495 graham, 1.59, 490 manufacture of, 490 pastry, 474, 490 Flour, white. l.'>9, 197 whole-wheat. 159, 497 l-'lowcrs, renovation for hat trimming, 402 Fly-paper stain, 291 Folds, for hats, 405 French, 400 Fondues, .510. .541 Foods, 4(J7 033 choice 8elKTrii>8, 4'J2 (iniiiuni flour, 4'M'> (■rains (mr n-rcalfi.) Clraiiitcs (tlcsscrtM), riT.'J Cirapc fruit, UK), -VSJ Grai>i' juice, -122 Cirapcs. 100. 417, 422 Grass stain, 2'.)2 Gravy stain, 298 Gretuse stain, 292 Green foliaRc, stain, 202 Greens, as souree of growth-promoting factor, 412 Grenadine, .320 Griddle cakes, 4,S2 Growth-promoting factors, 412 needs of nursing niotl:er, 434 Gruel stain (,scc white sauces). 3()G Gum arabic, in laundering, 258, 259, 201 Gums, stain (sec resinous substances), 301 Halibut, 421 Hall, center of plan, 9 for downstairs bedrooms, 19 furnishings of, 95 passing of, large, 19 size of, .31 Ham, 420 in firelcss cooker, 219 sugar-cured, G24 Hamburg steak, G30 Handkerchief linen, 315 Handkerchiefs, ironing of, 275 Hangings, for windows and doors, 55- 74 purpose of, 55 types of, 55 Hats {sec millinery) Head-cheese, 627 Heat, 191 care of fires, 191 cost of, 192 radiation, 191 Heating system, 193 Hemstitching, machine for under- garments, 373 Henriellii. 320 Herbs, for MiladH, .503 Home furnishing (irr furnisliiiiR) Homespun, .320 Hominy. 1.59. 410. 424 in fireh'ss cooker, 219 Honey, 417, 427 Hot-water canners, 001 House, care of, 121-128 cost of, 2, 25, 20 estimating cost of, 20 modern compared with old t>T)08, 20. 27 Hou.se furnishing (see furnishing) Household administration, relation to arrangement of space, 1 Household records, 175 accounts, 177 classification of, 175 House plan, economy of, 4, 11, 14, 15 exposure of rooms. 3 floors, number of, 3 floor space in, organization of, 2 for family of little children, 5 living area of, arrangement of, 2 one-floor, simple housekeeping of, 4 shape of rooms in, 3 sleeping rooms, privacy of, 3 starting point of, 2 value of sound, 1, 2 windows in, 3, 18, 22, 23 Huckaback, 315 Hue, 45, 40 Hydrogen peroxide, for stain removal, 286 Hydrometers, 1.54 classes, 154 use of, 155 Ice cream, 424, .573 flavorings, 573 freezing, 575 packing, 575 stain, 294 texture, 573 Iceless. refrigerator, 221 lees, 572 Inii)rovements. modern, in houses, 20 Indelible pencil stain, 294 INDEX 647 India silk, 323 Indigestion, 401 Infants, feeding of, 435 Inglenook, IG, 31 Ingrain filling, 78 Ink-removers, 286 Ink stain, marking, 295 printing, 295 writing, 295 Intensity, relation to color, 45, 46, 47 Interior finish of kitchen, 118-119 Iodine stain, 290 Iron, foods rich in, 411 needs of nursing mother, 434 preparation of new, for cooking, 231 utensils, 235 Ironing, 273-276 colored garments, 275 covering of board, 274 drawers, 274 embroideries, 274 equipment for, 273 flannels, 275 handkerchiefs, 275 laces, 274 napkins, 275 night dresses, 274 order of, 274 pillow cases, 275 sheets, 275 shirt-waists, 274 silk garments, 275 skirts, 274 . tablecloths, 274 towels, 275 waists, silk, 274 Ironing-blanket, 280 Ironing-board, 280 Ironing machines, 277 Iron-rust stain, 297 Irons, 278 Jams, 622 Japanese silk, 323 Jars, for canning, 604 testing, 605 types, 604 Javelle water, for bleaching, 272 formula, 273 Javelle water, for stain removal, 285 Jelly, 620 dishes, on table, 243 extractions of juice, 619 pectin test, 620 proportion of sugar, 621 requisites, 620 sealing, 622 test when done, 622 time of boiling, 621 utensils for cooking, 228 Jersey cloth, 323 Junket, 572 Jute, 325 Kerosene, 209 for bathroom, 123 for lighting, 200 for sinks, 122 in laundering, 254, 255, 258, 265 Kerosene stove, 209 operation of, 210 Kersey, 320 Khaki, 312 Ilitchen, 122 alcove in, 101 arrangement, 17, 18 color scheme of, 118, 119 combined with dining-room, 102 doors, 103 equipment, arrangement of, 105— 110 exposure, 102 flooring, 118 interior finish, llS-119 lighting, 119 measurements, 156-161 paint in, 119 pantries, 112 planning of, 100-119 plans, discussion of, 110-112 range, 108, 109 remodeling of, 101 shape of, 102 sink, 109 size of, 31, 103 storage space, 112-118 table space in, 107 use of, 100-102 utensils, 225-239 walls, 119 648 i\i)/:x Kitchen, windows, IfM-Kiri woodwork, lis Kniltrd n;irnii'nt«, wa.sliinn nf, 271 Knives, for kit<-hcn use, '22H liandlinu at tal)lc, 248 placing on tahli-, 242 Kuniyirs, I2.'i LalK'ls on canned foods, 451 Laces, lileaehinK of, 272 ironinK of, 274 for undernarments, .'?72 renovation, 402 washing of, 272 Lare straw, 405 Ladyfingers, 423, 483 Lamb, 420, 421 selection of, 510 Lamps, 202, 205 care of kerosene, 201 cleaning of, 120 selection of, 90, 91 Lard, 1.59, 419, 027 in baking. 477 in pastry, 491 substitutes, in baking, 477 Laundering, 249-2S1 acids, effect on fabrics, 249 alkalis, effect on fabrics, 249 lileaching, 273 bluing, 261, 2G6 equipment for, 276-281 for stain removal, 2S3 ironing, 273 276 purposes of, 249 room for, 276 soap, 253-257 soap substitutes and accessories, 254-257 softening water for, 250-2,53 starch, 257-261, 266 .supplies for, 281 washing, 201-272 water for, 250-253 Lawn, 312 Laxative foods, 400 Lead-foil stain, 298 Lead-i)encil stain, 296 I^atlier. fruit, 591 I/'uther .stain. 29H !Ls .soune of growth-j>roniotiiir factor, 410 its .source of pliosphoniH, 411 :us source of pr(»t<'iii, 410 starch-rich food, 408 Lemon juice, 161, 422 Lemons, 417, 422 Li-ngth mrasure, 131 Lentils. Uil. 422 Lettuce, 4 IS, 422 source of lime, 411 Lighting, 191, 201 cost of, 204 distribution of, 205 kitchen. 119 types, 201 Lime, 410 foods rich in, 410 milk as source of, 41 1 needs of nursing mother, 434 stain from slacked, 298 Linen, 371 adulteration. 313 color, 313 fabrics, 315 fiber, 312 selection, 314 sizing, 314 tests for, 326-328 Linoleum, 77 for kitchen floors, 118 Linon, 312 Linsey woolsey, 320 Litjuid mea.sures, 130 testing, 130 Liquids, density of, 153 Liver, 421 Living area, in house plans, 2, 11, 16 Living-room, 30 character of, 95, 97 size of, 30 Lobster, 421 Longcloth, 311. .371 Lye, for softening water, 251 in laundering, 2.55 Macaroni, 159. 416, 424 in tireless cooker, 219 INDEX 649 Macaroons, 423, 483 Mackerel, 421 Mackinaw. 320 Malnutrition, 426 Mantelpieces, 43 Mantles, gas, 201 Marketing, 438-454 amount to buy, 440 bulk vs. package, 441 canned foods, 445-454 discounts, 444 good buying, 438 grade of food, 439 inspection on delivery, 444 kind of food, 439 labels, 439, 451 package vs. bulk, 441 price, 443 records, 444 servings of vegetables, in pound, 440 storage, 445 units of sale, 442 where to buy, 443 Marmalade, 423 Mayonnaise dressing, 566 Meals, planning of, 407-437 balance in, 425 food combinations, 432 foods for supplying needs of body, 408 food needs of body, 407 for all members of family, 431 fuel requirement, 412 iron requirement, 415 lime requirement, 415 phosphorus requirement, 415 protein requirement, 414 rules for, 425 Measurements, 129-174 for commodities, 129 for electricity, 147 for gas, 143 for temperature, 131 for time, 138 for water, 151 in garment making, 338 kitchen, 156-161 sealing of, 129 testing of, 129, 130, 134 Measures, 439 and weights, equivalent, of foods, 159 Meat, 510-526 as growth promoter, 409, 412 as source of iron, 411 as source of phosphorus, 411 as source of protein, 410 canning, 613 care, 516 cooking of, 512 cooling, 622 curing, 623 curing beef, 627-629 curing mutton and lamb, 629 curing pork, 624-627 fats in baking, 477 fat in cooking, 519 keeping, 519 market trimmings, 519 packing in fat, 623 packing in snow, 623 place in meals, 429 preservation of, 622-633 preservatives for curing, 624 putrefaction in digestive tract, 429 sausages, 630 selection of, 510 smoke-house for, 631 smoking, 631 soup-making, 514, 516 temperature for keeping, 623 tender cuts, 512 tough cuts, 513 utensils for cooking, 226 Meat-juice stain, 298 Meat substitutes, 427 Medicine stain, 298 Melton, 320 Mending, 388-392 Menus, 432, 433, 436, 437 Mercerization, cotton, 309 Meringues, 483, 540 for desserts, 540 for garnishes, 540 for pies, 540 Italian, 542 snow eggs, 540 Metals, protection of, 231 Meteor, 324 650 IS I } EX Meter. electric. 147 Kius, ii;i water. 151 Metric sy.steni. Hi? 171 Mij!iiiiMiii.s, forms. (JOO ill rehitioii to spDilage, ."jT!) Mildew stain. 2'.»s Milk, l.")'.t, JJO. 4-_'.< allowance in meals, •IL'.'> as growth promoter, lO!*, 412 !LS source of lime, 410 as source of phosphonis, 411 as source of protein, 410 effeet of hoiliiiK on, 42.S food value compared with butter, 4127 for children, 4.'iG for infants, 4.3.") in diet of mirsiiiK mother, 434 modified, for typhoid fever, 4G3 place in meals, 427 protein food, 410 sour, in baking, 474 stain, 299 value of, 425 ways of includinjj; in meals, 432 Milliner>-, 393-40G brims, 396 color, 399 for round face, 397 for square face, 398 hair in relation to, 397 line and form, 390 placing on head, 394, 395 proportion and balance, 393 renovating materials, 400 selection of hats, 393 size of crown, 394 size of hats, 390 storing old hats. 400 trimming, .399, 404 Mineral substances, loss in cooking vegetables, 545 Mirror, to increase length of rooms, 3.5 Mohair, 318 Moir6, 324 Moisture, in relation to vegetable storage, 5iS4 Molasses, IGO, 417, 423 in baking, 174, 477 Miildmg, to reduce height of roorim, 35 Molds, in n latioM to MiK)ilaKe, 579 Mof>-wririger, 122 Mordatils ill laiinderinK, 207 Mou.sses, 574 Mucus stain, 29H Mud st.iiri, 29S Miiflihs, 4S2 Mull, 312 Mummy, 312 Mushrooms, 420 Muslin, 312, .371 Mustard, IGl Mutton, 421 curing, 029 cuts of, 511, 518 fat in cooking, 521 in fireless cooker, 219 selection of, 510 Nainsook, 311, 371 Napkins, ironing of, 27.5 placing on table, 243 Nasturtium, 504 Nectannes, 422 Nickel utensils, 230 Night dresses, ironing of, 274 Nutrition, and foods, 407-633 Nuts, in cakes, 485 source of protein, 410 Oatmeal, 159, 424 Oats, rolled, 159, 416 bread, 503 in fireless cooker, 218 Office in farmhouse, 19 Oil, 100, 419 stain, (road), 302. (.SVe tar) Olive oil in baking, 477 Olives, 419, 422, 423 Omelets, 424, 536-537 French, .530 pu(T>% 537 starchy foundation, 537 One-hundred-ealorie portions, cakes, 423 cereals, 424 dairy products, 423 desserts, 423 INDEX 651 One-hundred-calorie portions, foods rich in fat, 419 foods rich in protein, 420 foods rich in starch, 416 foods rich in sugar, 417 fruits, 422 meats, 421 miscellaneous, 424 nuts, 423 <^ pastry, 423 pickles, 423 puddings, 423 succulent vegetables, 418 sweets, 423 vegetables, 421 Onions, 161, 418, 422, 564 as source of growth-promoting factor, 412 as source of lime, 410 in fireless cooker, 219 Oranges, 160, 417, 422 Organdie, 312 Organic matter, removal from water, 253 Ovens, height of, 207 insulated, 207, 211 temperature of, 479 Oxalic acid, for stain removal, 285 Ox-bile, 253 Oysters, 421, 532-533 cleaning, 532 cocktail, 533 cooking, 533 on half shell, 532 opening, 532 preparation, 532 season, 532 selection, 532 serving, 533 Packing frozen desserts, 574 Paint, for floors, 44, 45 for plaster walls, 39, 40 for woodwork, 42 in kitchen, 119 stain, 298, 299 Panama cloth, 320 Panne, 324 Pans, filling for baking, 479 Pantries, 112-116 food pantry, 114, 115 pass pantry, 114, 115 purpose of, 114 Paper, for ceilings, 43 for kitchen use, 230 for walls, 40 utensils, 230 Paraffin, in laundering, 254, 255, 258 stain, 300 Parfaits, 574 Parsley, 564 Parsnips, 161, 418, 422 Paste, fruit, 591 Pastry, 490-494 . baking powder, 491 characteristics of good, 491 classification, 490 fat, 491 flakiness, 492 flaky, 493 flour, 490 ingredients, 490 lightness, 491 liquid, 490 plain, 492 puff, 494 salt, 491 tenderness, 492 to make tender, 490 Patching, hemmed, 388 overhand, 389 Pattern, 51-53 characteristics of good, 51-53 for floors, 53 for walls, 53 kinds of motifs, 52, 53 Patterns for clothing, adjustments in, 342 marking for basting, 348 placing on material, 344 to buy commercial, 341 to test commercial, 341 Peaches, 417, 422 in fireless cooker, 219 Peanut butter, 419 Peanuts, 160, 424 substitute for animal food, 410 nr)2 i\i)i:x Pears. 4L'.{ i'.-!us. lit;, lis. vn I'caii (Ic soic, 321 l'4 Pectin, (;•_>() Peneil >-taiii, ilKielll.le, LMIl lead, L".IS Pepper. IGl Percale, Ml Persfiiration stain, 301 Phosphorus. 411 foods rich in, 411 needs of mirsiiiK niotlicr, V-W. Piano case, cleaning of. 12.S Pickles. AXi dishe-s on table, 243 stain. '.ii)'i. Sec turmeric Picture moldings, 43 to increase height of rooms, 35 to reduce height of rooms, 35. Pictures 35, X8-90 frames for, 89 hanging of. 80. 90 to increase height of rooms. 35 to reduce height of rooms, .3.5 Pie, 423 (see ijastry) crust baked without filling, 493 pans for baking, 220 two-crust, 493 Pigs' feet, pickled, 62G Pillowcases, ironing of, 275 Pineapples, 423 Pine-nuts, 424 Pipes, furnace, 198 Piiiue. 312 Pitch stain, 301 Pits, for fruit storage, 584 for vegetable storage, 586 Plackets for undergarments. 379 Plans for house (sec house plan, and farmhouse) Plaster walls, rough, 30 .smooth, 39 smooth, covered with paper or textiles. 40 smooth, painted. 40 Plate, placing on table, 243 PluHh. 324 Pocket. hM-t-in. 308 I'ongu.s()!is for urfi-ii", r>('(4 Salicylif arid, in raiiiiiiiK powders, .OSO Salmon. J2(). 121 Sidt. IC.l (■f)iitaiiu'rs, on taltic, ~\li in cooking vcRctaMi's, .")J4 l)ork, lirinc, (i'Jd -risinK bread, .'JO.'j water, for eonstii)ation, WJ Sal tint? vegetables, 51)2-507 care, 598 equipment, .502 fermentation in aeid brine, .597 fermentation with dry salting, 594 oil on surfaee, .59G parafTm on .surfaee, 595 preparation for table, 599 preventing .scum, 595 storage, 598 •without fermentation, 597 Sarcenet. 324 Sash curtains, G.'3-G5 Sateen. 312, 371 Satin, 324 Sauces, 552-560 brown, 553, 557 • butter, 553, 556 sirup, 561 solid, 562 sweet, 559-561 thickened with egg, 5.53, 558 white, 552, 554, 555 Sausages, 630 Saut^ing, utensils for, 227 Scales, weighing, 129 capacity, 129 use, 129 Scorch stain, 301 Score cards for canned food, 618 Scrim, 312 Seams, 358 fell, 373 for undergarments, 373, 375 Frondi, 373 plain, 373 to prevent sagging, 364 Serge, 320 Sewing Miaehine, .'l.'M aiitornatie, 334 lock hfitch. 331 operati(»ii of lock stitch, 334 Sewing-room, ■ equipment for, 331 Sh.id. 4L'l Shades f<»r windows, .55, 50 Sheeting, 310 Sheets, ironing of, 275 Shelving, arrangement of, 110 SherU-ts. 572 Shirt-waists, ironing of, 274 Shoddy, .S18 Shoe-dressing stain, 302 Shortening, in baking, 477 Shrinking materials, 336 Sicilian, 320 Silence cloth, for table, 241 Silesia, 312 Silk, 371 adulteration, 322 artificial, 324, 326 fabrics, 323 fiber, 321 ironing of, 275 tests for, 326-329 washing of, 271 Silver nitrate stain (.vcc ink, marking), 295 Silver utensils, 237 Sinks, 109 care of, 122 use of, 122 Sirup, 423 for canning fruit, 608 Sizing, cotton, 308 linen, 314 Skewers, for kitchen use, 230 Skins of fruits, removal in canning, 611 Skirts, amount of material for, 343 basting, 358 ironing of, 274 making even at bottom, 363 measurements, 340 to make even at bottom, 363 Sleeping area in house plans, 11, 14, 23 INDEX 655 Sleeping-rooms, 123 Sleeve, basting, 355, 357 board, 280 form, 334 measurements, 340 Smoking meats, 630-633 Soap, 253-256 accessories, 254-250 bark, 254 borax, 255 homemade, 254, 256 jelly, 257 naptha, 255, 265 solutions, 256 stain, 302 substitutes, 254-257 Soapstone, utensils, 237 Soda, 161 in baking, 474 in cooking vegetables, 545 proportion to be used, 474 ways of adding, 475 ' with baking powder, 475 Sofa pillows, 91 Soot stain. 302 Sorbets, 573 Souffles, 538-539 custard, 540 frozen, 574 fruit, 540 plain, 538 vegetable, 540 Soup, 424 brown stock, 515 bouillon, 515 canning of, 613 classification, 514 meats for, 516 stain, 303, 306 {see white sauces) use in meals, 432 white stock, 515 Soy beans, as growth promoter, 409, 412 substitute for animal food, 410 Spaghetti, 442 Spearmint, 564 Specific gravity, 153 influence of temperature on, 156 Spinach, 418, 422 Spinach, as source of growth-promot- ing factor, 412 as source of lime, 411 Sponge cakes, baking, 484 mixing, 483 Sponges (desserts), 571 Sponging materials, 336 for stain removal, 284 Spoons, for kitchen use, 229 handling at table, 248 placing on table, 242 Spores, 600 Squash, 418, 422 storage of, 588 Stain removal, 282-306 acids, 283, 287 alkalis, 283, 288 aniline blue, 289 asphalt (sec tar), 303 paint, 303 berries, cooked, 292 fresh, 291 blood, 288 bluing, 289 butter, 290 candle wax, colored, 290 chemicals, use of, 285 chocolate, 290 cocoa, 290 coffee, 290 cream, 299 creosote oil (see tar), 303 dye, 290 egg, 291 equipment for, 286 fly paper, sticky, 291 fruits, cooked, 292 fresh, 291 glue, 292 grass, 292 gravy, 298 grease, 292 green foliage, 292 gruel (see white sauces), 306 gums (see resinous substances), 301 hydrogen peroxide, 286 ice-cream, 294 indelible pencil, 294 ink, 295 656 i.\dj:x Slain, iiik-rfiiiovcrs, coimiKTciiil, !.'>>(> iocliiif, li'U) iroii-nist, 207 .lavfllc water, 2S.'j lauiidrriiiK. 2S4 lead foil, 297 lead ix-nril, 298 leather, 29S lime, slaeked, 298 meat juice, 298 medicines, 298 mildew, 298 milk, 299 mucus, 299 mud, 299 oxalic acid, 285 paints, 299, :i()() paraffin. :<()() I)eneil, indelible, 294 lead, 298 perspiration, .301 pickles (sec turmeric), 'M)l pitch, 301 potassium permanKanate, 285 protein in stains, 282 Pnissian blue, 288 resins, .301 road oil (sec tar), .303 running colors, 290 salad dressing, 301 scorch, 301 shoe-dressings, 302 silver nitrate (fee ink, marking), 295 soap, 302 soot, 302 soup, 303 cream (sec white sauces), 30(> sponging, 284 stove-polish, 303 sugar sirups, 303 tar, 303 tea, 303 tobacco, 304 tomato vine, 304 turmeric, 304 ultramarine, 289 unknown stains, 287 varnishes, 299 vaseline, 305 verdigris, 305 vinegar (see acid), 287 Stain, walnut, black, 305 water, 3(«> water color paint.s, lifX) wax, parafTm, 3(K) white sauces, 30r( whitewash (ncc ulkalio), 288 wine (ace fruit, fresh), 291 Starch, foofls rich in, 40H in laundering, 257-2G1 water, for cleansing, 257 Steam cookers, (iOl, 003 Steam pressure, (iOl canners, 001, 602 Steel utensils, 235 Stew, utensils for cooking, 227 Stock, soup, l)rown, 514 white, 514 Stocking darning, 391 Storage, canned foods, 617 dried foods, ,591 space in kitchen, 112-118 Stoves and cookers, 207-219 coal, 210 dampers, 208 drafts, 208 firclcss cookers, 214 gas, 211 height, 207, 208 kerosene, 209 selection of, 207 to clean, 126 to oil, 126 utensils for fuel-saving, 208 wood for fuel, 20S Straws, bleaching, 401 cleaning, 401 for hats, 401 renovating, 400 Strawberries. 417. 423 Structural features, to diminish length of rooms, 37 Structural surfaces, 37-45 Succotash, 422 Suet. 160, 520 in pastry, 491 Sugar, 160, 417. 423 cooking. .576-.578 craving for. 431 INDEX 657 Sugar, foods rich in, 409 food value of, 431 in baking, 477 kinds of, 576 place in meals, 431 produced in body, 409 sirup stain, 303 stages in cooking, 578 temperature for cooking, 578 use by body, 409 utensils for cooking, 578 Supplies for laundry, 281 Sweaters, washing of, 271 Sweeping, 124 Sweet basil, 564 Sweets, place in meals, 430 Swiss, dotted, adulteration, 308 Syllabubs, 572 Tapioca, 161, 423 Tables, kitchen, 106, 107 Tablecloths, ironing of, 274 placing on table, 241 Table manners and customs, 247, 248 handling table equipment, 247 serving children, 247 serving guests, 247 serving men and women, 247 Table service, 244-246 clearing the table, 246 informal, 246 order of serving, 247 passing food, 244, 245 placing food, 245 removing dishes, 245 semi-formal, 245; 246 Table setting, 240-244 butter-plate, 242 chairs, 244 covering for table, 240 cream and sugar servers, 244 cups and saucers, 244 forks, 242 glass, 242 individual cover, 242 jelly dishes, 243 knives, 242 napkin, 243 pickle dishes, 243 Table setting, plate, 243 pot for beverage, 244 relation of covers, 243 salt-containers, 243 silence cloth, 241 silver for service, 244 space for cover, 240 spoons, 242 with doilies, 241 with tablecloth, 241 Table space, in kitchen, 107 Taffeta, 324 Tailor's basting, 350 Tailor's chalk, 350 Tailor's tacks, 352 Tarlatan, 312 Tarragon, 564 Tar stain, 303 Tartans, 320 Tatting, for undergarments, 372 Tea, 159, 468 classification, 468 clouding, 470 composition, 408 directions for brewing, 469 grades, 468 how to judge, 468, 470 iced, 470 punch, 470 Russian, 470 serving, 470 stain, 303 storage, 469 Temperature, for baking yeast bread, 500 for cooking sugar, 577 for drying, 588 for fruit storage, 584 for preserving meat, 623 for vegetable storage, 582 measurement of, 131 table of, 135, 136 Terrace, use of, 16 Tests for fabrics, 326 burning, 328 color, 327 feel, 326 strength, 326 tearing, 328 C58 IXDEX T.-xtil.'s, 307-329 nrtificial silk, '.i2i <<.tt()ii, W7 jiitc. 32". linen, 312 ramie. 325 .silk, 321 tests fur, 326 weave, 329 wool, 315 Thermometer, hath, 132 eaiidj-, 133 eiiiii.al, 132 milk, 133 outdoor, 131 oven, 133 room-temperature, 131 tests for, 134 Thermos bottles, 218, 224 Time, measurement of, 138 Tinware, 237 preparation of new, for eooking, 231 Tobacco stain, 301 Tomatoes, 418, 422 Tomato-vine stain, 304 Tongue, pickled beef, 029 sugar-cured, 024 Toothpicks for kitchen use, 230 Toques, 304 Torchon lace, 372 Towels, ironing of, 275 kitchen, 123 Tracing wheel, 348 Travel, path of, 16 Trench, for vegetable storage, 580 Trim of walls, 37, 41, 42 Trimming of hats, 398, 404 bows, 400 buckles, 404 folds, 405 lace straw, 405 ribbons. 405 Trimmings for undergarments, 372 bias bands, bindings, facings, 372 braid, 372 embroideries, 372 hand embroidery, 373 laces, 372 Trimmings, maeliine hemstitehinR, 373 tatting, 372 Trout, 421 Tuberculosis, diet in, 463 Tubs, laundry, 279 Tulle. 324 Tumbler, placing on table, 242 Turbans, 394, 395 Turkey. 421 Turmeric stain, 304 Turnips. 418. 422 Turpentine-, in laundering. 2.j5. 250, 259. 205 Tweed. 320 Typhoid fever, diet in. 403 Undergarments. construction of. 373 fastenings for, 379 finishes for. 370. 377 making of. 309-381 materials for, 371 jjlackets and closings, 379 seams for, 373 selection of, 371 top finishes for, 375 trimmings, 371, 372 uses of seams on, 373 Ultramarine stain, 289 Upholstery, 85 Utensils, advantages and disadvantages of materials, 232-239 arrangement, 231 brushes, 229 care of, 232 double boilers. 229 egg-beaters, 228 fiber, 230 for baking, 225, 478, 479 for candy-making, 228 for cooking meats, 226 for frying. 227 for fuel-saving. 208 for jelly-making. 228 for laundering. 281 for sauteing. 227 for stewing. 227 for sugar cooking. 578 for various cooking processes, 225 INDEX 659 Utensils, kitchen, 225-239 knives, 22S paper, 230 preparation of new, 231 protection of metals, 232 selection, 225 skewers, 230 spoons, 229 toothpicks, 230 Valances, 61, 66, 69, 72 to reduce height of room, 35 Valenciennes lace, 372 Value, in relation to color, 45, 47 Vanilla, 161 Vaseline stain, 305 Vases, selection of, 90 Veal, 420, 421 selection of, 510, 516 Vegetables, 543-549 as regulating food, 411 as source of iron, 411 as source of protein, 410 blanching, 545 boiling, 546 canned, 449 canning by cold-pack, 612, 614, 616 care, 543 classification, 543 cooking, 544 drying, 588-592 in diet of nursing mother, 434 in season, 550, 551 losses in cooking, 545 mild-juiced, 544 one-hundred-calorie portions of, 418 place in meals, 429 rich in starch, 408 salt in cooking, 544 salting, 592-597 soda in cooking, 545 steaming, 546 strong-juiced, 544 storage of, 584-586 utensils for stewing, 227 Vegetable oils, in pastry, 491 Vegetable oysters, 422 Veils, renovation, 403 Velour, 321 Velvet, 324 renovation, 402 Velveteen, 312, 324 Ventilation, cellar, for fruit storage, 583 in relation to storage of vegetables, 584 system, 193 Verdigris stain, 305 Vessels, unglazed earthen for keeping foods cool, 223 Vicuna, 321 Vinegar stain, {see acid), 287 Vista, to increase length of rooms, 35 value in house plans, 11, 16 Vitamines, 412 needs of nursing mother, 435 Voile, 321 Wainscots, 40, 41 to reduce height of rooms, 35 Waist-line finish, 366 Waists, amount of material for, 34 basting, 354 fitting, 361 measurements, 338 silk, ironing of, 273 suitable materials for, 369 Wall coverings, 54, 55 Wall paper, borders in, 55 selection of, 54, 55 striped, to increase height of rooms, 35 Walls, as structural surfaces, 37 bedroom, 123 cellar, 121 kitchen, 119 plaster, 39, 40 Wall spaces, relation to furnishing, 37 Walnuts, 160, 419, 424 stain, black, 305 Washing-soda, for softening water, 251 for toilet, 125 in laundering, 255 Washroom, 13, 110 Washing, 262-273 boiling, 265 blankets, 270 ii(U) JMJh'X Wu-sliiiin. I'liiitm, 205 (•(.l(.r. .1 k'u.kI.s. LT.l'. 2t)7-2()'.» (laiiiix'iiiiiK. -'<)", 274 day for, 2()1 (lircrtions for, 2tJ4-2(J7 (lr\'iii>;, 20*) flannels. 20.3. 2G9 frccziiin, 207 liandkcrfliicfs used for colds, 202 haiminK. 200 knitted garments, 271 laees. 272 laco curtains, 272 marhinos, 277 powders, 2."),^ I)reparation of clothes for, 202 rihhr ns, _'(Z rinsinc. 205 silk, 271 soakiiip, 202 starching, 200 sweaters, 271 temperature of water, 203 white goods, 202 woolens, 209-270 \Vaste-l)askets, 01 Water, 15'.» boiliuK ijoint of, 135 for laundering, 250-253 hard, 2.50 need of body for, 431 organic matter, removal of, 253 soft, 250 softening of, 251-253 stain. 300 \\"ater-eolor paint, stain, 300 Water-glass, for preserving eggs, 5M A\'atermelon, 423 A\'ater-seal canners, 001, 004 Water-soluble growth-promotiug sub- stance, 412 Wax, for hard woods, 42 for laundering, 25.S stain, paraffin, 300 Waxing of floor, 128 Weave, 328 Weighing scale, 129 Weighting, cotton, 308 Weighting, silk. 322 W eights. 4:iK Weights an'pical family group — men, women, infants, children of various ages — are discussed in separate chapters, and many illustrations in the form of food plans and dietaries are included. The problems of the housewife in trying to reconcile the needs of different ages and tastes at the same table are also taken up, as are the cost of food and the construction of menus. A final chapter deals with feeding the sick. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York The Food Problem By VERNON KELLOGG and ALONZO E. TAYLOR $1.25 " Food is always more or less of a problem in every phase of its production, handling, and consumption. It is a problem with every farmer, every trans- porter and seller, every householder. It is a problem with every town, state, and nation. And now very conspicuously, it is a problem with three great groups; namely, the Allies, the Central Empires and the Neutrals; in a word, it is a great international problem." These sentences from the introduction indicate the scope of " The Food Problem " by Vernon Kellogg and Alonzo E. Taylor. Both authors are members of the United States Food Administration. Dr. Kellogg is also connected with the Commission for relief in Belgium and pro- fessor in Stanford University. Mr. Taylor is a member of the Exports Admin- istrative Board and professor in the University of Pennsylvania. The preface is by Herbert Hoover, United States Food Administrator and Chairman for the Commission of Relief in Belgium. The food problem of to-day of our nation, therefore, has as its most con- spicuous phase an international character. Some of the questions which the book considers are : What is the problem in detail ? What are the general conditions of its solution ? What are the immediate problems and particulars which concern us, and are within our power to affect ? And finally, what are we actually doing to meet our problem ? TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction : The International Problem. Pari I. The Problem and the Solution. Chapter I. The Food Situation of the Western Allies and the United States. II. Food Administration. III. How England, France, and Italy Are Controlhngand Saving Food. IV. Food Control in Germany and Its Lessons. Part II. The Technology of Food Use. V. The Physiology of Nutrition. VI. The Sociology of Nutrition. VII. The Sociology of Nutrition ( Continued'). VIII. Grain and Alcohol. Conclusion : Patriotism and Food. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Ayeaue New York Interior Decoration for the Small Home Bv AMY L. Rf)LI F.. M.A. Illustr,itr