PRICE OF MANUALS: 
 
 Owins; to increased demand for our Manuals by bankers, land own- 
 ers, real estate men and others, for quantities for distribution, we have 
 decided to make the following prices for our 1905 Manual: 
 
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 Six Manuals, by mail, prepaid 2.60 
 
 Twelve Manuals, by mail, prepaid 5.00 
 
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 Any of the above orders will be sent all to one address or to single 
 addresses, as required in the order, but not those below: 
 
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 Address, 
 
 H. W. CAMPBELL, 
 
 924 South Twentieth Street. 
 
 LINCOLN, NEB. 
 
CAMPBELL'S 
 
 1905 
 
 Soil Culture Manual 
 
 Explains how the Rain Waters are Stored and Conserved in the Soil; 
 
 how Moisture Mooes in the Soil by Capillary Attraction, 
 
 Percolation and Evaporation ; the Relation of A ir 
 
 to Plant Growth, and how these and the 
 
 Physical Conditions of the Soil may 
 
 be Regulated by Cultivation. 
 
 H. W. CAMPBELL, 
 
 AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER 
 
 LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, 
 
 U. S. A. 
 
LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 JAN 28 1905 
 
 Copyritfni tntry 
 t/siH.i.y, /yOS 
 CUSS /V XXc. Noi 
 
 copy a. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 l& 
 
Yours for better Crops and better Homes, 
 H. W. Campbell. 
 
West-Land Glory and Greeting. 
 
 In its new-born days — years long since gone by- 
 
 Before the people of our land 
 
 Had learned to grapple with strong hand 
 
 Soil culture problems; hearts were sore, 
 
 And poverty hung 'round the door. 
 
 But times have changed: And nevermore 
 
 From West throughout, will hear the cry 
 
 Of woe or want. Plain the reason why. 
 
 The East came West, in years gone by, 
 
 With glad refrain the west-world rings. 
 
 Each year's returns rich profit brings, 
 
 And woe, thank God, hath taken wings. 
 
 Our west-land bloometh as the rose, 
 
 Our happy youth-folk, best that grows. 
 
 Soil culture problems are solved — that's why 
 
 The west-land doth the world defy. 
 
 NELLIE HAWKS. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It affords me great pleasure in introducing this revised edition of 
 my Soil Culture Manual to be able to present several new and advanced 
 principles not mentioned in the last number. Many of these point to 
 a still greater yield of the vast prairies of the great semi-arid belt when 
 they are fully understood and applied. 
 
 Three years ago, when I prepared the manuscript for my first manual, 
 I was very enthusiastic over the possible increased yields of the average 
 farm crops by more scientific soil culture and boldly asserted that they 
 were then not half what they might be. With three years' additional 
 experience and observation, I do not hesitate to say, the average yield 
 of our western prairies is not one-fourth of what it might be if our 
 fanners would only grasp the principles involved in properly handling 
 the soil and its relation to the plant, including the part that water, 
 air, heat and light play separately and collectively in the growth and 
 development of all plants; also how these elements are regulated by 
 the physical condition of the soil and the methods by which this proper 
 physical condition may be secured and retained through a simple system 
 of cultivation. 
 
 I desire to present some of these general principles in a clearer and 
 more comprehensive manner, especially on the necessary physical con- 
 dition for the proper control of available moisture and air and possibly 
 electricity, which may play a greater part than we now comprehend. 
 
 I am sure if the young men and women of to-day would throw away 
 that old delusive idea that the soils produce only in proportion to the 
 proper quantities of sunshine and rainfall, regardless of the physical 
 condition of the soil, and then grasp more fully the wonderful works 
 of God and how by nature the necessary elements are provided for the 
 growth and development of magnificent cereals, vegetables, fruits and 
 flowers; and that it has been left for man to study out, combine or 
 prepare mechanically the way for bringing together the various prop- 
 erties and elements in sufficient quantities and under desirable condi- 
 tions for these grand results, there would be a better feeling toward 
 the soil and its cultivation. Public sentiment with reference to farm 
 homes and farm life would be radically changed and rural life would 
 be universally recognized with higher, broader, and nobler aspirations. 
 
 How anyone today can observe the wonderfully improved varieties 
 of cereals and vegetables and marvelously beautiful flowers and fruits, 
 and realize, as he must, that they are the result of man's ingenuity in 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 employing nature's resources, and not he attracted to this line of work 
 and investigation, is difficult to understand. 
 
 Scientific methods are eliminating the drudgery of the farm in this 
 way: They are not teaching a way to avoid work but they are securing 
 larger and surer crops for the work done. They are also awakening 
 in the men and women on the farm the thought that they are not mere 
 toilers, but important factors in the world's work; that it is open to 
 them to discover methods for higher and greater possibilities in all 
 branches of agricultural pursuits with an unlimited field of individual 
 investigation. That agriculture is a business and the profession most 
 important to the prosperity of nations. It supplies the material on 
 which all other lines of development must depend to be able to carry 
 on the diversity of interests thai build up a great country or a state. 
 Men and women on the farm must give up the idea that agriculture 
 to-day is what it was in their grandfather's time. They have to-day a 
 greater outlook, a broader horizon and better possibilities than in any 
 other profession with more independence of action and happiness. 
 
 I believe the abolishment of the ''bonanza" Farm idea will change 
 the unfavorable feeling regarding home life on the farm. The small 
 farmer has given character to agriculture everywhere and at all times. 
 He Cultivates a smaller area, produces a greater diversity of crops and 
 practices a more intensive system of cultivation. His farm is his home, 
 which he wishes constantly to improve by I lie growing of trees, fruit, 
 flowers and shrubs. He has a better conception of economy; his wife 
 and children are happier and better contented; in short, it is on the 
 comparatively small farms that many a bright young man and woman 
 have found opportunities to develop a capacity for the higher and nobler 
 duties and service of life. 
 
 -Make the farm as comfortable and attractive as possible and the 
 children will love it as their home and will feel a deeper respect for their 
 parents, and will more fully appreciate nature in all her fruitfulness and 
 glory and become a fanner or a farmer's wife from choice. 
 
 The "bonanza," or large scale system of fanning, reverses all this; 
 for in that case the home is not a home, but merely a place where the 
 family stay. It is seldom beautified by trees or flowers; it is unattractive, 
 and the very atmosphere of such a place will depress the mind of the 
 true agriculturalist. Such a system is always barren of what is pleasing 
 to the eye, ami to the mind, and from apparent good cause the child 
 learns to hate the farm and yearns for town or city life and its attractions. 
 
 Under the "bonanza" system, three and four acre's are required 
 to do less than one should do, and, as a rule, everything is in a state of 
 congestion; strenuous activity abounds with, generally, unsatisfactory 
 results. Little time is given to moral, mental, or physical culture, to 
 the school and much less the church, or the growth of religious senti- 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 ment in the community, and to the broader educational work, such as 
 the fanners' institute; and the general effect of this stunted condition 
 is to retard the development and improvement of agriculture and the 
 
 people who follow it . 
 
 It is not intended to lay down in this volume a code of imperative 
 rides to govern the farmer in every act of soil culture, but rather by 
 explanatory illustrations to present as clearly and plainly as possible 
 the fundamental principles which govern the movement of moisture in 
 the soil, the development of plant life, and the quantity and quality 
 of the crop. After these general principles have been grasped and 
 understood, the necessary labor in detail required to make agriculture 
 profitable becomes clear and easy to anyone who will give these pages 
 a careful perusal. 
 
 There cannot he laid down any rule by which to he guided in the 
 cultivation of the soil under all conditions. Soil that is too wet, naturally, 
 must he drained, while soil that is too dry by reason of insufficient rain- 
 fall, must have all the moisture conserved by a proper method of cultiva- 
 tion. In the great semi-arid area of our western country a general rule 
 may he applied, and if followed diligently the resulting storage and 
 conservation of the natural rainfall in the soil, together with careful 
 preparation and such after cultivation as shall admit of t he proper quan- 
 tities of air, will produce in average years as good crops of cereals, and 
 all of the vegetables that are commonly grown, as can he produced in 
 the humid central portions of the United States. 
 
 Storage and conservation of the rain waters, and a careful obser- 
 vation of the necessary physical condition of the soil, is the hasis of all 
 this fruitful production. Has the reader not observed instances where 
 a heavy snowdrift has lodged in a field, because of some obstruction in 
 the wind's course, and where the snow was drifted the crop in the follow- 
 ing summer was better? The usual conclusion has been that the snow- 
 drift protected the grain sown in the soil like a blanket, and the gr 
 yield the following season was attributed to such protection; but this 
 is an error. The reason of a greater crop on the ground so covered, was 
 that the snow melted gradually in the spring time and percolated into 
 the soil at a much greater depth, and was stored, as in a reservoir, and 
 later, when the hot period and drouth of summer came, this stored mois- 
 ture supplied the roots of the plants and kept the plants growing when 
 the crop in other parts of the field not so supplied were checked and 
 perhaps withered. By that almost inexplainable upward movement of 
 moisture in the soil towards the surface, under a natural law which is 
 called capillary attraction, the roots of the growing plants on the spot 
 where the snow had drifted were supplied from the reservoir of water 
 below, which had come down into the lower strata of the soil as the 
 snow in the drift had melted. 
 
8 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 We have endeavored to show that by storage and conservation <>t 
 the rain waters in this way, so as to save them for plant nourish men) 
 and growth in the summer period, like results and yields may be obtained 
 on large" fields, as have been observed on small patches of ground that 
 happened to be covered by snowdrifts. It follows, then, that the 
 greater amount of water we can store in the soil previous to the planting 
 of the crops, as well as during their growth, and the greater care we use 
 in the cultivation of the surface of the ground, so as to retain and econo- 
 mize the moisture so conserved, the greater must be the yield at harvest 
 time. 
 
 In connection with this fact there is another of no less importance, 
 viz: The physical condition of the soil. The ground should be prepared 
 as perfectly as possible to insure a prolific growth of roots. It is not 
 uncommon that a single hour's extreme condition of the soil, as respects 
 rapid evaporation, will reduce the crop one-half. If we can store and 
 conserve in the soil a sufficient quantity of the natural rain waters and 
 make them available during the growing season, and have coupled with 
 the moisture a sufficient growth of roots to sustain and nourish the 
 plants, a good crop is sure to be realized. 
 
 Right here lei us impress upon the reader, if by chance he may be 
 interested in irrigation, that all the general principles herein outlined 
 havingreferenee to the physical condition of the soil, the conservation 
 of the soil, water and importance of air are equally valuable in irriga- 
 tion. 
 
 With these considerations fully in mind, we have tried, in the fol- 
 lowing pages, to be clear in our statements and illustrations respecting 
 all these little points and duties we owe to the cultivation of the soil, 
 and to make plain to the reader an explanation of our past work and 
 the results of our years of experience and experiments in the semi-arid 
 west. A section which at a time, not far distant, we believe will be made 
 by our system of soil culture, to yield an abundance, and will he the 
 abode of millions of new settlers who will found homes there, blessed 
 with peace and plenty. 
 
 May God speed the day when the masses of the people shall realize 
 fully the truth that the vast prairies of the semi-arid belt are not simply 
 for the grazing of a few scattered herds, but for the support of vast 
 numbers of smaller herds and flocks and thousands of ideal farm homes in- 
 terspersed with numerous nourishing towns and cities. 
 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL. 
 
 It is impossible to prepare this or any other text book or manual so 
 that any one may simply read it through and understand it fully. 
 
 It must be studied as the student studies his lesson at school; read 
 it over and over again. The better you understand and the clearer you 
 grasp the ideas, the more interesting will the question become, and the 
 more successful you will be in applying the methods in detail. 
 
 Our general or common laws are based on common sense, equity 
 and justice, yet our great lawyers have been compelled to spend years 
 in its study, in order to be able to reason all questions fairly and truth- 
 fully. The same is true of this great question. The vital point is to be 
 able to so understand the soil, its relation to water and plant life, as to 
 be able to reason and comprehend fully the effect of various conditions, 
 just what, when and how certain work should be done, and what results 
 to reasonably expect. Knowledge is .wealth, and nowhere does it more 
 fully apply than in soil culture. 
 
 THE MODEL FARM. 
 
 No one thing has done so much toward giving the so-called Campbell 
 system of soil culture superior standing and recognition, and made its 
 possibilities very apparent, than the establishing of model farms. The 
 sole object of these has been to prove to the public at large what can be 
 accomplished in unfavorable seasons and conditions to produce good 
 crops by substituting scientific methods of soil culture for the more 
 common methods of cultivation. While some very marked results have 
 been brought out the limit of possible yield in general crops, together 
 with exceptional growth of trees, has by no means been reached. 
 
 The first of these farms to be established was the Pomeroy Model 
 farm at Hill City, Graham county, Kansas, for which the Hon. James P. 
 Pomeroy, of Colorado Springs, Colorado, provided the necessary funds, 
 yet the valuable lesson and vast scope of benefits being derived 
 from the establishing of this farm and the amount of credit due Mr. 
 Pomeroy will never be fully appreciated. This farm was started in the 
 spring of 1900, and for a time was under our direct supervision, but 
 during the past two years has been under the personal care of the same 
 man that did the work under our direction from the start. 
 
 Four consecutive winter wheat crops have been harvested from 
 this farm, an.d no year has the yield been less than forty bushels per 
 
10 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 acre. The result of this farm experiment could not be expressed in any 
 stronger terms than found in the following letter from its owner, Mr. 
 J. P. Pomeroy, to Mr. C. E. Wantland, general sales agent for the land 
 department of the Union Pacific railroad, who publishes Ranch News, 
 a Union Pacific railroad monthly: 
 
 71 
 
 1904 Wheat Crop, Pomeroy Farm. 
 
 Colorado Springs, Colo., May 23d, 1904. 
 Mr. ('. E. Wantland, 
 Denver, Colo., 
 My Dear Sir: I wish to thank you sincerely for the copies of your 
 paper just received. Am pleased to know that you continue to warmly 
 recommend the Campbell process of soil culture. My experience lias 
 proven it to be all that has been claimed for it. In April of this year 
 we had on my farm at Hill City, Graham County, Kansas, the firs! rain 
 that had fallen for nearly six months, and yet at that time the moisture 
 stored beneath our wheat fields was no less than four feet in depth. 
 and today there are probably no finer fields of grain to be had in any 
 part of the stale than ours. It is a matter of astonishment to me that 
 while farmers throughout that district are visiting this farm frequently 
 and have before I hem such unqualified proof of the success of the ' 'Camp- 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 11 
 
 bell System" that they are so slow to adopt it, and that when they 
 do, are inclined to do so to such a limited extent. It is, however, a 
 question of but a short time when they will be forced to realize that 
 it is the only successful and sure way by which farming can be carried 
 on and good crops produced every year, even in the driest seasons in 
 the semi-arid belt. My success with trees of all kinds under this method 
 has been surprising, and I feel sure that Northwestern Kansas will soon 
 become as noted for its fruits as it is sure to be for its wonderful and 
 diversified farm productions, and that groves of trees will be as common 
 in our district as they are now in the Eastern portions of the State. 
 Very truly yours, etc., 
 
 (Signed) J. P. Pomeroy. 
 
 To give greater force to this statement we quote the first paragraph 
 of a second letter from Mr. Pomeroy to Mr. Wantland, dated September 
 10, 1904, in which he says: ''] desire to thank you sincerely for recent 
 copies of Ranch Xews, winch you so kindly sent me, containing articles 
 on the Campbell system of soil culture and a description of my Model 
 farm at Hill City, Kansas, and the success which has attended its opera- 
 tion. We cultivate entirely under Mr. Campbell's plan. This year 
 the wheat crop in our section was practically a failure, which was the 
 result of the failure of our fanners to put. in their crops in time and to 
 properly cultivate. This was clearly demonstrated by the fact that on 
 our farm we raised forty bushels of wheat per acre, and this from less 
 than one-half bushel of seed planted." 
 
 Other farms will be opened up of the same nature during 1905, 
 but at this writing we are not at liberty to state how many or where. 
 Nothing has been more clearly demonstrated on these farms than the 
 fac t that summer tilling is a most valuable and strictly scientific part 
 of soil culture, the principles of which are fully explained under that 
 heading. 
 
 The general plan of our cultivation on these model farms will be 
 exactly as outlined in the different chapters of this pamphlet. 
 
 The illustrations shown in cuts .\os. 11, 15 and 16, also very clearlv 
 demonstrate the value of our plan of growing and developing trees. 
 
 In our experience thus far, it is clear that in five years time one may 
 grow up shade and ornamental trees, as well as fruit trees, to such an 
 extent as to yield beauty, comfort and profit, which largely embody all 
 the factors that are required to make the ideal farm home. Consider 
 for a moment that the bleak prairie may be transformed into ideal farm 
 homes in the short space of five years. Nothing can add more to the 
 wealth of the country and the value of our farm lands than such improve- 
 ments created generally over our western prairies. We have in mind an 
 instance in the earlv settlement of eastern Nebraska which was related 
 
12 
 
 Campbell's 190.5 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 to us by one of the parties concerned, that illustrates the love of the 
 average man for trees. A man from Ohio with a reasonable amount of 
 means had come to Nebraska to buy a farm. He was offered one with 
 good buildings and other improvements, excepting there was no orchard 
 or shade trees. The price asked was $15 per acre, but he purchased the 
 farm adjoining, on which there were no better buildings, and the land 
 was of precisely the same character, but with an orchard of five acres 
 and a liberal number of shade and ornamental trees around the buildings 
 of about eight years' growth. The purchaser paid just twice the price 
 of the other farm — investing, as you observe, as much in the fruit and 
 
 Trees, three years growth, Pomeroy Model Farm. 
 
 shade trees as he paid for the land and all the other improvements. 
 This may have been an extreme case, but it shows quite clearly how 
 dominant is the love in all of us for such adornments of the home as 
 nature gives us in beautiful trees. 
 
 Outside of the pleasure and real comfort to be derived from numer- 
 ous shade and ornamental trees, there is also much value in them in 
 the protection of our fields and crops. It has long been asserted by 
 scientists that the growing of trees on the bare prairies will increase the 
 rainfall. If there is any reliable evidence of this to be gathered by 
 common observation, we must admit there is truthfulness in this theory, 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 13 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 3^VJ 
 
 V 
 
 i,TN 
 
 yJOv 
 
 
 
 -">q<M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b9^jW5B&' 
 
 
 
 
 i 1 W 
 
 Jf.Jp U ^^^mMV r MU&tfl #^* ~ 
 
 
 J 
 
 1 "If- • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A^jySVr WRmpm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M^m_ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 SB MB iBf i/rtll 
 
 
 Hi 1 Fjuk 
 
 Raised by Campbell method. Raised by common method. 
 
 Cut of Pomeroy Farm corn, 1901, Campbell system 
 vs. adjoining farm. 
 
It- Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 for in the eastern portions of Nebraska and Kansas t lie statements of 
 the older settlers verify it. 
 
 In the early days, when the prairies of eastern Nebraska and Kan- 
 sas were as treeless as is the extreme western portion of these states 
 today, failure by drouth was not uncommon, while now, with almost. 
 every section of land bordered and defined by trees, and with groves 
 and woodlands everywhere, the reverse is quite true. The effect of 
 trees in lifting the hoi south winds from the surface and carrying them 
 over the growing crops is perceptible; especially is this noted where 
 there is a considerable growth of trees, and a crop planted on the north 
 side of the grove. It should therefore go without further argument 
 that the planting of trees is important, even in the more humid portions 
 of our country, but especially important and valuable in the semi-arid 
 sections. 
 
 That trees can lie grown ill I lie semi-arid bell by the simple appli- 
 cation of the "Campbell Method," there is no further question. Evi- 
 dence is now too conclusive for any one to deny this assert ion. Not only 
 is this true, but with careful attention frees may be made to grow as 
 rapidly as in any sect ion of the Easl or middle West, and positive evidence 
 of this may be seen now on the Pomeroy Model farm. 
 
 The growth of the trees in the orchard and those around the build- 
 ings is simply phenomenal. It will be worth while for anyone to visit 
 this farm next June, though lie may live hundreds of miles away. He 
 will find there a series of surprises in the results of scientific soil culture 
 and on his return home will cultivate his soil as it is cultivated there, 
 being convinced, 1 am sure, that the principles advocated in this pamphlet 
 are the principles to be applied to soil culture in the semi-arid belt. 
 
 THE SEMI-ARID BELT. 
 ITS GREAT RESOURCES AND ADVANTAGES. 
 
 That vast country known as the semi-arid belt, extending from 
 t anada, on the north, well into Texas, and from the Rocky mountains 
 to the Missouri river, and across thai Fiver, easterly, through the Dakotas 
 and into western Minnesota, began to receive its first settlement in con- 
 siderable numbers about twenty-five years ago. 
 
 The experiences of the people who have lived in that country of 
 great prairies during this period have been varied in the extreme. They 
 have had years of partial and years of total failures, and interspersed 
 along with occasional years of good crops. Alternate hope and despair 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 1") 
 
 have filled the settlers' minds. Had it not been for the cows and chick- 
 ens and the small garden with the windmill as an irrigator, and the 
 stockraising industry, much of that greal section would long ago have 
 been depopulated and abandoned as an agricultural country. 
 
 Lfp to 1894 very little attention had been given to the question as 
 to how the soil of that section might lie treated to insure crops, and 
 the old method of farming was pursued, with the usually attendant 
 disappoint nient . 
 
 The press drill and other tools were introduced as having the re- 
 quired merits for overcoming the drouth: irrigation was talked of and 
 in some instances tried; summer fallowing was tried without any material 
 change in crop result s. 
 
 The '• Rain Maker" came, and with boastful confidence in his powers 
 attempted to perform miracles, and failed. 
 
 Trees and orchards by the thousands were planted all over that 
 country, only to be cut down by the hot winds and the long periods of 
 mid-summer drouth. During this time agricultural colleges were es- 
 tablished in these states, hut the conditions as respects both the climate 
 and soil formations were all new, and it was first necessary for the pro- 
 fessors to study and experimenl to ascertain what might be done and 
 how to do it (o overcome what appeared to he insurmountable diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 .Not until the subject of the storage and conservation of the natural 
 rainfall in the soil began to be comprehended did any real light or hope 
 for the successful .solution of this hard problem come to us. 
 
 The development of our investigations, pursued along this line of 
 thought and theory, lias at last brought us to the one significant con- 
 clusion, namely, thai the storage and conservation of the rainfall in the 
 ■oil and a careful observation of the necessary physical condition of the 
 soil in the seed and. root bed by our method of cultivation is the only 
 means of saving that section and making it bloom and prosper ami 
 teem with people, herds and flocl 
 
 THE DISK HARROW, ITS USE AND ABUSE. 
 
 There is no agricultural implement more important to the western 
 farmer than the disk harrow. Its usefulness, however, from its first 
 conception to the present time, has been more or less misunderstood. 
 Thousands of acres of wheat have been put in by the use of the disk 
 harrow alone that has not turned the fanner any profit, and many times 
 a loss of not only his labor but seed. The great value of the disk har- 
 
16 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 row lies in its adaptability to the protection of moisture, the preparation 
 of the surface soil for the encouragement of rapid percolation of the 
 rain water, and in thoroughly pulverizing a somewhat cloddy plowed 
 field and getting an improved physical or mechanical condition of the soil. 
 It has been used on thousands of acres instead of plowing, when it should 
 have been used to precede the plow. We have quoted, under the heads 
 of Evaporation and Cultivation, instances where the early use of the 
 disk for the sole purpose of preventing evaporation and preparing the 
 surface to receive and utilize further rains, has resulted in giving the 
 farmer increased yields of corn as high as twenty bushels to the acre. 
 Think of twenty bushels of corn per acre for only fifty cents of extra 
 expense. In the handling of fields for summer culture there is no tool 
 that can take the place of the disk harrow, cost of labor and value of 
 work considered; and while it is not a tool that can be continuously 
 used, we do not see how a man can successfully handle an orchard with- 
 out it. The disk harrow may be used to prepare a field for a crop, 
 and also in connection witli the plow its work is most valuable. The 
 complete pulverizing and thorough separating of the particles one from 
 another in its rotating action, when proper diameter of disk is used, 
 is perfect. 
 
 We most urgently advise the use of the disk early in the spring 
 on all stubble ground. No time should be lost after the soil has become 
 .sufficiently thawed and dry so that it will not stick to the disk. For 
 best results double disk the ground by lapping one-half, the object 
 being to thoroughly pulverize and loosen the surface for a two-fold 
 purpose. To loosen the surface and form a soil mulch to prevent the 
 loss of moisture by evaporation as well as to break the hard crusted 
 surface to promote a more rapid and complete percolation or soaking 
 into the soil below of the early spring rains. 
 
 In still another season of the year we find the disk of equal value, 
 that is immediately after the small grain or any other crop is removed. 
 It is adA'ised whenever possible to follow behind the harvester and not 
 allow the soil to be exposed a single day to the sun's rays after the crop 
 is gathered. It is very difficult to explain the value and importance 
 of this work in sufficiently strong terms to permit the reader to grasp 
 its full force and meaning. W r e will endeavor to give it in five reasons. 
 
 First: There is no time in the year when water held in the soil 
 near the surface in sufficient quantities, will bring about so many valu- 
 able chemical changes as during the months of July and August, and 
 these changes mean additional bushels to the next crop. But they will 
 not take place unless the surface is loose and the soil is moist. 
 
 Second: If there is any moisture in the soil below, by preparing 
 this hue mulch of a liberal thickness this moisture will accumulate 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. !7 
 
 in the firm soil just beneath. If no more rains come your ground is in 
 perfect condition to plow because of this moisture. 
 
 Third: If you do not wish to plow in the fall this moisture can be 
 carried over until the next spring, when in case of a dry spring your 
 soil, if properly handled, as I will outline later, can be planted and the 
 seed will immediately germinate and grow while your neighbor is worry- 
 ing about a dry country. 
 
 Fourth: Sometimes you may have teams and time to do some 
 fall plowing for spring crops. If your soil is dry it is folly to plow, 
 but if you have held the moisture in the soil it is wise to fall-plow provid- 
 ing you follow the plow with the sub-surface packer, firming the lower 
 portion. of the furrow slice while the soil is still moist, holding the mois- 
 ture below instead of allowing the furrow to dry out, as it will, if left 
 loose by the plow. 
 
 Fifth: In case you wish to sow fall wheat this early disking may 
 mean ten to twenty bushels more per acre. By holding the moisture 
 as shown above, it will be seen that any subsequent rain will percolate 
 more quickly and deeper. If the rain be a heavy one, sufficient to dis- 
 solve and pack the loosened surface, the harrow should be thoroughly 
 used as soon as the soil is dry enough not to stick, and by all means 
 wait no longer. When you are ready to plow for fall wheat your soil 
 is moist. By following the plow with the packer and the packer with 
 the acme harrow you will have a fine firm moist seed bed and your 
 wheat will come up, stool and grow rapidly and you need have no fears 
 of winter killing if the seed bed is in this condition. 
 
 SIZE OF DISK. 
 
 When disk harrows first came in use the common size was fourteen 
 inches in diameter and this size we still prefer, but the demand seems 
 to be for larger disks, the farmers conceiving the idea that they draw 
 lighter. While this is true the pulverizing effect of the sixteen-inch 
 is not so good as the fourteen, the eighteen-inch even less, and a twenty- 
 inch we would not have on a farm. Just a moment's thought on this 
 point and you will readily see the reason. The larger the disk the slower 
 it revolves, consequently the pulverizing effect is decreased as the size 
 of the disk is increased. I have noticed twenty-inch disks rolling along 
 when the ground was somewhat dry, and simply slice the soil, raising 
 it up a little and letting it fall back in large clods in exactly the same 
 position it was before the disk passed over. The process simply made 
 little crevices and actually increased the evaporation of moisture instead 
 of decreasing it. A fourteen-inch disk moving along at the same rate 
 of speed would revolve faster, therefore, pulverize and completely reverse 
 the soil. 
 
 Don't buy a disk too large in diameter. Always double disk by 
 
IS Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 lapping one-half. This leaves the surface level if you drive so the out- 
 side disk will just ;ill the furrow left by the renter of the disk just pre- 
 ceding. Keep the disk sharp. It pays. Buy as broad a disk as you 
 have horses to draw it. Time is money Always precede your plowing 
 by thoroughly disking. It helps materially in obtaining a fine firm 
 root bed. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 In outlining our general suggestions for securing the best possible 
 crop results throughout this great plains country, we must of course 
 begin with the preparation of the ground. Owing to the fact that in 
 the settled portions the average farmer has already a sufficient area of 
 ground under cultivation, we will start out with the preparation of ground 
 
 
 : 
 
 Cut No. 1. showing soil as plow leaves it. 
 
 that has been in crop the previous year. The first and all important 
 work is the double disking of this ground in early spring, as explained 
 in the preceding chapter. 
 
 It is not uncommon to see farmers double disk by first going over 
 the ground one way and then cross disking if. This results in a series 
 of ridges and trenches, leaving the surface very uneven. The trenches 
 exposing the solid soil to the surface allow of much evaporation. The 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture ManuaL. 19 
 
 proper manner of double disking is to lap half, which leaves the surface 
 smooth and thoroughly pulverized. In the lapping of the half of the 
 disk the hist time over, the last disks revolve at right angles with the 
 disks that precede. We cannot put too much stress upon this part of 
 the proper preparation of the soils. Bearing in mind that the all im- 
 portant element for the successful growth of our crops is water, we 
 must lose no opportunity of conserving and storing the water from the 
 earliest pari of the spring to late in the fall. 
 
 Evaporation and percolation are more fully explained in chapters 
 to follow. After thoroughly pulverizing the surface to stop the evapora- 
 tion we can do our plowing a little later, regardless of the climatic con- 
 ditions which may exist, and we shall find the soil in a moist condition. 
 It is very important that much care and attention he given to the con- 
 dition of the ground at the time the plowing is done. Land should not 
 lie plowed when in had physical condition," even though the surface 
 soil contains more plant nourishment than the sub-surface does, foi 
 good physical conditions are very necessary for an abundance of avail- 
 able plant food. This cannot, he obtained in the seed and root bed unless 
 this point is given careful attention. Devote special study to what 
 we say in chapter five with reference to the physical condition of the 
 soil. It is one of the most important subjects in connection with its 
 following chapter on the water-holding capacity of the soil. 
 
 In cut No. 1, we illustrate the common condition of ordinary plowed 
 fields. Observe the appearance underneath the portion of the furrow 
 that has been thrown over by the mouldboaid on the side of the next fur- 
 row. This illustration shows a field thai had not been disked before plowing. 
 
 Here is the stubble, weeds and clods that have rolled from the 
 next furrow, while rijrht at the point where the furrow is tipped over 
 the soil is firm from the bottom up. The usual manner of further pre- 
 paring this ground is by the use of the harrow. This has a tendency 
 to level, and, if shallow plowed, to work the ground down fairly well at 
 the bottom of the plowing. In deep plowing, of six or m-ore inches, 
 the harrow has but little effect upon these cavities underneath. This 
 is a very serious proposition, and it is the source of many bad conditions 
 which have a direct effect upon the final yield of the crops. First of 
 all, it cuts off the seed or root bed from the sub-soil, preventing the 
 movement of any moisture from the sub-soil up into the root bed. It 
 also forms air spaces or cavities where a volume of air may exist, which 
 aids in drying out the soil immediately adjacent. It also prevents the 
 lateral roots and feeders from extending and permeating this portion 
 of the soil, leaving a large per cent of our surface soil in a eoiniition 
 not at all beneficial to the growing crop, and were it not for the fact 
 that these prairie soils are exceedingly fertile, they would produce far 
 less than they do. 
 
20 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 In cut No. 2, we show the cross-section of the same two furrows 
 shown in cut No. 1. Here the cavities and loose condition of the soil 
 at the bottom of the furrow have all been obliterated by the use of the 
 sub-surface packer, which is illustrated in cut No. 3. These sharp, 
 wedge-faced wheels have both a downward and lateral pressure against 
 the soil in the spaces between them. The soil is moved by the packer 
 in such a manner as to form a firm and evenly packed stratum at the 
 lower portion of the furrow. 
 
 A word about the disk. Had this laud been double disked before 
 plowing, the stubble, weeds or manure shown in a strip at the bottom 
 would have been scattered through the lower part of the furrow, the 
 
 Cut No. 2, showing soil as packer leaves it. 
 
 soil made finer and the packer would have made it firmer, increasing 
 its water-holding capacity. This would have promoted more general 
 nitrification, facilitated greater and more uniform root growth and made 
 it possible to have even doubled the yield of the crop, for it is not un- 
 common that just a little more available moisture will carry the crop 
 to a good rain that will be ample to finish a fine crop, otherwise the crop 
 loss might have been fifty per cent or more. This is especially true of 
 all small grain. 
 
 After the packer has been used, by employing the ordinary smooth- 
 ing harrow, or the so-called Acme harrow, the surface is pulverized and 
 made fine and the lower part of the upper portion, which is shown as 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 21 
 
 loose and coarse in the cut, is made firm, forming a perfect seed bed; 
 
 The lower pari made firm by the packer, illustrated in the cut, forms 
 the main root bed. 
 
 With this general explanation, let us return to the question of 
 plowing. With the varied experiences of the average farmer throughout 
 the semi-arid west there has arisen a great variety of ideas with reference 
 to depths of plowing, and whether it is advisable to even plow more 
 than once in two or three years. Each farmer believing he has con- 
 ceived a very plausible reason why he should plow three or five inches, 
 or why he should not plow at all. I fully appreciate the honesty and 
 good intentions of the farmer, but the reason there is such a great variety 
 of opinion is because he does not grasp the importance of a certain 
 
 Cut No. 3, Subsurface Packer. 
 
 physical condition of the soil, one that is favorable to holding the largest 
 amount of moisture to the square inch ; one that is favorable to the most 
 rapid movement of moisture by capillary attraction, and one that is- 
 favorable to the most prolific growth and development of the lateral 
 roots with their thousands of little feeders. This condition cannot be 
 secured at its best and the largest productive results obtained without 
 thoroughly plowing, pulverizing and packing the soil each and every year. 
 The point gained by the plowing at a sufficient depth to stir the soil 
 which will later contain the major part of the feeding roots is that of 
 increasing the water holding capacity. Water is not held in the soil 
 in cavities or spaces, but in the form of films or coverings around each 
 diminutive soil particle, consequently the greater number of small 
 particles of soil we have the greater the amount of water held. We 
 can illustrate by a cube one inch square ; this contains six square inches 
 of surface. Cut this cube into eight squares, one-half inch square and 
 we have twelve square inches of surface. Now, cutting each half-inch 
 cube into eight one-fourth inch squares we have twenty-four square 
 inches of surface, thereby increasing the water holding capacity four 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 hundred per cent. The tendency of all. soil that is left for one or more 
 years without being plowed or pulverized, is to form into Larger soil 
 grains. By (lie little particles adhering to each other, cemented or 
 attached by the salts, magnesias and alkalies thai are dissolved by the 
 water as it percolate* down and then moves upward, holding these 
 properties in solutio*, and as the moisture passes off by evaporation, 
 these salts and alkalies till the little spaces, and the smaller particles 
 form larger soil grains and decrease it: capacity to hold water. 
 
 There is still another important point, and thai is the thorough 
 circulation of air in the soil. Air, like water, is an important element 
 in the soil, and, like water, it must be finely and evenly distributed. 
 
 Tn further discussing the question of what is the proper physical 
 condition of the soil when plowing is done, we would call your attention 
 to the furrow as it is turned over by the plow when the soil is simply 
 moist— neither very wet nor very dry. How nicely each little particle 
 of soil seems to separate, one from the other, when, if too dry, a cloddy 
 condition is observed; and the same is true when the soil is too wet. 
 We should try to secure the most uniform, fine condition of our soil 
 for the threefold purpose that it may contain more water, that moisture 
 may move more rapidly thrqugh it, and that there may be a more pro- 
 lific growth of roots. By close observation and careful attention to 
 these important points we may secure a crop result fully one hundred 
 per cent greater than we could obtain if these items were disregarded. 
 
 PROPER DEPTH OF PLOWING. 
 
 The proper depth of plowing must he governed very largely by the 
 
 condition of the soil, the time of year that the plowing is done, the time 
 it is to lie seeded or planted and the kind of tools you have for the 
 after work. 
 
 Take the average prairie soil, especially if level with a sand loam 
 formation: I advise plowing fully seven inches deep if to be seeded 
 or planted soon after. But to do this and anticipate a fair crop, the 
 soil must be moist and not wet. The surface must be thoroughly disked 
 before plowing and the sub-surface packer must follow close to the plow. 
 The plowing done before noon should be packed before going to dinner, 
 and that done in the afternoon packed before leaving the field at night, 
 and then follow witli the Acme harrow to get the surface in good condi- 
 tion before the clods get too dry. 
 
 In case of early fall plowing for spring crops and moist soil, if you 
 have sufficient team, it will be found profitable to plow eight inches 
 deep, following with a packer and harrow as above mentioned. If you 
 have no sub-surface packer, beg, buy or borrow one. If you have no 
 packer T would not advise plowing over five inches deep, and use the 
 common harrow with teeth slightly slanting and weighted, the object 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 23 
 
 being to pulverize and firm the under portion of the furrow. These 
 observations are very important. Much care and attention should be 
 given to the furrow slices that they may be even in width and depth, 
 so that when you go over the ground with your packer or harrow there 
 may be no soil spaces left loose and porous. The average farmer must 
 realize the great importance of thoroughly fining and firming the entire 
 plowed portion. In the ordinary conditions as found at the bottom of 
 furrows in plowing left without any further work until it has all dried 
 out, shown in cut Xo. 1, fully one-third of the soil contributes no nourish- 
 ment whatever to the growth or production of the crop. By adding 
 a little extra pains and labor that one-third of non-productive soil may 
 be put in condition to do its full share in making a larger and better 
 crop. By closely following this rule you will greatly increase the quan- 
 tity and quality of your crops of small grain. 
 
 BREAKING NEW PRAIRIE LANDS. 
 
 Use the regular breaking plow, cutting about two inches deep. It is 
 best to break as shallow as it may be possible in order to turn the sod 
 completely over and have it hold together. It should be done as soon as 
 the grass begins to grow rapidly in the spring, turning it as flat as possi- 
 ble. Roll it to make it lie firmly against the sub-soil. The packer 
 does very well if you have no roller, following with the Acme or the 
 common harrow, going over a sufficient number of times to loosen the 
 soil from the sod in order to fill all cracks and crevices with loose earth 
 to form a perfect blanket. This will prevent the loss of any moisture, 
 holding it as far as it may be possible beneath the blanket, and in case 
 of heavy rain it will be well to harrow again. With this blanket properly 
 provided during June and July the sod itself will not only be found to be 
 well rotted but the top of the sub-soil to a depth of one to three inches 
 also. In August, or as soon as the soil beneath the blanket is rotted, 
 it should be plowed again, this time with the stirring or stubble plow 
 cutting about two and a half inches deeper and following with the sub- 
 surface packer, the same as outlined for ordinary stubble plowing. The 
 harrowing should be very thorough. 
 
 If care has been taken to conserve the rain waters and the work 
 well done, this ground may be planted to fall wheat or to spring crops 
 the following spring, after which it should be treated the same as old 
 ground, except to run the plow two inches deeper the. next time. 
 
 There is no economy, but, on the other hand, great waste, in trying 
 to economize or minimize the amount of labor required to thoroughly 
 prepare the soil for the sowing or planting of grain, for the work of 
 thorough preparation is easily and quickly done, and when once done a 
 successful harvest is assured. 
 
24 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 SUB-SURFACE PACKING. 
 
 The belief used to be almost universal among farmers that firming 
 the ground, as with t he roller, or making firmer the soil in any way, 
 increased its water-holding capacity. Firming the surface of the ground 
 does for the time increase the amount of water which may be held in 
 the packed portion, and it is natural that this belief should have been 
 general among farmers. Some lessons of vital importance may be learned 
 upon this subject. The movement of the water in the soil under varying 
 conditions of the soil and the surface should be well understood. A 
 discussion of the subject may not seem of interest to the average farmer, 
 yet the well established facts in regard to this subject have great weight 
 when carefully considered in connection with the preparation of the 
 soil for crops, and in. determining their quantity and quality. 
 
 Professor F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin, undoubtedly 
 one of the most learned men in soil physics we have in the West, if not 
 in the country, has recently published a book entitled "The Soil," 
 which book should be in the hands of every farmer. In treating the 
 question of the effect of rolling on soil moisture, he says: 
 
 ' ' When, however, the changes in the water contents of the surface 
 four feet of soil which follow the use of a heavy roller are studied, it is 
 found that we have here a case of the translocation of soil moisture; 
 a case where by destroying the many large non-capillary pores in the 
 soil, and bringing its grains more closely together, its water-lifting power 
 is increased and to such an extent that often within twenty-four hours 
 after rolling, the upper one or two feet beneath the firm ground have 
 come to contain more moisture than similar and immediately adjacent 
 land does at the same level, while the lower two feet have become dryer. 
 Water has been lifted from the lower into the upper soil. 
 
 "In the table below will be seen the difference in the water con- 
 tents of the soils which have been rolled and the immediately adjacent 
 ones not so treated. These results arc averages derived from one hundred 
 and forty-seven sets of samples: 
 
 "Surface 36 to 54 inches, unrolled, contained 19.43 per cent of water. 
 Surface 36 to 54 inches, rolled, contained 18.72 per cent of water. 
 
 Difference, .71 per cent of water. 
 
 Surface 24 to 36 inches, unrolled, contained 19.85 per cent of water. 
 Surface 24 to 36 inches, rolled, contained 19.49 per cent of water. 
 
 Difference, .36 
 Surface 2 to 18 inches, rolled, contained 1(1.85 per cent of water. 
 Surface 2 to 18 inches, unrolled, contained 15. (i I per cent of water. 
 
 Difference, 1.21 per cent of water. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 25 
 
 It is here seen that when samples of .soil are taken at a depth ex- 
 ceeding two feet, the rolled ground as a whole is dryer than that not 
 rolled, and that this difference is greater when the samples are taken at 
 a depth of from three to four or more feet. The data presented also 
 shows that the two to eighteen surface inches of loose ground recently 
 firmed contains more water than that which has not been so treated. 
 It is a matter we have carefully studied, and in all our experiment work 
 we have observed that the statements of Professor King have been 
 verified fully; thus affording conclusive proof of the truth of all that we 
 have said with reference to the sub-surface packing of the soil. When 
 the extreme surface is packed the effect is to draw the moisture to the 
 surface where it is lost by evaporation. By the sub-packing, as shown 
 in cut No. 2, we have that firm stratum at the point where the roots 
 mainly grow, and. with our loose mulch on the surface we prevent the 
 loss of our moisture by evaporation. 
 
 
 IbI^ 
 
 flllr ^^iliPllii 
 
 
 5*~™*w£tV^P? ^'^Ssi 
 
 
 8jjffSK^@^^^B— t^^fesHlJB 
 
 sSJppaN w 
 
 ^^^T^^ * ll 
 
 
 iBSa^w^^^V'.^fi^^^H 
 
 
 Cut No. 4, Showing development of roots in firm soil. 
 
 Results obtained by Professor King in these one hundred and forty- 
 seven tests certainly prove very effectively the correctness of the con- 
 clusion of sub-packing by the device shown in cut Xo. 3. We secure a 
 much deeper or thicker stratum of packed soil "than can possibly be 
 secured from a surface roller. This would of itself create a greater force 
 of capillary lifting power. Then again, and don't lose sight of this fact, 
 as the sub-packed soil lifts the moisture it is not lost by evaporation as 
 is the moisture from the surface packed, but is held there by the loose 
 soil mulch on the surface. This fact causes an accumulation of moisture 
 in the packed portion which further aids in the upward movement of 
 
20 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the moisture from below. This translocation of water brought about 
 by the sub-packing is of the highest importance when we reach the 
 long <lrv periods so common in midsummer, and a condition we rarelj 
 fail to gel sometime each and ever) year. We have proven by practical 
 
 tests, over and over again, that by this increased movement of the mois- 
 ture the plant is amply supplied, under which conditions the damage so 
 common is not. only prevented but the plant has been able to make a 
 rapid, healthy growth right through. 
 
 When we reach a point in the extreme heated portion of the last 
 afternoon prior to a heavy rain, where our supply of moisture is beginning 
 to shorten, the fact that we have by this sub-surface packing been aide 
 to lift the water stored below a little faster may be the means of doubling 
 the vield. 
 
 Rfc»*~_ r .-'-v 
 
 ySi&iiii^HraH 
 
 ¥ 
 
 
 Cut Xo. 5, Showing development of roots in loose soil. 
 
 In cut No. 4, we represent the cross-section of a lateral or branch 
 root very largely magnified. The little branches running out from the 
 center represent the little hair roots, or feeders, which are often so small 
 that they are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. These little feeders 
 are neither more nor less than little tubes, or elongated cells. You will 
 notice in the outer tier of cells each Little feeder practically forms a part 
 of the cell. Around this root are four white spots, which represent air 
 spaces. They are, however, extremely small, not larger than a small 
 shot, yet, small as they are, you notice how the little feeders turn away 
 from them. The soil where this root is located is represented to be 
 very fine and firm. Under this condition we are aide to get the greatest 
 possible development of roots. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 In cut No. 5, wo represent a coarser or less compacted soil. Here 
 tlie lateral root is only able to send out two little feeders. This condition 
 
 is of much importance. We have examined roots many times and found 
 them three, four and five inches in length, with scarcely a hair root 
 or feeder the entire distance. Then coming, possibly, to the packed 
 soil beneath a horse-foot track, we would find a complete net-work of 
 little feeders running in every direction. There are two reasons for 
 this greatly increased number of feeders in the packed soil. One is the 
 compact condition so favorable to the development of roots; the other 
 is the greater amount of moisture contained, which, as we have shown 
 by a ([notation from Professor King, is the result of an increased capillary 
 attraction which has drawn moisture from below. 
 
 It is hardly possible to put too much stress upon the point of thor- 
 ough pulverizing anil packing the seed bed. Probably the strongest 
 or most complete practical illustration was brought out at the Pomeroy 
 lodel farm, at Hill City, Kansas, in the growth and development of the 
 *.vheat sown in the fall of 1901. This ground had been prepared with 
 - greatest possible care, having been plowed seven inches deep, with 
 'i< soil in a moist condition, kept so by the disking and harrowing of 
 .'.) ' surface. When plowed, the plow was followed closely with the sub- 
 arface packer, and the Acme harrow following closely the sub-surface 
 ■acker. By endeavoring to do all the work when the soil was in proper 
 ondition, we had secured a very favorable physical condition. At the 
 ;ime of seeding, October 8th, 9th, and H)th, there was a line loose mulch 
 on the surface two ami one-half inches dvvp. The soil immediately 
 beneath was very fine, linn and moist. The wheat was pat in with a 
 shoe-drill, less than one-half bushel of si'vil to the acre, from one-half 
 to one inch into this fin<> moist soil, just beneath the mulch. Germina- 
 tion and development were rapid. The fourth day, as regular as the 
 days came after seeding, the little green spears could be seen the entire 
 length of the row. On the seventh day these leaves measured from 
 three to four inches high. Thus, in seven (lavs, the hard, dry seeds had 
 become moistened, burst their shells, sent out laterally the little root- 
 Ids, and die little stalks had grown to a height of five or six inches 
 from the seed. This is not all. On the sixteenth day of November, 
 this wheat was taller and thicker than a field sown on the sixteenth 
 of September, with one and one-quarter bushels of seed. 
 
 In cut Xo. (i we have two conditions of soil. On the right we have 
 the more common plan, here we find the grain of wheat in somewhat 
 course and loose soil. It, i.> in this kind of a seed bed that the wheat 
 frepuently remains all the fall without germinating; again it may sprout 
 because of 1 he moisture of a light shower only to wither and die from 
 later dry windy weather or perchance may absorb just moisture enough 
 to burst the shell and send the germ out slightly and a few feeble root- 
 
28 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manxtal. 
 
 lets, then he completely ruined by the winter freezing because of a lack 
 of moisture in the soil about the roots to draw the frost in thawing out. 
 On the left we have the ideal condition, a condition that can easily 
 l>c attained at a nominal expense. By the use of the sub-surface packer 
 when the soil is in proper condition as previously explained, we get that 
 fine, even firm condition as shown, to a depth of seven inches; then 
 with the Acme harrow we secure the fine loose mulch about two inches 
 deep; with the closed heel shoe drill we secured that V\shaped opening 
 about one inch in the firm soil into which the grain drops. As it reaches 
 the bottom it is surrounded, except over the top, with fine firm moist 
 soil. The fine dirt that very naturally fills this opening as the shoe 
 moves along, puts our wheat in the ideal condition. 
 
 Cut No. 6, Germination of wheat influenced by firmness of soil. 
 
 The numerous small moist particles of soil that come in contact 
 with the wheal conveys the moisture quickly and in ample quantities. 
 This, coupled with the air from above brings about the very remarkable 
 germination and development, shown at the extreme left, in the short 
 space of five days. 
 
Campbell's 190.5 Soil Culture Manual. 29 
 
 Study well this illustration and note the varied conditions. The 
 single grain at the right in the left hand section is simply to show the 
 surrounding condition as it is deposited, compared with those in the 
 loose soil to the right. Do not simply look at the illustration, but study 
 the relative condition and reasonable results that may be anticipated 
 from each. 
 
 This same quickness of germination has been noticeable at the Pome- 
 roy farm each year since. 
 
 On the Kilpatrick Brothers' ranch in Chase county, Nebraska, where 
 we had directed the preparing of some ground for fall wheat in 1903, 
 the wheat was sown September 14th, the field being on a slope toward 
 Champion, a town two and a half miles away. On the morning of the 
 nineteenth, really but four days from seeding, the shape of the field 
 was discernable from Champion by its green color. This statement may 
 lie emphasized from the fact that hundreds of acres of wheat were sown 
 that fall and not another one showed green that season. Because of 
 over seven months without rain, beginning September 10th, the Kilpat- 
 rick wheat was all that was harvested in that county, making over 
 thirty bushels to the acre, the rest being a total failure. 
 
 We can cite many instances where the value of firming the under 
 portion of the furrow slice has been shown to be very great. In the 
 spring of 1899 a large amount of winter wheat in the semi -arid belt was 
 found to have been killed. We drove over many fields that spring to 
 investigate and study the cause as far as possible. One fact was in- 
 variably perceptible — where the soil was light and loose to a considerable 
 depth the wheat was entirely dead. In the more compact portions or 
 spots in the fields the condition of the wheat was found better. For 
 instance, along the sides of the dead furrows almost all of the wheat 
 was found to be in a perfectly healthy condition, while on the back 
 furrows it was usually all dead. Again, at the corners of the fields where 
 lands were plowed around, and the horses in turning had tramped and 
 packed the plowed ground, the wheat was found to be in good condition. 
 The horse-foot and wheel tracks invariably had a favorable effect. This 
 is a condition and result that is corroborated by all investigators, that 
 if there is plenty of moisture in the ground there is little or no danger 
 of freezing or winter killing, while if t lie soil conditions are loose and 
 become too dry serious results follow. The same was fully shown in 
 the quotation from the Illinois Agricultural college bulletin, portions of 
 which we quote under the heading of "Raising Trees." These condi- 
 tions bear out all observation, 1 > ot 1 i with reference to the fact that pack- 
 ing .the soil will increase the water contents of those portions, and the 
 further fact, as stated by the Illinois bulletin, that if there be plenty of 
 moisture aboul the roots there is practically no injury from freezing. 
 
 One point which we, have tried to impress upon our readers at, 
 
30 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 different times is the difficulty and danger that may arise in even a 
 short period when the roots may be just a little short of the necessary 
 moisture, and the importance of having a packed condition of the lower 
 portion of the furrow slice to lessen the danger. Professor King has 
 shown, by practical experiments, and all observation confirms his con- 
 clusions, that in soil that is parked the moisture moves upward from a 
 deptli of from one to four feet much more rapidly than in loose soil. 
 It is therefore important to have this packing when a condition of ex- 
 treme drouth is reached, as it may be the one thing that will save a crop. 
 
 Another very marked advantage of this sub-packing was found in 
 our work a1 the Burlington Model farm at Holdrege, Nebraska. I»n 
 1904 a piece of ground was plowed for corn; a strip was left unpacked 
 but all was well harrowed and the corn planted the sun? day. Where 
 the packing was done the stand of corn was perfect while the strip not 
 packed had hardly a two-thirds stand and the entire season's growth 
 showed the advantage of packing. While the use of the sub-surface 
 packer lias been found valuable in Wisconsin and Illinois, the further 
 west we^get into the semi-arid country the greater is its importance, 
 while in the more arid portions of the semi-arid belt its use is practically 
 indispensible. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that- Professor King experimented in 
 packing at the extreme surface, where nearly all the moisture that hail 
 moved to this point was lost by evaporation, and that had the packing 
 been done just below the surface the contrast would have been much 
 greater. Professor King's experiments were on the grounds of the 
 Wisconsin college, where soil moisture is invariably found all through 
 the soil down to sheet water. Had they been male in our semi-arid 
 region, the contrast would have been greater. If we gel our soil moist- 
 ened here to a dept h of four or five feet we have exceede 1 by some distance 
 the usual conditions, and this depth of soil moisture would be sufficient 
 to carry us any ordinary season in the successful growth of crops. Hi 1 
 Professor King's experiments been made with a three-inch layer of loose 
 soil mulch above the packed portion, they would have shown a much 
 greater increase of moisture at the point of two to eighteen inches. 
 
 All these facts in connection with the movement of moisture in the 
 soil, under different conditions of the soil, as indicated in the experi- 
 ments noted and the teachings of tic most eminent students of soil 
 
 physics, give US the Valuable lesson that the packing of the subsoil, or 
 what may be properly termed the root bed, aids us in these important 
 poinis: increasing the water-holding capacity of the soil facilitates the 
 movement of the water from below up to this point when it, is needed, 
 is conducive to a much greater development of root growth; and still 
 further, and quite as important, enables us to utilize the entire soil. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 31 
 
 having no waste ground caused by a loose or porous condition of the 
 9oil as shown in cut No. 5. 
 
 I'lii; is so important that il may he stated again plainly, so that 
 no reader may misunderstand. The process of packing the under por- 
 tion of furrow or plowed ground creates three conditions to aid in carrying 
 the growing crop over long dry periods, namely: 
 
 1 . More water in the soil. 
 
 2. A stronger capillary movement of water. 
 
 3. More prolific growth of roots. 
 
 Don't pack the surface; it increases the loss of moisture by evap- 
 oration. 
 
 I. sss ^cot\ is needed in packed soil than in loose soil for the same 
 crop result. 
 
 Pack the lower portion of your plowing the same day you plow, to 
 Save the moist urc. 
 
 PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 By physical condition of the soil we mean the proper preparation 
 or condition ( ": the soil that will produce the best possible crop results; 
 the plowing and other process of tillage to secure abundant yields. We 
 wish to prove to you that nature lias provided all necessary elements 
 on these broad, level prairies of the semi-arid belt to grow cereals, vege- 
 tables, foragi and fruits in such quantities and of such quality to make 
 the most sanguine minds marvel. 
 
 To do this the tiller of the soil must learn what to do; when to do 
 it ; how to do it, and why he works the soil by this method which enables 
 nature to reveal all the possibilities she stores in this workshop for an 
 unlimited supply of crop material. We will show you that it does not 
 require a vast amount of hard and expensive labor to get large results, 
 but it does require effort with knowledge and judgment* Just as a 
 valuable machine may be made powerless and useless by the wrong or 
 slack adjustment of some bolt or nut, so in the mechanical preparation 
 of the soil succe in the highest degree depends on doing the right thing 
 at the right time and in the right manner. You could not put a valuable 
 machine together unless you knew something of mechanics. You 
 cannot properly till the soil and extract from it all that nature has stored 
 there for your use unless you understand some of the simple rules of 
 soil physics. 
 
 Much misleading matter has hern printed on the subject of soil 
 physics and in discussing available soil fertility. Professor Milton 
 
32 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 Whitney, chief of the bureau of soils, United States Department of 
 Agriculture, says in Bulletin No. 22, issued by the department, "That 
 there is no apparent relation between the chemical composition of the 
 soil as determined by the methods of analysis used, and the yields of 
 crops; but that the chief factor determining the yield is the physical 
 condition of the noil under suitable climatic conditions. It is our candid 
 opinion, based on more than twenty years' of observation and experi- 
 ence, that it is to the highest interest of the farmer to give little atten- 
 tion to the chemical properties of his soil until he has learned well and 
 carefully its necessary physical condition in order that nature may 
 utilize the needed chemicals of the soil and air." 
 
 The general properties or component parts of the average high 
 level prairies of the semi-arid belt are all that could be desired. In 
 the cultivation of these soils every precaution should be taken to pre- 
 vent at any and all times during the year any loss of moisture by evap- 
 oration. 
 
 Roberts in his book on the "Fertility of the Land," says: "The 
 percolation of rain waters not only conserves the plant food but improves 
 the physical condition of the land. Just as soon as the soil becomes 
 depleted of its moisture it becomes dead or dormant and life ceases." 
 
 In order to secure the best possible physical condition, the greatest 
 care should be exercised to do the plowing, packing and cultivating 
 while the soil is moist. When the soil is moist, as all observing farmers 
 know, the soil grains more readily separate one from the other. The 
 real or desirable object of plowing is not simply to turn the soil over, 
 but in addition to turning the soil is the pulverizing. The more thor- 
 oughly this is done the better opportunity the heat, air and moisture 
 have to exercise their full power to combine all the properties into plant 
 foods so that they may be assimilated by the plant. 
 
 AN ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 To illustrate the most desirable mechanical or physical condition 
 of our average prairie soils take ordinarily fine sand when dry. When 
 these sand grains are dry there is no adhesion or resistance. They all 
 lie close together, and yet there is a uniform size to the pores or spaces 
 between the grains that readily admits both air and water; the water 
 in the form of thin films or coverings to the grains and the air through 
 the minute spaces. The heat or warmth is carried into the soil partly 
 by the air but mainly by the contact of the particles. 
 
 SUB-PACKING NECESSARY. 
 
 In our average prairie soil of the semi-arid belt, which invariably 
 contains more or less sand, we have a large per cent of vegetable matter 
 in a partially decomposed state. If it is plowed when containing the 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. S3 
 
 proper amount of moisture to promote a ready separation of the grains 
 the soil is inclined to be too loose and the spaces too large. Because 
 of this lightness of the soil in weight and the non-uniformity, or irregu- 
 larity in the size and the shape of the grains, it is necessary, by some 
 process or force, to press or pack the soil more closely together as well 
 as to more completely pulverize it. 
 
 Many methods have been tried to accomplish this. The usual one 
 of rolling the top only packs the very part that must be kept loose. 
 Others use the lever harrow^ with teeth slanting back and weighted; 
 also the disk harrow set straight. These help but nothing has been found 
 so effectual as the machine designed and built expressly for the work. 
 This is the sub-surface packer illustrated in Chapter II. After 
 years of experiments, these wheels, with their sharp wedge-shaped 
 face, have been reduced to the proper size, thickness and distance apart 
 to most thoroughly pack the soil in the lower portion of the furrow 
 slice if properly used on soils, when well plowed in the right condition 
 to secure a most ideal mechanical condition. 
 
 FURTHER CULTIVATION". 
 
 After getting these conditions there conies the important part of 
 the work — that of conserving the moisture and keeping the surface in 
 condition to admit of air. Here again the greatest possible care is 
 necessary to cultivate or work the surface when in proper "condition. The 
 farmer or tiller of the soil should keep constantly in mind that his work 
 of fitting the soil for crops or arranging for the proper physical con- 
 dition, is the all-important work of the whole year for it regulates to a 
 very large degree his year's income. 
 
 When the farmer realizes, as he must sooner or later, that it is 
 within his power, but dependent on his ingenuity and energy, to in- 
 crease the annual products of his farm by improving the mechanism 
 in his factory, the soil, precisely as the manufacturer increases the out- 
 put of his factory by improving his machinery, he will hail with joy 
 the daj^ he decided to be a farmer. 
 
 Years ago, when the manufacturer found it difficult to fill his orders 
 because of inability to manufacture a sufficient quantity, he increased 
 the size of his factory and number of workmen. To-day, he simply 
 improves his machinery. The farmer who increases his acres in 
 order to increase his bushels must learn a lesson from the manufacturer. 
 He must improve the mechanical or physical condition of the soil and 
 thus increase its capacity of production. This can be done with less 
 proportionate expense and more effectually than by the purchase of 
 more acres. 
 
34 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Among the more important questions involved in scientific soil 
 culture, that arc but little understood, is that of the water-holding 
 capacity of the soil. It takes no argument to convince the average 
 man that there arc many limes when, if the soil could have had just a 
 little more available moisture, there would have been one, two or three 
 times as great a yield. To more clearly, show the vital importance, 
 in this great semi-arid belt, of thoroughly fining and firming that portion 
 of the soil in which the roots of the plant should grow and feed, we have 
 prepared the accompanying illustration. 
 
 \ 
 
 bi^k /JC^^.-^t 
 
 
 Cut No. 7, Water-holding capacity of soils. 
 
 In the glass on the right is one pound of- the largest buckshot we 
 could find ; in the glass on the left is one pound of the very smallest 
 bird shot we covdd obtain; in the center is an one-ounce druggist's 
 graduate. With this graduate we measured precisely one ounce of water 
 and turned into each glass. We then shook each glass to be sure that 
 every shot was moistened all over. This covered each one with a thin 
 film of water exactly as the moisture is retained around each little parti- 
 cle of soil. It is not possible in our illustration to get rid of the free 
 water, or that portion between the shot, except by tipping the glass 
 over and holding the shot back to allow all the -water, which is not 
 held in film form, to drain out into the graduate. Measuring carefully 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 35 
 
 the amount from each glass, we find to our surprise that the fine shot 
 retains nearly thirteen times as much water as the coarse shot. Here 
 we have a practical demonstration of how the water-holding capacity 
 of the soil is increased by finely pulverizing and making it firm, a con- 
 dition most favorable for the movement of moisture by capillary attrac- 
 tion and the most perfect development of roots, both of which subjects 
 have been taken up in detail in other chapters. 
 
 The shot, before it was put into the glasses, was carefully weighed 
 on fine druggist's scales to be sure that we had the same quantity. As 
 you see, both glasses are filled to the same height with the coarse and 
 fine shot and both glasses are of the same size. 
 
 The great question which bears so largely upon the quantity and 
 quality of all crops is, thai of water in sufficient available quantities at 
 all times. Nothing has more to do with this than the mechanical or 
 physical condition of the soil. The deeper the soil is stirred and yet 
 made fine and firm the greater is our ability to guard against the shortage 
 of water at some critical time. To plow deeply and leave the under* 
 portion lumpy and loose is a very objectionable condition with which 
 to approach a dry period, and as jxperience has shown, no one knows 
 when such a time may occur. Therefore, for safety, the lower portion 
 of the furrow must be made fine and compact. 
 
 Many thinking men, from a theoretical standpoint, insist that the 
 sods of the prairies must be loosened up deeply to let the water down. 
 This is not essential in the least, providing the soil is moist a foot or 
 so below the surface and the surface is kept loose. As soon as the rain 
 comes in contact with the moist earth below it readily percolates down 
 through the fine soil. In fact the soil that is moist for three or four 
 feet down will dry off on the surface much quicker than soil that is dry 
 underneath because of more rapid percolation. The slowest soil to take 
 the rain waters is the dry soil with a firm surface. 
 
 Again considering the water-holding capacity of the soil and re- 
 cognizing a marked difference in the amount of the water held by the 
 fine shot shown in our illustration, we more clearly grasp the value of 
 adding well-rotted manures to the soil of the western prairies and the 
 further importance of having it thoroughly mixed into the soil. The 
 manure when decomposed very materially adds to the number of minute 
 particles and further increases the w'ater-holdiug capacity. 
 
36 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 SUMMER CULTURE. 
 
 COMMONLY CALLED SUMMER FALLOW. 
 
 Summer fallowing is another feature of soil culture which has been 
 brought from the East to the semi-arid west and applied with the same 
 rules and ideas that prevail there and in the middle western states. 
 Its purpose has been to give the land a rest. It has been applied to 
 many portions of the semi-arid belt and the advantages derived have 
 been so meager that it is losing favor. And well it may if we are to 
 be guided in the least by six years' of experiments conducted by the 
 South Dakota Agricultural college, as follows: 
 
 A field on which wheat was grown continuously from 1897 to 1902, 
 inclusive, the average crop was fourteen bushels and seven pounds per 
 acre. In order to compare this result with a rotation of summer fallow- 
 ing one year and wheat the next, two plats were necessary in order to 
 have a crop growing each year the same as on the field that was planted 
 each continuous year. In this way no advantage of seasons was given. 
 On these alternating plats or fields the average crop was seventeen 
 bushels and ten pounds to the acre or only three bushels and three 
 pounds more per acre than the field that was cropped continuously for 
 the six years. This was a total yield of one hundred and three bushels 
 in six years by summer fallowing half of each field each year, against 
 one hundred and sixty-nine bushels and twenty pounds had all of both 
 plats been planted each year. 
 
 Compare the above results reported in Bulletin No. 79, South 
 Dakota Agricultural Experiment station, with the Pomeroy Model farm 
 at Hill City, Kansas, where the results of wheat after our plan of summer 
 culture in four consecutive years, 1901 to 1904, inclusive, cropped forty 
 bushels per acre, while wheat in the same locality grown the same con- 
 secutive years, has averaged less than ten bushels. Three other fields 
 in western Kansas and Nebraska, are authentically reported in 1904 
 in localities quite remote from each other, that were each summer tilled 
 to have cropped thirty-one, thirty-six and a half and forty-one bushels, 
 respectively, an acre, while fields in the same localities that were planted 
 under the every year plan by the common method are reported to be 
 from sixty to ninety per cent total failure, and the best yields did not 
 exceed one-fourth of the above quantity. 
 
 After many years' study along • these lines and watching many 
 experiments we are confident that the results mentioned above may 
 be contiunously secured by our plan, and that even better yields x\ ill 
 be regularly produced when the scientific principles are fully uncfer 
 stood. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 37 
 
 In treating the land as we would suggest we do not think the name, 
 summer fallow, applies. Term it summer culture. Beginning the work 
 as early in the spring as the frost is sufficiently out of the ground and 
 the surface dry enough to permit the use of the disk harrow without 
 the soil adhering to the disk, going over the ground twice by lapping 
 the disk one-half. This produces a mulch which prevents evaporation; 
 also opens and loosens the surface, so that the later rains readily and 
 quickly percolate into the soil, harrowing the ground after each sub- 
 sequent rain. If the rain is too heavy' so as to dissolve and pack the 
 surface, a second disking may be necessary, especially so if the season is 
 advanced far enough for weeds to start freely. Don't at all hazards 
 permit the weeds to grow or the surface to become crusted, bearing in 
 mind our main object is to store the water in the soil below. Plow in 
 June or early July, seven to eight inches deep. Do not leave the field 
 at noon until that which has been plowed during the forenoon has been 
 gone over with the sub-surface packer. Then at night the same, and if 
 you use the packer follow it with the Acme harrow at night, going over 
 the entire day's plowing. The common harrow produces very fair 
 results or conditions, but the Acme will put this ground in better con- 
 dition than two or three times over with the common harrow. In June 
 and July weeds are quite persistent and great care should be taken not 
 to let them get the start. In fact there is but little danger of weeds if 
 you take care to lose no water by evaporation. All weeds are easily 
 killed when small, but after the tap root has gone down and become 
 firmly imbedded, the harrow, even the Acme, is not sure to destroy it. 
 Watch the condition of your field, going over it as soon after a heavy 
 rain as the soil will permit, using the Acme if you have one, and set it 
 to cut about two inches deep in the solid soil. This will make you a 
 light, loose mulch from two and a half to three inches deep. Continue 
 this persistent care through the season; in case of extreme heat more 
 frequent cultivation is necessary. Our rule is to watch carefully the 
 firm soil just beneath the mulch and gauge our time of cultivation during 
 continued dry periods by the quantity of apparent moisture, observed 
 at the top of the firm soil beneath the mulch, or if we move the loose 
 soil away and find there is ample moisture, the protection is all right. 
 If the top is beginning to show dry, then it is time to cultivate again. 
 
 If desirable to put in spring crops, it is a good idea to thoroughly 
 disk the ground as it goes into the winter. Then use the Acme early in 
 the spring, just as soon as conditions will let you in on to the ground, 
 unless the ground has become unusually firm by the heavy snows or 
 rains, then it is advisable to use the disk, lapping half, following with 
 the harrow. 
 
 If winter wheat, rye or oats are planted, care should be taken, 
 especially in the more arid sections where fall rains of any magnitude 
 
38 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 are less probable, to have at least two inches of fine loose soil on the 
 surface, and if the seed bed is made fine and firm, as above outlined, 
 not more than one-half of the usual amount of seed is necessary. Under 
 these conditions place the seed about one inch into the fine firm soil, 
 not over that, and by all means if you are getting a new drill, purchase 
 the closed heel shoe drill or some drill that will leave the seed in firm soil. 
 
 While this method of summer culture seems to outline a little more 
 work over the old method of summer fallow, yet it has been found to 
 pay sure and marvelously large profits. The large results under this 
 plan of cultivation come more from the kind of work done and the time 
 it is done than from a greatly increased quantity of time and expense. 
 
 Read carefully Chapter IV and comprehend the question of care 
 in summer culture. Fix in your mind just what you want to do. Re- 
 member it is not the object of summer culture to give the land a rest 
 hut rather the reverse. The object is to keep the land alive and actively 
 engaged in the manufacture of plant foods and to improve the physical 
 • condition of the soil by every part of the work done, either directly 
 or indirectly. 
 
 The great question of successful crop growing is the proper me- 
 chanical condition of the soil together with ample available moisture 
 and a proper quantity of air in the soil during the entire growing season. 
 No question interests the farmer more than how lie may get the largest 
 possible yield from all his crops. 
 
 It is altogether too common an idea that the quantity and quality 
 of the crop depends upon climatic conditions. This does not apply 
 to the semi-arid belt. The success of the farmer depends in a great 
 measure upon the quantity and quality of the grains and vegetables he 
 raises. Under the ordinary plan of farming the expense of preparing, 
 planting and cultivating is just the same whether we get fifty bushels 
 of corn or five bushels or none at all. If we proceed properly the ne- 
 cessary labor may be fifty per cent more, but even if it were double 
 and we succeed in getting thirty to forty bushels of wheat in seasons 
 when our neighbors under ordinary conditions get five or ten, does it 
 pay? If we are able to get eighty bushels of corn when our neighbor 
 gets thirty, does it pay? 
 
 By holding the moisture near the surface during the heated por- 
 tions of the season we succeed in securing a more complete decompo- 
 sition of the vegetal ile matter in our soil, passing it on to the stage that 
 is known as humus, which is a most valuable element in the soil. The 
 more humus we have the greater amount of moisture we can hold in the 
 ground. This, coupled with the amount of moisture that we are able to 
 store, and the improvement of the physical condition of the soil by the 
 disking, plowing, and frequent cultivation in our summer culture, brings 
 about three conditions, By the very fine, compact condition, our sod 
 
Campbell's 190-5 Soil Culture Manual. 39 
 
 will hold more water, consequently our plant is less liable to suffer from 
 a lack of water during extreme heat. This packed condition is also, 
 from the fact of the more minute pores in the soil, favorable to a more 
 rapid movement of moisture by capillary attraction, and last, but not 
 least, conducive to a more prolific growth, and a more general and 
 uniform distribution of the roots. All three of these conditions are 
 exceedingly important in seasons like that of 1901, when weeks go by 
 with continuous extreme heat and no rain, and such seasons or conditions 
 always come without warning. 
 
 It is our opinion, based on practical results and observation of 
 conditions similar to those in western Kansas, that by the summer culture 
 plan, storing the water the entire season, and raising crops the following 
 year, much larger average crops may be grown than the present average 
 in Iowa or Illinois. In fact, we do not believe we overdraw, when we 
 say that in the more arid portions of the semi-arid belt by the summer 
 culture plan, only cropping every other year, we can raise more wheat 
 in ten years than can be grown in the more humid portions of the belt- 
 in ten consecutive crops by the ordinary plan. By our method we have 
 "the advantage of only seeding half the land and only harvesting half 
 the land. The great value of work along this line lies in grasping fully 
 the idea of storing and conserving the rain waters, and studying care- 
 fully the necessary physical condition of the soil and endeavoring to 
 bring it to the highest degree of perfection. 
 
 If water is stored in the soils of our western prairies, nature has 
 formed perfect and complete conditions to bring this moisture back by 
 capillary attraction to feed the plants during the dry periods and there 
 can be no possible loss by drouth. In fact, when the conditions are 
 understood and the necessary labor properly applied, records of phenom- 
 enal yields will be numerous as far west as the foot hills of the Rockies. 
 
 The following from E. F. Stevens, of the Crete nursery, shows the 
 value of summer culture, even in the more humid portions of the semi- 
 arid belt. He says: ''Regarding the possibility of carrying moisture 
 conserved one year over into the next season for use for the next crop, 
 we remember that one year we grew a crop of seedlings on elevated table 
 lands on a part of the divide between the Blue and Salt creek, just south- 
 east of Crete. Seedlings for their best growth require very frequent 
 cultivation. They are cultivated weekly and oft times twice a week, 
 to secure the largest possible growth and the best grade obtainable in 
 a few months. This superior culture conserved moisture but we did not 
 so understand it then. As a rule a crop of seedlings does not take up 
 all the annual rainfall, so quite a portion of this conserved moisture was 
 carried oyer until the next season. The following year on this plat of 
 ground previously devoted to seedlings, as above stated, we secured 105 
 bushels and forty pounds of corn per acre." 
 
to Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 This marvelous yield referred to by Mr. Stevens is the direct result 
 of the careful cultivation which resulted in storing a large surplus of 
 moisture, and it is fair and reasonable to conclude that equally as good, 
 if not better, results may be gained in any portion of Nebraska, Kansas, 
 or western Iowa, and Missouri, by following our plan of summer culture. 
 
 To get the best results the farmer's mind must be clear on three 
 important points: That the ground must be in proper condition when 
 all his work is done on the soil; that he must have a good, fine and firm 
 root or seed bed and an abundance of moisture stored bejow. 
 
 In closing this chapter it may be very interesting as well as very 
 conclusive evidence of the correctness of our claims, to give a few of 
 the very marked conditions that surrounded some of the fields cf wheat 
 in the spring of 1904 on the Pomeroy Model farm at Hill City, Kansas, 
 during the long continued early drouth. When most fields under or- 
 dinary methods of cultivation were showing no growth and no apparent 
 moisture, the Model farm wheat was making rapid growth carrying a 
 dark green color, while five feet of moisture was found below. Another 
 field near Grainfield, Kansas, was in the same condition; another near 
 Champion, Nebraska, and another near Trenton, Nebraska. The latter 
 yielded forty-one bushels per acre while ninety per cent of the entire 
 wheat crop in that locality was a total failure. Every wheat field in 
 western Nebraska and Kansas might have yielded as much as the Trenton 
 field had the land been treated by our method and the heavy rains of 
 1903 been stored in the soil and reserved for the long dry spring of 1904. 
 Do not confound summer culture with summer fallowing. They are 
 different. 
 
 Summer culture previous to seeding to alfalfa will insure a positive 
 and even catch and a fair crop the first season. 
 
 Summer culture for the storing of the rain waters in the soil, although 
 comparatively new as outlined, is a most important adjunct in farming 
 in the West. 
 
 Begin your summer culture as early in the spring as the conditions 
 will let you on the ground with your disk harrow. Don't let the weeds 
 grow, thinking they are valuable as a fertilizer to turn under. The 
 moisture they take from the ground is worth far more to you in growing 
 the next crop. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 41 
 
 PERCOLATION. 
 
 OR GETTING WATER DOWN INTO THE SOIL. 
 
 The problem of getting the water down into the soil is one of equal 
 importance to that of conserving the moisture, which is now quite com- 
 monly understood, and accomplished by the use of the soil mulch or 
 surface cultivation. In cut No. 8 we have attempted to illustrate the 
 percolation of water, or the getting of water down into the soil. We have 
 divided this cut into three sections, numbering them 1, 2, and 3, from 
 
 A 
 
 12 3 
 
 Cut No. 8, Percolation of water, how influenced. 
 
 left to right, then divided these sections into lateral strata A, B, C, and 
 D. In section No. 1, A represents the soil mulch, a stratum of light, 
 loose, and dry soil; B represents a stratum of thoroughly pulverized 
 and firm soil, meaning the portion that is cut by the plow; C represents 
 about eight inches of the sub-soil into which water has percolated; 
 .and D represents the portion of sub-soil still below that is yet dry. In 
 
42 Campbell's 1905 Soil Cultuue Manual. 
 
 section 2, Ave find the mulch has been compacted by a heavy fall of rain. 
 This mulch in its loose condition readily takes in the water, and as soon 
 as the water reaches the moist soil found in strata B and C, it immediately 
 percolates down below, and is shown by the darker portion of soil in 
 the upper part of stratum D. Here the water has come in contact with 
 dry soil, which resists percolation. Slowly and steadily by gravity the 
 water finds its way down the columns of soil, which by the way, through- 
 out the entire semi-arid belt are almost invariably found in a perpendi- 
 cular position. In section 3, we have again reproduced our soil mulch 
 by cultivation to stopthe evaporation or loss of our water from the surface, 
 and we find the moisture below has percolated on down until the water 
 is all distributed, each little particle taking on its film of water to a given 
 thickness which it seems to steadily hold onto while the balance of the 
 free water finds its way on down until it is all distributed. The next 
 rain will result the same as is shown in section 2, only we have six, eight, 
 or twelve inches more moist soil for it to pass through before reaching 
 the dry soil. 
 
 An illustration will make this more clear. In setting out our cab- 
 bage or tomato plants in the spring of the year when the surface is dry 
 and fine we usually water them. In our first application of water to 
 this dry surface we notice the water does not seem to percolate, but for 
 a little time remains dormant on the surface. After a little it finds its 
 way down through the dry particles by force of gravity, leaving each 
 particle it passes covered with a thin film of water. Then we apply a 
 second application of water while the surface is still moist and we notice 
 the water immediately disappears. The reason of non-percolation of 
 the first application is because of the resistance of the dry particles to 
 moisture, or repulsion for water. The quick movement of the second 
 application of water into the ground is the result of the attraction of 
 water for water. 
 
 The following will illustrate this natural law: take a piece of glass, 
 or a smooth earthen plate and oil it slightly, then put drops of water, 
 a half dozen or more on the glass, take a narrow piece of ordinary news- 
 paper, about one-half inch wide, let it extend from the thumb and finger 
 about two inches, slowly move it down so the end of the paper will come 
 in contact with a single drop of water. If you notice closely you will 
 see a remarkable resistance of the paper against the water. Very soon 
 the little pores begin to absorb the water, and the end of the paper 
 becomes moist. Now slowly raise the paper ami notice how persistently 
 the paper hangs to the water. When it lets go there is a quick upward 
 movement, thus showing the power of attraction of water for water. 
 Xow steadily move the fingers down slowly, watching the paper and you 
 will notice when it gets close to the water there is a sudden movement! 
 down, even while there is a little space between the moisture on the paper 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 4.'i 
 
 and the water on the glass. The power of attraction is made very per- 
 ceptible by the quick connection of the two moist particles. Now draw 
 the paper across the glass from one drop to the other, you will notice 
 the water all hangs together. You have a string or train of water two 
 or three inches long trailing on behind your paper. 
 
 This illustrates how easy it is to get moisture into the soil by keep- 
 ing the surface constantly loose and open, so that as the rain falls it 
 soon works its way through the larger pores until it reaches the moist 
 particles in the firm soil when it immediately percolates on down below. 
 Here again nature has done a great deal for the semi-arid belt. The 
 peculiar formation and size of the usual particle of soil is very favorable 
 for percolation; also for its return upward by capillary attraction to 
 feed the plant during our long dry seasons. The movement of this 
 moisture upwards cannot be better illustrated than by the movement 
 of the oil up the lamp wick. No matter how deep the bowl of the lamp 
 is, if the wick reaches the bottom the blaze continues to burn, not only 
 until the oil is all taken from the lamp but until the wick has become 
 quite dry. The same rule or fact applies to the growing plant. So long 
 as there is plenty of moisture below it will move up through the soil 
 to the plant, keeping it in a perfectly healthy condition until the moisture 
 is not only exhausted for several feet down, but the soil near the plant 
 has become apparently quite dry. Then the plant begins to fade and 
 wither. 
 
 Study well, by close observation, this question of percolation or 
 getting water into the soil below. It is interesting and of great value. 
 
 The deeper you can store the moisture the greater are your chances 
 of securing a large crop. 
 
 A piece of ground that is moist for two or three feet down will take 
 in the water of a heavy rain much quicker than ground that is dry. Here 
 again is illustrated what moisture will do for us when we understand 
 its wavs. 
 
 CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 
 
 The average experience of the eastern farmer has not demanded ac- 
 knowledge of capillary movement of moisture in the soil, and the early 
 experience of the inhabitants of the semi-arid belt did not call for thought 
 respecting this matter. It is comparatively a new proposition. One 
 of the best illustrations to show the real facts in connection with the 
 movement of moisture in the soil, is that of glass tubes, which we have 
 frequently used in lectures to illustrate this point. A tube about one- 
 
II 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 tenth of an inch in diameter will lift the water about three-eights of an 
 inch above the surface. We have ten, the largest a tenth of an inch in 
 diameter, the others smaller, all varying in size down to as small a tube 
 as can be made in glass, the smallest probably about one-hundredth 
 part of an inch. In this the moisture will rise about six inches above 
 the surface of the water in which the tube is placed. 
 
 n 
 
 -j . 
 
 Cut No. 9, Capillary movement of moisture illustrated. 
 
 The first careful study of the rise of the water by capillary tubes 
 was made by Hauxbee nearly two hunrded years ago, but history shows 
 that the phenomenon was known to Leonardo de Vinci, the famous 
 artist, who lived between 1452 and 1519. Notwithstanding the large 
 amount of careful study which these phenomena have received even 
 during recent years, we are yet in the dark as to just how the energy 
 which forces the capillary fluids to move is transformed into current 
 motions, but all who have studied the matter scientifically are agreed 
 that it is in some way brought about through the surface tension of liquids. 
 Capillary movement is somewhat like electricity. We know its existence, 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. . 45 
 
 we see its "effects and have learned something of the various conditions 
 under which its power may be utilized. Capillary movement of moisture, 
 like electricity, has its field of usefulness, and it is now quite apparent 
 that this force within the soil performs a most important office in soil 
 physics. 
 
 Aside from the interest which the intelligent farmer will take in 
 this movement as a natural law, it should be thoroughly understood for 
 the especial reason that by capillary attraction the stores of water con- 
 served in the soil below the root bed are gradually lifted up to the roots, 
 as the plants may need the same for their sustenance and growth during 
 a period of drouth. It is by the process of first making the soil near the 
 surface firm and compact and then subsequently, by frequent cultivation 
 as in the Campbell system, holding and storing all the rain waters in the 
 stratum of soil below, that this wonderful movement of water upward by 
 capillary attraction may take place and the growing crops be nurtured 
 and matured. 
 
 By the proper preparation of our soil, that is, the fining and firming 
 of the portion necessary for the root bed, experience has demonstrated 
 that we do increase the power of capillary attraction or the more rapid 
 movement of the moisture from below up. In this soil condition we have 
 one most favorable to the free and rapid development of root growth. 
 
 If we can comprehend just how many stalks of corn, wheat, barley, 
 or potatoes can be supplied by this movement to its full demand per 
 square foot or square yard of surface soil, then with our blanket of loose 
 soil spread over the surface to prevent any loss of this moisture so that 
 the roots can take it all in, we have obtained a very desirable condition. 
 These facts, when fully comprehended, must and will make of this great 
 semi-arid belt the best and most desirable farming country we have in 
 the United States. 
 
 That the fining or compacting, or any manner of reducing the spaces 
 between the particles of soil does actually increase the movement of 
 moisture is very clearly shown by the investigations of the condition of 
 the soil beneath a horse foot track, or where a wagon has passed over a 
 plowed or otherwise pulverized field. Where the soil lies somewhat light 
 and loose to the eye it is apparently dry. Where the particles have been 
 compacted by the weight of the wagon, or the horse, a much larger per 
 cent of moisture is perceptible. Simple facts like these should not be 
 passed over without a consideration of what they mean. The remark- 
 able uses of electricity have been brought about by observing even simpler 
 facts and conditions than these. The development of steam power and 
 the vast amount of labor that is performed by it to-day, is the direct 
 result of the simple observation of a boy. who placed a cork in the nose 
 of the tea kettle, thus stopping the discharge of steam, when he soon 
 discovered that the cover would frequently lift up by force of the steam 
 
46 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 and allow the steam to escape. By holding the cover down he discovered 
 the power. The simple facts with reference to the movement of moisture 
 in the soil have already been proven to mean a great deal and eventually 
 will reclaim the great semi-arid west. 
 
 With the fact that the moisture can be stored in the ground and 
 there controlled and made available to the plant by the aid of capillary 
 attraction, with such results as have been indicated, what are the possi- 
 bilities of this great semi-arid belt? No one who has ever passed over 
 this country, or remained in it for any length of time, has ever discovered 
 any objections outside of this one fact, that crops and trees have not 
 been successfully grown. All agree that the climate is most magnificent, 
 the soil exceedingly fertile and very easy of tillage. The condition of 
 the majority of the soil in the eastern states, that is, its composition and 
 formation is such as to not be susceptible to the remarkable effects of 
 capillary movements of moisture that are shown in the great semi-arid 
 belt. It is undoubtedly due to this fact that so little attention lias been 
 given to this question until recent years. Capillary attraction is known 
 to us and is illustrated by sponges. A sponge is moistened, then com- 
 pressed, until all the possible water is pressed out, then drop the corner 
 of the sponge into the water, and water is seen to immediately climb up 
 through the entire sponge. The finer the sponge, the more quickly is 
 it filled. This is an illustration that we used some years ago, which is 
 exceedingly clear and quite convincing. The lamp wick is another illus- 
 tration, as the oil is consumed from the end of the wick, more is at hand, 
 and it gets there by no other power than by capillary attraction. 
 
 Study these three points carefully — Percolation, evaporation, and 
 capillary attraction; they will be found more interesting the more the 
 reader and investigator understands them, and when fully understood, 
 the question of soil culture will be much better appreciated. You will 
 then comprehend why the plowing should be reasonably deep and the 
 under portion made fine and firm, while the top should be fine, but loose 
 and dry. 
 
 AIR AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN THE SOIL. 
 
 Air in the soil has not received the attention and study that its 
 importance demands as well as the fact that the mechanical arrange- 
 ment of the six to eight top inches regulates very largely its availableness. 
 
 Because we have seen it constantly demonstrated we know the 
 necessity of water in the soil for plant growth, but it is not so easy to 
 comprehend the material value to the plant of air in the soil. We 
 cannot see its effect in anything like as broad a sense as we do the water, 
 yet its presence in proper quantities in the soil and about the roots of 
 the plants is just as vital to its life, health and growth as water. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 47 
 
 Water without air and its component parts is worthless ; air with- 
 out water and its component parts is equally valueless to the growth 
 and development of all farm crops. 
 
 Consider the subject carefully. How many times have we seen a 
 field of wheat, ..corn or oats, possibly half-grown, and noted that in some 
 depression the crop was ranker in growth and also a darker green. If 
 a rain of considerable magnitude comes and the depression fills with 
 water and remains there for some days, the plants that seemed to have 
 the advantage before the rain now begin to lose their dark healthy green 
 color; if the water remains long enough over the surface a yellow cast 
 becomes apparent, then a brown and finally it dies. This is because of 
 a lack of air at the roots. 
 
 In our experiment work we have observed some very marked con- 
 ditions and results. "We find that the air may be shut out by the forming 
 of an almost impervious crust, either on the surface or beneath a soil 
 mulch. The most marked effect of this crust was brought out at the 
 Pomeroy Model farm, Hill City, Kansas, in 1901, during an extremely 
 long dry period in mid-summer when for nearly three months almost the 
 entire country experienced one hundred degrees of heat, at times the 
 thermometer running even higher, without any rain. Because of wheat 
 harvesting and other pressing work, the orchard was left from fifteen 
 to eighteen days without cultivation. During this time a crust had 
 formed under the mulch which we had kept fully two and a half inches 
 in depth. The crust was nearly one inch thick and was so dense that 
 the air was almost completely shut out. This crust was caused by the 
 mulch becoming so heated through the direct rays of the sun that the 
 moisture in the firm soil just beneath formed a vapor and passed off 
 through the pores of the mulch, to a degree moistening the mulch, and 
 allowing enough capillary attraction, which together with the heat, 
 permitted much of the moisture to be lost by evaporation. This re- 
 sulted in bringing up much magnesia, alkali, salts, etc., in a soluble or 
 dissolved condition. When this soluble matter reached the point in 
 the soil near the surface, where the moisture was transformed into vapor 
 by the intense heat, it became a solid and these minute particles gradu- 
 ally filled up the pores in the top of the firm soil. 
 
 Our attention was first called to this on returning after an absence 
 of four days from the farm, by noting the fact that the foliage of the 
 trees was losing its dark green color. To ascertain the reason for this, 
 after finding that there was ample moisture beneath the crust, the 
 experiment of double-disking one-half of the orchard was tried. The 
 disk was set to cut as deeply as possible, thus completely destroying the 
 crust.. On the morning of the fourth day there was a perceptible differ- 
 ence in the color of the leaves in this half of the orchard. In seven 
 days the trees in the disked portion had resumed their healthy dark 
 
48 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 green color, while the undisked portion had become still lighter in color. 
 The balance of the orchard was then disked. Although the extreme 
 weather continued four weeks longer, the leaves of the whole orchard 
 resumed their fine, deep green and new growth was apparently rapid. 
 
 Similar conditions have since been noted in wheat, oats and corn, 
 with same results from similar treatment, all pointing to the fact that 
 both the growth and yield of crops may be very materially diminished 
 by shutting the air from the roots of the plants. 
 
 Cut No. 10, Showing effect of shuting air from roots. 
 
 To illustrate more fully the effect of shutting the air from the roots 
 we take the above cut from Goff's book, Principles of Plant Culture. 
 
 To make this test practical, two glasses were filled about half full 
 of soft water, then two slips of the same kind of a plant as near alike as 
 could be selected were placed in the two glasses and then a thin layei 
 of olive oil was put upon the water in one glass to prevent the air reach- 
 ing the water, the glasses placed in a warm light place; in a very few 
 days live healthy roots are seer developing from the slip in the glass with 
 out the oil while the oil covered not only shows no roots but the leaves 
 soon begin to wither. While it must be remembered that slips from 
 any and all trees or shrubs will not do this, only such as willow, nastur- 
 tium, or wandering jew, etc. Yet it demonstrates clearly and beyond 
 •i -hade of doubt that the air plays a very important part in the growth 
 and developemnt of roots and plants, 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 -19 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 No question connected with soil culture has received more atten- 
 tion, and has been more thoroughly discussed than that of cultivation 
 of corn, potatoes, and other growing crops. In the past few years we 
 have heard much about shallow cultivation. In fact it seems to be the 
 prevailing idea, but there is danger in too shallow cultivation. Es- 
 pecially is this true in the higher altitudes where the atmosphere is 
 dryer. Here a deeper mulch is necessary to prevent loss of moisture 
 by evaporation. 
 
 It needs no argument with the average farmer today to persuade 
 him that deep cultivation with the old long pointed shovels is not the 
 thing. Shallow cultivation is not, however, well understood. There 
 arc many important points not generally observed. In cut Xo. 11, we 
 show a hill of potatoes which has been grown by shallow cultivation. 
 It is proper to add that this ground was first plowed eight inches deep, 
 
 
 m 
 
 fey ~>-.K~V: '-: '. 
 
 
 Cut No, 11, Shallow Cultivation. 
 
50 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 having been previously disked, the plow followed with a sub-surface 
 packer, and the whole portion made thoroughly fine and firm. In se- 
 curing this illustration, the lateral roots of many different hills were 
 washed out. The main roots running from the stock were almost inva- 
 riably found to have traversed in quite a uniform distance from the 
 surface of moisture: the little branches running out from the main roots 
 taking various directions, some lateral and some down. 
 
 The illustrations quite perfectly shows all these important facts. 
 Notice the two and a half inch mulch, and the very fine, uniform con- 
 dition of the balance of the furrow or plowed portion, where may be 
 seen numerous roots. This represents a hill of potatoes taken from a 
 field grown on our farm in Brown county, South Dakota, in 1S94, when 
 thirty-two acres of high, level prairie produced an average of one hundred 
 and forty-two bushels to the acre, and this in a season when almost all 
 crops throughout the entire semi-arid belt were ruined by the extreme 
 drouth. 
 
 In cut No. 12, we give another illustration of potatoes grown under 
 otlier conditions. This ground was treated practically the same as that 
 show in cut No. 11, but deep cultivation was applied, and less frequent. 
 This field was cultivated three times, cutting fully four inches deep, 
 which resulted in destroying nearly all the main lateral roots, while 
 the other field was cultivated eight times, cutting about two inches. 
 The difference in the result of the two crops was attributed directly to 
 the treatment. of the ground after planting. 
 
 The main point we wish to show here is that time and manner have 
 even more to do with the result of the crop than the kind of cultivation. 
 If you would secure the greatest possible benefit from the labor given 
 over to cultivation you should first provide yourself with some fine- 
 toothed cultivator, so that the soil may be all thoroughly fined, leaving 
 the surface of the firm soil beneath as near level as possible. Then, 
 great care should be taken to catch your ground in proper condition. It 
 is true there is but little time after a rain that the ground is in the best 
 possible condition. This is the time when the free water has all per- 
 colated below, and the soil to the depth which you wish to run your 
 cultivator, is simply moist — neither very wet nor very dry. In this 
 condition the little particles seem to readily separate, one from the 
 other, then your stirred soil is composed of an innumerable number of 
 little, minute lumps, forming a mulch that gives you the highest degree 
 of protection. A mulch made when soil is in this condition will never 
 blow. 
 
 If the soil be too dry it breaks into large lumps which not unfre- 
 quont.lv lay in such manner as to direct volumns of air through the Large 
 spaces between them down to the solid and firm soil beneath, causing 
 much loss by evaporation. It is needless to mention the difficulty arising 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 51 
 
 from cultivating soil that is too wet. When worked it becomes what is 
 known as "puddled," and then when dried it becomes hard as brick 
 and a heavy rain is required to even dissolve the lumps so that they may 
 afterwards be pulverized. 
 
 SAVING WATER BY CULTIVATION". 
 
 There are two vital points in regard to the successful growing of 
 crops in the western country. The first is the importance of getting 
 all t he water possible into the ground, and second, using every possible 
 nieans to conserve or retain it there. 
 
 Cut No. 12, Deep cultivation. 
 
 The importance, or value, of a little additional water is shown by 
 the effect of snowdrifts that may form on the field from any cause. 
 The increased amount of moisture thai seems to find its way into the 
 soil when the snow melts invariably makes itself apparent in the grow- 
 ing crop as soon as a dry period begins to effect the crop in the least. 
 At these points the crop always holds out longer, sometimes carrying 
 
52 Campbell's 190.5 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the crop over to another good rain, which results in maturing an un- 
 usually large yield on these places, while the balance of the field will not 
 yield to exceed one-half or one-fourth the amount. Thus a gain in yield 
 of wheat of probably ten bushels to the acre is the result of perhaps 
 not over one-half inch of additional water that had percolated into the 
 ground. The enormous evaporation from our fields under favorable 
 conditions is not in the least comprehended by the average farmer because 
 he has no means of readily testing and proving. 
 
 Under the heading of Evaporation, we have given the results of 
 some experiments by Professor King of the Wisconsin Agriculture college, , 
 showing the rapidity with which moisture will rise through the soil by 
 what is known as capillary attraction, reach the surface and pass off 
 in vapor into the atmosphere in a sigle day. Not until the farmer begins 
 to grasp the vital importance, of keeping even a little additional water 
 in his soil can he be expected to use all due diligence in preventing this 
 evaporation. This observation of the farmers throughout the semi-arid 
 west, during the growing season of 1901, especially Kansas and Ne- 
 braska, ought to be amply convincing with reference to the value of 
 stored water in the soil. There were frequent remarks during its pro- 
 longed and severe drouth of the mid-summer with reference to how 
 the corn continued day after day, and week after week, contending 
 against this extreme heat without rain, without showing any apparent 
 effect of drouth; but this was simplv the direct result of the unsuually 
 heavy rains in early spring that percolated down into the soil, in many 
 instances eighteen inches to two feet deeper than usual, and there acting 
 as a reserve, continued to return by capillary attraction and feed the 
 corn plants and other grain until it was exhausted. In this same chapter 
 on Evaporation we make mention of several instances where the early 
 disking of the ground resulted in retaining a sufficient amount of addi- 
 tional water to carry a crop of corn through, increasing its yield in some 
 instances as high as twenty bushels, which was not secured in adjoining 
 fields, not disked, simply because the moisture was allowed to evaporate 
 by leaving the surface hard and compact, as -is always the condition after 
 a heavy rain or snow. 
 
 To be successful the farmer must grasp the full importance of doing 
 all his work just at a time when the condition of the soil is best adapted. 
 The idea that by plowing to-day we may get ten bushels of wheat to the 
 acre, when if we plowed the ground four days later we would get fifteen 
 bushels or vice versa seems rather ridiculous. While this statement and 
 the figures used, may in most cases be a little 'strong, yet it is a fact 
 that the average yield of a field is frequently increased or decreased 
 quite a per cent by a few days variation in the time the work is done. 
 This is especially true with reference to cultivation. I have in mind 
 a case near Fairmont, Neb., where the phenomenal difference of fifteen 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 58 
 
 to eighteen bushels per acre was made by cultivating a part of the field 
 before a heavy rain of nearly five inches and the balance of it after this 
 rain. The reason of this remarkable difference was simply what we have 
 been dwelling upon, the result of retaining a large per cent of moisture 
 by the soil mulch produced -by the cultivation after the rain, that was 
 lost from the balance of the field by rapid evaporation. This occurred 
 in July, and was the last cultivation preparatory to what is called laying 
 the corn by. The rain was a very heavy one. 
 
 The part of the field that was cultivated previous to the rain was 
 left with the thick compacted crust made by the heavy fall of water, 
 which resulted in dissolving the loosened soil and settling it very close, 
 thus leaving the surface in the best possible condition for a rapid move- 
 ment of moisture to the surface and evaporation. Under the head of 
 Capillary Attraction we have explained this more clearly. The portion 
 not cultivated previous to the rain was gone over as soon after the rain 
 as conditions would permit, thus producing a perfect protection to the 
 moisture below, and bringing about the remarkable result referred to. 
 While these cases cited seem like extreme instances, under similar cir- 
 cumstances you can look for similar results. When the reader begins 
 to understand the direct effect of these conditions it will then*be quite 
 clear why a light crop was secured when a good crop might have been 
 harvested. 
 
 AS TO TIME OF CULTIVATION. 
 
 The proper time for cultivating a field is one that cannot be fixed 
 without much thought, observation, and judment by the farmer, es- 
 pecially if he would get the best results. Always cultivate immediately, or 
 as soon after a rain as conditions will permit you on the field, and the 
 soil is sufficiently dried so that it will not adhere to the cultivator teeth, 
 or tools used. We do not mean by this that the soil should be absolutely 
 dry on the surface. It is an error to wait for that time, for the moment 
 the surface is apparently dry the crust begins to form. It is desirable 
 to catch the ground just before this time when all the soil is simply moist 
 and then there is a free and ready separation of all particles. In this 
 condition the cultivator runs the easiest, the mulch made the finest and 
 lies up light and loose. If the soil is a little too wet it settles, and not 
 infrequently forms absolute and perfect connection with the firm soil 
 below, steadily carrying moisture to the surface. If too dry the cul- 
 tivator produces an imperfect mulch that gives us but little protection. 
 
 Another and very important idea is that every moment's delay after 
 the soil reaches the proper condition causes you to lose water very fast. 
 It is at the rate of a quart or over per square foot per day providing it 
 is clear sunny weather, and even more in case of heavy south winds. 
 The more intense the heat the more frequent it is necessary to cultivate. 
 
54 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 A very good rule is to watch the condition of the firm soil just beneath 
 the loose mulch or cultivated portion, and whenever the surface of this 
 firm soil begins to show dryness it is high time to commence cultivating 
 again. 
 
 We cannot impress this point more fully upon your mind than by 
 referring back to that part of Chapter X, which tells of the crusting of 
 the orchard on the Pomeroy Model farm during the extreme dry period 
 (if 1001, and its effect upon the growth of the trees. 
 
 We had a similar experience, but more clearly illustrated, in the 
 cultivation of corn in Cheyenne county, northwest Kansas, in 1898. 
 This demonstrates very clearly the great importance of being exceedingly 
 cautious, not to let any crust form under the mulch. We are of the 
 opinion that many corn crops have been seriously injured by that con- 
 dition, when with no more available moisture the crop would have come 
 out all right had it not been for this crust. 
 
 KEEPING THE MULCH IN CONDITION. 
 
 There are many important reasons why great care should be taken 
 to keep the mulch in perfect condition and prevent the loss as far as 
 possible of any moisture by evaporation from the surface of the soil. 
 The following paragraph, taken from Professor King's book on "The 
 Soil" conveys some important information along this line. We quote 
 this because it bears the figures of his own practical observation at various 
 depths in the soil, showing the effect not only of the surface soil getting 
 too dry but of light showers. He says: 
 
 "When the surface soil has its water contents reduced so the upper 
 six to twelve inches are beginning to get dry the rate of capillary rise 
 of water through it is decreased and it begins to assume the properties 
 of a mulch. But when this condition lias been reached if a rain increased 
 the thickness of the water film on the soil grains without causing perco- 
 lation the capillary flow may be so certain that the surface foot draws 
 upon the deeper soil moisture at a more rapid rate than before, causing 
 a trans-location of the lower soil moisture, the deeper soil becoming 
 measurably drier soon after such a rain than it was before, while the 
 surface foot is found to contain more water than has fallen upon it." 
 
 He cites experiments as proof of this important principle. Some 
 of his experiments were very interesting and instructive, showing that 
 by wetting the surface capillary attraction was so increased as to show 
 that moisture had moved up from the fourth and fifth foot below. 
 
 This emphasizes the fact that the tiller of the soil should understand 
 these conditions that he may know just what to do to get the best possi- 
 ble yields. 
 
 In closing this chapter we venture to repeat that we may emphasize 
 some things taught. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 55 
 
 Winter wheat will not winter-kill in firmed, moist soil, while in loose 
 soil it frequently thins out or kills out entirely. 
 
 A fine, firm root bed, with a loose surface or mulch, is a condition 
 that will withstand the extreme dry periods longest without any injury 
 to the plant. 
 
 Study well the question of thoroughly pulverizing and packing the 
 lower portion of the plowing; a full understanding of its importance 
 means many dollars, because it means a larger crop result. 
 
 Sub-surface packing increases the moisture in the lower portion of 
 the plow r ed ground and induces decomposition of the weeds, stubble, or 
 manures that have been turned under, thereby adding humus, the all 
 important soil ingredient for rapid plant growth, as well as enabling the 
 plant to withstand drouth. 
 
 If you would get your soil to a condition of fineness and firmness, 
 do all your work to that end when the soil is just slightly moist, for it 
 then plows better, packs better, and cultivates better. Do not go to 
 work on plowed ground that is dried to the bottom, whether plowed 
 in good condition or not, and expect in any way to get the lower portion 
 of the furrow in good condition. You may improve it. The closer you 
 keep to the plow the better you can pack the under portion. 
 
 BARN YARD MANURES. 
 
 It needs no argument to prove to the eastern farmer in the more 
 humid sections of this country, that there is great value in the use of 
 bam yard manures. In fact, in most sections of the east every oppor- 
 tunity possible is utilized in increasing the quantity- In the West, or 
 more especially in the semi-arid belt, farmers have come to look upon 
 this question in an entirely different light. Probably in the entire belt 
 at the present time a much larger per cent of these manures are either 
 thrown into a draw or burned up. This is all wrong. There is no sec- 
 tion of country where the soil would respond more liberally and for a 
 longer period of years after the application of manure than here. The 
 difficulty lies in the manner of applying. The dryness of our atmos- 
 phere and the frequent long periods without rain is not conductive to 
 nitrification or decomposition, consequently in our early experiences in 
 applying it to our fields, more or less straw and coarse matter in almost 
 a perfect state of preservation had to be used. With our light, loose, 
 loamy soil there is not sufficient weight to press this coarse matter down 
 solid when plowed under, consequently the open, porous condition under- 
 neath, the detrimental effect of which is well known, resulted in burning 
 
56 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the crop and producing weeds. To throw coarse manure on the ground 
 leaving many bunches, then plowing it under without special care in 
 packing, is of little value. We have had the best results, in short, have 
 never failed in getting good results, by putting it on with a manure 
 spreader, then with a sharp disk double-disk the surface, mixing it to a 
 (considerable extent with the top three inches of soil, then plowing six 
 or seven inches deep, using a rod on the beam to turn everything under, 
 following the plow with the sub-surface packer, which would result in 
 packing the soil and manures firmly in the bottom. With slight moisture 
 under these conditions decomposition quickly takes place. In our early 
 experience in Brown county, South Dakota, in the year 1882, we applied 
 a liberal coating of barn yard manure, plowed it under, and worked it 
 down as best we could after the manner usually practiced in old Ver- 
 mont. The rainfall during that season was quite liberal and timely. 
 The piece, about five acres, was planted to corn and well cultivated, 
 with such good results, that we decided to treat the manure question 
 with the same care and economy as we were wont to do in the East. 
 The same plan was followed out in 1883, with a total loss of all the crops 
 which were planted on that ground. A small attempt was made again 
 in 1884, with the same poor results. For several years after this we 
 followed the usual plan of the western farmer, of hauling it out and 
 using any possible method to get rid of it. But the remarkable results 
 each and every year from the field where the manure was applied in 1882, 
 was too convincing of its value. For ten consecutive years this entire 
 quarter section was put into wheat. Every year in the early stages of 
 the growth of the wheat, the shape of this five-acre field, which was in 
 one corner of the one hundred and sixty acres, was perceptible both in 
 the color of the wheat and the development of the stools, and almost 
 invariably at harvest time the grain on this little piece would be from 
 four to eight and ten inches higher than the balance of the field, and 
 yielded invariably from fifty to one hundred and fifty per cent more. 
 With much study along these lines, and several experiments, to find 
 out why such remarkable results were obtained from this field and why 
 we could not succeed in later attempts, we were finally able to solve the 
 problem fully. It is simply a question of mixing the manures into the 
 soil as much as possible, and then firming the under portion of the fur- 
 row slice, thoroughly packing manure and soil, followed with careful 
 cultivation, when the same results may practically be attained any year 
 that were secured in the seasons referred to, when we had the unusual 
 amount of rain scattered along at proper periods at just the right time 
 to produce decomposition. The peculiarity of the formation of our soil 
 is such that manures, when properly applied, very materially aid us in 
 carrying our crops through the dry periods and preventing the serious 
 effects of the drouth, for the simple reason that the humus, which is 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the complete decomposed vegetable matter, very materially increases 
 the water holding capacity of our soil. The more humus we have in 
 the soil, the greater is the number of particles, consequently the greater 
 amount of surface to hold water. It also aids in the movement of moist- 
 ure through the soil, and in the encouragement and development of 
 root growth. 
 
 When barn yard manures are properly applied to the prairies of the 
 semi-arid belt, their effect upon plant growth is noticeable much longer 
 than in the east, where the greater rainfall has a tendency to wash the 
 humus below. This trouble of washing out is especially perceptible in 
 the gravelly soils of New York and the New Egnland states. There is 
 another advantage of the semi-arid belt which will be appreciated when 
 these facts are better understood by the masses, for our observations 
 so far clearly show that manures are even more valuable here than in 
 the East, not that our soil is not fertile, but the more humus we have 
 in the soil the more water will each square inch of soil hold, and conse- 
 quently our crop is safer and less liable to suffer from drouth. There 
 is but little expense attached to an experiment to ascertain the correct- 
 ness of our assertions on this subject, and were you to make them, you 
 would find more and surer profit from then than from government bonds. 
 The sub-surface packer is a very valuable tool in securing immediate 
 results from manure. See cut No. 2. This shows how the manure 
 would be compacted in the bottom. 
 
 Professor Goff in his book on principles of plant culture, says: 
 "Much of the benefit of manuring undoubtedly comes from the in- 
 creased capacity it gives the soils for holding and transmitting water." 
 
 Professor King says in his book on soils, that in three years' ex- 
 periments with barn yard manures he found "That for manured fallow 
 ground the surface foot contained eighteen and three-fourths times, 
 or four thousand and eighty-seven gallons more water per acre than 
 adjacent and similar but unmanured land did; while the second foot 
 contained nine and one-fourth tons and the third six and one-third tons 
 more water, making a total difference in favor of the manured ground 
 of thirty-four and one-third tons or eighty-five thousand gallons. 
 
 We would advise, where it is possible, to plow manure under in 
 summer tilling fields and in doing this it will be found that less seed is 
 needed for best results. 
 
 THE MANURE SPREADER.. 
 
 While the manure spreader is a very valuable farm implement 
 from a time saving standpoint, yet its great value lies in the fact that 
 the manure is thoroughly torn into small pieces and very evenly dis- 
 tributed over the surface of the field. It will pay for itself in a short 
 time providing the farmer will use great care in mixing the manure 
 
58 Campbell's 190.5 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 with the soil, plowing it under at a fair depth and then firming the 
 soil with a sub-surface packer. It only takes a little manure per acre 
 and a little intelligent mixing and preparing of the soil to easily double 
 the present average yield. 
 
 CORN. 
 
 In the eastern states among the hills of New York and New Eng- 
 land, a large amount of time is given to the preparation of the soil. 
 Experience has taught them that without this, crops are light. Barn 
 vard manure is used freely, and two, three, or four dollars worth of 
 fertilizing per acre is not uncommonly necessary in order to secure good 
 crops. Professor Bailey of Cornell University, Ithaca, X. Y., has well 
 said that no after cultivation can make amends for a poor job of prepa- 
 ration. This applies just as much to the semi-arid belt as it does to 
 the eastern sections of the country. In Illinois the soil is more fertile 
 and rain usually ample, so that no fertilizers are required and when 
 the rains are ample and timely two or three ordinary cultivations produce 
 a good crop of corn. But even there they arc beginning to learn the 
 value of conserving the water by more frequent cultivation, because 
 of dry periods that are liable to come at any time. With us in the semi- 
 arid belt more attention must be given to the preparation of the ground. 
 We cannot depend upon heavy rains to aid us in dissolving and settling 
 our soil, consequently we must give close attention to every part of the 
 work. The first thing in order is the early disking which should be a 
 double-disking in order to thoroughly pulverize the surface, bearing in 
 mind that every act must be to store and provide the greatest possible 
 amount of water in the soil. Early disking covers the two important 
 points previously referred to, that of preventing the evaporation and 
 opening up the surface to receive the later rains. This done, we simply 
 wait for the proper time of further preparation and planting, always 
 being in readiness, however, to loosen the surface at any time, should we 
 get a rain of any magnitude. There is some diversity of opinion as to 
 whether the check-rower or lister is preferable, more particularly in the 
 lower altitudes. We favor the lister in the higher altitudes, or in the 
 northern sections, where the nights are cooler, which results in heavier 
 stooling or suckering. These additional shoots are very detrimental to 
 the corn crop, especially so, should we have a dry season, but for the 
 more humid sections we still favor the check-row planting especially on 
 rolling land. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 THE LLSTER. 
 
 The lister has one advantage that is especially desirable. By filling 
 the furrows about the time the shoots begin to show and thereby cover- 
 ing them up we may destroy them completely, which is easily and quite 
 readily done. Another advantage in listing in the more arid sections is 
 that of getting the roots deeper into the ground. The higher the alti- 
 tude and the drier the atmosphere, the deeper is it necessary to cultivate 
 in order to produce a deeper mulch to prevent evaporation. In using 
 the lister on ground where the moisture has been carefully preserved by 
 disking and harrowing in the early spring it is quite important to follow 
 the lister with some tool to thoroughly pulverize the moist soil that is 
 thrown up as such soil soon assumes a dry and very hard condition 
 which is afterwards hard to manage. 
 
 The best tool for this purpose is the weeder, the long, flexible teeth 
 lap down on the side of the furrow or ridge as thrown up between the 
 rows and quite completely pulverize the large clods that are thrown up 
 by the lister, leaving a perfect circle with a nice fine mulch over the 
 entire surface. This puts your ground in magnificent shape, especially 
 in the sand loam soils of the semi-arid belt, so that you can continue 
 the use of the weeder by going lengthways of the ridges and completely 
 destroy the weeds before they assume any size, keeping your mulch in 
 perfect condition to prevent evaporation, going over the ground after 
 each rain as in the cultivation of other crops, watching the condition 
 very closely in order that you may catch the ground just when slightly 
 moist before the crust has begun to form. This does away with the 
 weed cutting idea. 
 
 On the Kilpatrick ranch, in Chase county, Nebraska, in 1903, two 
 hundred and seventy acres of listed corn were handled in this manner. 
 The weeder used was the combination weeder and harrow made in 
 sections the same as the common steel harrow. Enough sections were 
 used to cover six rows of corn and the entire field was gone over four 
 times before any other cultivator was used and the corn was then about 
 eight to ten inches high. The suckers or stools were from two to five 
 inches long. A two-row riding cultivator with two wide shovels on each 
 side was then used throwing the soil from the ridge over the suckers to 
 cover them up and practically leveling the ridges down. A few days 
 later it was with considerable difficulty that a sucker could be found, 
 in fact with care and catching the corn at proper heighth the suckers 
 can all be destroyed. The cultivator was followed with the weeder 
 which practically leveled the surface. The corn was now ten to fill ecu 
 inches high and scarcely a broken stalk could be found owing to the 
 fact of the flexibleness of the teeth and that the drag or weeder bars 
 were seven inches high. The field was gone over five times with a weeder 
 
60 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 that took in six rows, costing less time than to have gone over once with 
 a one-row cultivator and once over with a two-row cultivator. This 
 made the total cost of six cultivations equivalent to less than once and 
 a half over by the old plan. The corn was harrowed five times and 
 made over forty bushels to the acre. Only twelve miles east of the 
 Colorado line many similar conditions and results can be given. 
 
 In growing listed corn we do not believe in very deep listing, but 
 in thorough cultivation from early spring until the crop is put in, then 
 consider fully that ample moisture and air must be in the soil and that 
 weeds growing in a corn field live on your best corn. 
 
 CHECK ROW PLANTING. 
 
 In planting with the check row planter it is important to plow the 
 ground as early as possible. Here again, the early disking comes in 
 with its all important results to prevent the evaporation, holding your 
 ground in perfect condition for rapid percolation of the later rains. 
 This is advisable because you can get onto your ground with the disk 
 when at a proper depth to plow it would be too wet. Then again, you 
 can cover the field quicker if you have a broad gauged disk than with 
 the plow. It also enables you to get your soil in much better physical 
 condition, than would be possible if the ground were allowed to dry out. 
 The plowing should be followed up soon after, but remember this point — 
 if you have been particularly persistent in preventing this evaporation 
 by the disking your ground is in perfect condition to plow, even though 
 you have considerable dry weather later on in the spring. The soil will 
 roll up in a moist condition, and is suscepible to the best results with 
 the packer or any other tool. Follow the plow closely with the packer, 
 at least every noon and night, if you have one. 
 
 There are few places where the sub-surface packer turns the profit 
 it will in following the plow in preparing a field for corn. An experi- 
 ment on the Burlington farm in Phelps county, Nebraska, in 1904, 
 where a strip of land in a field being prepared for corn was left without 
 packing, the following facts were observed: Germination was four or 
 five days slower; the stand of corn much less uniform and the final yield 
 per acre fully fifteen bushels less. 
 
 After your ground is turned over and the necessary work done to 
 pulverize the surface, watch closely the condition. Whenever any rain 
 comes, even though it only wets through the mulch or loose soil on top, 
 it is necessary to immediately stir it to dry it out. 
 
 The importance of quick work after the surface has been moistened, 
 even by a slight rain, cannot be too strongly urged. See Chapter IN. 
 In the use of the check row planter the difference in the time of germina- 
 tion, the rapidity of the young plant in ground prepared as outlined 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 61 
 
 under the head of plowing and sub-packing, as compared with corn 
 put into ground in the ordinary manner of preparing is interesting. 
 
 The growth of roots as shown under the head of root develop- 
 ment is also interesting. Do not put too much in seed. There are 
 unquestionably many instances where very light corps of corn have been 
 secured from too much seed. Had there been one-half as many stalks 
 growing there would have probably been two or three times as much 
 corn. T have frequently heard the remark: "If you don't put in the 
 seed you can't get the crop," indicating the crop was gauged by the 
 quantity of seed. This is another mistake and is beginning to be more 
 generally understood. The strongest evidence along this line is found 
 in some experimental work which we conducted in 1897, where eight 
 ears of corn were raised from one single kernel. Seven of these were 
 well developed ears, the eighth having corn about half the length of the 
 cob, both the upper and lower ends of this cob being bare of corn. 
 
 AMOUNT OF SEED NECESSARY. 
 
 One fact may not be generally known, that every healthy corn 
 stalk starts from five to ten ears. Now the development of these ears 
 depends entirely upon the physical condition of the soil and an ample 
 supply of available soil moisture, air and plant food at all times. It 
 is true there are instances, or conditions that might exist by which 
 more corn might possibly be got from two, three, or four stalks in a hill 
 than one. These would be rare cases, and where by extreme heat the 
 demands upon the supply of moisture and plant food might suddenly 
 destroy the vitality, or life of all the ears that were started on the corn, 
 except the top one. Then a sudden and liberal rain immediately re- 
 plenishing the soil about the roots with the necessary moisture which 
 would immediately increase the available supply of plant food and push 
 to completion the single ears left on each stalk, when we would have 
 two, three or four ears to the hill as against one ear if we had but one 
 stalk. Then again should the dry period continue longer without any 
 rain we might loose all the ears, because the demand for moisture to 
 supply the growth and development of two, three, or four stalks would 
 be just that much greater than for one stalk, consequently the one stalk 
 could endure the drouth longer without suffering, and probably reach 
 the next rain when ample moisture would mature one or two good ears 
 as against none at all with a larger number of stalks. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROOTS. 
 
 It will be seen from these facts that it is possible to secure as large 
 a yield from one kernel in a hill as from three kernels in a hill, and in 
 the semi-arid belt much more probable, although where ample moisture 
 is stored and conserved and soil well prepared we favor two kernels to 
 
62 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the hill. In cut No. 13 we show a single stalk of corn and the general 
 direction and development of roots. This illustration was made from 
 several careful investigations of the location and development of corn 
 roots. In the right hand corner you will note the figures to 6, each 
 indicating the circle of roots, indicating the first development, or from 
 the germination of the kernel of corn, while No. 1 indicates the second 
 growth of roots, which almost invariably is found to run very close to 
 
 Cut No. 13, Development of corn roots. 
 
 the surface of moisture. The depth of the early cultivation of the corn, 
 providing we have no immediate subsequent rains to moisten the cul- 
 tivated portion, largely regulates the location of these roots, therefore 
 it. is well to go slightly deeper the first time. Mo. 2 indicates the third 
 line of roots, which is almost invariably found, although starting from 
 the stalk a little higher, to make its way to a lower point beneath the 
 line from which roots No. 1 seem to feed. These roots although only 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Mam -al. 
 
 fi3 
 
 shown in the illustration as being single roots running to the right and 
 left as we look at the stalk of corn, yet there is an entire circle around 
 the stalk running in every direct inn, providing the condition of the ground 
 is such as to encourage them. Here one can readily see the importance 
 of cultivating as deep the first- time as in any previous cultivation, for 
 these roots find their way out through the soil in the early stages of the 
 growth of the plant. Hoots No. 3, which is the second circle of roots. 
 are what is properly known as brace roots. These roots like the sub- 
 sequent roots 4, 5, and 6, find their course very largely straight down 
 into the soil. They, however, convey but a small per cent of moisture 
 and plant food to the. corn. This being almost entirely the work of the 
 roots shown bv 1 and '_'. Here in this illustration can readily be seen 
 
 Cornfield by Campbell System, 84 bushels per acre. Lisbon, X. P. 
 
 the serious results from deeper subsequent cultivation, which might 
 result in cutting off many roots. We can also see the importance of 
 all work as outlined under the various headings referring to the prepa- 
 ration and care of the soil being carefully carried out. 
 
 Here in this illustration is represented corn put in with the check 
 row planter, the ground plowed fully seven inches deep, thoroughly 
 pulverized and made firm. Now, supposing we have carried out the 
 necessarv work to have stored and conserved moisture to considerable 
 
04 Campbell's 1905 Soil CVlture Manual. 
 
 depth, five or six feet, with our plowed ground thoroughly pulverized 
 and made firm, we have the best possible condition, as stated under the 
 head of Sub-Surface Packing, for the three all important conditions 
 which we so frequently mention. That of holding the greatest possible 
 amount of moisture in the soil, a condition to promote the most rapid 
 movement of moisture by capillary attraction from the sub-soil up into 
 this finely pulverized portion. Also a condition most favorable to the 
 development of roots and root hairs or feeders. Careful investigation 
 of fields thus prepared after the stalks of corn have reached a height of 
 three or four feet will show almost a perfect network of these little roots 
 and feeders throughout the entire field. Scarcely a spot half an inch 
 square can be- found that is not permeated by many of these little hair 
 roots seeking the moisture and plant food therefrom. 
 
 With our moisture in ample quantities below, as stated, and this 
 perfect condition of soil and development of roots, the growth and 
 development of a magnificent crop of corn now depends entirely upon 
 the time, manner and kind of cultivation. It is not absolutely neces- 
 sary that the farmer should have a specially fine toothed cultivator. 
 The Eagle Claw cultivator, that carries four shovels on each side of the 
 row, is probably the best in general use. Again we must repeat the 
 importance of watching closely the condition of the soil, that as' much 
 of the work as possible may be done at the time, immediately after a 
 rain when the soil is simply moist and the soil grains seem to most readily 
 separate one from the other, as in this condition the most perfect and 
 uniformly fine mulch may be produced. 
 
 BROAD-GAUGED CULTIVATORS. 
 
 From the fact that it is so extremely important to catch this ground 
 at just the proper condition, a condition that does not long exist after 
 a rain, it is apparent that cultivators on the broad-gauged plan must 
 be produced by our manufacturers. A two or three-row machine is very 
 important, that we may cultivate two or three times as much ground in 
 the same length of time, and when the farmers come to understand the 
 importance of rapid work and the demand is made, such tools will be 
 produced, for Yankee ingenuity is prevalent in all of our big manufactur- 
 ing establishments. Returning to cut Xo. 13, and the existing conditions 
 as outlined, if the corn is not too thick. in the ground, we never have had 
 a season that a sufficient amount of moisture could not be held about 
 these roots to produce, not only a fair crop, but a remarkably good crop. 
 If the loose mulch on top, to a depth of two and a half or three inches, 
 is first produced when the conditions are just right after a rain, and 
 stirred just often enough during the long dry periods, we can practically 
 prevent any loss whatever by evaporation from the surface. This 
 accomplished, the perfect physical condition of our soil and complete 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 development of roots will take the moisture from below sufficiently fast 
 to prevent practically any damage from extreme drouth, and produce a 
 most magnificent crop of corn. 
 
 TIME FOR INVESTIGATION. 
 
 These illustrations, coupled with the facts referred to under the 
 heading' of Evaporation, where fifteen to even twenty bushels was added 
 to the yield of a field of corn, where only a small part of the work here 
 referred to was carried out, is certainly sufficient evidence to prompt 
 many to make even a small te'st to find out the correctness of these 
 assertions. If they are true, then it is folly for men to raise five, ten, or 
 twenty bushels, when by a more careful and thorough plan of cultivation, 
 forty, fifty, or seventy-five bushels might be raised. 
 
 Plenty of water in the soil makes plenty of corn. 
 .No after cultivation can make amends for a poor job of preparing 
 the soil for crop. 
 
 The deeper you can get the water stored down in the ground before 
 planting time the surer you are to get a big crop. 
 
 Cultivate your corn at least once after the last rain If you don't 
 need the water for this crop you may the next. 
 
 Don't get the shallow idea too strongly fixed. Two and a half to 
 three inches of fine loose soil is about the best condition. 
 
 Watch the first approach of spring and as soon as you can get into 
 the field with your disk, go over your ground intended for corn. Nothing 
 can pa)' better. 
 
 There is no work done, cosl considered, that seems {,0 go farther 
 toward increasing the yield of corn than that of early double-disking. 
 This is also quite true with reference to all other crops. 
 
 Never allow a crust to form under the mulch no more than you 
 would on the surface. It will get there if you don't watch closely during 
 times of extreme heat in long dry periods. Don't let weeds grow. Every 
 weed means less corn. 
 
 EVAPORATION. 
 
 The principles and processes of evaporation are another thing of 
 great importance to the farmer who lives in the semi-arid belt. In fact 
 there is nothing more serious for the farmer than the loss of rain water by 
 vapor, the direct result of the sun's heat and the hot winds. The remark 
 is common in the semi-arid belt that we do not have rain enough, or 
 if we had a little more rain it would be the greatest country on earth. 
 
lit'. CampbeBl's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 To all this we take exceptions. It is true thai it' we could always have 
 just rain enough, at just the proper time, to enable us to grow mammoth 
 crops without any special effort on our part, it would he very nice; but 
 this is not true in any part of the country. In the more humid sections 
 of the country crops not only suffer at times from extreme drouth, but 
 it is not uncommon that fine crops are lost by too much rain after all 
 the processes of growing and harvesting have been successfully canned 
 out. 
 
 The real difficulty in the semi-arid belt is not a lack of rainfall, but 
 the loss of too much by evaporation, and this can be largely controlled 
 by proper cultivation, at least sufficiently to secure a good growth of 
 crops every year. It has been demonstrated by careful laboratory and 
 field work by Professors King, Whitney, Hillgard, and others, that seven 
 inches of rainfall is ample to grow a good crop of any kind, providing 
 the water is all utilized. Measurements and records by the government 
 weather bureau have shown that in the more westerly portions of the 
 semi-arid belt the average rainfall is more than twice as much as is needed, 
 while a little farther east it is three and four times the necessary amount. 
 
 The visual difficulty, if such we may call it, is the fact that this rain 
 does not always come just at the time the plants most need it. This is 
 the reason crops have failed and the average investigator or observer of 
 the existing conditions in this great belt has drawn the conclusion that 
 there is not rain enough. We have lived in this belt of country twenty- 
 six years, and have experienced all of the pros and cons, and ups and 
 downs, that the country is heir to. Fourteen years of this time has been 
 entirely spent in the study of the soil, the movement of the moisture in 
 the soil, and that all-important question of storing the rain waters. Our 
 experience in these fourteen years have been quite varied, but each 
 and every year some new and important fact has been brought out, all 
 leading to the one conclusion, that the rainfall can be stored in the ground 
 and its evaporation prevented by a proper manipulation of the soil, 
 thus enabling us to secure, not only fair, but remarkably good crops 
 any and every year. 
 
 The present and most modern methods of irrigation have been the 
 result of study along the same lines that we have been working, to-wit : 
 that of conserving the moisture in the ground by cultivation after once 
 thoroughly saturating by turning the waters in from the ditches. The 
 most successful farmer today by irrigation, secures better results with 
 one-fourth as much water as was used by the average irrigator some 
 years ago. 
 
 The wonderful rapidity with which moisture rises by capillary at- 
 traction to the -surface and is evaporated is not commonly understood. 
 The most favorable condition fortius rapid, upward movement of moisture 
 is the natural condition found after heavy rains/ when the surface soil 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 67 
 
 particles are dissolved and settled closely together. Professor King 
 has conducted some very extensive experiments in ascertaining the amount 
 of moisture that would evaporate from a square foot of ground in twenty- 
 four hours. This work was accomplished by placing a metallic tube one 
 foot square in a tank of water so protected that there could be no evapora- 
 tion or loss of water, except through this tube. The tube was five feet 
 long, filled with soil from top to bottom, and submerged into the water 
 four feet, so the moisture to reach the surface to evaporate had to pass 
 up one foot through the soil by capillary attraction. The rate of evapora- 
 tion for ten consecutive days was a quart and a half of water to the 
 square foot. The tube was then lifted one foot higher, making it ne- 
 cessary for the moisture to rise two feet by capillary attraction when the 
 loss was a little over one quart. It was then lifted to three and then 
 four feet and when rising four feet by capillary attraction the loss was 
 a little over a pint to the square foot. This shows clearly why out- 
 crops may suffer so quickly even after we have had considerable rain. 
 
 The experience of the writer in his own work in 1894, demonstrated 
 clearly these two facts: First, that moisture will evaporate very quickly 
 when soil is left in its natural condition; second, that a large per cent of 
 moisture can be stored in the ground. In that year there was no rain- 
 fall in the last of May or the month of June, and the average field was 
 practically dry when the first rain came on July 7. At that time the 
 fields were flooded by a rain of four and a half inches which came down 
 quickly. In the fields where we were conducting experiments we had 
 previous to this time got the moisture down nearly three and a half feet, 
 and the surface was in the best of condition to absorb the fresh rain. 
 In ten days the ordinary field was again practically dry. In such fields, 
 owing to the great resistance of the dry soil, percolation was very slow 
 and the extreme heat which naturally followed quickly evaporated all 
 the water \vhich had fallen. But the field we had been carefully culti- 
 vating and had prepared for just such an emergency, was found to have 
 a moist soil over two and a half feel deeper than before, or down to a 
 depth of six feet. 
 
 During the season of 1901, there were many demonstrations of the 
 remarkable results following extra work done just at the proper time. 
 A farmer near Fairmont cultivated once more after a heavy rain which 
 came about the middle of July, after the farmers in that locality had 
 * • In ill their corn by." This extra cultivation, which could not have 
 cost over 30 cents an acre, added fifteen bushels per acre to his yield 
 of corn. James Armstrong, of Phelps county, double-disked his ground 
 earl\ in the spring, then cultivated his corn once more than his neigh- 
 bors, at a total cost not exceeding 60 cents an acre, and got twenty bushels 
 uf corn per acre for Ins extra labor. This may seem like an exaggera- 
 tion, but the comparision was made between this field and an adjoining 
 
68 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 field on his own farm not thus treated, as well as a comparison with the 
 crops of his neighbors. Dozens of similar illustrations could be given 
 of the immense value of this principle. If the work is done at the right 
 time results are great. 
 
 Evaporation of the rain water on the great plains country has made 
 many a man hopeless and homeless. Prevention of evaporation of the 
 soil waters by proper cultivation means better crops, better homes, 
 better people, happier children, and a better country. 
 
 Evidence from all over the semi-arid west proves conculsively that 
 if every farmer had fully understood the theory and principles of con- 
 serving the soil water by proper cultivation, there would have been 
 no short crop of corn in 1901 in that section of country. The excessive 
 evaporation of the rain water all over the great plains country is the 
 direct and sole cause of a greater loss to the farmers of that belt than 
 any other one thing. Educate the farmers of the semi-arid belt to store, 
 conserve, and utilize the rain water and we have paved the way for 
 thousands more ideal farm homes and a higher state of prosperity than 
 this belt ever experienced or the people anticipated. It is by and through 
 knowledge of certain great fundamental principles of agriculture, and 
 application of those principles to conditions which exist in this semi-arid 
 belt and no place else in our country, that this region is to come into 
 its own and be made indeed a veritable garden. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 In discussing the growing wheat it seems almost necessary to divide 
 it into two headings, winter and spring. 
 
 SPRING WHEAT. 
 
 Spring wheat in the northern sections and on up into Canada, has 
 become a very important crop. In preparing ground for this crop little 
 attention has been given in the past to the all important question of 
 storing and conserving the rain water. It has been simply a question of 
 plowing at any time when the farmer was ready to plow, the seeding 
 and harrowing likewise, without reference to the condition of the soil, 
 or the storage of water. In the more arid portions of the wheat belt in the 
 northwest'there is no question but what summer culture commonly termed 
 sum iner fallow, would be found exceedingly profitable. While we have thor- 
 oughly discussed this question under another heading referring especially 
 to that of Summer Culture, yet its work is of such great importance, 
 unci the additional expense so little compared to results that we cannot 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. , 69 
 
 resist a repetition. If the work is properly done the returns are large. 
 Begin first in the early spring, just as soon as the frost is out of the ground, 
 and the soil sufficiently dry to permit of disking without the soil adhering 
 to the disk, lapping half so as to thoroughly pulverize the surface, thus 
 putting your ground in condition to prevent evaporation, as well as to 
 admit of the rapid percolation of the early rains and you will be surprised 
 at results. Keep the surface harrowed or loosened by the use of some 
 tool to the depth of at least two inches, plowing in June or July, the 
 time when other work is least pressing, to a depth of six or seven inches, 
 following the plow closely with the sub-surface packer and let the packer 
 be followed closely with the harrow, keeping in mind that all-important 
 point of working the soil when it is in the best condition to most thoroughly 
 pulverize, continuing this surface cultivation after the plowing through 
 the entire season. In this work again the Acme harrow is most desirable 
 because each time over it brings the soil from below up and to a large 
 extent turns the soil from the extreme surface to the bottom of the por- 
 tion stirred by the Acme. In this kind of work in the northwest, as 
 well as in any portion of the semi-arid belt, it is very important to do 
 this surface cultivating, whether it be with the common harrow or the 
 Acme harrow, spring tooth or disk, at a time when the soil is in the best 
 possible condition; that is, simply moist, not dry or wet. Then you have 
 a fine even soil mulch composed of minute lumps, a condition you cannot 
 get if the soil is dry or wet. It is when soil is in this condition that the 
 particles seem most readily to separate, not simply into dust but these 
 minute lumps made from slightly moist soil when dry will never blow. 
 
 Having had fifteen years experience in the northwest I am well 
 aware of this blowing difficulty on the lighter soils, which can be entirely 
 prevented by care with reference to the condition of the soil as above 
 stated. It is very desirable in following this plan to keep the weeds en- 
 tirely clean from the field. Don't for a moment encourage the idea that 
 weeds are valuable to turn under, for there is so little value to them that 
 it is not worthy of consideration, but the water drawn out of the soil 
 by these weeds while growing is far more valuable to the coming crop. 
 Watch it carefully. In the spring time try to catch this ground as early 
 as possible with the harrow, Acme preferred, and put in your seed not 
 to exceed one-half bushel to the acre. This quantity is ample. Read 
 carefully Chapter VI. 
 
 If you will give close attention to this point you will simply be 
 astonished at the results obtained. When a crop has been taken off, 
 get on this ground as quickly as possible with the disk harrow. Double 
 disking is exceedingly valuable. The small size disk, fourteen or fifteen- 
 inch, set at a good angle will quite thoroughly pulverize the ground, 
 but with the larger disk it is impossible to get a good condition without 
 double-disking. Remember that the object is to thoroughly pulverize 
 
*() Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the surface two or three inches, to not only prevent the loss of any moist- 
 ure we may have below, but to have the ground in the best possible 
 condition on the surface for the rapid percolation, or getting of the rain 
 waters down into the soil. Lose no time after any rain in again loosen- 
 ing the surface, especially upon any ground that you may have already 
 plowed. After the disking, plow and pack and harrow, as stated with 
 reference to summer culture. Should you get any heavy rains late in 
 the fall lose no time in loosening the surface to save the water, for you 
 may need it the following year. 
 
 When spring time comes get over your ground as quickly as possible 
 with the harrow, aiming if possible to do this before the surface gets 
 dry, put in your seed, not too thick, ami await its developments when 
 it reaches the stooling point, which it will do early in the season if your 
 ground is in the condition. At this point of growth, that is when the 
 wheat is beginning to stool or sucker, go over your ground with a long 
 toothed weeder. This will loosen the surface and destroy the weeds. 
 The checking of evaporation by this cultivation will urge on your wheat 
 when it will soon cover the ground then the danger of evaporation is 
 much less. The rich prairie soils of the Dakotas, Minnesota and other 
 sections of the northwest should produce thirty to forty bushels of 
 spring wheat instead of five, to twenty and will if the soil is properly 
 handled. 
 
 Don't think for a moment that you can gel this rapid growth and 
 early heavy stooling of the wheat unless your ground is thoroughly fined 
 and finned and you have held the moisture below, forming a seed bed 
 in which there will be a rapid development of strong roots which is the 
 direct result of prolific stooling. The use of the weeder or harrow, on 
 wheat after it has begun to stool, or is three of four inches high, when 
 your ground is loose and porous where the roots should grow is not 
 always a safe proposition. The root development is so light that much 
 of the wheat may be easily pulled up ami destroyed. 
 
 WINTER WHEAT. 
 
 Winter wheat is a little different proposition from the spring wheat. 
 Here again we believe when the farmer in the winter wheat licit has 
 learned the value of summer culture and how it will not only greatly 
 increase the average yield, but make a failure, so far as drouth is con- 
 cerned, an impossibility, a larger acreage will be thus treated. The 
 experience on the Pomeroy Model farm in the past four seasons, 1901 
 to 1904, inclusive, as well us many other fields in western Kansas and 
 Nebraska, are certainly evidence that our ideas drawn from years of 
 experience and observation are something more than theory. 
 
 They at least carry very strong evidence as to the value of this 
 class of work, where by this very thorough and careful preparing of the 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 71 
 
 soil, .having plowed about seven inches deep, followed our plow closely 
 with the sub-surface packer, and the packer with the Acme harrow, 
 going over our fields immediately after the heavy rains or as soon as 
 the soil was sufficiently dry to permit it, we had formed a fine, firm and 
 very moist seed bed. Under these conditions twelve quarts of seed was 
 found to be ample Its germination was so quick and the rapid develop 1 - 
 ment of roots brought about by the very favorable physical condition 
 of the soil caused the liberal stooling, and in thirty days after seeding 
 our ground was nearly or quite covered with the wheat. The immediate 
 disking after the winter wheat crop is removed is of very great im- 
 portance: as we have repeatedly said, it is of two-fold value, as it prevents 
 the loss by evaporation of any moisture in the soil, and puts the surface 
 in the best possible condition for the rapid percolation of later rain waters. 
 The plowing may be done a little later, and to get the best results a good 
 depth of plowing is necessary, and then the plow should be followed 
 with the sub-surface packer. Mark you, we are after a condition that 
 will not only enable us to get the best possible results, but prevent the 
 serious damage by drouth and assure good crops annually, which means 
 prosperity in its highest degree. A fine, firm seed lied, or root lied, has 
 many advantages over the coarse, loose condition. 
 
 In the first place one-third of the seed only is necessary. In the 
 next place the growth and development of the plant is much more rapid 
 and will soon cover the surface. In the third place the development 
 of roots is much greater, we are able to draw moisture and plant food 
 from a much larger percentage of the soil, and last, but not least, we 
 have a condition of soil that will hold a much greater per cent of moisture 
 as well as one having a greater power of capillary attraction, enabling 
 us to keep ii]) the supply of moisture which we draw from below, where, 
 by careful work, much of the rain waters are stored, that under ordinary 
 conditions would have been lost by evaporation or run off. 
 
 The plan of raising wheat by plowing every third or fourth year and 
 simply using a disk for two or three consecutive years, or even reducing 
 the cost still further of putting in the crop by using a disk drill, is alto- 
 gether wrong. While it is not at all surprising that many farmers resort 
 to this instead of simply plowing three or four inches deep, leaving the 
 plowing without even harrowing, Laying up light and loose, full of cavi- 
 ties, a condition that could scarcely produce anything but weeds in an 
 ordinary dry season. Yet it seems like folly for a man to so prepare his 
 ground that nothing but a very favorable season could give him even 
 a fair crop, with a little additional work, he is able to so materially in- 
 crease the yield, as well as to guard against a failure. Xo farmer should 
 he content to call twenty bushels of wheat a good crop. Our prairies 
 of the semi-arid licit are capable of producing forty and fifty bushels, 
 with the conditions nature has provided. 
 
72 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 GROWING POTATOES. 
 
 Growing of potatoes throughout the semi-arid belt seems generally 
 to be looked upon as too uncertain to even be considered, in spite of 
 the fact that there are many individuals who are raising them and yearly 
 making money. There are instances even in sections of southern Ne- 
 braska where they were less favored in 1901 with spring rains than in 
 most any other portion of the state that good crops were grown. In 
 one instance over one hundred bushels of choice potatoes per acre were 
 raised on a twenty acre field and were sold for an average of $1 per 
 bushel while the general potato crop in that section was a total failure, 
 
 Cut No. 14, Magnified roots and soil. 
 
 the entire work of the season being done in line with our system of culti- 
 vation. The potato is a little different from any other crop and requires 
 close attention during certain periods of its growth. There is no reason 
 why good paving crops of potatoes may not be grown every year at 
 almost any point from Canada line to Oklahoma, barring the ravages 
 of insects or leaf blight, both of which are usually easily controlled by 
 close attention and the use of proper remedies. 
 
 PREPARING THE SOIL. 
 
 To secure a good crop of potatoes much care and attention must 
 be given to the preparation of the seed and root bed. A glance at cut 
 No. 6 shows the ideal condition. This soil was plowed eight inches deep 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 73 
 
 after having been thoroughly disked to a depth of fully three and a half 
 inches; the disking having been done early our soil was moist "and was 
 in the best possible condition to plow; as the furrow rolled over the fine, 
 dry top soil went under, the moist soil coming to the surface in an ideal 
 condition, and while moist the particles seemed to readily separate one 
 from the other and adjust themselves without material resistence to 
 the desired compactness, as the packer wheels rolled over the plow.'.! 
 ground, which was done quite close to the plow. While we have said 
 much upon the importance of a proper condition of the soil when all 
 work is done, we must almost repeat it again, because so very much 
 depends upon this to secure fineness, firmness and moisture in the soil 
 such as may be most favorable to a rapid and full development of roots 
 such as will lead them to permeate every part or portion of the soil as 
 shown in cut Xo. 6. In this, however, only the main lateral roots and 
 branches are shown. The little hair roots or feeders may be found in 
 such soil running in every direction, so completely filling the soil as to 
 draw moisture and plant food from every portion. In cut No. 14, we 
 illustrate a condition that should be well understood. It represents at 
 the right a section of a branch root showing the cell formation; from 
 these outer cells are the hair roots or feeders, A A, running through 
 among the particles of soil represented bj' the dark spots; around these 
 spots are lines parallel with the shape of the particle of soil which re- 
 presents the film or covering of water. The white spots represent air 
 spaces. Now, if the reader will look at this cut and think for a moment 
 that these hair roots or little tubes marked A A in their full size in the 
 soil are barely perceptible to the naked eye, and then imagine that these 
 soil grains and air spaces here shown are proportionately smaller in their 
 real soil condition, he can catch the ideal condition as shown in cut 
 No. 11. 
 
 If you are after a sure crop, as well as a good crop of potatoes, get 
 your root bed as near this condition as possible. Having previously 
 succeeded in storing a liberal amount of moisture in the soil below, as 
 shown in cut No. 8, you can plant your potatoes knowing you have done 
 all you could do to assure success so far. 
 
 Planting may be clone at the time of plowing by dropping the pota- 
 toes on the side of the furrows about three inches from the bottom, 
 letting the next furrow cover them; or complete the preparation the 
 same as for any crop and then plant with a potato plantera bout four 
 inches deep. 
 
 SEED. 
 
 As to variety and quantity of seed, we favor the well-bred early 
 Ohio, and prefer large potatoes and cut them as near to two eyes on a 
 piece, putting one piece in a hill. For the more arid portions of the 
 
-74 Cami'hkll'.s 190.5 Son. Cultuke Manual. 
 
 semi-arid belt we would plant the rows about three feet ten inches apart 
 and drop the seed, cut as above, about twenty inches apart. In the 
 lower altitudes, or where there is a greater rainfall, plant somewhat 
 closer. Remember, the one great point is to .never let your potato plant 
 lack for water. If you do your crop suffers. Small and knotty potatoes 
 are the result of the potato plant getting short of water at certain times, 
 which tends to force the ripening or maturing period. Then a sudden 
 and heavy rainfall or the irrigation of the potatoes after this condition 
 forces a new and rapid growth which results in setting a second lot of 
 potatoes, same uf which may appear on the roots and others on the 
 sides of the already formed potato. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 With your crop in the ground under favorable conditions, then 
 comes the important work. There is no better tool in the early cultiva- 
 tion than the harrow or weeder if you will use it freely and with some 
 judgment. The Ions toothed weeder may be used from the time the 
 crop is planted until the tops are too large to draw through between 
 the teeth, providing you catch the soil in just the proper condition, 
 especially in the average sand loam soils. Should you get a very heavy 
 rain that may result in packing the surface to a considerable depth, 
 then it will be necessary to cultivate with some fine tooth cultivator, 
 as in cultivating corn, but in such a case it is veil to follow the cultivator 
 closely by crossing the rows with the weeder. This more completely 
 fines the mulch as well as levels it, also loosens the soil among the vines 
 and cleans the young weeds. Watch closely the condition, hoAvever, 
 and be sure to keep the soil stirred deep enough, even if it is necessary 
 to use the cultivator; a mulch of fine, loose soil of fully two and a half 
 inches in depth should be kept as soon as the potato tops get to any 
 size, and the soil should be stirred often enough to keep the top of the 
 firm soil beneath the mulch in a moist condition. This condition can 
 be kept if you have moisture stored below and do not plant too thick 
 and watch your time of cultivation. Upon the care and attention given 
 over to this part of the work depends the quality and quantity of your 
 crop. Don't stop cult i vat ion when they are in blossom, but don't 
 destroy the roots 
 
 If you want to raise a prize crop put them on a piece of summer 
 tilled ground, plowing again in the spring fully eight inches and handle 
 as suggested, 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Mam vi. 
 
 RAISING TREES. 
 
 Xo question is worthy of more consideration so far as the comfort 
 and happiness of a family is concerned which resides on the farm than 
 that of growing trees. There is nothing more delightful after a noon- 
 day meal in mid-summer than to quitely recline in a hammock in the 
 shade of a large elm, but this to the average resident of the semi-arid 
 belt for several years has seemed an utter impossibility. There is nothing 
 more easy, or more simple. 
 
 The experience at the Pomerov Model farm during the past five 
 years quite clearly demonstrates this fact. The piece of land selected 
 for the buildings around which a large number of shade and ornamental 
 trees were set, and for the orchard, is on a high divide overlooking the 
 town with quite a considerable south slope. The south slope is much 
 more unfavorable than the north, as it gets the rays of the sun more 
 directly and catches the force of the south winds during the extreme 
 heated portion of the season ; but this south slope was purposely selected 
 that visitors might see that what could be done under such conditions 
 might be done at any point, For the most successful growing of trees 
 or orchard a northeast slope should be selected as most favorable. 
 
 The ground for our trees was first double-disked early in March, 
 1900, plowed in April about eight inches deep, the plow followed by the 
 sub-surface packer, and the packer with the Acme harrow. The ground 
 was then laid out by using the check chain of a corn planter. A small 
 stake six inches long was set for each tree or shrub, and nine hundred 
 and sixty-four of these stakes were thus set. When the trees were 
 received from the nursery a deep trench was dug and all trees heeled 
 in with tops pointing north. Care was taken to keep the roots from 
 the air, and what is most important, to keep them moist. When taken 
 from the boxes they were quickly covered witli dirt and water turned 
 on. A kerosene barrel was sawed in two parts, each half barrel was 
 filled about two-thirds full of water, and sufficient dirt was added to 
 form a thin solution of mud. Then the trees were taken from the trench 
 when the workmen were ready to engage in t lie actual work of setting 
 the trees, and put into this solution one by one, and enough mud adhered 
 to the roots to keep them protected from the air and sun while being 
 handled during the process of setting. 
 
 Two boards four feet long by six inches wide were provided with a 
 notch in the center and a notch at each end, both boards being cut 
 exactly alike. The man who dug the holes used one of the boards, and 
 placing the center notch on the stake pulled the stake and set it in one 
 of the end notches and added another stake in the other end notch. 
 He then removed the board and dug the hole. In digging the hole the 
 
70 Campbell's 1305 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 tree was examined to note the size and shape of root and hole dug suffi- 
 ciently large to allow spreading all the roots out their full length and 
 no more. The man who directed the tree setting carried the second 
 notched board and after the hole was completed he placed the board 
 on the two stakes, and dropping his tree into the hole brought the body 
 to the middle notch, thus holding it exactly where the original stake 
 had been set. 
 
 In setting the tree a helper using a hoe pulverized the dirt that was 
 still fresh and moist, hauling it to the roots as fast as a man could place* 
 it with his hands and by the aid of a trowel. Great care was taken to 
 work the soil in about the roots. When sufficient dirt was in to cover 
 the roots a quart of water was turned in. By vibrating the tree slightly 
 the water soon percolated through the moist soil, dissolving the particles 
 and settling them closely around the roots. The holes were then filled 
 within two inches of the top, and then tramped firmly. Then about 
 three inches of loose dirt was scattered over this packed soil and the tree 
 left. This plan was so successful that in the spring of 1901 we were 
 obliged to reset only seventeen trees, less than two per cent, the trees 
 all having made a very fair growth the first year. The expense of caring 
 for these trees in 1900 outside of the trimming, but including all other 
 work and cultivation, amounted to $22, or about $2.25 an acre. 
 
 The plan of operation was immediately after settling the trees to 
 double-disk the entire surface, because the hauling of the wagons and 
 tramping of the men over the moist soil while setting the trees resulted 
 in packing the ground considerably. A two-horse disk was used for 
 this work, which enabled us to get very close to the tree. As soon as 
 a rain of any magnitude had fallen, the ground was gone over with the 
 Acme pulverizing harrow, crossing the work done with the disk. This 
 harrow is a tool pretty generally known, and a most valuable imple- 
 ment for this class of work. No weeds were allowed to grow. About 
 two and a half inches of the surface was kept constantly loose and fine 
 by the use of the Acme until July, when a second double-disking was 
 applied. The object of this occasional disking was to cut deeper to 
 prevent even the slightest degree of crusting beneath the mulch. Then 
 the Acme was used, going at right angles each time with the previous 
 cultivation until September 1st. 
 
 Up to this time we had been inclined to follow the ideas of most 
 orchard and tree men and horticulturists, which was to discontinue 
 cultivation after August, the object being to check the growth of the 
 tree and allow the new wood to mature before freezing time. This idea 
 presumedly is correct in the more humid portions of our country. But 
 in the semi-arid section we are inclined to discredit this theory in its 
 full extent. We believe the cultivation should be continued, but less 
 frequent, We must not lose too much of the moisture from around 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 the main roots and their branches, if we would carry our trees safely 
 through the winter. This question is a nice' one and must be treated 
 with care. It is proper to reduce the sap in the body and limbs slightly, 
 but there is danger in going into the winter with soil too dry about the 
 roots. Much attention has been given to this point by most of our 
 agricultural colleges the past four or five years. 
 
 From bulletin No, 52, issued by the University of Illinois in 1X98, 
 we take the following. We quote it especially because it corresponds to 
 our own experience and is the result of several years of observation: 
 
 "Throughout large sections of Illinois may be found the rotting 
 remnants of once extensive orchards, representing large original expen- 
 ditures of both labor and money. The frequency with which such locali- 
 ties are met would almost seem to justify the statement usually heard 
 in the neighborhood where such worn out orchards are found that the 
 soil is not fitted for the growing of fruit. On the other hand the enor- 
 mous apple and other fruit production in other parts of the state, and 
 frequently in localities not far distant from those mentioned, makes it 
 evident that the reason so often assigned cannot be the correct one. 
 
 "On examination and inquiry it will be found to be almost invariably 
 the case that the true cause for the failure or the dying out of an orchard 
 is the lack of proficient, or the entire absence of proper cultivation and 
 care. While the Illinois agriculturist has been devoting his time and 
 attention to the care of his field and garden crop, it is too often the case 
 that the orchard has been left to care for itself, with the above mentioned 
 result. The commonest cause of failure in orchards in Illinois may In- 
 traced direct to the ill effects of summer drouths, though perhaps it is 
 more commonly referred to freezing in winter. The connection really 
 existing between these two destructive agencies has not been often recog- 
 nized. The fact that certain varieties of apples usually accounted hardy 
 even to our most northern limits, and in exposed situations sometimes 
 fail after a winter not noted for severity, has at different times attracted 
 attention, but the significance of such failures does not seem to have 
 been duly appreciated. On consulting the records it is found that 
 orchard injuries and exceptionally severe winters do not coincide. The 
 autumnal condition of the trees clearly has to do with the results, and 
 this again depends upon the developments of the growing trees. One of 
 the worst things than can happen to trees is the failure of a sufficient 
 supply of soil moisture. A continuous supply of water is essential to 
 all the vital processes of vegetation. Apple trees severely suffer when 
 not so supplied." 
 
 The bulletin continues at considerable length along this line, and 
 then presents two very striking cuts, on pages one hundred and twenty- 
 six and one hundred and twenty-seven. One showing the orchard upon 
 the college farm, with trees hanging full of fruit, the other of an adjoining 
 
78 
 
 Campbell's 190;") Son, Ci 1. 1 1 re Manual. 
 
 farm with neglected trees uncultivated, bare of fruit and almost minus 
 of foliage, and the bulletin concludes by referring to the cuts in the 
 following manner: 
 
 CUt Xo. 15, Peach tree five months after setting. 
 
 "The photographs were taken in September, 1897. The tree in the 
 foreground of the college orchard, with its wealth of foliage and bending 
 under the weight of its load of fruit, tells its own story, and stands forth 
 in marked contrast to the preceding picture, which is bare of fruit and 
 almost minus of foliage. From the contrast there can be but one con- 
 

 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 71) 
 
 elusion drawn, that while other things have greater or less effed upon 
 an orchard's health and condition, the prime requisite to successful 
 orcharding in Illinois is thorough and systematic cultivation." 
 
 While the principles involved in the Illinois bulletin are important 
 and valuable in that state, they are vital with us in the semi-arid section. 
 The prevailing idea, and the idea usually drawn from most of our articles, 
 is that the work is too expensive to make orchard growing profitable in 
 the more arid portions of this country. This is quite an error, fully 
 demonstrated by the figures given of our own work in the orchard of 
 the Pomeroy Model farm in 1900. 
 
 In cut No. 15 may be seen a peach tree grown in the Pomeroy Mode, 
 farm orchard, from a photograph taken in the fall after the first year's 
 growth. These trees were ad cut hack to about three feet when they 
 were set. and all limbs cut hack so as to leave about two buds on each. 
 Cut No. 16 illustrates one of the same trees August 23, 1901, on its 
 second year's growth. The contrast is so remarkable that it may be 
 taken as sufficient proof thai trees may be grown in the more arid por- 
 tions of Kansas, Nebraska and eastern Colorado, without irrigation, and 
 what is true there is equally true in other portions of t he semi-arid belt. 
 
 The body of the tree shown in cut Xo. 12, at the close of the first 
 year's growth, measured a little over one inch in diameter, while the 
 body of this tree as shown in cut Xo. 17 at the close of the second year's 
 growth measured two and a half inches. As the man standing by the 
 tree measured six feet, three, inches, to the top of his hat, the reader 
 may get some idea of the remarkable growth of these trees. There is 
 no reason why they should not have made this remarkable growth, for, 
 although we experienced a continuous dry period with the excessive 
 heat of one hundred degrees and above for forty-three days, from June 
 18 to August 1, entirely without rain; yet during that entire time the 
 ground was amply moist to make into balls about the roots of the trees, 
 and to a depth of over ten feet. During this entire time, owing to the 
 manner of cultivation and the care taken to save the moisture, this soil 
 was practically as full of moisture about the roots of the trees as it could 
 hold, and had there been previous irrigation from a ditch the soil could 
 not have been more moist. 
 
 In cut No. 17, is shown a white elm tree. Looking closely you can 
 see the man's hand about four feet from the ground, grasping the pole 
 which is ten feet high. At this point where the hand shows, the tree 
 was cut off when set in the. spring of 1900. The growth during 1900 
 was not much, though quite as much as might be expected the first 
 year, the new limbs averaging about ten inches. This photograph was 
 taken August 23, 1901, when the tree reached within eight inches of the 
 top of the ten-foot pole. Elms are usually considered slow growth. 
 This illustration is certainly a demonstration of two facts, that they will 
 
80 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Cultuke Manual. 
 
 Cut No, 16, Peach tree seventeen months utter setting, 
 Pomeroy Model Farm. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 81 
 
 make remarkable growth with plenty of moisture, and that moisture 
 can be stored in sufficient quantities on the far western prairies to supply 
 all necessary needs of such trees. 
 
 In the setting of trees or orchards in the more arid portions of this 
 belt, care should be taken not to get them too close together. A suc- 
 
 
 i? w • ** 
 
 !■' Aa .'H*^L V 
 
 •ft • ** 
 
 Cut No. 17, White elm seventeen months after setting, 
 cessful growing of a tree depends upon ample pasturage of the root. 
 In our orchard at the Model farm we set our cherries and peach trees 
 twenty-two feet each way, and our apples twenty-two by thirty-two 
 feet. No crop of any kind or nature should be grown in an orchard 
 if vou would secure the best results, It may seem like a waste of ground 
 
82 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 to see little Two-year old trees standing two and a half to three feet high, 
 with tops only one foot to eighteen inches broad, twenty-two feet apart 
 each way ; but when we note the immense growth of our trees the second 
 year we see it is not long before the entire space is utilized. Back of 
 the house where we lived in Holdrege, Nebraska, is a cherry tree that 
 now measures seventeen and a half feet across from tip to tip of limbs. 
 You can readily see that in the t wenl y-t wo-foot distances we only have 
 four and a half feet left. Xow if you exped the.1 rees to make this growth 
 you must not interfere with the roots of the tree, or in any way rob it 
 of any of the moisture or plant food in the soil. Resides, to plant a 
 crop of any kind would make the cultivation much more inconvenient 
 and expensive. A trip hack to the old eastern states, even in Illinois, 
 and then on through Ohio 1 and New York state, will disclose a radical 
 change in methods of handling orchards. The most profitable orchards 
 in those states, today, have no crops or grasses growing in them; while 
 twenty years ago it was a common practice to seed them down to grasses. 
 If that kind of treatment is desirable and profitable in the east where 
 the rainfall is more than abundant, it is much more desirable in the West. 
 We can now cite many instances of successful tree and orchard 
 growing in western Kansas and Nebraska and eastern Colorado, but space 
 will not permit. For further evidence of the importance of frequent 
 cultivation of trees read Chapter X, and for more emphatic evidence 
 of the marvelous growth that can be attained by proper cultivation of 
 both fruit and forest trees visit the Pomeroy Model farm in mid-summer 
 and behold the lofty and beautiful shade trees of only five summers' 
 growth. Nothing succeeds like success. 
 
 SUGAR BEETS. 
 
 Cultivation of the sugar beet is worthy of considerable attention 
 among farmers, outside of the question of growing them for the sugar 
 factory. With the careful preparation of the soil, which should differ in 
 only one respect from that which we have outlined for other crops, and 
 that is deeper plowing, but the same care taken in thorough pulverizing, 
 and in the more arid portion thorough packing, large yields may be 
 secured. Cut No. 18 shows a field of sugar beets grown at Lisbon, 
 North Dakota, on the grounds of the Soldiers' home, under the direction 
 of Colonel Mcllvaine, in 1897, the second year's experiment on the same 
 ground, under the so-called Campbell method of soil culture. The 
 phenomenal yield of forty-six thousand pounds per acre was secured, 
 or twenty-three tons. It may be readily seen from this illustrat'on the 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 s;: 
 
 vast amount of valuable feed that can be raised from a very small piece 
 of ground. The question of the manufacture of beet sugar has received 
 no little attention in this country during the past ten years, and con- 
 sidering the wonderful results that have been obtained by feeding beet 
 pulp after all the sugar has been extracted, is a strong argument in 
 favor of the growing of these beets by all fanners. To one who has not 
 raised beets or other garden vegetables, except in little plats for domestic 
 
 Cut No. 18, Sugar beets. 23 tons per acre, by Campbell method. 
 
 use only, it may seem like a very tedious job and quite expensive. But 
 this is not true. With a fine toothed cultivator and by drilling the beets 
 in rows two and half feet apart, almost the entire work can be done 
 with the horse, requiring a little hand work in thinning. Here, too, 
 some surprising results can be attained. In the extreme northwest por- 
 tion of Kansas, only twenty-eight miles from the Colorado line, in 1898, 
 we raised as fine beets, parsnips, turnips, carrots, and onions, on the 
 high level prairie, as any man ever saw, with very little work, except 
 what was done with the horse and cultivator. The average farmer in 
 
84 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 that section did not believe it was possible to raise garden vegetables, 
 and little attempt to raise them had been made for some time. 
 
 Sugar beets have been fed to sheep, cattle, and hogs in experiment 
 at many of our agricultural colleges, with other feed, always with good 
 results, especially in feeding sheep. 
 
 ALFALFA. 
 
 Alfalfa, like all other crops, thrives best under the most favorable 
 conditions. There is probably no point in the raising of alfalfa more 
 important than that of securing a good stand. It seems almost im- 
 possible, in fact, climatic conditions must be very favorable, in order to 
 get a catch of seed in reseeding spots among well rooted plants. There 
 is no seed that responds, or returns greater rewards for a good seed bed 
 than alfalfa, and yet it is a very simple proposition, and if the proper 
 course is pursued and good seed used there is practically no question 
 about securing a good stand. On the high divides in many localities in 
 Nebraska and Kansas,, alfalfa is being raised quite satisfactorily, the 
 only difficulty generally being an uneven stand. The summer culture 
 plan by which one season's rain is stored in the ground, and the soil 
 carefully prepared as outlined in the chapter under this heading, then 
 sowing the seed the following spring, taking care to loosen the surface 
 soil the first opening of spring is best. The best results I have ever seen' 
 in western Kansas have come from seeding early in April on ground 
 thus prepared, with ten pounds of seed put in with a shoe drill with a 
 chain cover. 
 
 The next best plan is thorough culture from early spring to July, 
 together with careful preparation, then seed in July with ten pounds of 
 seed with drill or twenty pounds if broadcast. At the time of seeding 
 the above field there were about two inches of loose, fine soil on the 
 surface made by the use of a common harrow, and the shoe set so as to 
 put the seed from one-half to one inch into the solid, fine, moist soil 
 beneath. The seed came up quickly and very even, and if there was 
 any complaint to be made it was the fact that it was too thick. With 
 the prevailing price of alfalfa seed the saving of a few pounds of seed is 
 a great item, especially in putting in large fields. The further fact that 
 when once sowed and the crop established it is there for years to come, 
 certainly is sufficient argument to support the demand for thorough and 
 careful preparation of the seed bed. 
 
 The summer culture idea involving this storage of one year's rainfall 
 puts the soil in such condition for five or six feet down that the tap root 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 85 
 
 immediately pushes on down through this moist soil sending out the 
 little feeders on their way down, and the chances are that a good crop 
 may be harvested the first year, as was true in the case above referred 
 to, due only to the fact, that the soil conditions were perfect for the rapid 
 development of roots, and ample moisture to produce this magnificient 
 growth. While it is true that much better results are attained from 
 alfalfa in valleys where sheet water is eight to twelve feet from the 
 surface, yet a sufficient number of experiments have been made and in 
 some of them a sufficient length of time has elapsed, to warrant the state- 
 ment that on the majority of our high divides in the semi-arid belt as 
 good or better yields can be secured from this crop than are commonlv 
 harvested in the eastern states on the average meadows of timothy and 
 clover. The value of lands where the phenomenal crops or yields of 
 alfalfa along some of the valleys in western Nebraska and Kansas has 
 hardly come to be understood, or fully appreciated even by the people 
 who have raised them. We are familiar with fields that for three sue- . 
 cessive years have turned off in alfalfa hay alone from $30 to $40 per 
 acre, and where hay and a crop of seed has been harvested as high as 
 $80 per acre has been made. The value of this plant for feeding hogs, 
 cattle, and sheep is just beginning to be appreciated. All experiments 
 thus far carefully conducted have demonstrated that there is no fodder 
 plant so valuable. 
 
 The preparing of fields for seeding to alfalfa on old ground cannot be 
 better explained than the instructions under the heading of Summer 
 Culture for spring wheat. But if the reader must sow without giving 
 the year's cultivation and storage of water, then keep in mind two 
 fundamental principles, viz: plenty of stored moisture in the soil below 
 and a fine, firm seed bed. There is economy in these, as you can not 
 only get a better and more even stand with much less seed, but your 
 chances are increased many fold for getting a good stand regardless of 
 what the season may be. 
 
 SEEDING ON NEW BREAKING. 
 
 Alfalfa, like many other crops, may be sowed on new breaking the 
 same season the breaking is done and sometimes get satisfactory results, 
 but considering its uncertainty and the difference in the value of a good 
 crop as against a poor crop and possibly none at all, we are inclined to 
 give over the whole season to preparing for a good crop is then practically 
 assured. 
 
 Breaking should be done when the grass is growing the fastest, for 
 at this time the sod seems to more readily and more completely rot. 
 Let the plow run about two and one-half inches deep, using every pos- 
 sible means and care to lay the furrow slice flat and roll down solid either 
 with the packer or a disk set straight, then harrow; here again the Acme 
 
S6 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 harrow conies in with good results, the object being to loosen enough 
 dirt from the sod to fill all the crevices between the furrows and form a 
 perfect blanket to hold all the rainfall down under the sod, then take 
 care of the big rains by harrowing again. If this is fully accomplished 
 the sod will not only be fully rotted in a very short time but the top of 
 the subsoil beneath will also become rotted to a depth of two to three 
 inches. As soon as this is found to-be true, then begin backsetting or 
 plowing with the stubble plow, cutting about two and one-half inches 
 deeper; follow the plow with the packer as explained under the heading 
 of Plowing and Sub-Packing, then follow with the harrow, the Acme 
 preferred, get ting it , all fine and firm before it has time to dry out. Look 
 well to the storage of later rains and be ready to loosen the surface in 
 early spring with the harrow and put in your seed fairly early, governed 
 largely by the locality, using not over ten pounds of good seed with a 
 shoe drill and chain cover. If your work is all well done, as outlined, 
 you need have no fears of the result. 
 
 CROP ROTATION. 
 
 We are not advocates of crop ratation any farther than it can be 
 carried out as a matter of convenience or the advantages that may be 
 gained in putting in crops. In this regard there is an advantage in 
 rotation by a three-year plan in the semi-arid belt. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 Begin by summer tilling one season. (Jo at it with a will and see 
 to it that you store and conserve the entire season's rainfall from early 
 spring to autumn. Keep out the weeds. Sow your fall wheat, if in 
 central or southern Nebraska, first to tenth of September; if in northern 
 to central Kansas, sow from the tenth to the twentieth of September, 
 using not over thirty pounds of seed. If your Work has been well done 
 and the soil in good physical condition, do not sow more than twenty- 
 four pounds of seed per acre. Remember 'that our dates for seeding 
 and quantity of seed are based on thorough preparing, under which 
 conditions it will be found that the fall growth will he ideal. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 The second year we harvest our wheat crop in Kansas in June, 
 in Nebraska the last of June or early July. From the harvesting of 
 this crop to the close of the season we prepare for the crop to be grown 
 the third vear as follows: 
 
Cami'hei.i.'s 1905 Son, Ci;i;rrnK Ma.vual. *7 
 
 If possible, follow the harvester with the disk. If yon cannot do 
 this go over the held with the disk just as soon as the crop is cut. What- 
 ever you do, double-disk as elsewhere explained. The quicker and more 
 thorough you do this the better will be your crop the following year. 
 After double-di&king continue just the same as if summer tilling. Keep 
 tli;» weeds down at all hazards and ge.1 oyer the ground with some 
 tool as quickly as conditions will permit after each rain. Plow as soon 
 as the soil is in condition, following all work after plowing the same as 
 for summer culture and you are ready for a crop of corn the following 
 spring, or oats if you prefer, but corn is preferable and if well tended 
 you can bank on a crop. 
 
 Very much depends on the work being done immediately after the 
 crop is cut for two very important reasons. First: Evaporation is very 
 Rapid after the crop is removed and must be checked in order that the 
 plowing may be done early. Second: The hot sun of July and August 
 is very vakiable if yon can hold a per cent of moisture just beneath the 
 mulch. It promotes nitrification which sets free much plant food and 
 care should be taken to prevent any weeds growing to utilize the nitrates 
 or steal your moisture and plant foods, which you can and should hold 
 for the following crop. 
 
 TWO CROPS IN THREE YEARS. 
 
 This plan if faithfully and carefully carried out in sections similar 
 to western Kansas and Nebraska will result in two good crops out of 
 three years of a proportionate magnitude to the crops reported elsewhere 
 by the every other year plan by summer culture one year and cropping 
 the, next. In a scries of ten years will produce average crops that will 
 compare favorably with the average crops grown in Iowa or Illinois 
 under the present general methods in the same number of years. 
 
 ARBORICULTURE. 
 
 ITS VALUE AND IMPORTANCE. 
 
 The following article written by t lie late .1. Sterling Morton expressly 
 for our 1902 Manual, but a few months before his demise-, coming as il 
 does from a man of such broad ideas and wide experience. Inning been 
 four years Secretarv of Agriculture at Washington and for more than 
 forty years a resident of Nebraska, as well as being recognized as the 
 father of Arbor Day we feel the words are worthy of space in this vol- 
 ume, if nothing more than for his greal interest in and friendship for the 
 work we have so long been promoting. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 Mr. H. W. Campbell: 
 
 Dear Sir — After an experience of more than forty years at Arbor 
 Lodge, adjoining Nebraska City, in the County of Otoe, T declare that the 
 best method of planting forest trees is in rows running north and south. 
 The first row on the east should be of a rapidly growing variety, like ca- 
 talpa, speciosa, cottonwood, aspen, or soft maple. The next row should 
 be a nut-bearing tree, like the black walnut, butternut, or coffee bean. 
 The next succeeding row on the west should be, like the first one of a 
 rapidly growing variety. Planted in this way, the swiftly growing trees 
 act as nurses for the slowly growing trees. Planted, thus, black walnut, 
 instead of putting on a scrubby growth and looking like gigantic quince 
 trees when they have reached twenty years of age, run up towards the 
 sun for light and make good trunks of twenty feet in length. This wood 
 is valuable, and trees thus planted are grown with relative celerity. At 
 Arbor Lodge I have between 100 and 200 walnuts thus treated, which 
 were put into the ground in the autumn of 1865, and if you could see and 
 measure them, it would be a work of supererogation for me to make fur- 
 ther. argument in favor of this system of planting. To grow either decid- 
 uous trees or any variety of conifers on these plains with any degree of 
 success, it is necessary to plant them close together. All great forests, 
 whence have come the best timber that man has ever used for building 
 and cabinet woods, have been dense. The vast pineries of the North- 
 west were so closely planted by nature that it was impossible for a horse- 
 man to ride through many of them because of the interweaving branches. 
 To successfully grow trees like those the forests produced, we must en- 
 deavor to create forestal conditions. 
 
 In 1892 I planted out 10,000 white pines, purchased of Robert Doug- 
 las' Sons at Waukegan, 111. They were two years old and averaged per- 
 haps a foot to 14 inches in height. They were planted in rows 4 feet 
 apart, and the trees were 4 feet from each other in the rows. They were 
 cultivated three or four years with the plow, the same as corn is culti- 
 vated, the furrows going first east and west and then north and south. 
 They have made a remarkably fine growth, both as to height and circum- 
 ference. Many of them are from four to five inches in diameter and 
 from 18 to 20 feet in height. It is with difficulty that a man can walk 
 among them, and last summer when the drouth and hot winds were do- 
 ing their worst to smother and parch out vegetation in this section of 
 the country, those pines showed no indication of distress. Going in 
 among them and stooping down, and looking under their lower limbs, 
 one could not see a single particle of vegetable growth aside from the 
 trees. The ground was thoroughly mulched with the needles which had 
 fallen from them, and blanketed the earth, so to speak, with the mold 
 which they had created. Removing this carpet of needles one could 
 find moist, cool soil at all times. The conditions about the roots of these 
 
 LofC. 
 
Campbell's 1005 Soil Culture Manual. 89 
 
 trees were such as their ancestors found in the great pineries of Wiscon- 
 sin, Minnesota and Michigan. Many varieties of trees have been con- 
 demned as unfit for cultivation in Nebraska, after trying them in iso- 
 lated positions, exposed to the hot sun and drying winds from the south- 
 west. Trees are almost as gregarious as human beings. No man or 
 woman could have been perfectly developed, physically and intellectu- 
 ally, in absolute solitude and without communication or intercourse with 
 other human beings. And just so, no single tree planted out on the hot 
 prairie, exposed to the burning sun all day long, can make as perfect a 
 specimen of its kind as can be grown where trees are clustered together. 
 
 Arboriculture is absolutely indispensable to the conservation of other 
 plant life, and even to the existence of animal life on these plains. The 
 interdependence of the lives of trees and the lives of human beings is 
 constant. If a single summer should be passed without foliage, flower 
 or fruit on the globe, all animal existence would cease. 
 
 Your great work in soil culture is thoroughly appreciated by every 
 thinking citizen of Nebraska. Your intelligent efforts to benefit the agri- 
 culture and horticluture of this state are of greater value to your race and 
 to those who come after you than all the efforts of all the members of con- 
 gress who have ever represented this commonwealth at Washington. It 
 is a gratification to realize that soil culture and arboriculture are destined, 
 without asking an appropriation from the general government, to revolu- 
 tionize the climatic and productive conditions of the state of Nebraska. 
 Just as plants need light and as potato sprouts in dark cellars seek the 
 windows and doors where the sun's rays occasionally stream in, so all the 
 people of the prairie states need the illuminating practicalities of your 
 researches and experiments in soil culture, which illustrate the method of 
 insuring crops by intelligent tillage against destruction by drouths. 
 Adeor Lodge, Jan. 18th, 1902. J. Sterling Morton. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 It would hardly be proper to close our book without a word on irri- 
 gation, especially considering the fact that some have seemed to con- 
 ceive the idea that our system was antagonistic to irrigation and that 
 the promotion of this work generally would retard the development of 
 irrigation enterprises, but this is far from the truth. 
 
 We have millions of acres of the most fertile lands, level and easy 
 of cultivation, that can never be irrigated without unwarranted expense, 
 which receive ample rainfall annually to produce fine and profitable crops, 
 if these waters are properly stored and utilized. Then there are millions mora 
 
90 Campbell's 1905 Son. Cultuke Maxim.. 
 
 of choice lands with sufficient rainfall to make irrigation impracticable 
 where the present average yield is not to exceed one-third what it might 
 he if the general principles outlined in our book were fully understood and 
 practiced. 
 
 Then again we have millions of acres for which irrigation is necessary to 
 secure profitable returns but the available water is not near equal to 
 the acres, when the waters are so wastefully used as is the case today 
 along most of our ditches. 
 
 The fundamental principle upon which the success of our system 
 is based, is the economical use of water, it matters not from whence it 
 cometh, whether direct from the clouds or from the flowing streams, 
 ditches, reservoirs, or wells. The first and very important thing to do 
 is to get a supply of water stored in the soil to feed, nourish, and mature 
 the crop in a period of dry weather, and the second and almost equally 
 important requisite is the seed and root bed. so vital in the success of 
 our system, all of which is necessary in growing crops by artificial appli- 
 cation of water required by irrigation. 
 
 We do not mean to be understood that a man may not get a better 
 crop with plenty of water to turn loose at will upon a piece of ground 
 poorly fitted than he could with the same reckless fitting and be obliged 
 to depend upon replenishing bis soil with moisture from the heavens, 
 but this is not the question today with the progressive farmer. 
 
 It is how can we get the greatest results from our soil, labor and 
 expense considered? In irrigation, water usually means money. There 
 are few irrigation ditches today that carry enough water through the 
 season to irrigate all the land that might be reached with water from the 
 ditch. There are many fields that are made to suffer that are under the 
 ditch and crops made light that if the principles involved in this book 
 were understood and applied precisely as we outlined them to these fields, 
 larger yields might be realized, and more acres covered with the same 
 amount of water when the irrigator better understands the nature of 
 plants and just what physical condition is best for the support of healthj 
 roots and how they gather plant foods. Due consideration must be 
 given to the roots of the plant and their necessary supply in proper quan- 
 tities, not only of water, but of air also. Too much water at times is just 
 as detrimental as too little water. A clear conception of how water 
 moves in the soil is just as important to the irrigator as to the man who 
 depends solely upon the rainfall. 
 
 The idea! condition for the most healthful and successful growth of 
 all cultivated crops is a good depth of root bed made thoroughly fine and 
 firm. There is little danger in getting the average sand loam soils, so 
 common in the arid and semi-arid sections, too firm, while some of our 
 heavy clay soils if not properly bandied might become too closely com- 
 pacted, but this kind of soil is not at all common. Previous to the 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. iM 
 
 thorough fitting of the seed and root bed see to it that ample moisture is 
 stored below where nature can do her part by bringing it up to the roots, 
 of the growing plants by capillary attraction, then keep your surface 
 always cultivated in such a manner as to provide as near as possible a 
 fine, loose mulch of soil 'no1 dust), stirring it often enough to keep the 
 moisture up to the top of the firm soil just beneath the mulch. The 
 moment the top of this firm soil becomes in the least dry there is imme- 
 diately a process of depositing of salts and other matter between these 
 particles of soil closing the pores and consequently diminishing the quan- 
 tity of air that should freely pass through this soil to the roots. This 
 condition not only points to the fact that you are allowing the air to be 
 shut out but that you are Losing moisture by evaporation from the soil 
 which may be checked by cultivation. In fact, there should be no dry 
 soil above your moisture except what is loose and fine. See to this point 
 at all times. Xote our explanation on this subject under Growing Trees. 
 
 Our article on percolation should be of interest to the irrigator as it 
 indicates under what condition he can most economically apply his water. 
 
 The articles on Evaporation and Capillary Attraction should like- 
 wise be studied. Sub-irrigation is being practiced with marvelous results 
 in some instances. This demonstrates clearly that if the initiator will 
 watch his opportunity and will turn on his surplus water in the fall after 
 his crop has been removed or during the winter or earh spring, with 
 the water stored in the soil below and care in conserving the moisture 
 by proper cultivation, fine crops can be grown with. very little after 
 irrigation. 
 
 WINTER WHEAT BY IRRIGATION. 
 
 Very large crops of winter wheat should be grown on the average 
 
 soils in Colorado and sections under similar conditions if special effort 
 was carefully put forth to irrigate thoroughly, immediately after the 
 crop is harvested, then double disk as soon as the surface is sufficiently 
 dry to do the work without sticking. Flawing later using great care 
 to pack the plowed portions and harrow the surface while moist, seeding 
 sufficiently early for a good fall growth, then harrow early in the spring, 
 then with one irrigation after the foliage fully covers the surface, sixty 
 bushels per acre should be common under such conditions. In all crop- 
 growing under irrigation, much consideration should lie given to the 
 chapters under the following headings. Physical condition of the soil, 
 air and its importance in the. soil and the water holding capacity of the 
 soil. 
 
 NECESSARY FARM TOOLS. 
 
 Since publishing our first manual in 1901, we have been asked many 
 times for a list of the implements we consider best adapted to general 
 farming on the prairie of the greal semi-arid belt. This, we realize, 
 
92 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 is a delicate subject on which to give advice, therefore, we simply give 
 a list of such tools as we bought for the Pomeroy Model farm at Hill 
 City, the Burlington Model farm at Holdrege and will buy for other 
 farms we are opening up this spring. 
 
 For ordinary sized farms we favor four horse tools, or larger, as 
 far as it is possible. To decrease the cost of production adds profits, 
 the same as to increase the yield. When one man can turn over two 
 fourteen-inch furrows or twenty-eight inches by driving four horses 
 instead of sixteen inches by driving three horses, you are not only de- 
 creasing the cost of plowing over thirty per cent, but are getting a field 
 plowed in six days that would take ten days with the sixteen inch plow. 
 This is an advantage in many ways and what is true of plowing is propor- 
 tionately true of all other farm work. 
 
 The following tools make a very complete outfit for four good heavy 
 work horses, and with these horses and tools eighty to one hundred acres 
 can be handled by our plan on the high level prairies of the more arid- 
 portions of the semi-arid belt where the soils are of the usual sand-loam 
 
 formation. 
 
 LIST OF TOOLS. 
 
 One gang plow, two fourteen-inch. 
 
 One four-horse disk harrow. 
 
 One four-horse Acme harrow. 
 
 One four-horse combination weeder. 
 
 One four-horse Campbell sub-packer. 
 
 One two-row cultivator. 
 
 One one-horse cultivator. 
 
 In addition to these tools comes such planters, drills and harvesters 
 as shall be needed for the crops the farmer may wish to raise. 
 
 The list of tools is such as has been found most desirable for secur- 
 ing the best possible physical condition of the soil at the least expense. 
 
 Cut No. 19, The Gang Plow. 
 THE GANG PLOW. 
 Gang plows are made by most all of the manufacturers and each 
 has its special advantage and fnav be secured in almost every town or city. 
 
Campbell'* 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 93 
 
 Cut No. 20, The Disc Harrow. 
 
 THE DISK HARROW. 
 
 Disk harrows are also made in many different styles and patterns 
 and are on sale at all implement dealers. We have a preference for a 
 disk not over sixteen inches in diameter and prefer a fourteen-inch 
 because they pulverize the soil much finer. 
 
 Cut No. 21, The Acme Harrow. 
 THE ACME HARROW. 
 
 The Acme harrow has been manufactured for over thirty years 
 by Duane H. Nash, of Millington, New Jersey, and is not so generally 
 handled but is more easily obtained in the West than a few years ago. 
 We have used many different devices for surface cultivation but have 
 never had a tool we considered so valuable as the Acme. In summer 
 tilling or orchard work it is especially desirable, as once over it more 
 fully fines and levels the surface than two or three times with any other 
 rook They may also be had of some of the western jobbers. 
 
94 
 
 Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual. 
 
 COMBINATION WEEDER. 
 This tool is a new one and now manufactured and sold by A. C. 
 Reeve, of Denver, Colorado. It is really a harrow and a weeder com- 
 bined. It is made in sections of four to five feet and any number of 
 sections may be attached to the drawbar to cover ten to twenty-five feet. 
 It is especially adapted to harrowing small grain in its early growth 
 and the harrowing of corn since it will not destroy the young plant as 
 the common harrow does. 
 
 Tut No. 22. Campbell Subsurface Packer. 
 
 CAMPBELL SUB-SURFACE PACKER. 
 
 This is a tool that has been manufactured in its different stages 
 of development for some years and recently materially improved. It is 
 the only device on the market that will pack firmly and completely the 
 bottom of deep plowing so that yon can get the best results in your crops, 
 and yet leave the surface loose as it must be left if you would raise suc- 
 cessful crops in the semi-arid belt. It is manufatcured by the Ottawa 
 Foundry and Machine Company, of Ottawa, Illinois, but is now being 
 handled by most implement men. 
 
Campbell's 1905 Soil Culture Manual 
 
 Cut No. 23, Two-row Cultivator. 
 
 TWO-ROW CULTIVATOR. 
 
 Two-row corn or potato cultivators are now being made by several 
 different manufacturers and are a great improvement over the one-row 
 for two reasons: They decrease the cost of caring for the crop and enable 
 you to get over your field in half the time, a very important point in 
 conserving the moisture. 
 
 ONE HORSE CULTIVATOR. 
 
 A one-horse cultivator is quite an important tool in order that you 
 may be able to go over your corn after it gets loo high to cultivate with 
 the riding cultivator in case you get a heavy rain thai packs the surface. 
 The use of such a tool at such a time has been known to increase the yield 
 of a field of corn more than thirty bushels per acre over adjoining fields. 
 
 TOOLS OF VITAL IMPORTANCE. 
 
 Of all the tools in the list none is so vital to successful farming by 
 our method as the sub-surface packer. In the more humid sections, 
 East, it is valuable, yet may be dispensed with and run less risk of loss 
 of crops, but in the more arid sections of the semi-arid belt it is indis- 
 pensable. Do not get a surface packer and expect the same result s as 
 with the sub-surface packer. 
 
JAW 38.19C5 
 
 LIST OF CHAPTERS: 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 How to use the Manual 9 
 
 The Model Farm 9 
 
 Semi-Arid Belt 14 
 
 The Disc Harrow, its use and abuse 15 
 
 Plowing 18 
 
 Sub-Surface Packing 24 
 
 Physical Condition of the Soil 31 
 
 Water Holding Capacity of Soil 34 
 
 Summer Culture 30 
 
 Percolation 41 
 
 Capillary Attraction 43 
 
 Air and its Importance in the Soil 46 
 
 Cultivation . . . -. 49 
 
 Barnyard Manures. . . . : 55 
 
 Growing Corn 58 
 
 Evaporation . 65 
 
 Growing Wheat 68 
 
 Growing Potatoes 72 
 
 Raising Trees 75 
 
 Sugar Beets 82 
 
 Alfalfa 84 
 
 Crop Rotation 86 
 
 Arboriculture 87 
 
 Irrigation S9 
 
 Necessary Farm Tools , 92 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 000 933 255 8 
 
 COMPLIMENTARY. 
 
 With my compliments heartily extended 
 to the receiver of this little Manual, I 
 gladly endorse Prof. Campbell's system 
 of soil culture. 
 
 On my model farm, near Hill City, 
 Graham county, Kansas, the efficiency 
 of his methods, as set forth herein, has. 
 been fully established and I earnestly 
 advise all farmers in the semi-arid dis- 
 tricts to follow his plan strictly and fully. 
 
 Trusting that this may be received with 
 the same kindly feeling and earnest desire 
 to promote the general interests of agri- 
 culture with which it is given, I am, 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 J. P. POMEROY.