3 I I METHODS IN: EDUCATION THOMAS J. McEVOY I i Rnnic M 1-7 . satisfy themselves with the material given in the ordinary text-books. This out- line is not intended to supplant any other authorized material; it is given in the form of suggestion. METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 17 Strength of will does not mean physical force. It is mental and cannot be measured by any physical unit. Strength of will lies between the weakness of will and stubbornness. 51. Characteristics of a weak will. 1. Failure to pursue the same object to the end. The object may be dropped altogether or it may be changed frequently. The probable cause is that the leading impulse in life has lost its force. 2. • Little or no power over impulse, inclination or habit. There is a conflict of emotion but not a conflict of ideas in the mind. 3. A weak will magnifies difficulties and shrinks from them. The magnified perception of diffi- culties causes effort to avoid such obstacles. 4. Easily moved by threat, persuasion or example. Imitation is an important function of the mind. The man of weak will is afraid that if he does not do wrong as he sees it in others he will be looked down upon. 5. Ivacking in power of concentration. The more he tries to concentrate his attention, the less he seems able to do so. This is the strongest characteristic, psychologically considered. The weak will cannot hold the predominating idea before consciousness. 52. Characteristics of the stubborn will. 1. Steady adherence to a purpose once formed. This is the foundation of stubbornness. 2. Unwillingness to take opposite view, alter judg- ment or change course of action. This is the real characteristic of stubbornness. The man refuses to yield although there are good reasons; he is unreasonable. 3. The liability to continue in evil as well as in good; very bad effects from this. 18 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. , Power of concentration on himself instead of on the object that elevates his action. He will not abandon himself to accept the view of an- other. 53. Characteristics of strength of will. — As has already been said strength of will lies between weakness of will and stub- bornness of will. 1. The ability to follow the dictates of reason in- stead of feeling-, inclination or habit. Reason should move the will. It implies ability to follow reason but does not necessarily force one always to follow that reason. 2. Readiness to change action when reason has made its decision known to the will. The key- stone of the w^ill is the ability to hold an idea before consciousness. This is the opposite of 5 under 51. This holding becomes the cause for analysis of idea and new channels in motor efficiency become operative as new phases of the idea appear. 54. Practical effects. — Reflection upon thought of reform leads to action. Here is the analysis of the idea again; not im- pulsive action but reason and will working together. Better results from personal reflection than from impulsive action under external influences. There is a subjective decision after holding the idea steadily before the mind, 55. Causes of weak will. — The causes are physical or mental. Any organic trouble will weaken the will. Ordinary physi- cal weakness such as fatigue affects the will. No great task should be undertaken after a hard day's work nor should any important decision be made at that time. Among the mental causes of weak will are the following: 1. The lack of definite aim. Aimlessness wastes energy by scattering it; the will is deadened. 2, Half-hearted resolve with hesitating execution. METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 19 3. The failure to realize that success depends on each individual volition. 4. The lack of orderly, systematic living. Too much routine is not desirable, but all the less valuable affairs of life should be put into mechaniqal processes. 5. Over-estimating- our ability to do things. If too much is undertaken the brain and the nervous system rebel. When the time for rest does come, the nervous system lacks pow^er to rest in proportion as it has been overw^orked during the time for w^ork. An application of this last thought is found in setting tasks for pupils. If the child's ability is 90, see that the maximum task is less than that. The danger is not the failure itself but the child's realization of failure. The imagination is likely to exaggerate the failure and thus weaken the will. 56. Causes of strength of will.— In general the causes of strength of will are the opposite of the causes of weakness of will. Some particular causes are the following: 1. Intellectual habit of making our ideas clear. The influence of motor effects is powerful. 2. Power to turn upon ourselves and determine our strength and weakness. This is self-knowl- edge. If we are surprised at ourselves it is proof that we do not examine ourselves often enough. 3. Prompt execution of those things we decide upon. 57. Cultivation of will power : preliminary processes.— It is neces- sary to have certain principles or convictions which can be used in undertaking the cultivation of the will. The main factors are outlined here. 20 METHODS IN EDUCATION 1. An abiding- conviction that the will can be strengthened. Sporadic efforts are not use- ful. Doubt or resignation will render the task worthless; we must have definite convictions in favor of success. 2. Find our habits by introspection and then analyze these habits. It is not enoug-h to see the ex- istence of habits; we must see how such habits assert themselves and then remove the causes of undesirable habits. We should follow this process regarding impulsive action in partic- ular. 1 3. Cultivation of the will must be a continued effort. A few efforts or a few successes in checking tendencies cannot possibly do such an import- ant work. Time is required for the cultivation of any vital process. Danger is in procrasti- nation; the date of beginning correction is put off in the idea that we can do the desired cor- recting in a short time. We cannot do so. 4. Cultivation of the will takes place through will- ing. It does not come through contemplation. Illustration — Learning to play piano. 5. After finding tendencies out by analysis, take each tendency separately. Select the one that is the root or occasion of one or more bad habits and focalize will power upon that one. The reason for this is that the amount of will bestowed upon this one will lighten the work of correcting all of the others. 58. Cultivation of will power : actual processes. — Positive ac- tion is leading to willing to do something. Negative action is leading to willing to leave something undone. Is inhibition ever advisable? Will power as such is always positive. Positive and negative actions will be considered separately. METHODS IN MIND TRAINING 21 59. Negative action and cultivating the will. — One process is the gradual breaking off of the habit. The character of the individual, the nature of the habit, the length of time the habit has existed, etc., will determine whether the chang-e should be gradual or abrupt. In this work we are considering the effect upon the will, not the effect upon the body; therefore no gen- eral rule can be laid down. The suggestions' under abrupt breaking of habit are considered one by one. 1. Prepare by various minor acts of control. Do this especially when habit is strong and ob- stinate. The minor acts will begin the self- assertion of the will. Every act of this kind gives will much reserve power for the principal resolution. 2. When resolution is taken, do not look too far into the future. The imagination becomes an op- position to will. If we carry out resolution for the present, we shall find that we shall suffer no positive privation in the future 3. Force of privation is not realized until we try to break habit. Such craving can be lessened by turning attention to craving itself rather than to the object of craving. Reason : Atten- tion to objective makes craving more vivid by increasing motor power. New law in psy- chology is that attention to emotion decreases strength of idea; attention to object increases strength of idea. 4. Put off the suggested craving until a later time. Psychological lav/: Putting interval of time between craving and indulgence, lessens crav- ing. SUGGESTIONS 5. Have some absorbing thought to which attention may be turned when craving comes. The ob- jectionable thought may be prevented from entering consciousness. Law of association. 22 METHODS IN EDUCATION 6. Deliberately set obstacles in way of undesirable habit. Illustration : Man wishes to stop smok- ing ; he knows he never smokes on street; when craving- comes, go to street. 7. When one victory has been obtained, reflection upon victory tends to strengthen will. 8. When a failure comes, reflection upon trivial character of indulgence will strengthen will. See how little pressure was and how small the gratification is. Chapter V. School Economy. 60. Meaning. — The rules, reg-ulations and laws g-overning- the conduct of schools constitute school economy. The word economy implies a minimum of waste and a maximum of achievement. For details of this subject see Shaw's School Hygiene, Morrison's The Ventilation and Heating of School buildings, Kotelmann's School Hygiene, and Button's School Management. 61. Space.— At least one hundred twenty cubic feet of space should be allowed for each pupil. The general requirements for recitation purposes, physical exercises, ccat halls, etc., vary according to local conditions, but convenience and com- fort of pupils and teachers are two essentials in all schools. 62. Light. — The light should come from the left hand side and somewhat above the level of the desk. Light from the right hand side causes the shadow of the hand to fall on the pupils' work; from behind, there is a larger shadow from the head and the trunk; from in front, the light is harmful to the eyes and round shoulders are caused by the pupils' bending down to avoid the direct glare. As a rule, light -is permitted to enter from many parts of the room and then curtains or blinds are used to regulate the amount and the intensity of the light. 63. Heat. — ^The average temperature desired is 64 to 70 Fahrenheit. 64. Ventilation. — The aim of ventilation is to remove impure air and replace it by pure warm air. From thirty to fifty cubic feet of pure air per minute are required for each pupil. Some means of securing ventilation from circulation are the following : 1. Doors and windows. To be opened during- marching-, games and recreation periods. 24 METHODS IN EDUCATION "Boards, five or six inches in width, placed under the windows are a well-known device. Still better are hoods at the top of the win- dows, closely fitting- the sash, so that when the windows are open from the top the air is deflected toward the ceiling-, and is gradually diffused throughout the room without falling too directly on the heads of the pupils." 2. Shafts leading from outside the building up through the floor to a height of six or seven feet. This height is required so that no draft will be felt by the children. 3. By the indirect method fresh air is carried into the building through large ducts, containing stacks of radiating surface, and directly into the rooms through registers which are usually placed near the ceiling. The impure air is carried out through a register usually placed directly underneath the incoming air, by means of separate ducts made somewhat larger than those provided for fresh air. Thus a school- room, heated and ventilated in this way, has a volume of fresh air constantly entering the room and an equal volume of impure air con- stantly passing out. — Dutton, p. 62. 4. A gravity system is one where the draught neces- sary for withdrawing the foul air is caused by a heated chimney or duct. In every large building this method is not adequate or re- liable, and ventilating fans are used either as a means of forcing the fresh air into the build- ing, or of drawing out the foul air, or both. — Button, p. 62. 5. A fire-place is a good ventilator but not a uni- form heater. SCHOOL ECONOMY 25 65. Seating. — Adjustable seats and desks are the best. The seat should be adjusted at such a height that the pupil's feet will rest on the floor while the legs from the knee to the thigh are at right angles to the trunk. The best adjustable desk has a slant of about fifteen degrees but it can be raised to a level when necessary. Seats that are not adjustable are usually arranged according to definite sizes. 66. Decoration. — This feature of school equipment has much to do with the spirit of the school. The walls and ceiling should be painted in some color restful to the eye. French grey, pale buff, and light green are approved. A few good pic- tures should displace a meaningless collection of cheap prints. Maps, diagrams and the superior work of pupils are legitimate kinds of school decoration. Some teachers hold that maps, diagrams and pupils' papers tend to distract the class by in- viting attention away from the lessons, but a sounder view is that such diagrams have a high educative value from visualiz- ation during those periods when pupils naturally turn from study to relieve their minds. Compare James on mind- wandering. 67. Grounds. — Three paragraphs are quoted from Garlick's New Manual of Method, p. 6. 1. "Physical uses. — A play ground is the lung of a school. It is as essential to a proper and effic- ient education as the schoolroom itself. It is the workshop for the manufacture of the sound body, as the schoolroom is for the sound mind. It offers relief after mental work, and brings into play the overcramped muscles. It is a healthy agency for the overflow of that abund- ant spontaneity of child life, which may become so troublesome to discipline if not regulated." 2. "Its moral uses. — It brings brightness to the school life and helps to engender a love for 26 METHODS IN EDUCATION school by making- it popular. It is a fine training- ground for the emotions. Boys learn to discipline themselves in their sport, to sub- mit their wills to the will of others. It is a great leveller and compensating- force ; for the dullard may be a physical adept. He wins in the playg-round the respect which he cannot attain in the school; for muscle is worshipped as much as brain. The bully is checked, the timid and shy get nerve and confidence by means of the playground's supervised play." 'The teacher's work. — Gymnastics should be encourag-ed by the teacher, and, in the case of boys, a little instruction might be given. Su- pervision should always be exercised. The presence of the teacher will often tempt a boy to try something- which otherwise mig-ht be be- yond his inclination. Games calculated to de- velop their strength, to give muscular control, to aid the growth of the will, such as our popu- lar g-ames, should be encouraged, sometimes shared, and sometimes directed by the teacher. Many now form and take an active interest in the cricket, football, and swimming- clubs of their scholars, and they do not find it unpro- ductive labor." Chapter VI. School Management. 68. Principles. — ^The three essential principles underlying- school manag-ement in New York City are definite responsi- bility, free discussion, and spontaneity and orig-inality. These essentials are stated by Dr. Maxwell anc* discussed by him in McEvoy's Science of Education, pag-e 23o. These same principles apply to any other school system. 69. Qualifications of Teachers. — Health, scholarship, charac- ter and professional spirit are requisite qualifications of the g-ood teacher. The importance of each of these is not deter- mined by the order stated, nor do we mean to say that other qualities are excluded. Fidelity, sincerity, fairness, sympathy, and other particular characteristics deserve dis- cussion, but our limited treatment makes the four general qualifications include all such particular indications of merit. Another view of this topic is given on pages 143 to 148 in McEvoy's Science of Education. There Dr. Maxwell's opinion is given in full. Here an outline of his address will suffice. How to Estimate a Teacher's Vahie. By Dr. Maxwell. Teachers deemed fit and meritorious should be marked A or B; all others, C or D. The A mark should be reserved for teachers of conspicuous ability. IMPORTANT THINGS IN TEACHING ABILITY. 1. Ability to impart knowledge, or power of exposi- tion. Do not do too much. Talking too much is a common fault. 2. Ability to interest pupils. Without interest, teach- ing fails to become a part of pupil's makeup. 3. Ability to train pupils to good intellectual and moral habits, i. e., character. 28 METHODS IN EDUCATION SIGNS OF POOR TEACHING ABILITY. 1. Requiring parrot-like repetition of text-book. 2. Most concert recitation is bad. 3. Neg-lecting- pupils' observing- and inventing powers. 4. Weak questioning. 5. Neg-lect in use of object teaching. 6. Waste of teacher's or pupils' time. 7. Rate teacher's scholarship by her mastery of her subject, daily preparation, and interesting appli- cation of current events. Rate effort by her activity in school work and by her efforts to improve by study outside of school. PERSONALITY OF TEACHER. 1. Neatness and fitness of dress. No place for old so- ciety dresses. 2. Pleasing tone of voice and clear enunciation. 3. 'Sympathy for children. 4. Decision of character. CONTROL OF CLASS. The only control to be marked meritorious is that ob- tained by interest in the work. Promise of reward, fear and repression deserve C or D. Repeated presentation of dishonest work by pupils is evi- dence of unj&t control. Your general estimate of a teacher's ability need not be an average of your detailed marks. Bear in mind that the object of these ratings is not to fill columns with marks, but to do something to raise the teaching force of the city to a higher plane than it yet occupies. 70. Program, — Every school and every class in a graded school should have a daily program posted in a conspicuous place, and that program should be followed closely. This matter is so important that we think it necessary to give specific reasons. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 29 1. Teaching- by sug-g-estion. When the teacher makes a program, posts it, and adheres to it for all periods of work and recreation, there is a silent sug-gestion for similar order in the life of every pupil. It is indirect instruction; it is suggestion ; it is example. The worth of such systematic procedure is valued by pupils, and teachers will soon see that most of the pupils have made a neat copy of the entire prog-ram for individual desk use. By using a rubber pen the class program can be made large enough to be seen from any part of the room. 2. The law of habit. There is no need of blaming- pupils for inability to study so long- as teach- ers do not observe the psychological value of habit in studying. If we eat, drink, sleep, or attend to other physical needs at certain times, habit soon becomes so regular that no clock is needed to g-uide our wants. It is the same in mental habits. The study of mathematics at a certain time puts the body and mind into favorable conditions for mathematics at that time every day, and no great variation in time can be safely made. Likewise for each study and for each recreation exercise on the pro- g-ram. 3. The law of change or variety. A good program alternates difficult and easy periods, puts memory processes in the morning-, and places the shorter periods in the afternoon. This va- riety is not theory; it is a physical necessity. The problem of fatigue has demonstrated this. See 107. 71. Opening exercises. — Some teachers think the regular work is so important that no time should be taken for morning 30 METHODS IN EDUCATION exercises. This is a mistaken opinion. Ten or fifteen minutes in the morning- will do more in the real work of education than hours in the facts of mathematics or grammar. Why? Well, look back to the purpose of education. The pupils enter school each day well or ill, happy or ang-ry, industrious or mis- chievous, as the case may be. There is lack of haimonious thought and action, lack of bodily and mental poise, lack of self-control. The one thing to do in education is to furnish the environment that will produce the desired conditions of mind and body. Books aside, comfortable position, reasonable silence, respectful attention, — these are conditions required for the morning exercises. These are the conditions that make the school a harmonious unit for the work of the day. Then follows the reading of Scripture or other exemplary books, singing, current events, recitation, declamation, or brief talks by the teacher. The value of opening exercises in arousing a good school spirit is manifest. A second value is in stimulating punctu- ality. Habit is here a development; it is always so. Personal experience leads me to urge teachers to try some devices for overcoming tardiness. The aim is to get the pupils to school in time once so that the process of habituation may be started. Make the pupil conscious of that one success by commending him. Then try these devices : 1. Memory gems. Have a short, pleasing memory gem on the board. Have pupils read it to- gether, learn it together and repeat it together. Social stimulus in this. Learn one or two each week. 2. Desire. Read a portion of an interesting story two or three times a week. This arouses desire to hear more. 3. Interest in songs. Sing the old home songs oc- casionally. Let pupils select the ones. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 31 4. Expectancy: declamation. Have a short recita- tion or declamation occasionally. Put title and name of pupil on the board the day before, or simply announce that someone will recite. 5. Monitors. Appoint tardy pupil a monitor to act before school calls. He will be present. 6. Motives. Organize for marching, athletics, memory selections, singing, perfect attend- ance,— something that will arouse class spirit in working under a motive. 7. Anecdotes. Read or relate an anecdote giving the value of punctuality. Exalt the positive, the good; don't preach about the defects. "My cook," said Washington, "never asks if the visitors have arrived, but if the hour has ar- rived." 8. The teacher an example. Teacher always punctual. Have a program and always follow it. 9. Honor roll. Roll of honor for good attendance. 10. Fellowship. The school is a social 'unity and every person in it owes a duty. Think, feel and act so that no one can assume the right to be tardy. The selection of memory gems is another matter that must be determined by the actual needs of the pupils. The platform given below has satisfied thousands of pupils. The use of the word platform invites a comparison or analogy: use civics and history in discussing party platforms. Our Platform. 1. The only way to have a friend is to be one. — Emer- son. 2. Be not simply' good, be good for something. — Thoreau. 3. No one can disgrace us but ourselves. — J.G.Holland. 32 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. Heaven never helps the man who will not act. — Sophocles. 5. People do not lack strength; they lack will. — Victor Hugo. 6. It is well to think well; it is divine to act well. — Horace Mann. 7. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. — Chesterfield. 8. Things don't turn up in this world until somebody turns them up. — Garfield. 9. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good for anything else. — Franklin. 10. I hate to see things done by halves. If it be right, do it boldly; if it be wrong, leave it undone. — Gilpin. 11. The chains of habit are generally too small to be felt till they are too strong to be broken. ^ — ^Samuel Johnson. 12. Our greatest glory consists not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall. — Goldsmith. 13. He that avoideth not small faults, by little and little falleth into greater. — Thomas a Kempis. 14. It requires a good strong man to say: "I was mis- taken, and am sorry." A weak man hesitates and often fails to do the right thing. — Franklin. 15. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience. — Washington. 16. There are two freedoms — the false, where a man is free to do what he likes; the true, where a man is free to do what he ought. — Charles.Kingsley. 17. Let us have faith that right makes might, and, in that faith, let us to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it. — Lincoln. 18. Some temptations come to the industrious; but all temptations attack the idle. — C. H. Spurgeon. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 33 19. Look not mournfully into the Past; it comes not back ag-ain. Wisely improve the Present; it is thine. Go forth to meet the shadowy Future, without fear, and with a manly heart. — Longfellow. 20. Lord of the Universe, shield us and guide us, Trusting Thee always through shadow and sun ! Thou hast united us, who shall divide us ? Keep us, oh keep us, the Many in One. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 72. Grading. — The purpose of grading comprehends the wel- fare of the school, the teacher and the pupil. For the school, grading is required as a means of adjusting work in the organization or the system. For the teacher, grading estab- lishes a limit for the scope of the teaching. For the pupil, grading is intended as adaptation so that a maximum of progress may be guaranteed. The defects to be avoided are too rapid advancement, tardy advancement, and rigid systems not permitting adaptation to the needs of the pupil. 73. Promotion. — Two aims in promotion are to advance pupils as rapidly as their attainments will permit, and to maintain a standard of approximate uniformity of attainment in the grade. Further consideration will be found in the next ten sections. 74. Class teaching.— In our elementary grades there is much discussion about the relative merits of individual and class teaching; about the effectiveness of group teaching; about the practical application of the Batavia plan and its usefulness in solving the difficulties of promotion; and, lastly, about the separation and the special methods of instructing defective children. This section is inserted here to direct the attention of teachers to these topics. During any recitation period, is the class taught as one unified grade capable of understanding the teacher's presentation? Or, must each class be divided into groups and each group taught separately? Or, must a certain amount of individual teaching be done ? Take in- 34 METHODS IN EDUCATION dividual and class instruction, for instance, and you will find that some educators say that the one cannot exist without the other, and that there are no serious difficulties arising under either if the teacher satisfies the ordinary conditions of teach- ing. This is a suggestive topic for our students and we offer as a point of view that no matter how good the teaching may be, there will be some pupils who will present the necessity of individual instruction, either in or out of class. 75. Group teaching. — Group teaching is not new, although it is so considered by some educators. It means nothing more than dividing the class into groups, according to ability, so that three groups, for example, shall be working on three respective kinds of assignment at the same time during one period. The teacher may be giving oral instruction to one group, while the other two are engaged in written exercises. This plan promotes adaptation of matter to the needs of the pupils, and so it becomes only a special illustration of one of the many characteristics of good teaching. The arguments in favor of the group system are summarized by Dr. Maxwell : 1. It is now in general use in other cities — a strong presumption in its favor. 2. A teacher having, say, only IS pupils out of 45 recite to her at one time is better able to dis- tinguish the individual peculiarities of each pupil. 3. The teacher being compelled to divide the recita- tion for each subject into three periods is constrained to conduct the recitation in a vigorous manner. She is forced to avoid the two most serious errors into which teachers fall in the conduct of a recitation: requiring children to recite verbatim, and talking too much themselves. 4. Each pupil has abundant time in which to study in school. Complaints of overwork and exces- SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 35 sive home study have practically disappeared wherever the group system is adopted. 5. The pupil learns not only to study, but to inhibit and concentrate his attention— an invaluable experience for practical life. 6. A pupil may be promoted just as fast or just as slowly as he ought to advance. A pupil may be advanced from one group to another group within a grade; or promoted from one grade to another at any time in the term, without skipping any essential part of the work. One division should always be composed of pupils advancing more rapidly than those in the other, so that the teacher will not be com- pelled to repeat the same lesson on the same day. The difficulty is to find profitable employment for the section or sections not having the oral lessons. Many teachers cannot teach unless every child's eyes are fixed on them. They cannot see that more than a minute of this kind of so-called attention is bad for the child. Some teachers find the system hard because they give three-fourths of their attention to the groups not reciting, trying to keep them "in order" and not realizing that more freedom should be allowed children who are working by themselves as individuals. Some teachers believe that we divide classes only because the children have different attainments. They do not understand that we divide classes in order that the nervous strain on the children may be lessened, that they may feel that they are individuals, that they must not waste their time waiting for fifty to get a chance to read aloud or to spell or to compute, and that they may have time to study. 36 METHODS IN EDUCATION 76. Individual teaching. — No matter what devices or methods or novelties may be advocated, the process of true teaching- remains a personal relation between the teacher and individual pupils. The most successful class or g-roup teaching- is that in which the individuals in the class or g-roup are able to put their minds into sympathetic communication with the teacher's mind, or vice versa. When the successful pupils have passed along with the satisfaction of a g-ood degree of mastery, slow or defective pupils remain for individual teaching- to give them the right of promotion. When any pupil fails to understand the instruction, when disorder interferes with the smooth course of teaching, when illness or other valid excuse causes absence, then there must be a personal meeting of the minds of teacher and pupil to restore conditions to a normal standard of efficiency. So under all circumstances it is safe to argue that individual teaching is the largest factor in the school educatiorr. 77. The Batavia plan. — The Batavia plan derives its name from Batavia, N. Y., where it was devised and put into suc- cessful operation by Superintendent John Kennedy. This plan of teaching combines the best features of class instruction, group teaching, and individual teaching. The classes are divided into groups according to ability and two teachers are at work at the same time in the same room. One teacher is carrying on the regular work of the grade with the larger part of the class, while the additional teacher is instructing one or more of the backward pupils. As soon as any pupil is capable of doing the next grade work, a promotion is made no matter what time of the term it may be. This plan of promotion is used all through the elementary schools, and it is found that most of the defects in the ordinary systems of grading and pro- motion have been overcome in the schools of Batavia. Attention is directed to the special value of the individual instruction under the Batavia plan. For further discussion, see page 153 in McEvoy's Science of Education. SCHOOL MANAGKMENT 37 78. Examinations. — This topic relates to the examination of pupils although there is equal interest in the nature of ex- aminations prescribed for teachers. For those who are inter- ested in the latter phase of this topic we refer to pages 113-120 in McEvoy's Science of Education. A point of view for con- sidering the examination of pupils may be clearly presented in the form of an outline. I. Methods of conducting examinations. 1. By written tests. 2. By oral tests. 3. By combination of 1 and 2. II. Advantages of written tests. 1. Self-realization, independence. 2. Habits of industry in preparation. 3. Basis of comparative valuation from time to time. 4. Apperception, composition, correlation. III. Disadvantages of written tests. 1. Not an accurate index of psychical progress. Other conditions — nervousness, lack of facility in expression, etc. — are too strong. 2. Too much time required from pupils and, later, from teachers. 3. Cramming. 4. Mental deceit : words vs. content. IV. Advantages of oral examinations. 1. Time saved. 2. Personality of pupil and teacher united — real teaching. 3. Practical preparation for life. Oral expression, prompt decision, co-ordination of mental powers. Habit. 4. Attention and interest. 5. Adapted to individual needs. V. Disadvantages of oral examinations. 1. Time lost unless teacher is apt. 38 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. Effects are transitory. 3. Tends to g-uessing-. 4. Does not sustain class concentration. 79, Reviews. — The lack of systematic and thorough reviews is one of the most serious defects in modern education. In their anxiety to cover the prescribed work, teachers devote most of the time to the presentation of new matter and then pupils are expected to do the extra review and drill work outside of the recitation period. A safer plan is to devote at least two-thirds of the school time to drill or review work; the other one-third will be sufficient for presenting the advanced lessons. The g-eneral characteristics of reviews may be considered under the headings in the outlines given in the last section. 80. Home lessons. — It is said that there are five institutional factors in education: the home, the school, the church, the state, and the vocation. The eifort to make the home and the school harmonize in relation to lessons assigned in school to be mastered at home, is one unsettled problem in elementary and high school work. Many parents object to the assig-nment of home work on the grounds (a) that it is shifting responsi- bility from the teacher to the parent, and (b) that overwork is likely to produce fatigue. The teachers, on the other hand, answer (a) that the school hours do not give time to cover the required work, and (b) that the habit of independent work is essential in the education of the pupil.. For convenience in presenting a liberal view, both affirmative and negative, an outline is submitted. I. Advantages. 1. Habits : obedience, industry, self-activity. 2. Criterion : honest work is an index of pupil's power. 3. Co-operation : parents become interested. 4. Review : valuable impression and expression of recitation work. 5. Protection: keeps pupils at home. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 39 II. Disadvantag-es. 1. Habits : incorrect work bad in effect. 2. Not a criterion : too much dishonesty. 3. Friction : some parents disapprove. 4. Fatigue : due to overpressure. 5. Recreation : pupils need outdoor exercise. 81. Questioning. — The attempt to classify questions under the headings development, drill, review, examination, etc. is putting- considerable value upon external form again. There are dift'erences, of course, but the tactful teacher may use all these kinds of questions in any one lesson, even though the lesson is strictly a development lesson. If sound methods of teaching- must alw^ays depend upon three factors — teacher, lesson, pupil — then sound questioning- depends upon these same three factors, and the teacher will adapt the questions to the needs of the children. A few rules for questioning will not be out of place. They may be stated as positive or neg-ative rules. I. Positive rules. 1. Questions should be adapted to the powers of the pupils. 2. The wording- of the question should be simple, clear, specific. This rule is opposed to puzzles, vag-ue questions, double questions, universal questions. 3. The order of the questions should be determined by the law of successive clearness. Questions log-ically arrang-ed are not always suited to the child's mind. Question to promote prog-ressive clearness in the child's thinking-. 4. Make the question as short as clearness will permit. 5. Question to impress what the children know, not what they don't know. 40 METHODS IN EDUCATION II. Neg-ative rules. 1. Do not end a question with what. 2. Do not ask questions that allow a choice of answers. 3. As a general rule, do not ask questions that can be answered by yes or no. 4. Do not ask a question that sug-gests the answer. 5. Do not abuse the use of personal pronouns in questions. III. Weak questioning-. Some questions to be avoided may illustrate the rules under I and II. 1. Vag-ue questions. How was the battle of Gettys- burg- fought ? 2. General questions. What do you think I saw on my way to school ? 3. Obscure questions. Can you comprehend the complexity of civilization ? 4. Double questions. Where was Taft born and what service did he render in the Philippines? 5. Universal questions, similar to general questions. Where is London ? 6. Involved questions. Considering the facts in the Missouri Compromise, can you, a student of modern civic problems, trace the results in relation to the principal causes ? 7. Direct questions. Was Burgoyne successful at Saratoga ? Three general classes of questions are frequently called for on examinations, namely, consecutive, promiscuous and simul- taneous. Consecutive questioning follows the order of seating or roll ; promiscuous questioning calls on individuals not in the order of seating or roll ; simultaneous questions are directed to the whole class, usually for concert answers. For advantages and disadvantages, see 523. The difference between development questions and review questions is another examination topic. Development ques- SCHOOL MANAGEME,^;T 41 tions require more time in asking- and answering-; the order is g-enerally log-ical ; the answers are in complete statements. Review questions are rapid ; not necessarily in logical order ; answers may be brief. 82. Answers. — The kind of answers g-iven by pupils will de- pend larg-ely upon the nature of the questions asked by the teacher. When all the conditions are adjusted to insure a fair amount of effort, the answ^ers are indication of intellectual prog-ress. We shall discuss this topic under four heading-s. 1. The educational value of answers. The test can be found in the methods of mind training treated in Chapter IV. A good answer is evi- dence of clear percepts, serviceable memory, good concepts and some application of judg- ment and reasoning. Furthermore, a good answer is evidence of attention; it may indicate interest; it must utilize apperception; and it re- quires self-activity. One good answer is the beginning of habituation. Other good answers will, of course, tend to fix desirable habits of mental activity. 2. Characteristics of good answers. From what has just been said it is evident that a good answer requires the child to do some thinking. He must think to get a correct interpretation of the teacher's question and he must think again to furnish material for his own answer. Then follows another quality, namely, the use of good language in clearly expressing the answer. 3. What answers should be received. First, the good answers just characterized; second, answers which are partially correct providing there can be a division made in the answer required. This view is the one that gives 42 METHODS IN EDUCATION credit for all that the pupil is able to do. The third kind of answer to be accepted is the one that is evidence of fidelity on the part of the pupil. The answer may not be correct but the effort to make a correct answer deserves some commendation. Strictly speaking-, a cor- rect answer is the only one that can' receive full credit in the recitation, but as the process of teaching- does not expect a satisfactory answer to every question, it is sug-g-ested that the other two kinds of answers receive some credit as the means of encouraging- the pupils. 4. What answers should be rejected. Dishonest answers, g-uesses and careless answers should not be accepted. They may satisfy certain standards of marking- but they are not edu- cative. Dishonesty may be due to laziness; or it may be a kind of unconscious development in schools where per cents have been used as the g-oal of education. In all these cases, re- quire the pupil to work toward the desired answers. This is the only positive cure. A negative treatment may place a zero upon the register, but a zero does little or nothing to direct the average pupil into habits of use- ful effort. 83. Moral education. — Sections 83 to 94 inclusive are taken verbatim from the 1905 course of study for new York City. "It should be the aim of teachers and principals to make the life of the school, in every activity and relation, count for moral education. This aim should vitally affect not only the teach- ing of every subject and the treatment of every problem of discipline and training, but also the general atmosphere and spirit of the classroom and of the school. In working toward this aim, the following suggestions will be found helpful : SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 43 84. Personality of teacher. — The personality of the teacher is at the root of all moral education in the school. The teacher's voice, speech, bearing, and dress; the teacher's poise, self- control, courtesy, kindness; the teacher's'sincerity, ideals, and attitude toward life, are invariably reflected in the character of his pupils. 85. Reverence. — Reverence is vital to morality. Whatever quickens in children the feeling- of dependence on a Hig-her Power; whatever leads them devoutly to wonder at the order, beauty, or mystery of the universe; whatever arouses in them the sentiment of worship or fills them with admiration of true greatness, promotes reverence. There is no subject studied in school which, reverently taught, may not yield its contribu- tion to this sentiment. 86. Self-respect. — Self-respect, which is also fundamental to moral development, is engendered in a child when he does his best at tasks that are worth while and within his power to do well, with proper recognition by teacher and schoolfellows of work well done. 87. Principle in character. — The cornerstone of a self-respect- ing character is principle— the will to be true to the right because it is right, whatever the consequences, to act 'with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right.' The essential difference between principle and mere self-interest should be vividly brought home to each child. 88. Spirit of school.— The spirit of the classroom and of the school — the spirit that makes children say with pride 'my class' and 'our school' — is one of the strongest of moral forces. Where there exists a proper esprit de corps, the problem of discipline is largely solved. Public opinion as a moral force should be moulded and utilized in every school. 89. Social membership.— The child should early gain the idea of social membership. The truth that co-operation and unselfishness are essential to true social living should be made real and vital. This truth is brought home through 'group 44 METHODS IN EDUCATION work' where the work of each is necessary to the work of all; and through the feeling in a school or class that the honor of all is in the keeping of each. The child should also learn that he is a member, not only of the school, but of the family, of the neighborhood, of the city, and of the state and nation. What it means to be a loyal member of these social institutions should be made clear. The naturalness and the necessity of obedience and of helpfulness should be shown. The moral aspect of home tasks, and of working with the departments of health, parks, street cleaning, police, and education, and not against them, should be enforced by concrete applications. In general, the truth should be impressed that without loyal and effective social membership no individual can lead a complete life. 90. Self-government. — No person has a fully developed moral character until there has been a transfer of the seat of author- ity from without to within himself; a moral man obeys himself. Each child in every grade should be steadily helped towards self-direction and self-government. Effective means to this end are : appeals to initiative and resourcefulness; the development of such a sense of honor as will preserve order without sur- veillance; and some form of organization designed to quicken- and exercise the sense of responsibility. To trust a child tends to make him trustworthy. A system of pupil self- government, if wisely applied and not encumbered with un- necessary machinery, may be found effective. The form, however, of the organization is immaterial. The essential point is that the teacher, himself a member of the community, should make his pupils sharers to a certain extent in the problems arising out of their community life; and that he should entrust to them as members in their own right of the social body the performance of certain functions. Such train- ing in social activity is effective training for citizenship. Under such conditions 'good order' will mean not so much the refraining from disorder as the condition of effective co-operation. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 45 91. Moral values of studies. — Each school study has a specific moral value. Literature and history embody in concrete form moral facts and principles, showing- to the child his own self 'writ larg-e,' furnishing- him with ideals and incentives, and moulding- his moral judgment; and they will accomplish these results the more surely as the teacher is himself moved by that which is presented. Every subject involving- observation and expression is essentially moral. Every subject, therefore, should be so taught as to make for truth-telling in word and act, and for training in self-expression. 92. Contemporary civilization.— In connection with the regular studies of the school, such aspects of contemporary civilization as are of value for developing the social spirit should receive attention. Hospitals, societies for the prevention of cruelty to children and to animals, homes for orphans and for the aged and infirm, fresh air funds, and similar agencies for social service should be brought within the child's comprehension as opportunity offers. Deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice done by firemen, policemen, soldiers, and other persons, should be presented and commended. The truth that success in life means more than mere money-getting can thus be brought home again and again. The contemplation of deeds of cruelty, dishonor, and shame has a necessary, though subordinate, place in moulding moral taste. 93. Topics for moral lessons. — The following list* of topics affords subjects for many practical lessons in morals and manners : 1. Duties to parents, brothers, sisters, and play- mates; to servants and other employees; to employers and all in authority; to the aged, the poor, and the unfortunate. 2. Conduct at home, at the table, at school, on the street, in public assemblies and in public con- veyances. 46 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3. The common virtues, such as regularity, punc- tuality, self-control, cheerfulness, neatness, purity, temperance, honesty, truthfulness, obedience, industry, and patriotism. 94. Principles of moral instruction. — In all such moral instruc- tion and guidance the following principles should be observed: 1. The course of moral training is a development, in which the child is first led to act rightly and afterward to work from principle; he pro- ceeds from obedience on faith to obedience on principle; from regularity to faithfulness. The child also develops from egoism to al- truism. His impulse toward self-interest normally develops earlier than his impulse to put himself in another's place. Upon the full development of the former stage depends the full development of the latter. 2. The culture of the imagination is a powerful aid in moral instruction; first, as the power vividly to picture consequences — to put yourself in your own place later on (foresight); secondly, as the power to 'put yourself in his place' (social imagination, sympathy). 3. In using literature and similar material for purposes of moral education, the teacher should not violate the law of self-activity. The child may resent having a moral drawn for him which he can draw for himself. He is the more likely to follow the principle which he himself discovers or formulates because it is his own. 4. The most effective method in moral education is positive rather than negative. A mind filled with worthy interests, high ideals, and helpful activities has no room for evil. Approbation more than censure leads to well doing. Love is a stronger and a better motive than fear. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 47 5. At every stage of school life pupils should be taug-ht that they live under inexorable law^s which they cannot violate w^ith impunity — both physical law^s and moral law^s. Obedience is not optional: it is compulsory. Penalty fol- low^s law-breaking as surely as night follows day, though the penalty is not always im- mediate." 95. Discipline. — Discipline in school management has refer- ence to mental, moral and physical training that tends to secure the self-control of individuals. The general use of the term discipline in regard to human faculties means training that enables a faculty to do more efficient work than it would have been able to accomplish without the discipline. So in a larger sense disciplinary school management aims to develop all the useful characteristics of good citizenship. 96. Authority. — There are writers and teachers who hold that respect for authority is not an American ideal. We do not agree. Constituted authority, wherever it may be, deserves constant recognition and respectful obedience. Authority is not tyranny; it is a natural and necessary guarantee of order in moral, religious and civil life. The largest development of individual freedom is impossible without some accepted stand- ard of authority. Pupils should be taught, then, that it is their duty to respect and obey the authority in the school, in the home, and in the community. 97. Co-operation of parents. — In another section of this chap- ter, we have spoken of the five institutional factors in education. One aim of ideal training must always be to get those five factors into harmonious co-operation. It is not always possible to secure such assistance outside of the home, but it is pos- sible to bring the parents into close touch with the actual needs of the school. This may be done by correspondence if it is not convenient to have personal consultations in the homes of the pupils. A visit has many advantages over correspondence 48 METHODS IN EDUCATION because it is possible for pupils, teachers and parents to meet in common and establish a balance of opinions relating- to the favorable and the unfavorable w^ork in the school. A third means of g-etting- into touch with parents is patriotic exercises or other school entertainments. The natural interest in the welfare of the pupils on such occasions is the strongest in- ducement to parents to present themselves at the place where the entertainment is held. Other means of becoming- acquainted are found in churches, local societies, and other established means of social intercourse in the community. 98. Punishment defined. — Punishment is a penalty for the violation of the rules of order. The old idea of punishment embodied the necessity of giving the pupils an equivalent for the wrong that had been done. The modern view of punish- ment looks to the reform of the pupils through the cultivation of desirable habits of activity. 99. Kinds of punishment. — Corporal punishment is forbidden in most of the schools and so it is necessary for the teacher to find some substitute that possesses deterrent and corrective merits. The following are approved : 1. Detention. The practice of keeping pupils in the schoolroom at recess, during part of the noon or after school, has the approval of many educators although it is severely condemned by others. The loss of pleasure seems to be the basis of the punishment. One serious ob- jection to detention is on the physical side. If the pupils were allowed the privileges of physical exercise during the recess periods, it is probable that some of the sourjces of disorder would find a natural outlet in the games. The pupil who is detained is not likely to be in a frame of mind suitable for continuing the work of the day after his companions return to the classroom. For these reasons detention cannot be widely approved as a form of punish- ment. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 49 2. Assig-nment of extra tasks. The aim of this kind of punishment seems to be the develop- ment of intellectual power throug^h the extra work. It is implied that the mental training- will ultimately direct the child into points of view that will cause him to desist from further wrong-doing-. On the other hand, the imposi- tion to extra school work is likely to lead the the child to dislike that kind of work and also to form habits of carelessness in performing- the assignment. 3. Demerit marks. This penalty assumes that pupils are ambitious to secure high standing-s as an indication of proficiency. Some pupils do have such ambitions but their ambitions are easily crushed as soon as one demerit mark appears upon the record. Other pupils care nothing- for marks of that kind and so the punishment is wholly external and has little or no effect upon them. 4. Expulsion. — This should be used only as an extreme means of settling the difificulty. Ex- pulsion is justified only when the pupil reaches a state of rebellion which cannot be treated without an injury to the class or to the school. Then it is considered prudent to remove the pupil from the presence of his companions. An adverse view of expulsion lies in the fact that the child expelled is to be at liberty in the community and his idleness is likely to lead to the development of bad habits. The rela- tion of idleness and crime shows the futility of expulsion as a form of punishment in any community. 100. Incentives. — The ordinary incentives are marks for scholarship or gonduct, prizes, decorations, school privileges. so METHODS IN EDUCATION and public commendation. Some of these are forbidden in certain school systems because of the difficulty in doing justice in selecting- the best pupils, or because such distinction tends to develop eg-otism and selfishness in place of altruistic virtues. These incentives are called artificial. In contrast to the artificial incentives are the natural in- centives. The latter are respect for teacher, respect of class, school spirit, sharing- school privileges, and personal satisfac- tion in doing one's duty. These are natural because they are human. Each incentive develops a stronger feeling between the pupil and some other member of the school. The benefit is the consciousness of personal power growing out of self- activity. Notice how the community interest promotes atten- tion, interest and activity. 101. Self-government of pupils. — All education aims at self- government of the pupils. The specific use of the word here relates to the various forms of pupil government, in which the pupils themselves participate in the legislative, the executive and the judicial departments of school organization. In each system of this kind, the government is a republic. The School City and the School State are common forms. The former is discussed on pages 157 to 161 in McEvoy's Science of Educa- tion. 102. Public opinion in school. — Disorder in school is sure to arise if confidence is not established in the motives of the teacher and of the pupils. It is a mistake for a teacher to think that a large number of pupils like to do wrong; and it is unfortunate for pupils if they cannot consider their teacher a friend. The establishment of mutual confidence, the pleasure of morning exercises, the satisfaction of success in the studies, the interest in rhetorical exercises, and the fellowship of the school grounds and the afternoon walks, — all these will tend to develop a healthy public opinion in school. 103. Evils. — Such school evils as carelessness, laziness, tardiness, truancy, whispering, lying, cheating, stealing, SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 51 impudence and rebellion should be displaced by desirable habits. Repression is only a temporary suspense ; substitu- tion is the sound process. 104. Virtues. — The desirable habits to be substituted in section 103 are accuracy, industry, neatness, politeness, truthfulness, honesty, justice, punctuality, co-operation, and obedience. The substitution is a matter of gradual habitua- tion. 105. Affiliated interests. — In speaking- of natural incentives in 100, we referred to the sharing of school privileges. Such privileges are found in the affiliated interests which serve as useful means of education in addition to the work of the recita- tion. The various athletic interests, the debating clubs, the school paper, the musical and dramatic associations and the alumni associations are all helpful in keeping a strong school spirit. 106. Adolescence. — Independence is a mental characteristic of adolescents. Management during this period is guidance. Follow these suggestions : 1. Environment must be adapted to pupil rather than vice versa. 2. Physical health is a predominant consideration. 3. Pupils need direction and inspiration rather than ponderous knowledge. Adolescence is treated in Science of Education, pp. 92 to 105. 107. Fatigue. — During adolescence growth is so rapid that strength is not constant. In younger children, fatigue is pro- duced by other causes. So far as fatigue relates to manage- ment, it shows the necessity for finding and removing physical causes of disorder. For general relation to education, see Science of Education, 339, 353-364. 108. Devices in management. I. Use quotations. See Our Platform, section 71. 52 METHODS IN EDUCATION II. Ask pupil to write an opinion of his own case. Fur- nish two or three questions to guide him. Assign to be done at home. This causes intro- spection. III. Have pupils write a letter of advice to themselves. They will unconsciously expose their own weaknesses. This aid will show what treat- ment is best. IV. Teachers and pupils need to understand one another. An effort in this line, some years ago, secured the written opinions of teachers, pupils and supervisors. Here we give the teachers' opin- ions of the pupils ; in V, the pupils' opinions of the teachers; and in VI, the critics' sug- gestions. Two kinds of obstacles are found, those in the pupils and those in the teachers. First, note the difficulties in the pupils. 1. Inattention but not positive disorder. 2. Lack of enthusiasm and ambition. 3. Failure to hand in work on time. 4. Lack of knowledge of how to study without aid. 5. Talking without permission, restlessness, ask- ing unnecessary questions. 6. Inaccuracy in operation; lack of knowledge of work passed over. 7. Laziness, slovenly work, lack of thoroughness, too easily satisfied. 8. Feeling that teachers are only practicing on them. 9. Desire for something new. Nothing appears original to them. 10. "Lack of power to do independent thinking. They want some one to develop everything, ^nd they cannot understand a question if it is SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 53 put in a different form from that to which they are accustomed. ' ' Many teachers found the greatest obstacles in themselves, and so they administered self- criticism in a spirit of fairness and frankness. Following- are their points of weakness: 1. Lack of self-confidence and self-control. 2. Talking- too loud and thereby g-iving- a cause for restlessness. 3. Inability to think while standing- before the class. 4. Cannot become acquainted with pupils in so short a time. 5. Inability to locate source of disorder; difficulty in deciding- what to do when disorder arises. 6. Difficulty in securing- attention. 7. Lack of decision and determination and con- sequent failure to make pupils obey promptly. 8. Too easily discourag-ed when practice does not harmonize with theory. 9. Failure to satisfy the children's needs on ac- count of not understanding the condition of the pupils' minds. V. The pupils' opinions. 1. The discipline of the school depends upon how the teacher acts the first day. The pupils will try her to see how much she will stand. If she does not have order the first day, I fear she never will. Some teachers never smile, and they are the kind the pupils don't like. 2. Some teachers don't inspire confidence in the pupils, and some try to show their authority too much. 3. Many pupils do not realize their responsibility in their school life. 4. If some teachers would act more and talk less there would be better discipline. 54 METHODS IN EDUCATION 5. A teacher may be pleasant and strict at the same time. 6. Some teachers will hardly speak to their pupils outside of class. 7. Some teachers do not win the respect of the pupils, and so the pupils do not honor them. 8. Some teachers are too cross and so the pupils become restless; other teachers are not cross enough. 9. The teachers do not study the pupils enough to know how to manage them. 10. Some teachers do not have self-government, — they laugh too much. Others lose their temper too often. 11. Many teachers think that if part of the class is paying attention they will not take time to speak to the others. 12. If they keep a pupil after school, they suffer as much as the pupil does. 13. The recitations drag, making the lesson unin- teresting ; and if the pupils do not give their attention to the lesson, they do give it to some- thing else. 14. Do not show the pupil that you are afraid of him. 15. Do not allow pupils to talk back. 16. One teacher is always making threats that if we do such-and-such a thing she will do so-and-so; but she never keeps her promise and therefore we do not pay any attention to her. She said she would mark off 25 per cent the next time we whispered, and when the time came she said, "You remember what I told you." Of course we remembered. 17. Some pupils do not care to have school go pleas- antly. I notice if one pupil sets a good example, the rest generally follow. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 55 18. No two pupils have dispositions alike, and there- fore it is hard for the teacher to manag-e the whole class. VI. The critics' suggestions. 1. Make the work interesting-. 2. Personal enthusiasm. 3. Study with pupils to show them how to prepare their lessons. 4. Assign special work to pupils who do not give their best effort. 5. Act more quickly and see all that is going on. 6. Use thought questions. 7. Give extra help to weak pupils and personal at- tention to disorderly ones. Chapter VII. Methods of Teaching. 109. Definition. — Method is an orderly procedure in educa- tion. This procedure is determined by the capacities of the pupils, by the subject-matter, and by the teacher. Methods include all plans and devices that tend to satisfy the principles of education. 110. Classification. — Most writers wish to classify methods according- to (1) subject-matter, (2) the learner, (3) the teacher. We shall do so to avoid confusion, but students should remem- ber that all three of these factors must be considered in deter- mining sound methods. I. FROM VIEW POINT OF TEACHER. 111. Conversational method. — This method is a natural in- tercourse between teachers and pupils. While its use is generally restricted to lower primary g-rades, it may be used in higher work. Its success depends largely upon the person- ality of the teacher. Speaking- in ordinary tones is an indica- tion of natural poise, and pupils will gladly adapt themselves to similar phases of thinking- and doing-. It is a method that inspires confidence, invites co-operation, and makes the educative process a matter of personal communication between teacher and pupil. It was the method of Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Col. Parker. Sometimes called a dialogue method. 112. Development method. — This is another dialogue method whose use extends over the whole field of education. It is especially adapted to early information lessons which aim at clear concepts and easy expression. Its aim is to develop right habits of thinking; and by the use of suitable material, the child's interest is aroused so that the matter, the method and the result have educative value. A further study of methods will show that this method really includes many METHODS OF TEACHING 57 others, such as, particular to g-eneral, known to related un- known, inductive-deductive, etc. You will see that these methods shade into one another; they are not so many distinct methods. Caution. — Do not try to develop everything-. If pupils g-ive you the answer before you are half way along- in your place of development, don't deaden their interest or waste your time by completing the developing process on that lesson. 113. Lecture method. — This is useful in intermediate and higher grades, especially where the matter is brought up for discussion and other reproduction in succeeding recitations. A kind of lecture or monologue method is required in all pri- mary classes before text-books are introduced. Narration, description, explanation and definition are given by the teacher as models for imitation and reproduction. But let it be un- derstood that the lecture method, strictly interpreted as a lecture, is suited only to mature minds. 114. Questioning method. — This method may form a part of any other method or it may be used alone, chiefly for the pur- pose of examination. For further discussion see 81. 115. Socratic method. — This method is a specific kind of questioning. As used by Socrates, it was conversational in tone. He elicited statements from others by two kinds of ques- tions : one to convince of error; the other to develop truth. Socrates was questioning the Sophists who assumed to be masters of all knowledge and so the first part of the Socratic process was destructive and ironical. Its purpose was to overthrow and ridicule the wrong opinion held by the pupil. The second part of the process was directing the mind by its own activity toward the truth, and preparing the mind to re- cognize and accept the truth. Value.— The Socratic method accepts the pupil's point of view in thought and language; it keeps within the scope of the pupil's comprehension; every movement in thought necessitates self-activity of the pupil; it leads into a discovery of new view- 58 METHODS IN EDUCATION point, but it does not tell; it leaves the pupil at the threshold of truth but does not force him to accept it. It is conviction through directed activity. Sometimes called maieutic, i. e., giving- birth to ideas. Caution. — Irony cannot be safely used in teaching. En- couragement, not sarcasm, is what the average pupil needs. Limitations. — The Socratic method is adapted to all knowl- edge in which the pupil's experience is sufficient to enable him to reach the truth. Beyond this limit, it is not useful. 116. Illustration of Socratic questioning in grammar. — Take a familiar answer in sixth grade grammar, using this sentence : Lincoln was very kind to children. Teacher asks a class to tell part of speech of every word in the sentence. A pupil says very is an adjective. T. You say very is an adjective. P. Yes, very is an adjective. T. Why do you call very an adjective ? P. Because very modifies an adjective. T. What adjective does very modify ? P. Very modifies the adjective kind. T. You have told me the use of the word very. After finding the use what led you to say adjective ? P. I thought of the definition of an adjective. T. Give that definition. P. Anything that modifies a noun or a pronoun is an adjective. T. What noun or pronoun does very modify? P. No noun or pronoun. Kind is an adjective. T. Now, what is your conclusion ? P. Very is not an adjective. T. Then what part of speech is it ? P. Anything that modifies an adjective must be an adverb; hence, very is an adverb. 117. Illustration in mathematics. — Another illustration of the Socratic method is found in Plato's Dialogues, Jowett's trans- METHODS OF TEACHING 59 lation. Meno, a disciple of Socrates, has criticised Socrates for the negative character of Socratic instruction. "Why, Socrates," said Meno, "you remind me of that broad sea- fish called the torpedo, which produces a numbness in the person who approaches and touches it. For, in truth, I seem benumbed both in mind and mouth, and know not what to reply to you, and yet I have often spoken on this subject with great fluency and success." In reply Socrates applies his teaching- by g-iving- a lesson to a boy who is an illiterate slave. Soc. "Tell me, boy, do you know that a fig-ure like this is a square? Boy. I do. Soc. And do you know that a square fig-ure has these four lines equal ? Boy. Certainly. Soc. And these lines which I have drawn throug-h the middle of the square are also equal ? Boy. Yes. Soc. A square may be of any size? Boy. Certainly. Soc. And if one side of the square be of two feet and the other side be of two feet, how much will the whole be? Let me explain: If in one di- rection, the space was of two feet and in the other of one foot, the whole would be of two feet taken once? Boy. Yes. Soc. But since this side is also of two feet, there are twice two feet? Boy. There are. Soc. Then the square is of twice two feet ? Boy. Yes. Soc. And how many are twice two feet? Count and tell me. Boy. Four, Socrates. 60 METHODS IN EDUCATION Soc. And tnig-ht there not be another square twice as larg-e as this, and having-, like this, the lines equal ? Boy. Yes. Soc. And of how many feet will that be ? Boy. Of eight feet. Soc. And now try and tell me the length of the line which forms the side of that double square : this is two feet — what will that be? Boy. Clearly, Socrates, that will be double. Soc. Do you observe, Meno, that I am not teaching- the boy anything, but only asking- him questions ; ' and now he fancies that he knows how long- a line is necessary in order to produce a figure of eight square feet; does he not? Men. Yes. Soc. And does he really know ? Men. Certainly not. Soc. He only guesses that because the square is double, the line is double. Men. True. Soc. Observe him while he recalls the steps in regular order. (To the boy) Tell me, boy, do you assert that a double space comes from a double line ? Remember that I am not speaking of an oblong but of a square, and of a square twice the size of this one, — that is to say, of eight feet, and I want to know whether you still say that a double square comes from a double line? Boy. Yes. Soc. But does not the line become doubled if we add another such line here? Boy. Certainly. Soc. And four such lines will make a space containing- eight feet? METHODS OF TEACHING 61 Boy. Yes. Soc. Let us describe such a fig-ure; is not that what you would say is the figure of eight feet? Boy. Yes. Soc. And are there not these four divisions in the figure, each of which is equal to the figure of four feet? Boy. True. Soc. And is not that four times four? Boy. Certainly. Soc. And four times is not double? Boy. No, indeed. Soc. But how much ? Boy. Four times as much. Soc. Then the line which forms the side of the square of eight feet ought to be more than this line of two feet and less than the other of four feet ? Boy. It ought. Soc. Try and see if you can tell me how much it will be. Boy. Three feet. Soc. How much are three times three feet ? Boy. Nine. Soc. And how much is the double of four ? Boy. Eight. Soc. Then the figure of eight is not made out of a line of three ? Boy. No. Soc. But from what line ? Tell me exactly, and if you would rather not reckon, point out the line. Boy. Indeed, Socrates, I do not know. Soc. Do you see, Meno, what advances he has made in his power of recollection ? He did not know at first, and he does not know now, what is the side of a figure of eight feet; but then he thought that he knew and answered confidently, as if 62 METHODS IN EDUCATION he knew and had no difficulties; but now he has a difficulty, and neither knows nor fancies that he knows." II. FROM VIEWPOINT OF PUPIL. 118. From the particular to the general. — It is a chief business of education to pass from distinctly perceived individual no- tions to clear general notions. — Pestalozzi. Individual notions are notions or ideas of individual things. Each of the five senses furnishes sensations which the mind may or may not accept. As soon as the mind considers a sensation by ex- amining- the object that caused the sensation, the mind gains a percept of that object. This percept may be considered a particular or individual notion. Then the memory and the imagination work on these percepts until the mind combines the percepts into a concept or general notion. In all early education the teacher strives to train the senses to see things, to observe things, so that the mind may get clear, accurate percepts as the foundation of knowledge. Concrete material in teaching is useful because the pupils can use more than one sense in observation. Illustration. — To teach the definition of a noun, write sen- tences on the board. Longfellow was a poet. Pupils like poems. Lincoln loved children. Do you know nouns ? The presentation will lead pupils to see that each name word in these sentences is a noun; and so from seeing partic- ular name words are nouns, they infer that in general name words are nouns. So this inductive lesson proceeds from the particular to the general. The same process is found in all elementary development lessons. 119. Simple to complex. — The meaning of these words varies as individuals vary. We must take each child's point of view. What is simple for the teacher may be complex for the pupil. METHODS OF TEACHING 63 1. In language work, the simple things are the things the child knows. Talk about toys, pets, experience. Use short, simple, familiar words. 2. In learning numbers, the process of scoring is a simple way of indicating a knowledge of the number concept, thus: 11 for 2 or two; 111 for 3 or three. 3. The simple sentence is mastered before the com- pound or the complex. 4. In music the natural scale is taught first. 5. In nature study the plant as a whole is studied as one single, simple, living thing. Later the child will become familiar with the complex structure of the plant and the functions of its various parts. 120. Concrete to abstract. — The abstract concepts cannot be formed without first having a concrete concept. Thus, an ab- stract concept of whiteness comes after associating whiteness with a number of white objects. Another reason for using objective or concrete teaching is the demand for multiple sense instruction. Seeing, hearing, feeling, and even tasting and smelling may be employed. 1. Alphabet blocks as play in education. 2. Warlike toys for Spartan children. 3. Foot-rule and yard-stick in linear measure; gill, pint, quart and gallon measures in liquid measure; ratio and proportion by handling blocks in Speer method. 4. Moulding- board, putty maps, relief forms and pictures in geography. 5. The study of a model to get form, style and rules in composition. 121. From the known to the related unknown. — A child is master of considerable knowledge when he enters school. This knowledge in possession must be used as apperceiving 64 METHODS IN EDUCATION groups a^ a basis for new knowledge. The adaptation of the old and the new will utilize interest and attention. 1. The schoolroom, the playground or the city may each or all be used in early lessons in geo- graphy. This plan illustrates from the parti- cular to the general. 2. From knowing the agreement of subject and predicate, the child passes to concord of ad- jectives and nouns, pronouns and antecedent, etc. 3. Uniiy in a sentence is a foundation for unity in paragraph and essay. 4. Definition of a verb is necessary for an under- standing of the participle, and the nature of nouns and adjectives leads to the secondary nature of participle. 5. The common denominator for addition of frac- tions opens a way to subtraction and division of fractions; and common fractions in general are a basis for decimals and percentage. 122. Observation before reasoning; processes before rules; facts before definitions or principles. — These axioms are a demand for inductive processes in teaching. They are justified by psy- chology because percepts precede concepts, and definitions require related classes. Discovery aids activity. 1. Window gardens are means of causing the child to discover the relation of light, heat and moisture to plant life. 2. Five or more examples worked in multiplication of decimals will lead to the rule. 3. Actual experiments with levers will quickly im- press the rules regarding fulcrum, weight and power. 4. See also inductive method. 123. From the empirical to the rational. — "Science is organized knowledge; and before knowledge can be organized, some of METHODS OF TEACHING 65 it must be possessed. Every study, therefore, should have a purely experimental introduction; and only after an ample fund of observations has been accumulated, should reasoning beg-in." (Spencer, Education, p. 93 of Kellogg' s edition). So this rule means that knovvrledge must be gained v^hoUy by personal experience. It embodies all of the other preceding axioms. We admit that pupils should learn much by their own efforts, but all subject-matter cannot be mastered in this way. Some must be taken on the authority of the teacher, as the deductions in history, economics, and advanced mathe- matics and science. Our criticism is that the rule should not be absolute because all subjects do not admit personal experi- mentation. 124. Heuristic method. — This name is derived from a Greek word meaning to find; and so it is a method of directing in- stead of telling. By questions, directions, problems and sug- gestions the child is encouraged to find out everything for himself by discovery. It is a constructive method which aims to promote self-realization. It is the method of discovery under sympathetic and intelligent guidance. Illustration. A class is beginning the study of Asia. With- out any lecturing by teacher or reading by pupils, turn to the map of Asia. Each pupil has a geography. Take a general view of surface; location, direction and names of mountains. Next take drainage; rivers, running north, east and south; hence, three great slopes; highlands and lowlands contrasted and located. Coast line, peninsulas, harbors noted. Condi- tions affecting climate and the probable modifying elements. Probable occupations, productions and consequent states of civilization. The second process is verification. Observation and infer- ence in the first process beget lively interest and active think- ing, and then the verification by consulting the printed pages completes the first period of study. Contrast the old memory exercise in studying Asia. See last 'two sections in chapter on geography. 66 METHODS IN EDUCATION 125. Prussian method. — Hinsdale says ttiat "teacliing is bringing- knowledge into due relation with the mind." In the effort to induce pupils to share willingly in all the activities of the schoolj the Prussian method puts the pupils and teacher under a feeling of equality in a kind of social participation. For instance, a lesson covers eight problems in arithmetic. All pupils are equipped for written work at desks. The teacher calls forthe interpretation of the first problem, and several pupils in turn contribute their opinions. This arouses the social stimulus or the general feeling in favor of individual and class success. All begin the written solution; one is called to explain a step, another explains a second step, and so on. After reciting, each one continues his written work. So every step is explained in interpretation, solution and analysis; every pupil has shared in oral and written work; every problem has been solved and all the difficulties have been cleared away. The tone is conversational, the manner is natural, the work is interesting in process and results, and the spirit of a civic community has been experienced by all. This kind of education is living, and not a mere preparation for living. 126. Inductive method.— A process of reasoning which establishes a general rule, definition, principle or proposition based upon the knowledge of particular cases. In section 44 we explained briefly that the natural order in acquiring knowledge is percepts, concepts, judgments. This order is said to be the order of race development. Primitive man learned, through concrete and individual experiences, certain facts which he later formed into general conclusions.. For example, flint is good material for arrow-heads. Such knowl- edge became a general possession and each generation added to the general fund of knowledge. Illustrations. Solving several examples in division of frac- tions and then deriving the rule for inversion of the divisor; studying sentences containing relative pronoun and antecedent. METHODS OF TEACHING 67 and then constructing- a rule showing- that the pronoun and antecedent need not agree in case ; beg-inning- the study of history at seven o'clock every school day for two weeks, and then noticing- that the mind has formed a habit or rule of thinking about history daily at that hour. 127. Deductive method.— A process of reasoning that starts with general rule, definition, principle, or proposition and shows its respective application to particular cases. Thus in teaching grammar, have pupils learn definitions first and then apply them; in arithmetic, learn rule and then work examples; in geography, learn definitions of land forms and later look for illustrations. 128. The inductive-deductive method. — Neither induction nor deduction can alone constitute a suitable method in a complete act of instruction. The two must be combined. On account of this necessity, some writers mean inductive-deductive when they use the term inductive method. Let the student remem- ber, then, to combine these two processes in every development lesson. A second point to be remembered is that these two methods are justified by psychology ; they satisfy the working of the mind. Teachers hear much about the action of the mind in passing from particular to general and then from general back to particular. In developing the definition of an adverb, the teaching emphasizes several adverbs in sentences. A knowledge of each adverb is a particular notion. Then the mind generalizes these particular notions and expresses the general notion in a definition of an adverb. But this does not complete the process; the impression is not deep enough. In other words, this definition must be applied to other adverbs in sentences, and pupils must construct sentences containing adverbs. This application or drill completes the educative process by passing from the general to other particulars. Thus the inductive-deductive method makes a complete mental act in every development lesson, 68 METHODS IN EDUCATION III. FROM VIEWPOINT OF SUBJECT-MATTER. 129. Analytic method. This method proceeds from wholes to parts. In grammar, begin with sentence and proceed to parts of sentence. In literature, study the whole selection before considering paragraphs, sentences and words. In primary reading, begin with sentence and go to v/ords, letters and phonics. In nature study, observe the plant or other material as a whole before studying its parts. 130. Synthetic method.— The synthetic method proceeds from parts to wholes. In grammar, begin with words and build sentences. In primary reading, the building of phonic ele- ments into words is synthesis. In primary geography begin with the schoolroom, having the children make a map of it and understand how a map represents an object; thence proceed to the school-yard, the street, the city and show upon the city and state maps all the children have themselves observed, in- cluding rivers, hills, mountains, etc. 131. Comparison of analysis>nd synthesis.— Both relate to the action of the mind in dealing with individual things and the parts of those things. Analysis seeks to show the relation between the parts; synthesis emphasizes the parts themselves and later shows their relation in construction. Synthesis embodies the guiding principles in most of the maxims treated under the pupils' point of view; the process is inductive. Analysis embodies the converse of those maxims; it is de- ductive. 132. Topical method.— Subject-matter may be divided so that each heading will include material for a unit of discus- sion. The ordinary division into chapters does not always suit the requirements for class assignment or for individual discussion. A topic should be complete in itself and yet be one of the related parts in a larger division. The advantages of the topical method are convenience in as- signing lessons, definite responsibility in recitation, and independence of pupil in thought and expression. The METHODS OF TEACHING 69 disadvantag^e conies only from abuse in which facts are dis- connected and class stimulus is sacrificed to individual achievement. 133. Text-book method. — This name was formerly g-iven as a kind of reproach to teachers who followed the matter and method of the text-books. A reaction went to the other extreme of oral teaching. Now educators are trying- to secure a reasonable average. The abuse of the text-book method required verbal memory of the contents. The extreme oral teaching has made pupils dependent upon the teacher. Pupils have become passive on account of not knowing what to study, where to find it, and how to study. Text-books should be used, and the prudence of teachers is a safe guide in avoiding extremes. Chapter VIII. General Method. 134. Device, method, general method. — In the discussion of methods of teaching-, there is not enoug-h distinction between a mere device and a method. A device is a tactful presentation w^ithin the scope of method. It is g-enerally personal, partic- ular; it may or may not work well with another teacher under different circumstances. For instance, in teaching- about a lock in a canal an ingenious teacher may have a wooden model made by himself or by a pupil. This is strictly a de- vice, and a commendable one, but not properly a method although it is entitled to classification under objective or con- crete methods of teaching. Again, a teacher makes a chart of figures covering the ordinary combinations for rapid drill. It is a good device, but it is not a method. Recall that method is a broad principle determined by the psychology of the pupils' minds, the personality of the teacher and the nature of the subject-matter. We have described some of the methods which are useful in regular teaching. Now we come to consider whether there is one general method that is applicable in all teaching. If there is such a general method, it must be that there are general psychological laws applying to the development of all human beings. In accordance with Herbartian psychology, we think there are such laws and there is one general method. 135. Order of the mind. — "No matter what the study may be, whether Latin, mathematics, science, or some other, the mind follows a certain order. Through the old related experiences (first step, preparation) new individual notions are reached (second step, presentation)', these are compared and their essen- tial characteristics abstracted (third step, comparison), and the resulting general truth is worded (fourth step, generalization)', this generalization finally receives application (fifth step, application).'''' GENERAL METHOD 71 136. Apperception aided. — The order mentioned in the last paragraph embodies the formal steps of instruction. The steps grow out of Herbart's analysis of apperception; and so in following- this order in presenting- a lesson, the learner's mind is fitted for apperceiving- the subject-matter. 137. Aims. — In writing- lesson plans, it is always advisable to state the aim of the lesson first, althoug-h this law of aim is not one of the Herbartian steps. A few years ag-o teachers in training- were told not to express the aim of the lesson for fear pupils would lose interest in the development. It was sup- posed that the anticipation of results would g-uarantee co- operative interest and that thereby the pupils would discover the essential purpose of the lesson. That view is not sound today ; it exalts the process of the presentation too much. Better state the aim as a focal point for all lines of energ-y during that recitation period. 138. Rein on aim. — "The pupil should know beforehand what is coming-, if he is to bring- all his powers to bear upon the work of learning-; and it is easier to call out all his effort if he knows beforehand what is to be g-ained. To conduct a child along- an unknown road, toward an unknown object by means of questions and hints, the purpose of which he does not see, to lead him on imperceptibly to an unknown goal, has the disadvantage that it develops neither a spontaneous mental activity nor a clear insight into the subject. Having reached the end of such a line of thought the pupil looks about himself bewildered. He stands at the goal but does not see the rela- tion that the result bears to the labor performed. He does not rise to that satisfactory mental activity and favorable disposi- tion of mind which are stimulated by the pursuit of a clearly set purpose." — From Rein, University of Jena. 139. Preparation. — This step is an effort to make the pupils' minds ready to apperceive the new knowledge. It does not mean the teacher's preparation or the pupils' prior study al- though both are necessary and useful. It uses acquired 72 METHODS IN EDUCATION knowledg-e as an apperceiving- group by which the new knowl- edge may be assimilated. So the purpose of this preparation is to put the body and the mind into a receptive attitude, and to relate the new and the old so that attention and interest will be active. In brief, it is putting mental, moral and physi- cal powers into harmonious co-operation with the teacher's efforts. How should such preparation be made ? Agreeable opening exercises are the first contribution. In the recitation, it may be an anecdote, a description, a brief review of related work, or simply a statement of the aim of the lesson. During the day, brief physical exercises, the singing of a song, or even a two-minute visiting privilege may dispel fatigue and adjust the minds to the required condition. Tact is the best guide. The one danger is in making the preparation too long, — a scattering of attention and energy. Sometimes it is best to go straight to the presentation. In this, let the minds of your pupils be the criterion. 140. Presentation. — In this part of general method the teacher utilizes some of the specific methods discussed in the last chapter, as the inductive-deductive method. The minds pre- pared in the first step are now getting needed individual notions. Watch the process of passing to general notions. 141. Comparison or association. — The mind continues the process of apperception by associating, comparing and con- trasting the facts of the new lesson with the facts previously acquired. The mind here abstracts the essential character- istics of each notion presented. 142. Generalization. — Now the notions so clearly distin- guished in the previous step are classified in the form of rules principles, definitions, laws, maxims or tables. The mind has formed general notions. 143. Application or drill.— We have seen that the purpose of instruction is the formation of general notions or ideas. But general ideas will not remain a possession without thorough GENERAL METHOD 73 drill. So this step requires impressive drill and application to practical life. It is the completion of each educative act, namely, the return from g-eneral notions to particular notions. 144. Dr. Hervey on formal steps of instruction. — Dr. W. L. Hervey, a member of the New York City Board of Examiners, gave his opinion of these formal steps in the New York Teach- ers' Monographs, December, 1900. The article is conservative and practical. He admits the validity of the opinion regard- ing- general method and the movement of the mind, but he dis- approves a rigid observance of the formal steps. He em- phasizes the point that the five steps need not come in the order in which they are mentioned, but they all should come somewhere in every complete act of instruction. He cautions teachers against making. the preparation too long because he has observed that pupils' minds have wonderful powers of adjustment to a straightforward and even blunt approach. He thinks that preparation instead of standing alone at the beginning of the recitation occurs at each step in teaching; each step should prepare for the next. Good teaching from start to finish is steeped in preparation. Preparation is no more an antecedent of the first step than it is of the third ; hence prep- aration may involve the presentation, thought, or application or all of them; and second, that each of these Involves prepara- tion. There are an infinite number of preparations within each method-whole, and there should be infinite variety in the method of handling them. Nor is it necessary that comparison and generalization should hold rigidly to the order in which they are named, for we frequently ask children to think and afterwards to imagine. — From page 111, Science of Education. 145. Dr. Hervey's conclusion. — "The human mind, (generally speaking) is not a blunderbuss. Yet from the directions for making lesson plans which I have known to be given to ad- vanced classes by teachers of the formalist type, it would appear that teaching the mind is precisely analagous to loading a brass cannon. Swabbing, taking aim, loading with powder and shot, ramming home, setting off the fuse, all must come 74 METHODS IN EDUCATION in a certain order not to be deviated from. Such a fig-ure limps on both feet. In more senses than one it smacks of mili- tarism. One who is appealed to by it belong-s in a factory where thing-s are made, or on the firing- line where people are shot at, not in a school where minds grow and are fed. Therefore, the best way, in my judg-ment, to profit by the doctrine is not to think chiefly of steps, or of sequence, or of separateness, or of junctions at which one must chang-e cars for the next step— the best teachers when at their best are, I trow, not thinking- about the formal steps — but to think chiefly of the ideal end of instruction, as being- that happy state of pupils' minds in which, for warmth and resource, there are abundant stores of concrete imagery, and, for economy and serviceableness, there is organization-pigeon-holes and tags, card catalogues and indexes, or if you will, generals, lieuten- ants, and privates, each knowing his duty and each on the qui vive to do it. The formal steps are, then, so many ideals which the teacher must attain before his work is done." 146. Illustrations. — Three lessons are worked out in Mc- Murry's How to Conduct the Recitation, pages 18-22. The subjects are Oak Trees, The Cotton-gin, Nouns. Every student is advised to study that pamphlet. It is a remarkably clear explanation of the Formal Steps of Instruction. (A. S. Barnes & Co., 15c). Several lessons are given in Part III of DeGarmo's Essentials of Method. (D. C. Heath & Co., 65c.) 147. Illustration in grammar grade reading. THANATOPSIS. So live that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan, which moves To that mysterious realm where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not like the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him and lies down to pleasant dreams. — Bryant. GENERAL METHOD 75 1. Write out and answer the questions you would ask to lead pupils (a) to understand the above selection; (b) to under- stand the meaning-s of the more difficult words; (c) how you would secure a proper reading- of the passagfe. Make your answer cover a method-whole showing- application of the formal steps of instruction. I. Aim. To interpret and appreciate Thanatopsis. II. Preparation. As a preliminary preparation, see that each pupil has a copy of the whole poem Than- atopsis. (2) Assig-n references for the leading- biog-raphical facts relating- to Bryant, and espec- ially the occasion of the writing- of Thanatopsis, so that the pupils may acquire the information for themselves. (3) Write upon the board summons, innumerable, caravan, mysterious, realm, scourged, dungeon, unfaltering, drapery. The preparation of the minds of the pupils is brief and direct in this lesson. The poem deserves im- mediate and energ-etic study. I should proceed as follows : To-day we shall study a poem from American literature. It is Thanatopsis. Perhaps it will interest you to know that the author was only a boy when he wrote Thanatopsis. Bryant wrote Thanatopsis when he was eighteen years old. It was sent to the North American Review either by the poet or his father. Richard Henry Dana of the Review supposed the writer to be some one of international reputation. The poet's father was then a member of the Massachusetts Senate. Mr. Dana went to the State House to consult him, but the appearance of Dr. Bryant seemed to satisfy Mr. Dana that Dr. Bryant was not the author, so Mr. Dana returned to Cambridg-e without an in- terview with the Senator. Later he learned that the author was the Doctor's son. 76 METHODS IN EDUCATION The averag-e ag-e of the pupils of this class is about fourteen years. You know what kind of composi- tions you are able to write, so let us see what kind of a composition Bryant wrote. III. Presentation. We are required to give the questions and answers leading- pupils (a) to understand the selection, (b) to understand the difficult words and (c) to read the passag-e properly. As these three requirements can better be covered in treating- the lesson as a unity I should follow the plan of critical reading. This kind of reading- requires pupils to go through the whole selection three times. The first reading is for the pleasure; the second to get the plan of the work; and the third to go into the construction of the work and of the sentences, the meaning of words, allusions, etc. T. What does the word Thanatopsis mean? P. Thanatopsis means a view of death, or a medita- tion on the subject of death. T. What part of the poem is the selection given ? P. The selection is the last part, or the conclusion of the poem. T. What does summons mean ? P. Summons means an order calling a man to court. T. Find a general meaning of the word. P. Summons means a call from any authority. T. What word on the board is familiar to you from your other studies ? P. Caravan means a wagon or a company of persons crossing a desert. T. With what occupation do you associate the word caravan ? P. Caravan makes me think of commerce. T. In this poem, which meaning does caravan have — a. commercial outfit or simply a number of GENERAL METHOD 77 persons crossing- a desert? Find the meaning of innumerable, and the answer will seem clearer to you. T. What other word have we had before ? P. We read of a king's realm or country, in history. T. What kind of realm is mentioned here ? P. A mysterious realm. This means a country we do not know much about. T. If you recall your history stories, you will find a word here which suggests, a kind of punish- ment. P. Scourged is the word. It suggests the punishment of slaves. IV. Application. Three readings will give the pupils an understanding of the poem. To help pupils appreciate the spirit of the poem, I should explain the difficult allusions, show how death emphasizes the brotherhood of humanity in nature and then study this particular selection as an exhortation to better living. Summons will then have a broader meaning because it comes from God ; innumerable caravan means all mankind; mysterious realm is the here- after; and the consciousness of a life well spent will rob death of its terror. I should take a week, if necessary, on this poem, not in the dissecting of it, but in mastering the points of strength and beauty that combine to make Thanatopsis such a remarkable production. 148. Illustrative lesson on attribute complement. — Attribute complement or attribute is known as predicate noun, predicate pronoun and predicate adjective. I. Aim. To teach attribute complement. II. Preparation. Review definition of sentence, subject, predicate, noun, verb, pronoun, adjective. 78 METHODS IN EDUCATION III. Presentation. Have these sentences on board. 1. Birds sing-. 2. Happy children sing. 3. The children are happy. 4. Pupils become students. 5. Lincoln was a good man. 6. Longfellow was kind. 7. Longfellow was a poet. 8. It is he. 9. This is an attribute. 10. Who is it? It is I. Sentences 1 and 2 will impress some of the points covered in the preparation. Sentence 2 is an easy approach to the adjective happy in 3. All read the third sentence. Then individual answers on subject children and predicate are happy. Next get subject noun children and predicate verb are. Note that are alone is not the predicate; are happy is the predicate. T. Covering word happy, asks one to read. P. The children are. T. Is what you have read complete or incomplete? P. It is incomplete. T. Uncovers happy. Now is the expression complete or incomplete ? P. The sentence is complete. T. What word makes it complete? P. Happy makes it complete. T. Happy is a complement. Write word on board ; analyze it: complete -\- ment; inent — W\2X^\\\Qh. Now define. P. Complement means that which completes. T. What part of the sentence is completed by happy ? P. Happy completes the predicate. T. What part of speech is happy in sentence 2 ? GENERAL METHOD 79 P. Happy modifies the noun children ; hence happy is an adjective. T. What part of speech is happy in sentence 3? P. The same; it is an adjective. T. Yes; an adjective completing- the predicate. It is a predicate adjective. Another name is some- times g-iven. If the children are happy, you can say" that happiness is an attribute of the children. Thus for g-ood children, goodness is an attribute; industrious pupils, industry is an attribute. So w^e may call happy a predi- cate adjective or an attribute complement. T. Find another adjective used as an attribute. P. Sentence 6, kind is an attribute. T. Then, as far as you have observed, what part of speech may be used as an attribute ? P. An adjective may be used as an attribute. T. All read sentence 4. Then proceed as before to teach that students completes the predicate and refers to the subject. It is a noun used as at- tribute complement; or it is a predicate noun. Likewise for predicate pronouns, eliciting for each complement (a) that it completes the predicate and (b) that it describes the subject or means the same as the subject. IV. Comparison. Pupils distinguish attribute from object. V. Generalization. Call for definition of attribute and, when suitable wording is secured, write de- finition on board. All read; individuals read. All define; individuals define. VI. Application or drill. Direct application in such sentences as these. 1. This definition is easy. 2. Grammar is a useful subject. 80 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3. Easy is a predicate adjective. 4. Emerson was a scholar. 5. The wind feels cool. 6. Who called? It was she. Then apply by requiring contrast, thus : 1. This is our school. 2. We have a new school. 3. Whom did you ask? 4. Who was it? 5. This work seems pleasant. For further drill, have pupils construct sentences containing attributes. It may be helpful to learn this sentence: The verbs he, become, appear, seem, feel, look, are generally followed by an attribute. 149. Method-whole. — The use of the general method requires a special classification of subject-matter. In order that we may apply the formal steps of instruction the subject-matter has to be grouped and classified into definite unities. Each unit of instruction is considered a method-whole. Thus in studying New York State all of the drainage could be put un- der an outline or classification; and then this general outline could be divided for particular lessons each week or each day. So it is that each division may be treated as a method-whole. Gordy defines method-whole as a group of particular facts involving a universal. In other words, any topic or portion of a subject that constitutes a unity such that the process of teaching follows the inductive-deductive method is a method- whole. It should be noted in connection with this explanation of method-whole that the matter of general method, formal steps of instruction, particular notion to general notion, in- ductive-deductive method, and complete act of instruction are all different names for one general principle underlying the Herbartian general method. The lessons on Thanatopsis and attribute complement are illustrations of method-wholes. Chapter IX. Spelling. 150. Accuracy a worthy aim. — As long as accuracy remains a requisite of success in life, correct spelling- should be con- sidered a vi'tal aim in education. A theoretical search for the causes of poor spelling- may place the blame upon the pupil, the words studied, or the methods of teaching- ; but the practi- cal accomplishment of spelling- correctly will never come until teachers ag-ree that spelling deserves to be taug-ht as an in- dividual subject and not merely as an incidental study. Errors are too often excused on the g-round that it is impossible for certain pupils to learn to spell, or that misspelling is a mark of genius. Better strive for accuracy as an ideal than to justify errors by excuses. 151. Psychology of spelling. — It is a mistake to say that spell- ing depends upon the eye alone or upon any other single sense; spelling demands multiple sense instruction. In learning to spell, as in all other educative efforts, the child should be taught to use as many senses as possible. One sense may do more than another, but one sense cannot accomplish the best results without the co-operation of the other healthy senses. 152. The problem. — Poor spellers are found in every class. This is a fact, not a supposition. Our duty is to find the causes of the trouble and then try to apply specific remedies. Pedagogy is not a panacea, nor is wholesale criticism a help- ful aid to efficiency. There are difficulties in subject-matter, in pupils, and in teachers. 153. Difficulties in subject matter. — The English language is a composite one, derived from a large number of other languages, and so there are many irregularities. For illustration, note the origin: depot, French; coffee, Arabic; banana, Spanish; waltz, Gernian; sloop, Dutch; drink, Anglo-Saxon; gale, 82 METHODS IN EDUCATION Scandinavian; manual, Latin, epistle, Greek. The principal difficulties are the following: 1. Silent letters. 2. Lang-uag-e not phonetic, i. e., spelling- different from sound; as, eight, phonic, praise. 3. Different pronunciations for same combinations of letters; as, ou in ought, soul, bough, etc. 4. The numerous sounds of the vowels. One edu- cator puts ninety-five per cent of all errors in spelling under this head. 154. Difficulties in the pupils. 1. Not knowing how to study. In every lesson there are certain words which the pupils already know. In spelling §,s in all other subjects the process should be one of separating the known from the unknown so that the child may direct his energy toward what he does not already know. Habituate pupils to this process of selection so that they may devote their energy to the mastery of the new words in the list. Notice, too, the specific difficulty in each word. Can the word be spelled phonetically ? If not, why? The answer will direct attention to the difficulty. Homonyms illustrate this diffi- culty. Where is the accent? Pupils rarely misspell any accented syllables because the emphasis has impressed those syllables upon sight and hearing. Hence, observe the unac- cented syllables for visualization. 2. Failure in observation. Take pupil apart from the class for personal instruction. Test him on a few words to find his difficulty, and it is probable that the difficulty is in not seeing the word exactly as it is. Take two or three words apart from the printed pr written exer- SPELLING 83 cise and encourage him by having- him master these few words by oral and written effort, and then give him credit for every indication of progress. This is a special effort in the formation of right habits of study, and every progress made by a defective pupil will be an encouragement that will work its own reward. A persistence in right habits will overcome the defect in failing to see the word exactly as it is printed or written. 3. Carelessness. Try visualization. Write five words on the board. Have pupils look intently at them, then cover or erase the words and let pupils try to write the list in order. A few exercises of this kind will direct attention to the difficulties in each word, to the order of the words, and to their particular relation to one another. An entire lesson can be learned by a whole class in a short time in this way. It is another means of promoting the social stimulus advocated by Dewey. 155. Defective teaching. — The third cause of poor spelling is found in the following ten mistakes in teaching spelling. 1. Depending upon the eye alone. Use eye, ear, tongue, and hand. 2. Memory overtaxed by learning unrelated lists of words. Select words pupils can use. 3. Spelling taught incidentally in connection with other studies. Make it an individual study and teach spelling alone. 4. Dictation used for review before the pupils have mastered the advanced lessons. 5. Meanings of words given as dictionary defini- tions. Lead pupils to give their own expres' gions and applications. 84 METHODS IN EDUCATION 6. Infrequent recitation periods and lack of varied and thoroug-h drill. 7. Classification of words according- to the number of syllables. This is unscientific and unin- teresting. Use grouping under comparison and contrast. 8. Trying to teach spelling when the child's mind is unprepared. Do not interrupt connected thinking in other subjects to correct a mis- spelled word. Keep the word for a special list. 9. Failure to use a variety of interesting drills in- volving competition such as spelling down or choosing sides. 10. Permitting pupils to form the habit of thinking that correct spelling is impossible. 156. What words shall pupils spell?— Some favor a list of words selected from the pupils' vocabulary and from the lessons of the grade, while others advocate the use of a spell- ing book. In either case, the present tendency of opinion seems to be this : // is sufficient for a child to be able to spell the words he can use. This view is in accordance with the prin- ciples of adaptation, utility and interest. 157. Arguments for text-book. 1. Convenience. Time saved for pupil and teacher. 2. System. Modern books are not miscellaneous lists of words; grouping and scope are deter- mined by the needs of pupils. 3. Breadth and utility. Adequate provision is made for future demands as well as for actual present use. 4. Accuracy. Spelling, syllabication, accent and even pronunciation are accurately given. Er- rors are frequently niade in copying list§, SPELLING 85 5. Stimulus. Ownership is an instinct, and happy is the child who is made to feel the worth of such an incentive. The average pupil can g-o far beyond the limited list of words in his g-rade, and a simple appeal to personal ambi- tion will encourage him to do so. The book is an invitation to self-activity; it is a means to helpful rivalry; and it offers individual guid- ance to the future of the child who must leave school to earn a living. 158. In favor of selected lists of words. 1. Specific utility. The words become a part of definite knowledge through the child's think- ing, feeling and acting. Opposed to vague concepts because the child knows and uses every word ; development through activity and apperception. 2. Interest. The child's interest is limited to the present; hence, limit words to present use. 3. Adaptation. Books adapted to average groups may not satisfy individual needs. 4. Economy of effort. Lists are conducive to con- centrated, productive effort ; books present many words that are useless on account of being too easy or too difficult. 5. Correlation. Lists selected from all the subjects in the grades tend to produce unity and ac- curacy in each child's circle of thought. 159. Combination of book and lists. — However well a book or a list may serve its purpose, there should be a special list of the misspelled words in every class. Combine all useful devices. 160. Methods. — Oral spelling, written spelling, and a com- bination of oral and written spelling are usually considered the three methods. Numerous devices are often discussed as 86 METHODS IN EDUCATION methods. The three methods mentioned should be combined or alternated frequently so that pupils may profit by all of the advantages in each method. 161. Advantages of oral spelling. 1. It teaches enunciation, syllabication, pronuncia- tion. 2. Interest stimulated through honest rivalry. 3. Economy of time by avoiding- the necessity of correcting- papers. 162. Disadvantages of oral spelling. 1. It does not insure correct written spelling-. 2. Every pupil does not have to spell all the words of the lesson. 3. Inattention may be fostered in a large class. 163. Advantages of written spelling. 1. Practical because it prepares for accurate written work. 2. Every pupil has to spell all the words. 3. Co-ordination of many senses. 4. Correlation of many subjects. 164. Disadvantages of written spelling. 1. The pupil must use his sense of hearing to obtain proper enunciation and pronunciation. 2. Social stimulus is lacking until the report of the exercises is made. 3. Dishonest work by copying and also in correct- ing the work when papers are interchanged. 165. Directions for studying a spelling lesson in class. 1. See that physical environment is satisfactory : light, heat, ventilation, seats. 2. Prepare the minds of the children by telling them that the purpose of this exercise is to master a certain amount of work in a minimum time. SPELLING 87 3. Have pupils look carefully at a word. 4. Close book, think of the word, write it. 5. Comparison of the written word with the printed word. 6. Repeat the process when mistakes have been made. 166. How to learn a spelling lesson.— When spelling^ held equal rank with arithmetic and other studies, it was customary for the teacher to assig-n an exercise for study in school or at home, and the pupils considered it a part of their duty to learn to spell every word in the exercise. This plan of assig-nment and study is criticised in the new education upon the ground that the learning of such words in that manner is a mere exercise of the memory without the use of correlation or multiple sense in the process of learning. What, then, shall be substituted ? A German educator, Herman Schiller, has made a practical investigation of oral and visual modes of learning spelling. His conclusions are quoted in Principal W. B. Wait's Annual Report for the New York Institution for the Blind, 1903. They are in the order of merit, from highest to lowest. The quotation marks indicate Mr. Wait's report; the criticisms are ours. "1. Copying with speaking (naming the letters softly)." This plan employs the eye, the ear, the tongue and the hand; it requires attention, observation, and physical poise; it presupposes good control of the class and favorable environ- ment. "2. Copying with speaking aloud." This plan is criticised upon the ground that the noise made by a large number of the pupils may be a source of disturbance to several pupils in the class. "3. Seeing with writing movements." Under this plan a word is written upon the blackboard 88 METHODS IN EDUCATION or upon a card so that every pupil in class can see it. All pupils fix their g-aze upon the work in an effort to visualize it. In making- the w^riting- movements in the air, their effort to learn combines the sense of sight and the motor activity. "4. Spelling (hearing the letters named)." This plan is criticised because it deals with letters as the units of our language instead of con- sidering words as symbols of ideas. "5. Seeing" with speaking aloud. " "6. Seeing with speaki'ng softly." "7. Seeing- alone. " . "8. Hearing with writing- movements." "9. Hearing and speaking aloud. " "10. Hearing with speaking softly." "11. Hearing alone (word pronounced only)." "In all these methods, except hearing the letters named, and hearing the word pronounced, but not spelled, the work is done by the pupil alone. Spelling based upon words pronounced but not spelled to the pupil takes the lowest place, but spelling based on words both pronounced and spelled to the ear takes fourth place. Here it should be noticed that there is a long period in the child's life before it has learned to read or write, when hearing and speech are the only avail- able means of learning language." "It will be seen that Schiller gives first place to a composite method; copying and speaking softly; the complete act involv- ing the four memories, namely, a visual form of memory, a manual motor memory, vocal motor memory and the aural memory." 167. Suggestions to the teacher. 1. Pronounce the word only once. 2. Give only one trial in oral spelling. 3. Work for natural tones in spelling. SPELLING 89 4. Do not mispronounce unusual words for the sake of aiding the child in spelling- such words. 5. Vary the order from that given in the spelling book. 6. Have pupils pronounce the word before and after spelling it. 7. Have pupils pause at the end of each syllable, but do not have them pronounce each syllable separately. 8. Teach phonic spelling whenever that will be an aid in mastering the words. 168. Rules for spelling. — A few simple rules may be helpful to pupils who find difficulty in ordinary spelling, but such memorizing should be limited to actual usefulness. The limita- tions are evident as soon as a child finds more difficulty in learning and applying the rules than in memorizing the words themselves. The substance of the rules is the same in all texts, but simplicity and clearness in wording is found in the following from Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, page 258. Rule I. — Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, fine, finer; love, loving. Exceptions.— The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after o; as, hoeing; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as singeing, dyeing. Rule II. — Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not beginning with i; as, witty, wittier, dry, dried. Exceptions. — Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, lady's, the Marys, the Henrys. Rule III. In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, hot, hotter; begin, be- ginning. Exception. — X, k, and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plural. 90 METHODS IN EDUCATION 169. Classification of words. 1. Primitive. A word in its simplest form is a primitive or prime word; as, by, in, man, short, g;o. 2. Derivative. A word formed from a primitive word by joining- prefixes or suffixes is a derivative word; as, g^oing-, unmanly, recall. 3. Compound. Two or more words united into one word form a compound word; as, today, watch- man, subject-matter, text-book. 4. Synonyms. Words having- the same or similar meaning are synonyms; as, hope and expect; certain and sure; devout and pious. 5. Antonyms. Words having" opposite meaning- are antonyms; as, good and evil; lazy and in- dustrious. 6. Homophones. Words having- the same sound but different spelling- and meaning- are homo- phones; as, sell and cell; beer and bier; write, rite and right. Sometimes called paronyms or homonyms. 7. Homonyms. Words having- the same sound and spelling- but different meaning are homonyms; as the verb bear and the noun bear; the verb receipt and the noun receipt. 170. How to teach synonyms. — The first attention to synonyms will be directed by the teacher. During the class criticism of compositions, favorable occasions will arise. The teacher's explanation must be the source of information until pupils are able to understand the dictionary distinctions. Pupils enjoy the liberty of expression that seems to be granted by the choice of words. Following are suggestions. 1. Let oral and written language show the need of synonyms. 2. The early use of synonyms is larger power of expression; a later use is precision in language. SPELLING 91 3. Observe the choice of words in quotations, dicta- tion and other literary material. This is using a model. 4. Have pupils use their ow^n lang-uag-e in making- distinctions; verify ansv^^ers by dictionary or other authority; use the synonyms in sentences. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Ability, capacity. Ability is active pow^er; ca- pacity is receptive pov^^er. You have shown ability in alg-ebra and capacity in literature. 2. Between, among. Between is a preposition showing- relation of two things; among, more than two. Rachel stood between first and third among forty pupils. 3. Habit, custom, usage. Habit relates to acts of an individual; custom implies the consent of many; and usage is established custom. If you wish to conform to the usage of literary men, observe the custom of our best writers and then try to form habits accordingly. 4. Character, reputation. Character is what you are; reputation is what people think you are. "Character is injured by temptations and by wrongdoing; reputation, by slanders and libels." 5. Compare, contrast. Compare is to find re- semblances; contrast, to find differences. Com- pare Labrador and England in latitude and contrast them in climate. 171. How to teach homophones. — As these words are alike in sound, the sense of hearing alone will lead to error. Ob- serve the difference in spelling and the difference in meaning. With younger pupils, the words should be mastered one at a time; with older pupils, the whole group furnishes a basis for contrast and a stimulus for mastery. A few groups will 92 METHODS IN EDUCATION suffice. It is understood, of course, that use in g-ood sentences is one final test of a knowledge of the spelling- and the mean- ing- of homophones. The Rational Spelling Book, by Dr. J. M. Rice, calls such words as these homonyms. bad, wicked bade, did bid. dying, expiring dyeing, coloring. rain, water from clouds reign, to rule rein, part of harness. rite, a ceremony right, correct write, to record letters wright, a workman. air, atmosphere ere, before e'er, ever heir, one who inherits Ayre, a town in Scotland. 172. How to teach homonyms. — Since homonyms differ in meaning only, this one difference is the point to attack in teaching and learning. Recall all that has been approved as efficient teaching of spelling and apply as much of it as pos- sible in teaching homonyms. Here are a few specific direc- tions. 1. Teach only such homonyms as young children need to know. 2. Teach one homonym at a time. 3. Teach by conversation and explanation; have pupils converse, explain, and use the word; write sentences. SPELLING 93 4. Teach the corresponding homonym in a similar manner. 5. Use both in sentences; drill upon meaning and spelling; pupils construct sentences. 6. Illustrations of homonyms. bear, an animal bear, to carry. cheer, good feeling cheer, to encourage. saw, a carpenter's tool saw, did see. 173. How to teach the meaning of words. 1. Associative or objective process. The object is shown and the name applied. If object can- not be used, show picture or other representa- tion. Moulding board is a familiar means. Thus in teaching the noun divide, a word used for watershed in geography. Observe a divide in the school yard after a rain; compare roof ; make an excursion to a hill and see that it is a divide; use pictures, drawings and sand table. 2. By imitation. Buzzing, flying, swimming, row- ing, and similar words are represented by action; likewise for words like mew, bark, purr, neigh and bleat. This activity appeals to the dramatic instinct in children. Compare kindergarten activity. 3. By the context. Most words being und-erstood, focus attention upon what is not understood and then try to supply or substitute the mean- ing needed to complete the thought in the sentence. Take a quotation from Hawthorne: "Happiness in this world, when it comes. 94 METHODS IN EDUCATION comes incidentally. Make it an object of pur- suit, and it leads us a wild-g^oose chase, and is never attained." The italicised words can be defined from the context. 4. By etymology. Take autograph : graph, write ; auto, self; a signature written by the person himself. Compare telegraphy, phonograph, geography, stenography. Consult Anderson's "A Study of English Words", American Book Company, 1897; Trench's "On the Study of Words"; Greenough and Kittredge's Words and their Ways in English Speech, Macmil- lan, 1901; Kennedy's What Words Say. In analysis and synthesis pupils should use the technical names of the parts of words. Root, stem, base, adjunct, prefix and sufifix are used by different authors, but base, prefix and suffix are enough. The primitive form of a word is the root. It is the name used by philologists to denote the original form and meaning of the word. That part of a word to which the inflectional endings are added is the stem. The stem may be the same as the root, or it may be a modified form of the root. Thus in abduct, due is the root; duct is the stem. The word or stem to which other parts are joined is the base. The base may be a word, as in wa«4-hood; or it may be a stem, as in 2i\x\.o+graph. A form or word joined to the base is an adjunct, as rest +/«/, steam + boat. A form placed before the base is a prefix; after the base a suffix. SPELLING 95 ad, to bene, well oi- good contra, against super, above ob, against, vi, way join, add factor, doer diet, speak script, written ad, to ject. thrown ILLUSTRATIONS SUFFIX ion, that which ous, being ive, in- clined to DERIV- ATIVES adjoin benefactor contradict super- MEANING to join to one who does good to speak against that which is written soinption above obvious adjective being directly in the way against or in front of us. inclined to be thrown to another word. By the history of words. This is another kind of etymolog-y. Thus dahlia is derived from the name of the botanist Dahl, Dunce is from Duns Scotus, a famous scholar, whose theories were later ridiculed so much that his name became a synonym for stupidity. Trivial is from tres viae, the junction of three roads in Rome where g-ossipers spent their time in idle talk. Sincere is sine, without, and cera, wax; a g-uaranty applied to perfect vases sold in Italy. By finding synonyms. Comparison and contrast impresses the meaning and at the same time enlarges the vocabulary. For example, take excite and incite. Excite, to rouse feelings for action; incite, to urge the excited feelings to accomplish something. A teacher excites her pupils for the consideration of social duty and then incites them to do their duty. 96 METHODS IN EDUCATION 174. How pupils may show their knowledge of the meaning of words. 1. By use of the words in conversation. 2. By interpretation of the words in reading-. 3. By constructing- illustrative sentences. Inflam- mable means burning- with a flame, while combustible means burning without a flame. 4. By forming definitions. 5. By using synonyms. 6. By etymology. 7. By drawings and models. 175. Means of learning pronunciation. 1. By imitation of teacher. 2. By phonic drill. 3. By practice under 174. 176. Uses of the dictionary. — The dictionary is intended as a means of verification and as a source of g-eneral knowledge. In this use the pupils should be taught the following: 1. How to find the word. 2. How to understand the sounds of the letters as indicated by the diacritical marks. 3. To master the syllabication. 4. To observe the accent. 5. To give the pronunciation of the word. 6. In later grades the dictionary will aid in secur- ing the varied meanings and also in mastering synonyms, antonyms, etc. 177. Exercises in word-building. — This synthetic drill supple- ments the exercises in analysis of words, and also serves as generalization and application of all phases of knowledge in spelling. Some different ways are suggested. 1. Write on board a dozen common prefixes and their meanings; likewise with root- words and suffixes. Have pupils copy in books for per- manent use at home or in school. This material SPELLING 97 can be used in a lively competition to form the larg-est number of words. Pupils should con- sult dictionary to prove the accuracy of their ovi^n work. The teacher should help pupils to memorize all the prefixes, suffixes and root- words given; drill frequently upon the lists; and encourage pupils to enlarge the lists. The usefulness of such lists is a satisfaction to pupils. 2. Each pupil gives a word having the suffix /^<,'- of the nature of two parts of speech, have many uses. 5. Here is a paper neatly written, properly punc- tuated, carefully thought out, and placed on the teacher's desk at the appointed time. The mere noun has a sing-le nature. It is often preceded by the and followed by a phrase introduced by of. 1. The hand ting of money pleases some people. 2. Angry /ee/ing is betrayed by the countenance. 3. The mastery of grammar is a difficult undertak- ing. 4. The groaning of the prisoners and the clanking of chains were heard. 5. Our pupils study drawing, sewing, and physical training. It is argued by some that when drawing, sewing, etc., are simply the names of subject-matter in the recitation they are nouns. Other authorities hold that as long as such words pos- sess anything of the nature of verbs they are still to be classed as verbals. Thus Maxwell in his Advanced Gram- mar, page 155, classes drawing as a gerund. John learns drawing. Walking is healthy exercise. GRAMMAR 137 To avoid mooted points on examinations, tlie student is ad- vised to use an object after drawing-, sin«-ing-, etc., if he wishes to classify those words under g-erunds. 1. The pupils practice drawing- natural objects. 2. The children enjoy sing-ing- song-s. 3. Do you enjoy reading- English history ? 4. Writing- good English is a pleasing exercise. 5. Spelling- ordinary words is not too difficult a task. The gerund, or participle, used as a noun, has the twofold nature 6f noun antl verb, implies or assumes action without asserting- it, and may take modifiers and complements like those of a predicate verb. 1. We should encourag-e reading g-ood books. 2. My goi7ig will depend upon your coining. 3. Persuading by kindness is sometimes the making of hard tasks for one's self. 4. Your sftidying now will prevent your a'orrying at the close of the term. 5. In carefully j?^;"(^^'^^i';"/>z^ every assigned lesson one is doing- one's duty to the class and to the school. 238. Drill on participle used as adjective ; verbal, or verbal ad- jective. 1. Children come rejoicing. 2. He fell at his master's feet, weeping. 3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 4. Your credit being good, I will trust you. 5. I, being your guardian, expected to have my way. 6. Rising to reply, Washington stood blushing and stammering. 7. The treaty having been signed, trade was re- sumed with Spain. 8. Pronouns denoting the person speaking are of the first person. 138 METHODS IN EDUCATION 9. The reg-ion drained by a river system is called the river basin. 10. Columbus, seeking- the back door of Asia, found himself knocking- at the front door of America. — J. R. Lowell. 239. Drill on participles used as nouns; gerunds, or verbal nouns. 1. Let us beware of losing- our enthusiasm. 2. Doing- well depends upon doing- completely. 3. What do you think of his writing- that letter ? 4. By writing slowly you may learn to write legibly. 5. Forsaking- evil companions is often the first step in reform. 6. All students should form the habit of reading- poetry. 7. The object in sailing west was to find a shorter route to India. 8. He that is g-ood at making- excuses is seldom g-ood for anything- else. — Franklin. 9. Being- in a ship is like being in a jail with a chance of being drowned.— Johnson. 10. Talking is like playing a harp; there is as much in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibrations as in twanging them to bring out their music. — Holmes. 240. Drill on participle used as a mere adjective. — Here the twofold nature is not considered; the verbal forms should be parsed as adjectives. 1. The breaking waves dashed high. 2. The creeping night stole up the hills. 3. Education is the moulding force of life. 4. Here sailing ships delight the wandering eye. 5. Now toward the early dawning east We speed our course away, With eager minds- and joyful hearts, To meet the rising day. GRAMMAR 139 There, as we turn our wondering- eyes, We view one constant show, — Above, around, the circling- skies, The rolling- seas below. — Cape Cod Song-. 241. Drill on participle used as a mere noun. — Notice that these forms are used to name an act rather than to express an act. 1. Slow traveling- is tiresome. 2. The cackling of g-eese saved Rome. 3. The visitors joined in the singing. 4. Giving is more blessed than receiving. 5. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 6. The shearing of the sheep in Australia is done by machinery. 7. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. — Longfellow. 8. The treatment of drowning is simply to perform artificial respiration. — Overton. 9. Drawing, reading, writing, spelling, physical training and declamation come in the after- noon. 10. The firing of signal guns was telegraphing by sound. It used only the hearing. But there were other ways of telegraphing that used the sight. — E. Eggleston. 242. Uses of infinitives. 1. As a noun. (a) Subject. To siic is to believe. (b) Attribute. To see is to believe. ■ (c) Object of verb. Pupils like to sing. (d) Object of preposition. We are about to sing. (e) Appositive. It is easy to find i2^x\\.. (f) Independent. Every object has its face, so to speak. 2. As an adjective. 140 mp:thods in education (a) Modifying- a noun. I have a lesson to teach. (b) Modifying- a pronoun. Teach them to think. 3. As an adverb. (a) Modifying- a verb. They came to study. (b) Modifying- an adjective. They are eag-er to study. (c) Modifying an adverb. The fruit is ripe enoug-h to eat. 243. Drill on infinitives used as nouns. 1. Never fear to do rig-ht. 2. Learn to govern yourself. :3. Your aim should be to g-overn yourself. 4. It is not impossible to g-overn yourself. 5. To g-overn yourself is a duty in citizenship. 6. It is never too late to mend. 7. It is not all of life to live. 8. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 9. To dispute about trifles is foolish. 10. It was proposed to tax the colonies. 11. To be just is easier than to be g-enerous. 12. To be plain with you, you have not tried. 13. It is helpful to study the life of Lincoln. 14. To submit to insult is to g-ive occasion for it. 15. To cultivate kindness is a valuable part of the business of life. — Johnson. 16. In g-reat crises, it is a woman's special lot to soften our misfortune. — Napoleon Bonaparte. 244. Drill on infinitives used as adjectives. 1. Have you time to study g-rammar? 2. Alg-er's stories seem to suit boys. 3. Ask them to sing- patriotic song-s. 4. Pupils have a desire to appear well. 5. Columbus did much to calm the sailors' fears. 245. Drill on infinitives used as adverbs. 1. There is work enough to do. GRAMMAR 141 2. Are you anxious to g^overn yourself? 3. She is too sensible to be flattered. 4. You should strive to govern yourself. 5. You are old enough to govern yourself. 6. I paused to observe the bird's proceedings. 7. Call to see me if you happen to pass this way. 8. Irving's w^ritings v^ere the first to make Ameri- can literature popular in England. 9. Every morning the Persian wife used to kneel at tlie feet of her husband and ask nine times, "What do you wish iliat I shoiiUl do?" 246. The infinitive without to.— The verbs h/c? 9. Behold the soldiers march in solid ranks. 10. Watch me diagra/n this sentence. 247. Development: Words, phrases, clauses.— This develop- ment shows how to proceed from the known to the related unknown. This lesson aims to secure di LTerent forms of ex[}res- sion for the same thought; an exercise in amplification. I. Aim to increase knowledge of phrases and clauses. II. Preparation. Review definitions of phrase and clause. III. Presentation. Recall the simple sentence of two words, subject and predicate; then the added adjective modifier and the adverb modifier. Have fol- lowing sentences on board : 1. The athlete is a strong man. 142 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. The athlete is a man of great strength. 3. The athlete is a man who has great strength. 4. Study here. 5. Study /;/ this school. 6. Study while you are in school. 7. Tell us an historical story. 8. Tell us a story about history. 9. Tell us a story which relates to history. 10. The prince Y\y^^ foolishly. 11. The prince lived in a foolish manner. 12. The prince lived as a fool lives. Pupils know^ definitions of parts of sentences, parts of speech, phrase and clause. Now impress v^^ord, phrase and clause as the three kinds of g-rammatical QX&va^n\.^ from form. All read sentence 1. Individuals name parts of sentence and parts of speech. Teacher underlines strong. Visualize strong-. Sug-g-est the purpose of making- or finding other ex- pressions for the same meaning-. The direct statement of the purpose of this recitation v^ill be enough to encourag-e a class to select, discuss and define the phrase elements and the clause elements. These twelve sentences will furnish the analytic drill. For synthetic drill the following- italicised words are suitable for expansion : 1. We respect an ho7iorable pupil. 2. Washington ^Lrrived. punctually. 3. An honest effort will be rewarded. 4. Diligent men are usually happy. 5. Franklin arose early. Note — The presentation in this lesson is essentially a drill. This shows that the five formal steps need not be rigidly fol- lowed in all lessons. 248. Drill on adjective clauses. ^ 1. I that speak unto thee am he. 2. The evil that men do lives after them. 3. He is well paid that is well satisfied. GRAMMAR 143 4. Men must reap the things they sow. — Shelly. 5. Words are the only thing-s that live forever. 6. Put your trust in those whom you have tested. 7. He serves all who dares to be true. — Emerson. 8. Blessed is he who has found his work. — Carlyle. 9. He that plants trees loves others besides himself. 10. Choose carefully those with w^hom you will as- sociate. 11. Time, which deadens hatred, secretly strengthens love. 12. Sunday is the golden clasp that binds the volume of the week. 13. That that that that boy used should have been a which. 14. We never tell our secrets to people who pump for them. 15. California is the state whose mines became known in 1849. 16. Self-respect is the noblest garment with which a man may clothe himself. 17. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 18. He who has resolved to conquer or die is seldom conquered. — Corneille. 19. Memory is the only paradise out of which we cannot be driven away. — Richter. 20. It is a belief in the Bible which has served me as the guide of my moral and literary life. — Goethe. 249. Development : Concord of relative pronoun and antecedent. I. Aim. To show that the relative pronoun need not agree in case with the antecedent. II. Preparation. Define pronoun, relative pronoun; name the properties of nouns and pronouns. III. Presentation. 1. You are the pupils who make the school. 144 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. You are the pupils whose records g-ive this school its reputation. 3. You are the pupils whom the teachers trust. 4. I dislike an eye that never twinkles. — Ivong-- fellow. 5. Life is a bubble which any breath may dis- solve. — Greeley. 6. He is a free man whom truth makes free. — Dry den. 7. No man is born Into the world whose work is not born with him. — Lowell. 8. Construct a sentence which will have a relative pronoun in the nominative case. This lesson is an opportunity for real self- activity. It is application rather than the presentation of new matter. There are four inquiries for each sentence. What is the relative pronoun? What case is the relative pronoun ? What is the antecedent? What case is the antecedent ? Thus in the first sentence zu/io is the relative pronoun, nominative case; pupils is the ante- cedent, nominative case. Here the pronoun and antecedent do aijree in case. Take the second sentence. The relative pronoun whose is pos- sessive case ; the antecedent pupils is nomina- tive case. The pronoun and the antecedent do not agree in case. Likewise in 3, 6, 7, and 8. IV. Drill. For further effective drill have pupils recall, find, or construct sentences to prove that the relative pronoun need not always agree in case with the antecedent. 250. Development : The noun clause. I. Aim. To outline a plan of teaching- the noun clause. This plan is a simple way of passing from the GRAMMAR 145 known uses of nouns by substituting- a clause for each specific use of the noun. II. Preparation. Review uses of nouns as illustrated in the sentences. Say that this lesson in g-ram- mar will use material taken from a discussion in astronomy. Some astronomers say that every star is like the sun in brillancy but the stars appear like small lights simply because they are so far from us. The statement spoken of in these sentences is the statement that stars are suns. 1. Subject. The statement is believed. 2. Object. Some people believe that statement. 3. Attribute. It is an interesting- statement. 4. Object of preposition. Have you any doubt about the statement ? 5. Appositive. This belief or statement is fasci- nating-. III. Presentation. The preparation has g-one directly to the points to be emphasized, namely, the prin- cipal uses of nouns in. sentences. The pupils know the definitions of phrases and clauses. Now their efi^orts will be directed toward sub- stituting- the clause for each use of the noun in the sentences g-iven. 1. That stars are suns is believed. 2. Some people believe that stars are suns. 3. The statement is that stars are suns. 4. Have you any doubt about whether stars are suns ? 5. The statement that stars are suns is fascinating-. IV. Drill. Two kinds of drill are sug-gested here, namely, interpretation of sentences given, and expan- sion. The constructive experience in making- sentences to illustrate all the uses of noun clause is also advised. 11 146 METHODS IN EDUCATION 1. Let US see how the earth revolves. 2. My desire is that you may become useful men and w^omen. 3. The opinion that children are naturally bad is not favored by me. 4. Have g-rammarians any proof of v^^hat they say ? 5. Nature teaches that there is order in her ways. 6. That you are ambitious is proved by your rec- ord. 7. The question is whether I oug-ht to do it. 8. Can you understand that a noun clause is used like a noun ? 9. Franklin learned that self-help is one way to success. 10. Trouble teaches how much there is in manhood. — Beecher. Further drill by substituting and expansion is valuable in teaching- the specific uses of noun clauses. Such a process in teaching is both natural and logical. It is suggested that pupils expand the italicised parts into clauses. 1. The teacher asked the pupils to study. 2. We believe in the heroisin of Nathan Hale. 3. Have you read of A?'7iold's sad death? 4. The beauty of Mt. Veriion is fascinating. 5. Grant proved his ability. 251. Drill on noun clauses. 1. I saw that you were faithful. 2. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 3. We believe that the soul is immortal. 4. Many men advocate whatever seems popular. 5. Can he hold the position ? is the question. 6. Where Warren fell is not precisely known. 7. That he is rich does not mean that he is happy. 8. The charge is that you have neglected your duty. GRAMMAR 147 9. Who wrote the ^ook of Job is not positively known. 10. Much will depend upon how you write your answers. 11. It is not work that kills men; it is worry. -Beecher. 12. The g-ood is always the road to what is true. — Hamilton. 13. I regret that I have l)ut one life to g-ive to my country. — Hale. 14 "Beautiful creature," said the fox, "you sing^ like a nightingale." 15. One would think that the fate of our country depends upon who will be our next president. 16. Have you any explanation of why you say that noun clauses are used as nouns? 17. The world will little note nor long- remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. — Lincoln at Gettysburg. 18. If ever it is a question whether you or the flag must perish, you will instantly choose that it shall not be the flag.— W. T. Sherman. 19. Have we not learned that not stocks nor bonds nor stately houses nor lands nor the product of the mill is our country? It is a spiritual thought that is in our minds. — Benjamin Harrison. 20. That the daring barques of the Northmen had long before found their way from Greenland to the coast of North America is likiply, though not certain. What is certain is that nothing more came of their first visit. — Goldwin Smith. 252. Connectives: Explanation and drill. — Pupils have al- ready had some uses of the conjunction, the relative pronoun and possibly the conjunctive adverb. The aim of this lesson is to give breadth tq their knowledge of connectives. This 148 METHODS IN EDUCATION aim may be attained by analysis to find illustrative uses and then by synthesis to impress those uses. I. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Words. Boys and g-irls study connectives. 2. Phrases. Pupils study at home and in school. 3. Independent clauses. Some pupils study at home aTid then they recite well in school. 4. Noun clause. Teachers know that pupils need drill on connectives. 5. Noun clause. Can you tell whether you under- stand this or not. 6. Adverb clause of time. Careless people speak before they think. 7. Adverb clause of cause. Napoleon was sad l^c- cause he was in exile. 8. Adverb clause of condition. If you understand, let us proceed. 9. Adverb clause of purpose. We study that we may prepare for successful living-. Correlative conjunctions mutually relate to each other. They should be placed before similar parts of speech or before corresponding groups of words. 10. Flattery corrupts both the receiver ajid the giver. — Burke. 11. There is nothing either good or bad, but think- ing makes it so. — Shakespeare. 12. Try to observe whether to speak or to be silent. 13. Man is neither the vile nor the excellent being- which he sometimes imagines himself to be. — Bcjxonsfield. Relative pronouns. Used in adjective clauses. Who, which, what and that are the common forms. See section 248 for illustrations. The pronoun is often omitted, as in the following- sentences, GRAMMAR 149 1. This is the lesson you will learn. 2. Cicero is the orator you mentioned. 3. Connectives is the topic the teacher assigned. II. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. The name is derived from the double function of conjunction and adverb. First illustrations are in adverb clauses. 1. Time. You learn easily Tiv/zi?;? you are interested. 2. Place. Cattle will graze where the grass is best. 3. Manner. The Indians live as their forefathers lived. 4. Comparison. Nev^ York has a better harbor than Baltimore has. 5. Degree. The greater a man is, the less he is disposed to show^ his greatness. — Channing. (Here the first the is an adverb modifying greater; the second the is a conjunctive adverb modifying the adverb less and connecting the two clauses. The principal clause is The greater a man is.) Conjunctive adverb in adjective clauses. Why, when and where are the common forms, and they are frequently associated in this way; reason why, time when, place where. 1. Give a reason why you study grammar. 2. This is the time when you study grammar. 3. This is the place where you study grammar. 4. The child trusts because it finds no reason in it- self why it should not.— Holland. 5. Some schools are places where laziness becomes habitual. 6. The place whereto he came was -an abandoned mine. 7. This great world is the mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves. — Montaigne. ISO METHODS IN EDUCATION 8. The play is the thing Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king-. — Shakespeare. 9. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 10. Is patriotism a narrow affection for the spot where a man was born ? — Fisher Ames. III. RELATIVE PRONOUN. See illustrative uses in sections 247 and 248. 253. Distinctive uses of connectives illustrated.— Use in the sentence determines the specific classification of connectives. Take as for illustration. 1. Strong men wept as the procession passed. Con- junctive adverb of time. 2. Grammar is as easy as arithmetic is. The first as is an adverb of degree modifying the ad- jective easy; the second as is a conjunctive adverb of degree. 3. Your place has been filled, as you came too late. Conjunction. 4. There are such pupils as one could desire. Rel- ative pronoun. 254. Synthetic drill on connectives. — Construct sentences to illustrate the following : CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Coordinate: and, but, or. 2. Expressing cause: as, since, because. 3. Condition: if, unless, except. 4. Concession : though, although. 5. Purpose: that, in order that. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 1. Time: when, before, after. 2. Place: where, whence, whereto. 3. Degree: as-as, the-the. GRAMMAR 151 4. Comparison: than, as. 5. Why, where, when, introducing- adjective clauses. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Who, whose, whom, which, that. 255. Fill blanks, tell kind of connective, and classify dependent clauses : 1. you have nothing- to say, say nothing-. 2. I admire his courage, I consider him cruel. 3. Do not g-o the sun has set. 4. Holmes wrote he amused others. 5. I am proud I am an American. 6. any one attempts to haul down the flag-, shoot him on the spot. — John A. Dix. 7. We join ourselves to no party does not carry the flag- and keep step to the music of the Union. — Rufus Choate. 8. There is no lang-uag-e or speech their voices are not heard. 9. He will neither come in go out. 10. I see no reason you should not succeed. 11. You cannot succeed you work. 12. The moon rose the sun had set. 13. he fails to repay me, I will trust him. 14. These are the pupils future will deter- mine civic questions. 256. Exercises in false syntax. — These sentences cover some of the common faults in writing and speaking: 1. It is me. 2. I done that. 3. I seen him. 4. This here one. 5. Do like I do. 6. Let you and I study together. 7. You are better than me in arithmetic. 152 METHODS IN EDUCATION 8. I have gfot back. 9. Not as I know of. 10. I have saw him. 11. "Who do you see ? 12. He had laid down. 13. What are the news ? 14. Set down and rest. 15. I had ought to g-o. 16. He was to Henry's. 17. Don't never do that. 18. Can you learn me ? 19. They returned back. 20. It was her who called. 21. He must stay to home. 22. Did you see them men ? 23. I do not like these kind of sentences. 24. This is the best of the two. 25. I had rather write. 26. I only want five dollars. 27. You hadn't ought to go. 28. Continue on in this way. 29. Who does this belong to ? 30. He had near ten dollars. 31. We had an awful nice time. 32. I expected to have seen him. 33. Either of them are rich. 34. I have a couple of dollars. 35. He died with consumption. 36. I guess I can do this work. 37. The two first men are strongest. 38. They will go from hence next week. 39. He has four brother-in-laws. 40. It is funny how long she stays sick. 41. Henry and John is coming. 42. He dropped down into the water. 43. They differ between one another. GRAMMAR 153 44. See that 'ere bird. 45. There's lots of them in school. 46. I do not know nothing about it. 47. I went to New York, you know, and when I came back, you see, I entered school. 48. You are not as careful as you should be. 49. A lady wants to sell her piano as she is going- abroad in a strong iron frame. 50. Wanted a room by a man ten feet by fifteen feet. Chapter XII. Geography. 257. The old and the new. — In" the widespread criticism of old ways of teaching-, g-eog-raphy has received its full share of censure. Slavish following of the text-book, memorizing long lists of names, and the study of unrelated facts are among- the faults mentioned. The new presentation of g-eography makes man the center of interest by relating all the facts to the wel- fare of mankind. This is what is meant by saying that "g-eog-raphy should be invested with human interest;" and that "the aim in teaching- g-eog-raphy should be to g-ive the pupil knowledge of the earth as it ministers to human life." 258. Illustration. — The old way of studying the rivers of the United States required a description of each river under the form "rises, flows and empties." Today those three items are subordinate facts in the larg-er effort of finding- what each river does to aid ag-riculture, manufactures, commerce and the pleasures of life. Aside from the use of drainage, the student studies the correlated facts of science, literature, history and geography until every important g-eog-raphical fact becomes a related cause in the past, the present and the future progress of humanity. "Once there was no g-eog-raphy of the Rocky Mountains, for example, except a study of their location and elevation and their representation on colored maps. Today the student studies its Yellowstone, its Salt Lake, its palisades, parks, and canons, but he soon runs ag-round in the leg-itimate fields of g-eography, and finds himself encroaching- upon the territory of geology or botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, or mineralogy. Even in an elementary discussion of the in- fluences of these mountains upon the climate of the continent, many facts must go unexplained without the principles of nat- ural philosophy. That geography of the Rocky Mountains is GEOGRAPHY 155 incomplete which does not include a typical and detailed study of its industries, of its mining-, smelting, lumbering-, herding-, and its method of agriculture and irrig-ation. A study of the various peoples of the mountains may take the direction of sociolog-y, economics, ethnolog-y, and g-overnment. The g-eo- g-raphy of the Rocky Mountains thus approached, and only thus, may g"ive a true insig-ht into, and an ability to interpret, that part of the world. " — Heeter, Commercial and Industrial Geog-raphy, N. E. A. Report, 1907, p. 509. 259. Broader educational use. — This modern conception of the industrial value of g-eog-raphical knowledg-e is proof enoug-h that the study of g-eog^raphy is more than a mere memory process. The following- discussions will show the necessity of employing- observation, memory, imag-ination, reason and judg-ment in every complete study of a topic. 260. New York City course of study. — The g^eneral course of study for New York City was adopted by the Board of Educa- tion May 27, 1903; revised June 21, 1905 and June 11, 1907; and the syllabus in g-eog-raphy was adopted by the Board of Su- perintendents in October, 1905, and revised in July, 1907. This last revision embodies the consensus of opinion of the best thinkers on this subject, and so some parts of the sug-- g-estions on g-eog-raphy are taken verbatim, as i.n sections 261 to 264 inclusive. 261. Introductory note. — Geog-raphy has been defined as "the study of the earth as the home of man." How this phys- ical environment aids or hinders the development of man, and what man has done to modifj', adapt, and utilize his physical environment, constitute the subject-matter of geography. The human feature — man's achievements in industry, com- merce, and political organization— should predominate in the study. As Dr. Harris has stated the proposition, the pupil "must beg-in with the natural differences of climate and lands and waters and obstacles that separate peoples, and study the methods by which man strives to equalize or overcome these 156 METHODS IN EDUCATION differences by industry and commerce, to unite all places and all people, and make it possible for each to share in the pro- duction of all." The objects of teaching g-eography may be classified as practical, intellectual, and ethical. 262. Practical purposes. 1. There are many geographical facts, suchj for example, as the location and characteristics of important cities, mountain systems, and large rivers, which it is a disgrace and a mis- fortune not to know. Every public school child must be made to know such matters so thor- oughly that he will never forget them. 2. Maps and plans are now constantly used in news- papers and in business. The child must, therefore, be made to understand their conven- tional symbols and to become expert in re- ferring to them and interpreting them. 3. The child, as a member of a great manufacturing and commercial community, should be familiar with the resources and productions, raw and manufactured, of his own country, and of all , countries with which we have dealings; he should know the chief markets, home and foreign, for our goods; he should learn the quickest, safest and cheapest trade routes; he should be able to form conceptions of the kind of goods which home and foreign customers require from New York. While it cannot be expected that a child's judgment on such mat- ters will be highly trained, he should know how and where to find such information when he needs it. 4. Our current literature, magazines and news- papers, assume an intimate knowledge of GEOGRAPHY 157 geography on the part of the reader. School training in the subject should, therefore, result in the ability to determine quickly, by the use of an atlas, gazetteer or other work of refer- ence, the location and characteristics of places, the names of which are met with in reading or required in business. Special training along this line is required during the last three years of the course, under the heading, "Location of places associated with important current events." 263. Intellectual purposes. 1. Geography may be made to train the observing powers. As far as possible everything taught should be illustrated from what the child may see in this city. This statement holds good not merely of the introductory lessons in home geography, but of the lessons throughout the course.- Representatives of the chief races of men, every conceivable product of man's skill and industry, every modern means of transportation and communication, may be observed in this city, while our parks and museums are full of objects of historic and contemporary interest. It is suggested that each pupil be furnished with a small blank book in which to record out of school the re- sults of his observation. 2. It may be made to train the iinagination. At every step the pupil is called upon to build up conceptions of objects unseen and places un- visited through images derived from things seen, from pictures and from verbal descrip- tions. 158 mp:thods in education 3. Rijrhtly taught, geography trains the memory. The great vice, however, of geography instruc- tion is the learning by rote of lists of names, (rivers, cities, etc.), or the descriptive matter in the text-book. To avoid this barren and wasteful process, the facts of geography should be linked by natural associations. "What association so strong," asks Professor Laurie, "as the association of all our knowledge of a subject with the familiar objects of our daily lives, out of which we have made the teaching of geography spring ? What association so strong as the organic connection which this mode of teaching establishes in the mind?" Names of places, whenever possible, should be associated with important historical events and with literary allusions. 4. Geography should also be made, particularly during the last three years of the course, to train the 7'easoning powers. When you ask a child to classify the natural features of a country, rivers, for example, according to some common property, as navigability, or the pro- ducts of a country, as necessaries and luxuries; and still more when you ask him to generalize after he has classified, as for instance to de- termine the status of a people after a classi- fication of their products, you are training him to reason. 264, Ethical purposes. — The ethical purposes of the teaching of geography are to lead to the moral lesson that all men must work and that each man should so work that his labor will benefit not only himself, but the whole community, and that what is true of individuals is equally true of nations. "There is probably," says Professor Laurie, "no one subject so GEOGRAPHY 159 prolific of matter for independent thoug-ht and judg-ment on the affairs of life, and the destiny and duty of man. By means of it, too, we not merely furnish moral material, so to speak, but we extend the sympathies of the pupil, and lay the founda- tion of that sentiment of humanity which is the necessary counterpoise to narrow and parochial prejudices." In order that these matters may be more fully understood, the pupils must also be led to consider the earth in relation to the sun, its forms, its motions, and such resultant phenomena as the seasons, air and ocean currents, and rains. 265. Col. Parker quoted. — The first steps in geography should srive the child the means to imagine that which he can- not see. Begin with the forms around you; the close and care- ful study of the chains or ranges of hills, valleys, plains, coast-lines, springs, brooks, rivers, ponds, lakes, islands and peninsulas. Study them as you do objects in Botany or Zoology. Take the children out into the fields and valleys; return to the schoolroom; let them describe ^° beyond the north pole and falls short 23>^° of the south pole; days and nig-hts are longest in the northern hemisphere and shortest in the southern; heat is g-reatest in the northern hemisphere. This is the summer solstice and the season is sum- mer. 3. Autumn. On the 22nd of September the sun's rays are again vertical at the equator; the circle of illumination intersects the poles; days and nights are equal as on March 20; heat is decreasing in the northern hemisphere and in- creasing in the southern hemisphere. This is the autumnal equinox and the season is autumn. 4. Winter. On the 21st of December the sun's rays are vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn; the circle of illumination extends 23>^° beyond the south pole and falls short 23 j^^ of the north pole; days are longest in the southern hemi- sphere and shortest in the northern; heat is greatest in southern hemisphere. This is the winter solstice and the season is winter. 309. Zones. — Divisions of the earth's surface corresponding to the amount of heat received and to the varying length of days and nights are zones. GEOGRAPHY 193 The lesson on the seasons g-ives the essential facts used in this lesson. This is simply a classification of those facts. 1. Torrid Zone lies between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. 47 deg-rees or 3250 miles wide. Torrid means hot; this zone is the hottest por- tion of the earth. Days and nights nearly equal. Two seasons, wet and dry. 2. North Temperate Zone lies between Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle. 43 degrees or 3000 miles wide. Days and nights vary in length. Temperature varies; four seasons. 3. North Frigid Zone is north of the Arctic Circle. Width from Arctic Circle to north pole 23 >^ de- grees or 1625 miles; modern texts speak of the widths as 47 degrees. Oblique rays of the sun part of the year. Days vary in length from 24 hours to 6 months. Two seasons, summer and winter. 4. South Temperate Zone is bounded by Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle. 43 degrees wide. Four seasons opposite in time to North Temperate Zone. 5. South Frigid Zone. Size similar to North Frigid. Days and seasons opposite to North Frigid. 310. Isotherms. — Isotherms or isothermal lines are lines drawn upon a map or globe connecting all places having the same average temperature. Thus the isotherm of 50^ Faren- heit passes through New York at 40"^ latitude and London at 50" latitude, making a dip of 10 degrees in latitude. The true climatic zones do not correspond to the astronomical zones al- ready discussed. The Torrid Zone is bounded by 70° F. ; the Temperate, by 70" F. and 32° F. ; the Frigid is below 32° F. It is interesting to have the class follow a few isotherms around the earth and ascertain the causes for variation i^ latitude. Such an exercise will apply the facts under causes of climate. 14 194 METHODS IN EDUCATION 311. Latitude and longitude. I. Aim. To understand latitude and longitude as means of locating places on the earth. II. Preparation. Conversational exercise about familiar ways of locating things. Numbers for rooms, coat hooks, houses; aisles and rows of seats in the schoolroom; avenues and streets in the city. Show plan of regular section of a city where streets and avenues are at right angles. None of these ways adapted to earth as a Avhole; hence, necessity for another way. III. Presentation. Have circular disk, blank globe, maps and mapped globe. Draw axis and equator on circular disc and blank globe. These give starting points for measuring. 1. The name of the equator is known. Measure north and south in inches. Show impractical use of such standards as inch, rod or mile. Tell that the degree is the unit and that every circle contains 360 degrees. This number was chosen because it is divisible by all num- bers from 1 to 12 except 7 and 11. These facts must be accepted; they do not admit develop- ment. 2. For latitude, tell that the equator is starting point for measurement north or south. Hence, places on the equator have no latitude; they are marked 0"^. Now draw a circle passing through the poles; elicit that the north pole is a terminus in measuring north latitude, that the south pole is a terminus for south latitude; that the distance from the equator to either pole is one-fourth of the whole circle, or 90 de- grees ; that the limits of latitude are 0° and 90% GEOGRAPHY 195 3. Parallels. Lines can be drawn parallel to the equator for convenience in indicating- lati- tude. Call such lines parallels. Why? 4. Definition. The distance in deg-rees north or south of the equator is latitude. 5. For long-itude, another starting- point evidently required. Tell pupils that the meridian pass- ing- throug-h Greenwich, Eng-land, is the Prime Meridian. Prime means first; meridian means midday because all places on it have midday at the same time. 6. Draw Prime Meridian on black g-lobe or indicate it on mapped g-lobe. Two kinds of longitude, east and west. Have two pupils move objects from Prime Meridian east and west around the equator and thus observe that the maximum east or west long-itude is one-half way around the earth, or 180 degrees. 7. Meridians. Lines are necessary for indicating longitude; hence, the meridians. 8. Varying length of degrees of longitude. Observe meridians on g-lobe and maps; mark meridians and cut sections from apple, watermelon or other spherical forms. Make pupils see that greatest leng-th of a degree of longitude is on the equator; at the poles, 0°. 9. Definition. Distance in degrees east or west from the Prime Meridian is longitude. IV. Applications. 1. Practice in reading latitude and longitude at top and bottom of maps. Here explain that meridian of Washington is also used. 2. Find actual latitude and longitude of specified cities and countries. 3. Give latitude and longitude of certain places and have pupils find places. 196 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. Location of ships at sea. All ships have chro- nometers showing- accurate time at Greenwich. For instance, suppose the sun indicates 10 a. m. when the chronometer indicates 3 p. m. Since any spot on the earth's surf ace passes through 360 degrees in 24 hours, each hour is equivalent to IS degrees. The difference in time between chronometer and sun is S hours, or the equi- valent of 75 degrees. • Hence, the ship is in 75° west longitude. The longitude is west be- cause the time by the sun is earlier than the time by the chronometer. Reverse the facts and the longitude would be 75 east. 312. International Date Line. — If a man starts westward from London to travel around the world, he must set his watch back one hour for every IS degrees passed over if he wishes to have the correct local time. This would require twenty-four changes during the journey around the world, and thus he will lose twenty-four hours or a whole day. If he started eastward from London, he would set his watch ahead twenty-four times, and thus he would gain a day. To overcome such differences, the nations have agreed upon a place where time shall be changed. That place is the 180th meridian east and west from Greenwich. Suppose the two men start from Greenwich near London, one going eastward and the other westward. The one traveling eastward will find the time twelve hours later than when he started while the one traveling westward will find the time twelve hours earlier. So the latter in crossing the line on Wednesday must call the day Thursday; while the one traveling eastward in crossing the line on Wednesday must call the day Tuesday. 313. Standard Time.— The railroads of the United States have agreed upon scheduled places for changing time. Fol- lowing are the divisions: 75th meridian. Eastern Time. 90th meridian. Central Time, GEOGRAPHY 197 105th meridian. Mountain Time. 120th meridian. Pacific Time. It is evident that the difference in time between any two of these divisions is one hour. 314. Volcanoes. Concrete presentation. — One device for giving^ pupils a concept of volcanoes is to observe coke, ashes and iron slag-, which are known products resulting- from the ac- tion of heat; to explain the formation of the earth by the pro- cess of cooling of the surface while the interior still remained hot; to make drawings to illustrate earth's crust, heated in- terior and cracks in earth's crust; to show picture of active volcano; and to read or give vivid description of the action and results. This plan gives the general idea of a volcano with- out much emphasis upon details. Another presentation. — This plan involves a scientific treat- ment of the topic. In matter and method it is suited to older pupils. Heat of the interior of the earth is explained and proved as follows : 1. Hot springs are evidence of interior heat. Some found as far north as Iceland. 2. Geysers are another indication of interior heat. 3. Increasing heat in mines. Heat increases about one degree with every sixty feet of descent into the earth. 4. The nebular hypothesis regarding the formation of the planets explains the existence of the heated interior and the cooling crust. In the process of cooling the contraction causes many fissures, foldings and openings in the crust or surface of the planet. Action of volcanoes. Water from the surface of the earth passes through the openings into the heated interior; the heat expands the water into steam, and this added power causes an explosion or eruption. The matter thrown out during an eruption is lava, or melted rock, pumice stone, water, steam, 198 METHODS IN EDUCATION sand, mud, cinders, and ashes. The opening- throug-h which the materials are forced is the crater of the volcano. Noted volcanoes. Mauna Loa and Kilauea in Hawaii, Chimborazo in South America, Hekla in Iceland, Etna in Sicily, and Vesuvius near Naples in Italy. Graphic aids. 1. Pictures of extinct, dormant and active volcanoes. 2. Drawings of vertical section showing- base, cone, crater ; the process of mountain building around crater; the contour of the volcanic mountain and the distribution of ejected ma- terials. 3. Maps showing location of principal volcanoes. 4. Specimens of pumice stone, lava, ashes, etc. 5. Narration, description and illustration of the destruction of Pompeii. 6. Stereopticon views. Definitions. A volcano is a mountain or hill, usually more or less conical in form, from which lava, cinders, steam, sul- phur g-ases, and the like are ejected; — often popularly called a burning- mountain. — Webster. This definition is scientifically inaccurate. A volcano is not necessarily a mountain ; the mountain is the result of the accumulation of material ejected by volcanic action. Again, a volcano is not a burning mountain; the explosion is not a process of consuming material by burning. A volcano is a hole in the earth's crust from which steam, lava, or ashes are or have been thrown. — Dexter and Garlick's Object Lessons in Geography, p. 155. A volcano is essentially a vent in the surface, through which rises some kind of molten rock, which, upon accumulating, builds a conical peak. — Tarr's Elementary Geology, p. 329. Illustration of eruption of Vesuvius. Apparatus. Large glass vessel, small bottle of red wine, clay or sand, water. Form miniature mountain on bottom of vessel; make small hole in cork of wine bottle and then cover bottle with sand; put GEOGRAPHY 199 water in vessel. When ready, stir the water. The water re- moves sand from hole in cork and the wine ascends in a whir- ling- plume. —McKay's Mag-ic Experiments, p. 30. 315. Winds. I. Circulation of the atmosphere. The air is very elastic and so it is easily put into motion by chang-es in temperature. Heat causes air to expand, become lighter, and rise. This up- ward current of warm air is replaced by heavier cool air which in turn rises after be- coming heated. Apply this explanation to the large areas in the equatorial regions and notice four great movements in the general cir- culation of the atmosphere : 1. The inflowing surface winds. 2. The uprising heated current. 3. The outflowing winds at high elevations. 4. The descending air at considerable distance north and south of the equator. II. Relation of air pressure and wind. The rising column of warm air pushes away the air above it, thus decreasing the barometric pressure; but the reverse is true in regard to pressure when the cooling air becomes heavier by condensa- tion. Then it follows from the last topic that wind and air pressure are closely related. 316. Trade winds. I. The name. The name trade winds is given because commercial vessels take advantage of the aid given by these winds. II. Location. In Atlantic Ocean 8° to 29° N. and 3° N. to 28° S. In Pacific Ocean 2° to 25° N. and 2' to 21° S. latitude. It is sufficient to say about 30° north and south of the equator. 200 METHODS IN EDUCATION Cause. Cooler air rushing- in to replace rising- air in equatorial reg-ions. See explanation in circulation of atmosphere. III. Direction. From the northeast in the northern hemi- sphere; from southeast in the southern hemi- sphere. Such incoming- air tends to blow from north and south; but the earth's surface at the equator is moving- eastward at the rate of seventeen miles a minute, and so the wind lags behind. equator IV. Effects. 1. Aid navigation. Columbus followed this route. Coming- from cold regions, they absorb moisture and thus cause deserts. Absorbing- much moisture from the ocean, they produce abundant rainfall on sloping- coasts. The meeting of so much warm air at the equator produces an upward mttvement over an area 2. 4. GEOGRAPHY 201 nearly 400 g-eographical miles wide. This area is the belt of equatorial calms. 317. How to study a map. — This topic is deemed worthy of special discussion in the last revision of the syllabus in geo- g-raphy. It should be so. But just lay aside theoretical dis- putations for a while, join a 7B class, and study Asia with them. Here are the real conditions : 1. Geography is disliked by some pupils because it has not been well taught. The pupils have not been taught how to use the text-book. 2. Every pupil has a geography. The ownership of the book or the right to use the book is a native impulse waiting for invitation to react, according to James and Thorndike. The handling of the book gives employment to the hands, — another suggestion of freedom from mischief. The coloring of the map appeals to the eye. In brief, such presence of material means a kind of business that appeals to a healthy class. 3. The teacher works with the pupils. There is a natural interest in such mutual observation, interpretation and discovery; and a derived or acquired interest follows for all pupils who experience for the first time the joy of finding how much can be learned without reading even one line of the text. The process of studying a map. A large globe, a map of Asia, a map of the world, and a relief map of Asia are ready. Light, heat, ventilation and comfortable position are physical requisites. Preliminary questions on globe and maps will secure attention and thereby prepare the minds for united and individual effort. Such questions will determine comparative location, size and shape; location of highlands and lowlands; general direction of mountains and peninsulas. Now turn to 202 METHODS IN EDUCATION individual maps ; eag-erness g-uarantees activity. The map study g"ives information on these topics. 1. Actual location by latitude and longitude; land and water boundaries. 2. Size. The larg-est continent; the larg-est moun- tains, rivers, seas, bays, countries, peninsulas; and, by inference, the largest population, for- ests, animals. This inference requires later proof from text, 3. Surface. The location, direction, extent and names of mountains; the three g^reat slopes as indicated by direction of flow of rivers; the names of rivers and the bordering- waters; im- portant lakes and seas. 4. Climate. Probable conditions by comparison with North America; application and probable results of each of the causes affecting- climate. Here, ag-ain, is another invitation to later use of the text to verify inferences. 5. Countries and their chief cities; apparent means of commercial intercourse. 6. Industries, products, and commerce. Map study alone cannot g-ive the accurate knowledge re- quired but it can correlate old knowledge and also make pupils think and justify their thoug-hts in advance. 7. The people. Prior information is considerable. Note vast extent of lands of the different peoples. Pupils' results from studying the map. 1. Social pleasure. 2. Self-satisfaction in progress. 3. Prior knowledg-e recalled, applied, correlated. 4. Desire to study text to verif}'^ conclusions. 5. Consciousness of increasing power in studying-. GEOGRAPHY 203 318. How to study the text. — There are certain difficulties in teaching- the intermediate g-rades and it is well to consider first the reasons why pupils do have such difficulties in using- the text in g-eography. 1. Poor teaching-. It is a safe rule that says pupils should use text-books as soon as books can be used advantageously. But notwithstanding this view, some teachers do not require pupils to use the books furnished. The teachers make notes from the books, write the notes on the board or dictate them, have pupils copy and then memorize. This plan robs the pupil of his right to learn to do by doing; it is a waste of tiine; it exalts the memory; it develops a habit of absolute dependence upon the teacher. 2. Defective books. Some text-books are badly planned. Pupils have to search in three or four parts of the book to find the required facts. Some books are not well arranged. The matter may be found in one place, but topics are not given; or if topics are given, the order is neither logical nor pedogogical. Other books are not adapted to the capacities of the pupils; scientific style, or undue emphasis of causal relations when the causes are not un- derstood, or the presentation of a confusing amount of details. 3. Inactive pupils. This condition may be largely due to poor teaching and defective books. The pupils do not feel a necessity for such knowl- edge. In the section on how to study a map, a way of arousing a desire for study of text has been suggested. The process of studying the text. The six topics followed in the study of the map make a topical series for guidance in studying the text. Whether the arrangement of the text is in 204 METHODS IN EDUCATION that order or not, the pupils are working- under definite aims. The pupils must classify the facts under the topics; the efforts must be systematic; and the mental result should be a tend- ency toward a habit of thinking-. This leads to the sugg-es- tions for aiding- pupils in studying- the text. 1. Pupils must feel the need of the facts in the printed matter. 2. Pupils should have a guide in their study, such as topics, questions, etc. 3. The teacher should work with the pupils to see that they acquire proper habits of application and interpretation. There is too much scatter- ing- of energ-y. 4. Have pupils read a portion of the text, tell ex- plicitly what the author means, and comment upon it or otherwise apply it. It is a very valuable exercise in observation to have pupils read exactly what is printed, g-ive its precise meaning-, and then express a personal opinion upon it. 5. Proof. The printed text must disprove or verify the conclusion reached in the study of the map. Here is authority vs. opinion. Judgment and reasoning- are required in every complete act in this kind of study. The map might sugg-est the tundras as an inviting home for man, but the text describes those mossy swamps as suited only to nomadic tribes who manage to live upon fish and fur-bearing animals. 6. Comparison. The study of North America and Europe has habituated pupils to associate climate, occupations and productions accord- ing to zones. Such types of knowledge are used in map studies; but the text must furnish the conclusive facts to enable the pupil to as- certain the truth by comparison and contrast. GEOGRAPHY 205 Tabulated facts in parallel columns give a mode of visualizing- truth in the field of v^^orld geography. As in proof, here, too, the text must be used for accuracy. Synopsis. Critical study of the printed matter is insisted upon in each of the foregoing sug- gestions. Another means of mastering the text is analysis by outline. The value of this exercise is fully presented in the chapter on composition. Abstract. Another w^ay of making the thought of another a part of one's self. See chapter on composition. The text is a source of information for individual discussion, class debates, etc. See section 300. Chapter XIII. History and Civics. 319. New York City suggestions in sections 319 to 327 inclusive. 320. Early work in history.— In the lower elementary g^rades, topics introductory to history will be found in the fables and myths and in literature and geog^raphy lessons. As pupils in the earlier years take an intense interest in events associated with life and endeavor, the subject-matter of the lessons in history should be chiefly biography and the record of events which have visibly shaped or influenced the destinies of man. Only a brief sketch of each topic is expected; no notes should be dictated by the teacher; no home study should be required of pupils in grades below the eighth year. The reading of library books should be encouraged. 321. Geographical background. — The teacher should see that pupils have a proper geographical background for all histori- cal events. Appropriate use should be made of pictures, reference books, and maps to give a fit setting to the narratives, to show the political and physical boundaries, to indicate territorial growth and expansion, and to illustrate the progress and purposes of movements in warfare. The judgment of the pupil should be exercised in tracing the causes as well as the progress and outcome of great historic movements. 322. Current events, anniversaries, excursions. — Attention should be given to current events and to historic anniversaries, as Lincoln's Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Decoration Day, Independence Day, and Thanksgiving. In order to make the subject of history real and vivid pupils should be en- couraged to visit the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, the museum of the Brooklyn Institute, the historical and general libraries. HISTORY AND CIVICS 207 CIVICS. 323. Members of society. — Pupils should be taught in all grades, as far as they may be made to understand their re- sponsibilities and privileges as members of society, and that as such they owe duties to the school, to the family, to the neighborhood, to the city, the state, and the nation. In this way they may be led to comprehend the principles of govern- ment and their individual duties in connection with iti The necessity for obedience to authority should be dwelt upon, as also the moral obligation of working with the various depart- ments of the government and not against them. Wherever possible, the reasons for conduct should be explained. If the child knows the reason for any law, he will obey that law more readily. 324. Topics for discussion in all grades. — In all grades there should be frequent discussion under these headings: Obedience to law; Why laws are made; Who makes the laws ? Who en- forces the laws? Why are law-breakers punished? 325. Importance of local ordinances.— Principals and teachers are urged to lose no opportunity to impress upon pupils the importance of city ordinances that are specially applicable to local conditions. Pupils should be led to see that even slight departures from the standard of order and good administra- tion become very serious matters when many persons engage in them, and that, therefore, each individual should be careful to avoid acts, such as throwing paper and fruit skins into the streets, which, though trifling in themselves, would, if they became general, tend to impair the cleanliness and health of the city. In teaching the "duties of citizens and public of- ficials," special attention should be directed to the work of the departments that come under the immediate observation of pupils. 326. Government by the people. — In the higher grades of the elementary course pupils should be led to appreciate the force of Bryce's statement that "the greatest problem that free 208 METHODS IN EDUCATION peoples have to solve is how to enable the citizen at large to conduct or control the executive business of the state." It is very important that all young- people should be made to under- stand that in this country government is not something apart from the people, but that it is established by the people them- selves, and that there are orderly ways provided for giving effect to the will of the people. 327. Aim of history and civics. — The educational aim of civics as of history is to give a body of ideas and a trend of action that will assist the child to become an intelligent and a patriotic citizen. 328. The historical sense. — The historical sense is not a sixth "sense," nor a "faculty"; it is simply a feeling that the past can be rightly interpreted only when the student lays aside his own prepossessions, and seeks in the past itself a means of understanding the forces which moved the men of a bygone age, and when he enters sympathetically into the spirit which gave dignity to their institutions. — Bourne, p. 9, The Teach- ing of History and Civics. 329. Value of the study of history. — While we have not thought it necessary to mention specific values of the studies, since all the studies are deemed worthy of places in the curricula, special mention should be made of the patriotic and the ethi- cal value of history rightly taught. The student acquires a zealous appreciation of the truth; and in balancing the rela- tions of men and events, a high estimate of civic virtue may be attained. Many writers mention interest, imagination and judgment as three of the useful results of the study of history. 330. Text-book method. — Here again we must dissent from the adverse criticism of the use of text-books. The text-book is the source of information for every pupil and no teacher has a right to deprive the pupil of his right to use his own activity in the field of education, nor can any teacher take the place of an accepted text-book in this or any other subject. More ad- verse criticism of text-books is not needed ; some devotion to HISTORY AND CIVICS 209 the ideal in teaching- pupils how to study a text-book is what is needed. 331. The use of illustrations, — The word illustrations in this topic has reference to the pictures or other illustrations in the text-book itself. One essential of any g-ood text-book is that it shall not be overloaded with details. So, too, of the use of pictures. The illustrations are intended simply to strengthen the matter already given in the printed text. The limit to be observed is the truthfulness and the usefulness of the illustra- tions inserted. 332. Collateral reading. — "The object of collateral reading- is twofold: it supplements a text- book, giving- the student ad- ditional information and describing- the same events from new points of view; and it also cultivates the student's interest in history as literature." This is Bourne's opinion as stated on pag-e 158. Gordy advises the use of a short list of g-ood refer- ences rather than the reading of many books. He advises that each pupil read one good reference book in addition to the text-book. 333. The use of maps. — ^The geographical maps are abso- lutely necessary to fix the location of the principal places studied in history. This is one means of correlating history and geography. One caution to be observed is that the map shall not have too many places located upon it. Confusion must be avoided. 334. Collection of prints and pictures. — In speaking of school decorations we advised the use of a few superior paintings in place of a large number of cheap prints and pictures. The same caution may be applied to history. It is suggested that a large scrap-book be used for keeping the prints and pictures instead of posting them on the walls of the schoolroom. 335. Excursions. — Fortunate is the school that is located within the field of historic experience. Excursions under the plan described for teaching geography cannot fail to produce 15 210 METHODS IN EDUCATION satisfactory results in impressing the facts through the aid of concrete interest. 336. Correlation. — Correlation with geography has already been mentioned in section 333. Literature is another study that can contribute a large share of interest and use. Master- pieces in poetry and prose often present the facts of history under the charm of literature. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech is an apt illustration of the correlation of oratory and history. "The teaching of history should be intimately connected with the teaching of English: first, by using historical works or extracts for reading in schools; second, by the writing of English compositions on subjects drawn from the historical lessons; third, by committing to memory historical poems and other short pieces; fourth, by reading historical sketches, biographies and novels, outside of class work." — Committee of Ten, p. 164. 337. Reviews. — Our point of view was expressed in a ge leral way in section 79. That view has particular application to history. Good teaching will require a summary at the close of each recitation; the assignment of home study will be largely a matter of review rather than advanced preparation; the making of outlines of the matter covered in the regular text or of the matter in collateral reading is another valuable exer- cise; and extemporaneous speaking upon assigned topics or brief written summaries during the recitation period will tend to systematize the whole work under some comprehensive plan of presentation. 338. Open text-book recitation. — "An excellent suggestion is that of 'open text-book recitations,' in which with their books before them, pupils are asked questions on cause and effect, on relations with previous lessons, etc.; answers may, if neces- sary, be written out and corrected in class. Such an exercise trains pupils to take in the thought of a printed page, and to grasp the essential points, HISTORY AND CIVICS . 211 "Such a system tends to encourage the habit of applying what one knows to a new problem. Still more helpful in the same direction are the off-hand discussions and impromptu debates which spring- up in an eager class, and which should be encouraged by every good teacher." — Committee of Ten. 339. Topical method. — The supreme value of the topical method is exemplified in the work in history. The principal difficulty is that text books are not always arranged accord- ing to this plan. One view of the topical method in history presents a whole lesson under a series of topics arranged in logical or chronological order. These eight or ten topics, for instance, furnish a guide to whatever the pupil is expected to do in that recitation. Another view of the topical method selects one general topic for the subject of the recitation and then there are a few subordinate topics assigned to be covered in the various ways of conducting the recitation. One topic may be set for oral or written review; another may cover the required work in collateral reading; another may be for gen- eral discussion to develop the pupil's power of expression and his sense of sound judgment; while another may be the direct preparation for the work of the succeeding days or weeks. Whatever the arrangement of the topics may be, the aim is definite assignment. It is an effort to direct pupils toward what they should try to learn, where they may find informa- tion, and how they may make that information a part of their own mental possession. 340. Verbal repetition.— It is not necessary to give much space to reasons why verbal repetition of the matter in the text is not the way to teach history. This kind of recitation is the cause of severe criticism against the teaching of the past ; but a little experience with teachers of this decade leads to a commendation of their tact and judgment in matters of this kind. 341. What should be memorized. — "How far should pupils be expected to memorize ? 'A few things should be learned by 212 ^ mi<:thods in education heart and, when forg-otten, learned again, to serve as a firm g-round-work upon which to group one's knowledge: without knowing the succession of dynasties, or of sovereigns, or of presidents, or the dates of the great constitutional events, the pupil's stock of information will have no more form than a jelly-fish.' But those few necessary facts ought to be clearly defined as only a framework to assist the memory. "— Com- mittee of Ten. 342. Use of mnemonics. — Anything so artificial is not ap- proved as a method of teaching; but it is a device that may have some value for some pupils. The following illustration suggests an ingenious and helpful way of remembering the events connected with slavery agitation. Notice that the first letters of the seven lines spell slavery. Sixteen hundred nineteen — Introduced 1619. Law prohibiting slaves imported — 1808. Admission of Missouri — 1820. Violent opposition to annexation of Texas— 1845. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863. Rebellion the outgrowth — 1861-5. Year of 1865 — Thirteenth Amendment. 343. Questions prepared by pupils. — This plan of promoting self-activity and co-operation has been emphasized, from time to time, in this book. Personal experience is the justification for such commendation. Gordy, in his notes To The Teacher, says : "The pupils should be required to prepare a written question on every lesson. The value of this simple device in leading them to note the working of cause and effect cannot easily be measured. If pupils have not been trained to ask such questions they may at first be diffident about it. They will also ask questions that call for yes or no or for single- word answers. With a little judicious help, however, they will soon begin to ask searching questions that will stimulate the interest of the entire class," HISTORY AND CIVICS 213 344. Outline made by pupils. — We have spoken about making- outlines as a means of review. This plan is advocated as one of the best means of teaching- pupils how to select and compre- hend the essential points in the printed text. It is difficult at first, and needs the personal direction of the teacher; but a little practice in it g-ives a consciousness of g-rowing- power so that the pupil will soon be anxious to follow this kind of in- dividual work. 345. Debates. — History furnishes material for the frequent us.e of short debates. The value of such exercises is outlined in section 502. 346. Note books. — Elaborate notes are not useful to the ele- mentary pupils. The mere copying- of long- extracts is not a prudent investment of time or energ-y. Use note-books for the following- purposes : 1. Summaries of work. 2. Special topics or digests of them. 3. Prog-ressive maps. 4. Review questions. 5. References that appeal to the owner of the book. 347. Source method. — The source method of teaching- his- tory, as the word source implies, requires students to consult the orig-inal documents from which history is written, and then form their conclusions upon that material. This method applied in the elementary schools would be presented in a text-book not in narrative form, but in the form of summaries, tables and brief reproductions of the original documents. For elementary pupils, this method cannot be commended. The pupils lack the foundation knowledge for forming an opinion on the material furnished and, besides, they have not yet acquired habits of study that will enable them to inter- pret the materials without a great deal of collateral reading. The collateral reading in connection with an authorized text- book in the class may introduce the pupils to the source method in some lines of investigation. 214 METHODS IN EDUCATION 348. How to arouse interest.—The summary of the last twenty sections will present a number of points of view on the teaching of history. A condensed expression of the substance of these points of view will give the means of arousing- interest in teaching the subject to elementary pupils. 349. Cause and effect. — Whatever the method of recitation may be, the training of the judgment will require pupils to trace the relations between cause and effect in all the great events of history. See causal series in geography, section 286. 350. Progress maps. — A helpful means of stimulating visuali- zation is the use of progress maps. Outline maps can be secured from publishers and so pupils need take no time in marking the limits of latitude, longitude and boundaries. That part of map-drawing has little educational value. The progress map will then contain the location of the few princi- pal points under consideration. Thus in the study of the early years of the Revolutionary War the map will have the location of Boston, Saratoga, New York, Princeton, Trenton, Phila- delphia and Yorktown. A line may indicate Washington's route across from Long Island up the Hudson and then down through New Jersey. 351. Chronology. — The learning of long lists of dates is no longer considered a legitimate part of history. The memoriz- ing of particular dates in relation to epochs or periods is all that is essential. 352. Biography. — The study of the lives of particular men in connection with the different events in their careers, has been found a fascinating source of interest in history. The import- ance of the public events must determine the limit of such collateral reading. 353. Use of outlines. — We have advocated the use of outlines made by the pupils and now the question arises regarding the use of outlines furnished for guidance in studying. Such out- lines would, of course, obviate the making of similar outlines HISTORY AND CIVICS 215 by the pupils. Teachers differ in their views of the value of such outlines in connection v^ith the study of the advanced lessons, but there is almost unanimous opinion in favor of the outlines in reviewing- part or whole of the subject. 354. Dramatization of historic events. — Teachers can hardly be expected to put the historic material into dramatic form for presentation in rhetorical exercises, but it is possible to secure such material already dramatized. Such exercises in school will be found one of the most valuable means of promoting- a healthy school spirit. A little play called the "Continental Congress," in which pupils take the parts of those who adopted the Declaration of Independence, may be mentioned as an illustration of this phase of the work in history. 355. Local government. — The study of the forms and uses of local administration is a part of the early work in all the g-rades in New York City. It is what is called institutional presentation of history and civics. To impress the utility of such government, many of the schools have adopted forms of pupil self-g-overnment to represent the departments in the larg-er municipal org-anizations. Wherever the school maybe, it is possible for pupils to study the government related to them. 356. Process of legislation.— Another means of increasing- civic knowledge is for pupils to make a special study of the three departments of g-overnment in the state and in the nation. The history of a bill from the time that it is introduced until it has been under judicial approval is one of the valuable topics in relation to history and civics. Turning- the class or the school into a legislative body for this purpose is one con- crete method of presenting the work. 357. Pupil self-government. — See section 90. 358. Institutional study of history and civics. — In the five departments of education mentioned in Butler's definition, the institutional inheritance is one of the forms. We have already 216 METHODS IN EDUCATION mentioned in 355 what is done in this city. For specific refer- ence see section 9. 359. Mental results. — Effort to develop the historic sense in the teaching- of history and civics may or may not succeed in attaining- the ide?l purposes of education as mentioned in the outlines in section 43. Failure of attainment in some cases is no reason for saying- that the proper study of history does not g-ive to the average pupil habits of right thinking-, right feel- ing-, and right willing. 360. Habituation to civic requirements.— In discussing the ideals of education, citizenship is mentioned as one advocated by Horace Mann and John Dewey. For those who do not wish to consider education a preparation for the hereafter, the ideal of citizenship furnishes a satisfactory standard for effort; and for those who wish to make the supreme aim of education a preparation for the life to come, the ideal citizen may be con- sidered one whose living- in this life is a good preparation for the hereafter. The teacher who can influence his pupils to habituate themselves to adapt themselves to the requirements of the community in which they live, is doing all that can be expected from him under the general purposes of history and civics. Chapter XIV. Arithmetic. 361. New York City view.— Sections 362 to 372 are from the New York City Course of Study. For special study consult McLellan and Dewey's The Psycholog-y of Number, Mc- Murry's Special Method in Arithmetic, David Eugene Smith's The Teaching- of Elementary Mathematics, and Young's The Teaching of Mathematics. 362. Suggestions. "Much oral drill and blackboard work should be given. Answers should be tested approximately to ascertain whether they are probably correct. The results of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division should be proved before they are declared. Excessive repetitions of forms of analysis and elab- orate written explanations should not be re- quired. Definitions should not be required until the meanings of the terms to be defined are fully understood. 363. The combinations. — Special importance is attached to the thorough mastery of the combinations in addition, sub- traction, multiplication and division. The following are the steps which should be followed in learning the combinations of each table : 364. Addition and multiplication. 1. Care should be taken that the pupils apprehend the nature of the required operations. 2. The combinations that have been taught in the preceding grade should be reviewed frequently. 3. The results of the new combinations should be determined in addition by counting objects, 218 METHODS IN EDUCATION and in multiplication by adding the multipli- cand as many times as there are units in the multiplier. 4. The entire table should be repeated with the ob- jects in view in addition, and with the addends in view in multiplication. 5. The entire table should be repeated without the objects or addends in view. 6. The results of combinations, misceUaneouslj' presented, should be given without the aid of any form of mnemonics or external devices. If a pupil misses a combination there are two methods of correction : in addition he may be told to count objects, and in multiplication to add numbers ; or he may be required to deduce the result of the combination in question from the nearest combination whose result he knows. (Thus he may ascertain that 6 X 7 = 42 from 5x7 = 35, since 6 sevens are one seven more than 5 sevens.) The former method is object- ionable for two reasons : the performance of an isolated example will be of little value to aid association the next time the combination occurs ; and the pupil is in danger of forming the habit of using his fingers as counters. The value of the reference to the nearest known combination consists in the association of the combination in its proper relations with the other terms of a series. 7. Exercises in finding the parts which constitute a number either as addends or as factors should follow the drills on tables. 8. The combinations should be applied in the solu- tion of simple problems. ARITHMETIC 219 365. Subtraction and division. 1. Each combination in subtraction and in division should be related to its corresponding- com- bination in addition or in multiplication. In subtraction the minuend is the sum and the subtrahend is one of the terms of a combina- tion in addition ; in division the dividend is the product and the divisor is one of the terms of a combination in multiplication. 2. The results should be stated without the relation, in order that they may be g-iven instantly. An error should be corrected by reference to the primary combination. 3. The combinations should be applied in the solu- tion of simple problems, in order that their mastery may be seen to be a means to an end. 366. Constructive and inventional exercises. — Aside from the consideration of their educational value, the constructive and inventional exercises of the seventh year have been selected with a twofold purpose in view : 1. To furnish pupils with a knowledge of the essen- tial elementary principles involved in the work in mensuration in g-rade 8A. 2. To furnish pupils with a knowledge of the con- structive principles employed in mechanical drawing and construction and in shop work. The method of teaching these exercises should be suggestive in form and spirit. Formal demonstrations should never be required. 367. Problems. — Numerical relations may be found where- ever the mind seeks them ; hence problems may be derived and should be derived from the life of the home, the school, the farm, the laboratory, the factory and the railroad, as well as froin the shop and the bank. The limitation of problems to transactions in dollars and cents tends to give practical arith- 220 METHODS IN EDUCATION metic a purely formal and disciplinary character ; on the other hand, excursions into other fields of human activity, while sacrificing nothing of the disciplinary value of the sub- ject, give it a varied and interesting content. Problems may be classified as simple, or those involving only one operation, and as complex, or those involving more than one operation. 368. What to look for in the solution of problems.— The solu- tion of problems should be effected by the discovery of what is given, whaf z's r-eguired, and what is the relation between these terms. If difficulty is experienced in the determination of the relations between large numbers, small numbers should be substituted. 369. Analysis -in solution. — A brief and well expressed form of analysis should be employed in the solution of problems to find a part of a number, to find a number when a part is given, to find what part one number is of another, and to find a number when the number plus or minus a part is given, whether common fractions, decimals, or per cent expressions are involved. 370. Rote work criticised. — The mere manipulation of num- bers in a set order, which the pupils accept on authority as the means to a correct answer without comprehending the reason therefor, is a form of rote work that ought not to be tolerated except in the teaching of involved and difficult pro- cesses to young children, as for example, the process of long division, or the Euclidean process of finding the greatest common divisor. 371. Progressive advance in difficulties by grades. — The follow- ing tabulation shows the progressive advance in the complexity of problems through the grades : lA. — Simple problems solved without formal explanations. The children represent the terms by objects and find the re- sults by counting; no term is greater than 10. These involve: 1. Addition and subtraction. 2. Multiplication and division. ARITHMETIC 221 IB and 2A.— Simple problems solved without formal explan- ations. The children apply the combinations in addition and sub- traction as soon as they have mastered them; no term greater than 20. These involve : 1. Addition and subtraction. The problems are similar to those in lA, but the results are found from a knowledge of the com- binations involved. 2. Multiplication and division. The problems are similar to those in lA. Problems in multiplication are solved by writing the multiplicand as many times as there are units in the multiplier and by adding. Problems in division are solved as in lA by counting. 2B and 3A.— Simple problems solved without formal explan- ations. The children apply the combinations in multiplication and division as soon as they have mastered them. These involve : 1. Addition and subtraction. The problems involve larger terms than in the preceding grades, and the results are invari- ably found by aid of the combinations. 2. Multiplication and division. The problems are similar to those in lA, but the results are found from a knowledge of the com- binations involved. 3B.— Complex problems solved without formal explanations. These involve: 1. Finding a fractional part of a number. 2. Two operations— relations direct. 4A.— Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve : 1. Finding a number when a fractional part of it is given. 222 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. More than one operation — relations direct. The problems are similar to those in 3B, but are explained formally by analysis. 4B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve : 1. Finding- w^hat fractional part one number is of another. 2. More than one operation — relations indirect. 5 A. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 1. Finding- a fractional part of a number. 2. Finding a number when a fractional part is g-iven. 3. Finding v^^hat fractional part one number is of another. 4. Other problems usually given under the head of common fractions. 5B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 1. Finding a decimal part of a number. 2. Finding a number when a decimal part is given. 3. Finding what decimal part one number is of an- other. 4. Finding a number when the number plus or minus a fractioneil or a decimal part is given. 5. Other problems usually given under the head of decimals. 6 A and 6B. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve in 6A: 1. Finding a per cent part of a number. 2. Finding a number when a per cent part is given. 3. Finding what per cent part one number is of an- other. 4. Finding a number when the number plus or minus a per cent part is given. 5. The problems usually given under the head of denominate numbers. ARITHMETIC 223 These involve in 6B: 1. The first four subdivisions of 6A as applied in business. Each should be related to the corresponding- problem in which a common fraction instead of a per cent expression is involved. 7A. — Complex problems solved by analysis. These involve: 1. Simple interest — direct case. 2. Metric system. 3. Foreig^n mone}^ 4. Long^itude and time. 5. Common relations. 7B. — Complex problems solved both by analysis and by algebra. These involve: 1. Simple interest — indirect cases. 2. Simple interest — applications. 3. Percentag-e — indirect cases. 4. Problems solved by proportion. 5. Common relations. 8A. — Complex problems solved by analysis or by algebra. These involve : 1. Mensuration. 2. Business relations. 3. Common relations easily expressed by two un- known quantities." 372. Utility of arithmetic. — The history of mathematics shows that nearly all nations have put special utilitarian value upon arithmetic. Smith thinks the utility of mathematics has been overrated. 373. Historical views. — A brief summary of historical views shows that thinkers have been contributing point by point what some recent writers seem to consider entirely new. A g-rouping of these respective contributions gives the substance of modern ways^of teaching. Consult Smith for full presenta- tion. 224 MKTHODS IN EDUCATION 1. Busse. Number pictures: number cards of today. 2. Pestalozzi. Observation = perception. (a) Know numbers rather than figures. (b) Objective presentation; remove objects before drill. (c) Much oral abstract drill. 3. Tillich. Special blocks: ratio. See Speer method. 4. Kranckes. Concentric circles. 10, 100, etc. Spiral methods. 5. Grube, 1842. All processes simultaneous. 1 to 10 first year. 6. Tank and Knilling-; counting-. (a) Numbers needed for counting. (b) Use number series. 2468, etc. ; count objects, then memorize. (c) Counting is basis of all elementary opera- tions. 7. German spiral method based on concentric circles. 8. Arithmetic in rhyme. 9. All arithmetic based upon measurement of lines. 10. All arithmetic based upon paper folding. 11. Rein. Correlation. (a) Familiar objects in home, nature study, liter- ature, etc. (b) Series and method units. (c) Formal steps of instruction. 374. Definition of number. — Number is a product of the way in which the mind deals with objects in the operation of making a vague whole definite. — -McLellan and Dewey, p. 32. Note that this definition considers the concept of number as the result of a mental process showing quantity. Other views, considered unsatisfactory, are : (a) "Number is a symbol." Entirely abstract; wrong, not in the mind. ARITHMETIC 225 (b) "Number is identical with thing-s; it is a prop- erty of objects." Wrong-, as concept of num- ber can exist only in the mind. (c) "Number is a collection of units." "Scientifical- ly worthless," says Smith, p. 100. Why? 375. Counting and measuring.— There is much discussion about whether counting or measuring- should come first in teaching number. The Course of Study requires both, but mentions counting first. Measuring requires the self-activity of the pupil, and interest will be stimulated if the pupil under- stands what he is doing when he is measuring ; but he can- not have any definite concept of measurement until he counts by using some unit of measurement such as foot, yard, pint, dime, etc. Hence, "all counting is measuring and all measur- ing is counting," as is said in McLellan and Dewey's Psychology of Number, p. 48 ; also in Smith, p. 104. When we count books in a library, we measure the library ; and we measure our weight by counting the number of pounds. The difference between counting and measuring is that in ordinary counting we use an undefined unit, a kind of vague measurement, as : 10 apples, 5 books. This counting of 10 apple,s or 5 books becomes definite only when weight or value, i. e. measure, is known. So the two processes help each other. 376. Aim of primary arithmetic. — The aim of primary arith- metic is the mastery of our material surroundings, not mathe- matical processes and discipline. — McMurry, p. 19 ; Smith, chapter II and p. 89. 377. Methods of teaching the concept of number. — It is un- necessary to outline in detail the first steps in teaching pupils to count. Most pupils have a concept of number long before they enter school; all they need is drill in wider application of their knowledge. Some teachers use splints in this drill ; others use pencils, rulers, books, or the pupils themselves. The various devices are outlined in the next section, but through . 16 226 METHODS IN EDUCATION all the variety runs the uniform principle of concrete presenta- tion. The first idea of number is never abstract. Slowly through the years of experience the mental process of abstraction pro- duces the abstract concept of number. Four sug-g-estions for concrete teaching are mentioned in the course of study. 1. Scoring. This is simply a way of indicating the early impressions of number. The Arabic numerals are not so easily made as groups of vertical lines, thus : 12 3 4 I II III nil The drawing of such vertical lines to represent numbers is called scoring. 2. By measurements and comparisons. Actual use of pint and quart, five-cent piece and dime. Comparison of groups of objects. 3. Use of toy money in business operations. 4. Use types in concrete problems. Here are the suggestive types : (1) If there are 3 apples in one group and 2 apples in another, how many apples are there in both ? (2) If 3 apples are taken out of a group of 5 apples, how many apples remain ? (3) If there are 2 plants in a row, how many plants are there in 3 equal rows? (4) If 2 plants are placed in a row, how many such rows are required for 6 plants? (5) If 6 plants are placed in 3 equal rows, how many plants are there in each row ? "Exercises in counting should aid in column addition and in a mastery of the multiplication tables. Comparisons and objective measurements should lead primarily to thought, ARITHMETIC 227 rather than to over-much figure work. Oral work should pre- cede and accompany all written work in every mathematical operation. Small numbers should be used in the illustration of principles." The counting- in the first term is limited to counting by I's to 20, and by lO's to 100. Later the pupils receive much drill in counting forwards and backwards by 2's, 3's, 4's, S's, etc. This is the process that gives the foundation for the tables in the four fundamental operations. This paragraph relates to New York City practice. 378. Summary of modes of concrete number operations. — Notice that both measuring and counting are used in each of the devices in this summary. 1. Counting visible objects, as chairs, birds, houses, children, apples, etc. 2. Other objects as tooth-picks, buttons, beads, pencils, fingers, etc. 3. The abacus, cubes, blocks, squares, etc. 4. Demonstrative devices as distribution of papers, books, the marking off of positions at board, the paging of books, counting time on the clock, attendance records, thermometer ; in home geography, counting houses, making maps, etc. 5. Standard units as gallon, pound, dollar, bushel, barrel, day, dozen, cubic foot, etc. Variety, practical units, ratios and fractions from use of these. 6. Number pictures made of dots, lines, etc. ; domi- noes. 7. In decimal scale, splints or tooth-picks in bun- dles of lO's and lOO's. 379. The use of a book by pupils. The safe rule for the time of introducing a text-book in any subject is this : A book should be introduced as soon as children are able to use it to 228 METHODS IN EDUCATION their own advantag-e. The averag-e child is not capable of reading well during- the first term of school life and so there is little or no advantage for him in trying to use a text-book in arithmetic. For this reason, the work of the first term is largely oral, but as soon as the child is able to make any use of a text-book in arithmetic he should be given that privilege. The work in mathematics should not depend largely upon the hearing ; it is another instance of multiple sense instruction. The interpretation of a printed problem requires more men- tal effort than the interpretation of a problem written on the board or dictated by the teacher. In the last two ways the pupil depends upon the assistance from the teacher. 380. Devices for drill in primary grades.— All these suggested devices are only different ways in method ; they are not methods in arithmetic. Devices of any kind are intended to attract and maintain attention. Curiosity, competition and success are likely to secure interest. Different devices satisfy a desire for variety, and some of these have permanent value in being ready for use at any time. It is understood, of course, that these devices cover all the four fundamental operations — addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. 1. Cards. Number cards having the combinations on both sides of the card. 2. Charts. Charts made with rubber pen. Figures large enough to be seen from any part of room. 3. Mimeograph work. Copies made by mimeo- graph admit many uses. Some copies may contain the same work for the whole class 5 other copies may have a few additional prob- lems for the faster workers ; a third kind may have different work for each pupil. 4. Text-books. A good text-book — no other kind should be used — has scores of examples suited to drill purposes. Use the book. Teachers may now secure separate books for each grade ARITHMETIC 229 9. 10. 11. and these are excellent supplements to the class text-book. Special work on board. Circle. Figures outside circumference; number in center. Square. Similar to arrangement in 6. Two vertical lines crossing- two horizontal lines at right angles giving places for nine figures. Vertical, horizontal and diagonal drill. Dictation under limited time for answers. Competition under recorded time after definite assignment of work. Decimation. This device uses ten as a basis in each of the four fundamental operations. Fol- lowing is a table in counting : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Build to 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 1(^ and then drill down and up. DECIMATIONS IN COMBINATIONS. 0+1= 1 10+1 = 11 20+1=21 30+1 = 31 40+1=41 etc. 7+8=15 17+8=25 27+8=35 37+8=45 47+8=55 etc. 9 + 4=13 19+4=23 29+4=33 39+4=43 49 + 4=53 etc. SUBTRACTION. 99-6=93 89-6=83 79-6=73 69-6=63 59-6=53 etc. MULTIPLICATION. 3X 6= 18 3X16= 48 3X26= 78 3X36 = 108 3X46=138 etc. 230 METHODS IN EDUCATION 381. How to mark papers.— This topic bring-s up the question in regard to marking- what is right or what is wrong, and also the use of per cents, letters or other means of indicating the worth of answers. Another question arises here, namely, if the answer is incorrect shall we allow anything for right methods of operation? In all problems accuracy is the first test of an answer. Answers are either right or wrong. The simple oral work cannot justly be marked upon any other basis. Later in the life of pupils it may be that the processes should be given some consideration, but the business demand for a correct answer is a criterion always to be kept in mind by the teacher. The use of letters or figures is a matter for individual decision. See 472. 382. The nature of the problems.— In speaking of the various kinds of elementary work we have insisted that the material should be adapted to the capacities of the pupils as well as to the needs of the course of study. These same principles apply in tfce primary arithmetic. Use problems that are adapted to the actual experience of the child. Such problems are the ones that produce interest at the same time that they give the re- quisite drill in the work. It is advisable to use problems that are related to the common forms of industry and other forms of life, but in the first grade it is probable that the interests of the children will require a simple presentation of experience in regard to games, toys, home life, etc., more than to the in- dustrial phases of the community. Regarding the method of doing the work, both oral and written practice should be put into use as early as ^possible. Regarding abstract and con- crete examples, both kinds should be used. Accuracy may result from using concrete problems alone, but rapidity can never be acquired without frequent drill on abstract numbers. Much of the work should, of course, be concrete, but as soon as the children are able to perform abstract number operations a part of the daily drill should be devoted to rapid computa- tion in abstract w^ork. A few minutes each day through all ARITHMETIC 231 the grades should be set aside for oral computation. It is sugg-ested that in the written work a time limit be set so that each child may be judg-ed according- to his recitation. It is not expected that all pupils will be able to solve the same num- ber of problems in the limited time. 383. Addition. — ^This is another application of counting-. Some writers speak of addition as a synthesis of the elements of knowledg-e g-ained in the. first number concepts. But addi- tion is so closely related to the first work in counting- that it is not necessary to try set limits between the two kinds of mental operations. Counting- by I's is addition; and surely the counting- by 2's, 3's, etc. is giving- results in addition, whether called so or not. The first addition tables are the combinations of numbers of one order with 1 and 2 : 123456789 23456789 111111111 22222222 sums found by counting- objects; the value of each number and of each combination, as 3 and 2 are 5, 2 and 3 are 5, should be recognized at sight without counting ; the combinations memorized. A continuation of the drill in addition gives forty-five com- binations of digits, taking two figures in each combination. The two sets just given and the following sets show the forty- five combinations. 232 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 5 5 5 5 5 6: 7 8 9 6 6 6 6 7 7 8 7 8 8- 9 7 9 8 9 9 As soon as the sum of two numbers involves the process of * 'carrying-," tv^o fundamental facts must be taught: 1. Ten U7iits make one ten. 2. Place gives value to a figure. The practice in counting by lO's is a preparation for both these facts, and the drill on addition giving sums from 10 to 20 will impress the truth. Decomposition. When the sum is '20 or more, it may be necessary to show units and tens by decomposition, thus: 1. 16+5=? 16::=1 ten+6 units :^10 units + 6 units Then 10 units +6 units 16 +5 units +5 21 units 21 ans. ARITHMETIC 233 2. 24 + 13 = ? 24=2 tens+4 units 13=1 ten +3 units. Then 20 units + 4 units + 10 units + 3 units 37 units. 24 13 37 ans. 3. 87 + 36 = ? Now we meet the fact that ten tens make one hundred. hundreds tens 8 units 7 3 6 11 13 1 2 87 + 36 3 123 ans. This last form of the work is preferred since so much column addition is required in life. The psycholog-ical habit of verti- cal addition is, therefore, more important than the habit of horizontal addition. Both are combined for proof in the g-ram- mar grades. The proof of addition in the primary grades is made by reversing the order of adding. If the first process was from the bottom to the top, then for proof begin at the top and add down. Equation. The horizontal form of expressing an example in addition gives an equation, thus : 32+19=51 234 METHODS IN EDUCATION The expression of equality in mathematics is an equation. The part before the sig-n of equality is the first member; the part after the sigrn of equality is the second member. Laws or principles of addition. 1. Only like numbers can be added. 2. The sum is the same in kind as the addends. 3. If the like orders of units be added separately, the sum is the sum of all the numbers added, since the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts. 4. If the sum of the units of any order contain units of a higher order, these hig-her units must be combined with units of like order. 384. Subtraction. — As addition is considered synthesis in counting-, subtraction is analysis in counting. Addition and subtraction may be taught together, using subtraction as the inverse of addition. Sticks, pencils and other concrete de- vices are used as material, and the child measures the differ- ence in the groups by counting. Considerable facility in rapid subtraction should be secured in the easy combinations before introducing the necessity of "borrowing." Decomposi- tion will be used again to explain the relations of units, tens and hundreds in subtraction. It is only one step from the known process in addition. 1. Decomposition to explain borrowing. 35-18=? 35=3 tens+ 5 units=30+ 5 = 35 =2 tens + 15 units=20+15=35 18=1 ten + 8 units=10+ 8 = 18 1 ten + 7 units=10+ 7=17 35 ■18 17 ans. ARITHMETIC 235 2. Equal additions to explain borrowing-. A few years ag-o the method of equal additions was widely used among- the disciples of Pesta- lozzian number. It is not used much today, althoug-h the axiom still holds, namely: If equal numbers be added to unequal numbers, the difference between the unequal numbers remains unchang-ed. 35-18= ? Or _^g 35 + 10 = 3 tens + 15 units=30 + 15 = 45 18+10=2 tens+ 8 units=20+ 8=28 1 ten + 7 units = 10+ 7=17 35 -18 35—18=17 ans. Or 17 ans. This operation has combined the use of decom- position with equal additions to make the number of units in the minuend greater than the number of units in the subtrahend. 3. Complementary addition in subtraction. This method is an application of addition, thus : 764 -478 286 ans. Instead of saying- 8 from 14, we observe that 6 added to 8 will make 14, and the process be- comes 8+6=14, 8+8 = 16, 5+2=7. This method is mentioned by Smith in the next paragraph. 4. Four ways of performing subtraction. In subtracting 297 from 546, we have the 546 two old plans, both dating from the time 297 of the earliest printed text-boooks, at least. The calculation is substantially 249 this : 236 METHODS IN EDUCATION (1) 7 from 16, 9; 9 from 13, 4 ; 2 from 4, 2; or (2) 7 from 16, 9 ; 10 from 14, 4 ; 3 from 5, 2. But we have also a more recent plan : (3) 7 and 9, 16 ; 10 and 4, 14 ; 3 and 2, 5. To this might be added a fourth plan, which has some advocates : (4) 7 from 10, 3 ; 3 and 6, 9 ; 9 from 10, 1 ; 1 and 3, 4 ; 2 from 4, 2. All four of these plans are easily explained, the first rather more easily than the others. But the third has the g-reat advantage of using only the addition table in both addition and subtraction, and of saving much time in the operation. It is the so-called ''Austrian method" of subtraction. The fourth plan, while a very old one and possessed of some good features, is so ill adapted to practical work as to have no place in the school. It is hardly necessary to say that the old expres- sions "borrow" and "carry" in subtrac- tion and addition are rapidly going out of use; they were necessary in the old days of arbi- trary rules, but they have no advocates of any prominence to-day. — Smith, p. 121. Principles of subtraction. 1. Only like numbers can be subtracted. 2. If the units of each order in the subtrahend be taken separately from the units of like order in the minuend, the sum of the differences equals the entire difference of the given numbers. Axiom : The whole equals the sum of all its parts. 3. If both minuend and subtrahend be equally in- creased the difference will not be changed. Proof of subtraction. Add difference and subtrahend ; or subtract difference from minuend to get subtrahend ; or cast out 9's. See 410. ARITHMETIC 237 385. Multiplication.— This process is treated as synthesis in taking- one number a certain number of times. Multiplication is a short form of addition, and this close relation of the two processes is mentioned in 364. 1. For jSrst steps, arrange and count concrete ob- jects as in addition and subtraction. 2. Use decomposition ag-ain to explain multiplica- tion by one figure. 28 X3 28=20+8 20 X 3=60 8X 3 = 24 28X 3=84 3. Decomposition to explain multiplication by two figures. 67 X23 67 X 3= 201 67X20=1340 67X23=1541 4. Another form for 3. 67 Multiplying by 3 units we have 201 X23 units ; multiplying by 20 units we "^ have 1340 units. The sum of these 1340 partial products is 1541 units. 1541 Since 1340 units = 134 tens, we omit the cipher, and write 134 as tens. This shorter process gives the final form. 238 METHODS IN EDUCATION thousands hundreds 2 1 3 tens 6 X2 units 7 3 4 1 5. 1 5 Multiplication by fact 3546 X24 4 ors. 1 3546 X6 21276 X4 85104 Variety is one advantage, a means of proof is another, and a practice in analysis of num- bers is a third. 6. Multiplication tables. Learning- these tables by the memory process alone is condemned. All the work in counting- by I's, 2's, 3's, etc., is a preliminary preparation. The combina- tions in the four operations are another aid; and then the use of acquired knowledg-e in measuring- with foot-rule, yard-stick, toy money, pints, quarts, etc., — all help the pupils to construct the tables out of personal experi- ence in counting- and measuring-. The order of learning- the tables is not that of the old books. An easy order is as follows: lO's, 2's, 5's, 4's, 8's, 3's,6's, 9's, 7's. This order starts with lO's as the easiest; then the 2's are not difficult; the 5's easily unite with the lO's and the 2's; r ARITHMETIC 239 SO, too, the 4's and the 8's, and then 3's, 6's and 9's. The 7's are not closely related with any other table; but by leaving- the 7's till the last, all the combinations in the 7's are then covered by the other tables. Other opinions favor a different order of procedure, but McMurry upholds this one. Principles of multiplication. When either factor contains more than one figure, the principles are as follows : 1. The product is the same, whichever factor is used as multiplier, 2. If one factor be units of the first order, the pro- duct will be the same in kind as the other factor. 3. If units of each order in the multiplicand be taken separately as many times as there are units in the multiplier, the sum of the products equals the entire product of the g-iven numbers. Proof of multiplication. Divide product by multiplier to get multiplicand; or invert order of factors and multiply; or cast out 9's. See 410. 386. Division. — An analytic process, the inverse of multipli- cation, and a short form of subtraction. Early work is concrete, and the first notions of division are gained through the medium of the common fractions i, i and i in the first grade. 1. Short division is only the inverse of the combina- tions in multiplication. 2. Long- division by decomposition. 684--2i= ? 600-^2= 300 80-i-2= 40 4-4-2= 2 684-^2=342 ans. 240 METHODS IN EDUCATION Other forms. 342 2)684(342 2)684 6 6 4 4 4 4 3. A more difficult example. 2)674(337 We say 674r=6 hundreds, 7 6 tens, 4 units. 6 hundreds -v-2-— 3 Z~ hundreds. Bring- down 7 tens; , 7 tens -^2=3 tens and 1 ten re- o maining-. 1 ten and 4 units =14 14 units; 14 units ^2=7 units. The 14 quotient is 3 hundreds, 3 tens, 7 T" units, or 337. 4. Division by factors. 3864^-24=:? 4 )3864 6 )966 161 ans. 5. Laws or principles of division. (1) Dividing- a number by one of its factors gives the other factor. (2) When the divisor is an abstract number, the quotient and the dividend are like numbers. (3) When the dividend and the divisor are like numbers, the quotient is abstract. (4) To prove division, multiply quotient and di- visor to reproduce dividend. ARITHMETIC 241 387. Grube method : characteristics, advantages. — The leading- characteristic of this method is that it tries to teach the four fundamental processes with each number before the next num- ber is taken up. It is an application of the old idea of teach- ing- in "concentric circles. " Advantages claimed: simplicity and thoroughness. 388. Objections to the Grube method. 1. A unit not a fixed thing-. The natural begin- ning- of number is a whole — needing- measure- ment, while Grube says that one thing is the natural beg-inning. 2. Different processes are not equally difficult. 3. Free range among higher numbers excluded. 4. Synthetic only ; memory drill. These four objections are from McLellan and Dewey. The following are from Smith, p. 91 : 1. It carries objective illustration to an extreme, studying numbers by the aid of objects for three years, until 100 is reached. 2. It attempts to master each number before taking up the next, as if it were a matter of import- ance to know the factors of 51 before the child knows anything of 75, or as if it were possible to keep children studing 4 when the majority know something of 8 before they enter school. 3. It attempts to treat the four processes simul- taneously, as if they were of equal import- ance or of equal difficulty, which they are not. 389. Speer method.— This is an attempt to teach concretely that ratio is number. Judgments of relative magnitude are secured by using the type forms— cubes, prisms, etc.— in get- ting the concept of number. Criticism. Not a direct use of materials in daily life ; from complex to simple. 390. Spiral method.— The old arithmetics sought to master every topic, such as least common multiple, before proceeding 17 242 METHODS IN EDUCATION to the next topic. It was impossible. The extreme reaction produced the spiral method of treating- several topics in each chapter or lesson. "It consists in taking- the class around a circle, say with the topics of common fractions, decimal fractions, g-reatest common divisor, and square root : then swing-ing- around ag^ain on a broader spiral, taking- the same topics, but with more difficult problems; then ag-ain, and so on until the subjects are sufficiently mastered." — Smith, p. 119. Query : How many topics can be profitably treated together? 391. Graphic methods. — Graphic methods include all object- ive ways of aiding- visualization, such as writing-, drawing-, pictures, cubes, etc. Teclinically, a graph is a line repre- senting- variations of temperature, price, population, class standing-s, etc. Illustration. Add Yz and >^. 11111 6 6 6 6 6 1-1 2^3" 6 3 + 2 _5 ""6 392. Multiples. — A multiple of a number exactly contains that number. A common multiple of two or more numbers exactly contains each of the numbers. The least common multiple of two or more numbers is the least number that exactly contains each of the numbers. ARITHMETIC 243 1. The process of finding a multiple is simplified by finding- the prime factors of each number and then multiplying those factors. The least common multiple is the product of the prime factors, each taken the greatest number of times it is found in any one of the numbers. 2. Factoring by inspection. This process follows easily as a result of knowing the combinations. Find 1. c. m. of 20, 30 and 70. 20=2X2X5 30--2X3X5 70=2X5X7 The factors common to all the numbers are 2 and 5. The factors not common to some of the numbers are 2, 3 and 7. Hence, according to the rule in 1, 1. c. m. =2X5X2X3X7=420. 3. Second process. Actual division. Find 1. c. m. of 15, 60 and 75. 5 15 60 75 3 3 12 15 2 1 4 5 2 5 Hence, 1. c. m. =5X3X2X2X5=300. Third process. Numbers not easily factored by inspection. Find 1. c. m. of 849 and 1132. (a) Find greatest common divisor. 849)1132(1 849 283)849(3 849 244 METHODS IN EDUCATION (b) Find other factors. 283 849 1132 3 4 (c) 283X3X4=3396 1. c. m. 393. Divisors. — This topic is logically arranged before multiples in text-books. A divisor is a number that exactly divides another number. The greatest common divisor is the largest exact divisor of two or more numbers. A prime factor is a divisor having no other factors than it- self and one. Laws relating to greatest common divisor. 1. A divisor of a number is a divisor of any num- ber of times that number. 2. A divisor of any two numbers is a divisor of their sum and also of their difference. (1 ) The g. c. d. of two or more numbers is the product of all their cominon prime factors. Found, in first case, by inspection. What is g. c. d. of 42, 56 and 70 ? 42=2X3X7 56=2X2X2X7 70=2X5X7 Here we see that 2 and 7 are the only prime factors common to the three numbers. Hence, 2x7=14 g. c. d. (2) Second process is by division to find prime factors. Find g. c. d. of 105, 35, 70. 5 105 35 70 7 21 7 14 3 1 2 ARITHMETIC 245 The common factors are 5 and 7 ; not common, 3 and 2. Hence, 5x7~35 g. c. d. (3) Third process is by long- division when the numbers are not readily factored. This process involves the lav^s stated for g". c. d. Find g-. c. d. of 42 and 138. 42)138(3 126 12)42(3 36 6)12(2 12 We need to give analysis of this process to show that 6 is g-. c. d. It is evident that 42 is the greatest divisor of itself; if it is an exact divisor of 138, 42 is g. c. d. Trial shows that 42 is not an exact divisor of 138. The remainder is 12. By axiom any divisor of 42 is a divisor of 3 times 42 or 126 ; and a divisor of 126 and 138 is a divisor of their difference 12. Hence g. c. d. is not greater than 12. Now any divisor of 12 and 42 is a divisor of 138 which is the sum of 12 and 3X42. Thus the problem is to find g. c. d. of 12 and 42. A similar reasoning brings us to 6 and 12. But 6 is divisor of 12; hence, 6 is g. c. d. 394. Common fractions. Familiarity with common fractions is a natural result of the gradual introduction of this work. Fractional parts are introduced during the first year in arith- metic, and then the passing from the known )4, ^, X» etc., to the related unknown in larger fractions is going from the simple to the complex. Addition, subtraction and division of 246 METHODS IN EDUCATION fractions is best explained by reducing- to common denomina- tors. The method of common denominators may not be the usual one in division of fractions but it is a logical step since the children become familiar with the meaning- of common denominators in addition and subtraction. It may be need- less repetition to say that all of the introductory practice in common fractions should be based upon the use of objects with which the children are familiar. There are two conceptions of fractions, which a teacher should keep in mind : A fraction is one or more of the equal parts of a unit ; a fraction is simply an indicated operation in division. The concept of half of a familiar object is not difficult. An easy approach is indicated in the course of study. "Halves and fourths, thirds and sixths of single objects ; paper folded into two equal parts; into four equal parts, into three equal parts, and into six equal parts; objects cut into two, into four, into three, and into six equal parts and one or more of them named. The same should be illustrated by drawings. ' ' Then pupils have the three ways of bringing their ideas into one clear concept: objects divided into parts; the words half, fourth, etc, written; the forms \, \, \, |, etc. There are three principles to be made clear in fractions. The teacher observes them at all times but pupils may know many of the processes before the rules are comprehended. These are the principles : 1. Multiplying or dividing both numerator and de- nominator of a fraction by the same number does not change the value of the fraction. 2. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the de- nominator of a fraction by a number multiplies the fraction by that number. 3. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the de- nominator of a fraction by a number divides the fraction by that number. ARITHMETIC 247 FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES. Changing- to equivalent fractions. This depends upon the multiplying mentioned in the first principle. The approach is made during the first steps in halves, fourths, sixths, etc., by noting equivalents, thus : 1—2. 3 — 6 2.— A 3 — 6 Then follow simple exercises which prepare for succeeding processes. i— _ 2.— _ _ 3—6 1 — 14 2.— 3.— 5—10 7 — 28 6"— T2" f — ¥0" Change ^ to eighths, | to ninths, | to twelfths, -| to eighteenths. 2. Reduction to lowest terms. Apply division of terms in principle one to |, |, j\, ^\, |, if, i|. 3. Changing to whole or mixed numbers; as, f, |, 8. 1_2 _2_4 4. Addition. Recall that only like numbers can be added. 2 bu. +8 bu.=10 bu. To add | and |, change so that pupils will see 4 eights + 6 eights=10 eights. Thus |+f =V-. Addition is well presented in most of the text-books. For further exercises, consult any approved text. 5. Subtraction. No new operations or principles here. Apply common denominator again. 6. Multiplication. This operation appears easy. Take multiplication of fraction by whole num- ber first. Proceed as follows: 248 METHODS IN EDUCATION $7X5=$3S. 7 dollars X 5=35 dollars, 7 tenths X 8=56 tenths. j\X8= 56 tenths "Let us illustrate by teaching the multiplication of a fraction by an integ-er. Preparation con- sists of making- sure that the learner has in mind the knowledge thru which the discovery of the general principle is to be made. What does ys denote? What does the denominator denote? What does the numerator denote? Presentation consists in selecting an example and in finding a method of performing the operation. This may be done objectively or abstractly. We will choose the former. Let us take y&X2. We will draw a circle, separ- ate it into eight equal parts, and shade three of them to represent ^. Multiplying ^ by 2 we obtain six of these parts, or f . To multi- ply ys by 2, we multiply the numerator. Com- parison consists in showing that every other example in the multiplication of a fraction by an integer is exactly similar to ^X2 in all respects essential to the demonstration. This is true because multiplying the numerator of every fraction by an integer will multiply the number of equal parts that are taken without affecting the size of the parts. Generalization consists in stating the general principle. To multiply a fraction by an integer, multiply the numerator. Application consists in following this general principle in the solution of indi- vidual examples. Multiply j% by 9. ts X 9 is an example in the multiplication of a frac- ' • ARITHMETIC 249 tion by an integ^er ; to multiply a fraction by an integ"er, multiply the numerator; to multiply j\ by 9, multiply the numerator." — L. H. Bailey, New York Training- School for Teach- ers, in N. E. A. Report for 1905, p. 383. The next work is to multiply a fraction by a fraction. Development may be as follows : $1X1=: ? $1X1 =$1 $^ of f =--%i 2Xi=$| or $i ans. In the second step we have used 1 as a multiplier; process understood from last paragraph. With a multiplier ^ as larg-e, the product is ^ of $| or $i. Using |- instead of ^ as multiplier, the product is twice as large ; hence, 2 times $f or $^. The same result may be secured in a shorter process by multiplying- the nu- merators for a new numerator and the denomi- nators for a new denominator. Continued multiplication is a larger application. Use cancellation to review divisors and re- duction to lower terms. Emphasize cancella- tion as a short, practical process. 6A44A10A48 — FAULTY ARRANGEMENT. Find cost of 3i yards at $2^ a yard. $2i=$|XV-=$¥=$8i. This statement of the operation does not give mathematical truth. It says $2i=z$8i. Econ- omy of time and brevity of form are not ad- vantages here. Arrange the work in steps. 250 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3^ yards = -^3^ yards. $81 ans. 7. Division. Recall the third principle and apply it. The first case is division of a fraction by a whole number. $18-f-3=$6 18 dollars -7-3 = 6 dollars. 18 twentieths -4-3=6 twentieths. 1 8 . 1 — 6 When the numerator is not exactly divisible, the denomi- nator must be multiplied by the divisor. This is one process that is mastered long before the reasons are understood. Take this : If 4 pads cost $f, what is the cost of one pad? Here the process must be by multiplication of denominator, and the answer is $^^0 or IS cents. To divide a fraction by a fraction. Another case of learning- process before understanding rule. 7 _i. 2 — ? 8 • 3 — • 1-4-1=3 iof3=| |of|=fi Required to divide | by f. Taking the unit 1 instead of |, we find that i is contained 3 times in 1. Then f is contained in 1 one-half of 3 times or |. As | is only | of 1, the true quotient is | of | or ^. We see that a shorter process to this same result is to invert the terms of the divisor and multiply. Another explanation of inversion of terms in division of fractions. i-2=/. Or, iXi=H ans. ARITHMETIC 2Sl We used 2 as the divisor instead of 5^, and the quotient is j^g. But the divisor 2 is 3 times too large ; hence, the quotient y'g is 3 times too small. Then to obtain true quotient, we must take 3 times yV- The same answer could be secured by the shorter process of inversion and multiplication. Another case is to divide a whole number by a fraction. This case is usually treated before dividing a fraction by a fraction. But after using inversion, we have a simple pro- cedure : 7-f-|=? Here the use of the denominator 1 gives a case exactly like the last one under inversion. TYPE EXAMPLES IN FRACTIONS. SEE 371. 1. To find a fractional part of a number. A father left % of his farm of 840 acres to his son. How many acres did the son receive ? 2. To find a number when a fractional part of it is given. Robert used % of his money in paying $4 for books. How much money had he at first ? 3. To find what fractional part one number is of another. Lena had eighteen cents and paid six cents for a pad. What part of her money did she spend? 395. Decimal fractions. — The relation of decimal fractions to cominon fractions is treated under three views. The first opinion favors the teaching of decimal fractions as an exten- sion of the decimal system of United States money and the decimal systems of money, weights and measures in certain foreign countries. The second view makes decimal fractions the equivalents of certain types of common fractions. This means, then, simply 252 METHODS IN EDUCATION another kind of notation, and for this reason many text-books treat common fractions and decimal fractions together. The third view considers decimal fractions very difficult for a child to comprehend on account of so many large denom- inators. For this reason the subject is treated in a separate chapter after common fractions have been mastered. We need not try to decide whether decimal fractions should be taught before common fractions, simultaneously with them or after them. The vital point is clearness in presentation; and a satisfactory way seems to be to unite the first two opinions and proceed from the known decimal scale of United States money and the known types in common fractions such ^c 1 2_ _3_ _i_ _2_ 3 _1 2_ cif^ **■*» 10' rO' 10' 100' 100' 100' TOOO' IT^O^J '='-^' The decimal point. The one new feature of decimals is the decimal point. Pupils know numerator, denominator, terms of fraction, value of fraction, fractional unit and the four operations. The use of the decimal point need not be entirely new in decimals. During the third year of school pupils write such amounts as $2.60, $18.74 and others. They add and sub- tract such amounts, putting the decimal points under each other. They learn the name decimal point but they do not know the laws of decimals. An authority on this is Hand- book to Smith's Arithmetics, p. 33 (Ginn). The specific use of the decimal point in decimals is established by changing TO' To> TO' ^tc- ^^ equivalent decimals. The application to hun- dredths, thousandths and other orders will follow, of course, to bring out these principles : 1. Moving the decimal point one place to the right increases the value tenfold; moving two places to the right increases the value one hundred- fold, etc. 0.082 0.82=: 10 X 0.082. 8.2 -100X0.082. ARITHMETIC 253 2. Moving- the decimal point one place to the left decreases the value tenfold; two places, one hundredfold, etc. 0.882 .0882 =0.882 --10 .00882 = 0.882^100." 3. Ciphers annexed or rejected at the right of a decimal do not change the value of the decimal. .88 = .880. The matter for lessons on decimals may be found in any good text. The scope of such lessons is indicated here to aid those who are preparing for examinations. NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 1. Matter. Examples covering reading or interpre- tation; writing" decimals; reading and writing- mixed decimals. Do not use and in reading whole numbers like $125; but use and in place of the decimal point. $125.60=one hundred twenty-five dollars and sixty cents. 2. Arrangement, (a) Add: $18.65 13.46 inches 12.48 8.92 inches 6.22 2.15 inches (b) $126.18+ $415.92+$75.86. (c) 74.12 ft. +18. 7 ft. + . 6 ft. (d) 270.40+186.90+23.04. (e) Read: TO' ToV» TOW' 1 700 10000 0.6, .16, .160, .175, 2.8. .705, .023, .003, 7.05, 0.23. 6.306, 42.0094, .3678. 254 METHODS IN EDUCATION (f) Write in figures : Fifteen hundredths. Seven thousandths. One hundred eighty ten-thousandths. Forty-four and six hundredths. (g) Write in words : 59JL __ S._ Ijr 4 6 3 TOOO' 100' 10' TOOOO .0024 0.8, 7.16, 384.681. 3. Rules. Read the decimal as an integer, and give it the name of its righthand order. To write decimals; Express the numerator in figures, and then place the decimal point so that the last righthand figure shall express the denomination of the decimal. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. Write the numbers so that the decimal points shall be in the same column, and then add or subtract respectively as in whole numbers. MULTIPLICATION. 1. Matter. Five or more examples in common frac- tions and decimals to satisfy inductive process. 2. Arrangement. (a) Multiply i\ by j%\ To X T¥0 — tWo • . 3 X. 84=. 252. (b) TWO X t"o = xt^T .12X.75 = .0900. (c) 3X0.4, 3X.04, 3X.004. (d) 54.6X.30. (e) 0.24X.254. 3. Rule. Multiply as in whole numbers, and point off as many places in the product as there are decimal places in both multiplicand and multiplier. ARITHMETIC 255 DIVISION. The old way is analogous to the plan used in multiplication, namely, from common fractions to equivalent decimal fractions. This shows the reason for the rule that the quotient con- tains as many decimal places as the decimal places in the dividend exceed the decimal places in the divisor. Austrian miethod. In division we have also an "Austrian method," a valuable arrangement. It is not long since a problem like 6.275 divided by 2.5 was "worked" by a rule which was rarely developed. Now the work is arranged in this way : 2.51 2.5)6.275 25)62.75 50 12.75 12.5 0.25 0.25 Such an arrangement leaves no trouble with the decimal point, and the work is easily explained. In the above problem the entire remainder is brought down, and the decimal point is pre- served throughout, as should be done until the process is thoroughly understood ; then the abridgment should appear. — Smith, p. 122. TYPE EXAMPLES IN DECIMALS. SEE 371. 1. To find a decimal part of a number. The dis- tance from Cortland to Ithaca is 20 miles. A boy walks .7 of the way in one day. How far did he walk? 256 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. To find a number when a decimal part of it is g^iven. Eug-ene earned $14 which is .7 what his father earned. How much did his father earn? 3. To find what decimal part one number is of an- other. A pupil failed on three out of twelve problems on an examination. What decimal part of the whole test was incorrect? 4. To find a number when the number plus a de- cimal part is gnize the words which are used in familiar language. The advantages claimed : 1. The word is mastered by the eye. 2. It is from the known to the related unknown, as children can talk words when they enter school, and now they learn that the word is a picture and also a sign of some objective thing. 3. Alphabet, spelling and syllables are learned in- cidentally. 4. It is natural because languages are developed one word at a time, the word being the unit of language. Disadvantages of the word method : 1. Mastery by the eye alone is not a pedagogical advantage; multiple sense instruction is better. 19 274 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. Habit of guessing-. 3. Incomplete without phonics, spelling, and writ- ing sentences. ^ 4. Considering the sentence as the unit of expres- sion, the word method violates the principle from the %vhole to its parts. The sentence method begins with sentences and later works down to words and letters. Advantages : 1. The sentence is the unit of our language, since every complete thought must have a sentence for its expression. 2. Interest, apperception and self-activity used in constructing and interpreting sentences. Disadvantages of the sentence method : 1. Incomplete without the study of words, letters and phonics. 2. Not suited to simultaneous teaching where dull pupils are present. 416. Synthetic methods: alphabet, phonic. — The alphabet method teaches the letters first. Sooner or later the letters must be learned as they are instruments of knowledge in the child's mental equipment. It is, then, an advantage to learn them as soon as possible. But usage does not favor this method because (a) it violates the principle of going from wholes to parts; (b) it is neither the interesting nor the natural way of learning a language. The phonic method, or the learning of the sounds of the let- ters, should not be used first. Reasons: the two given against alphabet method and also the fact that some letters have too inany sounds and some letters are silent. As a supplementary aid, the values of phonic training are (1) distinct articulation; (2) pure tone; (3) the power to read new words and pronounce them correctly. READING 275 417. Combination method. — A liberal view of teaching prim- ary reading includes the best features of the four methods mentioned. Analysis and synthesis are needed for every com- plete educational process, and enough of each can be chosen from the combined advantages of the four methods. Then add writing to co-ordinate the motor activity with the other senses; and, finally, dramatic expression as amcnsof interpretation through the aid of action. DRAMATIZATION. The value of dramatic expression is a modern contribution to primary reading. It need not be limited to primary reading, however, nor should it be. We have frequently emphasized the worth of oral expression in recitations, declamations, discussions and debates. Here we add one more suggestion in regard to using the dramatic instinct of children in all grades as a means of individual and social interpretation, expression and impression. In the N. E. A. Report for 1907, p. 485, there is a short article on Dramatizing by T. C. Blaisdell, Professor of Eng- lish Literature, State College, Lansing, Michigan. We quote three paragraphs and some of his suggestions. "But why should not dramatizing be a potent factor in education? Children have an imagination far more vivid than have youths or adults. Left to themselves, unhampered by teachers and curriculum, children unconsciously become actors of power and dramatists of real human interest. To illustrate : A few days ago I attended the out-of-door flag-day celebration of a two-room rural school. The program had been left to a committee of five girls. They had of course the conventional recitations and songs, a violin solo, choruses, etc. But finally came an announcement that caused an expectant rustle among the fifty or sixty children and the few visitors sitting on the sloping hillside. Charades were announced, and we were to "guess." They were not charades, however ; 276 METHODS IN EDUCATION they were effective little dramas, conceived entirely by the g-irls, witnout rehearsals, and so far as I could learn, w^ith- out any schoolroom experience in dramatizing-. The Betsy Ross home during- the making- of the first flag- was shown, the conversation between General Washington and his aides, and the famous flag- maker, being- given with a vividness that caused silence even among- the boj^s of the somewhat restless audience. But the chief work of art was yet to come. Our young- friend Malcolm was seen mounting- his pony. He and his pony are a unit. And when he came crashing- thru the trees and in front of the audience crying "The British are coming ! Be ready! Be ready !" he brought his audience to their feet. They cried out in their excitement, "Paul Revere! Paul Revere !" The dramatizing was done with vigor, and was received with a delight that does not pass. Will not Malcolm read of the famous ride of Paul Revere with a new power when next that poem is called for in the reading-class? And will not every boy and girl who saw the little play, have a deeper understanding of the real meaning of the original ride and read of it with added joy and with more dramatic skill?" Suggestions in favor of dramatizing. 1. Children are eager to interpret life ; hence, the desire to play stories, poems, songs, and home or vacation incidents. 2. Visualization. Pupils comprehend better after seeing ; they become better readers and better appreciators of literature. 3. Overcomes self-consciousness. The enthusiasm is a powerful social stimulus. 4. Clearer images formed. Better talking and writing. 5. Strengthens the speaking voice, gives ease of bodily carriage, increases desire for knowl- edge, brings teacher and pupils into closer READING 277 relations, and exalts the function of pleasure as a factor in education. 6. For reference, see Sara Cone Bryant's How to Tell Stories to Children ; also, the books cited in 418. 418. McCloskey method.— This method of teaching- reading- combines the advantages of the four methods discussed in the preceding- sections and also correlates reading- and languag-e. Special emphasis is placed upon the content of the reading- matter. Some of the leading- features are summarized. 1. The choice of matter that appeals directly to the interests of the pupils. Live objects are selected, such as, the story of the Kid, from the Jewish Talmud ; The Ox; The Little Red Hen ; The Little Pine Tree ; The Little Boy Blue. 2. The vivid telling- of stories by the teacher. The oral treatment of the story is the first step in the teaching-. The story is told three times : first, to g-ive an idea of the whole ; second, to g-ive the children a chance to fix the essentials in their right order ; third, a rapid telling to bring all the parts together again. For sug- gestions for oral work with stories, see De- Garmo's "Essentials of Method", pages 94- 107; McMurry's "Method of the Recitation", pages 26-29; McMurry's "Special Method in Primary Reading", pages 1-46. 3. The use of script forms in introducing the thought expressed in a sentence. This process com- bines the sentence method and the word method. 4. The transition from script to print. This puts the child into the use of text-book or printed 278 METHODS IN EDUCATION sheets early in his school career. It gives him a chance to begin to help himself. 5. Oral language lessons based upon the written and printed sentences already treated. A re- production of the material already covered gives the teacher an opportunity to make use of the dramatic instinct in the children. This dramatic rendering of the little stories is not strictly a part of the McCloskey method but it is used successfully by a large number of teachers who are using the other points of advantage in the McCloskey method. The written language work follows closely after the jBrst oral language work and absolute accuracy in getting capitalization and punc- tuation is required from every pupil. The progress in the line of structural composition is one of the marvelous results of this method of teaching. 6. Introduction of phonic lessons. After fifty or sixty words are thoroughly known at sight, the pupils are able to grasp the words as wholes and then the work in phonic analysis is introduced. The method of phonograms and blending is used. 7. The letters of the alphabet learned and used. This summary of features shows that the McCloskey method does use the sentence method, the word method, the phonic method and the alphabet method but they are used in the reverse order from that advocated in some schools. The principle from the whole to the parts is rigidly observed in this method. 419. Rational or Ward method. — This method is a combina- tion of the word method and the phonic method. Later the READING 279 other two methods are utilized in the reading- lesson. The aim of the Ward method of teaching- reading- is to make the child independent. The phonic drill during the first two years of the work aims to give the child a key to the language so that he will be able to help himself in all the work in reading after the second and third years. The oral work in the Ward method is divided into three dis- tinct lines of drill. 1. Sight reading from the blackboard. 2. Drill on phonograms. 3. Drill on blend. In the first half year of school the children are taught to read eighty-two words by sight reading and in every instance the teacher must see that the children understand what they are reading. In teaching a word the actual process of teach- ing is not done until after the children have been tested to see that they have the general thought conveyed by that word. These words are used in sentences from the very beginning and are frequently drilled upon in conversation or story. Along with this sight reading there is much drill upon phono- grams and the blend. The leading features of this system are the following: 1. The presentation of phonograms in a rational order. A phonogram is a written or printed representation of a sound; as, f, 1, m, n, r, ing, ings, ight, ights. A word phonogram is a sight word used as a phonogram; as, ail, at, old. 2. The teaching of an initial stock of phonograms before any phonetic reading is done. 3. Thorough training in phonetic blending before any reading is done. This training aims to prepare the sense of hearing for quick, ac- curate perception. 280 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. Gradual introduction of phonetic words into the sentences used in the reading lessons. A sight word is a word that has been taught as a whole. Such words are recognized by the sight alone. A phonetic word is a word that the children are to read by means of combining the phono- grams. The blend or blending is the union of simple or combined sounds into words. 420. Guiding principle today.— The one great principle that determines correct methods of teaching reading is from the whole to its parts. This principle is applied all through the elementary grades. 421. Suggestions for beginners.— Suggestions 1 and 2 are from Course of Study. 1. "Sounds of letters. While the word or other sight method is being employed for teaching the reading of sentences, daily lessons should be given on the sounds of single letters and combinations of letters. These exercises should be used as a drill in articulation and as a prep- aration for reading. The first sounds taught should be such as are (1) easily made, (2) easily prolonged without alteration in character, and (3) common to many words in the vocabulary of the child: for example, s, m, 1, f, a, e, o. The combinations should be such as are (1) easily learned as wholes, and (2) useful for reading; for example, ing, ight. Letters, the sounds of which have been taught, should be combined with words taught as wholes to form new words; for example, f combined with at, in, ill. 2. As a preparation for the recognition and pro- nunciation- of new words, the teacher should slowly sound words which the pupils will READING 281 recog-nize by ear. Words taught by ihe phonic method should be introduced into the sentence reading- very g-radually so that the expression may not suffer. The use of diacritical marks as a help to reading is optional." 3. Use initial stock of ideas in pupils' minds. Choose an interesting subject, preferably an animal or other living thing. Use conversa- tion leading; to expression in simple sentences. 4. Script. Teacher writes a sentence on board, drills on it and on each v^ord. Other sentences repeating- certain v^ords of first sentence. 5. Phonics. Easy elementary sounds, phonog-rams and blending-. 6. Drill. Keep lists of phonograms and v^^ords for frequent drill. 7. Print. Early transition from script to the print in the book. Neither teachers nor pupils print. 8. Visualization and imitation. Teacher writes slowly on board, pronouncing- each letter and each word. Pupils observe to get visual and motor imag-es. Then as teacher counts or di- rects, each pupil may reproduce the writing- in the air; this followed by writing on paper or board. Use pencil or crayon. 422. Good reading defined. — Interpretation of the author is good reading. The analysis of this definition will show that it covers all of the mental and the physical qualifications of good reading. The physical qualities are articulation, enun- ciation, pronunciation, pitch, modulation, time, accent, and inflection. The general position of the body and the holding of the book contribute much to these qualities. The mental qualities are the results of an application of the physical qualities so that the selection may be properly expressed. This lUiterpj-etatioii expressed involves emphasis, placing of rhetorical pauses, fluency, and feeling. 282 METHODS IN EDUCATION 423. Physical difficulties. 1. Distinct articulation and enunciation. Appeal to imitative faculty of child, the teacher being- the model ; have individual and class drills on difficult sounds and combinations like th in v^ith, t in first, r in frog", k in sink. 2. Modulation of voice. Work for pure speaking- tones, the teacher being- the model again. 3. Weak attention. Have short, interesting lessons, and stop before interest v^anes. Physical con- ditions often determine the duration of sus- tained interest. Timidity, bashfulness and laziness should also be considered as causes. 424. Mental difficulties. 1. Association. Reading- calls for a threefold effort : the idea in the mind, the spoken w^ords, and the symbols representing- these words. This association requires time, as required by DeGarmo's Lav^ of Successive Clearness. 2. Intelligence. Strive to g-et intellig-ent reading-, not a mere pronunciation of words. See the term critical reading- in 430. 425. Reading to pupils. — According- to the course of study the teacher's aim should be (1) to develop an interest in read- ing- ; (2) to cultivate the imag-ination ; (3) to present a model of expression ; (4) to create ideals of right living-. As the pupils advance in the g-rades the teacher's reading to them is not for the purpose of direct imitation by the pupils but to increase interest and maintain a standard of g-ood reading. 426. Meaning of words. — The meaning- of words should be learned throug-h the context rather than from formal defini- tions. For various ways of teaching- the meaning-, see 147, 173 and 500. READING 283 427. Aim of phonic training. — See phonic method in 416. 428. How to arouse interest. 1. Beginning- in 2B, "the reading- lessons proper should be preceded by (1) such conversations as may be necessary to prepare the minds of the pupils for the appreciation of the subject matter, and (2) exercises which will insure the prompt recognition of the forin and the meaning of new words." Which of the Formal Steps of Instruction are used here? Silent reading preparatory to oral reading is also recommended in this grade. 2. Dictionary. — In 4A "the use of diacritical marks as aids in the pronunciation of difficult words, and in the intelligent use of the diction- ary, is recommended." 3. In 6A teachers should give informal talks on books to read at home, being guided in recom- mendations by tastes and interests of the in- dividual pupils. 4. In 6B the power of sustained interest is culti- vated by reading long selections or complete works. Have one rapid reading to get con- ception of the piece of literature as a whole ; part of the reading may be done by teacher, part by pupils in class, and part by the pupils at home. A second reading should clear away the difficulties in meanings, and pupils should try to get the thought and feeling rather than the form of the selection. 5. Oral report on home reading and current topics is recommended in 7A. 429. Complete works vs. selections. "Another reform of great consequence has taken place dur- ing the past fifteen years in the teaching of reading. The 284 METHODS IN EDUCATION movement had its orig-in in the conviction on the part of Presi- dent Eliot and others that reading v^as too formal ; that read- ing- is but a means and not an end, and that so soon as the mechanical elements are mastered it should be used as a vehicle to transmit the contents of literature to the child. This reform, which v^as greatly assisted by the discussions and reports of the "Committee of Ten" and the "Committee of Fifteen," has revolutionized the school readers and the courses of study throughout the length and breadth of the land. Courses of study in the elementary school now demand, in the upper grades, the critical and appreciative study of master- pieces of literature, and the school readers are no longer made up of "useful information" and twaddle on moral subjects in- vented by the compilers of readers. But they contain, even in the lowest numbers, pieces that possess genuine literary merit. So that instead of reading about "Jane's Doll" and "Jack's Top," the boys and girls of the second and third grades read the poems of Longfellow, Field and Cary. In the secondary and collegiate courses similar changes have occurred. Formerly, courses in literature consisted largely of the mastery of treatises about literature and its creators. Now they consist of the concrete, first-hand study of entire masterpieces representing authors or types of liter- ary form. The changes may be summed up by saying that the courses in English have been infinitely enriched by placing the em- phasis on the subject-matter of literature rather than on the mere form of mechanical aspect." — From approved answers, p. 170, McEvoy's Science of Education. 430. Critical reading, — The appreciative study of complete masterpieces, as suggested in 429, is made by going over the masterpiece three times. To distinguish this process from one hurried reading, the name critical reading has been applied. First reading for general conception; some portions read by teacher for the purpose of creating a right atmosphere; other readijSG 285 portions read aloud by pupils in class; minor portions read by pupils at home. Second reading- for the more careful treatment of important parts. The aim being- to bring- about an appreciation of the beauty of the selection rather than to accumulate a fund of in- formation concerning- words or allusions. Third reading- for effective oral rendering- of those parts of the selection which make special appeals to the pupils' im- agfinations and sympathies. 431. Silent reading. A larg-e part of the work of school and of life depends upon the power of reading- silently. As all g-ood reading- means an interjiretation of thoug-ht, it follows that the teacher's duty is to show pupils how to g-et the thought from the printed page through the process of silent reading-. This may naturally follow the ability to do good work in oral reading-, but special exercises to test the children upon the work in the reading- lesson and in the library books is recom- mended. See 3 and 5 under 428. 432. Difficulties in the selection.— See 173 and 490. 433. Articulation violated. — Articulation has reference to the distinct utterance of the sounds of the letters and syllables constituting- a w^ord. This 'distinct enunciation is violated in four different ways. 1. Suppression of a syllable; as, ev'ry for every, reg-'lar for regular, and mem'ry for memory. 2. The omission of sounds; as, readin for reading, swif'ly for swiftly, and Feb'uary for February. 3. The substitution of sounds; as, ufford for afford, judgmunt for judgment, modist for modest. 4. Blending of the termination of one word with the beginning of another; as, this sworld for this world. 434. Accent and emphasis. — Accent is the stress of voice placed upon a syllable; emphasis is the stress of voice placed upon one or more words in a sentence. The difference in ac- 286 METHODS IN EDUCATION cent is illustrated by the nouns and verbs alike excepting the accent. Thus : conduct, meaning behavior, is accented on the first syllable; while, conduct, to lead, is accented on the second syllable. Emphasis is frequently denoted in books by the use of italics, small capitals, or large capitals. But these indications are not always used, and so the interpretation of the piece to be read requires the student to place the emphasis so that the meaning of the author will be properly expressed. An illus- tration from the Union Fifth Reader by Sanders is this sen- tence from Webster: "Liberty <2/?<^ union, now ^m-'f forever, ONE and inseparable." Or this one: lyeason! cried the speaker; treason, treason, TREASON, reechoed from every part of the house. Absolute emphasis is the kind just illustrated. It belongs to the important words in a sentence, irrespective of contrast- ing emphasis. Antithetic emphasis depends upon contrasting parts of a sentence. "People do not lack strength; they lack will.'''' 435. Inflection. — The word inflection means a rising or a falling of the voice in reading or speaking. The four kinds of tones classified under inflection are the monotone, the ris- ing inflection, the falling inflection, and the circumflex. Strictly speaking, the monotone is not an inflection at all be- cause there is no rising or falling but for convenience it is classified with the other three kinds of tones. Following is an illustration for each kind of tone. 1. Monotone. "Thy will be done." 2. Rising inflection. The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool. The playful children just let loose from school; The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whisper- ing wind. And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ; These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, And filled each pause the nightingale had made. READING 287 In these lines from the Deserted Villag-e, use rising- inflection on pool, school, 7uind ; falling on shade and made. 3. Falling inflection. Brutus. Go to ; you are not, Cassius. Cassius. I am. Brutus. I say you are not. Cassius. Urge me no more ; I shall forget my- self. . Have mind upon your health ; tempt me no further. — From Julius C^sar. Falling inflection on to, 7iot, Cassius, am, not, 7nore, inyself, health, ftcrther. 4. Circumflex for underscored words. And this man has become a god, and Cassius a wretched creature. 436. Modulation: pitch, quantity, quality.— Modulation has ref- erence to the variations in the voice in speaking and reading. Modulation is both mental and physical and it depends upon the emotional interpretation of the selection to be read. Modulation is expressed in three different ways. Pitch has reference to the high or low tones of the voice; quantity means the volume or the loudness of the tones; quality has reference to the kind of tone. Pitch is easily distinguished by asso- ciating it with the musical scale. Quantity is measured by the volume of the sound as soft or loud ; and by the time as slow or quick. Volume has reference to the stress; time has reference to the movement. Illustrations of the principal char- acteristics under quantity are given below. Number (1) is high and loud; (2) very loud; (3) quick; (4) soft; (5) very loud; (6) plaintive; (7) and (8)- slow and low. Selection and appli- cation taken from page 44, Union Fourth Reader by Sanders. (1) The combat deepens ! (2) on ! ye brave! (3) Who rush to glory, (4) or the grave ! (5) Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave ! And CHARGE with all thy chivalry ! 288 METHODS IN EDUCATION (6) Ah! few shall part where many meet! The snow shall be their winding sheet, And every turf beneath their feet (7) (8) Shall be a soldier's sepulcher ! — Campbell. Quality relates to the kind of tone. Under ordinary classi- fications there are the four kinds. Sanders, an authority fol- lowed by nearly all the modern books, gives four definitions which we shall quote. "1. The pure tone is a clear, smooth, sonorous flow of sound, usually accompanied with the middle pitch of voice, and is adapted to express emo- tions of joy, cheerfulness, love, and tranquility. EXAMPLE. Hail ! beauteous stranger of the wood, Attendant on the spring, Now heaven repairs thy vernal seat. And woods thy welcome sing. 2, The orotund is a full, deep, round, and pure tone of voice, peculiarly adapted in expressing sublime and pathetic emotions. EXAMPLE. Its thunders ! Sons of dust, in reverence bow ! Ancients of Days ! Thou speakest from above : Almighty ! trembling, like a timid child, I hear thy awful voice. Alarmed — afraid — I see the flashes of thy lightning wild. And in the very grave would hide my head. 3. The aspirated tone of voice is not a pure, vocal sound, but rather a forcible breathing utter- ance, and is used to express amazement, fear, terror, anger, revenge, remorse, and fervent emotions. READING 289 EXAMPLE. Oh, coward conscience, how dost thou affright me ! The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight; Cold, fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. 4. The guttural quality is a deep, aspirated tone of voice, used to express aversion, hatred, loath- ing, and contempt. EXAMPLE. Tell me I hate the bowl ? Hate is a feeble word : I loathe, ABHOR, my very soul With strong disgust is stirred. Whene'er I see, or hear, or tell, Of the dark beverage of hell." 437. Pauses: grammatical, rhetorical. — Rhetorical pauses are those made in reading, irrespective of the construction or the punctuation of the passage. Grammatical pauses are those made in accordance with the construction and the punctuation of the passage. The former is illustrated: Sweet was the sound | when oft at evening's close | Up yonder hill | the village murmur rose. | 438. Control of the breath. — As in all other school work there are two conditions to be considered, the physical and the mental. We have already spoken about the necessity of good physical conditions in each child and the consequent mental conditions. Good breathing requires proper position in sitting and standing. It involves practice in deep breathing and the general poise of mind and body. The child that is taught to breathe deeply will soon form the habit of breathing in that way most of the time. When he comes to the practice in oral reading, the breathing will then take care of itself and his attention can be given to the mental qualities of good reading, 290 METHODS IN EDUCATION while the breathing- will supplement his interpretation by means of the oral expression. The ordinary "setting^ up" exercises in physical culture are intended to put the body into physical conditions for effective breathing in all school work. 439. Extensive and intensive reading. — Extensive reading refers to the amount of reading done by the pupil ; while in- tensive reading relates to the depth of the interpretation made. The present tendency is toward extensive reading. Stanley Hall and some other educators advocate the mastery of one good book in literature rather than the promiscuous reading of books. The latter may seem to satisfy the desires and views of the child, but there will be a lack of classified mater- ial or an utter foigetfulness of the matter read. Intensive reading of a few good books will enable the pupil to get the thought of the author, to become familiar with the author's style of writing, and to form ideals worthy of imitation. There are arguments in favor of each kind of reading-, but a personal opinion favors the latter kind. 440. Home reading.— The following paragraphs are taken from the New York City course of study regarding the use of library books : The class library is designed to supplement school work and to furnish the teacher with such material as will attract the children to books, create a love for good literature, and en- courage the habit of reading outside of school hours. A good rule to be followed in the selection of books is the one laid down by Dr. Hill in "The True Order of Studies" : "The most instructive reading for a person of any age, old or young, is that in which the author's tone of thought is above the average tone of the reader's thought, and yet not beyond his grasp." The pupils should have convenient access to the library for reference work and general reading. They should be en- couraged to draw books and take them home. Books should be kept not longer than two weeks without renewal; and such RKADING 291 books as are in great demand should not be retained by a pupil more than one week. 441. Literature and character. — In Chapter IV we quoted from the New York Course of Study regarding- moral educa- tion. The matter quoted emphasized the use of literature as an aid in the formation of character. This view needs no de- fense. The topic is inserted here to emphasize the need of more direction regarding what children shall read. The teacher of ordinary reading is supposed to give the child the power to interpret good literature but her task does not end with that part of the work; she must supplement those efforts in teaching by trying to direct the child into habits of reading a kind of literature that will form character for life. 442. Memory gems. — To what extent should pupils be re- quired to memorize gems from literature ? What should be the characteristics of such memory selections? A minimum assignment should be prescribed for every grade in the elementary school. The selections are intended to aid pupils in thought and expression rather than to serve as mere training for the memory. Each selection has the merit (a) of being adapted to the grade, (b) of teaching some desirable lesson, (c) of posessing literary excellence. NEW YORK CITY SUGGESTIONS. lA. At least four lines of poetry per week, or an equivalent amount of prose, should be memorized by every pupil. The selections may be made from ihe following list : Little Pussy. — Taylor. The Dewdrop. — Sherman. Who has Seen the Wind? — Rossetti. Sleep, Baby, Sleep (two stanzas). — From the German. The Rain is Raining All Around. — Stevenson. The Wind. — Stevenson. Boats Sail on the Rivers. — Rosetti. 292 METHODS IN EDUCATION Mother Goose Rhymes : Humpty Dumpty, Little Bo-Peep, Mistress Mary, Little Boy Blue, Little Jack Horner, Baa, Baa, Black Sheep, Rockaby, Baby, Thy Cradle is Green, Rockaby, Baby, on the Tree Top, This Little Pig- Went to Market, etc. IB. The Sunbeams. — Poulsson. Over in the Meadow. — Wadsworth. Hush ! the Waves are Rolling- in. — Old Gaelic Lul- laby. What Does Little Birdie Say ? — Tennyson. The Baby.— MacDonald. The Golden Rule. — New Eng-land Primer. Robin Redbreast. — Allingham. Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.— Taylor. Nonsense Alphabet. — Lear. Mother Goose Jingles : Sing- a Song of Sixpence. As I Went Through the I Saw a Ship a-Sailing. Garden Gap, etc. I Had a Little Sister. Thirty White Horses. Peter Piper. Little Nancy Etticoat. The House That Jack Built. 2a. The Swing. — Stevenson. Bed in Summer. — Stevenson. Who Stole the Bird's Nest?— Child. Daisies. — Sherman. Seven Times One. — Ingelow. The Rock-a-By Lady.— Field. All Things Beautiful. — Alexander. Proverbs and Maxims. READING 293 2b. Don't Kill the Birds.— Colesworthy. Ariel's Song-, "Where the bee sucks." — Shakspere. My Shadow. — Stevenson. Dutch Lullaby.— Field. Windy Nights. — Stevenson. Lady Moon. — Houghton. Stop, Stop, Pretty Water.— Follen. The Land of Story Books. — Stevenson. Thanksg-iving- Day. — Child. Proverbs and Maxims. 3a. I Live for Those Who Love Me. — Anon. The Brown Thrush. — Larcom. The Tree. — Bjornsen. Wishing. — Allingham. The Owl and the Pussy Cat. — Lear. The Violet.— Jane Taylor. Hiawatha's Childhood. — Longfellow. Hiawatha's Sailing. — Longfellow. Proverbs and Maxims. 3b. The Child's World.— Lilliput Lectures. Marjorie's Almanac. — Aldrich. A Visit from St. Nicholas. — Moore. The Owl. — Tennyson. The Captain's Daughter.— Field. Sweet and Low. — Tennyson. Proverbs and Maxims. 4a. The Night Wind.— Field. The Children's Hour. — Longfellow. Jack Frost. — Gould. 294 METHODS IN EDUCATION Robert of Lincoln. — Bryant. "He Prayeth Best."— Coleridg-e. The Wreck of the Hesperus. — Longfellow. 4b. The Fountain. — Lowell. September.— Jackson. The Villag-e Blacksmith. — Long-fellow. The Mountain and the Squirrel. — Emerson. Barefoot Boy. — Whittier. Drill exercises, as in 4A. 5a. The Landing- of the Pilg-rims. — Hemans. The Day Is Done. — Longfellow. "Under the Greenwood Tree." — Shakspere. A Sea Dirge. — Shakspere. Woodman, Spare That Tree. — Morris. The Gladness of Nature. — Bryant. Excelsior. — Long-fellow. The Arrow and the Song-.- Long-fellow. 5b. The World Wants Men.— Anon. Aladdin. — Lowell. Psalm of Life. — Long-fellow. To the Fring-ed Gentian. — Bryant. The Planting- of the Apple-Tree. — Bryant. Paul Revere's Ride. — Longfellow. Barbara Frietchie. — Whittier. Today.— Carlyle. 6a. Orpheus with His Lute. — Shakspere. The Destruction of Sennacherib. — Byron. A Man's a Man for A' That.— Burns. The Minstrel Boy. — Moore. READING 295 Abou Ben Adhem. — Hunt. The First Snow-FalL— Lowell. Nobility. — Gary. Sheridan's Ride. — Read. Song- of Marion's Men.— Bryant. 6b. The Spacious Firmament. — Addison. Burial of Sir John Moore. — Wolfe. The Builders. — Long-fellow. Old Ironsides. — Holmes. One by One. — Proctor. "Breathe's There the Man."— Scott. The Blue and the Gray.— Finch. The White-Footed Deer.— Bryant. 7a. Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz. — Longfellow. To a Waterfowl. — Bryant. The Finding of the Lyre. — Lowell. The Year's at the Spring.— Browning. "It is not growing like a tree " — Jonson. Daybreak. — Longfellow. Bannockburn. — Burns. 7b. Thanatopsis. — Bryant. Charge of the Light Brigade. — Tennyson. Hohenlinden. — Campbell. "Good name in man or woman." — Shakspere. "Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness."— Shakspere. The Bugle Song.— Tennyson. "There was a sound of revelry." — Byron. 8a. "Thou, too, sail on." — Longfellow. "The quality of mercy. "—Shakspere. 296 METHODS IN EDUCATION The Chambered Nautilus. — Holmes. My Heart Leaps Up. — Wordsworth. The Brook. — Tennyson. Sound the Loud Timbrel. — Moore. "I wandered lonely." — Wordsworth. The Concord Hymn. — Emerson. Opportunity.^ — Sill. Warren''s Address. — Pierpont. Bunker Hill Oration. — Webster. Polonius's Advice. — Shakspere. 8b. Liberty and Union. — Webster. To a Skylark.— Shelley. Eleg-y. — Gray. The Forest Hymn. — Bryant. Commemoration Ode (Division VI.) — Lowell. On His Blindness. — Milton. The Way to Heaven.— Holland. Sandalphon. — Long-fellow. "This was the noblest Roman of them all." — Shak- spere. Gettysburg- Address. — Lincoln. "What is so rare as a day in June." — Lowell. 443. Patriotic selections. — There are two views reg-arding- the teaching- of patriotism. One mentions specific virtues in civic life and then proceeds to teach the necessity of having- these virtues. This teaching- is done larg-ely through biography and history. The tendency toward imitation of the lives of g-reat men and women is the principle upon which this kind of training- rests. The other view is throug-h the self-activity of the pupils in organizations for pupil self-government and in the supplementary reading of chosen selections which convey the highest ideals in American life. The latter process is the one that justifies the use of patriotic material in the course READING 297 for reading-. Such material exalts civic virtues, which are treated abstractly in the first view of patriotic training-, but the teacher does not preach the necessity of following every one of these virtues. She hopes, however, to have the pupil, through the interpretation of the literature, recognize the ideals and feel it a duty and a pleasure to strive to attain such standards. 444. Biography. — In the chapter on history we spoke of biography as a correlated means of making historic events emphatic. A similar use may be found in reading-. The selections in literature will have a strong-er personal relation as the child becomes acquainted with the lives and character- istics of the author. This point of view alone justifies the use of a certain amount of biography as a part of the suitable material in the course in reading-. 445. How to memorize a selection. — The following sugges- tions are the outgrowth of personal experience. 1. Choose a selection that will appeal to the inter- ests of the class. It may be necessary to edu- cate the children to appreciate certain kinds of prose or poetry. In this process of education teachers should select material that will suit the children during- the various steps in their development. 2. Use a selection that may be found in the books of the class so that each child may have a copy for his own use. If this is not possible, write the whole selection on the board so that it may be easily seen from any part of the room. 3. Bring out the essential facts in the biography of the author. 4. Show the conditions which led to the writing of the selection. 298 METHODS IN EDUCATION 5. Don't make a long- introduction in trying- to arouse interest. Make the teaching- of the selection a matter of business which every child in class ought to respect. The very fact that the selection has been chosen for this pur- pose is enough to invite respectful attention ; and the facts brought out in the biography and in the conditions at the time of writing the selection are enough to interest an average class. 6. Have the pupils take a comfortable position, fix attention upon the matter on the board and prepare themselves for concert work. 7. The teacher should direct the lesson by having all pupils read the whole selection through once. Then take it by stanzas or paragraphs, and then the third time begin upon the sen- tences. Concert memorizing of a certain amount of the selection is made by means of visualization. Concert and individual drill follows. 8. Review frequently from the beginning so that pupils may hold the parts in their relation to the whole. Do not prolong the work to the point of fatigue. Grade selection according to the ability of the class to memorize, and stop when the complete selection is mastered. The completion of the process may be assig-ned for home work. 446. Rhetorical exercises. — The practice of having rhetorical exercises, from time to time, is to be commended as a useful exercise in school work. Those who have read the substance of this book do not need an extensive answer to this question. Such exercises are a kind of oral summary of the leading READING 299 points in all the lessons; but as a means of bring-ing- out the dramatic element in expression they have a far greater value. From w^hat has been said about class discussions, debates, etc., students can summarize the points of value in rhetorical exercises. 447. Adaptation. — We have emphasized the necessity of adaptation all through the grades in the elementary schools and so that g-eneral principle can be applied to every exercise in the course in reading-. 448. Variety.— The lav^ of variety is a physical and a men- tal necessity. It is the one valuable point in the avoidance of fatig-ue. As the reading matter is one external means of adapting variety, it is not necessary to offer a longer defense of its use. 449. Correlation. — Since reading is necessary as a basis for all studies, it follov^s that reading must be correlated v^^ith all studies. It is not necessary, how^ever, to make the recita- tion periods in reading lose their character as such in the effort to cover the v^ork in geography, grammar, arithmetic, or other studies. 450. Habit. — For one point of view see section 441, and then apply that thought to the material in Chapter IV. Chapter XVI. Examination Department. Typical Questions and Answers. 451. Association of ideas. — Explain associatioii of ideas. ' Association means the relation of ideas, of images, of feel- ing's, etc., because of similarity or of contiguity. One thing is like another. That thing recalled to consciousness recalls the other without effort. One thing is the result of another that we learned at same time or in same place. We re- call one, we recall the other. A child has been taught spelling by the method of visualiz- ation. The name Florida recalls to his mind not only his mental conception of the state of Florida but likewise the image of the word Florida as it appeared when written on a blackboard. He associates the image of the written form with the spoken word. Likewise he associates all concepts in con- sciousness related to Florida. We remember by association. In history when teaching the early explorations, have the date of the founding of St. Augustine learned. Later we study the founding of the oldest settlement of the south-west, Santa Fe. Instead of learning this date we associate it with St. Augustine and thus form a stronger link in memory for the first date. Santa Fe was founded seventeen years later. James says verbal memory is strong only in young children. The older one grows, the weaker it becomes. It behooves us, therefore, to form the habit of remembering by association. Correlation is founded upon the idea of association of knowl- edge. The concentration idea of the Herbartians, which is a form of correlation, is likewise founded upon the great idea of teaching by means of associating knowledge. 452. Observation : cultivation of power of. {a) What is meant by the cultivation or development of the power of observation? (j) TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 301 (^) Show by giving directions and illustrations how the po%ver of observatioti may be developed or trained. (5) The cultivation or development of the power of observa- tion means the cultivation or development of the senses in such a manner that vibrations g^iven out by any new objects are quickly, easily, and correctly interpreted by the nerve centres so as to bring a train of thought to consciousness. Two boys walk along- a country road. One, A, has been trained to ob- serve; the other, B, not. A notices and observes. At end of walk should you question him he could tell you how sky looked, how road looked, in what direction was the wind, various birds seen, their nests, kind of trees along the road, kind of rocks, wild-flowers seen, changes of season as shown in vegetation, what the weather of late has affected etc. B has been oblivious of all these things and has probably not seen any of them. The same things gave forth vibrations but his senses did not convey vibrations to nerve centres for inter- pretations. (b) Tell children on way to and from school to look for some particular thing during the course of several days, for instance, appearance of ground in spring after rain when worms have been at work. Have them try to find cause. Their interest is then aroused. Talk in school on subject at end of time of observation and appoint a new topic. Treat in same way. Present objects for study. Bring out points you wish ob- served by questions upon those special points. 453. Attention and interest : ten rules. — Discuss each of the following rules, indicating in partictilar how your viezvs bear upon attention and interest. 1. Introduce new subjects objectively when possible. This rule embodies many of the elementary axioms. It may be expressed in another way by saying that the inductive method should be used, or that we should proceed from the empirical to the rational, or that sense instruction should be 302 METHODS IN EDUCATION employed, or that visualization is made possible by the co- ordination of all the senses. In presenting- the subject of liquid measure it is advisable to have a measure for gill, pint and quart and then to allow the pupils by actual measure of v^rater to see that the table expresses a truth. This process involves attention, interest and self- activity. 2. Present only a few^ ideas at a time. This is another w^ay of saying- that the mind can exercise only a definite amount of energy at any one time. This amount varies with each natural ability and degree of development. It is another way of expressing what De Garmo calls the law of successive clearness. This process of limiting the lesson to a few ideas is an aid to interest and attention by permitting the child to comprehend all that is given to him instead of presenting- more matter than he can assimilate. The presen- tation of too many ideas becomes a cause of fatigue and then all the mental energies are affected. 3. Ask questions promptly and require prompt answers. The relation of this rule to attention and interest lies in the necessity of alertness when the teacher does ask questions promptly and the pupils do answer promptly. It gives neither time nor inclination to let the mind wander from the point under discussion, and so it places pupils, teacher and sub- ject-matter within the circle of instruction. In other words, it is a practical way of covering- subject-matter and then pass- ing to another kind of subject-matter before the pupils have time to become wearied by the work. 4. Ask the questions before you call the name of the pupil. If the pupil's name should be called first, then all the other pupils in the room may feel that they will not be called upon, and hence it is not necessary for them to give their attention to the question or to the answer. 5. Do not repeat a question This holds good as a general rule but still it has exceptions. The teacher who makes it customary to repeat a question TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 303 every time a pupil asks for the repetition will soon find that the children do not give their attention to w^hatshe is teaching- because they know that she will repeat the question upon the subject-matter. The exception relates to the development of new matter in which time is required by the pupils for assimi- lating the new ideas. The repetition of a question in the same or in modified form impresses the leading ideas by giv- ing the children time to grasp the new matter as it is related to the apperceiving group. 6. Do not look fixedly at the pupil you are going to call to answer. The objections to this way of conducting a recitation are the same as for asking the question after calling the pupil. The pupil knows he is to be called and other pupils know that they are not to be called for that question. The other point of view regarding the rule is in favor of looking fixedly at the pupil. In every class there are certain timid or nervous or backward children who need to have warning so that they may compose themselves before trying to answer the question. While answering the question it is then a means of direct en- couragement to such pupils to feel the assurance that the teacher is working with them and is in sympathy with them. 7. Do not look steadily at the pupil who is answering. This rule has the two points of view expressed in the pre- ceding rule. If the teaching process means a harmony of thinking between teacher and pupil, it is no violation of proper methods for the teacher to look steadily at the one who is answering. If opposed to the principle of including other members of the class, it may be said that successful school management considers the whole class a unit and all are supposed to be giving attention to the teacher whether he is looking at one or at more than one. 8. Vary your ways and try to arouse curiosity. Make all exercises brief. 304 METHODS IN EDUCATION This rule is a summary of many of the points g-iven in the preceding- rules. In sayings that it is necessary to arouse curiosity, it is simply putting- emphasis upon preparation as one of the formal steps of instruction. In making exercises brief, the teacher is again guarding- against inattention and fatigue. 9. Speak in low distinct tones. The first reason in favor of this rule is that pupils are led to adapt themselves to the standard set by the teacher. If con- fusion or disorder causes the teacher to speak in louder tones, the children have no cause for trying- to remain quiet to hear what the teacher says. A low, distinct tone necessitates still- ness in the room; it does not disturb the dispositions of pupils who are inclined to be nervous; it does not g-ive an example to pupils in loud or harsh speaking-; nor does it put the teacher under any personal feeling- of her inability to manage the class and cause them to adapt themselves to her manner of speaking- and teaching. 10. Show your interest in the subject. This rule needs no defense. Pupils can judg-e human na- ture even better than adults can judg-e it, and if a teacher is not interested in what she is teaching she has no moral right to expect her pupils to be interested in that subject. That both should be interested is a requisite for the kind of teach- ing that looks upon their class as a unit in the larger social organization. 454. Consciousness. — What is meant by consciousness? The distinctive character of whatever may be called mental life is consciousness. Whatever we are when we are awake, as contrasted with what we are when we sink into a profound or dreamless sleep, that it is to be conscious. What we are less and less, as we sink accordingly down into dreamless sleep, or as we swoon slowly away; and what we are more and more as the noise of the great outside tardily arouses us TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 305 from our afterdinner nap, that is consciousness. — Ladd's Psycholog-y, 30. 455. Attention. — Define, discuss and illustiuite attention. (a) Attention is concentrated consciousness. Hume says attention is consciousness occupying- itself with an object. In consciousness we are aware of many thoughts and objects, but in attention all the powers of the mind are directed to one thing- or object. In the best forms of attention an object or sound may be directly presented to the senses and yet I am unaware of the fact. "We g-ive best attention when there are no physical or psychical obstacles. For instance, I am very tired, bodily tired. I go upon a street car. Usually I attend to thing-s g-oing- on around me. Now, I g"ive no attention to them. I am too conscious of my weariness. This weariness is a physi- cal obstacle which inhibits attention to the things around me. I pick up a book in Russian. I open it and I try to interpret it. I fail. I lose interest and find myself unable to concen- trate my mind upon the book. It is too difficult for my mind. I have no apperceiving group to bring the power upon an ob- ject. Therefore, I cannot give attention because this is a psychical obstacle. Attention is of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary. I am attending a course of lectures. There are no physical ob- stacles in the way of my attending, that is, I am not tired. The room is warm enough, the air is good, and all other phy- sical environments are satisfactory. There are no psychical obstacles. The speaker's topic may be new to me, but it is not beyond my comprehension. The speaker begins and I listen and follow the trend of his thought. I am giving vol- untary attention. The speaker occupies a position on a small stage. To the left is a door partly open. About the middle of the lecture a small dog peers in the doorway and runs across the stage to someone he knows in the room. By an involuntary act my mind leaves the trend of the lecturer's thought for a few min- 21 306 METHODS IN EDUCATION utes and pays attention to the dog-. This is involuntary atten- tion. So involuntary attention is consciousness, not controlled by the will, occupying- itself with an object. Voluntary at- tention is consciousness, controlled by the will, occupying it- self with an object, (b) A voluntary action is an action per- formed as the result of a volition on the part of the doer. It implies that the doer knew what he was doing and he did it of his own free will. It also implies that the action was per- formed as the result of the interpretation of vibrations by the brain rather than the result of an interpretation in a nerve center located outside of the brain in the spinal column. Illustration. I am working at my desk. The window is open. The wind blows a sheet of paper against my hand. I remove the paper without being conscious of my action and without taking my thought from the work in which I am en- g-aged. This is an involuntary action. A few minutes later during the same kind of study I hear of a friend's illness. I stop my work and immediately prepare to go to see that friend. I am conscious of what I am doing, but I do it of my own will. This action is voluntary action. 456. Will : James on balky will. "The teacher often is confronted in the schoolroom with an abnormal type of will, which we may call the balky will. Certain children, if they do not succeed in doing ? thing im- mediately, remain completely inhibited in regard to it ; it be- comes literally impossible for them to understand it if it be an intellectual problem, or to do it if it be an outward operation, as long as this particular inhibited condition lasts. ' — James. (a) Describe wrong 7vays of dealing with such cases, with their usual or natural results. {b) Describe a psychologically right ivay of dealing with such cases. Give reaso7is. (a) This quotation from James is found on page 182 in Talks to Teachers. "Such children," he says, "are usually treated as sinful, and are punished ) or else the teacher puts TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 307 his or her will against the child's will, considering- that the latter must be broken. Such will-breaking is always a scene attended with a great deal of nervous wear and tear on both sides, a bad state of feeling left behind it, and the victory not always with the would-be will-breaker. (b) The answer is quoted from James. When a situation of the kind is once fairly developed, and the child is all tense and excited inwardly, nineteen times out of twenty it is best for the teacher to apperceive the case as one of neural patho- logy rather than as one of moral culpability. So long as the inhibiting sense of impossibility remains in the child's mind, he will continue unable to get beyond the obstacle. The aim of the teacher should then be to make him simply forget. Drop the subject for the time, divert the mind to something else ; then, leading the pupil back by some circuitous line of asso- ciation, spring it on him again before he has time to recognize it, and as likely as not he will go over it now without any difficulty. 457. Will : method of training. — Outline a useful method of training the will. One means of training the will is that of allowing as much liberty as possible to the individual pupil, to throw him upon his own resource find responsibility; giving him certain work to be performed within a specified time, leaving the exact time, place, and manner of doing the work to him. Allow him the freedom of the room, the building, the grounds, with the understanding that the privilege must be rightly used. The point is to get him in the habit of acting on his own initiative and to exercise proper control over his actions; both im.portant functions of the will. Suggest to pupils various things that they might do to im- prove their village or to alleviate the distress or add to the happiness of people less fortunate than themselves. Arouse their feelings to the point where they are ready to do some- thing, then put the opportunity before them. 308 METHODS IN EDUCATION Organize little clubs or societies for the accomplishment of certain special ends, as the protection of the birds, the cultiva- tion of a flower garden. Furnish all the needed instructions as to how to do and create the desire to do, but leave the doing to the children, 458. Mind-wandering. — {a) Describe inind-wande7'-ing , and give the psychological causes of it. (b) How can mind-wandering be overcome or cured? No matter how scatter-brained the type of a man's successive fields of consciousness may be, if he really care for a subject, he will return to it incessantly from his incessant wanderings, and first and last do more with it, and get more results from it, than another person whose attention may be more continu- ous during a given interval, but whose passion for the subject is of a more languid and less permanent sort. Some of the most efficient workers I know are of the ultra-scatter-brained type. One friend, who does a prodigious quantity of work, has in fact confessed to me that, if he wants to get ideas on any subject, he sits down to work at something else, his best results coming through his mind-wanderings. This is per- haps an epigrammatic exaggeration on his part; but I seri- ously think that no one of us need be too much distressed at his own shortcomings in this regard. Our mind may enjoy but little comfort, may be restless and feel confused ; but it may be extremely efficient all the same. — James, Talks to Teachers, 114. 459. Apperception, correlation, general notion, logical memory. — Define each. Apperception is mental assimilation. It is the gaining of the understanding of new knowledge by means of past ex- perience and knowledge. I see a strange flower. I recognize it as a flower by means of my former knowledge of flowers I have seen. Correlation means the relating of various kinds of knowledge. The mind remembers by association of ideas. Correlation TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 309 means the bearing in mind of this idea and the associating- of knowledge of things along- geographical lines with knowl- edge of things gained along historical lines, etc. It does not mean the teaching of geography and history in one lesson but the bringing to bear upon the history lesson the facts learned in the geography lesson. Likewise it means the tak- ing up of related subjects in different lessons at same period. When studying geography of England, study likewise history of England and literature of England. General notion corresponds to the term concept. A concept is a representation answering to a general name. Many psy- chological elements enter, — sensation, perception, memory, imagination, judgment, concept. A logical memory is a memory which reproduces to minds events or ideas through their logical connection or continuity. It differs from mere rote memory and recalls by means of as- sociation. I know the date of the founding of St. Augustine I wish to recall the date of Santa Fe. I have learned that there are seventeen years difference. I then compute and re- member the date of Santa Fe. This is example of logical memory. 460. Attention and interest. — What is the relation between attention and interest? Mentio?i five of your devices to arouse and sustain interest iti the recitation. Attention is concentrated consciousness. Interest is the re- sult of continued acts of attention. We are interested in that which we understand. Attention gives us such understanding. To sustain interest : I. See that every child gets a grasp upon the subject matter. See that he understands thoroughly. Do not go on to next step until each child is ready for it. II. Assign outside topics. Boys especially like this. If you use this means, be sure you do not neglect to call for work assigned. Such neglect is fatal. 310 METHODS IN EDUCATION III. Wherever possible, get knowledge first hand, as in nature study. IV. Use maps and charts wherever possible. V. Vary lessons and way of conducting- recitation. Let children sometimes do the questioning. Let them prepare one question each upon the lesson to be put to class. Questions founded upon lesson. 461. Imagination : definition, classes, uses. Imagination is the power of thinking or calling into con- sciousness feelings of things, persons, qualities and conditions of all sorts not present to the senses. It is 'twofold in its nature, productive and reproductive. In its reproductive nature, it corresponds to the various senses. It is, for instance, possible to divide images into audile, visual, gustatory, motor and tactile images. Some people are stronger along one line of image-making, some along other lines. The attempt has been made to classify people according to their type in this respect. The teacher there talks to the audiles, writes on the board for the visual, makes motions and enunciates prominently for the motors. As it cannot, however, be proved that the people who see images most clearly before their mind's eye necessarily make the best responses, and as all children possess these powers in some degree, such attempts seem questionable. Thinking is forever aided by getting images of things to be stored away in memory as clearly as possible because vividness is one of the factors in memory. In its productive power, imagination has resulted in the best achievements of the race. Imagination, in this direction, is the power to put parts of things, qualities, and conditions into new forms. We call this creative imagination. This functions largely in ethical thinking or idealization. Here we get a construction of all the qualities which appeal to us as standing for the highest good. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 311 The uses of the imag-ination may therefore be classed under two heads, (a) its memory uses ( b) its creative uses. The abuses of the imagination may be thought of as (a) failure to g-et clear imag-es or failure in visualization, making for w^eak memory; (b) over-emphasis of images rather than responses, benumbing to self-activity. The creative uses of the imagination may be thv^arted by crushing out individuality, telling too much in history; talking too much in draw^ing; failure to direct thought tow^ard original thinking. 462. Memory discussed and illustrated. Discttss fully your attitude towards the 7ne7Jiory in regard to its function and training. Memory is of tw^o kinds, the purely verbal and the logical. The former, by dint of continued repitition and reproduction, grasps and hold the v^^ords of a statement, w^ith little or no re- ga'rd to its meaning in many cases. I remember reading of an experience one teacher had of this truth. Her grade, fifth year, were able to sing most lustily "My Country 'lis of Thee" without their books. They did so to the admiration of her visitors. But one day that Nemesis who digs the steps of the great entered her door. An inquiring visitor asked to have the children write the first stanza that he might take it home as a trophy of his visit. The first paper the teacher took up, began "Mike Own Tree, tissuf the" — let us draw a veil over the remainder. But the logical memory is of different nature; the mind pos- sessing it apperceives, associates, reasons. The substance is secured, a logical connection between facts is established; and the whole is presented not in the book form perhaps, but in terms of the pupil's consciousness, of which it has formed a part. The perfect memory would combine both the words of the master and the thought which has become the pupil's own. The following is a "plan for perfect possession" which I have 312 METHODS IN EDUCATION used for several years, with senior classes in teaching" "L'Alleg-ro" and "II Penseroso. " I g-ive it in outline. I. Preliminary study. 1. Milton's Eng-land. (Use Maxwell Parrish's il- lustrations.) (a) Horton in particular. (b) Scenery about it. 2. Milton's Life. (a) Especially boyhood and g-rowth. (b) Maturity as contrast to (a). 3. Lyric poetry. (a) Reflection of poet's mind. ( b) Embodiment of beautiful thougrht in beauti- ful words. II. First Reading. 1. Nature of thought expressed. (a) General theme. (b) Minor theme. III. Second Reading. 1. Careful study of all peculiarities of syntax. (a) Explanation of all terms, as classical allu- sions, etc. (b) General division into parts to get working plan. IV. Third Reading. 1. Comparison of two poems for general parallelism. 2. Selection of particular thoughts paralleled in each, and learning- words for several. (a) Music. (b) Birds. (c) Dawn. (d) Evening. (e) Shakespere. (f ) Human life. 3. Parallels in other parts. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 313 V. Review. 1. Reading- of Macaulay's Criticism from Essay on Milton, and application. At the close of this study I have found, almost without excep- tion, two results; — first a thorough, in some cases a literal possession of the poem; second, a love for the author which has led to further voluntary reading- of his poetry, — and this is the chief aim of teachers. In g-eneral, memory may be cultivated by (1) a clear pre- sentation of the idea to be learned, showing- its central theme (2) requirement from the pupil of his understanding of the theme. ( 3) Choose a poem, read a stanza four or five times, close the book, recite to yourself; if you fail, reread. Then write from memory. Compare with the original. In case of error, reread, then write. Continue until the whole selection, not merely its parts, is your property. (4) Require repetitions at unexpected moments. (5) Formation of associations, — as when a beautiful landscape is seen, recalling what various writers have said of such scenes. (6) For all forms and uses of memory, besides mere learning-, the constant putting to use what has been learned. 463. Imagination and thinking. — Explain the connection be- tween imaginatio7i and tJmiking. Discuss the uses and abuses of imagifiation in education ? Charles Johnson in his elements of Literary Criticism places the constructive imagination in the power to create, as the truest mark of genius. Without this power to create, man's thought would be confined to the limits of his own sense and experience. We could think only in terms of what we had ourselves seen and felt, — all other emotions, all other experi- ences beyond our ken. True thinking would be impossible. By creative or constructive imagination we select elements from our past experiences which our apperceiving- powers show us may be associated or combined into one, and from these create an image in its entirety beyond our experience, 314 METHODS IN EDUCATION but made up of, or working- out from, elements we know. An American boy of the twentieth century can construct a pretty clear imag-e of the Knighthood of old from what he has seen, in pictures in real life, of armor and weapons of those days, and by seeing- a few coats of arras, can make a fairly correct image of The Templar's emblazoning-, and pick him out from a picture in Ivanhoe. This is the rig-ht use of imagination, — the ability to interpret the new and to put it to use practically, and as an apperceiving- group for new information. On it the scientist- relies; he pictures what should be and then combines elements to demonstrate that it may be, and is. But un- bridled imagination in fantasy is as great a danger as the former is a good. The imagination must be trained like the will, to obey the dictates of reason or it becomes like the will, a bad master. Unbridled imagination blunts the power of discrimination, the unreal, not the ideal, becomes real to us. We dwell in a world of wild fancy where our wishes, our wills, are never crossed, and become every day more dissatisfied with our real life. Accurate thinking becomes impossible, for the wild flights of fancy have disdained the steps of logical connection; and the outline of truth has become lost in the cloud of lying fancies with no basis of fact. The poet sees the ideal, and longs for its accomplishment; but it is an ideal which is the flowering of all that is best in the present. The dreamer sees the unreal and grasps at it for selfish gratifica- tion; but his fingers clutch simply air; he falls and is destroyed by his own failure to see that what we want is not always what is best for all, and that no man can hope to live utterly to himself and despise truth. 464. Stages in intellectual development. — Explain the view that thei^e are stages iti the developnie7it of the intellect. "We have seen that in the very beginning of the child's learning the world he gains nothing but isolated sense im- pressions about it ; and whatever reactions he makes upon it are purely instinctive. This is what may not inappropri- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 315 ately be termed the s ens atio7ial period in the learner's career, employing- the term current in psychology. Soon the child makes a start in arranging- these impressions in the patterns in which they are presented by the objects to which they belong; and this may be styled the perceptional period, which, like the sensational period, is of course never entirely com- pleted. It is legitimate to consider them as periods only be- cause certain types of activities are especially prominent at these times. It seems proper to remark here that in an older day it was maintained that the mind from the beginning- ap- prehended the whole of anything- which was acted upon by the senses. The infant appreciated the form, size, taste, and all the other attributes of an apple the first time he looked at it, for instance." But modern psychology holds that the per- cept is built up g-radually through the co-ordination of simpler elements. It is the product of organization of factors orig-i- nally independent. It is a complex which in any individual case is constantly changing- ,with increased experience. Vis- ion contributes some elements of the complex, while taste, touch, the muscular sense, and so on, furnish others." 465. Particular notion to general notion.— It is a chief busi- ness of education to pass from distinctly perceived individual notions to clear general notions. — Pestalozzi. (a) Explain what is meant by individual notions, (b) By general notions, (cj Give an example of passing from indi- vidual notio7is to general notions, fdj Describe briefly a mode of teaching which violates PestalozzTs principle. (a) An individual notion means a percept or a group of per- cepts from an individual object. An apple is placed before me. I look at the apple. I handle it. I have a percept of that apple through feeling and sight. Both percepts refer to the one apple and therefore I have an individual notion of apple. An individual notion, then, is a notion of a thing gained through a sense medium or through several sense mediums. • 316 METHODS IN EDUCATION (b) General notion answers to the term concept while indi- vidual notion corresponds to the term percept. The general notion requires more work and experience on the part of the mind than the individual notion. General notion may be g-iv- en in a term which answers to a general name. A common noun is a general notion — corresponds to a general name while a proper noun refers to but one individual and is an in- dividual notion. (c) Take the example given in (a), an apple — ordinary red apple. Let us suppose this is first apple ever seen. From it comes the following ideas : of redness of size of roundness of appearance of blow end of smoothness, etc. The next day a green apple is seen. The ideas are the same, but redness is replaced by the idea of greenness. Next a small red apple is seen. Idea is again modified with regard to size. Some apples are smaller than others. Then a large apple is seen. Idea again modified. Ap- ples are large, small or moderate size. So we might go on with yellow apples, apples of other shapes (crow's egg). In the case of each apple presented, the mind recalled images of the other apples seen. Comparison and abstraction took place. Finally the child gets a general idea which is called up whenever apple is presented to the mind. This idea apple is a general notion and refers to no particular apple. (d) Rote teaching of definitions behind which there are no ideas is in direct opposition of Pestalozzi's idea, A child may glibly give definitions, say in grammar, and have no idea as to the meaning. 466. Clearness in education. — IV/ia/ is meant by clearness in education ? TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 317 Clearness in education is that stage of method in which the mind of the pupil apprehends the presented facts with clearness of mental vision ; the first formal step in method is clearness according to Herbart. The preparation as usually understood in the formal steps of instruction is a means to clearness. 467. The meaning of terms: sensation, concept, image, induc- tion. — Explain a7id illtistrate the following terms: sensation; co7icept; mental image; inductive 7'easoning. A sensation is a simple mental 'state resulting from a phys- ical stimulus. While at work this afternoon, I became con- scious of a noise outside. I paid no attention to it until some one inquired if we kept pigeons. We found later that some children were drawing a box along the sidewalk at some dis- tance from the house. The first state of mind in which a noise was heard but its nature or cause unknown, was sensation. A concept is a general notion. It is a representation in our mind answering to a general name. The concept ot a noun is a word used as a name. A mental image is a revived percept. While reading the other day I came upon the name "Vineyard Haven." At once there came to mind the picture of the Haven as I had seen it one evening at sunset, when the different crafts were an- chored for the night. Inductive reasoning is the process of establishing a general truth through particular instances. The teacher wishes the pupil to know that an adverb is a word used to modify a verb or some other part of speech. She does not tell him this, but has on the board good sentences illustrating the adverb used to modify a verb, a participle, and adjective, or other adverb. The pupil finds these facts and at the close of the lesson gath- ers them into the form of the definition. When, however, he finds examples illustrating this definition he uses deductive reasoning. 468. Active, mobile children. — "Some children are more ac- tive, or mobile — more suggestible; while others are more passive 318 METHODS IN EDUCATION or receptive, less sug-g-estible. The impulsive, active children are alw^ays responsive, but always are in error in what they say and do; they are quick to g-eneralize, poor at making- dis- tinctions and they are characterized by fluidity of attention. The sensory or passive children are more troubled with physi- cal inertia, more contemplative, less active in learning- to act out new movements, less quick at taking- a hint, etc." (After Baldwin). Comment on this classification. Suggest ways of dealing with each of these types. I do not agree that impulsive, active children are always in error in what they say and do, are quick to g-eneralize, poor in making- distinctions and characterized by fluidity of attention. This desig-nates some impulsive, active children, but not all. I have one in my school at present who could be so character- ized. This one can naturally see just why I have had her re- peat the work of last year. Last year she g-ained absolutely nothing-. This year I hope to have her gain sufficient to be promoted in June. With the second characterization of passive children I agree. I have had until just now such a boy in my school. He likewise is repeating last year's work. His physi- cal inertia is so great that I could not hope to have him up to grade by June. He has therefore been removed to a special school where individual attention can be given in hope of bringing him to grade. 469. Many-sided interest. — The aim of instruction, there- fore, is not the production of a many-sided knowledge, but of a many-sided interest. (Rein). Explain this statement, and give reasons for accepting or rejecting it. This statement means that if we have a many-sided interest we have a full development of all the powers of the mind and many-sided knowledge will result. Life is a process of learn- ing from beginning to end. We do not stop learning when we leave school. If our powers for learning have been cultivated interest will lead to the necessary knowledge. While if the TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 319 aim has been for many-sided knowledg-e we may both lack the knowledge and the power for gaining- it. If this meaning is accepted I accept the statement in the above. 470. Subjects suited to training of faculties. — Classify the ele- mentary studies with special reference to their respective val- ue's as suitable material for the several faculties. .The following classification is given on page 23 of Roark's A General Outline of Pedagogy (Hinds and Noble): { Nature-study and geography. „ , ,.1 Obiect work in all branches. 1. For sense-observation ■ Physiology. [ Drawing, clay modelings. f The fundamental facts in all branches. I Geography. I Physiology. 1^ Spelling. 2. For memory [ Arithmetic. ^ -,-, . , , Technical grammar. 3. For judgment <^ ^ I Nature-study — the "why" and "how" [ of common things. f Geography. 4. For imagination \ History. j Literature. f Nature-study (curiosity). 5. For the feelings. <( Reading and literature. I Biography and history. 6. For the will — the same as for the feelings. 471. Formal steps of instruction. — Name the for7nal steps of instruction, and tell why such processes are necessary in every complete act of instruction. 320 METHODS IN EDUCATION These steps or processes are: 1. Preparation. 2. Presentation. 3. Association. 4. Generalization. 5. Application. These five steps of the Herbartians are necessary in every complete act of instruction. We should lead from know^n to related unknown. A child has vague notions of many things. It is the work of preparation to bring these vague notions out of chaos and so combine them that they may form a foundation upon which knowledge may rest. The child's apperceptive powers are thus made ready or expectant for the presentation which is to follow. The second step or presentation is of vital importance. The subject of the lesson may be of the greatest importance to the child but unless this same subject is brought home to him by presentation its value is nothing to him. Although not well to do so, one might omit preparation, but it is impossible to have an act of instruction without presentation. Association is the third important step. The preparation has recalled past knowledge, the presentation haS' given new knowledge. It is the work of association to bind these into a whole that they may become a part of the child's mind and a basis of preparation for further acts of instruction. The fourth step is generalization. This step sums up or defines the knowledge gained. It puts this same knowledge into concise form; i. e., it classifies or defines knowledge gain- ed. After generalization the pupil is ready for deduction of general knowledge along similar lines. Application is the final step. It is another term for drill. The human mind is so constituted that if certain knowledge is not gone over again and again, that knowledge is soon replaced by other knowledge. Hence, the importance of drill in differ- ent forms until knowledge becomes a permanent mental pos- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 321 Educators differ about the number of formal steps. In such cases they combine two or more of the above. Dexter & Gar- lick's Psycholog-y gives but two, preparation and presenta- tion. With them presentation includes presentation proper as well as association, generalization and application. New York lesson-plans have I. Aim. II. Preparation. III. Presentation. IV. Application or drill. 472. Marking pupils' papers. — In marking pupils' papers do you indicate what is right or what is wrong f Why? Do you use per ceiits or letters? Why? " The purpose of all marking, like Socratic questioning, is two- fold. The first aim is to show the child the existence of error in his answers ; and the second aim to cause him, through his own efforts to reach the truth. So the ultimate process re- quires the pupil to separate what is right from what is wrong — a matter of subtraction; and the teacher's place of marking should be whatever is most helpful in causing the individual pupil or the class to attain the .desired ends. Various plans may be justified. 1. Sometimes indicate both wrong and right. The child then contrasts amount correctly done with amount incorrectly done. 2. Sometimes mark only wrong. If children are becoming too self satisfied, too easily pleased with a poorly learned lesson, arouse the instinct of pugnacity by showing him his poor work. He "will strive to overcome weaknesses. See Talks to Teachers, p. 54. 3. Sometimes mark only what is right. This gives en- couragement to the backward pupil and will often bring up a pupil who is laboring under discouragement. This is a good method to try with the dull, backward child of little brain but 322 METHODS IN EDUCATION great industry. Such types are found in every school. They are the ones whom a,little praise does not spoil. Tactful praise of this kind, i. e., the bringing- out of good points, may also be means of converting the bad boy into the model pupil. I should use per cent whenever the work can easily be thus marked as in spelling and written arithmetic. It is an honest way and children can compute their own marks. They like to do this. This is a good place to use emulation. Children compare per cents from week to week and try to do better. In such studies as grammar, history, geography, oral arith- metic, etc., it is better to use letters. One cannot determine accurately the per cent in such studies as one has no exact standard of measurement. The mind gives judgment or de- cision in such studies as excellent, good, fair, unsatisfactory, poor. L/etters may be used signifying this classification. 473. Home study: arguments for and against.— G^z'^^ arguments for and against the assignment of home study. Home study gives much aid in the education of the child. Its advantages are many. Herbart holds that education is development of moral character. To hold a child responsible for work done in a certain way and in a certain time outside of school hours is certainly developing his moral character. Home study also gives the child's mind a chance to become self-active in reflection upon subject-matter taught during school hours. If the child is made to strengthen in mind the knowledge gained in school during that day, his apperceptive powers will -certainly be greater than if the day's subject- matter is allowed to remain dormant in the mind until brought up again in the next day's lessons. Then, too, a child may understand thoroughly the subject-matter given during recita- tion, but unless it becomes a part of himself through reflection, he sustains a loss of power not otherwise to be secured. Home study is of especial aid in bringing to normal grade the dull or backward child. A boy in fourth grade was below grade in September. After two or three weeks' trial, the teacher TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 323 notified the mother of state of affairs. Arrangement was made by which this child did a certain amount of work at home each night. By January the boy was fully up to grade and by May he was capable of doing the work of the next grade. This he was allowed to do. Work continued during the sum- mer and in September this boy entered the sixth grade. Home study has some disadvantages. The tired, ill, or nervous child is injured by home study. When home study keeps the child from recreation in the open air, it is an evil to be avoided. If the child has to do work in a poorly lighted room, no amount of mental gain can compensate for the injury to his eyes. In a poor district this consideration might be very important. In regard to what work should be assigned for home study, take this general rule : Assign what will review or reinforce what was taught during the day. Spelling, geography, his- tory, or special topics for collateral reading are suitable as- signments for the average pupils. Mathematics is not suitable home work for primary pupils. See sections 480-481, p. 240, Science of Education. A HIGH SCHOOL ANSWER FOR 473. Home study appears necessary on account of the stupendous task of giving to the individual any real command of his "spiritual inheritance." The amount of ground to be covered is so tremendous, the requirements of higher institutions so pressing, the examination system so exacting, that it is not within the realm of possibility to do all we are at present obliged to do in the school. It may be that our knowledge of the human mind and the possibilities of correlations are the underlying sources of the difficulty. Aside from all this, how- ever, it is advisable to assign home study for the sake of the development of self-activity and independent work so desirable in the individual. In the last few weeks I have, however, made a successful experiment in lessening home study. I believe that girls often 324 METHODS IN EDUCATION pour over their books too long- from pure conscientiousness. I sug-gested to some five g-irls who averaged in the 90's on suc- cessive tests to leave the books in my subject in the schoolroom on Friday nights. I told them I should like to see what they could do without preparation on Monday morning-. I then ar- rang-ed to make Friday a kind of review day as far as the recitation was concerned. I sent a number of the most back- ward pupils to the board with questions written on slips of paper to bring- out "mooted points," did individual work with a few others, and allowed my stars to work on Monday's lesson which naturally had been assig-ned at the beginning- of the period. The experiment has worked beautifully. Everybody wants to g-et into the star group and leave books in their desks Friday night. Attention has increased, and the tone of the work is g-ood. To summarize the bad side of assignment of lessons I should say : (a) Attention to verbal presentation is often weak, because the child thinks, "Oh, it's all in the book anyway," which results in (b) Consequent waste of time. (c) Neglect of these opportunities for learning of practical matters which the home affords. (d) Danger of new study. 474. Meaning of terms in pedagogics: natural punishment, etc. (a) What is meant by "-natural punishmentT'' Illustrate. Give an illustration of its 7ton- applicability. (4). (b). What did Rosseau 7nean by "-editcation according to nature?'' De- scribe or illustrate a method of instruction that you regard as not ''according to nature.'' (4). (c) What is meajit by ''in- ductive teaching?" Illustrate i7tductive teaching with refer- ence to the idea of a traytsitive- verb. Illustrate deductive teaching of the sa?ne idea. (6). (a) Epitome page 184, point 3 under section 365. General illustrations in sections 366 and 367. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325 The non-applicability of this punishment is shown in the familiar illustration from Rousseau when the child is made to sit or sleep in a room where the window was broken by the child. Pneumonia or death mig-ht be the result. Such re- sults are too serious a punishment for the violation in conduct. An illustration in school work can be found in permitting- a pupil to neg-lect his studies all through school in the hope that the pupil will realize his loss when he comes to be a man. In this case the penalty will work its effects at a time when the person punished is unable to make up for the neglect in school. Such natural punishment cannot be favored. A school illus- tration of its applicability is found in the case of a child who continues throwing- paper on the floor. The natural punish- ment is to make the child pick up all the pieces of paper. If a child refuses to do his work during- the school hours, the natural punishment would be to require him to do work while the other pupils are having- recreation. A tardy pupil re- ceives natural punishment when he is made to remain after school to make up the time lost in the morning-. See also Dex- ter and Garlick's Psycholog-y, 372. (b) Epitome, page 180, sections 362 and 363. A method of instruction not according- to nature may be illustrated by giving- instruction on corn. Sup- pose that the information is secured entirely from text-books or is given in the form of a lecture 'by the teacher. In neither case is any picture or other representative object presented for observation. Memory alone is exercised in securing- a knowl- edge about this plant. The lesson has failed to utilize as many senses as possible ; the pupils must depend upon their imagination ; and the whole lesson is lacking the element of interest. This lesson presented according to nature would have the object or its picture, and children should plant corn to observe its growth or visit a field where corn is growing. 475. Meaning of terms in pedagogics. — Explain the terms (a) "■'learning throtigh self -activity ^ {b) "-thijigs before words ;" (c) '■'mental discipline;'" (d) ''harmoniotts development f (e) "■method-whole.'''' (lo). 326 METHODS IN EDUCATION (a) "Learning- through self-activity" means that the child shall be directed so that his own efforts may be the means of education. It involves a know^ledg-e of w^hat to study, how to study it, and where to find it. It presupposes attention to the directions of the teacher and interest in the matter to be mas- tered. Self-activity is a process tending- toward self-realiza- tion ; it is, in fact, the one safe way of attaining- the fullness of self-development which is the aim of all education. (b) "Thing's before words" is a concise way of expressing- the aim of realism. In the sixteenth century there was a movement ag-ainst Latin and Greek and in favor of French and German, g-eog-raphy, science and other real thing-s. It was arg-ued that the study of Latin and Greek was larg-ely a matter of memorizing- forms. The aim of the realists, there- fore, was to put pupils into touch with their environment. Another meaning- of this expression is seen in the inductive method. It is a process of learning- by experiment instead of by reading or listening-. Pupils handle natural things and use their own self-activity ; they get a knowledge of the real things, their properties, their uses, etc., before the principle or rule is put into words. (c) Discipline is that training of a faculty which gives it power to accomplish more than it would have been able to ac- complish without such discipline. So mental discipline means a training of the mind, with a view to accomplishment as expressed in the definition. (d) Harmonious development refers to a balanced develop- ment of all human powers. This development includes men- tal, moral and physical training. It is what is sometimes called a development of the whole man ; and it is the kind of training that Spencer requires for complete living. (e) A method-whole is an outline or plan of a certain amount of subject-matter which can be considered as a unit. The method-whole has been defined as an arrangement of matter that may be presented according to inductive-deductive method. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 327 It has been explained as a process of passing- from particular notion to g-eneral notion. A method-whole may embody all of the work presented during- a month, as the drainage of New York State. Then that larg^er method-whole may be sub- divided into other method- wholes according- to the work of a week or a day. Thus the definition of an adverb is suitable for a method-whole ; but in that work there is another method- whole embodying the lesson on the verb. In short, it is an arrang-ement of subject-matter to suit the natural capacities of the class. 476. Culture epochs. — Explain the meaning and application of culture epochs. The term culture epochs involves the idea that there is a parallelism between the development of each child and the his- torical development of the pupil or the race, and that in this parallelism we find the guiding- principles for the sequence of subjects or at least topics of instruction. This point of view is the basis for concentration as understood by Ziller and his authorities. The culture material found in religion, history, and literature forms the core of the curriculum. The sequence of the subject-matter is in accordance with the ag-es or epochs in the history of culture or civilization throug-h which the people to which this child belong-s has passed. — Baldwin, 248. 477. Concert or rote recitation. — State your attitude toward concert recitation. The concert recitation has been designated the device of the lazy teacher. It is easier for a teacher to be satisfied with certain correct answers from the majority of the class than to take time and energy for individual tests. The advantages of the method are as follows : 1. It is an easy means of stimulating- social interest and attention. 2. Timid or backward pupils may be encouraged to answer with the others while such timid pupils would not do so well if they were called upon to answer alone. 328 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3. It is a saving" of time in rapid reviews or other exercises of that nature. 478. Concert recitation. — faj From the psychological pomt of view what advantage and what disadvantage is there in rote or concert recitation ? (b) To what extent a7id ijt what sub- jects would you make use of such an exercise? Give reasons. (a) Rote or concert recitations are usually used as memory drills. They presuppose that the thing- reproduced has been apprehended and kept in memory. Nov^^ we g"ive exercise to the third stag^e of every complete act of memory or the stag-e of bringing- to memory or reproduction. If concert recitation is used as memory drill in this manner it is perfectly legitimate as the words given by children correspond to ideas already in child's mind. Where such work is used to fix ideas for first time in child's mind it is wholly at fault psychologically. It is in opposition to the principle that the mind should gain through the senses its knowledge of everything external to itself. The words said do not correspond to concepts in child's mind. (b) I should use concert work where I wished for repetition for the purpose of exercising memory and yet had not time to give each child an opportunity to recite. Herbart recommends repetition of this kind. It is well to use concert work also for variety. Child grows tired of always doing things in same way. If we are sure the ideas are behind the words, it pro- motes self-activity. It is well to use it to overcome diffidence on part of child. In reading for expression I find that children will imitate good expression if allowed to give in concert where a failure would result if the same recitation must be given alone. In reading Shakspere I have been led to find where diffidence was first conquered in concert work. Concert is useful in promoting self-activity and strengthening memory in the recitation of memory gems. Concert recitation likewise gives social stimulus. Children like to work together in this way. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 329 479. General method applied to grammar. — Briefiy outlijte a lesson to distinguish predicate noun and object noun accorditig to the Herbartian view of method. I. Aim. To disting-uish predicate noun and object noun. II. Preparation. 1. Define sentence. Illustrate. 2. Define subject. Illustrate. 3. Define predicate. Illustrate. 4. Define noun. Illustrate. III. Presentation. Have these sentences written on board. 1. Longfellow wrote poems. 2. Longfellow was a poet. 3. We like school. 4. This is a school. 5. Labor disgraces no man. 6. You will be a man. 7. Columbus discovered America. 8. Lincoln became president. 9. We like g-rammar. 10. Some nouns are objects. The preparation reviewed and impressed subject and predi- cate and noun. Without further preparation we can begin the presentation of this lesson. Have first sentence read. Cover word poems. How many parts in the sentence not covered ? There are two parts. Taking- those two words is the sentence complete or incomplete? It is incomplete. What completes the sentence? Poems. This shows that the sentence has a third part Read the second sentence and proceed as in the first sentence. Pupils see that the second sentence has a third part in the word poet. In this second sentence to what part of the sentence does the word poet refer? If this does not bring- the answer the teacher must question to show that poet means the same as Longfellow. Give name predicate noun. Read fourth sentence and bring- out the thought that school means the same as the subject this. Give name predicate noun. Read sixth sen- 330 METHODS IN EDUCATION tence and show ag^ain that the third part completes the predicate and means the same as the subject. Give name predicate noun and ask for definitions of a predicate noun. Return to first sen- tence and see if the third part means the same as the subject. It does not. It will be seen that the word poems completes the verb wrote the same as the word poet completes the verb was, but there is a distinction between the two parts, the one belonging- to the subject and the other not belonging to the subject. Poems is an object complement. Treat sentence five and sentence seven in the same way, giving- the name object com- plement in each. Ask for definitions and distinctions. IV. Application. Sentences 8, 9, 10 as reviewed in first seven. Have children construct sentences illustrating- object nouns and predicate nouns. 480. Things vs. words. — (a) What is the meaning of the maxirn, ''■Things rather than woj^dsT'' (b) Discuss, as bearing upon this maxim, the following quotation: "The truth is, that the knowledge of external nature and the sciences which that knowledg-e requires or includes, are not the g-reat or the fre- quent business of the human mind. Whether we provide for action or for conversation, whether we wish to be useful or pleasing-, the first requisite is the relig-ious and moral knowl- edg-e of rig-ht and wrong- ; the next is an acquaintance with the history of mankind." — Dr. Johnson. (a) It is the appeal for real knowledge which is to be gained throug-h the child's own actions, truths which the child can understand and use. A little girl repeated for me a poem in German. She did not know the meaning; she only had the words. "This antithesis between words and things which constant- ly occurs in educational literature, from the sixteenth century onward, is not very exact. Sometimes the antithesis so ex- pressed is really between the material world and abstract ideas. In this case the study of things which affect the senses is opposed to the study of grammar, logic, rhetoric, etc. Some- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331 times by words is understood the expression of ideas in differ- ent lang-uag-es, and by things the ideas themselves. This is the antithesis of those who depreciate linguistic study, and say that it is better to acquire fresh ideas than various ways of expressing- the same idea. Of course it may be shown that linguistic study does more for us than merely giving us var- ious ways of expressing ideas, but I will not here discuss the matter. Besides the disputants who use one or other of these antitheses, many of those who find fault with the attention bestowed on words in education, mean generally words learned by rote, and not connected with ideas at all." Quick, Educa- tional Reformers, p. 314 of Kellogg's edition. (b) The quotation is not in harmony with the maxim. It places first the religious and moral knowledge of right and wrong, abstract truths which do not appeal to a child, and are, if dwelt upon, distasteful to him. But when these truths are discovered through "an acquaintance with the history of mankind," or through the "knowledge of external nature and the sciences" — real things — they are attractive and welcome. 481. Learning defined. — (a) Explain this rule of Jacotofs : ''The pupil must learn some one thing and connect everything else with it.'' (b) What is properly meant by ''learning''' a lesson in geography or history? By ''learning" a tune? By "learni7ig" a stanza of poetry? By "learning" to be pinic- tual? (a) There is no such thing as an is3lated fact or idea. It must be associated with something else. Correlation of sub- jects, which received a considerable amount of attention, was a branch of this rule. The "Compromise of 1850" means lit- tle to the pupil if he is not acquainted with the history of our country from the first appearance of the slavery question to the admission of California into the union, (b) A lesson is learned in geography or history when a pupil, in his own language, is able to give the facts in their right relations. A tune is learned when a pupil or class is able to give it with 332 METHODS IN EDUCATION ease and expression. It may be with or without the copy. A stanza of poetry is learned when the exact words of the author can be given without aid. Learning- to be punctual means a reptition of the effort until it becomes a habit, when it is ac- complished with ease. 482. Aims in penmanship. — What are the desirable aims iii penmanship? Ease, leg-ibility and speed are three worthy aims. These are secured by maintaining- proper position of the body, the pen and the paper ; by practice of muscular movement in place of the cramped fing-er movement ; and by following- movement exercises instead of set copies. 483. Principles underlying habits. — Name two priticiples un- derlying the formation of habits. Illustrate the application of each of these principles. Two principles underly ingthe formation of habits are plastic- ity and reg-ularity of repetition. Habit is a fixed tendency to act, feel, or think in a certain way under certain conditions. In order to form a fixed tendency, we must g-ive this fixed tendency exercise by repeating- again and ag-ain and yet again that thought, act or feeling we wish to become a fixed tendency. I wish to wean children from the incorrect pen holding habit to the correct. My first lesson teaches the children how to hold pen. My second how to hold pen and use pen in that position. Each following lesson it is my duty to see that child always holds pen correctly. If this is done, in time there will be a fixed tendency to hold the pen correctly. If my lessons are a week apart I find the hand forgets its tendency more readily than if I had my lessons every day. I find five minutes each day devoted to writing forms better writers than twenty-five minutes a week in one lesson devoted to subject. Then I conclude it is better to have frequent regular short in- tervals than regular long intervals. 484. Induction, deduction. — Distinguish between inductiojt and deduction in teaching and state your views as to the appropriate uses of each. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 333 Induction is a process of reasoning which establishes a general rule, definition or principle from the knowledge of particular cases. I wish to teach that a noun is a word used as a name. I write five sentences containing nouns. I ques- tion. How is such a word used ? It is the name of . I continue until all nouns have been so treated. Children give words used as names. At end of lesson tell children what words used as names are called. Children learn definition. A noun is a word used as a name. This is the process of teaching noun by induction. Deduction is the process of reasoning by giving a general rule, definition or principle and applying it to particular cases. I give the definition. A noun is a word used as a name. Children learn. I write five sentences on blackboard. Child- dren find words used as names and call them nouns? This is teaching noun by process of deduction. Induction is the process of finding out principles for one's self. It is experimental. It is speculative. Deduction is the process of taking opinions of others and verifying or applying those opinions. Both kinds of reasoning are useful. Every well taught lesson should embrace both. Children should be taught by inductive -deductive process wherever possible. That is, teacher should by questioning, etc., elicit general rule from children and then give them plenty of opportunities to apply their own rules. The first part is inductive ; the second, de- ductive. 485. Correlation, variety, induction, miscellaneous or simultan- eous questioning, concrete methods. — State (do not merely refer to) editcational principle or principles tipon ivhich each of the following methods or devices may be defended: — (a) Uniting in one lesson history and geography. (b) Having a lesson in arithmetic (grammar grade) followed by one in music or in reading. 334 METHODS IN EDUCATION (c) Presenting- or having the children present a number of sentences, each containing a pronoun and its antecedent, be- fore formulating the grammatical rule about the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. (d) Teaching by giving questions to the class and requiring answers from one or more individuals designated after each question is put. (e) Choosing the object rather than a picture of the object in a nature study lesson. (a) The principle of correlation is founded upon the law of association of ideas and apperception; briefly stated, it is that quality of the human mind which makes it easier to keep a fact in a group of kindred related facts than to hold it as an isolated idea Correlation usually refers to association be- tween groups as, the Delaware is a river in N. J. (geogra- phy) ; Washington crossed the Delaware (history). Tq have both these facts at the same time helps the memory. (b) Voluntary attention develops out of involuntary atten- tion. In small children the capacity to attend to one subject is limited to a few moments. If pursued longer fatigue is ex- perienced. Therefore variety in the program of studies is a psychological necessity. The principle is, therefore, variety. (c) The human mind is of such a nature that it is obliged to proceed from the "known to the related unknown." Princi- ple : induction. (d) Clear localization in consciousness is the first great ne- cessity of securing memory. If the question is put after the child's name is called, this localization of attention is often missed. Instead of getting the question in mind the child thinks, "Oh, I'm not the one this time." Simultaneous ques- tions preferred. (e) The principle of "multiple sense impression" insists that an idea is best held in consciousness, when it is carried over as many roads as possible. To touch, handle, taste, TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 335 smell and see an object will be four times as useful to the memory of it as it would be to simply see it. Concrete meth- ods require the thing- itself whenever possible. 486. Individual notions, general notions. — Define and illus- trate each. (a) Individual notions are mental images, or ideas conveyed by sense impressions into consciousness. For instance, when a boy from the slums first g^oes into the country and sees a milking-stool he receives an impression which we call an in- dividual notion. (b) A g-eneral notion is the resultant idea, formed in the mind by analyzing- many individual ideas of the same class, all of which have points of similarity. (c) For example, the city child may have little more than individual notion of a rose. If taken to the country or into a rose-g-arden, he will soon compare red roses and white roses, little roses and big roses and white roses, and finally he will attain an abstracted notion which the word rose will call to his mind. This idea we call a g-eneral notion. (d) My study of German was beg-un under a master of the classics. I was plung-ed immediately into the study of Schil- ler's Bell. Every word, practically, had to be looked up in the dictionary. For years the very mention of this master- piece g-ave me a feeling- of disgust. In order tog-et any appre- ciation of the poem, I should have had an introduction not only of the individual notions comprised under the term vocabu- lary, g-rammar and so forth, but some individual notions of German life, custom, bell-making- and so forth. 487. Self-realization explained; Self-realization may be defined as consciousness of harmo- nious development. In order to arrive at this goal, we must emphasize the two great principles of education, apperception and self-activity. In dealing with apperception we shall be obliged to consider the individual or subject of apperception; and the subject-matter to be apperceived. The study of the 336 METHODS IN EDUCATION individual will lead us to the consideration of many useful physiological laws, such as the doctrine of interest, the place of effort, the necessity of proceeding- from the particular to the general, the culture epoch theory, and we shall thus work in harmony with the nature of the mind. The consideration of the subject-matter of instruction will help us to avoid one- sidedness. In order to attain true development all the powers of the mind must be exercised. We must, therefore, provide a curriculum rich in scientific, literary, aesthetic, institution- al and religious instruction. But we must never forget that these provisions will all be of no avail unless we secure the self-activity of the subject of our education. We can lead a horse to water, but we cannot make him drink, however good our intention, however fine the water, if he have no thirst. The interest of the pupil must be aroused in order to realize that happy relation between teach- er and pupil, in which the activity of both is directed toward the same end. 488. Principles of education. — State what you consider the fundamental' prmciples of education. Read Chapter IV. There you will find attention, interest, apperception and self-activity under principles of education. There are other maxims or axioms but see if all of the follow- ing may not be considered under the four mentioned. 1. Observation before reasoning. 2. The concrete before the abstract. 3. Facts before definitions or principles. 4. Processes before rules. 5. From the particular to the general. 6. From the simple to the complex. 7. From the known to the related unknown. 8. Learn to do by doing. 9. Self-activity is the source of knowledge. 10. Never tell a child what he can find out for him- self. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 337 11. One thing at a time. 12. From the empirical to the rational. 13. Attention on the part of the learner is the con- dition of acq_uiring- knowledge. 14. The mind must gain through the senses its knowl- edge of everything external to itself. 15. There is a natural order in which the powers of the mind should be exercised, and the corre- sponding kinds of knowledge taught. 16. The mind can exercise only a definite amount of energy at any one time. This amount varies with age, natural ability, and degree of de- velopment. 489. Discovery vs. being told. — It is better for a child to dis- cover than to be told. (a) Give two reasons (drawn from psychology ) for the truth of this statement, {b) Illustrate a possible exceptio?i. (a) Self-activity and interest are the two psychological rea- sons for the above statement. By self-activity is meant that form of self-direction which finds its primal impulse within itself. Every normal child is full of physical and mental ac- tion. If we can simply surround him with proper stimuli, his powers will develop largely without further trouble on our part. Applying this fact to education, we find experimentally that there is no real development without a great deal of this enlisted activity on the part of the child. We cannot arouse it, however, unless we secure his interest. By interest, in the psychological sense, we mean the "feeling side of appercep- tion." In other words, he must feel that he wants to know or to do what we are trying to teach him to do. Spencer says, let the child face the difficulty before the solution is presented. He will then be interested in the solution. (b) The exception to this rule is also found in the nature of the child's mind. The power of attention in young children is limited in time to a few moments. If the child is allowed 23 338 METHODS IN EDUCATION to puzzle over a difficulty too long-, discourag-ement sets in, and interest is destroyed. For instance, if the meaning of a Ger- man sentence is not discovered, because of a forgotten idiom, there are tv^o reasons why it is often best to tell it at once. It might incur too serious a loss of time to send the child to a large dictionary and even if this were not the case, it might divert his interest from some more important line of work, as the en- joyment of metrical form or rythm. Another answer to 489. (a) The following two principles of education based on psy- chology are reasons for the truth of the above statement. 1. The mind should gain through the senses its knowledge of everything external to itself. 2. There is a natural order in which the powers of the mind should be exercised and new objects of knowledge gained. Both mean that all knowledge gained is based on sensation as sensation is the mind's only means of gaining a basis of knowledge of outside things. Then upon sensation we build. (b) A possible exception is a case from which the result will be harmful and beyond repair. Ex. A child must not learn the result of exposure to disease results in the taking of the disease. Tell him and warn him. Another answer on self-activity presents another phase of it. Following is the question : "^ teacher must not attempt to do what can be done by the pupil for himself.'" E.x plain clearly in %vhat respects this rule must be observed in dealing both with senior and junior pupils. Doing for the pupil- what he can do for himself interferes di- rectly with that end most sought for, namely, self-activity. The pupil's sense of power to act breeds desire to act, and any hindrance of it blunts the desire and stultifies the power. Matters of form which the junior pupil needs to learn are part of the mental equipment of the senior and no more to be done by the teacher than you would try to teach a healthy child of twelve how to walk, simply because you had not been there when he learned. For instance, a freshman class comes to me TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 339 with but a general idea that a paragraph talks about one side of a subject. I am working for unity. We take a paragraph, preferably expository and propositional. We read it and de- cide upon its theme. The children then select the sentence which first clearly expresses that theme and learn its name, — topic sentence. Then we find what relation every other sen- tence bears to this; what words in each carry back, directly or indirectly to it; and notice how the closing sentence applies or comes back to, as a summing up the subject of the paragraph. Having so done, we take a similar theme admitting of practi- cally the same treatment, and with books open, and the general plan formed from the preceding study before us, we construct a paragraph on this model; repeating the process till the idea of unity is firmly established. Then the pupils can do that for themselves, and we are ready for the next step. Now my seniors are supposed to have the technique of the paragraph mastered, the work with them is of guidance more than of form. In studying Burke, the question of topic sentences merely comes up when a special discussion of it may explain more clearly his point, or when his masterly statement of his theme may serve as a model for their work. In working out junior essays we often work out an entire plan in class, showing how to pass from part to part, and how to sum up. The seniors suggest various means of approach- ing- a subject, various points of view, and my work with them is more in the nature of individual consultation on difficulties than of class direction as to exact work. 490. Reading : difificulties and remedies. — What difficulties are likely to be found in a selection for grammar grade reading? Tell how such difficulties ?nay be removed. Every selection in reading will have some of the following difficulties : 1. New or difficult words. 2. Allusions. 3. Figures of speech. 340 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. Words, phrases, or clauses out of the natural order. 5. Ellipses, especially of verbs. 6. Words used under poetic license in advanced g-rammar g^rades. Manner of removing- difficulties in the order enumerated. 1. For teaching- words, see sections 173 and 500. 2-3. Teacher must be prepared in advance to explain v^hat- ever the child cannot find for himself. For allusions, give reference to pupils, if possible, and encourage them to look up the answers. 4. Lead pupils to arrange words, phrases, or clauses, in natural order; i. e., the order they would use in speaking. Then see why inverted or peculiar order is used in the selec- tion. Is it for emphasis or climax ? 5. Use manner similar to that in 4; i. e. , lead pupils to dis- cover contrast of elliptical expression and full expression. Principle of self-activity of pupils. 6. Teacher must explain and then have pupils notice such uses thereafter. 491. Pronunciation of shrimp. — Explain in detail how to se- cure the correct pronunciation of shrimp and similar words. (a) By use of the phonogram method of dealing with words. Divide shrimp as follows : sh-rimp, give drill on rimp, then practice sh the teacher giving- the model and the children imitating- it. As soon as they can sound sh correctly put the word together and require the pronunciation of the word several times. Treat glad in the same way, g-lad. (b) The mouth is open to the extent that a lead pencil might be inserted; the tongue is flat or nearly so upon the floor of the mouth and is slightly pressed ag-ainst the front teeth of the lower jaw; as the sound is being given the mouth becomes partly closed. The sound comes largely from the throat. The palate enters largely into the process of giving the long sound of a. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 341 Italian a the mouth is quite well opened and the opening- is nearly round. The tong-ue is aloof from the floor of the mouth, being- entirely free from every thing-. The sound is made largely by the throat and farther down than the long- a sound. Sound of b. The tongue is flat upon the floor of the mouth and the mouth is closed. The sound is produced by a sudden outburst or opening of the mouth. The lips enter largely into the formation of the sound. S as in sin. Mouth partly open. Tong-ue aloof from floor of mouth and extends near to the opening between the teeth. The sound is produced by forcing- the breath from off the end of the tongue through the teeth. Th as in this. Mouth partly open. Tongue against upper front teeth. At beginning of sound tongue remains stationary after which it suddenly drops down producing- the final element in the sound. The sound is made entirely by the tong-ue and teeth. (c) I should suggest dividing the words into syllables and pronounce each syllable after spelling- it. Some preparatory work on syllabication should be given, however. 492. Economy of expression. — -State and illustrate briejly the points of a lesson inte7ided to teach the following principles of composition : " Use the fewest words needed to express the meaning ijttend- edy {lo). This principle requires clear thinking- and clear writing-. From the writer, it demands precision and perspicuity of style •, for the reader, it means ease in understanding what is written. In other words it says. Speak or write so that you can be most easily understood. Following is a lesson-plan: 1. Illustrative specimens having historical setting. "Don't give up the ship." "We have met the enemy and they are ours." "England expects every man to do his duty." "Unconditional surrender." 342 METHODS IN EDUCATION 2. Conforming to the rule. Change the following to simple sentences : (a) Do you consider that this rule is impossible? (b) The license which you have secured is valid for three years. (c) You will be pleased when you pass the ex- aminations. (d) The lesson is long but it is not difficult. (e) Lincoln was born in Kentucky. He lived in Illinois. He became President. 3. Application by studying Gettysburg Speech. 4. Practice in writing and speaking. 493. Composition criticised. FROM TADPOLE TO FROG. In the spring of the year, the frog lays her eggs, in the inside of the egg is a black speck, and in two or three weak little tadpoles come out of them, they have a round head, and a tail on one side, they are one half a inche long, they have pink threads by the side of the neck, then they begin to grow and grow, then two legs come out in the back of them, they join on to the tail, and in a few more days they get two more legs in the back of their eyes, then lungs begin to grow in the inside if them and the gills begin to shrinks and shrinks till the tadpoles lungs are all grown then the gills shrink all away, then there come another change the tadpoles tails shrinks and shrinks till at last it all shrinks away then the tadpoles is a perfect frog! If the mother frog lays her eggs in summer they will grow very soon, but if the mother lays her eggs in winter it will take an awful long time before they grow. (a) State th7^ee classes of fatilts in the above composition, and state at least one probable canse of each fault, (j). {b) A teacher corrects the mistakes and returns the composition to be rewritte?!. State with reasons, what fatilts you find iji this jnethod. (^). {c) Describe in detail how you would ijnprove coinpositio7t work along the lines of sentence construction, (^). TYPICAL QUESTIONS ANiJ ANSWERS 343 (a) The first fault is in words; spelling-, choice, concord. The cause is lack of effectual drill. The second fault is in sentences; capitalization, ag-reement of subject and predicate. It is evident that the child has not had sufficient practice in studying- simple models and in constructing- simple sentences. He does not know the sentence as a unit of composition. The third fault is in punctuation. This fault may be associated with the lack of knowledge of the kind of sentences from form of expression and also from a lack of knowledge of the sen- tence as a unit. (b) This correction by the teacher, deprives the child of the rig-ht of participating- in a discussion of the general errors ; it removes all possibility of self-activity at the time of the correc- tion; and it puts the responsibility for correctness upon the teacher unless the teacher will take time afterwards to explain the difficulties to the children and to drill them upon the pre- vailing- errors. (c) Drill upon sentence structure should go back to the ele- ments of the simple sentence. Drill first upon the simple sentence with modified subject and predicate. The one aim of this kind of exercise is the concord or agreement of subject and predicate. The sense of hearing will enable the child to detect ordinary errors in this concord long- before he may be able to understand reasons. The next step involves a modified subject, and this practice will g-ive the pupil an opportunity to use and to understand such modifiers as a, an, this, these, etc. The third step in the drill embodies the modified predi- cate. Pupils make many mistakes in -not being- able to dis- ting-uish the-adverb modifier from the adjective modifier. The fourth step in the drill upon the simple sentence is a process of substituting phrase modifiers for word modifiers. It is a means of enlarging- the vocabulary of the pupil. In all these exercises particular attention is given to capitalization, spell- ing- and punctuation. This mastery of the simple sentence may lead to a consideration of compound sentences and com- plex sentences. In the former we have simply one more simple 344 ME-THODS IN EDUCATION sentence properly connected; in the latter we have word or phrase modifiers expanded into clauses. These last two kinds of sentences do not involve many difficulties in capitalization, spelling- or punctuation, provided that these three essentials of correct writing- are understood in relation to the simple sen- tence. 494. Composition criticised. PUFF AND THE BABY. When Puff was near the baby here would wig-g-le out of anyone's arms. One day the baby was lying on the sofa, sleeping. Puff always went Nearer, and, nearer till he touched her nose. The baby was crazy for Puff. Puff was a little terrier. Puff had long hair. ( Written by a pupil of the third school year.) (a) State three classes of faults in the above composition, (j) {b) A teacher corrects the mistakes and returns the composition to be rewritten. State, with reasons, what faults you find in this method. {4). [c) How wotild you lead pupils to avoid each of the faults stated in answer to {a) ? (6). (a) The faults in this composition may be classed under structure or form, arrangement and punctuation. (b) See (b) under 493. (c) The fault in regard to structure requires a study of simple models in prose and poetry. The writer of this little selection has a confused idea of form. A few models in prose and in poetry will impress the proper form under the law of contrast. The second fault, that is, arrangement, requires more practice TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 345 in the use of outlines. The analysis of a short prose model showing- the author's plan or outline will lead the child to see that the author should have some definite plan in mind. While much cannot be expected from a third year pupil, still this practice in making- a plan must have its effects in correcting- the errors of arrang-ement as noticed in this selection. The matter of punctuation will be remedied as soon as the child is able to improve the structure and the arrang-ement of this composition. 495. Meaning of words": fortify. — Illustj^ate two ways in which a teacher can lead pupils to understand, without using formal dejinitions, the meaning of the word fortify. The easiest method to make children understand the word fortify is to study it in its connection in a text-book. The word is likely to be found in the regular reading- lessons in history or in g-eog-raphy. In all of these instances I should use a picture or pictures to give children the idea of the size, the shape, and the structure of a fort. The second means of teach- ing this word is by etymology. Its formation shows the mean- ing, to make strong. Then as an ap plication compare fortify with fortress, effort, comfort, and force. See 173 and 500. 496. Methods : development lesson in reading. METHODS. Time, 3 hours. 1. The Chambered Nautilus — Holmes. (Suggested by looking at one of those chambered sea shells called the Pearly Nautilus.) Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 1 Child of the wandering sea, 2 Cast from her lap forlorn ! 3 From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 4 Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn ! 5 While on mine ear it rings, 6 Through the deep caves of thought, I hear a voice that sings:— 7 346 METHODS IN EDUCATION Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 8 As the swift seasons roll ! 9 Leave thy low-vaulted past ! 10 Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 11 Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast 12 Till thou at length art free, 13 Leaving- thine outgrown shell, by life's unresting- sea ! 14 Ask and answer questions to bring out the meaning of each of the following: (a) wandering sea (2); (b) Triton blew from wreathed horn (2); (c) swift seasons roll (2); (d) thy low-vaulted past (2). State syntax of each of the following words, and ask and answer questions designed to make clear the syntax of each of them: (e) cast, line 3; (f) it, 1. 6; (g) thee, 1. 8. (a) T. What has been found on the shores of the Azores that led Columbus to believe there was land to the west ? P. Bodies of men having a strange color, and branches from trees. T. Have you heard of people getting messages in bottles picked up at sea? P. Yes. A few weeks ago such a bottle was found on the Maine coast. T. Can we then truthfully speak of the sea as * 'wandering' ' ? P. Yes. (b) T. Who was Triton? P. Son of Neptune. T. Why is he represented as blowing a horn ? P. Because he was Neptune's trumpeter. T. What kind of horn did he use? P. Some writers say he used a shell. T. How was the horn adorned? P. With a wreath. (c) T. Why did the writer use the word "roll" in speaking of seasons? P. Because they move one after the other with- out worry or noise. T. Why are they spoken of as "swift seasons"? P. Be- cause they seem to pass so quickly. (d) T. A voice from the dead lips of Nautilus says to the poet, "Build thee more stately mansions, O my Soul!" and TYPICAL QUKSTIONS AND ANSWERS 347 later, '4eave thy low-vaulted past." -"What do you think this means to the author ? P. I think that it meant that he should turn from the small, narrow life of the past and plan better, higher deeds. (e) "Cast" is a simple past participle, passive. It is like an adjective, because it modifies the noun "child," and like a verb because it names an action and is modified by an ad- verbial phrase. T. What is the use of the word "cast"? P. It describes child. T. How, then, is it used? P. It is used as an adjective. T. What is the use of the phrase "from the lap"? P. It tells "cast" where. T. It is what kind of a phrase? P. An adverbial phrase. T. If "cast" is modified by an adverbial phrase, it is like what part of speech? P. A verb. T. How, then, is the participle "cast" used? P. As an adjective and as a verb. (f ) ' 'It" is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "ring-s. ' ' T. What is it that "rings" on mine ear? P. "It." T. What, then, is the case of the word "it"? P. Nomi- native, subject of the verb "rings". (g) The word "thee" is in the objective case, objective of the preposition "for" understood. T. Why does the poet say more stately mansions are to be built? P. For thee. T. What, then, is the case of "thee"? P. Objective case, object of the proposition "for" understood. 497. Composition: method oi teaching.— Ou I /me an approved method of teaching composition. Make your outline cover prep- aration, presentation, correctioti, etc. The two points which we shall keep in mind are (a) the paragraph and (b) the series of paragraphs showing logical unity or continuity. 348 METHODS IN EDUCATION I. Aim. Teaching- the writing- of the paragraphs. This we shall divide into several lessons. For the preparation of lesson I talk about g-reat writers. Why have they written ? We shall find that they had a desire to instruct or please others by their written thoughts and ideas. On what occa- sions may children desire to please or instruct others by their writing-? This question leads the pupils to begin to think and they will soon see that the compositions written in school may be a source of pleasure. Thus that will arouse a desire to know how to write in order to please others. This interest comes into existence for each child. The presentation of this lesson may consist of the study of a model. Care should be taken in the selection of the model. The one to be impressed in this exercise is that the topical sentence must be easily recognized. All other sentences in the paragraph must be so related as to prove the topic sentence. Lead children to find the topic sentence in the paragraphs and then trace the relation of each sentence to this topic sentence. A second lesson may be introduced and brief references to the work of the preceding lesson. Then take up new para- graphs for discussion. The third lesson may have for its aim to construct a topic sentence for a paragraph. A quick review of the two preced- ing lessons will make a good preparation. With the intention of taking bells as a topic begin to arouse thought by a few questions regarding the uses of bells. The children will readily mention church bells, factory bells, school bells, elec- tric bells, etc. The various kinds will easily lead to a topic sentence, such as; Bells have many uses. A fourth lesson may be a writing of a paragraph on the topic sentence, Bells have many uses. Before asking children to write what those uses are, try to impress them with the neces- sity of care in writing, in spelling and in punctuation. Do not give too much attention in this lesson to the uses of bells as brought out in the preceding lesson, but leave this matter TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 349 largely to the pupils so that each may see his originality in the scope of any nature of treatment. A jBfth lesson has for its aim to correct paragraphs written in the preceding lesson. The preparation will put the import- ant points before the class by reviewing the meaning of a topic sentence, its use in the paragraph and the necessity of having the other sentences united in thought with it. Write the topic sentence on the board. Each child then compares his topic sentence with the written copy. Then have each child read his composition to test it for unity in answer to the question, Does this sentence prove that bells have many uses? Have child read paragraphs a second time for punctuation marks and capitalization. Have him see, too, if each sentence is expressed in the best possible form. The third reading is for the purpose of spelling every word correctly. Use dictionary to correct errors in spelling. In these three readings note that only one important principle is kept in the mind of the pupil during each reading. The number of readings in cor- rection will depend upon the knowledge of the child and upon the work in composition of the previous grades. If the child- ren write one paragraph well, the following lessons will deal with the sequence of the paragraphs in working for the unity of one paragraph. Pupils get their first lesson in the sequence of sentences and when they come to state the sequence of para- graphs it is a matter of applying the same principle in its broader application. 498. Dictation : faulty, good. — (a) W/iat are the proper ends of dictation work? {b) State faulty methods of conducting dictation lessons, {c) Describe in detail a good method of co7i- ducting a dictation exercise. (a) The proper ends of dictation work are correct forms of expression, punctuation, capitalization, orderly arrangement, spelling and writing. (b) Use of long and unsuitable selections. Lack of atten tion in preparation. Careless correction of errors. 350 METHODS IN EDUCATION (c) Choose a subject suited to the mind and language of children. Through the spelling, reading and other lessons prepare for the exercise. Read selection as whole to class and dictation in phrases. Books should be used for this work and kept with care. The correcting is the hardest part of the problem. It should be done by the pupil to secure the great- est good ; but the teacher must look over the work later. 499. Homonyms and synonyms.— //i9'zc/ should homonyms be taught? Show how yoit would teach the synonyms sitppose, hope, expect. Homonyms should be taught in sentences. Illustration : To teach the homonyms, right and write. The teacher puts on the board several sentences similar to, The boy holds the book in his right hand. She underscores the word to which attention is to be directed. After each sentence has been read and discussed, pupils are required to produce original sen- tences containing the word correctly used. The word write is then taken up and dealt with in the same manner. Then the teacher puts on the board a list of sentences with blanks to be filled in with one or the other of these words. The pupils fill these in. Then they are required to bring to class a cer- tain number of original sentences in which these words are correctly used. I should lead pupils to discriminate between hope, ex- pect, and suppose, by giving them sentences containing these words correctly used, as, Suppose I should get a pair of skates as a present. (I know nothing about whether I shall get them or not but am thinking of the enjoyment I could have if I had them.) I hope to have a pair of skates. (Someone has hinted that I may get them as a present. I feel somewhat sure of them now but not absolutely so.) I expect to have a pair of skates as a present. (My father has told me that I am to have them. I am now sure of them). With pupils not sufficiently matured to get the distinction quickly, I should follow the plan outlined for the homo- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 351 nyms. With those able to discriminate quickly, I should follow with another set of sentences, then require pupils to fill blanks, explaining" briefly, as I had done, following- with the application to sentences of their own construction. 500. The meaning of words. — {a ) What means would you employ to lead pupils to understand the' mea7iings of neiv zvords? {b) Illustrate by an abstract luord, a concrete word, and a zuord having a figurative meaning. (a) With older pupils use of dictionary followed by discus- sion as to why certain meaning was chosen rather than some other. This method promotes self-activity, self-reliance and discrimination. With younger pupils I should get at the meaning by ques- tioning. Let your question be such that the child will have to make use of apperceiving group and thus the process will be one of apperception. Always have word discussed in a sen- tence as the remainder of sentence sometimes gives the cue. In the' case of a concrete word the best way is to show object and tell child the name. If this is impossible, form concept in child's mind by calling up before his mind images of like things until you think he has a fair constructed image of thing for which word stands. (b) There was a side-board in the room. Side-board. How many words? What does side mean? What do you then think side-board means? What would a board at side of room be used for? To lay things on. What else might I have at side of room to lay things on ? A table. Might I call a table a side-board? Why? Then describe a side-board. Abstract word. The woman was charitable. Today a child fell in the school yard and John picked her up and brushed her dress. What would you say about John's act? It was kind. Mary gave half her apple to Edith. What mightjyou say about Mary ? She was kind. She was generous. A little lame girl has lost her father and mother and has no one to care for her. If 352 METHODS IN EDUCATION a lady takes her home and cares for her, what mig-ht you say about her act ? She is kind, generous, noble. I have a new word for a person who helps another who is in g-reat need. It is charitable. What was the kind lady? She was charitable. Children think and tell of cases. Figurative word. The groves were God's first temples. What is a temple? It is a large building. What use is made of a temple? It is usually used as a church. Read sentence. What does sentence mean? It means that the groves were first used as churches. Why? How do groves resemble churches? 501. MisspeWing. — A ccoz/nl psychologically for misspelling. Describe, with reasons, what you regard as the best method of teaching spelling. Poor spelling is due to poor memory. Memory for spelling is poor because of some lack in one of the three or all three stages of memory. In the first stage or fixing in memory the trouble is often due to poor method of teaching. There are various methods, sound method or repeating sounds of letters, method of learn- ing the order in which letters follow 'by rote and methods by visualization. The last is the generally accepted method. It seeks to fix spelling by means of mental imaging. The em- phasis then is placed upon helping the child to form mental images of words as they see them written in order that such mental image may be associated with word. The process varies. Illustration. Aim. To teach by visualization the spelling of the word fence. Preparation. Mental concept of fence recalled. Children tell what a fence is. Presentation. T. writes the word fence upon board. Child- ren look at it and spell. Children asked to look again closely, TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 353 then close eyes and write with fing-er in air the word fence. Open eyes and ag-ain spell looking- at board. Teacher covers with eraser. Children think how word looks and spell. Application. Children write word at teacher's dictation. Use word in sentence. Where poor spelling is due to second stage of memory or re- tention the fault is due to lack of exercise or hereditary in- fluence. All brains are not equally retentive. The same is true of the third stage or reproduction. The teacher can simply see that child has concept for word, is properly taught to fix word in memory and is then given opportunity to use word. 502. Value of debates. 1. Vocabulary enlarged. Power to use words. 2. Alertness and quick decision. Appropriate word must be selected on the instant. 3. Mastery of g-rammatical principles through sound. 4. Pronunciation, enunciation, inflection. 5. Purity in tone and ease in g-esture. 6. Self-confidence and enthusiasm. 503. Comparison in study of an animal. — What are the advan- tages of the method of conipai'ison in the study of an animal? Briefly suggest the points to be kept iii mind in such an exer- cise. It is a g-ood way to review, fixes it more clearly in mind, it bring-s out the likenesses and differences, it encourages self- activity and interest. To conduct such an exercise. 1. Have specimens or pictures. 2. Compare the important likenesses and differ- ences. 3. Be sure that both have been studied in detail previously. 4. Classify the points and write them on the blackboard. 84 354 METHODS IN EDUCATION 504. Drilling discussed and illustrated.— ^.r^/«/?? the jiecessity of drilling, and show good ways a7id poor ways of drilhng. Frequent drills in all teaching- are an absolute necessity. By the law of repetition this idea is made prominent. Drills tend to elaborate what has been learned. They enable pupils to become independent and think for themselves. Their mental powers are enlarged. They learn to do truly by doing-, and there is a stimulation about reviews that cannot be acquired in any other way. Students as a rule enjoy intellectual tests and look ahead to them with some degree of anticipation. Drills are thus an aid to good work and to discipline. Good ways of drilling. By the Herbartian idea of summar- izing every recitation. The lesson of the previous day should be reviewed before beginning the new lesson. Occasionally a whole recitation should be set aside for the review of a certain period. Both oral and written work may be required in re- view. For my own part I prefer oral drill if I am to cover considerable ground in a comparatively brief period. Poor ways of drilling. It is a poor drill that occasions lapses of time between the recitation and any set time for drill. The drill should be persistent and- constant. It is a poor drill that dwells upon review for one day and stops there. A lesson in history should be summed up at the close of the recitation. The same lesson should be- reviewed at the begin- ning of the next recitation. The following day just the salient points given with a review of the preceding day's lessron. About once a week the work for the whole week should be re- viewed. It would be faulty to leave the lesson unsummarized for a week and then attempt to review it. One method of review in history I have mentioned in the pre- ceding paragraph. Another is by use of the topical outline arranged by the pupils themselves. They should be able to reproduce the outline and describe each heading of the out- line. In geography a lesson on cotton should be summarized by the pupil in a similar way. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 355 505. Value of types. — ^Az/t' briefly the ediieatioiial value of types. Types are bases of the apperceptive process. When a pupil habituates himself to any type or form of mental activity, the mind will more easily adapt itself to all similar or related forms. It is economy of effort. 506. Types in geography : New York City.— ^ primary pupil in New York City becomes familiar with geography, history, civics, social and industrial features of this city. Show how such knowledge can be used as a type in the study of other cities. What are the advantages of types in geography? A pupil v^^ho gains these various kinds of know^ledge about his ow^n city may use this knowledg-e as a type for the study of other cities. This type becomes a g-uide or a standard of measurement. This is in accordance with the principle of ap- perception ; i.e., we g-ain or assimilate* new knowledge by means of old knowledge. In studying the history of the reason for founding a city on the island of Manhattan and also for founding a city on the site of Boston we find these reasons different, — one for trade, the other on account of religious difficulties. If the reasons for the founding of New York have been illustrated by the pupils we can use the laws of com- parison and contrast in studying about the foundation of Boston. The differences will strongly impress the child. Another step may lead to the study of Chicago, a trade center of the West. Here again there are differences. Then take up San Francisco. Eastern trade and the discovery of gold in California are stated as causes. Compare and contrast with New York and Boston. In this way we are going .from home outward. We are gradually building an apperceiving group which may be of use whenever called upon. As in this one concrete example on one type in history limited to New York we may use a type study of any type in civics, geography or other institutional life. We are then teaching according to the following educational maxims : 356 METHODS IN EDUCATION 1. From the known to the related unknown. 2. From concrete to abstract. 3. There is a natural order in which the powers of mind should be exercised and new objects of knowledge given. 4. One thing at a time. 5. From particular to general. This mode of using topics as a basis for the study of a geog- raphy is advocated by McMurry, one of the best authorities in this country. The advantages of using type studies as a basis in geography are the following : (1) Types are keys to larger areas of geographical knowledge ; (2) realities are studied; (3) thoroughly interesting and instructive; (4) the study of causes and causal relations ; (5) basis of a series of comparisons; (6) from home outwards; (7) direct path to whole groups and sequences. 507. Teaching defined and illustrated. "Teaching is bringing knowledge into due relation with the mind." — Hinsdale, (a) Give two requisite qualificatioits of a teacher that are suggested in this statement. {2) {b) Explain the expression "■briitging into due relation,'' (j), and illustrate what is mea7it by it. (j). (a) Two qualifications are a knowledge of the subject-matter and ability to use adapted methods of teaching. In uniting these two qualifications the teacher will use her knowledge of psychology in adapting the subject-matter to the minds of the pupils. (b) Bringing into due relation means arranging and pre- senting matter so that the child can and will comprehend it. The use of the formal steps of instruction would bring knowl- edge into due relation in accordance with this point of view. An illustration may be found in a lesson on a canal. Suppose the pupils have never seen a canal or a lock in a canal. Here description would not suffice. A picture or a model of a lock TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 357 would bring- the matter into a realistic form so that the child- ren's minds could comprehend it. 508. Renaissance. — {a) What was the Revival of Learnmg? When and why did it take place? fjj- (b) What wei'-e the subjects of instruction in the schools of Europe at time of the Revival of Learning? (a) The Revival of Learning- is the name g-iven to that old intellectual movement which became effective in the 16th cen- tury. No definite date can be assig-ned as the beg-inning- of this movement, because the revival of learning must be viewed as the product of all the prior intellectual movements. The date 1453 is sometimes g-iven to indicate an important occasion of the revival of learning-. At that time the Mohammedans cap- tured Constantinople. The Greek scholars in that city had the choice of Mohammedanism or death. They fled to Italy, and their writings and teachings influenced a renewed inter- est in the study of classical Latin and Greek. This interest in these two thing-s spread over all parts of Europe, (b) The subjects of instruction in the elementary schools were those known as the seven liberal arts. The trivium consisted of grammar, rhetoric and log-ic ; the quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, g-eometry, music and astronomy. See page 86, section 184, in the Epitome. The subjects of instruction in the Christian universities were law, medicine, philosophy and theology. See page 122, section 214, in the Epitome. 509. Outline on the Erie Canal. — (a) Make a topical outline of the matter to be ''presented'" in a lesson on the Erie Canal, (s ) • (b) Describe three ways in which the knowledge gained i?i this lesson may be "'applied'''' by the pupils, (j). This question requires the use of the Herbartian formal steps of instruction, viz: Preparation, Presentation, Applica- tion. (a) A suitable "preparation" for this lesson is a discussion of the means of transportation in the early days of New York 358 METHODS IN EDUCATION State. They were rivers, trails, turnpikes, railroads and canals. PRESENTATION. 1. Usefulness of such a canal. (a) To the industries of the State. (b) To the North West. 2. Natural conditions favorable. (a) Short route from Lake Erie to the Hudson River. (b) No great barriers to construction. 3. The construction. (a) Favored by Governor Clinton. (b) State aid. (c) Local aid. ( d) Progress to completion. APPLICATION. (b) Make an outline map showing- termini of Erie Canal and principal cities along- the route. Trace shipment of g-rain from Chicago to New York by water, incidentally studying grain elevators at Buffalo. For local uses, trace eastern and west- ern shipments of flour from Rochester, salt from Syracuse, and hops from Utica. Compare railroads and canal in regard to cost, rates and time of transportation; and notice especially the growth of cities along the Erie Canal. These causal relations will show the benefit of the Erie Canal to agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. 510. Outline of topics on Hudson River: reasons. — Prepai^e a topical oittline of a geographical study of the Hudson River, givijig reasojis for your arrajigemeiit of topics. Review surface of eastern New York. I. Principal elevations. II. Direction of slopes. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 359 III. Position of river. 1. Source. 2. Direction. 3. Mouth. IV. Branches : source, direction. V. Comparative size. VI. Uses: northern course for lumbering, manufacturing; southern course for commerce, travel. VII. Important places along- its banks. VIII. Influence on New York City. IX. Influence on the West. X. Place in history. Discovery by Hudson; Patroons; first steamboat; line British w^ished to hold in Revolutionary War; later history; first canal. XI. Place in literature. Called the American Rhine. The pupil is already familiar with the surface of the State, and as the character of the river depends upon the surround- ing slopes, a review of this topic prepares for a new one. The position of the river is prepared for, and this should be fol- lowed by its comparative size and uses. The fact that there is considerable traveling on the river leads to the location of places of interest and importance. The subject could not well be classed without connecting it with history and literature. For correlation on this topic, see page 8. 511. Topical method applied to New York State. — Give the ad- va7itages of the topical method. Mention six topics, in orde7'^ ill the study of New York State. The topical method promotes self-reliance and logical think- ing. As connected discourse is necessary in the expression of the thought, every pupil will learn to think while standing; to enlarge his vocabulary for immediate use; to improve his pronunciation and inflection; to master the principles of agree- ment and concord through sound; to overcome self-conscious- ness; and, in brief, to develop his own powers through use. 360 METHODS IN EDUCATION New York State. Location ; importance and approximate area; mountains; rivers and lakes; chief mineral and agricul- tural areas; chief cities; exports and imports; means of trans- portation. 512. School virtues and evils. — Enunie7^ate five school vi?-tues and five school evils, and prepare to sho%v the relations of habit to each. Five of the most important virtues developed through the school are obedience, or respect for authority, punctuality, order and system, intelligence and efficiency. The school evils most to be fought are : (1) The divorce of theory and practice or verbalism, by which is meant the teaching of rules of grammar in such a way as to make no change for the better in the pupil's speech ; the teach- ing of mathematics without application to practical problems, etc. (2) The unnecessary crushing out of individuality. (3) Dishonest work. (4) Cramming. (5) Cliques. The teacher can soon tell which of the children under her care have been trained to habits of obedience in the home. For these she has comparatively little to do but supply proper stimuli for development. To inculcate the habit we must "put together the things we wish to go together, and keep apart those we wish apart." — ^(Thorndike. ) I believe, with the author, that we must depend more on reward than on punish- ment for developing this habit. When we get obedience, we must praise it; when we punish disobedience, we must be careful in the association found. Keeping after school for trivial offenses is apt to breed a dislike of the school. The same principle must underlie the development of the virtues of punctuality and order. The principles of vividness of vocali- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 361 zation and repetition are the basis for habituation. We should therefore try to bring- before the mind of the child a clear notion of the ideals of punctuality and order ; and then drill upon them, being- careful to supply as far as in us lies the ele- ment of resulting- satisfaction whenever the desired reaction takes place. With intellig-ence and efficiency we work on the same lines, but on a hig-her plane. Here we must try to put the habits of thought into well org-anized systems and strengthen the cross- line between the systems. In dealing- with the school evils we often must beg-in with our own mentality. If we are strangers in the community in which we teach, our first business will be to make ourselves masters of the environment, bring- our illustrations and appli- cations into close touch with this environment in order to avoid verbalism. The proper treatment of the individual lies likewise in our own hands. If he is timid, awkward, but still mentally active, we must try to divert his attention from himself, rather than scold him. That is, we must associate the idea of the subject matter to be recited with the satisfying- result of approval, rather than associating- unkindly criticism with effort. To substitute the habit of honest work for dishonest work, we should associate quick detection with dishonesty ; pride of independence with honesty. Habits of cramming- and cliques must be treated with the greatest care. To overcome cramming- and substitute the habit of every day work, we should associate the idea of ex- amination with former questions as opposed to memory tests as far as we can. Cliques are best avoided by introducing some g-eneral org-anization to which all pupils may belong-, and associating- with the ideas of social intercourse hig-h demo- cratic ideals, as opposed to narrow, limiting-, feverish rela- tionship. 362 METHODS IN EDUCATION ANOTHER ANSWER TO 512. ive school virtues are : 1. Obedience. 2. Promptness. 3. Honesty. 4. Industry. 5. Studiousness. ive school vices are : 1. Dishonesty. 2. Idleness. 3. Untidiness. 4. Tardiness. 5. Disobedience. In the five virtues habit tends to make each automatic, not needing- the power of the w^ill for decision. The obedient child does not decide each time w^hen called upon to be obedient that he w^ill or w^ill not do as he is told. He has formed the fixed tendency to act in a certain way under special conditions and he keeps on doing- so once the habit is formed. In fact, the more often he performs the act, the less difficult it becomes. In the same way the child who has formed the habit of doing thing-s promptly does so without effort. So on through the list. With the vices, let us take one as an example — dishonesty. A child has poor moral influence at home. He soons finds in school that there are ways of getting things done by cheating. He does the thing once, is not caught. He proceeds. He finally forms the habit of cheating whenever possible. This leads to other vices, such as lying. The child lies the first time when caught copying his number work. He lies a second time and soon he forms the fixed tendency to lie every time. Thus the vicious habit becomes stronger. It is the duty of every teacher from first grade up to watch out that child gets no opportunity of cheating so that the pernicious habit may not be begun. The average child placed under efficient teach- TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 363 ers (and granted that the home influence is not bad) rig-ht throug-h the course will not form the habits of vice. We find school vices w^herever there is a poor control. Where there is poor control, there can be no discipline in the sense of leading- on to personal control. 513. Serviceable memory. — What are the charactei^istics of a serviceable meinory ? How far and by what meaits may it be cultivated? Memory has three stag-es : 1. Apprehension or fixing in memory. 2. Reflection or keeping- in memory. 3. Reproduction or bring-ing- to consciousness when needed. In order that a memory may be serviceable, attention must be paid to all three stages. Each is of importance. Apprehension is of great importance. Sense importance is its fundamental law. The stronger the impression made upon the senses the greater will be the power of retention and re- production. If the first stage has been well begun, retention, or keeping in memory, is not apt to be a hard stage — that is the thing fixed is not likely to sink so far into sub-consciousness as to be impossible of recall. The third stage presents repetition of reproduction as a necessary adjunct of a serviceable mem- ory. As the race loses power of any faculty which remains unused, so the mind forgets the thing fixed and held in mem- ory if that thing is not called to consciousness for use at var- ious intervals. For instance, I once fixed or impressed in memory a certain Latin word. Memory held that word in subconsciousness ready for use. I neglected to bring to con- sciousness after a certain number of repetitions. I now have forgotten the word. A serviceable memory then is a memory which is given exer- cise and plenty of it. All the work of school and life tends to cultivate memory. 364 METHODS IN EDUCATION 514. Jacotot. — Jacotot said, "All human being-s are equally capable of learning-. Everyone can teach ; and moreover, can teach what he does not know himself." Discuss this excerpt. That all human being-s are equally capable of learning- is not true. There is great diversity in the quality of minds of different persons. This principle has been recognized by prominent educators from Plato down. Plato's definition of education contains this principle. "To give to the body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable. " One who teaches children of same ag-e, same grade, same ad- vantages, finds marked diversity in character of capabilities. That everyone can teach, which here means cause to learn, is not true in every subject. Not true where technical knowl- edge is required, as in music and natural sciences. A child makes a drawing of a cylinder. Unless I know the laws of perspective I cannot criticise. If I do not know the varieties of trees I cannot teach them. If I do not know how to per- form an experiment to illustrate condensation or do not know the laws I cannot teach condensation. 515. Walker on old and new education. "A generation ago it was the accepted theory of educators generally that instruction, to be most effective, should cross the grain of the youthful mind ; that if disinclination were shown towards any particular study, the teacher should catch at this as his welcome clue ; and that the scholar thereafter should be practiced and drilled for his mind's good, against his indifference, his dislike, and even his repugnance until he should learn to do well and freely that for which he had origi- nally the strongest inaptitude. Not only a better observation of life, but the study of physiological psychology has led the educators of today to a widely different view of the office of instruction." (Francis A. Walker.) What is this widely different view? Give, with reasons, your judgment as to the comparative soundness of the two views, showing the bearing of each on interest and will. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 365 The widely different view is that we should let interest be our g-uiding- star. The old view reg-arded all learning- as dis- ciplinary and the harder and more repug-nant the task, the greater was the disciplinary value. We of today take inter- est for our g-uide.' Where you have interest you also have volition for we wish for that in which we are interested and will to do it. Interest does not mean that all tasks must be made easy ; on the contrary, the task may have been such that it mig-ht not have been accomplished under the old plan while interest overcomes all obstacles. Under the old plan the work was drudgery; under the new the drudgery is not perceptible to the mind while the attention is fixed upon not a many-sided knowledg-e, but a many-sided interest. Where the interest is, the knowledg-e follows as a matter of course. It is better not to give a child universal knowledge but rather a desire for knowledge. It is this interest and desire to attain certain aims that have made the work of Marconi and Edison possible. 516. Hinsdale's definition of education discussed. — "Teaching is bringing knowledge into due relation with the mind." — Hinsdale, (a) Give two reqtnsite qualifications of a teacher that are suggested in this statement. (2) (b) Explain the expression "■bringing into due relation,'' (j) and ilhistrate what is inea7it by it. fjj. (a) The teacher must know the subject to be brought into due relation with the pupils' minds and (b) must know the nature of the mind addressed. The expression, bringing "knowledge into due relation", refers to the principle of ap- perception. New knowledge may only be assimilated by means of old related knowledge already stored in the mind. On a visit to Eton last summer, a youthful guide informed me that the statue in the centre of the quadrangle was the figure of Charles VI. I looked at him in amazement. He had evidently said this a great many times and appeared surprised at my scrutiny. But my English history was not so rusty as to pass this information without a challenge. After one or two 366 METHODS IN EDUCATION better directed historical remarks, I said, "Oh, you mean Henry XI." Now, this boy had no basis for his historical in- formation regarding Eton. There was no apperceiving mass for the story he had learned for practical purposes to reach out and take it into hospitable quarters. 517. Symbolism. — State the meaning of symbolism in educa- tion. The practical meaning of symbolism, as the term is used in elementary education, corresponds closely with personification. It is the imaginative process of ascribing human life and human affections to plants, animals and other objects which cannot possess such life ?nd such affections One phase of symbolism is seen in the myths and fairy tales which form a large part of the early primary instruction, and another phase of it is in ascribing the qualities of companionship to the vari- ous plants, flowers, trees and other objects in nature study. The adverse criticism of this use of symbolism is that it per- verts the imagination. Children are learning what they must unlearn in later life. In answer to this adverse criticism it is held that the use of symbolism is strictly within the natural limits of the child. The imagination is simply getting the kind of material which it is able to appropriate in that stage of development. Such imaginative material is not applied at a later stage when the reasoning and memory become stronger. 518. Ideals in education. In order to form an ideal of education we are forced back upon the experience of the past for a basis of judgment. What shall we select out of this past experience as the fitting heritage of the individual? Butler says the individual is en- titled to his "scientific, literary, aesthetic, institutional and religious inheritance." The spiritual inheritance of the race will fall under these divisions. One can imagine an individ- ual possessing a large share of the first three, and still fall- ing far short of the modern ideal education. But, in order to TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 367 possess really his institutional and relig-ious inheritance, he must have experienced many varied relationships w^ith his fellov^^-men. Consequently we find Dewey emphasizing- "social stimulus" or the adjustment of the individual to his environ- ment. But this environment is the product of race develop- ment in successive epochs. The child passes in a general way throug-h the same stages. Consequently true education will seek to g"ive the individual the best products of the race at a time when his development is best suited to receive them. In order, however, to arrive at this goal, something more is re- quired than merely to give the child his proper mental food. He must be enlisted in his own cause, and must react in a healthy way upon the stimulus presented. In other words, we must arouse him to that conscious direction of his own powers, which we call self-activity. Then we shall get that happy harmonization of interest and effort which produces self-reali- zation. When self-activity is once aroused in the lines of a many-sided interest, a physical, intellectual and moral inter- est, we shall certainly have a person of character and effi- ciency. Such a one ought to fulfill Spencer's ideal of "com- plete living-." He ought to be able to provide efficiently for his direct and indirect self-preservation ; perform his duties properly in the rearing of the young; act the man's part in the duties of citizenship ; and finally, be fitted for the enjoyment of a noble leisure in the pursuit and contemplation of the aesthetic achievements of the race. 519. Discipline of consequences. — Spencer and Rousseau stood for the discipline of cojiseqtiences. Explain, illustrate, and then justify your opinion of such punishment. The discipline of consequences, as formulated by Spencer and Rousseau stood for natural punishment. For instance, to inculcate the habit of punctuality, Spencer said the dilatory child should lose the walk or the theatre rather than have others wait for him and scold him. I believe in such punish- ment as far as the best good of the child may permit it. To 368 METHODS IN EDUCATION let a child fall in the water, with no possible means of avoid- ing drowning- would be in strict obedience to this principle, but not in accordance with my own view of judgment. How- ever, I think we should observe this principle as often as pos- sible. For instance, I was recently brought to face a problem of discipline in my own classroom. The pupils have the privi- lege of speaking in a low tone between recitations. Two teachers complained to me that the pupils abused the privilege, were noisy and disorderly at these times. One of the teach- ers advised me to keep them in after school. I thought of Spencer and decided the natural consequence was the removal of the privilege. My principal objected that there was no one there to enforce the law. I said I would personally see all the teachers entering my room, inform them of the decree, and ask for reports. It is working very well, and I expect to see a habit formed during this discipline, which will do away with the old habit of disorder when the privilege is restored. ANOTHER ANSWER FOR 519. The discipline of consequences would permit the child to suffer the natural consequences of his offense against law. If he deliberately breaks a window in his room, let him catch cold from sleeping in it. This thing is excellent, in that it rests on a foundation of justice which every child acknowl- edges, and may be used with good results, — just as far as it does not endanger the mental, moral or physical health of the child, for which its parents and guardians are responsible. That would be a case where one stage of the culture epochs would better be left out, the one where men learn by experi- ence what to avoid. It will work admirably to leave the care of a school, which has the right spirit, the punishment of a child proven guilty of deliberately injuring the school community by defacement, pilfering, etc. He who will not obey community law is out- side community privileges. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 369 But there are cases where the action of the principle is not immediate enough, or too disastrous to the child's well-being-, to permit its being- applied. I had in one class a boy remark- ably bright but as remarkably lazy. He got from recitation what others got by long study; and in reviews, he had by no means perfect knowledge, but better than some poor faithful plodders who had dug out all they had by sheer manual labor. It was the same in every class and at home. He had been al- lowed to be lazy at home, in fear of injuring his health. Not a vicious boy, but — lazy; and a bad example for all and a dis- couragement for many. The natural punishment would have been to let him go with his half-used faculties, his powers dy- ing from inertia; but that would have been a wrong beyond estimation. Accordingly after a long talk with the father, I told the boy that every day his work was not prepared he would work in my room until he had done just twice the amount; and after school, if he wouldn't work in my time, he must work in his room. Three weeks of work convinced him that I meant it. Now, he is in my senior class, he hands in his out- side work on time, but usually with a twinkle of the eye, for he had wit enough to appreciate fully the humor of the situa- tion. Here was a case where two teeth came in payment for one, — and it worked. 520. Self-activity illustrated. — Shozv specifically how to utilize the self -activity of pupils in the different elementary studies. 1. Self-activity of children is one of their marked charac- teristics. The teacher must not repress this, but seek to divert it into proper channels. Thus in a reading lesson the pupils should change their position, i. e., part of the time they may stand, read individu- ally, then collectively. Have the pupils make gestures. In geography, while preparing the lesson, let the pupils make maps to show products, industries, race, distribution, etc. Let them make models to show surface features. 25 370 METHODS IN EDUCATION In lang^uage work, pupils enjoy writing- for the purpose of giving pleasure to others. In this work have some composition written on the board, and corrected, while others may be read in class. In spelling, children enjoy making words from the letters of another word. Spelling matches arouse the feeling of emula- tion. This causes the pupils to put forth their best efforts. I have had classes that would rather have a spelling match than a good game of ball. 2. Another answer. In reading, by giving certain written work to be done in the preparation of the lesson. In spelling, by requiring the writing of the words both in the preparation of the lesson and in the recitation. By having original sentences written in which the words are used. In arithmetic, by having problems carefully worked out, diagrams drawn, quantities measured, etc. In geography, by having land and water forms molded in sand, maps drawn, product maps constructed, charts made, scrap books made, etc. In language and grammar, by reproduction and original composition work, and written analysis, diagrams, etc. In nature study, by having soil prepared, seeds planted, plants cared for, collections made of insects, flowers, miner- als, etc. In history, by having maps and charts made, sketches copied, note books kept, original researches made, etc. In all subjects, require certain work and, at the same time, suggest in various ways, other work to be done voluntarily to cultivate the habit of spontaneous independent action on the part of the individual. 521. Analysis in percentage. — Make a practical concrete prob- le7n in percentage and solve it by analysis. A man by selling a house for $2500 gained 25% of the pur- chase price. What did he pay for the house ? TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 371 Analysis: Since he gained 25% of the cost, the selling" price must have been 125% of the cost. Therefore $2500 was 125% of the cost. 1 % of the cost was j^^ of $2500, or $20 ; and 100% , 100 times $20, or $2000. Ans. Use of common fractions in percentage. — Construct a con- crete example in percentage and solve it by the method of common fractions. A farmer bought a horse for $100 and sold it so as to gain 25% of the cost. What was the selling price ? Solution: 25% of the cost=^ of the cost. X of the cost=$25. $100+$25— $125, the selling price. Ans. 522. Percentage: analysis, formula, algebra. — (a) State a sim- ple problem in which perce?itage and rate are given to find base, and solve it (i) by analysis, {2) by use of formula, (j) by algebra, {b) State with reasons at what points in the elemen- tary schools you would use each of the above modes of solution. (a) A man received as his commission $315 for selling goods at 3 per cent. What was the selling price of the goods ? (1) The agent receives 3 per cent of the selling price for his services. $315 is the amount he receives ; therefore, $315 is 3 per cent of the selling price. If $315 is 3 per cent of the sell- ing price, 1 per cent of the selling price equals one-third of $315, or $105, and 100 per cent of the selling price equals 100 times $105, or $10,500. 3 per cent equals $315. 1 percent equals one-third of $315, or $105. 100 per cent equals 100 times $105, or $10,500, selling price. (2) P divided by R equals B. .03 equals R. $315 equals P. $315 divided by .03 equals $10,500, or B. (3) X equals Base. 3 x divided by 100 equals $315. 3 x equals $31,500. x equals $10,500. (b) Use analysis in the first work with percentage, for the child is able to see that if 3 per cent equals a number, 1 per cent will equal one-third of it, and 100 per cent 100 times this result. This method is but an application of earlier reason- 372 METHODS IN EDUCATION ing-, and the work is done without difficulty. The method may be used in the fourth year in school, and perhaps earlier. I have little use for the formula. Pupils in the two hig-hest grades in the elementary school should be able directly to find the base by dividing- the percentage by the rate expressed decimally. I feel that the formula is a hindrance if taught earlier in the grade, on account of a pupil in our graduating class last year, who came to us from a private school and was hampered by trying to think what formula fitted the problem in hand, instead of finding out what he had and using it. If there be time to solve problems in as many different ways as possible, I should use the alarebraic form in the last year, but feel it is not essential. 523. Questioning: consecutive, promiscuous, simultaneous. — Nmne three kinds of questwnmg and state the advantages and disadvantages of each. 1. The consecutive method of questioning following the or- der of the roll or the seating in the class room. The advan- tage of this method lies in the fact that it is not necessary for the teacher to call the names of the successive pupils and thus time is saved for the teacher and the class. The disadvantage in it lies in the fact that each pupil knows when he must re- cite, and when he has recited feels secure in thinking that he will not be called upon within a limited time. The latter con- dition may tend to lack of attention and interest in the work of the recitation. 2. Promiscuous method of questioning is that in which the teacher does not follow order in seating or the order of the roll, but calls from different parts of the room as his fancy dictates. The advantage of this method is said to be in the fact that no pupil knows when his turn will come and so all are presumed to be giving attention. The fact that a pupil has recited does not justify him in thinking that he will not be called a second or a third time. The disadvantage in the method lies in the loss of time in calling the names, in the exemption of certain TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 373 lazy pupils, and in the probability that the best ones in class will be called upon more than those who do not show the same amount of eag-erness to recite. 3. Simultaneous method of questioning is that in which questions are asked from the whole class and after pupils are given time to think what the answer will be. Then the whole class or one pupil may answer the question while the others are thinking- or answering- with him. The advantag-e of this method is said to be that the attention and the interest of all pupils are held during- the time of asking- the questions. In those cases where it means concert recitations it is possible that a large number of the pupils are not giving the required thought, attention and answers as the general tendency would seem to indicate. 524. Questioning: faulty questions criticised. — Criticise each of the following questions as introductory to a development lesson or an object lesson : (a) What do you think I saw on the way to school this morning ? (b) What do we always find when we come to school in the mornitig f (c) Why do the claws of a dog make a noise oji the floor, while those of a cat do not? (d) Who can tell me anything about this (holding the object in view) ? (e) Is the bill of this bird long or short ? (a) This question is practically a universal question. The normal mind should have seen hundreds or even thousands of objects on the way to school in the morning. Such a question has no educative element in it. It does nothing to lead the child toward definite thinking or consistent reasoning. (b) This is a very indefinite question. While not so broad as (a) still this question leaves too large a choice and the only result can be that of guessing. (c) This is a telling question and so it relieves the necessity of thinking. It would not be much of an effort for the average child to surmise the effect upon prey when the approaching noise is sufficient for a warning. 374 METHODS IN EDUCATION (d) This g-eneral question is another invitation that does not cause pupils to work toward definite and accurate thinking-. It puts no responsibility upon any member of the class nor does it limit any child to an answer that can be a contribution to the development lesson or the object lesson. Logical thinking- is not stimulated by it, nor does the question tend to bring- knowledge into due relation with the mind. Some specific questions should be asked to introduce a lesson of this kind. (e) This question allows a choice of answers and so SO^o of the answer is g-iven by sug-g-estion. If one g-uess does not bring the correct answer the other must be the correct answer. Such a question does not stimulate thought. 525. Methods, advantages and disadvantages : five applications.— StaU the advantages or disadvantages of each of the follow- ing methods : {lo). (a) Indicating before >a question is given, the pupil to be called on. {b) Looking fixedly at one who is answering or reading in class, {c) Using objects during a review, {d) Having pupils in class formulate the problems in arithnetic. {/) Having pupils correct one another's spelling exercises. ( a) The advantages must be considered exceptions to the general pedagogical rule. A timid child or a child who is likely not to hear the question on account of deafness, inatten- tion or disorder may be aided so as to produce an economy of time. The disadvantage lies in the fact that such a method of questioning permits all other pupils to be inattentive if they are inclined that way. Those not called on may feel that the one who has been called will be held responsible for the answer to that question. The teaching process should generally be considered a social process involving the teacher and all of the pupils. Every act of instruction should be presented in such a way that every child will feel a responsibility for contribut- ing something to the answer. (b) The disadvantage is embarrassment. If the teacher is not strong in government the one who is reciting will have TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 375 more attention than the recitation demands and certain other pupils will be g-iven an opportunity to waste their time. The advantag-e lies in the encouragement that may be g-iven to a pupil who needs the strong- personality of the teacher. (c) The advantag-es can be found only in rare exceptions. If a child is defective or if a child has been absent unavoidably the teacher may be justified in presenting an object during the review, but even in such cases it would seem better to give personal instruction to those few pupils rather than to take the time from the majority of the class. In general the use of ob- jects during review will relieve the pupils from the necessity of all recalling the lesson as originally presented. In other words, the use of the object gives each child an excuse for not using his own activity. (d) The advantages are interest, co-operation and the feel- ing of class responsibility. It may be an incentive to individual effort and the use of the problems so presented may be held as a stimulus toward the attainment of a recognized standard of excellence. Such recognition may be silent or it may be an- nounced publicly as a recognition of the good work done by the pupil in making the problems. The disadvantage is not evi- dent excepting in the abuse of the process. A weak teacher may rely upon that means of securing problems for advanced work and for review while a good text-book is set aside. (e) The disadvantages might be considered under the head of collusion; or under the charge that such criticism is made by an incompetent critic, and the pupil who has been unjustly criticised feels that a personal injury has been done to him. This latter argument need not be accepted if the teacher will always offer pupils the right of appeal. The advantage of this method is economy of time for the teacher and an illustra- tion of self-criticism, self-activity, and self-realization in the exercises. 526. Same topic as 525 ; five more applications. — 5/^/^ briefly the advantages or disadvantages of each of the following methods: (lo) {a) Questioning pupils in rotation. {b) Re- 376 METHODS IN EDUCATION peating a question, (r) Paying most attention to the smartest or dullest pupils in a class. {d) Breaking off an answer be- fore completion and asking another pupil to continue, {e) Com- pelling pupils to write a certai7t nuinber of times words that they have mispelled. (a) The advantages are a saving- of time in not having- to call the names and a feeling- of alertness under the conscious- ness of the paproaching- time to answer. It is possible to arouse a creditable activity in a class by this rapid and sys- tematic method of questioning-. The disadvantag-e is said to be in the fact that a pupil knows when he has to recite and that he will not give his attention until he knows that he must answer in turn. (b) The custom cannot be sanctioned as a safe rule. It is a waste of the teacher's time and energy and it is an open in- vitation to inattention on the part of the pupils. There is, however, the advantage of putting the question so clearly and so emphatically that defective pupils may be given a chance to grasp the full meaning of the question ; and again the repetition gives the teacher an opportunity to impress the main points in the lesson. This last view presupposes an at- tentive class and an interesting presentation of new work. (c) This process in teaching has many disadvantages unless the class be divided into groups according to ability. If most of the attention is given to the smartest pupils the average pupils and the dullest pupils are going to be unable to keep up with the best division of the class. Should most of the atten- tion be given to the dullest pupils then the other two divisions are likely to lose interest because they already know the work that the teacher is presenting to the dullest pupils. It is sug- gested that the class be divided into three divisions or groups so that two groups may be working at the board or on paper under other assignments while the teacher is directing her at- tention to one group in particular. Then the teacher is justi- fied in giving most of her attention to whatever group she is teaching during that period. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 377 (d) In nearly all school work the aim of teaching- is to cause the pupil to form correct habits of persistent thinking-. Such thinking- demands poise of body and mind and time for the consideration of the matter presented. Breaking- off an answer before completion is likely to interfere with continuous think- ing- and so the practice cannot be commended. It may have an advantag-e, however, in causing certain pupils to remain attentive at all times during- the recitation period. The matter of deciding- whether such breaking- off is harmful or not de- pends larg-ely upon the pupil who has been interrupted. (e) Writing- mispelled words a limited number of times dur- ing- the process of learning- to spell those words has the sanc- tion of many educators, but when the process is made a pun- ishment for the mispelling- the penalty causes the child to for- g-et the value of the learning- process and so he comes to dis- like the subject and the method. The disadvantag-es are so strong- that the process should be condemned. 527. Battle of Saratoga decisive. — Tell how a teacher may build up a history lesson from the following question asked by a boy in class : ' ' What if Burgoyne had won the battle of Saratoga ? " (9) The importance of any battle must be measured by its effect upon the contending- armies. I should prepare a lesson upon the Battle of Saratog-a by making- the following- outline to show the plan of the campaig-n by the British : 1. The first objective point in the Revolutionary War was Boston. General results not decisive. 2. The second objective point was New York City. 3. The aim of the British was to control the water connect- ion with New York City ; to hold the St. Lawrence River; and then to establish a line of defences from the St. Lawrence River to New York City by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson River. By opening this way the strength of the colonists would be weakened by separating- New Eng-land from New York and the other colonies. 378 METHODS IN EDUCATION 4. If Burg-oyne had won the battle of Saratoga the princi- pal aim in the campaig-n of the British would have been satis- fied. Burg-oyne's defeat at Saratog-a left a free connection between New Eng-land and the other colonies. 5. Aside from the point of connection just mentioned the victory at Saratog-a influenced the French to aid the Americans against the British. This aid on land and sea was a decisive factor in the later results of the war. In a lesson of this kind I should follow a map or have pupils make a progress map to show the locations of Boston, New York, the St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, Saratoga, the Hudson River, Trenton, Princeton, Pennsylvania, and Yorktown. A general map of this kind can indicate the pro- gress of all the campaigns. 528. Methods: question, conversational, lecture. — To what class of pupils is the question method suited, {b) the conversa- tional method, {c) the lecture method ? The question method is suited to all grades of pupils. The primary work must be by means of questions and answers; and in the last grade of the grammar school, exact questions are considered the highest test of efficient teaching. The con- versational method is especially intended for the first year of school work, but its use may be retained through all the ele- mentary grades. It is valuable in all private teaching, in personal criticism, and in all exercises where mutual interest of pupils and teacher is involved. The lecture method is not adapted to elementary grade because it presupposes the power to gain knowledge largely through the sense of hearing, and elementary pupils have not advanced to that degree of mental mastery. Its specific use is in advanced work under uni- versity organization. 529. Self-reporting system criticised. — Give two objections to the self -reporting system in conduct and scholarship. Self-reporting tempts pupils to be deceitful and untruthful ; guilty pupils go unpunished; innocent pupils have to share a TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 379 bad social spirit; the teacher's standard of judg^ing- the whole class becomes inaccurate and unfair. In brief, this system does not develop proper habits for character. 530. Assignment of lessons criticised. — («) Criticise each of the following ways of assigjiing advanced lessons, and in each case suggest a proper assigtiment: (/) {hi history) "■Study all about the first voyage of Columbtts and be ready to tell me what difiiculties he met in getting aid, and every thi7ig of that kind.'' {2) {In civics) ''Find out as much as you can from your parents, or from any other source, about the Govern- ment of the City of New York.'' (j) (/;z science or nature study) ''Take for to-morrow the ne.xt .... pages." {b) State with principles founded up07i your reasons, three prijiciples to guide in the assignment of lesions. (a) (1) Careless work on the part of the teacher. Enoug-h work is sug-gested to the earnest student to discourag-e him. The average student needs a more direct assignment with reference to certain places for it. Suggested assignment : Why Columbus wished to find a route to India. His plan to reach the Indies. Reason for this plan. How viewed by the people. Efforts to secure aid. Result. First voyage. Equipment. Starting place. Incidents on voyage. Land ! Character of natives. I would not assign more than the topics preceding the "First Voyage" for one lesson. (2) Wrong, for most people know very little of the way a city is governed. It is a general question not likely to interest pupils or engage the attention of the pupil's parent. Some parents would probably give undesirable information. Suggested assignment: Ask pupils to find out at home, if no books are available, who arranges for the lighting of the city every night, and who pay for the care of the lights. Or, how are school buildings secured ? How are the principals and teachers paid ? 380 METHODS IN EDUCATION Either of these subjects would represent something- touching- the child's life; hence, better subjects. (3) Very bad. To assign so much work from a book when so much material is at hand is inexcusable. Memory will be trained, but imag-ination, reasoning- and judgment are higher powers and more delightful ones to eng-ag-e. Sug-g-estion : We are to talk about the dragon-fly to-morrow, and I wish you to be able to tell then where the drag-on-fiy is often seen and why he likes such places. Why is he one of our best insect friends? (b) Following are the principles to guide in the assignment of lessons : (1) The ability of the pupil. — It is useless to ask a child to do more than he is able. (2) The time at his disposal.— A high school teacher made the remark that she expected the pupils to work at least one hour on her subject. When asked what the pupil would do if each teacher required the same amount of time, replied that she had not thought of it in that way. (3) The ground to be covered. — In our school system a cer- tain amount of work must be done each year. To accomplish this a teacher must assign enough work each day to cover the ground. 531. Drawing correlated. — Mention three studies with which drawing may be correlated. Arithmetic, geography, language, history, and science. When done by the teacher, drawing appeals to the sense of sight, and thus becomes a valuable source of knowledge for the pupils. When the pupils make the drawings, the pupils are employing their motor activities, thereby exemplifying the educational principle of self-activity and also the psychologi- cal law that "every idea tends to realize itself in action." The teacher should use drawing freely for the sake of illus- tration, and pupils should be encouraged to make it a means of expressing their thought. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 381 532. Drawing a group. — State, ajtd illustrate by at least two sketches, the necessary steps in teaching children to make a drawing of a group of vegetables or fruits. (a) Get sufficient number of suitable specimens for the lesson. (b) Place enough specimens for a group in different parts of the room. At least four groups on boards across the aisles at the front desks, and two or three further back, in a room of 42 pupils. (c) Ask a pupil near each group to arrange it for a study. (d) Get opinion of class in regard to placing. (e) Rearrange where necessary. (f) Choose best position on paper for group. (g) Plan group with few light lines. (h) Correct and finish with broad gray lines, slightly deeper on shadow side. (i) Plan and draw, enclosing form for group. Place Mono- gram. (j) Grade, name and date on back of paper. (k) Class criticism. Time should be taken for this import- ant part of the lesson. (1) Monitors collect and replace all material. 533. Punishment : defined, approved, not approved. — (a) What is punishment? (b) Describe and illustrate two modes of punishment proper for use in school ; tzvo that should not be used. (a) Punishment is the penalty paid for the violation of the rules of conduct, (b) Private talk in which the teacher aims to place the matter before the pupil as it really is, and the re- sult if such a course is continued. A boy teases a smaller boy on the way to school or on the school grounds. He regards it as fun. His opinion should change after a short, sincere talk with his teacher. (b) Detention followed by isolation for repeated tardiness, neglect of duty or other wrong-doing. A teacher in our school 382 METHODS IN EDUCATION carelessly left her purse containing a considerable amount in her desk while we were at chapel. She missed it on return- ing to her room, and it was found in the yard under some leaves, where a boy had placed it until he could safely take it away. It was found that he had been guilty of smaller thefts, and his well-arranged plans in this instance led to his dis- missal. Nagging.— The unfortunate manner of continually finding fault and ignoring the effort, though feeble, that is made. I know a pupil who is happy this year in her school life because she has been told that she does certain work well— her efforts are appreciated and not overlooked because she is unable to excel in another line of work. She is not continually reminded of her defect. Sarcasm. — A teacher has no right to fling his bad temper at a defenceless pupil in words that ridicule and injure. A teacher of history class in a high school frequently humiliates members of his class by ridiculing their lack of knowledge or their weak expressions. He could use his time more profitably. 534. Emulation. — The Jesuits are adversely critised for their use of emulatioji. Discuss its use and abuse. No teacher of ordinary experience can deny that emulation is a legitimate factor in the success of every school. Its use by the Jesuits is said to have urged one pupil to perform his task better than another could perform it, and thus a spirit of undesirable rivalry was aroused. Under the sociological view of education, it is held that every student should strive for the welfare of all other students as well as for his own good. In other words, the use of emulation, as applied by the Jesuits, does not harmonize with the modern view of education. Rous- seau would not have Emile compare himself with any other children. Emile should compare himself with his own past self and thus have but one standard for progress. James speaks favorably of emulation with one's former self, but he puts a far higher value upon honest rivalry with another. See TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 383 Talks, pages 49 to 54. See also Dexter and Garlick's Psy- cholog-y, pages 44, 228. 535. Analogy. — Define, illustrate and eriticise reasoning by analogy. Analogy is a kind of reasoning in which an inference is made on account of the resemblance of two things. Illustration. Port Rico, a former Spanish possession, has inhabitants able to control themselves. Then the same is true of the Philippine Islands. Criticism. Such reasoning is not conclusive. There may be many points of likeness, but one great difference can over- throw the similarities. Analogy can be used only when the points of likeness are overwhelming. For application in nature study, see Dexter and Garlick, 179. 536. Syllogism. — The syllogism is a form of deductive reason- ing in which a conclusion is drawn from two known premises. Major premise. Human beings are rational. Minor premise. You are a human being. Conclusion. Therefore you are rational. 537. Fatigue.— Fatigue is a physical condition in which the ability to do work falls below the normal average. Fatigue is caused by a waste product in the blood which is formed by the tearing down of cells in the performance of work. Nature is constantly trying to build up cell tissues as fast as they are destroyed. When .the tearing down process exceeds the re- construction process, fatigue follows and rest is needed for re- cuperation. Some of the characteristics of fatigue are "restlessness, lack of power of co-ordination, showing itself in the dropping of pencils and the like, in slips of speech, and perhaps in uncer- tainty in the use of the limbs, twitching movements, decreased sensibility, especially of sight and hearing, flushing, unusual color of ears ; and among the mental symptoms, irritability, loss of memory for common things, loss of curiosity and the 384 METHODS IN EDUCATION power of attention, disturbance of speech, etc."— Burnham in* Article on Fatigue, New York Teachers' Monographs, Oc- tober, 1901. 538. Note-books. — What are the chief uses of note-books by the pupils? The chief uses of note-books are: (1) for reference work in class; (2) to record developments made in class and not found in the text; (3) to record the assignment. When matters are being developed orally in the class the attention should not be distracted by taking notes; after the topic is somewhat formulated it may be briefly recorded as far as necessary to supplement the text. Unless fixed by notes the material is likely to be lost. —Young, the Teaching of Mathematics, p. 147. 539. Social stimulus. — Explain meaning and application of social stimulus. Persons or ideas are called sociable if they are in harmony. Sociable means agreeable. Transfer the idea of a sociable company of workers to the school, and there apply the thought of (a) good will, (b) mutual agreement, (c) working. There is a stimulus under such conditions. It does not come wholly from the teacher, nor from any one pupil ; each pupil is con- tributing something. The stimulus coming from the members of a society or group or society is social stimulus. The social stimulus is a good working spirit in a school ; it is good pub- lic opinion among the pupils ; it is community interest vs. selfish individual interest. 540. Circle of thought. — What is jneant by the circle of thought, as used by the Herbartians? The circle of thought for any pupil is the limit of personal interest of the pupil in the subject-matter of instruction, or in matters outside of the school. It is distinctly the work of edu- cation to extend the circle of thought so that the pupil may become interested in as many lines of investigation as he is TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 385 capable of carrying on without reaching the result known as smattering in education. The five-fold division of the course of study in our elementary schools illustrates a many-sided interest which should give every pupil the desired circle of thought to prepare him for future efficiency. An application of extending the circle of thought is found in Lang's Educa- tional Creeds, page 150: "A boy spends his play hours in fishing, catching birds or butterflies; and he is in danger that his fine feeling, sympathetic heart will harden. Would punish- ment direct the content of his will to nobler pursuits? Would it thoroughly cure him? Certainly not. It would sooner in- crease the danger. The thoughtful educator pursues a differ- ent course. He seeks to build up a new interest in the thought-circle of the boy. He calls his attention to the beauty of the flowers, explains to him their nature and various kinds, shows him how to raise plants and how to take care of them, how to press and dry them. The probabilities are that he will spend his recreation hours in cultivating plants, in botanizing, and in making a herbarium." 541. Formal discipline. — Explain formal discipline or formal culture. This doctrine is used as a standing argument for so-called disciplinary education, especially that in pure mathematics and classical languages. The assumption is that if the stu- dent masters these, he will thereby acquire a mental power that can be applied almost equally well to any kind of practi- cal or professional life. This gymnastic theory of education involves the idea that it does not matter upon what the mind is exercised, provided only the exercise be vigorous and long- continued. The inadequacy of the theory lies in the fact that it ignores or underestimates the importance of the choice of subjects, both for their gymnastic efficiency, and their ulti- mate worth in developing the individual. A life of crime de- velops acuteness of intellect, but it does not develop good citi- zens. Again, mental alertness in philology, or grammar, or 386 METHODS IN EDUCATION hig-her algebra, does not insure corresponding- alertness in those fields in which there is neither knowledge nor interest. The mind is never efficient in any department of endeavor in which either education or experience has not provided rich and abundant masses of apperceiving- ideas. — DeGarmo in Dictionary of Philosophy. The theory of formal discipline asserts that mental power developed in one subject is usable in any other. — Home, Prin- ciples, p. 66. The arg-ument against the theory that there are distinct faculties in the human mind is contradicted by modern scien- tific research. Home does not believe in rejecting the theory altog-ether, but he would modify it and express it in this way: "Mental power developed in one subject is applicable to any other in direct proportion to their similarity. This principle means the greater the similarity between two subjects the g-reater the applicability of mental power developed in one to the other ; the less similarity, the less applicability." — Prin- ciples, pag-e 71. 542. Visualization.— ^x^/(3;/;f and ilhcstrate visualization. Visualization is fixing an idea in the mind by means of the sense of sight. Aim. To teach list of spelling- words. Write words on board. Cover words with chart and ask class to spell as many as they can remember. At first they will not g-et all the words. The same process should be re- peated until class can write all the words without aid of board. They learned those words by the process of visualiza- tion. One practical illustration of training in visualization is the practice of teaching memory selections, declensions, classifica- tions, or other matter, from written forms upon the blackboard. This plan invites comfortable posture of pupils and teacher ; class attention, interest, and concentrated effort; social feeling and consequent social stimulus; the application of the law of TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 387 contig-uity; and, as a result, commendable self-activity and desirable habits of study. 543. Inhibition. — Show meaning and application of inhibition in teaching. Inhibition means withholding or stopping- any form of psy- chical or physical activity. An extreme effect of fear may inhibit respiration and circulation for a moment. A child's attempt to speak on the stage may inhibit the action of the salivary glands so much that the mouth seems dry. Anger, happiness or fatigue may partially inhibit all mental activity for a short time. This application of inhibition shows the necessity of maintaining uniform working conditions in school. Another use -of inhibition comes under habituation. Sup- pose certain tendencies to evil are observed. Shall we try to inhibit the tendencies by breaking off abruptly or shall we try to work gradually toward disuse by substituting desirable habits? Thus we find the words disuse, i7ihibition, substitution and direction under methods of treating impulses, instincts and habits. 544. Suggestion. — Define and illustrate suggestion as used in educatio7i. Suggestion is the tendency of consciousness to believe in and act on any given idea. — Home, Principles of Ed., 284. Suggestion is useful with pupils in all cases where the act does not demand the time and the power of personal reflection by the pupil. The pupil may be thinking well upito a certain point, but there he hesitates. A word, a sentence, a look or a gesture from -the teacher may be enough to help him continue the train of thought. Thus in grammar, a pupil may have completed all the analysis and parsing except- ing one word in a sentence. He has said that word is an attribute complement but he fails to decide the part of speech. The teacher asks what parts of speech may be used as an at- tribute complement ; the pupil names the three and then selects the right one. 388 METHODS IN EDUCATION The teacher's g-lance at a boy's shoes may be sugg-estion enough for next morning ; pointing to his own head may suggest the use of comb and brush; the teacher's appearance is a powerful suggestion; the teacher's penmanship, blackboard work, conversation, personality, — all work strongly by sugges- tion. This shows the relation between suggestion and imita- tion, law of association, etc. 545. Connotation of terms. — Connotation of terms is the meaning of terms as expressed in a good definition. A good definition involves genus, species and differentia, and it ex- emplifies these rules: (a) contains all the attributes of the term defined; (b) uses clear and definite language; (c) is af- firmative rather than negative. 546. Extension and intention of terms. — Explain and apply. Both intention and extension are words used in logic and philosophy. Webster says intention means "the collective attributes, qualities, or marks that make up a complex general notion; the comprehension, content, or connotation; — opposed to extension, extent, or sphered Extension means "the capac- ity of a concept or general term to include a greater or smaller number of objects; — correlative of intention.'''' Illustration. Take the noun tree. Its intention includes the characteristics of vegetable kingdom; composed of roots, trunk, branches; requires light, heat and moisture; used for fuel, building, shade, ornament, etc. This intention or compre- hension of the term tree is very broad. Now apply its extension and we find that it covers pine tree, maple tree, willow, etc., making a very wide use. Again, take apple tree for intention and extension. Its intention is not so broad as the term tree alone; nor is its extension so wide. The use of intention and extension in educational work de- mands precision in thought in every process. Hence, the need of definite observation, clear percepts, vivid images, accurate memory, etc., in forming general notions. TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 389 547. Imitation. — Discuss the imitativeness of children of four to six years of age, in its relation to their dei'elopniejit. Of all animals, the man animal is the most imitative. The first acts which the child of the kinderg-arten ag-e does are those due to instinct. These are imitations of the acts of his ancestors. Among- them are the desire for play, for freedom, for examining- strange things, etc. Through the gratification of these desires he develops physically and gains knov^ledge of his environment. He imitates those w^ith whom he is thrown in contact consciously and unconsciously. The languag-e he hears becomes his languag-e, the countenance he sees modifies his countenance. Manner of walking-, sitting-, standing, etc., all become a part of his acquired experience. All of these acts are steps in the gradual adjustment to environment. The models he imitates serve either as a check to his development or as an aid to it. Instructive imitations, imitations of the simple and the complex acts of others, help to give physical and mental determination to the child's develop- ment. A further recognition of this fact implies that the power of imitation is continuously operative until the individual has reached his complete development. Not only this, but one generation advances beyond that of its predecessor by imitat- ing its successes and shunning its failures. — See Home's Philosophy of Education, 175-187. 548. Abstraction. — What is abstractioti ? Illustrate. Abstraction is the mental process involved in retaining the common qualities which belong to all the individuals of a cer- tain class and rejecting the uncommon qualities. A complete process of abstraction results in the concept or general notion. It is synonymous with conception. 549. Action : reflex, impulsive, automatic, deliberative. — Define and illustrate each. Reflex action is the process of changing an afferent nerve current into an efferent nerve current without the aid of the brain. Illustration : — I put my finger on a warm object ; the 390 METHODS IN EDUCATION afferent nerve carries the messag-e to the nerve center, where the efferent nerve receives the return messag^e to remove the finger. This action takes place without the aid of the brain and is thus called reflex action. Impulsive action is that in which the entrance of an idea in- to consciousness is immediately followed by the appropriate action. As an illustration, suppose I am hurrying- to the post office to mail a letter. While on the car I see a friend from a distant city. I run at once to g-reet him. This is impulsive action. Automatic action is habitual action. Any action becomes automatic as soon as it is carried on without any intervention of the will. An illustration of this is the fing-er action in playing- a piano after a person has become accustomed to that kind of action. Deliberate action is that in which (1) action is sug-gested to the mind (2) the mind considers whether it will actor not, and (3) the will makes the decision. This is illustrated in the de- cision of many teachers who beg-in to consider the advisability of teaching- in New York City, think of the matter a year or two, and then decide for or ag-ainst the action. 550. Nature study: aims, defects, suitable lessons.—/. State what you conceive to be three important aims of nature-study in the eleinentary school, (j). 2. Mentioit three mistakes in method commonly made by teachers in lessojts on plants, and in the case of each state briefly the proper procedure in the same premises. (6). 1. (a) To create and strengthen a permanent love for, and interest in, nature, (b) To develop the powers of observation. (c) To impart useful knowledg-e. 2. (a) They choose unfamiliar and uncommon plants with the idea that there is more in them to interest the child and more to be learned from them, forgetting- that the knowledge that the child already has is to be of great assistance in arous- ing his interest and causing him to acquire new facts, (b) TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 391 They tell the pupils too much about the plants, (c) They make the lesson or series of lessons extend over too short a period of time, g-iving-the child too little opportunity for obser- vation and reflection. PROPER PROCEDURE. (a) Produce several cotton seeds. Tell pupils what they are, if no pupil is able to tell. Talk with them about the way to plant them and to care for them. Let them plant and care for them in the school room. (b) The pupils watch over the little plants from the time they appear above the ground till they have grown to some size (perhaps, a foot high) . During this time pupils ask a great many questions, some of which should be answered, others re- ferred to the study of the plant itself. Later, if time is lack- ing for the full development of the plant, the cotton boll is brought out, examined, discussed, the seeds are found, etc. Then the complete life history of the plant is gone over and the various uses of the plant. (c) Is answered by the fact that this work has occupied a period of several months. 551. Too much written work. — Thef^e is a feeling that too much written work is called for i7i our schools. Give three valid objections that are made. 1. It is a device for occupying the time of pupils for the sake of giving release to the teacher. 2. The papers are not criticised and returned to pupils and so it is a waste of energy. 3. The habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are a result of number 1. Pupils know that their work is not examined and they are satisfied to submit written productions that are far below the standard of oral exercises in that same class. Much of the experience in later life depends upon the power of oral communication of thought. So much written work is not a guarantee that the pupil will be able to do what is required from him in the line of oral communication. 392 METHODS IN EDUCATION 552. Dr. Maxwell's suggestions in arithmetic. — "Great improve- ment has been made in teaching- mathematics since the issue of the circular of the Board of Superintendents on that subject last fall. More attention yet, however, must be given. The following- sug-g-estions are not yet fully carried out in all schools : (a) The pupils should be allowed to spend some portion of the mathematics period each day in working- as rapidly as each pupil can out of the textbook. (b) That there should be rapid drill each day in the funda- mental rules ; in addition, making- sure of the sum of each line before proceeding- to the next. (c) That oral arithmetic should be given each day and should precede the written work. Teachers should be asked to begin this work with the first day of the term. It is no uncommon thing to find teachers, a month after the opening of the term, who have not commenced this work, though their intentions are admirable. Many teachers spend a month or more reviewing the work of the grade below. This is a waste of time. It is not sur- prising that children seem to have forgotten what they have learned. Let the teacher take up some new work and if she finds that the children need some review in connection with the new thing let the review be given incidentally. Many teachers spend time complaining of what the teacher below her left undone which could be more profitably employed in doing the advanced work of her own grade. This is particu- larly true with regard to arithmetic. In arithmetic, espec- ially, the class should be taught in at least two sections." (September, 1907). 553. Drill in observation. — Suggest a simple plan of drill in observation for elementary pupils. Take the reading lesson, select some familiar and interest- ing portion of the work already covered, and then follow this plan : TYPICAL QUKSTIONS AND ANSWERS 393 1. Have pupils read the sentences, close books, and then reproduce orally or on paper. Test by opening book and comparing with the original. 2. Copy selections accurately and neatly from the board or from books. Insist upon absolute accuracy. 3. Learn quotations and several memory exercises and then reproduce them in writing again insisting upon absolute ac- curacy. In all three of these exercises the insistence upon accuracy will tend to habituate the children to that mode of thinking and acting. 554. Writing as a penalty. — Name objections to reguirmg pupils to %urite words or sentences many tiiJtes as a penalty of violating some rule of -conduct. It is a waste of time; it gives bad habits of penmanship ; pupils become nervous and angry ; the penalty becomes asso- ciated with the task instead of with the violation and thus the pupil is likely to increase his feeling of dislike for this study. See 526. 555. Value of phonics. — State two objects of teaching phonics. To train the organs of hearing to distinguish sounds and to train the organs of speech in making those sounds. 556. Two trials in spelling. — Why should not a pttpil be al- lowed a second trial in oral spelling ? It may cause inattention and encourage guessing. 557. Syllabication.— What is the advantage of teaching syl- labication ? It aids in pronunciation and also shows how to divide the word at the end of a line. 558. What to observe in studying spelling. — In studyi7ig a spelling lesson to what three important things should the pupil give attention? To the pronunciation of the word, to memorizing the form of the word, and to the correct use of the word. 394 METHODS IN EDUCATION 559. Relation of climate to animal life.— S^om the relation of clijnate to animal life by distribution and characteristics of animals in North America. Arctic coasts, polar bear, musk-ox, the extreme of cold. Farther south, moose, elk, caribou, reindeer and small fur- bearing- animals. Intensely cold and forests. Western highlands, grizzly bear, bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountains goat, American panther. Cold and rough country. Eastern part south of Great Lakes, domestic animals have taken place of native animals, horses, cattle, sheep, hog-s, chickens. Temperate zone. Southwest. Mixed animals of South and North America, as w^ell as scorpions, lizards, and other reptiles. Dry, arid. Southern lowlands. AUig-ators, crocodiles, paroquets, hum- ming- birds, etc. Hot and moist. 560. Lessons on latitude, Arctic life. — Describe a good method of teaching the following geographical ideas to children: Lat- itude, Arctic life? (6) (a) Aim. To teach idea of latitude. Preparation. We are to learn today what is meant in g-eog- raphy by latitude. You may all point to the north. (Chil- dren point tow^ard front of room). Correct. Point toward the south. (Children point toward back of room). Correct. Presentatiojt. Count the seats in a row in this room from front to back. How many? Seven. Which is the middle seat in;each row? The fourth from each end. The pupil in fourth seat of first row may stand in the aisle. Move forward toward the north one seat, pupil in next row do the same. Next, etc. How far north from the middle seat is each pupil? One seat. How is this distance shown? By the line of seats. Return to seats. Go south of the middle, two seats How far south is each pupil? Two seats. How shown? By the line of seats. Third pupil move south one more seat. How far south is he? Three seats south. How shown? By the line of seats. What is the relation of each line of seats to the TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 395 middle line? They are parallel to it. Now, suppose we call the middle line of seats the equator and the distance of the first line of seats north one degree north, that of the first line south one degree south. The second" will then be how many degrees south ? It will be two degrees south. What name shall we apply to these distances north and south, supposing the middle line of seats to be the equator? We will call it latitude. Now, let us go to the globe. The globe represents what? It represents the earth. Find the equator. What do you find running around the globe parallel to the equator? There are lines parallel to the equator. What did each line of seats in- dicate? Distance north or south of the middle line. What do these lines indicate, then? Distance north or south of the equator. What do we call that distance? We call it latitude. These lines then must be parallels of what? They must be parallels of latitude. Now, let us try hard to say to ourselves just what latitude is. Latitude is defined. Next, let us say to ourselves just what parallels -of latitude are. Parallels defined. Application. Find on globe how many degrees north or south of the equator certain places located on the given paral- lells are. Find three places in 10° south latitude, three places in 20° north latitude. Aim to teach idea of Arctic life. Prepa7'ation. Today we are to learn something about the living things in the Arctic regions. What is the climate in those regions ? It is cold. Is there any summer there? Yes. What of its length? It is very short. P7'esentatioii. At what season of the year do plants make the most of their growth in our climate? In summer. Would they grow as much as they do if the summer were very short? They would not. Would we probably have as many kinds of plants as we now have? No. From this what shall we con- clude in regard to the plants of the Arctic regions ? They must be few in number and small. 396 METHODS IN EDUCATION Teacher here g-ives detailed description of plants, shows pictures, etc. (Then follows division on animal life. ) What wild animals remain active in winter here? Only those having- warm coats of fur. Since it is very cold the g-reater part of the year in Arctic lands, what kind of animals will be found there? Only those having the thickest coats of fur. Teacher tells of animals and shows pictures. How do we dress in winter? In furs and woolens. How must people dress then in these Arctic lands ? They must dress in warm furs. What kind of food do we relish most in winter? Animal foods that contain plenty of fat. What then is probably the food of the inhabitants of Arctic lands ? That containing large quantities of fat. Can you think of two reasons why this must be so? For warmth and because of the scarcity of plants. Teacher tells of Eskimo life showing pictures of homes, oc- cupations, etc. Application. Pupils reproduce orally and in writing what they have been taught, copy simple sketches of Arctic scenes to accompany and illustrate their written work on the subject. The above subject-matter ought to be divided into at least two lessons. Chapter XVII. Answers in Methods for Assistant to Principal. 561. Exercises in reading before textbook.— (rt) Describe three exercises zvhich should be given primary children before pre- senting the reading book. Give psychological reasons, {b) Give with reasons specific cautions to be observed in teaching phonics to primary children. (4) The method of reading- employed in our school is that known as the McCloskey Method. It is founded upon strong psycho- log-ical principles. I. Since attendance is necessary as a first requisite in the education which the school extends to the child the school is presented as a form of commu- nity life in which the child shares the inheri- tance of his race, and is taught to use his own powers for social ends. Through con- versations, nature lessons, games and songs he is made to feel happy and at home. He soon learns to give of his store of wisdom (small though it may be) to others. He learns to talk not timidly, but freely, joy- fully. He has learned from the beginning that school is a process of living, not some dread- ed unknown process for future living. II. Recognition of principle "From whole to part." 1. Story told of "The Kid", a story taken from the Talmud. (a) As a whole to give idea and spirit, (b) In parts, showing logical order of incidents. (c) As a whole to retain unity. 2. One paragraph told by children and written upon board. Then read from blackboard. 398 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3. One sentence attended to, then single words (sight cards) presented. Note. The reading of the poem by the teacher has created in the children a desire for the ability to read for themselves. 4. After the entire lesson is known in script the printed pamphlet is presented. Note. No written language, spelling, penman- ship, or phonics are done until the printed matter has been introduced after at least forty words are known as wholes. III. "In bringing a child into harmony with his environ- ment", says Mr. Maxwell, "it is necessary to give him the use of his hands." Many of our children have not attended the kindergarten and have no idea of manual work. Seat work must be taught before the introduction of reading, as classes are taught ingroups and one group must be taught to do independent manual work while the other group is reading. Summary. I. Free, happy attendance. II. Use of his hands for independent work. III. Much preliminary black- board conversation and sight card work before presenting the primer to a child. (b) Cautions on phonics. I. After forty or fifty words are thoroughly known at sight, it is safe to begin phonics. To guard against halting in reading, words are first established as wholes in the child's mind. II. A strong motive is created by directing attention of pupils to the fact that they must not depend on others to tell them all new words; they must learn to make them out for themselves. Caution, State the aim to your pupils ; avoid an un- ADVANCED METHODS 399 known road toward an unknown g"oal in creat- ing- the interest necessary to call forth eifort. III. Recalling- is easier when several avenues of association have been appealed to. Therefore children learn to write as they sound. IV. Remember that imitation is strongest in the tiny child. (a) Teach the child to "listen sharply", (b) Take one child at a time, (c) Let teacher be certain in making- her own sounds correctly, allowing- child to touch org-ans of speech when necessary. V. Observe principle that the mind naturally proceeds from whole to part, (written phonics.) VI. Remem})er that the work of the lA is the foundation for all later life. Therefore one cannot be too careful in training- for 1. Distinctions (depending on neatness and ac- curacy of contact of vocal org-ans. Use models, teacher and pictures.) 2. Firmness (depending on many drills.) King's rhj^thmic gymnastics are recommended. 3. Fluency (easy transition from one sound to an- other; practice recommended.) 562. Ways of teaching the meaning of words.—Give several ways of teaching the meaning of new words to pupils in the 6 A grade. Illustrate. The meaning of new words may be taught to 6A pupils as follows : 1. From the context, when this meaning is clearly suggested by the thought of the selection. 2. By using the dictionary when the definition there given is clearer than the context would be. Illustration: 400 METHODS IN EDUCATION Up from the south at break of day Bring-ing- to Winchester fresh dismay The affrighted air with a shudder bore Like a herald in haste to the chieftain's door A terrible grumble and rumble and roar. In this stanza a * 'break of day" and "af- frig-hted" might be understood from the con- text, while "dismay" and "herald" would be referred to the dictionary. 3. By word analysis; i. e., etymolog-y, or stem, pre- fix, suffix. Illustration: Trans port = to carry + across Pro cession = the act of + proceeding* Pres ence — state of + being present 4. Many words are understood bjf children when the teacher has previously used them. A blackboard list accompanying- such use is ex- cellent. Illustrations : Radiator; reduction; sig-nature; parallel; finan- cial crisis, rate, percentag-e, meridian. 5. Historical talks about words are interesting-. Many words in our language easily lend themselves to this method : Columbia's grand oriflamme. The forum Bolivia Montreal civics Venezuela cavalier 6. Objective teaching most clearly recalls others : Use object cacao mahogany bamboo borax nitrate of soda pampas grass Use picture The Incas cypress tree plaza landscape mantilla Vesuvius ADVANCED METHODS 401 563. Difficulties in teaching English to foreigners.— ^SV^?/^ foitr characteristic difficulties met i7i teaching English to foreign- ers. Describe a method that will meet these diff cullies. (4) The Italian, the Assyrian, the Russian meet together in our "foreign classes." Our course of study states as one of its educational aims, "to give a body of ideas and a trend of ac- tion that will assist the child to become an intelligent and patriotic citizen." This aim must be accomplished through a common medium, — that of the English language. The Russian, through years of repression, has become de- pressed, and his spirit must be elevated ; the Italian and As- syrian, both passionate, sometimes over-energetic, must be curbed ; the emotions of all must be trained. Hence arises our first difficulty. I. Lack of esprit-de-corps. I recommend group work and participation in patriotic exercises, calling for the exercise of the spirit of "each for all, and all for each." II. Reticence on part of timid foreigner is another diffi- culty. He is afraid of being "laughed at." Do not say "Don't be afraid." This only makes him more self-conscious. Rather make "interest in work at hand" so strongly felt that he will forget himself. In group work, where a number of children are working in the making of one object, talking being permitted, the reticent child quickly sees the need for language and avails himself of his opportunity. III. Difficulties in speaking our language. 1. Misunderstood words, as, "In making a dress we cut the talks (tucks) out around the neck. 2. Literal translations ; as, in describing a sore throat a child exclaims "I got it in the neck." German "Ich habe es im hals." 402 METHODS IN EDUCATION 3. Peculiarities of foreig-n lang-uage introduced in- to our own. Italian in trying- to say "Give me a drink of water," says "Giva mea drink watr. " For all of these difficulties I recommend much exercise in careful ear -and voice training- throug-h music and phonics, much individual help, and perfect models. In speaking- of models one cannot be too careful. A foreign child was heard to say, "Leave me alone." When corrected replied, "You taug-ht me the verse : Leave them alone and they'll come home Bringing their tails behind them." Another foreigner, "I am thinking on the answer," when corrected replied that the teacher had taught : "Whatsoever things are pure,' whatsoever things are true, think on these things." Other literal translations make havoc of our rules of syntax. "I'll go get my eat," "It fails me six cents," etc. Correct patiently the wrong, present the perfect, work and wait, keeping in mind that the general aim is to make the wanderer proud of the land of his adoption, eager and anxious to speak its language carefully and correctly. Create in him a spirit of love for its history and literature. Allow him the use of every possible avenue of expression, — eyes, face, lips, hands, feet. Dramatic work is excellent. As the expression has been, so will the expression be and when we know truly what is within, soul touches soul, no matter what language is spoken, and we are prepared to educate, to lead him forth, the dreaded school boy foreigner. Consult Straubenmuller's article on Teaching English to Foreigners, p. 43 of number III of volume I of School Work. 564. Unitary analysis. — What is meant by utiitary analysis in arithmetic? Illustrate by a problein. Solve this or some other problem by sojne other method and show where each would be applicable, ( 8) ADVANCED METHODS 403 Unitary analysis is reasoning- to and from the unit. Problem: 6 horses cost $420. What will 12 horses cost? The unit considered in this problem is the cost of 1 horse. $420=cost of 6 horses (6 units). $70=cost of 1 horse (1 unit). 6 $70 X 12=rcost of 12 horses. The place for this method according- to course of study is 4th year where two step analysis is introduced. Another method : 12=6X2 12 horses cost 2 times cost of 6 horses. $420 X2 $840 The ratio of this problem would be clear even in the third year when the multiplication of three orders has been taught. 565. Multiplication of decimals. — Show how the progress of multiplying numbers, involving decimals, may be explained through the fundamental principles of the decimal notation without referring to common fractiofis. (4.) .IX. 1^.01 Cut a sheet of paper into 10 strips. Cut each strip into 10 pieces. Count pieces into which whole paper is cut. What part of whole is one piece? Ans. .01. It has previously been taug-ht that the system of notation applicable to the left of the point (for whole numbers) applies on the rig-ht side of the point as well. Since the place for one tenth is immediately to the rig-ht of the point (.1) the place for one one-hundredth is the second place to the right .01. There being no tenths, a cipher fills the vacancy. 566. What part one fraction is of another. — Invent an example finding what part 07te number is of another each of the num- 404 METHODS IN EDUCATION bers being fractional ; solve the p?-oble]n ; use a diagram and letter and explain the diagram. (4J Problem. A boug^ht \ an acre of land and g-ave away \ of an acre. What part of A's portion was given away? A E D H::= whole field AEG C=i (A boug-ht) A E F B=i (given away) A E F ^-\ of A E G C (by observation.) H Hence, \- Another answer for 566. What part of i is i? of E X D Let A C represent any number. A F represent one-half of the number. Let G I represent the same number. Let G M represent one-third the same number. To find what part of A F, G M is. Divide A C into six equal parts. ADVANCED METHODS 405 The line X Y falls on K M, the division line for one-third. But X Y is two-sixths of the whole number. Dividing- the number into six equal parts divides A For one- half into three parts, and A Y represents two-thirds of A F. A Y also equals G M or one-third. G M equals two-thirds of A F, or one-third is two-thirds of one-half. 567. Ideas and thoughts in history. Outline on Growth of the Union. — Quotation which stated that the important featicre of teaching history is to have childre?! get the idea and thought and not mere words. Illustrate from lesson-whole an effective method of accomplishing this end. {8). "Ideas and thoug-hts" are the content of history. They are the will of man "Writ larg-e. " To discover them is to discover the spirit that actuated the people of any given period, and to note how this spirit expressed itself in the conduct of the in- dividual or the nation. Such discovery develops the judge- ment — a training- most necessary to the citizen who must be able to feel the spirit of the ag-e in which he lives, in order to act with any deg-ree of stability amidst the confusion arising- in any popular g-overnment. It is not knowledge of a series of facts, but the power to find the cause and judge of the prob- able outcome, and a conception of ideals, that make history worth while; that we may know enough "to love mercy, to deal justly and to walk humbly with our God." Such, however, must be the work of the recitation ; the child, being immature and without the wide experience and broader knowledge of the adult, could hardly make a just interpreta- tion, not, at least, until he has been helped to relate and in- terrelate the facts he learned by private study. The Revolutionary period 1760-1789 will be found to have for its content not so much rebellion as a desire for union ; union against England to be sure, but still union, and that on the basis of the rights of Englishmen. Later this becomes union on the basis of the rights of man, resulting in the Dec- laration of Independence and actuating the entire Revolution- 406 METHODS IN EDUCATION ary war; though their ideal^Union — was still far from being' attained even when the war was brought to its successful close. One of the best means for developing the historic sense is to ask children to make an orderly arrangement of facts. Each of the facts will have an idea which differentiates it, or one which gives it fellowship with the rest. Cardinal facts should be noted; irrelevant matter eliminated. Every event should be shown to be an outcome of the past, an effect as well as a cause, changing the future by its results upon public sentiment. Phases of leading ideas should be discovered and events arranged according to the principles of co-ordination and subordination, thus developing not memory alone, but reason and judgment as well. Such interrelated knowledge concerning the Revolutionary period would stand somewhat as follows : THE GROWTH OF UNION. (1760-1789). A. Union against England. 1. Union for Rights of Englishmen. (a) Committee of Correspondence. (b) Stamp Act Congress and Declaration of Rights. (c) Boston Tea Party. (d) Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill. 2. Union for the Rights of Man. (a) Declaration of Independence. (b) Revolutionary War. B. Union on domestic questions. 1. Union on the basis of state sovereignty. (a) Articles of Confederation. (b) Internal disputes. (c) Financial depression. (d) Insolence of foreign nations. (e) Sharp Rebellion. 2. Union on the basis of nation sovereignty. ADVANCED METHODS 407 (a) Adoption and ratification of the Constitution. (b) Election of Washington. 568. Chicago as a type in geography. — Make an 02itlzne for the study of the city of Chicago, or some other city in the United States for a ^ B class. (8) Outline for New York City. (An industrial and commercial center). I. Physical conditions affecting- its growth and import- ance. a. Location. b. Surface. c. Climate. d. Harbor Rivers. II. Great steamship and railroad lines terminating- in and about New York City. III. Study of streets and avenues and means of communi- cation. IV. Chief business localities. V. Chief manufactures. VI. Points of interest. Parks, museums, bridg-es, tunnels and water supply. Schools and other public and historical buildings. Chapter XVIII. Answers in School Management for Assistant to Principal. 569. Promotions : Principles. — (a) State the principles tinder- lying a good system of promotion in elementary schools. (b) Describe a system you have observed for promoting bright children as rapidly as their ability will permit, (c) Defend this systejn. (a) It is desirable to accomplish two things by promotion ; "First, to advance children as rapidly as is consistent with the healthy operation of their intellectual powers ; and second, to secure as nearly as may be uniformity of attainments among- the pupils of a class." This shows that physiological, social and economic principles are basis for any system of promotion. It is quoted from Dr. Maxwell's article on "The Examination and Promotion of Pupils" in Teacher's Mono- graph, December, 1900. (b) and (c) The system of promotion in which I have been most deeply interested is that in force in one of the schools of this city. It follows the modern tendency in combining and adapting many well known systems. Its basis is the regular semi-annual promotion, though teachers are kept with their classes one year at least (whenever possible), thus saving the vaj.uable time usually spent by both teacher and pupils in be- coming adjusted to their new environment. Individual promotions at any time during the year are a feature of the system. Two considerations govern these: First, the removal of any obstruction to the school system — foreign- ers, over-aged children, defectives (mental, moral or physi- cal); and, second, the grouping of children according to abil- ity. For children likely to clog the system "Special Classes" are formed. They are taught somewhat after the Batavia SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 409 plan — two teachers for a group of forty or fifty, one for class instruction, one to give individual help. The bright pupil is promoted in accordance with the Pueblo idea : he enters as an individual, is promoted and graduated as an individual. With due regard to his age and health he is allowed to pass from grade to grade reg-ular or special at any time during the term ; sometimes working alone, sometimes with a group, and omitting many drills and some connecting links. The rank and file of the school are graded in accordance with the requirements of the New York system, but especially bright groups of somewhat uniform attainments work in ac- cordance with the Cambridge idea— one teacher for a class, but doing the work of one and a half or two terms in six months. This seems to me the best, because it is the simplest, most elastic system I have ever observed. It cares for the slow child, yet pushes the bright who must soon be a wage earner. It is well adapted to our great shifting- foreign population yet in perfect harmony with the requirements of the New York Course of Study. 570. Games for first year. — Mention fom^ games suitable to be played by first year children and describe the method of play- ing t%uo of these. Indicate the part taken by the teacher. I have written many of the games played by our first year. Such changes from course of study, as have been made by me, have been approved by the Director of physical culture. In writing my games, I have adapted Froebel's Kindergarten games and Miss Hofer's Singing Games. 1. The Snail. 2. The Stream. 3. The Ladder. 4. Bean Bag. 5. Round and Round the Village. 6. Squirrels in Hollow Tree. 7. Wall Tag, Relay Race. 410 METHODS IN EDUCATION The Snail : Children form in line (holding- hands) then march to form spiral, the leader turns about and unwinds the spiral ; marching- on the same spiral is repeated, but upon reaching the center the leader passes under raised arms of the other children, coming out at one side of the spiral. Caution to children: ''Keep hold of hands." Upon entering spiral, class sing-s : Hand in hand you see us well. Creep like a snail into its shell Ever nearer, ever nearer, ever closer, ever closer Who would have thought this tiny shell Could have held us all so well ? Upon unwinding spiral, class sings : — Hand in hand you see us well Creep like a snail out of its shell Ever farther, ever farther, ever wider, ever wider Who would have thoug-ht this tiny shell Could have held us all so well ? The Stream:— Class form a ring-, holding hands. Two children stand in center of ring, hands clasped. Other children are placed in ring to represent trees and flowers. At the first words of song, "Give, said the little stream", the leader in outside ring marches forward under bridge around trees and flowers. "Give," said the little stream, "Give away, give away." ' 'Give, ' ' said the little stream, as it hurried do^n the hill, "I'm small, I know, but wherever I go, The g-rass grows greener still." Cho. — Singing, singing, all the day, Give away, oh! give away Singing-, singing all the day Give, oh ! g-ive away. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 411 During- second verse children in circle raise arms, fing-ers moving- represent rain drops. As they fall upon heads of flowers, these raise heads and uplift arms, open mouth (slig-htly) to drink in falling- drops and are refreshed. "Give," said the gentle rain, "Give away, give away." "Give," said the g-entle rain as it fell upon the flower "I'll raise their drooping heads ag-ain as I fall upon the flowers." Cho. — Sing-ing-, etc. As I fall upon the flowers. I have selected the above g-ames because there are no "look- ers on." All children are active at all times. The part to be taken by the teacher was cited so aptly and beautifully by Frederich Froebel, a "hundred years ag-o, " I cannot answer you better than to quote his words : "Come, let us live with our children." Play with them? "Never," says Froebel, "ask a child to do what you would feel ashamed to do yourself." Be, at all times, their leader, ag-ain let a child lead. In the playground, in the background, be the umpire, the inspiratory sympathetic head. With all there need be no loss of that dignity which the little child loves. I mention this because teachers are very often timid and shy about play- ing themselves. Remember Froebel's guide: "The child is the test of the dignity and fitness of the game." Eliminate all that you do not think proper for yourself to participate in. 571. Dishonesty; cheating and stealing. — If the spirit a?id prac- tice of dishonesty (cheatiiig and stealing) had become rife in your school, describe how the principal or assistant to the prin- cipal might deal effectively with it. Dr. Maxwell in rating a teacher marks a teacher C or D when such a condition exists in her classroom, considering it lack of control. He further states that the aim in marking 412 METHODS IN EDUCATION teachers is to raise the "teaching- force toahig-her plane." It, therefore, becomes the duty of a supervisor to assist the teach- er in controlling- her class ; i. e., to find the cause for the lack of control and to help to remove it. Dr. Hervey says "Personality" is at the root of this con- trol, that the teacher's ideals and attitude tovi'ard life will surely be reflected in a class. Accuracy on the part of teach- ers is a primary requisite. Such statements, as "I am the sister of a policeman ; if you don't mind me, I'll have you all arrested;" or "A five dollar g-old piece to the first boy who works this problem !" (not g"iven, of course) should not be tol- erated. Were they rife in a school, they might well become the theme of a g-eneral conference. It would be necessary to raise the moral tone of the teachers and their ideals. Confer- ences, general and private, helping- the weaker teachers to associate with the strong-er in social ways; having- teachers visit; reading-, both general and professional literature; sug-- g-esting- travel ; if the time permits making somewhat of a com- panion of those teachers needing- it most; all these might be helpful in raising- the ideals of teachers. But as with a class, so with a school, the thing- of utmost importance, seems to me, is the ideals of the supervisor herself. They permeate a school and almost unconsciously make or mar it with silent resist- less force. As far as the children are concerned, it has been said, "Trust a boy and he will come up to your expectations every time." Moreover, children are not developed morally, any more than physically, or mentally. This should be clearly shown to teachers. Hence the removal of temptation becomes absolutely necessary. "Yielding- to it is sin." Hence chil- dren should never be tempted. Valuables should be carefully locked up. In marking- papers no child should be tempted. Accuracy should be insisted upon, but throug-hout to be posi- tive is better than to be neg-ative, and wrong- impulses are best controlled throug-h the great principle of inhibition. The SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 413 teacher should feel no contempt for young- souls, much less show it. If she give them plenty of healthy, happy work, hard work very often, she will lead them back to self respect, the foundation upon which may be securely laid the "corner stone" of character, — principle, the will to do the right what- ever the consequences. After which it becomes an easy mat- ter to show that lying-, cheating- and stealing- are mere forms of selfishness. It can best be done by cultivating- a proper class spirit which makes the child say proudly "our class," "our school" and makes him feel the deep responsibility of the words uttered two thousand years ago, "Man liveth not unto himself" and "Bear ye one another's burdens." When this condition has been reached the spirit of altruism will have successfully eradicated that of intrinsic selfishness evi- denced by the fact that lying, cheating- and stealing were rife in the school. 572. Control of feelings and desires. — That phase of education which has f 07^ its aim the teaching how to cont?'ol the feelings and desires is most important. Explain the meaning of ''con- trol in this sense. How may this be accomplished in an elementary school? Training in this sense refers to moral training. It is the training of the will to act habitually in free obedience to the sense of du(:y. (Choosing always to respond to the highest motive, controlling baser. ) Every act of the soul leaves a tendency to act again in like manner and increased power to act. Power and tendency are the abiding results of all activ- ity and this is the fundamental fact in all training for control. Character is the result of moral activity and the source of con- duct; hence, it is trained by appropriate activity of the moral powers. If we believe that all education is habit-forming let us help to form the habit of "right doing" in the little child so that when he is older he will love the right and hate evil, inhibit the de- sire for vice (carelessness, lying, stealing, laziness, tardiness, 414 METHODS IN EDUCATION truancy, impudence and rebellion) by supplanting- in the tiny child the virtues (accuracy, justice, punctuality, co-operation and obedience.) In habit-forming- we must remember that for every act of the mind there is a corresponding- nervous readjustment; hence, make our nervous system the ally and not the enemy. The words uttered two thousand years ago, "The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak," and "Who can de- liver me from the body of this Death ?" show us that the power of habit to control our spirit (will) was felt as keenly then as it is to-day. Moral freedom (free obedience) is the supreme aim; it is free- dom! It is intellectually and morally independent ! Hence, the aim of the teacher must be "emancipation of pupil from super- vision." Give him independent tasks to perform. Moral free- dom is attained through self-control. So far as is advisable leave the pupil to his honor and sense of right. Eliminate re- pressive measures appealing to the better instincts and the awakenings of his conscience. Dr. Hervey says, "No person has a fully developed moral character until there has been a transfer of the seat of authority from without to within himself; a moral man obeys himself." To trust a pupil tends to make him worthy of that trust. Therefore a wisely applied system of self-government may be found effective. The essential point is that the teacher should make pupils sharers in problems arising out of their community life; and that each should be trusted to perform a certain function. Then self-control will mean not so much self-repression as healthy and effective co- operation. Self-assertion will end in self-renunciation. 573. Point of fatigue, plenum vacuum, moral imbecile, artificial incentives.— iix//rt/;z each. ( a) The plenum vacuum is the system of ventilating and heating used in our public schools. Air is taken in at the level of the first or second story. It is carried through ducts to the cellar. It first strikes a system of pipes (tempering SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 415 coils) used only when the outside temperature is below forty- degrees. These coils bring- all air to a temperature of 40 de- grees. Then all the air is forced through two coils which raise it to 68 or 70 degrees. Thermostats automatically force the air to this temperature. It goes through a blower to the classrooms. Then it enters near the ceiling. Deflectors force it down into all parts of the room. Impure air is thereby forced out near the floor. (Each pupil is allowed 30 cu. ft. of pure air per minute. ) The impure air finds its way out through ducts leading to the roof. (b) Point of fatigue is that period at which nature warns us that we have passed beyond the point of normal weariness to abnormal exhaustion. Restlessness, lack of co-ordination, omissions in speech, un- certainty of movements, decreased sensibility (sight and hear- ing) flushed face — loss of memory and finally insomnia are signs of abnormal fatigue. We, as teachers, should remember that the amount of study or exercise which produces normal fatigue in a strong child of ten produces abnormal in a weak child. The point of fatigue is especially low in children whose parents are alco- holic or neurotic in their habits ; anaemic children, children defective in sight and hearing; rapidly growing children, and those entering the period of adolescence, mouth breathers, and those who have adenoid growths. Cautions. 1. Avoid overpressure and too long recitations. 2. Have suitable periods of work and rest under the psychological law of change. 3. Shorten number of hours of work in primary grades, especially for children who are easily fatigued. 4. Grant recess period for open air exercise. 5. Alternate difficult and easy studies — placing difficult studies in morning when wave of vi- tality is highest. • 416 METHODS IN KDUCATION 6. Study rationally the psycholog-y of the child, so that manag-ement of school may satisfy the needs of individual pupils. (c) Moral Imbecile. A moral act is a feeling- of oblig-ation to some hig-her power, carried out by the will. It is the in- nate impulse of the soul of all rational being-s. A moral im- becile is one in whom this moral sense (of duty) is so low as to be scarcely if at all perceptible. In treating- a moral imbecile, look to the cause. If it is physical remove the cause as far as possible. If it is due to some defect of intellect, hereditary or otherwise, the only course to pursue is to place him in the hands of some compe- tent person whose love for human life is so great that she will neither show nor even feel contempt, but be patient, loving, trusting, cheerful, hopeful for the best; show no intolerance nor impatience, but "be tender with the sanctities of youthful feelings." In dealing with such defectives, be careful of the diet, the hours of sleep and recreations, observe the rules of cleanli- ness for this is next to Godliness, is even a part of Godliness. Manual training and physical culture are of great benefit in training for control. (d) Artificial Incentive. Desires that incite or impel a man to efi'ort are called motives or incentives. A natural incentive is one in which the desired object is the immediate result of the effort as, knowledge is the immediate result of study. But, when the desired object has no such consequential relation to the effort put forth, it is said to be artificial ; as, "stars" a reward of study. 574. Adjustment of seats and desks. — Describe the proper ad- justment of seats and desks. Pupils are of necessity a great sedentary class ; hence arises the question of proper adjustment of seats and desks. I. Adjustment as to pupil's physical comfort. a. Light from back and left, (light) b. Not tooiiear an open window, (ventilation) SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 417 c. Not too near radiator, (heat) d. Adjustable seats are best. Seat too hig-h causes raising- of shoulders. Seat too low causes round or stooping- shoulders and curvature of lower limbs. Use adjustable seats and adjust to needs of each pupil. e. Larg-er pupils in rear seats. f. Children defective in sig-ht and hearing- should be seated near the teacher and blackboard, g-. Remember that it is the continuing- in the incor- rect position which causes such troubles as nervous disorders, round shoulders, sunken chests, curvature of spine, impairment of in- ternal org-ans especially the pelvic org-ans. Caution. Give a g-reat deal of physical exercise to overcome such tendencies. II. Seat pupils with reference to each other. 1. For discipline. 2. For class exercises. 28 Chapter XIX. Answers in Methods for License No. 1. 575. Primary reading exercises on Hiawatha. 1. Then lag-oo, the great boaster, 2. He the marvelous story-teller, 3. He the traveler and the talker, 4. He the friend of old Nokomis, 5. Made a bov^ for Hiawatha; 6. From a branch of ash he made it, 7. From an oak-boug-h made the arrows, 8. Tipped with flint, and winged with feathers, 9. And the cord he made of deer-skin. faj Compose a blackboard exercise in reading of about eight liftes, based upoit lines ^ to g inclusive, of the above passage, the exercise to be suited to a iB or a 2 A grade, fioj (b) What principles shotild be followed in composing read- ing passages for children in the grades na^ned? fioj (a) lagoo made a bow. He made it for Hiawatha. It was made from a branch of ash. He made the arrows from an'oak-bough. He tipped the arrows with flint. They were also winged with feathers. lagoo made a cord for the bow. He made the cord of deer-skin. (b) Base the lesson on a suitable and interesting story. Make the sentences progressive, so that the unity of the story is preserved. Do not introduce too many new words into one sentence. Repeat difficult and new words in new combina- tions. Make the sentences short. ELEMENTARY METHODS 419 576. Lessons on phonograms. — ^Outline a lesson : (a) on the phonogram ail ; (b) on the phonogram th (as in thin). Men- tion devices to be employed. (12) (a) To teach the phonogram ail. Teacher uses phonogram cards to review quickly f, p, b, s, r, t, m, n. Teacher presents card with phonog-ram ail ; teacher pro- nounces ail, children pronounce. Teacher writes ail on the blackboard, children pronounce. Teacher points to it in var- ious places on the blackboard, children pronounce. Teacher sounds such words as the following-, children pro- nouncing- each : p-^//, s,-ail, n-ail, f-ail. Teacher writes on board, pail ; she covers ail, children sound p ; she covers p, children g-ive ail. Teacher shows whole word, children sound rapidly as she points and then pronounce pail. Similarly, children sound and pronounce sail, rail, fail, etc., from the blackboard. (b) To teach correct sound of fk (as in t/iiji). This phonog-ram usually needs considerable drill with Eng-- lish-speaking- children as well as with foreig-ners. Have frequent drills on lists of words containing- this sound; as thin, thing-, thanks, think, threw. Let the child who has trouble with the sound come close to the teacher, and watch her as she pronounces the word. I have found the use of a mirror helpful. After the child has watched the teacher make the sound, let him look in the mirror and watch his own mouth as he imitates her. Tell the child to place his tong-ue between his teeth, and then give the sound. With the tong-ue in this position, he can- not say fi^tk for think, nor dijig for thijtg. 577. Agreement of pronoun and dLXiiQCQAeni.— Describe briefly, with the aid of illustrative sejitences, a good method of con- ducting a lesson on the poi^it that a pronoun need not be of the same case as its antecedent. ( j^) 420 METHODS IN EDUCATION This point presents difficulty chiefly with the relative pro- noun ; therefore most attention should be g-iven to it in that connection, but other pronouns may be presented. Have written on the blackboard such sentences as the fol- lowing- : (a) John has lost his book. (b) These are the men whom you saw. (c) Mary saw the bird whose song- we heard. (d) I know the boy who was here. (e) This is the flower that the g-irl found. (f) The story which was told by the teacher was about the Indians. Teacher should question as follows : Name the pronoun in (a). How is it used? What, then, is its case? Name its antecedent. What is the case oijohn? Name the relative pronoun in (b). How is it used? What, then, is its case? Give its antecedent. What is the case of men f Question in a similar manner on the pronouns that have ex- pressed antecedents in the other sentences. Frame questions in such a way as to emphasize the fact that the case depends on the use of the pronoun, not at all on the antecedent. To fix further the point of the lesson, the teacher may g-oover the sentences a second time, this time asking the question dif- ferently; for example, "Give the case of his, with the reason for case: g-ive case of whom, with reason." When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, what is its case? When a pronoun is used as a possessive modifier, what is its case? What is its case when it is used as the object of a verb ? object of a preposition ? Make a sentence containing- a relative pronoun (a) in the objective case; (b) in the possessive case; (c) in the nominative case. Write a sentence containing- a relative pronoun in the nom- inative case, whose antecedent shall be in the objective case. ELEMENTARY METHODS 421 Write one containing a pronoun in the possessive case, whose antecedent is in the nominative case; etc. 578. Processes before reasons in arithmetic. — "There are some processes in arithmetic which should be taught without any attempt at explanation; when the pupil is more mature, he will discover the reason of these processes." E.xplain this statement and illitst7^ate its application with reference to a specific topic in arithmetic. fi^J Certain processes in arithmetic may be learned and used with facility by children long before they are able to under- stand the reasons for the process. Verbal memory develops earlier than the logical powers, and children may make use of it before they are capable of following out a line of complicated reasoning, such as would be called for in giving the reasons for the various steps in many processes. For example, the process of long division should be taught mechanically. Nd attempt at explanation should be made at first, but the steps should be so thoroughly learned through drill that the use of this process thereafter will be automatic. It would only confuse the child, without helping him, to in- troduce any reason for these steps at this stage in the work. All his attention must be concentrated on learning the process until that is mastered; its usefulness will not be in any way impaired by the fact that the explanation of the process is de- ferred until he is more mature. 579. Devices for rapid drill in addition. — Describe three de- vices, or modes of proceditre, for enabliiig the teacher to con- duct effectively a drill in rapid additioji, and state the advan- tages of each. (a) Write columns of figures on the board to be added. Let children add as the teacher points, or independently. Every addition should be verified by adding the column again in the opposite direction. Have a time limit, and increase the inter- est by having the pupils in each row try to excel the pupils in 422 METHODS IN EDUCATION the other rows by getting- a greater proportion of correct an- swers within the time limit. Advantages : Calls for activity of every pupil. Holds their interest and concentrated attention, thereby securing effective work. Can be easily adapted to any grade. Stimulates wholesome rivalry and the social spirit. Is of a practical nature. (b) In lower grades, use cards, each card to contain one of the combinations learned. Have every combination repre- sented on at least one card, but use most frequently the hard- est ones. Show the cards rapidly, the children giving results as called on. Notice what combinations are missed, and who misses them, and go back to them later. Advantages : 1. Calls for activity of every pupil. 2. Holds their interest and attention. 3. Is thorough, since every combination is pre- sented. 4. Helps the teacher to discover what combinations need most drill. 5. Helps the teacher to discover what pupils are weak in the work. (c) Draw a circle on the board, and about its circumference write the numbers to be used in the drill. Place another num- ber at the center. Teacher points to the numbers to be added, the children making the combinations mentally only, until teacher calls for final result. In lower grades, point to only two or three figures successively ; in higher grades, the chil- dren may be required to make many additions before final re- sult is announced. Advantages : 1. The children always enjoy this drill. 2. Calls for concentration and quick thinking. 3. May be easily adapted to needs of class. ELEMENTARY METHODS 423 580. Causal series in geography. — (a) What is meant by ''the method of causal series'' in geography? Illustrate its appli- cation to the study of India. (b) Describe briefly another method of dealing with such a topic in geography. (a) In studying- g-eography by the method of causal series, the topics are taken up in such an order as to bring out and emphasize cause and effect. For example, the study of climate would follow the study of position and relief, as depending on them ; products would naturally follow position and climate ; industries would be taught as depending on products, posi- tion and relief ; and so on. In studying India, the following outline illustrates the ap- plication of this method : 1. Position. (1 ) Absolute. (2) Relative. (Notice neighboring bodies of land and water). 2. Relief and drainag-e. 3. Climate and rainfall. (1) As influenced by latitude. (2) '' " " surrounding water. (3) " " " monsoon winds. (4) " " " mountains and plateaus. 4. Products; dependent on natural resources and climate. 5. Industries; dependent on what causes? 6. People. The climate largely accounts for the character of the people. 7. Cities. The cities are located where there are harbors and where routes of trade naturally fall. Account for the location and importance of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Benares. (b) Another method. Teach effects first. For example : by descriptions, pictures, maps, etc., the children see India as it is; its people, their centers of population, their customs, religion and industries. 424 METHODS IN EDUCATION and their position in the world. Then lead them from this study to seek for the causes of this present condition. Whatever method is used, the relation of cause and effect should always be traced. 581. Type-study in history. — What are the advantages, and what are the limitations, of the method of type-study in history? Illustrate by refere7ice to a topic i7i American colonial history. Advantages: (a) It would be impossible for us to take time to study in detail each separate character of history with which we need to be acquainted; or to study carefully each event of history in all its circumstances. By making- a detailed study of a character or event which is typical, and then associating- with it the other characters or events which resemble it, the needed information is g-ained with a great saving of time and effort. (b) "The type," says McMurry, "is a combination of the particular and the general, containing both the graphic ele- ments of the concrete as well as the striking features of the general notion." From study of the type, the general notion is reached easily and quickly. One well-taught, well-chosen type is worth a great deal as a basis of comparison and a center for related knowledge. Ideas gained by the type method in history are clearer, better defined, and more ready for use in practical thinking than those gained otherwise. (c) By this method, a lesson unity is preserved. The gen- eral notion is reached inductively, and is ready for application, in estimating other characters or events. In all later history work, the general notion reached through the type is ready for instant application. Limitations: (a) A broad knowledge of history and excel- lent judgment are needed to enable a teacher to select proper topics as types. It is very important that the types be well- chosen. (b) Some topics of history must from their peculiar nature be studied in detail separately, and do not admit of a close ELEMENTARY METHODS 425 following- of the method of type study, especially before one has an outlook on world-history. (c) It is necessary, after the general notion is reached, to point out differences and distinctions, in order that the idea of the individuals shall be true. Illustration: In the study of colonial history, the colonial patriot of the period immediately preceding- the Revolution may best be taught by a careful study of such a man as Sam- uel Adams. In this man we have, perhaps, the best illustra- tion of the New England character as it existed in the patriots of that critical time. Much enthusiasm may be aroused by the skillful teacher in this character study, which may be easily carried over in a later lesson to such men as Warren, James Otis, Patrick Henry and Hancock. When the children begin to appreciate the character of Samuel Adams, they will understand how he felt and thought, and why he took the stand he did ; and can very readily interpret the lives of the other patriots of that time. The teacher must make a careful study of all these charac- ters to enable her to decide which to select for the type, and what to emphasize. It is not sufficient to have reached the general notion ; not only must resemblances be noticed but the children should make distinctions and additions; e. g. , Adams was a typical New England patriot, Patrick Henry a Virginian; Warren's services, though distinguished, were ended by his death at Bunker Hill; the close of Otis's life was peculiar and tragic. 582. Nature study lesson on the spider. — Emimerate the points which shottld be treated in a 7tatnre-stndy lesson on the spider. (4 A Grade). Points to be treated in a lesson on the spider for 4 A grade : 1. Appearance: color, size, head, body, legs, eyes. 2. What it can do, and how it lives ; the web ; its food, the egg-cases. 3. Comparison of spider with insects previously studied. Chapter XX. Answers in History and Principles of Education for License No. 1. 583. Aims in distributing questions among pupils.— faj What az?ns shotcld a teacher keep in view in distributing questions among the pupils ? (8) (b) Give two practical suggestio7is for securing proper distributio7i of questions in a class recita- tion iti geography. (6) (a) To give each child an opportunity to recite. To hold active attention of each child by propounding ques- tion to entire class, then calling on an individual to answ^er ; also to hold attention by calling on a child w^hen his attention begins to w^ander. To test and help pupils by allow^ing them to recite on points in which previous recitations have showed them weak. To increase the interest and confidence of dull, timid and backward pupils by calling on them for answers they can easily give, thus making them feel they have a part and re- sponsibility in every recitation. (b) Have in mind a regular order for calling on pupils, e. g. , it might be from left to right in alternate rows. Keep this scheme in mind and call on the pupils in that order, deviating from it every now and then so that pupils shall not detect the order, and also when it is desirable to call on a particular pupil who individually needs it at that time. Unless a teacher has in mind such a regular order for calling on pupils, she is very likely to be unfair in distributing questions. At the close of the recitation in geography, a few seconds will sufiice for the teacher to check in her class book such pupils as have shown in the present recitation that they will need special attention in the next recitation in that subject. In some cases a note may be made of the question or topic to HISTORY OF EDUCATION 427 be g-iven such pupil. In preparing- the next lesson in geog-- raphy, the teacher may refresh her memory by reference to her class book, plan her review of the previous lesson accord- ingly, and distribute her questions w^ith reference to these needs of individuals. 584. Causes of lack of interest in reading lesson.— StaU causes, of three dz'sfmct kinds, for a 'weakeni7ig or failing interest of trie pupils in a reading lesso7i (6), and give practical sugges- tions for reviving stick interest. (6) (a) Lack of interest and appreciation on the part of the teacher. (b) Fatig-ue, caused by too long a recitation, monotony, etc. (c) Lack of suitability of the selection read. (a) The teacher should study the piece of literature until she does appreciate and love it. If the lesson is in the lov^er grades, vvrhere the w^ork is more mechanical, there should be deep interest on the part of the teacher in that v^^ork. She must cultivate an interest and then use w^ill-power to exhibit that interest even w^hen she is tired. (b) Shorten the recitation period. Introduce variety into the method of conducting it. Precede the recitation by brief physical exercises. (c) Select matter suitable to the grade in technical diffi- culty and in thought. It must be neither too difficult nor too easy. A boy loses his self-respect and his interest in reading if he is required to read matter that seems childish to him. Select matter related to the interests of the child. 585. Principles justifying certain processes in teaching. — What principles of teaching may be cited to justify ; {a) freguent use of the blackboard in elementary sciejice work; if) readijig by sight method before begi7ining study of phonics ; {c) correlat- ing geography with history ; {d) teaching defi7iitions {i7i gra77i- 77iar) after i7ispectio7i of illustrative se7ite7ices. {12) (a) The mind must gain through the senses its knowledge of everything external to itself. 428 METHODS IN EDUCATION Graphic methods streng-then impressions and make knowl- edge clearer. Such a method stimulates interest and attention, and knowl- edge cannot be gained without interest and attention on the part of the learner. (b) Proceed fr(.»m the known to the related unknown. Proceed from the whole to its parts. Begin at the child's standpoint. (c) Logical associations aid memory. Correlation aids apperception. Geography makes history, and must be correlated with it in order to understand history. (d) Proceed from the concrete to the abstract. Proceed from the particular to the general. Never tell a child what he can find out for himself. Definitions and principles should be taught inductively. 586. Three principles underlying habit. — State three principles underlying the ready formation of habits, and show how to ap- ply these principles in aiding a pupil to eradicate a bad habit. Illustrate, {if) Principles : (1) There must be a strong underlying motive. (2) Frequent, regular repetition is necessary for the ready formation of a habit. (3) Youth is the time of greatest plnsticity and the forming of habits is easiest then. Suppose a pupil has a bad habit of incorrect posture in standing and sitting. The teacher should first of all supply a strong motive for the pupil's exertion of will-power. She must make sure that he understands wherein his posture is wrong, and how to set about correcting it. Tell him what the bad results will be if he maintains this position. This must be done very tactfully as a child is sensitive on such points. If the teacher has a real, sympathetic interest in tlie matter, the pupil will feel it and there will be no misunderstanding. HISTORY OF EDUCATION 429 Make the motive strong-er by setting- him a g-ood example in your own correct posture and by placing him in proximity to pupils who hold themselves correctly. Above all else, com- mend him for improvement. No real prog^ress can be made without the child's own effort of will, and to secure this there must be a motive given him. Pay particular attention to the posture of this pupil in phy- sical exercises, as well as all throug-h the day. Without mak- ing- him conspicious by open reproof, the teacher should re- mind him of the habit he is trying- to break up, many times during the day, by a look, a touch, or a word, and so secure frequent and regular effort. Let the child understand that if he desires to stand and sit correctly, now is the time to form the habit. If it is difficult now, it will be more so as he grows older. 587. Synonyms. — Discrimiiiate, and illusirafe : (a) mstinct and reason ; {b) a type, and a class concept. {12) (a) Instinct has been defined as a race-habit. It is a ten- dency to act in a certain way without a definite idea of the end to be reached. James calls instincts "native impulses". The instinct of physical activity is exhibited by an infant when he tlirows his arms and legs about, and by an older child in his love for games that afford physical activity. Reason is the power of the mind that enables us to reach conclusions by comparison of judgments. Instincts are strong in childhood, but reason is at its best when we are more mature. Instincts are "native;" reason is based on observa- tion and experience. A child who sees a whale may reason that it is a fish ; his reasoning is faulty on account of lack of observation. Instinct might lead a child in school to shout, and run noisily around the room ; but reason based on obser- vation and experience, teaches him it will be better not to do so. (b) A type is a key to related areas of knowledge. It is one topic selected for careful study because it represents or illus- trates so many of the ideas to be taught about a number of topics as to be typical of the class. A type is concrete. 430 METHODS IN EDUCATION Minneapolis is a g-ood type of a flour and lumber center; the Colorado river is a good type of the canon-forming- rivers. A class concept is an idea or general notion corresponding- to the name of a class of things. It is abstract. It contains only those qualities common to all the individuals of the class. The general notion city is a class concept. It contains only the qualities common to all cities, such as being- a center of population, v^rith a kind of local government, etc. The indi- vidual characteristics of the exact size, special industries, particular location, etc., do not enter into it. 588. Plato, Comenius, Jacotot, Spencer, Rousseau, Milton.— \Aits%ver only two of the folloiving five points.^ State the views {a) of Plato on music i7t an educational scheme ; {[?) of Co7nenius or facotot, on the proper inethod of teaching a lan- giidge ; {c) of Spencer, on the place in education of the study of literature and art ; {d) of Rousseau, as to discipline; (