Book J^v^I 
 
 Copyright^" . 
 
 COPSilGHT DEPOSnS 
 
The 
 
 Educational System 
 
 of Pennsylvania 
 
 By 
 J. M. YETTER, A.M., Pd.D. 
 
 COCHRANE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 TRIBONE BUILDING, NEW YORK 
 
 1909 
 
J' 
 
 Copyright^ 1909, 
 
 BY 
 
 COCHRANE PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 248296 
 
An Account 
 
 of 
 
 the Events which led to 
 
 Founding of the Pennsylvania 
 
 School System, 
 
 The Plan of the System as 
 
 Expressed in the Laws 
 
 and 
 
 The Practical Interpretation and 
 
 Working out of the Plan. 
 
 By 
 
 J. M. Yetter, A. M., Phi D. 
 
 East Stroudsburg State Normal School. 
 
 Written as a thesis for the Doctorate 
 of Pedagogy in New York University. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It seemed best to divide the "Educational System of 
 Pennsylvania" into three parts or divisions : Part I 
 treats of the elements contributing to the system, and 
 tells how, out of such a conglomerate of people with 
 much diversity of opinions, ideals, and beliefs, a general 
 plan was at last formed and accepted. Part II treats of 
 the system as planned and formulated by law. Part III 
 shows what the system is in actual practice. 
 
 Of Part I we claim no original material, but at least 
 some new interpretation of old facts. Part II discusses 
 the system in a different and, we believe, a better planned 
 and more systematized way than has ever before been un- 
 dertaken. 
 
 In Part III the working of the system is described 
 from our own experience, which includes work done in 
 the common, ungraded country school, the city graded 
 school, the State Normal School, and the college. Thus 
 from personal experience in and with the system we ob- 
 tain the information upon which almost the entire con- 
 tents of Part III are founded. 
 
 It will be noticed that the system led the people rather 
 than the people urged forward the system. Governor 
 Wolfe sacrificed the office of governor a second term for 
 the system's foundation, and likewise Governor Bigler 
 urged its improvement by the law of 1854, though fully 
 realizing that it meant his political death. Fortunately 
 for the system the successors of both these governors 
 stood by the ideas of their predecessors on school mat 
 ters. 
 
 5 
 
6 PREFACE 
 
 Instead of popular sentiment urging forward these 
 great improvements they were quickly followed by its de- 
 cided rebuke. It must not be supposed, however, that 
 the populace was opposed to education or any improve- 
 ment of the system, but the variety of ideas as to 
 methods of obtaining these advancements was often the 
 cause of much trouble and hindrance. 
 
 The first scheme seems to have been entirely new and 
 soon needed revision, yet it showed both plan and pur- 
 pose, as will appear on reading Part 11. 
 
 Part III shows how unthought-of agencies and influ- 
 ences often produce different results from those antici- 
 pated. To plan is one thing, to execute may be another, 
 and the executing of the plans was left necessarily into 
 the hands of those who often interpreted and carried out 
 the plans in a way far different from that intended or ex- 
 pected by the authors. 
 
 It is hoped that Part I may show the kinds of people 
 who desired a school system and how they struggled for 
 it. Part II what the plan was and how it developed, and 
 Part III how the people interpreted and carried out the 
 plan. 
 
 With gratitude, mention is here made of State Supt. 
 N. C. Schaeffer, City Supt. M. L. Brembaugh and ex- 
 U. S. Commissioner W. T. Harris for assistance in ob- 
 taining material. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 Part I. 
 
 Introduction. — What must be taken into considera- 
 tion in writing a history? Variety of -early schools. 
 Ideas of various elements of the population : the Swedes, 
 Germans, Quakers, William Penn. — 11-16. 
 
 Chapter I. — Early Schools. All in favor of educa- 
 tion, parochial schools and their influence upon the 
 schools of to-day. Higher education, "Subscription" or 
 "Pay" schools and their influences upon present prac- 
 tices. Kind of teachers in Pay schools. Cost of schools. 
 Schools for the poor, Lancaster schools and their influ- 
 ence. — 19-23. 
 
 Chapter II. — Efforts for a regular system. Penn's 
 ideas as given in his frame of government. Need of 
 popular sentiment. Constitution of 1776. Timothy 
 Pickering and the constitution of 1790. Plan for a sys- 
 tem. State Aid to the Poor. Dissatisfaction. Difference 
 of Opinion. "Society for the promotion of a rational sys- 
 tem of education." Opposition to the law of 1834. Thad- 
 deus Stevens. — 24-40. 
 
 Part II. . 
 
 The System as based on the Law of 1834. 
 
 Chapter L— Township government, Board of Direc- 
 tors, organization of the board, Duties of Directors, 
 Changes by the law of 1854. Manual labor. Criticism, 
 —43-46. 
 
 Chapter II. — County Government. Duties of In- 
 spectors, to visit schools, to examine teachers, to issue 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 certificates. Changes in county government by the law 
 of 1854. County Superintendent, his selection, his duties, 
 to examine teachers, issue certificates, maTce annual re- 
 ports to state superintendent, to call and preside at teach- 
 ers' institutes. The School Journal. The law of 1854 
 Opposition to the law, attempts to repeal. Workings of 
 the office of county superintendent. — 47-54. 
 
 Chapter III. — State Government. Secretary of the 
 Commonwealth to be State Superintendent of Schools. 
 Duties of the Secretary of the Commonwealth as State 
 Superintendent of all the Schools; report to the Legis- 
 lature, prepare blanks, sign all orders on the State Treas- 
 urer, settle controversies, changes in state government of 
 schools, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Duties of 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. — 55-59. 
 
 Chapter IV. — State Normal Schools. Need of same 
 Law for their establishment. Government of Normal 
 Schools, trustees, their duties, meetings of Principals, 
 Examinations, aid to Normal Students from the state, 
 graduates of Normal Schools to have certificates. — 60-65. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 The practical development of the system. Some practices 
 different from the intentions of the law. 
 
 Chapter I. — Township government. Selecting ap- 
 paratus. Selecting text-books, agent influence. Selec- 
 tion of teachers. Evils of other states. Teachers said to 
 purchase positions. — 69-73. 
 
 Chapter IL — Legislative suggestions. Manual train- 
 ing in country schools, Manual training in West Chester 
 State Normal School, Manual training in Keystone State 
 Normal School. Sewing in the Normal Schools. Phila- 
 delphia Manual Training School. Wilkes-Barre, other 
 schools. — 74-79. 
 
CONTENTS 9 
 
 Chapter III. — County Government. Politics in coun- 
 ty government. Duties of County Superintendent of 
 Schools. His visiting schools. Examine teachers and 
 grant certificates. Uniformity of examinations and how 
 they work in other states. Dr. Schaeffer's opinion. Our 
 county superintendents. Penalties inflicted by county 
 superintendents. — 80-85. 
 
 Chapter IV. — State Government of Education. Se- 
 lection of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Dr. 
 Schaeffer appointed by a Republican Governor, though 
 he was a Democrat. Dr. Higbee appointed by the Gov- 
 ernor of an opposing party. Governor Pattison and Dr. 
 Schaeffer. Neither Deputy at present a college man. 
 Duties of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Su- 
 perintendent of Public Instruction to settle all contro- 
 versies. Commissioning County Superintendent. — 86-90. 
 
 Chapter V. — Teachers' Institutes. Criticism of Penn- 
 sylvania teachers' institutes. Benefits to the public. In- 
 structors of institutes too often inexperienced in com- > 
 mon school work. Directors' Day. Effect of entertain- 
 ing Institutes or Teachers. Liberality of the State to 
 Teachers' Institutes. Inattention at institutes. — 91-95. 
 
 Chapter VI. — Normal Schools, Trustees, Politics, In- 
 fluence, Appointment of State Trustees. New Course of 
 Study. Graduating. Failures. Examinations under the 
 State Board. Principals and Faculty of State Normal 
 Schools. — 96-102. 
 
 Chapter VII. — Distribution of State Appropriation. 
 Certificates of College Graduates. — 103-105. 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Cities of Pennsylvania, duties and 
 powers of Controllers. City Superintendents. High 
 Schools may be established. Special laws for cities. Spe- 
 cial training schools for large cities. Different training 
 in Cities than in Country Schools. Powers of Sub-Dis- 
 trict Directors. — 106-109. 
 
10 CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter IX.— Miscellaneous : Colleges, Evening 
 Schools, Length of Month, Public Libraries, Physiology 
 and Hygiene. The School Journal. Short Summary, Sal- 
 aries m Pennsylvania compared with other states. Con- 
 clusion. — 110-115. 
 
The Educational System of 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 VARIOUS IDEAS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 In the history of a state or county whose people con- 
 sist of a mixture of immigrants and their descendants, 
 it is highly essential that the beliefs, ideals, prejudices, 
 and other peculiarities of the early and later settlers be 
 carefully considered. 
 
 The population of Pennsylvania is the result of a mix- 
 ture of Quakers, Germans, Swedes, Scotch-Irish, Eng- 
 lish and others. 
 
 We still find here and there an elderly person who re- 
 members the Scotch-Irish schoolmasters who were among 
 the first to travel from place to place and establish pri- 
 vate schools, making teaching their regular occupation. 
 
 Our ancestors tell us that these schoolmasters received 
 into their schools children of various religious beliefs and 
 of all classes. We can easily see the reason for this. 
 These private schools were established where there were 
 not enough people of one denomination to support a 
 parochial school. If this be true, then it is evident that 
 the wages of the teacher would depend on the size of his 
 school, that is, the number of his scholars; for some 
 who attended those schools tell us that the charges were 
 a certain sum for each scholar. Hence the teacher could 
 afford to lay aside his religious prejudices for the sake 
 of an increase in salary. 
 
 II 
 
12 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 These were not the only kind of schools found in early 
 times, as we shall see later, but they demonstrated the 
 possibility of educating all the children of a community, 
 with parentage of various beliefs and conditions, in the 
 same school with no serious harm to any of their sec- 
 tarian ideals. This mixing of various sects in the same 
 school had much influence in changing from the expen- 
 sive and inefficient parochial school to the much superior 
 non-sectarian system of schools of which Pennsylvania 
 may feel proud. For inasmuch as both existed in the 
 State, they could be readily compared as to expense, re- 
 sults and satisfaction. True, some clung to the idea of 
 parochial schools for a long time, but, as we shall see 
 later, argument and fact finally won against prejudice. 
 
 The Swedes and Germans brought with them the idea 
 of education by the Government, but conducted by the 
 State church, as we are told by S. G. Fisher, in his "Fed- 
 eral and State Aid to Education." The same author con- 
 firms what we have already heard from our ancestors, 
 that the church was the school house and very often the 
 minister the teacher. The Queen's grant of New Sweden 
 required state support of church and school. The Ger- 
 mans had the same ideas of education. Thus grew up 
 various parochial schools among these people. Naturally 
 the streams of immigration continued for some years 
 from the same countries, and these ideas were thus kept 
 alive. One mingling with the descendants of these set- 
 tlers, the so-called "Pennsylvania Germans" or "Penn- 
 sylvania Dutch," and noting the tenacity with which they 
 cling to the customs of their fathers, and especially the 
 language, is not surprised that the idea of church control 
 of education remained fixed in their minds, and that 
 they should resist any attempt of the state to establish 
 the non-sectarian public schools among them. Yet they 
 were all in favor of education, and we can see, as is re- 
 membered by many still living, that one after another 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 13 
 
 they sacrificed their parochial schools for the far more 
 efficient public schools. ("History of Education in 
 Pennsylvania," by J. P. W., chapter 22. "History of 
 Berks County," by Morton L. Montgomery, pages 74, 
 
 75-) 
 
 The position of the Quakers as to education is often 
 misunderstood. This is quite natural from seeming con- 
 tradictory statements concerning them. Fisher says^: 
 "The Quaker despised learning, poetry, music and the 
 fine arts as vicious amusements." Bancroft says that 
 to them the inner light speaks by an "inward voice, un- 
 created by schools, independent of refinement, open to 
 the unlettered hand, not less than to the polished scholar, 
 a sure pathway into the enfranchisements of immortal 
 truths." 
 
 Says Wickensham* : "The Quakers believe in the 
 fullest sense that all men are created equal, since to all 
 men is given alike the gift of God's Spirit." 
 
 William Penn, in speaking of George Fox, says' : "For 
 many times hath my soul bowed in humble thankfulness 
 to the Lord, that he did not choose any of the wise and 
 learned of this world to be the first messenger in our age 
 of his blessed truth to men; but that he took one that 
 was not of high degree, or elegant speech, that his 
 message and work, he sent him to do, might come with- 
 out suspicion, or jealousy of human wisdom and interest, 
 and with more force and clearness upon the conscience 
 of those that sincerely sought the way of truth in the 
 love of it." 
 
 This is all we could find from Penn*s own writings 
 that could in any way be interpreted as indicating that 
 
 * "The Making of Pennsylvania," by S. G. Fisher, page 34. 
 
 '"A History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 21. 
 
 '"A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People 
 Called Quakers." 
 
14 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 the Quakers despised knowledge and learning. On the 
 contrary we know that they founded Haverford College 
 in 1833, and Swarthmore College in 1865, besides other 
 institutions of learning. Thus, their actual conduct does 
 not seem to indicate any lack of respect for learning or 
 education. The history of these institutions shows broad 
 ideas of education. The first graduating class of Swarth- 
 more was composed of five young women and one young 
 man. This college still has coeducation in its fullest 
 sense. Whence then was originated the idea that the 
 Quakers despised knowledge or even appreciated it less 
 than any other sect? We can only say that they prob- 
 ably emphasized other requisites as of more importance, 
 relatively speaking, than education, while others thought 
 differently; or it may be one of those peculiar historical 
 facts of a people condemning something and at the same 
 time practicing it in the extreme. The Quakers, for in- 
 stance, complained about others being so particular about 
 dress, and they themselves took great care that their 
 dress was according to a prescribed plan. Still Mr. 
 Wickersham tells us that the public schools of the Quak- 
 ers were open to other sects as well as their own.^ He 
 also adds that while the Puritans of New England were 
 burning witches one was tried in Pennsylvania and 
 found ^'guilty of the common fame of being a witch, but 
 not guilty as she stands charged," and thus ended the 
 only trial of a witch^ in Pennsylvania. The author adds : 
 ''No people in the world have been more tolerant of the 
 opinions of others or stronger advocates of the rights of 
 conscience than the Friends. Such people are not apt, 
 seriously, to oppose a system of education for all the 
 children of a state. When they came into possession of 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 413. 
 
 ' "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 23. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 15 
 
 Pennsylvania they were the rulers and thus they were in 
 a measure compelled to soften their opposition to war, 
 politics, freeman's oath and the power of government, 
 yet a.U^e historians say that they were the most liberal 
 oj^-l^prietors." 
 
 In the beginning they advocated universal education, 
 and Penn's frame of government contains provisions for 
 the same. He writes"": "I know some say 'Let us have 
 good laws and no matter for the men that execute them* ; 
 but let them consider that good laws want good men, and 
 may be abolished or evaded by ill men ; but good men will 
 never want for good laws, nor suffer ill ones." Again, 
 "That therefore which makes a good constitution must 
 keep it, namely, men of wisdom and virtue, qualities that, 
 because they descend not with worldly inheritance, must 
 be carefully propagated by a virtuous education of 
 youth." 
 
 We know that in his travels through Europe he spent 
 some time in Holland, which, no doubt, influenced him 
 in his plan of government, especially in relation to edu- 
 cation. Here is probably the place where his idea of uni- 
 versal education originated. With strong recommenda- 
 tions from its founder, Pennsylvania, it will be seen, 
 owes much to the hearty support of the Quakers for 
 everything which tended toward the advancement of the 
 education of all her children. 
 
 From Wichersham's History of Education in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Montgomery's History of Berks County, several 
 articles in the first volume of the Pennsylvania School 
 Journal, from various writings, and by judging of the 
 national origin, we find all agreeing that the first settlers 
 of Pennsylvania were, without exception, in favor of 
 education, but the different nationalities and sects had 
 different ideas as to how it should be obtained. It is not 
 
 'Pennsylvania's Frame of Government." 
 
i6 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 surprising that the EngHsh elements were in favor of 
 voluntary or subscription schools rather than public 
 schools, for according to Holman, England herself had 
 nothing else, and even to-day he designates her schools 
 as semi-state institutions.^ 
 
 The great problem evidently was to harmonize these 
 various elements by a system broad enough to supply 
 the wants of all and do violence to the opinions of none ; 
 to lead public opinion in such a way as to support a gen- 
 eral system of education. 
 
 ^"English National Education," by Halman. 
 
PART I. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 AN EDUCATIONAL CONTEST. 
 
 In order the better to understand why the settlers of 
 Pennsylvania were all in favor of education, the kind of 
 education they desired and the kind of schools they es- 
 tablished, it would be well to note that they had fled from 
 religious persecution ; most were Protestants, and one of 
 the two great principles of Protestantism is that "the 
 Bible is the only rule of religious faith and practice." 
 Hence, it is necessary that every child should learn to 
 read the Bible. This explains why the work of Michael 
 Schlatter, the first superintendent in Pennsylvania, was 
 necessary : Since the reformation, the church and the 
 school had been one interest, and some sects are still 
 unable to see that they may be as independent of each 
 other as the church and state. The various leaders of re- 
 ligious sects, therefore, were very much interested in 
 schools. Michael Schlatter was one of the greatest of 
 these workers. He visited Holland and Germany. He 
 published a journal in Europe appealing for money. He 
 sailed for America and arrived in Boston in 1746. The 
 next year he pushed on to Skippach and Philadelphia. 
 He visited many other places in this vicinity, and in the 
 same year (1747) he organized the first German Re- 
 formed Synod in America. Schlatter found a great lack 
 of schoolmasters and ministers. The people were too 
 poor to support them, even too poor to support their 
 own families. He feared the people would wander from 
 their religion. From Holland he collected i 12,000 ster- 
 ling. England, Palatinate and Switzerland all received 
 
 19 
 
20 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 his appeal for funds. He argued that F. A. Muhlen- 
 berg, the great patriarch of the Lutheran Church in 
 Pennsylvania, took better care of his flock than he could 
 of the Reformed people, for he — Muhlenberg — had more 
 abundant funds. They were, however, great friends, and 
 Schlatter speaks of their affectionate meeting when he re- 
 turned from one of his trips to Europe. This may ac- 
 count for the many union churches of Lutheran and Re- 
 formed congregations in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Schlatter obtained the aid above mentioned mainly 
 through the report he made to the various religious bod- 
 ies of Europe concerning the condition of education in 
 Pennsylvania. This report was translated into EngUsh, 
 and became a matter of deep concern of the Society for 
 the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 
 
 Dr. William Smith, afterward Provost of the college at 
 Philadelphia, confirmed the report, and argued that the 
 English Protestants and the English Government should 
 assist in the work, because these people were Protestant 
 Germans and because they were subjects of the English 
 crown. Penn, also, had given aid to the education of 
 schoolmasters in Pennsylvania. All these movements re- 
 sulted in the organization of a "Society for Propa- 
 gating Christian Knowledge Among Germans in Amer- 
 ica," in London in 1754, and i20,ooo were collected to 
 assist in the work. 
 
 The Lutherans offered their new school houses at New 
 Providence and New Hanover for the use of these non- 
 sectarian schools. They were accepted and the schools 
 were opened. 
 
 Opposition, however, showed itself, as it seemed to 
 some to be a political move, as it would appear to alienate 
 the Germans from the political support of the Quakers. 
 Others feared it would destroy the German language in 
 Pennsylvania. Others were jealous of their religion. 
 Yet Schlatter pushed on with his work until 1757, when 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 21 
 
 he resigned his position as superintendent of schools, and 
 Dr. William Smith, Provost of the College of Philadel- 
 phia, succeeded him. Dr. Smith undertook the work with 
 great energy and zeal. But an Englishman at the head 
 of the German Schools was less acceptable than his Ger- 
 man predecessor. 
 
 All the opposition needed was a leader, and he soon 
 appeared in the person of Christopher Sauer. Sauer was 
 a printer, who manufactured his own material, a mer- 
 chant who made his own wares, a physician who looked 
 after the health of his customers. He bought their 
 produce and sold them everything they needed. He 
 helped every one and accommodated every one and be- 
 came rich at it. In short, he was the one grandest Ger- 
 man of them all, loved and followed most devotedly, the 
 Good Samaritan of Germantown. When his voice 
 sounded, the contest was on in earnest. Comparing this 
 struggle with the celebrated educational struggle of Hor- 
 ace Mann in Massachusetts, that was but a skirmish by 
 the side of this mighty war. A war that lasted from 1750 
 to 1770. In Massachusetts it was a question of method, 
 a pedagogical struggle, but in Pennsylvania it was a 
 question of religion, language and nationality. 
 
 Smith, with money back of him, tried to start opposi- 
 tion to Sauer along every line. He started his own 
 printing press, his own stores, etc. Franklin supported 
 him. He, no doubt, was anxious for the success of this 
 great school system, that it might furnish students for 
 the College of Philadelphia, over which he presided. It 
 also pleased Franklin because it tended to unify the peo- 
 ple. It tended to make them one m language. It would 
 tend to make them one in religion, since everything 
 tended more or less toward the English Church and 
 toward the discarding the Lutheran and other German 
 churches. In fact, one of the brothers of Muhlenberg 
 became one of the most prominent ministers in the Eng- 
 
22 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 lish or Episcopal church. Sauer saw all this, and threw 
 all his mighty influence against it. With his business ca- 
 pacity, his wealth, and the influence of his many publi- 
 cations, his great love for his countrymen, there could be 
 but one result. Dr. Smith was utterly routed and his 
 schools were abandoned. The Germans did not abandon 
 education, but they returned to the churcE and the dis- 
 trict school. They were stirred to intense activity along 
 educational lines. They more than ever clung to their 
 language, customs and religion, a trait still characteristic 
 of their descendants after more than one and one-third 
 centuries. The Germans won what they contested for, 
 but they lost all the benefits that would have resulted 
 from the assistance of their English would-be benefac- 
 tors. They retained their language, but they lost the 
 opportunities for a higher education for which their na- 
 tures craved. This struggle led them to mistrust any 
 educational advancement along non-sectarian lines and 
 burdened them with inefficient parochial schools. But 
 this has now passed. They still love their language, their 
 customs, their religion, but their opposition to English 
 schools has now ended, and none are more devoted to 
 the cause of education and the common school system of 
 the State than the Pennsylvania Germans. It is gen- 
 erally supposed that Dr. Muhlenberg was ignorant of the 
 designs which Sauer claimed actuated the plans of Schlat- 
 ter and Smith. Schlatter, a native of Switzerland, and 
 Smith, a native of England, even with Muhlenberg's as- 
 sistance, could not combat, successfully, the immense in- 
 fluence of the German, Christopher Sauer, especially if 
 the latter could make the Germans believe that their 
 language, nationality and refigion were being assailed. 
 When the contest was over, the union churches of Lu- 
 theran and Reformed Congregations began to disagree, 
 and the union church idea, then so common, and so suc- 
 cessful for the time, now has few supporters. The reac- 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 23 
 
 tion has, unfortunately, in some sections, pitted them 
 against each other. But the days of Sauer and Smith 
 are past, and the greatest educational struggle of the cen- 
 tury is an event of history too important to be omitted 
 even in such a brief work as this. Christopher Sauer 
 was a firm believer in education; he was a college bred 
 man himself, and he sent his son to the best schoolmaster 
 of the colony, Christopher Dock of Skippack. Dock 
 wrote a work on pedagogy in 1750, but it is claimed that 
 Dr. Sauer planned it. He published it in 1770, after the 
 writer's death. It was the first work on pedagogy pub- 
 Hshed in America. Christopher Dock was a pious school- 
 master, and his work is interesting, especially since he 
 advocated correspondence between the youth of different 
 schools as a means of education. This seems to be an 
 anticipation of the modern correspondence schools. 
 
 This great contest waged by English influence against 
 German, wealth against personality, cold planning 
 against love and devotion, furnishes a true explanation of 
 the traits and peculiarities of this unique class of people, 
 though the smoke of the battle has long passed from the 
 eyes of the contestants. 
 
 This people's brogue and its multitude of peculiarities, 
 to some literary genius, may furnish an infinitely richer 
 field than ever met the scrutinizing eye of Washington 
 Irving as he gazed down the annals of the New York 
 Dutch. It may not be too much to expect that some time 
 a far greater work than Knickerbocker's History of New 
 York may grace the record of this peculiar people. 
 
24 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 EARLY SCHOOLS 
 
 From various county and state histories^ we learn that 
 the first schools founded by settlers were of a sectarian 
 nature, that is, parochial schools especially in those parts 
 — central, southern and southeastern sections — where re- 
 ligious sects were concentrated. Nothing is more natural 
 than to suppose that, since these people were in favor of 
 education and since the countries from which they immi- 
 grated allowed the church to control education, they 
 would follow suggestions from their churches or from 
 their ministers. 
 
 Parochial Schools. — From the same source and from 
 the recollections and traditions of old men we learn that 
 whenever a church was built the school house followed. 
 In many cases, the minister was also the teacher and the 
 church the school house. 
 
 When the duties became too great for the minister, 
 and the remuneration was sufficient, a teacher was em- 
 ployed, who was also the leader in the church choir and 
 the "pastor's" assistant. As the minister was always the 
 guardian of the school as well as its founder, to be con- 
 sistent he would take great care that only teachers of a 
 high moral and religious reputation were employed. He 
 influenced the selection of teachers through the trustees, 
 for many, if not most, parochial schools were controlled 
 
 ^Shimmel's "History of Pennsylvania," Kuhn's "Swiss and 
 German Settlers in Pennsylvania," Montgomery's "History of 
 Berks County," Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsyl- 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 25 
 
 by trustees. We still have some of these schools remain- 
 ing, as the Moravian schools of Bethlehem, Pa. In this 
 way the trustees and even the patrons were taught to see 
 that only those teachers with suitable qualifications were 
 employed. Our own experience and observation proves 
 how well this custom is still adhered to. A people may 
 be furnished with all the necessary equipments for a per- 
 fect system of education, but unless they are interested in 
 carrying out the necessary conditions it will require 
 eternal vigilance of some external power to prevent its 
 falling to ruin. 
 
 Not only popular sentiment but the law of the state 
 now demands moral character^ as a requisite qualification 
 of public school teachers. The idea of making a teacher 
 the leader in Sunday school is still considered in select- 
 ing teachers for some districts, especially in rural com- 
 munities of the State. This has much to do with the 
 high moral standard of the teachers of the State. 
 
 When parents were too poor to pay the requisite tui- 
 tion they were allowed to send their children free of 
 charge, specially if they belonged to the same sect as the 
 school. This privilege, however, depended upon the 
 church controlling the schoor; some were more tolerant 
 than others. 
 
 It was probably fortunate that these early schools were 
 thus controlled, for in this new country it helped the 
 various churches combat sheer materialism when every- 
 thing in a newly settled State tended to lead in that di- 
 rection. 
 
 Higher Ediwation. — Higher education was controlled 
 by ecclesiastical influence, with the single exception of 
 the University of Pennsylvania ; all other like institutions 
 in the Eastern and Central States, such as Harvard, Yale, 
 Dartmouth, Williams and Brown in New England, Co- 
 
 ^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 241, 171. 
 
 'See "U. S. Report of Bureau of Education," 1895-96, page 236. 
 
26 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 lumbia in New York City, Princeton in New Jersey, 
 University of Maryland, William and Mary and Ran- 
 dolph Macon in Virginia, and the universities of North 
 and South Carolinas, together with other seminaries as- 
 piring to college work, had ecclesiastical foundation.^ 
 Those having sufficient endowment still exist, and are the 
 great institutions by which the State is very largely re- 
 lieved of the burden of higher education. The training 
 of teachers in the State Normal Schools of Pennsylvania 
 is an exception to this general rule ; but they will be dis- 
 cussed in another chapter. 
 p, One great objection to parochial schools was that sev- 
 
 eral schools of different sects must be maintained in 
 some districts when there were only pupils for one. Says 
 Shimmel in his "History of Pennsylvania" : "It was 
 said of the country around Philadelphia that by 1750 a 
 school house stood in almost every ridge of woods." If 
 these parts most thickly settled were overburdened with 
 a variety of schools what can be said of those most thinly 
 populated ? 
 
 The folly of these efforts sooner or later became ap- 
 parent except to the most bigoted, for the early churches 
 were financially overburdened. The teaching generally 
 was not stimulated then by the competition of well- 
 trained teachers. The denomination of the church to 
 which the teacher belonged had more to do with his pay 
 and selection than his ability and preparation. Another 
 hindrance was the fact that, because the teacher gen- 
 erally received his salary directly from the parents of his 
 pupils, he was compelled to cater more or less to his 
 pupils and their parents. His independence was handi- 
 capped and he was unable properly to stimulate the work 
 of the pupils. A few of these parochial schools which 
 were well endowed still survive, but the great majority 
 of parents prefer the free to the pay schools, and while 
 
 ^See "Report of Bureau of Education," 1895-96, page 236. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 27 
 
 the more strict sects held their people to parochial schools 
 for a long time, nearly all have joined the great free 
 school system. 
 
 We have no record of Pennsylvania ever giving state 
 aid to any of these parochial schools as did New Jersey 
 and other States. In fact, the Constitution forbids it. 
 (Art. 3, Sec. 18.) 
 
 Pay Schools. — Intermediate between parochial and 
 state free schools was another system called "subscrip- 
 tion" or "pay" schools. Dr. Wickersham considers them 
 the transition stage from church to free schools.^ In 
 communities of one sect and in towns, church schools 
 were established, but in districts sparsely populated and 
 composed of various sects there was neither money nor 
 pupils for the various sects. The churches were too far 
 apart for children to reach, especially in winter, for pa- 
 rents and adults were often compelled to travel to them 
 on horseback. 
 
 The parochial schools were superintended by the 
 clergy, the most learned class of the times, who tried to 
 secure the best qualified teachers. This the subscription 
 school lacked. From Wichersham's and Shimmel's his- 
 tories and from the recollection of old men we learn that 
 the subscription school was controlled by a board of di- 
 rectors or trustees, elected by those who patronized the 
 school or helped in its support. This is analogous to the 
 present system, in which a board of six directors elected 
 by their own township control all the schools of the 
 township. The suggestions and wishes of the patrons 
 even then were consulted, in selecting teachers, and it is 
 still the custom for rival applicants to try to obtain the 
 written consent of the patrons of a school and present 
 the same to the directors to secure the position. Thus 
 we see the influence of these schools on the present 
 method of control. 
 
 'History of Education in Pennsylvania," chapter 9. 
 
28 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 In the case of pay or subscription schools, those who 
 sent children paid for their tuition, but often one with 
 an extra amount of public spirit, as Jacob Ake of Blair 
 county^ would take matters into his own hands and sup- 
 ply grounds, buildings, and in some cases assumed the 
 entire expense. The land was nearly always donated, 
 many of which tracts are still used for school purposes. 
 Generally the houses were built by subscription, the citi- 
 zens laboring with their own hands and furnishing ma- 
 terial. Some schools were endowed by public-spirited 
 citizens^ All this continued until the State law of 1834, 
 after which those districts which accepted the conditions 
 of the law supplied the school funds by means of public 
 taxation. Long before the State took control of the 
 schools these "pay" schools far outnumbered the paro- 
 chial schools. 
 
 Arclius, writing, about 1750, says with some exag- 
 geration of the country in the vicinity of Philadelphia, 
 "In almost every ridge of woods, there is a school house.'" 
 
 Within recent years subscription schools in the summer 
 season were maintained to lengthen the regular school 
 term in districts strongly in favor of long school terms. 
 Often the moving spirit was a schoolmaster, seeking 
 employment, who canvassed a community in need of a 
 school and with the advice and assistance of his patrons 
 provided accommodations for a school of which, of 
 course, he became teacher. This method continued, in 
 districts sparsely populated and of various sects, until the 
 State free schools were established, and they were, by 
 Wickersham and others, considered the real forerunners 
 of our present system of schools. 
 
 Some of Pennsylvania's greatest men, such as Thad- 
 
 ^ "History of Education," by J. P. Wickersham, page 181. 
 
 ^Shimmel's "History of Pennsylvania," pages 280-84. Wicker 
 am's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," chapter 9. 
 
 ^See "History of Education," by J. P. Wickersham, page 179. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 29 
 
 deus Stevens, Joseph R. Chandler, Governor George 
 Wolfe, and others, began their career as schoolmasters, 
 making it a stepping-stone to other stages of usefulness. 
 Certainly the pay school was a good training for those 
 beginning life as teachers, for they generally sought out 
 a district in need of a teacher, that is, they found a want 
 to be supplied and then they supplied it. To do so, they 
 must solicit pupils from their parents or guardians, and 
 then to be successful they must still hold in the minds 
 of the patrons the necessity of keeping their children in 
 school. Since parents are largely influenced by the opin- 
 ions of the pupils, the teacher had the double end ever 
 before him — to properly teach and discipline his school 
 and still hold the good will and patronage of the pa- 
 rents of the district. 
 
 Wickersham and others would have us believe what 
 we can readily understand, that seldom children too poor 
 to pay were kept from school by the teacher or trustees.^ 
 One of the first steps toward free schools taken by the 
 State was the paying of tEe tuition of the poor by the 
 State." 
 
 As might be supposed, some preferred to be classed as 
 poor rather than pay for their children's education. Oth- 
 ers too poor to pay and too proud to accept charity left 
 their children to grow up uneducated. This was not the 
 land for children to receive the stamp of poverty in order 
 to be educated. 
 
 Schoolmasters of Pay Schools. — "Pay" or "subscrip- 
 tion" schools were largely filled with itinerant school- 
 masters, who were mostly foreigners. Wickersham de- 
 scribes them as "odd in dress, eccentric in manners, 
 oftentimes intemperate, with knowledge limited to the 
 
 * "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 page 180. 
 
 '"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 '.age 263; also Act March, 1802, P. L. 
 
30 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 merest elements." "In the school room they were gen- 
 erally precise, formal, exacting and severe.^ Those who 
 were good scholars had previously failed in some previ- 
 ous undertaking, met disappointment that had soured 
 them against society, and driven them to seek a liveli- 
 hood in comparative isolation, or belonged to a class of 
 queer characters and purposeless adventurers, 'cranks' 
 that find their way in large numbers to every new com- 
 munity and float about rudderless on the surface of its 
 affairs." The reason that better teachers were not em- 
 ployed is plain, there was little about schools to attract 
 young men of energy and ability, poor school houses, 
 poor equipment if any at all, poor and very often uncer- 
 tain pay. Though parochial schools had some system and 
 superintendence, pay schools lacked both. It was time 
 for the state to begin to look after education. 
 
 Cost of Pay Schools. — Besides, the expense was enor- 
 mous compared to the results. All educational experi- 
 ence must show what the legislative committee discov- 
 ered, namely, that the "money expended by the public and 
 by individuals throughout the State, for education in the 
 common schools, was sufficient, if applied under the con- 
 trol of agents famiHar with the most approved system 
 of elementary instruction, to extend the benefits of an 
 education to all the children within the State."^ In 1829 
 the number of children in the state between the ages of 
 5 and 16 years was believed to be not less than 350,000.* 
 
 State Aid to Education. — Furthermore, the custom of 
 the State, in paying the tuition of the poor children, 
 greatly strengthened an educational interest in private 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 pages 212-13-14-15. 
 
 ""History of Education," by Wickersham, page 275. 
 
 "Hon. C. Blyth, in report to House of Representatives, Feb. 
 28th, 1829. Compare "History of Education," by Shimmell, page 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 31 
 
 schools and seminaries, which combatted the efforts to 
 pass laws for a general system of education for years, 
 and in the case of State normal schools, for the training 
 of teachers, remains victorious to this day. While there 
 may be disadvantages in this, still these private corpora- 
 tions assist the State in molding popular sentiment in 
 favor of trained teachers. They have money invested 
 with no direct return, their interests and that of the 
 State are mutual, they stimulate a strong desire in the 
 minds of the public for trained teachers for the public 
 schools, and they assist the State in supplying them. 
 
 Lancaster System. — A peculiar system of education 
 known as the Lancaster System^ deserves special men- 
 tion at this time. It was named after its founder, Mr. 
 Joseph Lancaster, born in Kent street, London, in 1778. 
 He was a Quaker, and at the age of twenty began teach- 
 ing poor children in his own home. The school so in- 
 creased in size that a house was built for its accommo- 
 dations. Sometimes a thousand children were in at- 
 tendance. Lancaster and the pupils were both too poor 
 to furnish means to employ assistants. Monitors of the 
 older and more advanced pupils were employed to in- 
 struct others of lower grade. Thus the system sup- 
 ported itself. It became quite popular in England and 
 became known throughout Europe. One recommenda- 
 tion was the cheap way in which the poor could be edu- 
 cated. Model and normal schools were established for 
 the training of teachers by Lancastrian societies. In 
 1 81 8 it was introduced into New York, and about the 
 same time in Philadelphia. Many professing skill in the 
 new method established schools and competed for patron- 
 age. There was competition between teachers, and for a 
 time it seemed as if it would supersede all other systems. 
 
 Lancaster himself came to New York in 1818 and soon 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, pages 
 270-285. "History of Pennsylvania," by Shimmell, pages 183-4. 
 
32 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 pushed on to Philadelphia, where he remained some time 
 organizing the schools on his plan. It furnished free 
 or nearly free education for the poor. By this system 
 one teacher, with his monitors, was considered sufficient 
 for a school of one thousand pupils. This monitor teach- 
 ing was a sham or farce to teaching, and yet it clung to 
 Philadelphia until the schools were thrown open to rich 
 and poor alike. It, however, showed the necessity of 
 trained teachers, and the normal schools of the State 
 owe much to the sentiment originated by the Lancastrian 
 system. It also lessened the cost of education in these 
 early times, and probably hastened the adoption of the 
 free school system.^ 
 
 ^Compare "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. 
 Wickersham, page 270. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 EFFORTS FOR A REGULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Penn's Ideas. — As before mentioned, William Penn, 
 in his "Frame of Government," made provision for edu- 
 cation. In his second or revised "Frame of Govern- 
 ment," there was a compulsory law^ requiring all parents 
 and guardians of children to see that they were taught to 
 read and write at the age of twelve, and then each was 
 to be taught some useful "trade or skill." The penalty 
 for neglect in this matter was a fine of five pounds for 
 each child thus neglected ; still the law was more or less 
 a "dead letter." The attention of the people was too 
 much occupied with other matters. Besides, in some 
 cases, there were no teachers or school houses provided, 
 and the tuition must come directly from the parents. It 
 is far different when it costs the same, whether parents 
 send their children to school or not. It is one thing to 
 say, by law, what must be done, but another to provide 
 means that the people can obey the laws. Many of the 
 settlers came from England, where universal education 
 was unknown, where only those who were willing and 
 able educated their children;^ where education was, in a 
 measure, a mark of class distinction. Uneducated set- 
 tlers could hardly see the necessity for educating their 
 children. It was required that the laws^ be one of the 
 books of the public schools, but there is no record of this 
 
 ^Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," pages 
 32-36. 
 ' "English National Education," by Holman. 
 'Great Laws," chapter LX. 
 
 t **t 
 
34 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 provision ever being carried out; besides it would not 
 have reached the parents if it had. The right kind of 
 popular sentiment was needed. Free schools were 
 needed, that it might cost the parents nothing directly 
 for the education of the children. It took one hundred 
 and fifty years of agitation to bring about these results. 
 
 The first constitution in 1776 required that "A school 
 or schools shall be established in each county by the 
 legislature for the correct instruction of youth," etc., but 
 there was no incentive for the careless and no specified 
 time when the provision should be carried into effect. 
 
 In 1789 Timothy Pickering, a native of Massachu- 
 setts, but a resident of Pennsylvania of the section set- 
 tled by people from New England, led in an attempt to 
 introduce the New England system of general educa- 
 tion."^ This having failed, a compromise measure was 
 offered, under which the battle for free education of all 
 children was fought for many years. The revised con- 
 stitution of 1790 contained the following clause: "Article 
 VII, Section I. The legislature shall, as soon as con- 
 veniently may be, provide by law for the establishment 
 of schools throughout the State in such manner that the 
 poor may be taught gratis." It also provided for the en- 
 couragements of the "arts and sciences" in "one or more 
 universities of learning." 
 
 State Aid to the Poor. — It will be seen by this that the 
 State was only trying to educate the poor. Others must 
 pauperize themselves before they could obtain the privi- 
 lege of free education. The legislature might delay ac- 
 tion indefinitely, for they might not think that the "con- 
 venient time" had come to establish schools. 
 
 Dissatisfaction. — No one was satisfied. The discrimi- 
 nation in favor of poverty was distasteful, yet no agree- 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 pages 68-69. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 35 
 
 ment for anything better could be reached. There was 
 too great variety of opinions and interests, for the opin- 
 ions of people depended largely upon their ancestral 
 country. In Sweden and Scotland the State controlled 
 education through the church. In Germany it was nearly 
 the same, and England had no free pubHc schools. So 
 it will be seen that it was no small undertaking to har- 
 monize all these heterogeneous elements of population. 
 What suited one was distasteful to others. The Quak- 
 ers, Lutherans, Reformed, Mennonites, and other re- 
 ligious sects had their own parochial schools, some en- 
 dowed, in the more thickly settled parts of the State, and 
 they did not wish to surrender them to the State nor 
 support them and still be taxed to support schools in 
 other sections of the State. Some very much feared 
 that a system of public schools would fail to support the 
 right kind of religious instruction. It was plain that 
 the more densely populated and wealthy sections could 
 support schools for themselves cheaper than to join in a 
 general system of education, if rural districts should re- 
 ceive the same amount of aid per capita as towns and 
 cities. They would receive more than they paid, while 
 the thickly populated districts would receive less. This 
 is almost always a sensitive point, and the State has not 
 yet been able to give the same educational advantages to 
 all of her children, nor is the burden of taxation for 
 educational purposes resting equally on the shoulders of 
 all of her citizens. (Compare tax rate of various dis- 
 tricts.) 
 
 Difference of Opinion. — Still all those elements were 
 in favor of education, but they differed in opinion as to 
 the kind of system to be adopted. Multitudes of reasons 
 were given why the State should let education alone.^ 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 pages 320-325. 
 
36 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Some reasons then mentioned, as recorded in Wicker- 
 sham's history and recalled by legends from old men, 
 are still brought forward against education. The old 
 aristocratic families^ still held to the idea of class dis- 
 tinction, and they saw only trouble resulting from the 
 principle of equality, upon which the school system was 
 being planned. They argued that to educate those of the 
 lower scale of society was to unfit them for their posi- 
 tion in life and make them unhappy. They must remain 
 in the station in which they were born. A noble must 
 be born in a castle, he could not be born in a cottage. 
 They could not understand the leveling principle upon 
 which free schools were to be established. Another 
 class opposed any change. We still have that class. 
 Some religious denominations had their own schools, and 
 unanimously opposed a general system of free unde- 
 nominational schools. They had good reason, but they 
 were in favor of education. Some Germans objected to 
 the proposed system because they feared it would destroy 
 their language and institute English in its place. But, 
 as might be supposed, the uneducated, narrow-minded, 
 ignorant and penurious continued their opposition longest 
 and with most vigor. It was argued that one who had 
 no children should not be compelled to assist in educating 
 other people's children; that education of the masses 
 would breed idleness, crime and vice; that the people 
 would be bankrupt; that the hardworking man should 
 not be compelled to assist in educating the children of 
 "lazy drones" ; that the compulsory idea of free educa- 
 tion was tyrannical to the extreme; in short, as quoted 
 by Wickersham^ in their own harsh language that "free 
 schools are the hotbeds wherein idle drones, too lazy for 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 page 319. 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 page 321. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 37 
 
 honest labor, are reared and maintained; the free school 
 system was originated and supported by its partisans for 
 the purpose of making places for men too lazy to work, 
 and the school tax is a- thinly disguised tribute which the 
 honest, hard-working farmer and mechanic have to pay 
 out of their hard earnings to pamper idle and lazy 
 schoolmasters." Too often, doubtless, the character of 
 the schoolmaster was a just cause for dislike, but it was 
 the fault of conditions then existing. When the standard 
 for teachers was raised by requiring certificates there 
 was less cause for complaint. When the profession was 
 elevated teachers rose to the requirements. This class of 
 opponents, as to-day, were found in greater or less num- 
 bers all over the State, and through "common cause" 
 those who opposed free education of all the children 
 alike for other and better reasons joined their ranks and 
 increased the power and influence of the opposition. 
 ui uopn;i;suoo ;sjg aq; mojj p9;six3 X|jB3j uot;b;i5b siqx 
 1776. Sometimes the question was put in the back- 
 ground because of wars and other social problems. In 
 1814, a "Society for the Promotion of a Rational System 
 of Education" was organized in Philadelphia, and in 
 1827, the "Society for the Promotion of Public Schools 
 in Pennsylvania." Other societies followed and conven- 
 tions of teachers were held. This kept up the fight and 
 finally the law of 1834 was almost unanimously passed. 
 This gave us a State system which still lives, though 
 much changed and improved."^ 
 
 Opposition to the Law of 18^4. — The passage of this 
 law did not end matters. The northern section of the 
 state settled by immigrants from New York and New 
 England, and the western sections, settled largely by 
 Scotch and North Irish, received the law with gladness. 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 page 330. 
 
38 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 But the other portions generally opposed the law. Floods 
 of petitions^ signed by 32,000 names came to the legis- 
 lature, but as is said "more than 10 in 100 depended on 
 some one else to sign their names and not 5 in 100 
 signed in English." This in itself was a very strong 
 proof of the necessity of free education. 
 
 At this time much depended upon Governor Wolfe. 
 Though knowing it would mean defeat he, without hesi- 
 tation, stood firm for free education, and his successor, 
 Governor Ritner, followed his example. 
 
 Thaddeus Stephens. — At the same time, another cham- 
 pion of the children appeared in the person of Thaddeus 
 Stephens, a native of Vermont, but a resident of Adams 
 county, Pennsylvania. With no outfit of personal popu- 
 larity or great political leadership he came to the sup- 
 port of the law, establishing free schools when it was 
 most needed. He arrayed himself on the side of free 
 schools with a. boldness and determination which inspired 
 confidence in its supporters, and with convincing argu- 
 ment such as brought in line the wavering, with a de- 
 fiance that struck terror to its foes, and thus the law of 
 1834 was not only sustained, but revised and improved 
 by such a majority in the House that the Senate was 
 compelled either to acquiesce or let the original law of 
 1834 stand. It chose the former, and thus the common 
 school system of Pennsylvania was saved. 
 
 The speeches made by Mr. Stephens in the contest 
 and in favor of colleges and academies are well worth the 
 careful reading of every student of the educational his- 
 tory of Pennsylvania. Without the efforts of Mr. 
 Stephens, nothing but the veto of Governor Wolfe could 
 have saved the free school law, and Pennsylvania might 
 have been far behind her neighboring States in the 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by Wickersham, 
 page 330. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 39 
 
 work of education. "As it was," says Mayo, "she placed 
 herself twenty years ahead of her neighboring State, 
 New York."' 
 
 Thus from its settlement in 1683 until 1834 was the 
 question of education in Pennsylvania agitated, varying 
 in intensity according to the number of other absorbing 
 topics. The free school system was the result of many 
 years of struggle and experiment. During all this time, 
 the greatest need was proper public opinion and men to 
 mold it into form so as to be practical with a population 
 of such heterogeneous elements. Very few of the people 
 of Pennsylvania were opposed to education, but the kind 
 of education and the method and cost of obtaining it pre- 
 sented as great a diversity of opinion as there were di- 
 versity of nationalities and religious sects. It took all 
 this time to harmonize these elements enough to make a 
 general school system practical, and though it was actu- 
 ally established by the act of 1834, yet the work of im- 
 proving and organizing was a task of no small magni- 
 tude. 
 
 Before entering upon the important topic of organiza- 
 tion of the system it seems proper to pay more than a 
 passing notice to two men who had much to do with the 
 work of founding a real system of education. 
 
 Samuel Buck, who drafted the act of 1834, was a na- 
 tive of New England. He was a thorough school man, 
 having taught in France, where he spent some time at 
 school. Strange to say that H. E. Scudder, in his 
 "Recollections of Samuel Buck," omits to mention his 
 services to the schools of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Timothy Pickering had had much experience in pub- 
 lic life. He served in the American Revolution as 
 colonel, and in 1777 became Washington's adjutant-gen- 
 eral. He was a delegate to the Pennsylvania constitu- 
 tional convention in 1787 and 1790. He negotiated seven 
 
 ^Report of Commissioner of Education, page 263. 
 
40 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 treaties with Indians. He served as Postmaster-general 
 and Secretary of War. He served as Secretary of War 
 under both Washington and Adams. He was a Senator 
 from Massachusetts from 1803 to 181 1, and a member of 
 the war board of his State from 1812-1815, a member 
 of Congress from 1815-1817, and decHned a re-election. 
 He died in 1829. 
 
 His attempt to introduce the New England system of 
 education was a failure, but it assisted in molding popu- 
 lar sentiment that a compromise measure might be ac- 
 cepted. 
 
PART II. 
 
THE SYSTEM BASED ON THE LAW OF 1834. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Though William Penn in his "Frame of Government" 
 strongly advocated the education of all the children, and 
 the constitutions of 1776 and 1790 enjoined it, there was 
 no provision for a general system of education in the 
 State until the act of 1834 (April) made such a system 
 possible. 
 
 Township Government. — By the provisions of this act, 
 each county constituted a division, and each township, 
 borough or ward a district. Thus the township was 
 made the unit of the system. The schools of the town- 
 ship were under direct control of a board of six direc- 
 tors,'' elected in September, in the same manner and at 
 the same time as other township officers. The term of office 
 was fixed at three years, two directors being elected each 
 year, so that the experience of one board could be handed 
 down to the next. This plan has its advantages and its 
 disadvantages. It tends to make the work conservative, 
 for the older members would naturally have more influ- 
 ence than those newly elected, yet it might make changes 
 for improvement difficult. Very much depends upon the 
 kind of officers in charge of the schools as to whether or 
 not the good of the old methods and policies be continued 
 
 ^Sec. I, P. L., 1834. 
 
 ''See. 2, P. L., Act April, 1834. 
 
 43 
 
44 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 and the poor discarded for better. A board of directors 
 in control of the schools of a whole township also has its 
 advantages. The work of the different schools may be 
 compared and thus they may learn from each other. If 
 all the directors for a school are from the patrons of the 
 school, none of them have the advantage of seeing events 
 in which they themselves are not so directly interested. 
 By the township system there are some who are di- 
 rectly concerned as patrons, while others look at matters 
 without being so closely connected with them. Again 
 little troubles will be passed over harmlessly, if patrons 
 must deal with officers all over the township, more read- 
 ily than if they were all in the same neighborhood. Thus 
 it will be seen that the township system has its advan- 
 tages as well as disadvantages compared with the single 
 school system. 
 
 School directors were to receive no compensation or 
 remuneration for their services. This has never changed, 
 and directors still serve without pay, and the examples 
 of conscientious and thankless work on the part of direc- 
 tors in performing their duties are very numerous indeed. 
 
 Organization. — The board must organize in ten days 
 after their election, annually choosing their own officers, 
 including treasurer, unless there is a township treasurer, 
 in which case he shall be treasurer of the board as per 
 act of 1834, but the act of May, 1854, changed this so 
 that one of the board or any one else may be treasurer. 
 
 Duties of Directors. — The act of 1834, Section 5, made 
 school tax a county tax which was laid by a joint meet- 
 ing of the county commissioners and a delegate from 
 each district, but since^ that time it has been made a mat- 
 ter for the directors to decide for their own district. By 
 the law of 1834, the directors were to determine the num- 
 
 ^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 98, P. L., page 623, also act of Apr. 9, 
 1872, Sec. I, P. L., page 46, and act of May 19, 1877, Sec. i, P. L., 
 page 130. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 45 . 
 
 ber of schools to be opened in their respective districts, to 
 cause suitable buildings to be erected, purchased or hired, 
 for schools; to appoint capable teachers at liberal sal- 
 aries ; to admit scholars ; to have the general superin- 
 tendence of the schools of their respective districts; to 
 pay the necessary expenses incurred thereby, by orders 
 drawn on the treasurer of the district, signed by the 
 president and countersigned by the secretary of the re- 
 spective boards. 
 
 All these duties the boards of directors still perform. 
 Though the county superintendent visits and judges the 
 work done by the teachers, yet the board of directors de- 
 cide whether a teacher is "capable" or not, and while 
 they often take the advice of the superintendent they 
 need not do so as long as the teacher holds a legal certifi- 
 cate or license. They decide from year to year whether 
 a teacher's services are to continue or not. And they 
 decide upon the amount of his compensation. 
 
 Section 10^ provided for "manual labor," and it au- 
 thorized the directors "to decide whether such connec- 
 tion of manual labor with branches of study in their re- 
 spective districts shall take place or not," and it pro- 
 vided that they should have power to purchase material 
 and employ artisans for the instruction of the pupils in 
 the useful branches of the mechanic arts and, where 
 practicable, in the agricultural pursuits." All these du- 
 ties still belong to the district directors. The law of 1834 
 also required them to visit the schools and report to the 
 inspectors of the district in full as to salaries, teachers, 
 buildings, length of term, studies pursued, etc., but this 
 now devolves upon the county superintendent of schools, 
 as the inspector's office has been dropped. Still popular 
 sentiment often requires the directors to visit the schools, 
 at least of their immediate neighborhood. 
 
 ^Law of 1834. 
 
46 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Criticism. — In this as in all kinds of government, the 
 most important object to keep in mind is that the best 
 officers shall be selected ; men are more important than 
 the form of government. 
 
 One good director often largely directs the whole board 
 for the great improvement of the schools of the town- 
 ship, while one otherwise inclined may demoralize the 
 several schools of a district. 
 
 It will also be seen that the burden of responsibility 
 rests upon the school directors. Yet the director is re- 
 sponsible to no one except those who elect him. But 
 popular sentiment, if properly informed and fair, is one 
 of the very best guarantees of right and justice. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 47 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 County Government. — The law^ of 1834 gave the 
 county school government into the hands of two inspec- 
 tors for each school district appointed by the court of 
 Quarter Sessions to serve one year. 
 
 Duties of Inspectors. — The inspectors were required to 
 visit the schools in their respective districts at least once 
 in three months and oftener if they thought necessary, 
 "to inquire into the moral character, learning and ability 
 of the several teachers employed therein." They were 
 required to examine teachers or those wishing to teach 
 and issue certificates, good for one year, to those qualified 
 and of good moral character. No one without such cer- 
 tificate could obtain compensation from the county treas- 
 urer or the treasurer of the commonwealth for his or her 
 services. The certificate was to name the branches in 
 which the teacher was found competent. 
 
 While the inspectors were appointed for the various 
 districts,'' yet they were, in a measure, county officers, 
 inasmuch as they were privileged to meet as a body from 
 the different districts of a division and transact business 
 and establish rules for examinations and certificates, 
 which would be binding on all the inspectors of the divi- 
 sion or county.^ They (or any one of them) were privi- 
 leged to visit all the schools of the division or county and 
 examine the same. No teacher was to be given a certifi- 
 cate unless he or she was found to be qualified to teach 
 reading, writing and arithmetic. 
 
 ^Sec. 12, P. L., Apr., 1834. 
 
 'Sec. 14. ■ 
 
 "Sec. IS, P. L. 
 
48 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Report to the Secretary of the Commonwealth^ — The 
 inspectors were to examine minutely and report to the 
 superintendent of schools, then the Secretary of the Com- 
 monwealth, the condition of the schools, both as respects 
 the progress of the scholars in learning and the good or- 
 der of the schools. The report was *'to include the char- 
 acter of the teachers; the number of scholars admitted 
 during the year in the several schools under their in- 
 spection; the branches of study taught in each school; 
 the number of months in the year during which each 
 school had been kept open; the cost of school houses, 
 either for building, renting or repairing, and all other 
 costs that might have been incurred in maintaining the 
 several schools in their respective districts, and they 
 must also cause the same to be published in the school 
 division at the expense of the respective city or county. 
 
 County Superintendent^. — The law of 1854 created the 
 office of county superintendent of schools, who performed 
 such duties as were formerly done by the various inspec- 
 tors of the county. 
 
 By notice from the county superintendent' a conven- 
 tion of all the school directors of a school division is held 
 every three years, at which a county superintendent is 
 elected for the term of three years. This convention 
 must be on the first Tuesday in May, at the seat of jus- 
 tice in the proper county. The county superintendent, as 
 the act specifies, is to be a person of literary and scien- 
 tific acquirements of skill and experience in the art of 
 teaching." The salary is partly fixed by law, and partly 
 by the directors. The maximum and minimum limits are 
 fixed by law and the directors decide upon the exact 
 amount. 
 
 ^Sec. 16, P. L. 
 
 ^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 37, P- L-, page 625. 
 
 'Act May 8, 1854, P. L., page 625, also page 627. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 49 
 
 The county superintendent must hold a commission 
 from the State Superintendent of Schools. This com- 
 mission may be withheld for cause. Objections to 
 the county superintendent's receiving a commission, 
 grounded on disqualifications of the person selected, must 
 be, according to the school laws and decisions,^ "want of 
 residence, want of moral character, want of physical 
 ability to discharge the duties of the office, want of learn- 
 ing, and want of professional skill." 
 
 Duties of County Superintendents. — It is the duty of 
 the County Superintendent to visit, as often as possible, 
 the several schools of his county, and to note the course 
 and method of instruction, and branches taught, and to 
 give such directions in the art of teaching and the 
 method thereof, in each school, as to him shall be deemed 
 expedient and necessary, so that each school shall be 
 equal to the grade for which it was established, and that 
 there may be, as far as practicable, uniformity in the 
 courses of study in schools of the several grades re- 
 spectively.^ It is the duty of the County Superintend- 
 ent to report to the State Superintendent any failure on 
 the part of directors to secure competent teachers and 
 otherwise conform to the law, and in such case the State 
 appropriation is to be withheld from such district.^ This 
 seems always to be sufficient penalty to compel any 
 school board to see that the provisions of the law are 
 strictly carried out in the management of the schools 
 under its charge. Throughout the whole system this is 
 the penalty inflicted upon a district failing to fulfil the 
 requirements of the school law. 
 
 To Examine Teachers. — The County Superintendent 
 must examine all applicants before the board of directors 
 
 '"School Laws and Decisions," page 228. 
 'Act of May 8, 1854, page 625. See 37-38. 
 ■Act May 8, 1854. 
 
50 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 in their respective districts if they so desire, and give 
 certificates to those found qualified; a certificate setting 
 forth the branches he or she is quaHfied to teach. Thus 
 it will be seen that the ofiice is a very responsible one, 
 and much depends upon the faithfulness of the county 
 superintendent.^ 
 
 Must Send Annual Report to the State Superintendent. 
 — The County Superintendent is required to forward, an- 
 nually, on or before the first Monday in June, to the Su- 
 perintendent of Common Schools (now the State Su- 
 perintendent of Public Instruction) reports of the sev- 
 eral districts of their respective counties, as sent by the 
 boards of directors, if found correct; and they must also 
 '^themselves make an extended report of the condition of 
 the schools under their charge, suggesting such improve- 
 ments in the school system as they may deem useful, and 
 giving such other information in regard to the practical 
 operation of common schools, and the laws relating 
 thereto as may be deemed of public interest."^ 
 
 To Call Teachers^ Institutes. — The County Superin- 
 tendent must convene the teachers of his county wher- 
 ever most suitable, and they must organize themselves 
 into a teachers' institute, "to be devoted to the improve- 
 ment of teachers in the science and art of education," to 
 continue in session five days, including half a day in go- 
 ing to and half a day in returning from the same. The 
 County Superintendent is to preside over the meeting.' 
 He must keep an account of the teachers present and 
 the number of days each attended, "upon the presenta- 
 tion of a certificate, at the close of the session of each 
 annual institute, setting forth these facts, and signed by 
 the county superintendent, to the treasurer of the proper 
 
 ^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 41, page 626. 
 
 ^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 243-4. 
 
 'Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 2, P. L., page 52. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 51 
 
 county, he is hereby authorized and required to pay im- 
 mediately, out of any money not otherwise appropriated 
 to the county superintendent, one dollar for every three 
 days spent by the teachers of the county in attendance 
 at the institute for that year, or so much of it as may be 
 needed; such money to be expended by the county super- 
 intendent in procuring the services of lecturers and in- 
 structors for the institute and in providing the necessary 
 apparatus."" This sum is limited to two hundred dollars; 
 if it should appear from the vouchers presented by the 
 county superintendent to the county auditors, that this 
 sum has been actually expended for the purposes speci- 
 fied. 
 
 The teachers^ are paid for attending the institutes a 
 sum based upon the daily attendance, which shall be not 
 less than the daily wages for actual teaching.^ 
 
 The school law of 1854 created the office of County 
 Superintendent, most of the act relating to the same. 
 Like all important changes this met with much opposi- 
 tion. The School Journal^, one of recognized influence 
 and now issued by the Department of Pubhc Instruction, 
 in April, 1853, urged the passage of an act then before 
 the Legislature which provided for a "county visitor" 
 and two "county examiners." This bill never became a 
 law, though many of its provisions are found in the 
 school law of 1854. 
 
 The friends of education, however, revised the bill 
 the next year, and it became a law, though it met with 
 much opposition. J. P. Wickersham, one who was much 
 interested in the educational affairs of those times, says^ : 
 
 ^ "School Laws and Decisions," pages 245-6, Sec. 254. 
 ^"School Laws and Decisions," pages 245-6, Sec. 254. 
 '"School Laws and Decisions," pages 347-8. 
 * "Pennsylvania School Journal," Vol. I, page 386. 
 °J. P. Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," 
 page 503. 
 
52 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 "The administration was earnestly in favor of school re- 
 form." The discarded biir was kept on the desk of the 
 chief clerk under the hammer of the criticism of the offi- 
 cers of the department and of outside friends of education 
 all the long summer and fall, and by the opening of the 
 session of the Legislature in January, 1854, it was so 
 changed and perfected as to be in shape to be pressed for 
 a passage. The most marked improvement in it was the 
 substitution of the office of County Superintendent for 
 the clumsy arrangement of teachers' examiners and 
 school visitors. Both the Superintendent and the Gov- 
 ernor gave the bill much thought, but for the final draft 
 as presented to the Legislature the principal credit is un- 
 doubtedly due to Chief Clerk Diffenbach. Dr. Jonas R. 
 McCHntock of Allegheny county, in the Senate, and Rob- 
 ert E. Monaghan of Chester county, in the House, at 
 the heads of the respective committees of those bodies, 
 both strongly urged the passage of the bill. In the Sen- 
 ate the bill passed by a majority of one, the vote being 
 16 to 15. Five Senators subsequently filed a formal pro- 
 test against its passage, alleging as a reason the opposi- 
 tion of their constituents to the County Superintendency.'' 
 In the House, Mr. Monaghan succeeded, with a few 
 changes of details, in having the bill passed finally, April 
 26, by a vote of 53 to 36. Says Dr. Wickersham : "The 
 school law of 1854 was an administration, but not a 
 party measure. Some of its most earnest friends in the 
 Legislature were anti-administration members. And 
 some of its bitterest enemies were the political friends of 
 the administration." The Governor approved the bill 
 May 8th, fully aware, from the circumstances of its 
 passage through the Legislature and the unfavorable 
 comment of the press of the State, that a large majority 
 
 ^Bill of 1853- 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
 ham, page 504. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 53 
 
 of the people were opposed to it, but determined, like 
 Governor Wolfe on a similar occasion, to risk his own 
 future and the future of his administration on a measure 
 which he clearly foresaw was fraught with great public 
 good, and destined to mark an era in the progress of 
 education in the Commonwealth/ 
 
 Some of the newly elected County Superintendents 
 were teachers too old to teach, clergymen or laymen who 
 knew little about teaching, and several farmers; but, 
 says Dr. Wickersham, "There were also among the Su- 
 perintendents elected, the names of some of the ablest, 
 most skillful, and most energetic educators Pennsylvania 
 has ever had, and to these it is owing that the office was 
 not wrecked at the very start. The marked success 
 achieved in certain counties proved that, where failures 
 occurred, it was the officers and not the office that was in 
 fault, and there can be no doubt that such examples 
 saved the system from certain disaster."^ 
 
 Opposition' soon showed itself strongly against the 
 new method of county administration. The anti-free 
 school element — those teachers who were afraid of the 
 ordeal of examinations or those who failed to pass and 
 were thus thrown out of employment — all arrayed them- 
 selves against the County Superintendents. At the same 
 time a change in administration took place, and Bigler, 
 Black and Diffenbach were succeeded by Pollock, Cur- 
 tin and Hickok, but as Ritner manfully accepted Wolf's 
 policy in favor of free schools and made it his own, so 
 Pollock, having in view a broad public, rather than a 
 narrow party end, took up Bigler's fight on the County 
 
 ^"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
 ham, page 505. 
 
 ''"History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
 ham, page 510. 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 512. 
 
54 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Superintendency and determined that the new office 
 should have at least a fair trial."^ The law has had a fair 
 trial, and while there are doubtless exceptions the vast 
 majority of County Superintendents, by their adhering to 
 strong efforts for improvements of schools, has more 
 than justified the change from inspectors to County Su- 
 perintendents. 
 
 There may be reasons why the County Superintendents 
 should be appointed by the State Superintendent or oth- 
 erwise, as had been suggested, but it is plain that the 
 greatest success in a county can be achieved only when 
 the Superintendent and directors act in harmony, and the 
 surest way to reach this end is to select a method which 
 will compel harmony, and if the directors elect a County 
 Superintendent they will defend him, and he will be 
 anxious to serve them aright, for he owes his office to 
 their support. 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 pages 514-15- 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 55 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 STATE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The Act of May, 1834, made the Secretary of the 
 Commonwealth the State Superintendent of all the 
 schools. The Act says^: "The Secretary of the Com- 
 monwealth shall be Superintendent of all the public 
 schools established by virtue of this act, and he shall per- 
 form the following duties : 
 
 "I. Prepare and submit an annual report to the Legis- 
 lature, containing a statement of the condition of the 
 common schools, estimates and accounts of expenditures 
 of the school m.oneys, plans for the improvement of the 
 common school system, and all such matters, relating to 
 his office of superintendent and to the concerns of the 
 common schools, as he shall deem expedient to com- 
 municate. 
 
 "H. He shall prepare suitable blank forms, with 
 necessary instructions for making district reports, and 
 for conducting the necessary proceedings under his juris- 
 diction, and he shall cause the same, together with all 
 such information as he shall deem necessary for the fur- 
 ther improvement of the schools, to be transmitted to 
 the several Boards of Directors. 
 
 "III. He shall sign all orders on the State Treasury 
 for the payment of moneys into the county school funds, 
 but no such order shall be drawn until the county com- 
 missioners shall have furnished him with a certificate, 
 which they are hereby required to do, of the amount of 
 
 ^Act April, 1834, Sec. 17. 
 
56 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 the school tax required by this act, having been assessed 
 according to the provisions thereof. 
 
 "IV. If any controversy shall arise in relation to the 
 distribution of the public money, or between the inspec- 
 tors and directors concerning the duties of their office, an 
 appeal to the Superintendent shall be made, who is 
 hereby authorized to settle and adjust all such disputes, 
 without cost to the parties, and all money reasonably ex- 
 pended by him in this and other matters appertaining to 
 the execution of his duty as Superintendent, shall upon 
 due proof, be allowed to him by the Auditor General, 
 and paid out of the State Treasury."^ 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the duties of the State Super- 
 intendent were added to those of the Secretary of the 
 Commonwealth. Why the duties of such an important 
 office should be crowded into those of another State 
 office does not seem to have been answered and no reason 
 has ever been given. However, the system was new, and 
 it is not likely that the framers of the act of 1834, which 
 founded the "General System of Education," reaHzed the 
 importance of the office or its responsibilities. 
 
 Already, in 1852, Thomas H. Burrowes, editor of the 
 School Journal, complained of the work of the State 
 Superintendent, ex officio. He asks, "How is it that 
 gentlemen so wise and so politic in all else almost uni- 
 formly reverse the maxims of common sense and of pol- 
 icy in their capacity of superintendent?" Continuing/ 
 he says : "Before the seal of his commission is well dry, 
 the new Superintendent, ex officio, inspired with the full- 
 ness of his knowledge and experience (for he can have 
 neither from any other source), feels bound to make a 
 splurge (there is no other fit name for the thing) in his 
 official capacity. Accordingly, the very earliest occasion 
 
 ^Sec. 17, Act of April i, 1834, Laws of General Assembly, 
 1833-34- 
 ''The School Journal, vol. i, page 3. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 57 
 
 is seized for telling the Legislature and the people "all 
 how and about it" in a report. New defects in the system 
 are detected, new remedies devised, and scarcely any- 
 thing which the experience of his predecessors recom- 
 mended is endorsed.'"^ To be sure, the secretaries of 
 the commonwealth were politicians, nevertheless this in 
 itself would give him prestige by which he could influ- 
 ence the Legislature for the benefit of the school system, 
 still it would appear that the work of the office of State 
 Superintendent would be a secondary matter to an office 
 of such political importance. And when, by the Act of 
 April 18, 1857, the school was separated from the State 
 Department, this became apparent. J. P. Wickersham 
 says : "The influential hand of the Secretary of the 
 Commonwealth was withdrawn from the management of 
 school affairs and no adequate provision was made to 
 supply the loss; and, what was of even more conse- 
 quence, the Governors of the State henceforth scarcely 
 considered their administrations responsible for the con- 
 duct of school affairs, much less, took it upon them- 
 selves to lead in the march of improvement.'"^ 
 
 Still a great improvement was made in that the de- 
 partment was now independent, with no interest to dis- 
 tract or divide attention, and the head of the department 
 was able to direct all his energies to the improvement of 
 the system. 
 
 The title, "Superintendent of Common Schools," was 
 changed, by the Constitution of 1873, to "Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction."^ He is appointed by the Gov- 
 ernor with the advice and consent of two-thirds of all 
 the members of the Senate. His term of office, by the 
 constitution of 1873, is four years. 
 
 '^The School Journal, vol. i, page 3. 
 
 * "History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 528. 
 
 'Sec. 8, Art. IV, Constitution of 1873. 
 
58 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Duties of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. — 
 The duties of the Superintendent of PubHc Instruction 
 are the same as those formerly devolving on the Super- 
 intendent of Common Schools.^ Viz. : 
 
 1. Settle controversies between directors.' 
 
 2. To give advice and explanations concerning school 
 
 affairs.* 
 
 3. To sign orders for state appropriations.* 
 
 4. To prepare and distribute blank forms, reports, 
 
 etc., concerning school matters.* 
 
 5. To issue permanent certificates.^ 
 
 6. To issue State Teachers' permanent certificates to 
 
 college graduates,** 
 
 7. Commission County Superintendents. '^ 
 
 8. Appoint one-half of the trustees of the State 
 
 Normal Schools." 
 
 9. Make annual reports.^ 
 
 10. Provide a seal.^ 
 
 11. Appoint one or more deputies.'' 
 
 12. Remove County Superintendents for cause." 
 
 13. Fill vacancies of County Superintendents." 
 
 14. Prescribe forms for normal schools." 
 
 ^Act of April 18, 1857, Sec. 3, P. L., page 263. 
 
 "Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 3, P. L., page 263. 
 
 *Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 46, P. L., page 628, also Act July 15, 
 1897, P. L., No. 215, page 271. 
 
 'Act April 9, 1897, Sec. 12, P. L., page 55, Act June 22, 1883, 
 Sec. I, P. L., page 156. 
 
 'Act May 10, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 39. 
 
 'Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 13, P. L., page 56. 
 
 'Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 3, P- L-, page 43- 
 
 "Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 46, P. L., page 628. 
 
 "Act April 26, 1893, Sec. 2, P. L., page 24. 
 
 "^Act May 8, 1854, Sec. 44, P. L., page 627. 
 
 "Act May 10, 1857, Sec. 13, P. L., page 587. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 59 
 
 15. Approve rules and by-laws of boards of Normal 
 
 School Trustees/ 
 
 16. Issue certificates of competency to candidates for 
 
 County Superintendencies.^ 
 
 Thus it will be seen how important an office the Su- 
 perintendent of Public Instruction is. We sometimes 
 hear reports of the interference of politics in school af- 
 fairs also influencing the appointment of Superintend- 
 ents of Pubhc Instruction, but as long as man is imper- 
 fect some influence of this kind will always be felt. 
 
 By being interested in the progress of the system, the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction can advise and urge 
 improvements with much chance of success. In this 
 way, when, in 1866, Supt. Wickersham found twenty- 
 three districts without public schools, he secured the 
 enactment of laws authorizing the payment of part of 
 the forfeited State appropriation if they should estab- 
 lish schools, and by writing to prominent citizens, super- 
 intendents, judges of courts, etc., and by personal visi- 
 tation to these districts, he was able, in 1875 to report 
 "that the system was in operation in every district in the 
 commonwealth," adding "For the first time in our his- 
 tory, the door of a public school house stands open to 
 receive every child of proper age within the limits of the 
 State.'" The advice of the Superintendent is still the 
 main spring for the advance of the schools of the State 
 by legisltion and by other means. 
 
 ^Act April 12, 187s, Sec. 5, P. L., page 43. 
 
 ^Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 13, P. L., page 56. 
 
 * "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickers- 
 ham, pages 562-64. 
 
6o THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TEACHERS INSTITUTES. 
 
 When the school system was first established, one of 
 the great hindrances to its successful development and 
 efficiency was the lack of trained teachers. At first 
 teachers' certificates depended upon their knowledge of 
 the several branches of study to be taught in the various 
 schools ; this disregarded the importance of theory and 
 practice. Teachers lacked training. It was plain that a 
 teacher must not only know his subject, but he must 
 also know how to impart his knowledge to others. One 
 way of supplying this want of training was by teachers' 
 institutes. In 1866 these had been organized in twenty- 
 three counties, and other counties quickly followed, so 
 that the number rapidly increased.^ The school law of 
 1867 made teachers' institutes obligatory in all the coun- 
 ties of the State.^ This was a great boon to institutes, 
 and the amount of good accomplished by them can hardly 
 be overestimated. 
 
 Almost complete control of these institutes was placed 
 in the hands of the County Superintendent of Schools. 
 All instructors, lecturers and entertainers were selected 
 and hired by him, and he was held responsible for the 
 success of the institutes. There was no way of shifting 
 responsibility, and the County Superintendent naturally 
 labored diligently for the reputation of his institutes. 
 This custom still prevails in Pennsylvania, and no at- 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," page 496. 
 ^Act of April 9, 1867, Sec. 2, P. L., page 52. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 6i 
 
 tempt has ever been made to lessen his authority in the 
 matter. No little cause of the great success of the county 
 teachers' institutes is due to this local control. J. P. 
 Wickersham, who had served as a State normal school 
 principal and Superintendent of Public Instruction, says 
 of them : "It is safe to say that the Teachers' Institutes 
 of Pennsylvania, under the law, and in the spirit with 
 which it was carried into effect, have been unequaled in 
 attendance, in the character of the instruction given, and 
 in the influence for good, by those of any other State.'"^ 
 
 When we know the kind of man who made the above 
 statement its weight is redoubled. 
 
 We assign the main reason for this to the fact that 
 they are almost entirely under control of the County 
 Superintendent. First, because he is in no way hin- 
 dered in his efforts to secure instructors who will suit 
 his audiences, and he is a much better judge of their 
 tastes and needs than any State officer. This is an ad- 
 vantage over those who have instructors sent by State 
 authorities and others. 
 
 Secondly, he, as the County Superintendent, is re- 
 sponsible for the success of the institute. He cannot 
 shift the responsibility. The teachers, directors and the 
 public look to him as the cause of its success or failure, 
 hence he bends his energies and directs his influence, 
 which is always of great importance, toward its success. 
 If any one else has the management of it he prefers to 
 let things go as they may. 
 
 Teachers are paid for attending institutes the same 
 wages per day as they would receive if they were teach- 
 ing. But each teacher must be present at institute or 
 forfeit the remuneration. 
 
 The time for holding institute is set by the County 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 559- 
 
62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Superintendent, and generally the institute is convened 
 several months after the school term has opened. Too 
 often the teachers are tired and unlikely to be inter- 
 ested or as attentive as if it had been held during vaca- 
 tion. Some superintendents, however, hold their insti- 
 tutes before the term begins, and, one, at least. Prof. 
 Longstreet, of Tioga county, even seats his teachers, as 
 an instructor would his class, so that it is understood 
 that they are there for work. These are, beyond doubt, 
 by far the most profitable. After a rest from work, and 
 before the new term begins, the teachers enjoy instruc- 
 tion, and to learn new and better methods or improve- 
 ments on old ones is to them a source of pleasure. 
 
 Unfortunately this is not true of institutes in the mid- 
 dle of a term. At that time the desire is for entertain- 
 ment and rest. A change from the school room is too 
 tempting, and too many teachers look for a good time. 
 There is a mixing of the sexes, and other attractions take 
 the minds of the teachers away from that of instruction. 
 Sometimes conduct which would not be tolerated on the 
 part of their students is indulged in by the teachers them- 
 selves. This is not true of all or even of a majority, but 
 the good results of an institute in the middle of a term 
 are not to be compared to those of institutes held during 
 vacation. 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 One great need felt by educators from the beginning 
 was competent teachers. This became more apparent 
 when county superintendents had trouble in finding appli- 
 cants who could pass satisfactory examinations. Dr. 
 Wickersham explains the great influence that this had 
 upon legislation. He says that the County Superintend- 
 ents, who had been foremost in refusing to certificate 
 the old, incompetent teachers, were forced to exert them- 
 selves to provide new and better qualified ones. Hence, 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 63 
 
 temporary 'teachers' schools, or normal institutes, as 
 they were called, were established in a number of coun- 
 ties. The one at Millersville, Pa., being the first, had 
 much to do with the shaping of the normal school policy 
 of the State. It became the first state normal of the com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 The Act of May, 1857,^ divided the State into twelve 
 State normal school districts, and the Act of May, 1874,' 
 divided the eighth into two separate districts, and thus 
 there were constituted the thirteen districts which still 
 exist. 
 
 The bill providing for the establishment of normal 
 schools seems to have met with no opposition, for it 
 called for no expenditure of money." Before this, large 
 sums had been appropriated to private academies and 
 colleges, sectarian and others, and all educators saw that 
 this policy was not the kind to put Pennsylvania in the 
 fore front in educational progress. 
 
 Millersville State normal school was organized as the 
 first normal in 1859. In 1861 the one at Edinboro was 
 recognized and in 1862 the one at Mansfield. Others 
 followed until now every one of the thirteen districts 
 has its own State normal school. The last one was the 
 one in East Stroudsburg, of the fourth district, in 1893. 
 
 The pecuniary affairs of the normal schools are con- 
 trolled by a board of trustees* consisting of eighteen 
 members, nine elected by the stockholders and nine ap- 
 pointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction.^ 
 The latter are generally^ of a list recommended by the 
 
 ^Act of May 20, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 581. 
 'Act of May 8, 1874, Sec. i, P. L. 120. 
 
 " "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 522. 
 *Act of May 20, 1887, Sec. 3, P. L. 582. 
 "Act April 12, 1875, Sec. i, P. L. 43. 
 
64 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 stockholders. No State normal school can have a greater 
 indebtedness than one-third of the value of its property/ 
 In case the real estate should be exposed for sale, the 
 Governor, Superintendent of Public Instruction and At- 
 torney-general may put in a bid, covering the liens only, 
 to be taken in behalf of the Commonwealth.^ 
 
 The dividing of appropriations from the State is in the 
 hands of the Governor, Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction and Attorney-general, in justice to the State 
 and the several Normal Schools, the conditions of which 
 must be fixed by law."" 
 
 In the month of October the trustees must report the 
 pecuniary conditions of the several normal schools to the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction,* and the normal 
 schools must be open to the visitation of the Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction and the County Superin- 
 tendents of all the counties in the various normal school 
 districts.^ 
 
 The Superintendent, whenever he deems it necessary, 
 or upon the request of three principals of normal schools, 
 calls a meeting of all the principals of normal schools to 
 decide upon a course of study or any changes in the 
 same, and to arrange other matters under their jurisdic- 
 tion.* The text books are selected by the professors 
 with the approval of the trustees." 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 The examinations of classes at the end of the year, 
 which classes must be recommended by the school, are 
 
 ^Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 10, P. L. 44. 
 'Act of April 12, 1875, Sec. 8, P. L. 44. 
 ^Act June 4, 1879, Sec. i, page 89. 
 
 "Act April 12, 1876, Sec. 7, P. L. 43. 
 Sec. 15, P. L. 475. 
 *Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 5, P. L. 582, also Act April 11, 1862, 
 'Act May 20, i8s7, Sec. 6, P. L. 583. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 65 
 
 conducted by a State board of examiners, consisting of 
 the Superintendent of Public Instruction or his deputy, 
 who is president of the board, two principals of normal 
 schools, one of which is the principal of the school at 
 which the examination takes place, and from two to six 
 county, city, borough or township superintendents ap- 
 pointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction,* 
 the expenses of whom are paid by the State.^ 
 
 To graduate or receive a State certificate, the candi- 
 date must receive four out of five votes of the members 
 of the board of examiners.® 
 
 For each student signing a written declaration to teach 
 in the common schools of the State, receiving instruction 
 in the art and science of teaching, and who is over sev- 
 enteen years of age, the State appropriates fifty cents per 
 week toward the tuition of such student. Each student 
 filling the above conditions, who was disabled in the mil- 
 itary or naval service of the United States, or of Penn- 
 sylvania, or whose father lost his life in said service, and 
 who is over seventeen and not more than twenty-two 
 years of age, may receive the sum of one dollar per 
 week from the State. A later law now gives students 
 at a normal school preparing for teaching an amount 
 equal to his tuition. 
 
 To the graduates who bind themselves by a written 
 agreement to teach two full years in the common schools 
 of the State the State grants the sum of fifty dollars 
 upon graduating.* 
 
 Certificates are granted to graduates naming the 
 branches as prescribed by the board of principals, and 
 any other studies in which the student or students may 
 
 ^Act April 23, 1895, Sec. i, P. L. 41. 
 'Act April 23, 1895, Sec. 2, P. L. 41. 
 'Act April 12, 187s, Sec. 9, P. L. 44. 
 *Act of 1869, Sec. 14, P. L. 38. 
 
66 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 be found proficient. Actual teachers in good standing in 
 the public schools who have taught three full years may 
 be examined with the candidates of normal schools, and 
 if found equally proficient may be given a certificate. 
 Upon examination, students may have other branches 
 added to their certificates.^ 
 
 No regular graduate can receive a certificate of com- 
 petence in the practice of teaching until after the ex- 
 piration of two full years of teaching after graduation, 
 when, by the production of a certificate of good moral 
 character and successful work as a teacher from the 
 board or boards of directors, countersigned by the 
 County Superintendent under whom he taught, he or she 
 may receive a certificate of competence in the practice of 
 teaching.^ 
 
 No temporary or provisional certificate can be granted 
 by and State board of examiners.^ 
 
 ^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 9, P. L. 585. 
 ^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 10, P. L. 586. 
 'Act May 20, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 586. 
 
PART III. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 SELECTION OF TEACHERS. 
 THE SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 
 
 The township government of schools has its advan- 
 tages and its disadvantages. All the directors cannot be 
 from among the patrons of one school, for public opin- 
 ion, not the law, forbids it. Hence the teacher is not 
 subject to his own patrons alone. It is an advantage for 
 directors of various parts of a township to compare 
 notes and lay down a general plan. This tends to make 
 the text books uniform as well as the course of study. 
 The law provides that text books and apparatus shall 
 be selected by a joint meeting of directors and teachers. 
 This provision is not often carried out, though the ad- 
 vice of teachers is often asked by those directors who be- 
 lieve that the teachers who use the apparatus, etc., should 
 assist in selecting it. 
 
 agents' INFLUENCE ON TEXT BOOKS. 
 
 Sometimes it happens that, in fact almost always, 
 agents depend upon directors' votes rather than the merit 
 of their goods, and the charge of bribery is often made. 
 Too often an increase in the State appropriation only 
 loads the school with useless charts, etc., which might 
 have been used to increase the teacher's salary, or to pur- 
 chase useful apparatus for schools. 
 
 One example is known of an agent soliciting the in- 
 fluence of a director, and ofifering $25 for the same, 
 which, however, was refused; but another director was 
 followed in and out of the harvest field for days, until 
 
 69 
 
70 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 his vote and influence finally won for the agent the sale 
 of a chart, comparatively useless, for a whole township of 
 schools. It is only fair, however, to say that the storm 
 of public denunciation which followed soon elected a 
 new board, and different methods were pursued. Still, 
 if a board of directors desires or is so minded, it can 
 ignore all demands of teachers who fear for reappoint- 
 ment if they find fault. Text books and stationery in 
 the public schools are free. 
 
 SELECTION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 In the selecting of teachers, merit or ability is not 
 always the deciding influence. Well do we recall an ex- 
 perience with a borough school board when an applicant 
 for principal was told by one of the most conscientious 
 members that he had better qualifications, no doubt, but 
 that another lived there and paid his tax there, and his 
 father-in-law was a member of the board, so that he 
 would have to support him. He was selected. Political 
 influence is often felt, while on the other hand one or 
 two members of a board who keep firmly in their minds 
 their duty, often sway the whole board to the right, even 
 against their own prejudices. We have seen noble in- 
 stances of this kind. Here again it will be seen that the 
 people and their officers have more influence for good or 
 ill than the law. The law evidently intended that merit 
 and qualification should decide in the selection of teach- 
 ers. As long as man is human he will be subject to 
 influences of various kinds entirely foreign to the intent 
 of the law. The district system does not do away with 
 this evil. 
 
 EVILS OF OTHER STATES. 
 
 In other states with district government it often is seen 
 and frequently in a worse form. In a neighboring State 
 a disobedient boy was suspended by his teacher. At a 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 71 
 
 subsequent meeting of the trustees the president of the 
 board asked the teacher if he intended to accept the 
 boy's terms, which were that the teacher apologize for 
 sending the boy home and allow the boy to return to 
 school again. The boy's father had much influence in 
 the community, and the teacher appealed to the County 
 Superintendent, who sustained him, but he lost his posi- 
 tion the next term. 
 
 Another example is the case of a teacher unable to 
 pass an examination and obtain a license of a grade re- 
 quired by law for the position he occupied. He was 
 kept in his position by church influence over a year, 
 violating the law. His successor being of a different de- 
 nomination was so hampered by him that he was unable 
 to remain over one term. His successor was carefully 
 selected that his religious denomination might suit the 
 party in power. Strange to say, the party in power did 
 not represent the majority of the patrons, but after years 
 of fighting the majority party became tired of the con- 
 test and took little interest in district elections for school 
 teachers. 
 
 TEACHERS BUY POSITIONS. 
 
 It is often rumored that teachers are compelled to pur- 
 chase their positions from directors or political leaders. 
 Whether this is true and to what extent, it is impossible 
 to tell. But any other form would be subject to the same 
 evil. We have heard just as many complaints from 
 places having district government. Suffice it to say that 
 of all kinds of bribery possibly none is so heinous as 
 that by which the rising generation is deprived of the 
 privileges and opportunities granted it by the State. One 
 who is guilty of such an act or in any way connected 
 with it is a greater enemy to his country than the man 
 who insults his country's flag. To so defraud the help- 
 less lacks the "honor of thieves." 
 
72 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 The selection of teachers depends mainly upon two 
 things : first, if he is or will be a successful teacher ; sec- 
 ond, his preparation as indicated by his certificate, his 
 age, and his experience. The second is comparatively 
 an easy matter to decide, although occasionally it is ru- 
 mored that the County Superintendent is partial. He 
 may be incompetent himself, he may have his own set 
 opinion of the correct method, and this may not corre- 
 spond with that of the teacher, and no one can make a 
 comfortable Procrustean bedstead. No good teacher can 
 be an ultra ego of a superintendent. This will be more 
 fully discussed under the chapter on the County Super- 
 intendent. If the teacher holds a State certificate, this 
 with his age and experience is an easy matter to con- 
 sider. 
 
 The most important question is, has he been or will he 
 be a successful teacher? Who can decide whether he is 
 a successful teacher or not? Too often, we fear, a mis- 
 take is made. Sometimes a teacher who is pronounced a 
 success in one place is considered a failure in another. 
 Very much depends on his abiHty to get along well with 
 the pupils and patrons. It is not every one who can dis- 
 cipline and still hold the respect and love of his pupils 
 and patrons. Yet popular sentiment in the district is 
 called upon very largely to decide as to a teacher's suc- 
 cess. But what about an inexperienced teacher ? If he is 
 a normal school graduate he has had some experience in 
 teaching classes, possibly in organizing students into 
 classes under the supervision of one who has had ex- 
 perience in this work. But while this aids it is not a 
 guarantee that the teacher will be a success or a failure. 
 Some left to themselves will solve the questions as they 
 arise with excellent judgment, especially since they real- 
 ize that they have no critic teacher to satisfy. They sat- 
 isfy their own idea of justice, and it generally suits every 
 one else, but it is difficult for some to play the ultra 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 73 
 
 ego of a critic teacher. The most successful teacher 
 must necessarily understand that he has a problem to 
 solve, and he must solve it correctly. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these objections and notwith- 
 standing the fact that looks often deceive, in very many 
 cases one can judge by the looks, even if more or less 
 intuitively, whether one will succeed or not. The more 
 means of judging, the more apt is one to judge aright. 
 All conditions must be taken into consideration, but too 
 much weight must not be placed on any one of them. 
 
74 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 The laws of 1834 provided for manual training, call- 
 ing it manual labor. Penn's "Frame of Government" said 
 that an opportunity should be given the young to learn 
 some useful art or skill. These and other suggestions 
 probably had back of them the idea of preparing to earn 
 a livelihood without thought of its educational value. It 
 seems strange that so much has been said about manual 
 training and so little done. It has been authorized by 
 legislative acts, urged by educational officers and recom- 
 mended by educators. The main cause of this is a lack 
 of popular demand for it. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 In the common country school very little has ever been 
 done. Few of the teachers know anything about it as a 
 branch of study, and patrons cannot see the use of it. 
 Some normal schools have taken up the work, however, 
 and teachers are being trained for it. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN WEST CHESTER. 
 
 Dr. Phillips of West Chester State Normal School 
 says that their students in the last two years of their 
 normal course are required to spend three-quarters of 
 an hour every other day in the shop. The first year, 
 they take substantially the graded course in wood work 
 of the Philadelphia Manual Training School. That 
 would be joinery, vise work, pattern making and smith- 
 ing. The second year they make school apparatus of 
 various sorts, especially philosophical apparatus, which 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 75 
 
 they are privileged to take with them to their schools 
 when they leave. Working drawings are made by the 
 students in all cases, and the work done from these 
 drawings. All other students in the school are privi- 
 leged to take this work, and many do. In our model 
 school, the children, both boys and girls as young as 
 eight or nine, take it regularly with much pleasure and 
 satisfactory results. The course in wood work is taken 
 by the young women in the school just the same as by 
 the young men, and their work is practically as good. 
 We confine our work at present wholly to wood work and 
 the necessary drawings, 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN THE KEYSTONE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 In Prof. W. W. Deatrick's statement he claims that 
 in the Keystone State Normal School of Kutztown, Pa.,' 
 they try to make their manual training educational, with 
 special reference to later work of the pupil teachers in 
 the construction of apparatus, charts, etc. The depart- 
 ment was established by the State normal school, and 
 tuition is included in general charges. Materials are 
 paid for by the pupils. Instruction is given in the senior 
 year only. Average age of pupils about nineteen years. 
 In cardboard, sloyd and wood sloyd pupils work from 
 blue prints, which each one is required to make. The 
 required course in cardboard and wood includes the 
 making of geometrical forms, and surfaces and solids 
 which may later be used as apparatus. Turning, scroll 
 sawing and metal working are optional. Fifteen charts, 
 covering a course in color, are required, also two large 
 wall color charts. Few large wall charts, astronomical, 
 anatomical, physiological or psychological, are required. 
 In making these some must be drawn by the method of 
 squares, some by pantograph and some by the use of the 
 optical lantern. Several charts of geographical projec- 
 
 ^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1895- 1896. 
 
7(> THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 tions are required. Five pieces of apparatus are ex- 
 pected from each pupil. Photography is taught to pu- 
 pils electing the same. The chart-making appears to be 
 the most valuable feature of their work. Clay modeling 
 occupies several weeks of the year. The training in the 
 construction of apparatus and chart-making has ma- 
 terially influenced the public schools. One superintend- 
 ent says : 'T can see an improvement in the schools of 
 the county with reference to school-room apparatus since 
 the introduction of manual training into the normal 
 school at Kutztown."'' 
 
 This school introduced manual training in 1890. The 
 girls take the work in color and cardboard sloyd. In- 
 stead of the other work done by the boys the girls take 
 sewing. Since then other Normal schools are doing about 
 the same. 
 
 SEWING, ETC. 
 
 Since the new normal course this work is done in the 
 middle year. The East Stroudsburg normal school was 
 the first to introduce sewing. Very much was accom- 
 plished, though the instructress was always at a disad- 
 vantage, since it was not a regular part of the work, and 
 now it is discontinued. Millersville has also introduced 
 sewing in her course. Some normal schools have some 
 clay modeling or drawing or map-making, and consider 
 that as fulfilling the law, which requires the teaching of 
 manual training in all normal schools. Still all are plan- 
 ning for this great improvement in the course. Improve- 
 ments are made every year in the various Normals. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 
 
 The Manual Training School of Philadelphia, founded 
 in September, 1885, is too well known to need an ex- 
 
 "^Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1895-96, page 
 1095. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA ^y 
 
 tended description at this time. It started with a class of 
 one hundred and thirty students. At the end of three 
 years another Hke institution had to be estabUshed to 
 accommodate the ever increasing number of appHcants 
 for this kind of instruction. 
 
 Superintendent McAhster said: 'The processes of 
 manual training afford a better means of cultivating the 
 faculties of reason and judgment than many things that 
 now find place in the courses of instruction."'' He also 
 said that the students who did this work did work in 
 mathematics, literature, and history, and in no respect 
 inferior to that of schools of a similar grade in which the 
 whole time is occupied in classroom work. Well known 
 is the reputation of these schools occupying as they do a 
 position in the fore front of those of any city in the 
 Union, which has taken up the movement in favor of 
 manual training. Their reputation is too well known to 
 need further discussion at this place. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN WILKESBARRE. 
 
 Wilkesbarre has for some time given considerable at- 
 tention to manual training in the public schools. Super- 
 intendent A. W. Potter in his report in 1888-89 says 
 Wilkesbarre is the only city in northwestern Pennsyl- 
 vania in which manual training forms a part of the public 
 school system. The boys only take joinery, mainly with 
 a small amount of wood work of other kinds. Two half 
 days in a week are devoted to this kind of work. In 
 1888 sewing was introduced as a form of manual train- 
 ing for girls. Friday afternoons from three to four 
 are devoted to this work. This city later dropped man- 
 ual training from its curriculum. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING IN OTHER CITIES. 
 
 In 1 899- 1 900 in the public schools manual training 
 other than drawing was taught in Bradford, Pa., in 
 
 ^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1893-94, page 904. 
 
78 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 8, 9, 10, II, 12 grades; Conshohoken, Pa., in all grades 
 above primary; Norristown, Pa., seventh grade and high 
 school ; in Philadelphia, Pa., in .high school ; Pittsburg, 
 Pa., in grammar school; West Chester, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 
 12 grades. In the same year in Pennsylvania there were 
 ten manual training schools with seventy-six male and 
 forty-seven female teachers, with 3,404 male and 1,043 
 female pupils. The maintenance of these schools cost 
 $97,490. At the same time Massachusetts had nine 
 schools with one hundred and twenty-four teachers at an 
 expense of $48,881, and New York twenty- two schools 
 with one hundred and eighty-three teachers at an ex- 
 pense of $162,784."^ These three States stand at the head 
 of the list of States in the Union in the work of manual 
 training. This is not saying much, for outside of a very 
 few institutions almost nothing is being done. But why 
 is it? Students enjoy the work, educators praise it, and 
 the law requires it in some cases and allows and en- 
 courages it in all cases. One reason probably is, its re- 
 quirements. A separate room, if not a separate building, 
 is required, as there must be machinery of a unique type. 
 This necessitates extra cost for fuel and apparatus. A 
 special instructor is absolutely necessary. This is an- 
 other source of cost, and few teachers of manual tram- 
 ing wish to teach other subjects or are able to do so. 
 Manual training teachers are scarce, and very often man- 
 ufacturers take them out of the profession by offering 
 higher wages. The main reason probably is that heads 
 of institutions are less interested in manual training than 
 in anything else. They do the recommending, and it is 
 but natural that they should emphasize those branches 
 in which they are interested. It is not part of the regular 
 classical or scientific course of the leading colleges, and 
 
 ^Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899- 1900, pages 2400- 
 2441. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 79 
 
 the best trained men therefore lack experience in this line 
 of work. 
 
 The mental discipline of manual training is not as 
 strongly urged by educators as it should be, and its use- 
 fulness to students in after life is little thought of. Even 
 in our normal schools it is very much neglected. All 
 agree that it should be part of the regular course, all be- 
 lieve in its usefulness, all believe in the wisdom of the 
 law which requires it. Without giving a reason and 
 acknowledging its claims they make no effort to give it 
 its just due. In the case of the common country school 
 it seems to be virtually impracticable either to furnish 
 extra teachers or equipments necessary for its introduc- 
 tion and continued management. 
 
8o THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER ni. 
 
 COUNTY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The law of 1834 placed the county government of 
 schools in the hands of the commissioners and appointed 
 inspectors, but this method soon proved unsatisfactory, 
 and the law of 1854 placed the county government of 
 education in the hands of a County Superintendent of 
 Schools. He is selected by all the directors of the county 
 and not by the popular vote. This is an advantage, since 
 this method takes the election out of the hands of poli- 
 tics, at least more so than if he were elected by popular 
 vote. The law prescribed his qualifications, and makes 
 the State Superintendent of Public Instruction the judge 
 in the matter, thus insuring the schools against unqual- 
 ified politicians and the like. 
 
 POLITICS IN COUNTY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 However, too often politics is taken into consideration, 
 and a Democratic superintendent is seldom elected in a 
 Republican county, or vice versa. Yet there are cases 
 where this happens. Northampton County, recognized 
 as a Democratic stronghold, has a Republican Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, and he was recently reelected unani- 
 mously. 
 
 superintendent's duties. 
 
 The duties of the Superintendent are to examine teach- 
 ers, grant certificates, visit the schools and hold the teach- 
 ers' institutes. 
 
 Concerning his visits to schools we must say that per- 
 sonally we know of no County Superintendent who ever 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 8i 
 
 failed to visit all the schools in his division at least once 
 in a year. These visits are often too short. If at least 
 a day could be spent in each school, it would be a great 
 advantage, but, unfortunately, only an hour or two is 
 spent, as a general rule, and often a shorter time. A 
 visit of a day would afford enough information to guide 
 the superintendent in selecting instructors and subjects 
 for institutes. Some superintendents make the mistake 
 of thinking that they must offer some suggestions or 
 criticism, which in fact may injure rather than improve 
 the work. Superintendents must be very discreet in their 
 suggestions, remembering that all good teachers do not 
 work exactly alike, and they should be given a chance 
 to show their individuality in their work. 
 
 A word of encouragement and advice and a talk to the 
 pupils may, and we are assured by our experience they 
 often do, add spirit to the work of teacher and pupil. 
 Very often the pupils hail the visit of the County Su- 
 perintendent with much delight. There has been a time, 
 we are told, that his visits were prepared for by orders 
 and threats from the teachers, that the conduct of the 
 pupils should be according to the orders laid down, and 
 certain recitations prepared, with extra drill on the part 
 of the teacher. When such visits were over, pupils in- 
 variably heaved a sigh of great relief. We are glad to 
 say that we hear of those things now only from those 
 who have long since left the school. 
 
 TO EXAMINE TEACHERS AND GRANT CERTIFICATES. 
 
 In Pennsylvania the County Superintendent has the 
 sole power of examining teachers for provisional certifi- 
 cates and granting the same. Some suggestions have 
 been made that the examinations be made uniform 
 throughout the State by the certificates being fur- 
 nished and questions prepared by the State authorities. 
 This might seem to be an improvement, yet we must 
 
82 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 remember that in such case the wages should Ukewise be 
 uniform, and some cities would be held back in their en- 
 deavors for progress. No one knows better how much a 
 district can afford to pay teachers than the County Su- 
 perintendent, and he certainly knows the teachers better 
 than the State authorities. Besides, this responsibility 
 makes him a person of influence. He knows the schools 
 of his district and therefore understands their needs, 
 and by means of local and county teachers' institutes he 
 can mold popular sentiment to demand the very improve- 
 ments he sees they need. 
 
 UNIFORMITY OF EXAMINATIO'NS IN OTHER STATES. 
 
 Concerning the question of uniformity of examina- 
 tions Dr. Schaefer, before the State Teachers' Associa- 
 tion in 1 901, declared that "uniformity in granting certifi- 
 cates secured by uniformity of questions is a dream that 
 can never be realized." The experience of other States 
 where this has been tried is sufficient proof of its evil 
 results. 
 
 One example is given of the high marks made by the 
 teachers of a certain part of a certain State, and on ex- 
 amination into the cause it was found that a politician of 
 the place always visited the capitol just before the ex- 
 aminations, and on his return sold copies of the questions 
 at fifty dollars a set. For such amounts men can be 
 found who would risk a great deal. "A man comes in 
 and examines the inked forms and is kicked out of the 
 printing office, but many would risk the kicking for a 
 few such simis of money." Besides, employees in the 
 office, porters, devils, etc., all have some chance of 
 making large sums. An example is given by Dr. Schaef- 
 fer of a porter in the State printing office of a neighbor- 
 ing State, who was discharged for selling examination 
 questions, and he immediately purchased several farms, 
 of course not with money honestly earned. Besides, the 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 83 
 
 marking to be uniform must all be done by one person, 
 and even then the same person at different times marks 
 differently, as any one of much experience in this kind 
 of work must know."" 
 
 QUALITY OF OUR COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 
 
 The main safeguard against partiality and bribery is 
 to elect good, honest, well-qualified County Superintend- 
 ents. This is partly assured by the fact that the State 
 Superintendent may refuse to commission one who is not 
 fitted for the position, and this has been done. How- 
 ever, there are some instances of unjust superintendents 
 that have come even to our notice. A young girl thir- 
 teen years of age was granted a certificate one year 
 and proved a very successful teacher, but objections hav- 
 ing been raised, she was rejected next year on account of 
 age. Another County Superintendent, canvassing for a 
 reelection, called several times to see a teacher who was 
 known to have influence with his school board. He was 
 told that, if he would speak to all the directors of the 
 district, he would be recommended for a permanent cer- 
 tificate the following year. To obtain one a teacher must 
 be so recommended. Another example is that of a 
 County Superintendent who, to hold the influence of his 
 teachers, filled his county full of professional certificates, 
 many of which had to be annulled by his successor. Gen- 
 erally, however, the County Superintendents, being se- 
 lected by a select and intelligent body, are of a high type. 
 We have seen unworthy candidates for teachers rejected 
 repeatedly, though influence had been brought to bear in 
 their behalf. 
 
 Ex-Supt. Higbee claimed: "That in scholarship, pro- 
 fessional skill and force of character, the average city 
 
 *Supt. H. C. Schaeffer's address before State Teachers' As- 
 sociation, 1901. 
 
84 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 and County Superintendent, in Pennsylvania, was the 
 peer of the average State Superintendent."^ 
 
 These are notable examples of the Superintendents of 
 Pennsylvania who, in the face of public opinion, have 
 raised the standard, cutting off the incompetent, limiting 
 the number of applicants for schools, doing the right re- 
 gardless of consequences, risking the bread and butter of 
 their own children in defense of the children of the State, 
 braving the ire of narrow-minded directors, and political 
 bosses in township, borough or ward, and it is a matter 
 of much thankfulness that we have such men to control 
 the issue of teachers' certificates.^ 
 
 PENALTIES INFLICTED BY COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 
 
 Examples are known where the applicants were sifted 
 so close that there was fear that there would not be 
 enough to fill the schools. One example is that of an old 
 gentleman who, though he offered to use his own horse 
 to drive the County Superintendent from one examina- 
 tion to another, yet was refused a certificate because of 
 incompetence. Another cheated in examination and was 
 refused a certificate for five years; another changed a 
 mark, and received the same sentence. There are al- 
 ways many aspirants for the office, and these by watching 
 the acts of the Superintendent keep him in constant fear 
 of being detected and exposed if any unjust or unlawful 
 act is performed, and he knows that this may happen, 
 and if proven, will cost him his office, for the Super- 
 intendent of Public Instruction is bound by oath to re- 
 move any such Superintendent. Thus it will be seen 
 how the County Superintendent who takes pride in his 
 work may, by the powers at his disposal, raise the stand- 
 
 ^Proceedings of Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association for 
 1900, pages 26-27. 
 
 ^Proceedings of Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association for 
 1900, page 27. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 85 
 
 ard of teaching in his county, to the great benefit of the 
 rising generation. 
 
 Moreover, by giving into the hands of the County Su- 
 perintendent the power of granting certificates, it is made 
 possible for him to use his knowledge of the teachers' 
 practical ability to impart knowledge and discipline a 
 school. 
 
 So satisfactory is the work of county supervision that 
 almost no one would exchange it for any other method. 
 With his knowledge of popular sentiment in each dis- 
 trict, his knowledge of the patrons, the directors and the 
 teachers of the various districts, the County Superintend- 
 ent is able to direct far more efficiently than any other per- 
 son could do. He can thus harmonize these various ele- 
 ments concerned in the various schools, and the amount 
 of good he is thus able to do is immeasurable. 
 
86 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STATE GOVERNMENT OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 The State's control of schools was at first vested in 
 the Secretary of the Commonwealth. But soon it be- 
 came apparent that education needed a separate and inde- 
 pendent department, and in 1857'' the separate depart- 
 ment of Public Instruction was formed. Although this 
 promised much yet it had its disadvantages. It deprived 
 the schools of the great political influence of the Secre- 
 tary of the Commonwealth. This was a great blow to the 
 public school system. The Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction was supposed to be no politician. He had no 
 political affiliation and no influence. Both political par- 
 ties disclaimed responsibility. It seemed as 'if the State 
 had abandoned the public school system to its own re- 
 sources, and now it was rudderless. But the public 
 schools were too close to the hearts of the people to be 
 thus abandoned. No one is without interest in the public 
 schools. The children of the State always have hosts of 
 friends. In fact, it is dangerous for any politician 
 of any political party to stand in the way of the 
 education of the State's children, and it would mean 
 political death to the man and harm to his party. So 
 that, instead of losing the political influence of the party 
 in power, the schools gained the influence of all parties. 
 How could a politician of whatever party affiliation can- 
 vass the fathers of his district if he were opposed to the 
 education of his children, or if his vote had ever been 
 against the best interests of their education ? Fathers or 
 
 ^Act April 18, 1857, Sec. i, P. L. 263. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 87 
 
 brothers may be misled, but when the matter is under- 
 stood, eternal vengeance would fall on any one who dares 
 stand in the way of the best educational advantages of 
 the children of the State. It would be safer to interfere 
 with freedom of conscience than the free school system. 
 For this reason the Governors of the State have been 
 most careful in their selection of men to fill the very im- 
 portant position of Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 He is generally a father as well as a politician. To be- 
 tray the interests of the public schools would be to be- 
 tray the interests of his own children. Nor are those 
 who are not fathers disinterested. The children never 
 had a better, more devoted, or efficient friend than Thad- 
 deus Stevens, a bachelor, who may justly be considered 
 the father of our public school system. His services in 
 connection with the adoption of the free school system 
 have been referred to in a previous chapter. 
 
 The above seems to be sufficient reason for the right- 
 eous care of our Governors in appointing superintendents 
 of pubHc instruction, and these with their own ideas of 
 honor have no doubt given to the children of the State 
 the services of very tireless and efficient workers for 
 State Superintendents. 
 
 SELECTION OF SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 
 
 It might be argued that the Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction should be elected by popular vote, as is done 
 in many other States. But this method also has its ob- 
 jections. It would make it an office to be sought after like 
 any other political office, while by appointment method 
 the Governor is made responsible for the selection of a 
 good officer. The great question is, do we have better 
 superintendents by appointment than we would by elec- 
 tion by popular vote ? It would seem that the list already 
 named is sufficient proof that we have had very good 
 men, some of national reputation. Furthermore, the 
 
88 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 present incumbent, Dr. Schaeffer, appointed by a Repub- 
 lican Governor, has repeatedly been reappointed by gov- 
 ernors of political faith apparently differing from his. 
 It has been conjectured and even stated that this was 
 done, at least the last time, to save the odium of an ap- 
 pointment of an incompetent applicant of powerful politi- 
 cal influence, and again that the office was offered to an- 
 other. In reply to this we must say that no such state- 
 ments can be taken as facts, and if they were true it only 
 shows how the ofifice is protected from political intrigue 
 even in a State like Pennsylvania, against whose politics 
 so much adverse criticism has been made. 
 
 DR. HIGBEE APPOINTED BY DEMOCRATIC GOVERNOR. 
 
 Dr. E. E. Higbee also was appointed by a Governor 
 of the opposite political faith, though it was rumored 
 that this was made necessary in order that the appoint- 
 ment should be confirmed by the Senate of the State, 
 which was controlled by the party opposed to the Gov- 
 ernor. This may have had some weight. The strange 
 sequel was that the Governor tried to remove him after- 
 ward for alleged misconduct in relation to orphaji schools, 
 but Dr. Higbee seemed to prove clearly his innocence of 
 the charge. 
 
 Again it is stated, almost without doubt, that Dr. 
 Schaeffer's appointment by Governor Pattison was con- 
 firmed by the Senate only after he had promised to retain 
 the old subordinates In the department, especially the 
 deputies. Here again the main question is, if such had 
 not been the case would we have had better officers? 
 They are both what is generally known as self-made 
 men. Dr. Wickersham speaks very highly of Hon. Henry 
 Houck,^ but says nothing about Mr. Stewart except that 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 570. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 89 
 
 he "was promoted from a desk in the department where 
 his services had been very efficient."^ 
 
 NEITHER DEPUTY A COLLEGE BRED MAN. 
 
 It might be argued that "self-made men" as deputies 
 would be more apt to fall in with the superintendent's 
 policies than college and university bred men, also that 
 it encourages others to strive likewise. On the other 
 hand, the great argument in favor of colleges, normal 
 schools, and other higher institutions of learning, is that 
 they prepare men and women for the various callings of 
 life, and yet in the educational department itself all the 
 college and university men of the State were rejected 
 in the appointment of deputy Superintendents of Public 
 Instruction. On the other hand, it must be remembered 
 that both had had experience in the department previous 
 to their appointment. The great encouraging fact is that 
 both served the State for long periods of years, and 
 without any charge of misconduct or unfaithfulness ever 
 having been made against either. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTIQiN. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Instruction is required 
 to report to the Legislature the condition of the schools, 
 costs, estimates, etc., and he is to suggest plans for the 
 improvement of the system. The amount of good arising 
 from his suggestions can hardly be overestimated. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Always in harmony with the State Teachers' Associa- 
 tion, his suggestions are generally followed, and prob- 
 ably no State follows the advice of its Superintendent of 
 Public Education more closely than Pennsylvania. Es- 
 pecially is this the case in the matter of State normal 
 
 ^ "History of Education in Pennsylvania," by J. P. Wickersham, 
 page 585. 
 
90 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 schools. He has lately been granted the privilege of en- 
 dorsing certificates from the normal schools of other 
 States, and also diplomas from colleges of recognized 
 merit after the abiUty of the applicant to teach has been 
 demonstrated by three years of actual teaching, which 
 must be attested to by the school officers under whom 
 the applicant has taught. 
 
 STATE SUPERINTENDENTS TO SETTLE ALL CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 The State Superintendent must also settle all contro- 
 versies, and as he is in no way dependent upon boards of 
 directors for his appointment or salary, he can do so 
 with impartiality. 
 
 COMMISSIONING OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. 
 
 In issuing commissions to the County Superintendents, 
 he may ask that officer to give proof of his qualifications. 
 This power has been exercised. Only a few years ago a 
 person being elected, who was not qualified for the posi- 
 tion, was refused a commission by the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction, and his attorney remarked that he 
 would like to do something, but he could not. He may 
 remove the County Superintendent for cause, but it is 
 seldom necessary. The Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction is required to appoint part of the trustees of 
 the various normal schools (but this will be discussed 
 under Normal Schools), thus putting him in close touch 
 with these institutions. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 91 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TEACHERS INSTITUTE. 
 
 The Teachers' Institutes of Pennsylvania are \yhat the 
 County Superintendent makes them. His almost unlim- 
 ited control of them makes him entirely responsible. For 
 this reason he puts forth every effort to make of them a 
 success. All lecturers are selected by him, and the sub- 
 ject treated, the arrangements and time are completely 
 under his control. 
 
 In other States the various county institutes are more 
 or less under control of State authorities. Speakers are 
 selected and the subjects assigned by State authorities. 
 In such cases the County Superintendent has no authority 
 and very little interest. In fact, no one is responsible, 
 and no one puts forth any strong effort for success. 
 
 With the County Superintendent in full control he 
 takes great pride in his institutes. He uses his influence 
 with teachers and others, that his institute may be a pro- 
 nounced success. This is as it should be. It does add 
 very greatly to his duties, still he can be of more service 
 to the schools of his district in this way than by doing 
 anything else. All must agree that no one better under- 
 stands the needs of the county or division than he. 
 
 CRITICISM OF PENNSYLVANIA TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 The great criticism offered against the Teachers' In- 
 stitutes of Pennsylvania is that they cater too much to 
 the general public, and are therefore more entertaining 
 than instructive. Since the public judge the institutes 
 as well as do the teachers, it seems necessary to try to 
 
92 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 please both, besides nothing is more necessary than that 
 pubHc sentiment be properly molded, for all improve- 
 ments must be supported largely by the public, so that 
 making the institute an event in which the general public 
 will be interested, entertained and instructed, does very 
 much toward strengthening the public backing of the 
 schools, though often the ideals held forth in glowing 
 colors to parents and even pupils spoil their opinion of 
 their teacher, because he or she does not resemble the 
 ideal model, even though in some cases it is beyond hu- 
 man attainment. 
 
 In this way they often defeat the very end toward 
 which they are striving. 
 
 INSTRUCTORS OF NO EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING IN COM- 
 MON SCHOOLS. 
 
 Too often, some one who has never taught in the com- 
 mon schools tells how things ought to be and tvhat teach- 
 ers ought to do, how they ought to govern, etc., when, as 
 a fellow teacher openly expressed it to an institute in- 
 structor, **by such a method you could not discipline my 
 school for ten minutes. My boys would laugh at you 
 and put you out of the room with scorn." 
 
 The truth of the matter is that for the working out of 
 ideal plans you need ideal pupils, and everything ideal. 
 It is like formulating a recitation of questions and an- 
 swers. Since the pupils are to do their own thinking, 
 they very often do not think as the author expects, and 
 his next question may not fit the last answer. The 
 strange part is that those of no experience in common 
 country schools are just the ones to lay down plans and 
 formulate lessons which, they think and say, are just 
 what the country teacher needs, and yet every one who 
 tries it, probably fails. This is apt to happen in any in- 
 stitute, but if they are public afifairs, the pupils and pa- 
 rents, being present and hearing these glowing ideas, ex- 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 93 
 
 pect the practice of these plans, and in a measure coerce 
 the teacher into trying them, when he but too well knows 
 the result. 
 
 directors' day. 
 
 Thursday is generally directors' day, and a wise in- 
 structor can do untold and unmeasurable good for the 
 teachers and schools, but an unwise or indiscreet instruc- 
 tor may beget such expectations into the minds of direc- 
 tors as will cause endless trouble and annoyance to the 
 teacher. The temptation to the latter is very great, for 
 "dressed up" statements please the average gathering of 
 people better than the unadulterated truth. It is surpris- 
 ing to note how many are interested in preparing others 
 for teaching in the common schools when they them- 
 selves never taught a common school in their life and 
 know little about it. This seems to b~e more marked in 
 the teachers' profession than any other. 
 
 EFFECT ON A TEACHER. 
 
 On the other hand, it is claimed that this entertain- 
 ment rests the teachers and sends them back to their 
 work reinvigorated and encouraged with a light heart. 
 How much of this is true we do not know, for it is some- 
 thing incapable of measurement. Again it is claimed 
 that there is much truth told in an amusing way, so that 
 both instruction and amusement is furnished. How much 
 truth there is in this depends largely on the instructors 
 and the teachers. 
 
 LIBERALITY OF THE STATE TO TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 No State is more liberal in the support of teachers' 
 institutes than Pennsylvania. The teachers are paid for 
 attending institute the same as if they were teaching, and 
 the County Superintendent receives from the County 
 Treasurer the sum of one dollar for every three days 
 spent by the teachers of the county in attendance at the 
 
94 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 institute for that year.^ This sum may always be sixty 
 dollars ; but in no case more than two hundred dollars. 
 But the vouchers presented by the County Superintend- 
 ent must show the sum actually spent. Thus it will be 
 seen that institutes are intended to be free, but in many 
 counties the County Superintendent assesses the teachers 
 with what he calls a registration fee of a quarter or half 
 a dollar, and sometimes a dollar. In addition to this, 
 there are evening lectures, which are not free, but at 
 which all must pay admission fees, except teachers who 
 have been assessed a registration fee, in which case they 
 receive tickets for all the lectures without additional 
 charge. 
 
 The roll of teachers is called twice a day, to assure the 
 Superintendent that all the teachers are actually attend- 
 ing. 
 
 At first thought, it seems that it is a good thing to call 
 the roll of teachers and compel their attendance or re- 
 fuse to pay them. Still it also causes some discontent. 
 Some, very few, would prefer to teach. Others look 
 upon Institute Week as a holiday week, to have a good 
 time and not pay anything for it, in fact to be paid for it. 
 
 Hence, too often a young man and young woman at- 
 tends institute together, perhaps both are teachers, pos- 
 sibly only one, but their thoughts are too often on sub- 
 jects more interesting to them than school teaching or 
 any pedagogical subject. This is one reason why the lec- 
 tures are so entertaining, that this class may be inter- 
 ested. But others besides teachers make this a place to 
 enjoy each others' society, under pretense of attending 
 institutes. Nevertheless, many there are who thirst and 
 hunger for improved methods and ideals of teaching, 
 and eagerly try to digest every one offered. This class 
 
 ^Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 3, P. L., 52. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 95 
 
 includes, we should think, judging as one who has min- 
 gled with all, a very large majority of the teachers. 
 
 SEPARATE teachers' INSTITUTES FOR CITIES. 
 
 Cities and boroughs having not less than fifty teach- 
 ers may hold separate institutes.^ In order to be lawful, 
 the board of directors or controller of the city or borough 
 which has elected a Superintendent must authorize the 
 holding of the institute by a resolution at any stated 
 meeting, duly recorded. The institutes thus authorized 
 are, in all matters pertaining to the holding of institutes, 
 in no wise subject to the authority and jurisdiction of the 
 Superintendent of the Schools of the county in which 
 said city or borough is located. The city or borough 
 superintendent has the same authority as the County Su- 
 perintendent.'' There are legitimate reasons why this 
 should be thus allowed. It is in harmony with the in- 
 dependence of county and city government of schools. 
 The ideals of the city or borough superintendent and his 
 teachers may differ from those of the County Superin- 
 tendent and his teachers. 
 
 ^Act May 24, 1887, Sec. i, P. L., 196. 
 
 ""Act May 24, 1887, P. L., 196 ; also Act June 28, 1895, P- L-, 415. 
 
96 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 The law makes it plain that the normal schools are to 
 be controlled by a board of trustees composed of eigh- 
 teen members; nine elected by the contributors or stock- 
 holders, and nine appointed by the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction. A list of double the number to be 
 appointed are nominated by the stockholders, from which 
 the State Superintendent selects the number required. 
 If they are not satisfactory, he, with the advice and con- 
 sent of the Governor, may appoint any one else whom 
 he may think more suitable."^ This last privilege he sel- 
 dom exercises, but if he does it is generally believed that, 
 by personal or political influence, the principal of the 
 school causes others than those nominated to be ap- 
 pointed. Especially is this evident if the ones thus ap- 
 pointed are strong supporters of the principal. 
 
 Sometimes one hears rumors that the normal schools 
 are to be made purely State institutions. Principals who 
 are at variance with their trustees are very anxious that 
 this change should be made. There would of course be 
 advantages and disadvantages. Governed entirely by 
 State trustees the institutions would be left largely to 
 themselves, except where a man of political influence 
 should decide to interfere. 
 
 TRUSTEES. 
 
 At present the local trustees govern the institutions 
 almost entirely, as the State trustees are generally too 
 far from the school to conveniently attend all the meet- 
 
 ^Act April 12, 1875, Sec. 3, P. L., 43. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 97 
 
 ings of the board, besides they seldom have any money 
 invested and therefore are not as much interested as the 
 local or home trustees. Nor are they as well acquainted 
 with the workings of the school as the local trustees. 
 Then we can but conjecture the result if there were no 
 local trustees. Even now it is claimed that principals 
 largely control the appointment of State trustees. This 
 is hartily true to the extent claimed, as they are almost 
 always appointed from a list recommended by the stock- 
 holders. 
 
 POLITICS AND STATE TRUSTEES. 
 
 Still there have been cases where friends of the prin- 
 cipal of a school were appointed against the recommen- 
 dations of the stockholders. 
 
 Pennsylvania has more normal schools and normal 
 students than any other State in the Union except Massa- 
 chusetts and New York."^ By the new course of study 
 it requires three years to complete a course, and the di- 
 plomas are recognized in New Jersey and most other 
 States in the Union, although, but very lately, Pennsyl- 
 vania began recognizing diplomas from normal schools 
 of other States. 
 
 The classes of 1903 were the first to graduate under 
 the revised course. This change had long been con- 
 templated. One strong reason was because normal 
 schools of other States required much more for a di- 
 ploma than Pennsylvania. At a meeting of the princi- 
 pals of normal schools, November 8th, 1900, the Super- 
 intendent, who always calls and presides at such meet- 
 ings, strongly recommended an extension of the course 
 by adding a year's work, and by the consent of the prin- 
 cipals the change was made. Thus it will be seen that 
 the course in the various normal schools is the same 
 
 *Report of Commissioner of Education, igoi-og. 
 
98 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 throughout the State, though some emphasize one de- 
 partment more than another. 
 
 All changes in the course must be made at a meeting 
 of the principals called by the Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction. He must also approve of the changes in 
 order that they may be lawful."^ 
 
 The revised course is as follows : 
 
 JUNIOR YEAR. 
 
 Language, Pedagogics, School Management, English 
 Grammar, Reading and Orthography. Latin, to Caesar. 
 Mathematics: Arithmetic, Algebra. Natural Science: 
 Physiology. Historical Science: Geography, U. S. His- 
 tory, Civil Government of United States and Pennsyl- 
 vania. Arts: Penmanship (an approved system, with a 
 fair handwriting). Drawing (daily lessons for at least 
 twenty weeks). Bookkeeping (single entry with a knowl- 
 edge of common business paper). Physical Culture. 
 
 MIDDLE YEAR. 
 
 Pedagogics: Psychology, Methods of Teaching. 
 Language: Rhetoric and Composition, with elocution- 
 ary exercises ; three books of Caesar. Mathematics : 
 Plane Geometry. Natural Science: Elements of Chem- 
 istry; Elements of Zoology; Botany. Historical Sci- 
 ence: General History. Arts: Manual Training, 
 Physical Culture. 
 
 SENIOR YEAR. 
 
 Pedagogics : History of Education, Methods of Teach- 
 ing; Practice of Teaching in the Model School (at least 
 twenty weeks, forty-five minutes daily) ; Thesis. 
 Language: Literature and Classics, Three Orations of 
 Cicero; Three Books of Virgil, Review English Gram- 
 mar. Mathematics : Solid Geometry, Plane Trigonom- 
 
 ^Act May 20, 1857, Sec. 6, Cause 7, P, L., 583. ' 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 99 
 
 etry and Surveying, Review Arithmetic. Natural Sci- 
 ence; Physics, Geology. Physical Culture. 
 
 SUBSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The followring substitutions may be made : 
 
 Junior year: German or French for Latin. 
 
 Middle year: Greek, German or French for Chemistry. 
 
 Senior year : English History, Ethics and either Logic 
 or Astronomy for Latin; Greek, German or French for 
 Solid Geometry, Trigonometry and Surveying. 
 
 GRADUATION. 
 
 On graduating in the above course the student re- 
 ceives a certificate granting him the right to teach any- 
 where in the State without further examination what- 
 ever. After two years of successful teaching certified 
 to by the County Superintendent and directors under 
 whom he teaches, he secures a normal diploma, which is 
 a life certificate. Formerly these two certificates were 
 accompanied by the degrees Bachelor in the Elements 
 (B. E.) and Master in the Elements (M. E.) respec- 
 tively, but this has been discontinued. Some larger cit- 
 ies, as Philadelphia and Pittsburg, having many schools 
 and a higher standard of certificate and wages, accept no 
 certificate of any kind, until the applicant has passed 
 examinations under their own Superintendent. 
 
 The normal schools oflfer also a supplementary course 
 in addition to the regular course leading to the degree 
 Bachelor of Pedagogics, as follows : Philosophy of Edu- 
 cation, Advanced Psychology, Discussion of Educational 
 Questions, School Supervision, including School Law, 
 Devices for Teaching Educational Theories, etc. School 
 Apparatus and Appliances, Description, Use, Prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Leading to the degree of Master of Pedagogics, two 
 years' teaching after graduation in the regular course; 
 
loo THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 Professional Reading with Abstracts ; History of Educa- 
 tion in the United States (Boone) ; European Schools 
 (Klemar) ; System of Education (Parsons) ; Sanitary 
 Science, School Architecture, etc. Thesis/ 
 
 A full equivalent will be accepted for any of the text 
 books named above. The courses are determined by the 
 Board of Principals at their annual meeting, and they are 
 the same for all normal schools. 
 
 All candidates for graduation are required to attend 
 the full senior year, but candidates for the pedagogical 
 degrees may prepare the required work in absentia. 
 
 FAILURES. 
 
 A candidate failing in an examination at one normal 
 school under the State Board of Examiners cannot try 
 again at another normal school that year. All who are 
 admitted to the middle or senior classes must pass an 
 examination under the State board of examiners. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS UNDER THE STATE BOARD OF EXAMINERS. 
 
 It is not supposed that the State Board of Examiners 
 will examine any candidate who is not recommended by 
 the faculty, still the principals of normal schools may 
 recommend candidates even against the protest of mem- 
 bers of their faculty. This may be when the candidate 
 is a graduate of a high school, whose principal or super-' 
 intendent strongly recommends the candidate. 
 
 The temptation is especially strong if the high 
 school sends or may send many students to the normal 
 through the influence of a principal or superintendent 
 recommending the same. The examining board is sup- 
 posed to depend to some extent upon the grades made by 
 the students during the year, but they often pass when 
 their year's grade in one or more branches is below the 
 passing mark (70 per cent.). One reason for this is dif- 
 
 ^Catalogues of 1902-03. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA loi 
 
 ference in different teachers' marking. The principal of 
 the school is always a member of the examining board, 
 and his suggestions or recommendations are very largely 
 followed, but not always, for very much depends upon 
 the kind of men constituting the board. The argument is 
 very plain that the principal and faculty know much 
 more about the students who have been with them a year 
 or more than an examiner who has given them four or 
 five questions to be answered in possibly an hour. Be- 
 sides, the classes, often numbering a hundred, furnish 
 very many papers to be examined in two or three days. 
 
 It very often happens that the State Board of Exam- 
 iners reject candidates, especially in some schools, but 
 often they all pass who are recommended by the faculty. 
 Each examiner prepares his own questions, so that ques- 
 tions cannot be stolen from the capitol. 
 
 No person can graduate who does not receive four out 
 of five votes of the State Board of Examiners. Prac- 
 tical teachers, though not students of a normal school, 
 may take the examinations with a graduating class and 
 receive a State certificate, but no degree and no diploma. 
 
 State boards can grant no provisional certificates, and 
 their certificate of a student passing from junior to mid- 
 dle year or from middle to senior year is no certificate 
 to teach, and any one holding such, and not finishing 
 the course, must pass examination under the County Su- 
 perintendent. 
 
 PRINCIPALS AND FACULTIES OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 The principals of the normal schools are as a class 
 gentlemen of culture, refinement and strong educational 
 ideals, but it seems very strange that only one or two are 
 university graduates, and not all are college graduates. 
 
 Faculties of normal schools are largely made up of 
 teachers recommended by the principal. 
 
 The wages paid principals range from $1,500 to $5,000 
 
102 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 and home, yet there are but few university men oc- 
 cupying those positions. It seems strange that an in- 
 stitution should offer to specially prepare students for 
 teachers when the head of the institution is not thus pre- 
 pared, but rather a so-called self-made man. Probably 
 the amount of business capacity is largely taken into con- 
 sideration in selecting principals, as a principal's suc- 
 cess depends largely upon his business capacity. Among 
 the faculties are numbered very many college and uni- 
 versity graduates and thoroughly professional workers. 
 Very often a teacher declines promotion to a principal or 
 vice-principalship, if he does not choose to assume the 
 duties devolving upon those officers, but prefers to re- 
 main a thoroughly professional teacher. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 103 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF STATE APPROPRIATIONS 
 
 Until recently the State appropriation was distributed 
 according to the number of taxables as certified to by the 
 commissioners at their triennial assessment.^ But when 
 the law was passed to give five millions to the common 
 schools out of the State funds in 1893, many, especially 
 of the country districts, felt that this method was un- 
 fair. 
 
 The Grangers, an organization of farmers, were espe- 
 cially active and influential in having the law passed for 
 the large State aid, and they saw that the cities received 
 a larger proportion per pupil or per teacher than the 
 country districts. As they then could control forty mem- 
 bers of the Legislature, regardless of party, their desires 
 were respected, and in 1897 a law was passed by /which 
 one-third of the appropriations is distributed on the basis 
 of the number of paid teachers employed for the full an- 
 nual term of the district, one-third on the basis of 
 the number of children of school age between the 
 ages of six and sixteen residing in the respective dis- 
 tricts, the remaining third on the basis of the number of 
 taxables as returned by the last triennial assessment.'' 
 
 This was a compromise and seemed, in a measure, to 
 suit all parties. It was much fairer than the preceding 
 method. 
 
 It is plain to see the arguments in favor of the various 
 plans for distributing school appropriation. 
 
 In some country districts teachers have very few pu- 
 
 ^Act April 17, 1865, Sec. i, P. L., 61. 
 
 "Act of July 15, 1897, P. L, No. 215, page 271. 
 
104 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 pils, so that if the appropriation is divided according to 
 the number of pupils these would receive a compara- 
 tively small sum, while they needed it most, as they re- 
 ceive the smallest salary, though their patrons generally 
 pay the highest rate of tax. They would ask for distri- 
 bution according to the number of teachers employed. 
 
 In some poor farming districts there are large numbers 
 of children, but the valuation of properties is very low, 
 sometimes so low that they pay very low rent, two per 
 cent, on the value of the property, and they are not re- 
 sponsible for loss. These people would wish the distri- 
 bution according to the number of pupils, using the same 
 arguments as those mentioned above, viz. : that their 
 teachers receive the lowest wages and still the tax rate is 
 the highest. They add to this, that this is the only fair 
 method of distributing the State's appropriation, if the 
 State is to be impartial and treat all her children alike. 
 One child of the State deserves as much help financially 
 as any other child, therefore they argue, the State should 
 divide her appropriations according to the number of 
 children. 
 
 The rich cities, the mining and manufacturing towns 
 are not without arguments in favor of the distribution of 
 funds according to the assessed value of the districts. 
 The country districts say to them: "You are rich and 
 need the money least. Look at your low tax rate." They 
 answer, "We have enriched our districts, you do like- 
 wise. We pay the most tax from our districts and we 
 deserve most in return. Should our thrift be taxed? 
 Should not the State encourage us and feel thankful that 
 we have done so much for her?" They argue that all 
 other funds are distributed according to the assessed 
 value of property, and that when the State wishes funds, 
 she taxes her citizens according to her wealth. Again, 
 any other method would be taking money from our dis- 
 tricts and giving it to other districts. This is unfair. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 105 
 
 The argument that the richest district pays most tax 
 is not quite fair, since the indirect taxes are the great 
 sources of the State's funds, and they may not in any 
 way depend upon the assessed value of the property of 
 various districts. It may depend on the amount of to- 
 bacco or strong drinks manufactured, sold or consumed. 
 The method of distribution now employed, taking all 
 these arguments into consideration, seems to be the most 
 satisfactory and fair. It really takes sides with none of 
 the different claimants, but neither does it take sides 
 against any of them, and as each has part of its claims 
 granted, it is a case of "live but let live," and people 
 generally are satisfied. 
 
 CERTIFICATES TO COLLEGE GRADUtATES. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Instruction may issue 
 certificates to graduates of colleges having legal power 
 to confer degrees,^ which certificate is permanent in 
 character. In order to obtain the same the candidate 
 must have taught three full terms in the public schools 
 of the State, and the candidate must also be recom- 
 mended by the board or boards of directors and County 
 Superintendents under whom he taught, and for cause 
 this certificate may be annulled by the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction.' 
 
 ^See College and University Councils. 
 ■Act of May 10, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 39. 
 
io6 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER Vni. 
 
 CITIES OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The cities of Pennsylvania are divided into three 
 classes. The law says : "Those containing a population 
 of one million or over shall constitute the first class. 
 Those containing a population of one hundred thousand 
 and under one million shall constitute the second class. 
 Those containing a population under one hundred thou- 
 san shall constitute the third class."" 
 
 DUTIES AND POWERS OF CONTROLLERS. 
 
 Cities of the third class elect controllers from the vari- 
 ous wards, and each ward is entitled to one controller to 
 serve four years. These boards of controllers of the 
 various cities have power to levy taxes, and the same 
 rights and privileges in relation to real and personal 
 property as is now by law conferred upon the school di- 
 rectors of the several districts of the commonwealth.^ 
 
 CITY SUPERINTENDENT. 
 
 Any city, township or borough of over five thousand 
 inhabitants may elect its own superintendent of schools.' 
 He must receive his commission like a County Superin- 
 tendent, but may be refused a commission for reasons 
 like those elected as County Superintendents. He is 
 not subject to the County Superintendent in any way.' 
 
 ^Act June 25, 1895, Sec. 2, P. L., 276. 
 ■Act June 16, 1891, Sec. i, P. L., 306. 
 •Act April 9, 1867, Sec. 7, P. L., 53. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 107 
 
 The controllers of a city may establish a high school 
 and govern it as they govern other schools.^ 
 
 CITY HIGH SCHOOLS MAY BE ESTABLISHED. 
 
 High schools may be established by two or more dis- 
 tricts jointly, and they are governed jointly. A high 
 school maintaining a course of study of four years be- 
 yond the common branches is a high school of the first 
 grade; one maintaining three years of study beyond the 
 common branches is a high school of the second grade; 
 those maintaining a course of study of two years beyond 
 the common branches constitute a high school of the 
 third grade.^ 
 
 A high school of the iirst grade receives annually 
 eight hundred dollars, of the second grade, six hun- 
 dred dollars, and one of the third grade a sum of 
 four hundred dollars.^ The high school is under the su- 
 pervision of the superintendent of the district in which 
 it is, and the course of study must be approved by the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 
 SPECIAL LAWS FOR CITIES. 
 
 Very often the Legislature is asked to pass special 
 laws for certain cities, and they generally obtain what 
 they ask, as it in no way interferes with the schools of 
 other districts. 
 
 SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR LARGE CITIES. 
 
 Large cities, as Philadelphia and Pittsburg, do not ac- 
 cept normal diplomas from any outside source, but re- 
 quire all who wish to teach in their schools to pass ex- 
 
 ^Act May 26, 1893, Sec. i, P. L., 146. 
 ''Act June 28, 189S, Sec. 3, P. L., 413. 
 "Act June 28, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L,, 414. 
 
io8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 aminations. Each city may have its own training or 
 normal school, from which it obtains a large percentage 
 of the teachers required for its schools. 
 
 The normal schools of these cities have a more ex- 
 tended course than the other normal schools of the State. 
 They differ materially from the other normal schools, for 
 they are specially designed for graduates of the high 
 schools of the same city in which they are found. Again, 
 the requirements of pupils in large cities differ materially 
 from those of country or town pupils. What one under- 
 stands best the other understands least. The long tramps 
 in the wildwood, the mountain climbing, the fishing along 
 pathless streams with simplest and fewest pieces of cloth- 
 ing that may be discarded in a few minutes for a wade or 
 swim, the broad fields of waving grain, rustling corn, 
 and the bare and brown ploughed field, all are well 
 known and much enjoyed by the boys and girls of the 
 country. 
 
 The call of the crow, the low of the herd, the moan of 
 the owl, the song of the wren, the whistle of the quail 
 and whip-poor-will, the shrill chirp of the cricket, the 
 evening call of the kneedeep and a thousand other voices 
 with thousands of experiences forming the daily pastimes 
 of these children of nature, supply abundant stores of 
 knowledge for the apperceptive training of the poorest of 
 rustic children. But they are entirely foreign to the 
 children of the crowded portions of our large cities. City 
 children have entirely different experiences, and the 
 teaching must be from an entirely different standpoint. 
 If teaching is to be from the known to the unknown, and 
 if the knowledge of city children is different from that 
 of country or town children, the teacher must understand 
 how to properly present his subject so as to use this 
 knowledge of the child aright. Hence the difference in 
 teaching these different classes of children. If the 
 method is to be different the training of teachers must 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 109 
 
 necessarily be diiferent, and therefore the training in 
 normal schools should be different. 
 
 The object to be obtained in teaching city children is 
 different from that of the training of country children. 
 Since the country children know more of nature than 
 the city children, and since they need more of such 
 knowledge, their course of study should be different. 
 And since city children will be called upon, in after life, 
 for very diiferent kinds of employment from the natural 
 rustic form of life, their education must be accordingly. 
 This requires a course of study specially adapted to their 
 needs — a course that will train them for their special 
 calling in Hfe. It would in a large measure be what the 
 rustic child would care little for and of which he would 
 understand less. And the city boy would understand 
 little of the course of study planned for the country boy. 
 Hence normal schools should be accordingly. 
 
 POWER OF SUB-DISTRICT DIRECTORS. 
 
 Boards of directors of sub-districts of cities have 
 power to purchase lots, repair and enlarge buildings 
 thereon, purchase furniture, books, stationery, etc., and 
 provide for the payment thereof."^ 
 
 In cities of the second and third class, central boards 
 of directors may establish and maintain schools for in- 
 struction in the mechanic arts and kindred subjects.^ 
 
 ^Act of 1881, page 2. 
 
 ='Act May 21, 1895, P- L-, 85. 
 
no THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 Universities and colleges are required to report to the 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction the number of 
 students in each class and the total number of graduates, 
 if any, the course of studies pursued, financial resources 
 and expenses, the future prospects of their several insti- 
 tutions, accompanied with such remarks as may illustrate 
 the general condition; so much of it as he may deem 
 proper he must lay before the Legislature in his annual 
 report."" 
 
 Five or more persons, three of whom must be citizens 
 of the commonwealth, may associate themselves together 
 for the purpose of obtaining a charter of incorporation 
 for a college, university or theological seminary, with 
 power to confer degrees.'' Notice must be given of such 
 institutions in the county papers of the proper county. 
 The certificate must be acknowledged by at least three 
 of the subscribers and presented to the proper law 
 judge, who, if he find it lawful and not injurious 
 to the community, must endorse and have it trans- 
 mitted to the Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 or a copy of the same.^ No charter can be granted 
 unless passed upon, as to its merits, by a board 
 called the "College and University Council," which con- 
 sists of twelve members, namely, the Governor, Attor- 
 
 ^Act April I, 1836, Sec. i, P. L., 1835-6, page 342. 
 
 'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. i, P. L., 327. 
 
 'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L, 328. , ^ 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA in 
 
 ney-general and the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion, who are ex officio members, three members selected 
 from the presiding officers of undenominational col- 
 leges or universities, three persons selected from 
 the presiding officers of denominational colleges or 
 universities, and three persons holding official relation- 
 ship to common schools of the State. Those not ex 
 officio members are appointed by the Governor, with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of four 
 years.^ No institution can be chartered to confer de- 
 grees unless it has assets amounting to five hundred 
 thousand dollars invested in buildings, apparatus, and 
 endowments for the exclusive use of promoting instruc- 
 tion. The faculty must contain at least six college pro- 
 fessors, who devote all their time to the instruction of its 
 college or university classes, nor can any baccalaureate 
 degree in art, science, philosophy, or literature be con- 
 ferred upon any student who has not completed a col- 
 lege or university course covering four years. The 
 standard of admission to these four year courses or to 
 advanced classes in these courses is subject to the ap- 
 proval of the said council."* All institutions thus char- 
 tered are subject to visitation and inspection by repre- 
 sentatives of the council, and any one failing to keep up 
 the required standard, the court, on the recommendation 
 of the council, revokes the power to confer degrees.' 
 
 Colleges incorporated before the passage of this act 
 we're required to have funds amounting to one hundred 
 thousand dollars ($100,000) invested. This does not 
 apply to institutions possessing capital stock and estab- 
 lished for purposes of private gain or profit.* 
 
 ^Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 5, P. L., 329. 
 ='Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 6, P. L., 329. 
 'Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 9, P. L., 330. 
 *Act June 26, 1895, Sec. 12, P. L., 330. 
 
112 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS. 
 
 Evening schools may be opened upon the application 
 of twenty or more pupils through their parents, the pu- 
 pils being above six years. These schools must be kept 
 open at least four months, consisting of twenty days of 
 two hours each, providing the attendance does not fall 
 below fifteen, per month, average daily attendance. If 
 it does, the directors or controllers may close the said 
 evening schools at their option. The qualifications of 
 teachers and expenses of the schools must be the same as 
 that for the common schools."^ Evening high schools may 
 also be established. If any school has over fifty pupils 
 an additional teacher may be employed, but no student 
 can be admitted to evening school who is unemployed 
 during the day, or in actual attendance upon any school 
 during the day, public or private."^ 
 
 LENGTH OF MONTH. 
 
 A school month in Pennsylvania consists of twenty 
 days' actual teaching, but schools cannot be kept open 
 during county institute or on any Saturday or on any 
 legal holiday.^ 
 
 PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 
 
 Except in cities of the first and second class directors 
 and controllers may establish a system of free public 
 libraries, on a substantial basis throughout the common- 
 wealth, if a majority of the members of the various 
 boards of directors or controllers may so decide.' School 
 houses may be used for this purpose, or other buildings 
 may be purchased or rented, and a tax may be levied to 
 provide funds for the same. The library or libraries of 
 
 ^Act May 22, 1883, Sec. i, 2 and 3, P- L., 37. 
 'Act June 25, 1885, Sec. i, P. L., 176. 
 'Act June 28, 1895, Sec. i, P. L., 411. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA. 113 
 
 each district are controlled by a board of nine trustees 
 acting as agents and appointees of the school board, who 
 approve all plans for its storage and accommodation, 
 purchase all necessities, appoint all employees and make 
 all regulations and do all things necessary to its govern- 
 ment, preservation and maintenance, subject to the 
 board's approval/ 
 
 The trustees must report every year to the school 
 board, and oftener if required. The libraries are under 
 the supervision of the State librarian. The school board 
 may receive endowments and apply the same to the pur- 
 pose for which made or given. 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene. — The law requires that physi- 
 ology and hygiene be taught as a regular branch to all 
 students in all departments of the public schools of the 
 commonwealth, including special reference to the effect 
 of alcoholic drinks and stimulants and narcotics on the 
 human system. Any violation of these requirements sub- 
 jects the district to the penalty of forfeiting its share of 
 the State appropriation.'' This same act also requires 
 the teachers to be examined in physiology and hygiene. 
 
 THE SCHOOL JOURNAL. 
 
 The School Journal is the official organ of the depart- 
 ment of common schools of the commonwealth. A copy 
 of the same is sent to the various boards of school direc- 
 tors of the State, and the cost of the same is charged to 
 the contingent expenses of the department of common 
 schools." 
 
 Thus it will be seen how the system of education de- 
 veloped out of a conglomerate of independent systems 
 and how the improvements have been made. It will 
 probably be noted that very often the law preceded and 
 
 ^Act June 28, 1895, Sec. 4, P. L., 411. 
 ^Act April 2, 1885, Sec. 2, P. L., 7. 
 ^Act May 8, 1855, Sec. 9, P. L., 511. 
 
114 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
 
 molded popular sentiment. It will also be noted how 
 certain laws, when forced upon people against their will, 
 may be misapplied and misconstrued, so as to cause just 
 what they were intended to prevent. 
 
 No one in any way connected with the system of edu- 
 cation in Pennsylvania can fail to note the great influ- 
 ence for good a Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 can exert when he is a man of integrity and ability. 
 Many improvements in our system had their inception in 
 the mind of the person at the head of the educational 
 department. 
 
 Lom Salaries. — His repeated urging of higher salaries 
 for teachers, however, seems to be unheeded. In 1893-94 
 the average wages in Pennsylvania for male teachers 
 was $44.16; for females $33.05, standing twenty-fifth in 
 the Union in salaries to teachers. The average wages of 
 male teachers per month in the United States was $44.76 
 and for females $37.48. In the North Atlantic division 
 the average monthly wages was $54.89 for males and 
 $37.09 for females. The expenditure per capita for 
 common schools in Pennsylvania in 1870-71 was $2.36; 
 in 1879-80, $1.72; in 1889-90; $2.46; in 1893-94, $3.26. 
 In the North Atlantic division in 1870-71, $2.38; in 
 1879-80, $1.97; in 1889-90, $2.76; in 1893-94, $3.17. 
 In the United States for 1870-71, $1.75; in 1879-80, 
 $1.56; in 1889-90, $2.24; in 1893-94, $2.51. The ex- 
 penditure per pupil in 1893-94 in Pennsylvania for sal- 
 aries was $11.85 for the year; in United States, $11.81; 
 in the North Atlantic division, $15.55. 
 
 This shows comparatively very low salaries paid 
 teachers in Pennsylvania. It is unfortunate that the 
 State standing second in wealth in the Union should be 
 twenty-fifth in the amount of salary paid the average 
 teacher. A recent law requires that after the school year 
 of 1903-04 no teachers' salary can be less than $35 per 
 month. 
 
OF PENNSYLVANIA 115 
 
 Improvement in schools should keep pace with other 
 progress, but changes in educational methods must take 
 cognizance of popular sentiment in a State under popular 
 government. We can only hope that the powers that 
 drive the onward movement of education may ever re- 
 member that they are dealing with something no less 
 eternal than mind. 
 
OCT 6 1909