PC 2109 ,L43 1844 Copy 1 Class. PRESENTED BY ^^^; / /^^/jr FRENCH GRAMMAR; CONTAINING, BESIDES THE RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, A COMPLETE TREATISE ON PREPOSITIONS. By COUNT DE LAPORTE, TEACHER OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN BOSTON. u I f ~ BOSTON: OTIS, BROADERS, AND COMPANY. 1844. TC L^3 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by Otis, Broaders, & Company, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. GIFT _, Estate of CAMBRIDGE: METCALF, KEITH, AND NICHOL! PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. v9 PREFACE. Since so many men of talent and experience have presented to the public the results of their labors in numerous volumes for the assistance of foreigners in the study of the French Language, it would seem that a teacher ought to be able to select from among these a sure guide for his pupils. It might be pre- sumed that we had all the means that could be of any use to the student in the acquisition of the lan- guage, and that ambition only, and the vain desire of introducing one's name to the public, could in- duce any one to attempt a new publication on the subject. But, unfortunately, such is not the case ; new efforts are necessary to assist teachers and pupils, more especially because so many Englishmen and Americans are undertaking to teach a language which is not their own. A work is required which shall enter into a thorough investigation of the prin- ciples of our language, and enable the student to understand and appreciate fully its genius and its beauties. I am far from pretending to possess the ability to accomplish such a task ; but experience has done much for me, by showing me those points which JV m PREFACE. foreigners find the most difficult to understand ; and it is the result of that experience, which I now pre- sent to the public, in the hope of doing some good, if not all that could be desired. Acting on the principle that there is nothing new in the code of the law of languages, my object has been to collect the elements of the science scattered in hundreds of volumes, and to appropriate to myself what I found useful in them, adopting entire what I thought clear and satisfactory, modifying and some- times changing altogether what did not appear to me calculated to reach at once the mind of the student. I have said but little as to Pronunciation, being satisfied with the inutility of the attempt. If the pupil has a teacher, it is through the organ of hear- ing that he will learn it ; if he has none, there is no use in attempting to represent on paper, by words, what has no possible representation, except in sounds. If the English language had any near similarity to the French, in its intonations, a com- parison could be established between the two ; but such is not the case ; there are no two sounds ex- actly alike in either. There is, besides, great danger in attempting to give an idea of French sounds by means of English letters ; the pupil, anxious to pro- nounce something resembling French, is constantly referring to his fancifully written w r ords, and pays little attention to the real ones, thus engrafting on his mind the barbarous orthography, which he is PREFACE. V afterwards too much inclined to remember, instead of that which really belongs to the language. I have therefore confined myself, in this important matter, to indicating only what is of an easy and general application. The subject of Syntax has not been separately treated in this Grammar, because this division is entirely conventional, and is often troublesome to the student when he is seeking for a rule, causing confusion in his mind, and a loss of time, which should be carefully avoided. The Verbs will be found conjugated, on the same page, under their four different forms, so as to catch the eye at once, and to enable the pupil to compare them with facility ; and all the irregular verbs are conjugated, with such remarks and tables, as to ren- der this tedious task comparatively easy. All that can be said on Participles has been carefully arranged under different heads, according to the decisions of the French Academy and of our best grammarians. I have treated at great length of Prepositions, the study of which presents an almost insurmountable difficulty to foreigners. Tables and illustrations will be found, under their different heads, of all the adjectives and verbs, with the prepositions which they respectively take before verbs and nouns. This part of the book is of the utmost importance, and should be consulted by the student until he becomes perfectly acquainted with the philosophy and genius of the language. VI PREFACE. Finally, an elaborate table of contents will facili- tate research in regard to the Rules. No Exercises will be found in this Grammar ; its size has prevented it ; but the author hopes soon to publish another work which will supply the defi- ciency. In presenting this book to the public, I must apologize for its faults of style. I have aimed to be clear, and if I have succeeded in this point, I hope to be excused for deficiencies resulting from the disadvantage under which I have labored, as a foreigner. CONTENTS. Definition of the word Grammar, French Alphabet, Vowels, .... Letter y, Consonants, Letter n, Accentuation. Definition of the Accents, Acute Accent, Grave Accent, Circumflex Accent, Pronunciation. Simple Sound of the vowels, with and without the Accent, Simple Sounds produced by a union of Vowels, and of Vowels and Consonants, .... Nasal Sounds, Sounds of the Consonants, The letter h, . The letter j, The liquid /, The letters m and n, The letter s, . The letters t, and th, The letter x, . The letter w, A Table, showing how the Simple Sounds are produced by the union of Letters different from those mentioned pages 4 and 5, sections 18 to 20, ... Diphthongs, ...... Pronunciation of Words ending in ble, bre, cle, ere, dre,Jk, fre, gle, gre, pie, pre, tre, .... Page. Section. 1 1 ] to 6 3 7 to 9 3 8 3 10 3 11 3 12, 13 3 14 3 15, 16 3 17 16 4 19 4,5 19,20 5 21 6 22 6 23 6 24,25 7,8 26 to 32 8 33 to 35 8 36 to 39 8 40 9 41 9 42, N 43 10 44 12 45 CONTENTS. Page. Section. UNCTUATION. . 12 46 12 47,48 . 13 49, 50 VUl Signs used in Punctuation, Cedilla and Diaeresis, Hyphen and Apostrophe, Elision. When and how an Elision must take place, Of Genders. Definition of Gender, .... Masculine and Feminine Terminations, . Words having a Fixed Gender, independently of their Terminations ; as, God, Angels, &c, Names of Living Beings, and Proper Names, . Diminutive Names of Animals, Diminutive Names of Inanimate Objects, Names of Days, Months, Years, &c, Names of Trees and Shrubs, Names of Metals, Names of Colors, Names of Mountains, Names of Winds, Names of Country, . Names of Towns, Ordinal, Distributive, and Proportional Numbers, Nouns expressing Virtues and Crimes, Genders of Nouns mostly depending on their Term! nations ...... Names of Fruits, Grain, Plants, and Flowers, . A Table of the Gender of all Nouns according to their Termination, A Table of Nouns which are Masculine in one Sig- nification, and Feminine in another, Terminations showing the Similarity of Words in French and in English, . Words differing only by their Termination, 13, 14 51 to 57 , 15 58 to 62 15 62,63 15 64,65 ,16 66 to 69 16 70 to 72 16 73,74 17 75 to 77 17 78 17 80 18 81 18 82 18 83 18 84 18 85,86 18 87,88 19 89 19 19 90 19 to 20 22 Of Homonyms. Of the Article. Its Definition, .... Agreement of the Article, Elision of the Article, Contraction of the Article, Definition of Nouns taken Definitely, Repetition of the Article before Nouns . 24 24 24 to 37 91 92 93 94 95 38 96 to 99 38 100 39 101, 102 39 103 to 107 40 108 to 111 41 112 42 113 42 114,115 43 116 43 117 CONTENTS. IX Page. Section. The Article, being Definite, is only placed before Nouns used in a Definite Sense, or Words employ- ed as such, .... Partitive Article some before a Noun, •' " " "an Adjective, . " " " with a Negation, . " " " before a Noun followed by an Adjective, . . .43 118 " " " before a Noun composed of an Adjective and a Noun, .... Difference between Partitive and General Sense, Use of the Article before Names of Countries, " " " Rivers, The Article is not used before Nouns taken Indefi- nitely, ...... Cases in which the Article is not used before Com- mon Nouns, ..... The Article is not used with mon, ton, son, notre, vo- tre, leur, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, touts, plu- sieurs, tel, and the Cardinal Numbers, Use of the Article with Proper Names of Deities, Men, Animals, Towns, and Particular Places, Of the Article before a Noun preceded by an Adverb of Quantity, ..... Of the Article with Nouns expressing the Quality of a preceding Noun, .... Of the Article with a Noun of Measure, Weight, and Purchase, ...... Of the Article with plus and moins, " with two or more Adjectives, A Table of Nouns employed with or without the Ar- ticle, according to the Definite or Indefinite Mean- ing, . . . . . . 53 to 57 A Table of Nouns used without the Article after Verbs of which they are the Complement, . 57 to 59 Examples of Cases in which the Article is not used with Nouns preceded by a Preposition, . . 59, 60 164 Of the Substantive. Of Number in the Substantive. Of Gender " " . . . Amour, ..... Automne, ..... Chose ..... Comte Duche, ..... Couple, ..... 44 119, 120 44 121 44, 49 122 to 129 45 130,131 46 132 to 134 47 135 to 144 49 145, 146 49,50 147 to 149 50,51 150 to 154 51 155 51,52 156, 157 52 158 to 161 52,53 162, 163 60,61 165 to 168 61 169 to 172 61 to 63 173 to 180 63 182 63 183 63 184 63 185 63 186 X CONTENTS. Page. Section. Gens, . 64 187, 188 Gens with Tout, . • 64 189 to 192 Delices, • • . . 64 193 Orgue, . 64 194 Foudre . 64 195 Personne, . 65 196 Of Number in the Substantive. 65 197 to 200 Formation of the Plural, .... 65,66 201 to 205 Orthography of Nouns e nding in ant and ent, 66,67 206 to 209 Nouns which do not take the Plural Terminations, . 67,68 210 to 212 Nouns which have no Plural, 68 213 to 217 " " Singular, 69 218 Table of Nouns which are sometimes used in the Singular, and sometimes in the Plural, 69 219 Amertume, . 69 220 Ardeur, . • • . 69 221 Bassesse, . . . • 69 222 Beaute, .... 70 223 Bont6 . • . • 70 224 Bienseance, . 71 225 Bonheur, .... 71 226 Chagrin, . 71 227 Charite, . 71 228 Colere, r • • 72 229 Captivite, . 72 230 Clarte, 72 231 Conduite, 72 232 Connaissance, . 72 233 Consideration, . 72 234 Contentment, • 73 235 Contrainte, . 73 236 Coucher and Lever, 73 237 Courage, . 73 238 Curiosite, . 73 239 Douceur, . 73 240 Desespoir, 73 241 Enfance, . • 74 242 Espoir, . 74 243 Experience, . 74 244 Esprit, . 74 245 Felicite, 75 246 Fierte, . 75 247 Flamme, . 75 248 Fureur, . 76 249 Gloire, . 76 250 CONTENTS. XI Page. Section. Gout, • 76 251 Haine, 76 252 Haleine, . • • . 77 253 Hasard, 77 254 Honte, . 77 255 Hymen, . 77 256 Honneur, . 78 257 Inclemence, 78 258 Indecence, . • 78 259 Indignite, 78 260 Indiscretion, . 78 261 Ignorance, 79 262 Ignominie, . 79 263 Injustice, 79 264 Impudence, . 79 265 Impudeur, 80 266 Impuissance, . 80 267 Innocence, 80 268 Ivresse, • 80 269 Marty re, . 81 270 Mepris, . 81 271 Misere, . 81 272 Ouie, ouies, . . 81 273 Pauvrete, 81 274 Penchant, . 82 275 Rage, 82 276 Reconnaissance, . 82 277 Renommee, 82 278 Repos, . 83 280 Sante, 83 281 Silence, . 83 282 Tendresse, 83 283 Vue, • 83 284 Table of a few Nouns wh ich have no Plural in any Meaning, . 83 286, 287 Formation of the Plural in Compound Nouns, 84 288 (C (( " formed of a Substantive and an Adjective, 85 289 When there is a Word which is never used by itself, . . 85 290 Formed of two S ubstantives following each other without a Preposition, 85 291 Formed of two Substantives united by a Preposition, • • • • 86 292 Formed of a Sub stantive joined to a Verb, an Adverb, or s i Preposition, 86 293 to 295 Formed of Word s which never vary, 87 296 Xll CONTENTS. Page. Section. 94 94,95 326, 327 95 328, 329 96 330 96 331 96 332 96,97 333, 334 Of the Noun considered in regard to its functions of Speech, ..... 87 297,298 Of the Noun used as a subject, ... 87 299 " " in an Apostrophe, . 87,88 300,301 " " as an Object or Regimen, . 88, 89 302 to 306 Of Number in the Substantives which are Objects or Regimens of another Substantive. Substantives immediately governed by another with the Preposition de, of, . 89 to 93 307 to 320 Of Substantives with the Preposition de, of, but not preceded immediately by another Substantive, 93 to 95 321 to 325 Of Substantives preceded, as Determinative, by any Preposition but de, of, Preposition a, . " en, " par, " pour, " sans, " sur, . General Rules on the same Subject, . . 97 to 99 335 to 343 Of the Adjective. Definition, ..... Variation of the Adjectives, Of the Gender in the Adjectives, Formation of the Feminine in the Adjectives end- ing with an e mute, .... Not ending with an e mute, Ending in an, ien, on, " with any other Consonant than m orn, . Exceptions to this Rule : Adjectives ending in c, . . . 102, 103 364 to 366 J •> " g, • • " " el, eil, as, ol, ul, os, ot, " " eur, . " " teur, " " irieur, . General Remarks on these Terminations, . Adjectives ending in eur, having no Feminine, Formation of the Feminine of the Adjectives, fou, vieuoc, beau, nouveucc, mou, Adjectives having no Feminine, or no Masculine, 101 344 to 350 101 351 to 353 101 354 to 356 101 357 102 358,359 102 360 to 362 102 363 103 367 103 368 103 369 104 370 104 371,372 104 373 105 374 105 375 105 376, 377 105 378 106 379 CONTENTS. Xlll Page. Nouns and Adjectives of Number. 106 A Table of Cardinal, Ordinal, and Collective numbers, 106 Of Numbers, speaking of the Days of the Month . 107 Of the Number eleven, .... 107 Peculiarity of the Number one joined to 20, 30, 40, &c. 107 Remark on two, three, &c. joined to, 20, 30, 40, 108 Number one before hundred, . . . .108 Remark on seventy and ninety, . . . 108 Numerical Adjectives of a peculiar nature, . . 108 One thousand, un millier . . . 108 Of Distributive Numbers, the half, the third, &c. . 108 Of Proportional Numbers, as the double, &c. . 108 Of Number in Adjectives. . 109 General Rule, ..... 109 Adjectives ending in s, or x, . . . . 109 " " au, al, 109 Cardinal Numbers indicating the Plural Number, . 109 Of the Adjective eighty, . . . . 109 " one hundred, . . .110 14 one thousand, . . . 110 '* cru and nu, . . .110 penitentiel, . . . 110 11 ending in ant, ent, . . .110 u tout, all, . . . Ill Adjectives ending in al, (remarks,) . . .111 " " al, making the Plural in awe, 111 " " " " " with an s, 113 Adjectives ending in al, having no Plural in the Mas- culine, ... 113 Of the Degrees of Signification of the Adjectives. Definition, . . . . . 113 Positive, . . . . . .113 Comparative, . . . . .113, 414 Adjectives which are Comparative by themselves, meilleur, pire, moindre, . . . .114 Difference between these Adjectives and the Adverbs mieux, pis, moins, .... Superlative, ..... " Absolute, .... 11 Relative, .... Of the. Place of Adjectives. Definition, ..... Adjectives always placed before the Noun, b Section. 380 381 382, 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394, 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 to 404 405 406 407, 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 415 to 420 421 114 422 115 423 115 424, 425 115 426, 427 116 428 116 429 XIV CONTENTS. Page. Seetfon, 43d 117 433 117 434, 435 117 436 118 437 118 438 118 439, 440 118 441, 442 Exception First, . . . . , n§ Cardinal Adjectives used in French instead of the Or- dinal used in English, . . . .116 431 Cases in which the Adjectives mentioned in section 429 are placed after the Noun, . . . 117 432 Two Adjectives cannot qualify a Noun without a Con- junction, ...... Exception, ..... Adjectives formed from Past Participles go after the Noun, .... . Place of Adjectives formed from the Present Participle, expressing form, color, taste, flavor, sound, action, effect, country, and those ending in esque, il, ule, and most of those ending in ic, icgue, Exceptions, ..... General remark, . A List showing the meaning of several sentences ac- cording to the place of the following Adjectives : grand, mauvais, petit, Ion, brave, cruel, mort, cer- taine, commune, faux, dernier, saint, sage, gros, gallant, gentil, nouveau, pauvre, plaisant, haut, hon- nete, malhonnete, m^chant, furieux, mortel, vilain, seul, and riche, . . . . . 119 443 to 487 Of Adjectives considered in reference to their relation with other words, ..... 122 488 Of the Agreement of Adjectives. Rule of the Agreement, .... Exceptions ; Adjectives nu, demi, and feu, Adjectives used to qualify Verbs, . " as Prepositions, Agreement of Comparatives and Superlatives, Adjectives referring to two or more Substantives, 123 Several Adjectives qualifying a Noun, Adjectives used to qualify another Adjective, Adjectives always applied to persons, others to things, Adjectives preceded by the Noun air, . Construction of. Sentences expressing Measure, Of the Adjective with the Article. Adjectives expressing Modes and Quantities, . " used as Nouns, " of different Significations accompanying a Noun, . . . . . 127 518 Adjectives of the same Significations accompanying a Noun, 128 519 Adjectives of different Signification although not in- compatible, 128 520 122 489 122 490, 491 122 492 122 493, 494 123 495 to 497 124 499 to 503 124 504, 50 5 124 506 125 507 125 508 to 510 126 511 to 515 127 516 127 517 Page. Section. 128 521 129 522 129 523 129 524, 525 129 526 129 527 130 528 130 529 130 530 130 531, 532 CONTENTS. XV Adjectives prefixed to Proper Names, Superlative Relative preceding a Substantive, " " following " Exceptions referring to the Adjective tout, Regimen of Adjectives. Definition, ..... Adjectives having no Regimen, " " a Regimen, " " sometimes a Regimen, sometimes none, ...... Rule in these cases, . Adjectives relating to Persons, or Things, Adjectives which may or may not be restricted by a Verb, 130 533 Of the Pronoun. Definition, ..... Use of the Pronoun, .... Classification of Pronouns, Of Personal Pronouns. Definition ...... Personal Pronouns Nominative. Of Personal Pronouns Objective. Employed as direct objects in the Affirmative Form, " " "in the Interrogative Form, " as indirect objects in the Affirmative Form with the Preposition o, to, . Employed with the Preposition in the Interrogative Form, ...... Of the Personal Pronoun of the Third Person Singu- lar and Plural, applied to Things, Of Personal Pronouns employed as indirect objects with the Preposition de, of, Of him, of her, of it, of them, expressed by en, Personal Pronouns used objectively in the Imperative Mood, ...... Recapitulation of the preceding Rules, Objective Pronouns always used after the Verb, . " " " " before " ■ Objective Personal Pronouns sometimes used with and sometimes without a Preposition, Objective Personal Pronouns never used with a Prep- osition, ..... 131 534 131 535, 536 132 537 132 538 132 539, 540 133 541, 542 133 543 134 544, 545 134 546 to 549 134 550, 551 135 552 136 553, 554 136 555, 556 137 557 137 558 137 559 138 560 138 56 139 566 to 568 140 569 141 570 141 571 to 574 141 575, 576 141 577 142 578 142 579 142 580 XVI CONTENTS. Page. Section. Objective Personal Pronouns used sometimes before and sometimes after the Verb, . . . 138 562 Remarks on lui, nous, vous, le, la, les, y, and en, . 138 563 Of Reflective Pronouns. . 138 564, 565 Of Reciprocal Pronouns. Definition, ..... Reciprocal Pronouns used in reference to two or more persons, . . Of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives. Rules relating to the case when instead of one there are several Pronouns used as Nominatives of the same Verb, ..... Gender of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives, Place of, in Affirmative sentences, " in Interrogative, " " with a Verb in the Subjunctive without a Conjunction expressed before it, " in a quotation, " when the Verb is preceded by any of the following Adverbs: aussi, peut-Ure, encore, toujour s, en vain, vainement, aumoins,du moins, . . . 142 581,582 When Personal Pronouns Nominative are omitted and replaced by the Objective, moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, ..... Use of the Pronouns lui and eux, as Nominative in Distributive sentences, The Nominative Pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, must always refer to a Noun, either Nominative or Ob- jective, employed definitely, but never to both, . ■ Repetition of Personal Pronouns. Je and tu, nous, vous, .... II, elle, Us, elles, ..... Cases when the Personal Pronouns of the Three Persons should be repeated. Exceptions, Of Personal Pronouns employed Objectively. Remark, ...... Objective Pronouns used with a Preposition, " " " in the Imperative Mood, Respective place of Objective Pronouns before the Verb, " " " after the Verb, Conclusion drawn from the preceding Rules, 142 583 to 188 143 589 144 590 to 595 145 596, 597 146 598 to 604 147 605 to 608 148 609, 610 149 611 149 612 to 615 150 616 150 617,618 151 619, 620 CONTENTS. XV11 Page. Section. Moi and toi used as direct objects, . . 151 621 Moi, toi, lui, elk, eux, elks, used as indirect objects, 151 622 Use of the Pronoun soi, . . . 151 623 to 626 Meaning of the Pronoun moi, with the Verb donner, 152 627 Of Personal Pronouns Objective applied to Persons or Things. Le, la, ks, . . . . . . 152 628 Elk, elks, lui, leur, .... 152 629 " " " with the Prepositions de, a, pour, apres en, &c. . . . 153 630, 326 " " " used with the Verb to be, . 153 633, 635 Peculiarity of the Pronouns eux, lui, leur, &c. speaking of things. . . . .154 636 Se and soi, ..... 154 637 to 641 Y, 154, 155 642, 643 En, ...... 155 644 Le, la, les, invariable when referring to any other word than a Noun, .... 155, 165 645 to 650 Of the Adjective Possessive Pronouns. Definition, 157 651,652 Adjective Possessive Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 157 653 to 656 Agreement of the Adjective Possessive Pronoun with the following Noun, ... 159 667, 668 Repetition of these Pronouns, .... 160 669 Use of these Pronouns when speaking of a part of our body or the faculties of our mind, . . 160 670 to 675 Use of these Pronouns with Nouns followed by qui or que, ...... 162 676 Use of these Pronouns in relation to persons, things personified, or things alone, . . . 162 677 to 684 Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns ivhich are never joined to a Noun. Definition, . . . . . . 164 685 to 687 Use of these Pronouns, . . . .165 688 to 693 Of Demonstrative Pronouns. Definition, . ... 165 694 Demonstrative Pronouns always placed before a Noun, 167 695 " " " followed by a Pre- position, or a Relative Pronoun, . . . 169 696 to 702 Demonstrative Pronouns preceded by a Noun, . 169 703, 704 " " standing by themselves, . 170 705 " " referring only to things, taken indefinitely or representing an idea already expressed, ..... 170 706 b* XVlll CONTENTS. Page. Section. Of the Pronoun ce joined to the Verb to be. Used of the Pronoun in reference to Number and Gender, ..... Place of the Pronoun in Interrogative Sentences, . Gallicisms formed with this Pronoun and the Verb to be, Repetition of this Pronoun, When ce should not be expressed, When it is should be expressed by il est or c'est, . Of the Pronoun ce joined to a Relative Pronoun, Of the Relative Pronoun. Definition, ..... Of the Relative Pronoun qui. Use of the Pronoun qui as a Nominative . " " "as Objective, Qui used for celui que, .... Qui governed by Jeand followed by a Personal Pro- noun, ..... Agreement of qui with its antecedent, . . Place of qui in reference to its Antecedent, 1' Cases in which the Antecedent of qui may be un- derstood, Qui used as the Subject of a Proposition either de- terminative or explicative, When the Antecedent of qui is a noun, this noun should always be definite, Of the Relative Pronoun que. Definition of the Pronoun que, Place of the Pronoun que in reference to its Ante- cedent, . Distinction between que, Relative, Exclamative, or Conjunctive, ..... Of the Relative Pronoun Lequel. Definition, 185, 186 763 to 766 Lequel used with the Preposition de, . . 186 767 to 769 "a, . 187 770,771 Of the Relative Pronouns Dont, De qui, Duquel, fyc, and Quoi. Definition, 187 to 189 772 to 779 Of the Relative Pronoun Oti. 189 780 to 782 Of the Absolute Pronouns. Definition, 190 783,784 . 171 707, 708 171 709 . 172 710 172 711, 712 . 172 713, 714 173 715 to 721 . 174 722 to 727 175 728 to 733 176 734 . 176 735 176 736 . 177 737, 738 177 739 77 to 180 740 to 749 180 750 181 751 to 754 182 755, 756 183 183 757 183 758 184, 185 759 to 762 CONTENTS, XIX Page, Section. How to ascertain when qui is an Absolute Pronoun, 190 785 Use of qui as an Absolute Pronoun, . . 190, 191 786 to 791 Of the Absolute Pronouns que and quoi, . 191, 192 792 to 796 44 quel, ... 192 797 44 " oil, d'oii, par oil, . 192 798 Of Indefinite Pronouns. Definition, . . . . . . 193 799 to 801 Of Indefinite Pronouns never joined to a Noun, . 193 802 Of the Pronoun on, . . . 194 to 196 803 to 809 " quelqu'un, . . 196, 197 810 to 815 " quiconque, . . 197 816,817 " chacun, . . 198 to 201 818 to 831 " autrui, . . . 201 832 to 834 " VunVautre, . . 201,203 835 to 838 " personne, . . 202 to 204 839 to 844 " rien, . . . 294, 295 844 to 850 Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 205 851 Of the Pronoun quelque, . . . 205 852 " chaque, . . 206 853 to 856 44 quelconque, . . 207 857 to 859 44 certain, . . 207 860,861 un, 207 862 Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to a Noun, and sometimes not, .... 208 863 Of the Pronoun nul, . . 208, 209 864 to 867 " aucun, . . . 209, 210 868 to 871 pasun, . . 210,211 872 to 876 autre, . . . 211 877,878 44 Vun et V autre; ni Vun ni V autre, ' . 211 to 213 879 to 884 44 mSme, . . . 214,215 885 to 890 44 tel, . . . 215, 216 891 to 894 44 plusieurs, . . 216 895,896 44 tout, . . 216 to 218 897 to 913 Of Indefinite Pronouns followed by que, . 219 914 Of the Pronoun qui que, qui que ce soit, . 219 915 to 917 44 quoi que ce soit, . 219, 220 918 to 920 44 quelque, ... 220 921,922 44 quelque que, . 221 923 to 926 44 tel que, ... 221 927 44 tout que . . 222 928 Of the Verb. Definition, . . . . . 222 to 224 929 to 934 Of Numbers and Persons in the Verbs, 224, 225 935 to 942 XX CONTENTS, Page. Of the Tenses of the Verbs. Definition, ..... Of the Present, " Imperfect, " Preterite Definite, . " Preterite Indefinite, Pluperfect, . " Preterite Anterior, Of other Ways of expressing- the Past, Of the Forms of Verbs which relate to the Past, . Of the Future, .... " Future Past, .... Remarks on the Tenses, Of Moods. Definition, ..... Of the Indicative Mood, " Conditional Mood, " Imperative Mood, " Subjunctive Mood, Of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, " Preterite " " Pluperfect " Of the Infinitive Mood, Of the Present Participle, " Past Participle, . Recapitulation of Moods and Tenses, Of the Different Sorts of Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs, .... Active Verbs, .... Passive Verbs, ..... Neuter Verbs, Reflective Verbs, .... Reciprocal Verbs, .... Impersonal Verbs, .... Of Conjugations. Of Persons and Numbers, Of Different Sorts of Conjugations, Of Middle Verbs. Meaning of, . • . • Of a Choice between the Auxiliary Verbs To have and A List of Verbs always Conjugated with to be, 269 " " to have, 270 Section. 226 943 to 946 227, 228 947 to 952 228 to 230 953 to 960 231 961 232, 233 962 to 964 233 965 234 966 st, 234 967 to 235 968 235, 236 969, 970 236 971 237 972, 973 238 238 974 to 978 239 979 239 to 241 980 to 984 242, 243 985 to 989 243 991,992 244 993 244 994 245 995 245 996 246 997 246 998 247 999 to 1004 , 248 1005, 1006 249 1007 249 1008 249 1009 249 1010 250, 251 1011 to 1015 251 1016 251 1017 252 1018 252, 253 1019 to 1023 253 1024 to 1030 254 To be. 7031 1032 1073 CONTENTS. XXI Page. Section. Remark on the Verb courir, . . . 270 1034 Neuter "Verbs Conjugated with to have or to be, ac- cording to their Signification, . . 271 1035 Verbs, whose Signification is entirely Different when Conjugated with to have or to be, . 272 to 278 1036 to 1048 Agreement of the Verb with its Subject, 278, 279 1049 to 1051 Place of the Subject, . . . . 279 to 282 1052 to 1061 Number and Person of the Verb in regard to its Nominative, . . . . 282 to 285 1062 to 1071 Number of the Verb when its Nominative is a Collective Noun, . . . . 285 to 287 1072 to 1077 Of the Regimen or Object of Verbs, 287 to 289 1078 to 1093 Of the Verb as a Regimen or Object, . 289, 290 1094 to 1097 A List of Verbs governing, without a Preposi- tion, the Infinitive which follows them, . 290 1098 A List of V'erbs governing the Preposition de, of, before the Infinitive which follows them, " " " " the Preposition a, to, Of the Noun as Regimen or Object of a Verb, A Verb has but one Direct Object, A Verb cannot have two Indirect Objects gov- erned by the same Preposition, A Verb should not be followed by an Object dif- ferent from that which it requires, A Noun cannot be governed by two Verbs unless both act upon it in the same Relation, Place of the Object of a Verb, Active Verbs are sometimes used without a Di- rect Object ..... Prepositions governed by Passive Verbs, . Of Pronouns used as Objects of the Verbs Of tfie Use of Moods and Tenses, 301 1119 Cases in which the Subjunctive Mood is em- ployed, . . . . .3 What are the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood or those of the Conditional corresponding to those of the Indicative, Relations existing between the Tenses of the Indicative Mood, .... Case when that which is spoken of is true at all times, ...... When must the Imperfect or Pluperfect be used with the Conjunction si, if. 291 1099 293 1100 294 1101 294, 295 1102,1103 295 ; ,286 1104,1105 296 1106 297 1107 to 1109 298 ,299 1110 to 1114 299 1115 299 1115,1116 300 1118 303 1120 to 1131 304 1132 304 1133 305 1134 305 1135 XX11 CONTENTS 1 . Page. Section. Of the Relation between the Tenses of the Sub- junctive Mood and those of the Indicative and Conditional Moods, . . . 306 to 308 1136 to 1140 A Table, showing the Correspondence between Moods and Tenses, . . .309 to 314 1141 to 1170 Examples illustrating the preceding Rules, 314 to 324 1171 to 1238 Observations on the Subjunctive Mood, . 324 1239 Examples in which the Indicative and Subjunc- tive Moods are alternately used with the same arrangement of words, . . . 325 to 329 1240 to 1243 Further Remarks on the use of the Subjunctive, 329, 330 1244 to 1247 Remarks on the Verbs ilparait, il sernble, . 330, 331 1248 to 1252 " " croire, dire, supposer, sHma- giner, . . 331,332 1253,1254 Conclusion from the preceding Rules, . 332 to 334 1255 to 1257 Observations : Subjunctive is used with quoique, Men que, quoi . . . que, quelque que, quel que, . . 335 1258 Que used for afin que, . . . 335 1259, 1260 Cases when the Subjunctive is used after any of the Pronouns qui, que, dont, duquel, auquel&n&oii, 335, 336 1261 to 1263 Remarks on the Subjunctive Mood, . . 337, 338 1264 to 1267 Doubter and se doubter with the Subjunctive Mood, 339 1268 Of the Use of the Tenses in the Subjunctive Mood : Present, .... 340, 341 1269 to 1275 Preterite, . . . 341 to 343 1276 to 1288 Imperfect, ... 343 to 346 1289 to 1305 Pluperfect, . . . 346, 347 1306 to 1309 Of the Infinitive Mood, .... 348, 349 1310 to 1315 Of the Present Participle, . . . 349 to 352 1316 to 1322 Present Participles never used as Adjectives, . 353 1323 " having for their corresponding Adjectives words sounding alike, but whose Orthography is different, . . 353 1324, 1325 How to distinguish when a word ending in ant is a Present Participle or an Adjective, Of the Past Participle : Used without an Auxiliary Verb, Used with the Verb to be, . " " to have, . •" Reflective Verbs, Remarks and Illustrations of the Rules in re- gard to the Past Participle, Except^, vu, attendu, y compris, suppose, 353, 354 1326 to 1329 354 1330 354, 355 1331,1332 355, 356 1333 to 1337 356 to 358 1338 to 1345 358 358 1346 CONTENTS. XXlll Page. Past Participles of Verbs which are Active or Neuter, according to their Signification, Followed by an Adjective or another Past Participle, Followed by the Nominative of a Verb, Followed by an Infinitive, which is it- self preceded by a Preposition, Followed by an Infinitive without a Preposition, . . . I Of the Verb /aire followed by an Infini- tive, . Preceded and followed by que, Preceded by lui or leur, used instead of le, la, les, .... Preceded by le representing a Member of a Sentence, Preceded by the Pronoun en, Preceded by an Adverb of Quantity, Used with Impersonal Verbs, . Preceded by several Nouns, and agree- ing only with one, With the Adverb le pen . CoHt6 and valu, Remarks on some Reflective Verbs whose Sig- nification does not suffer the Analysis in the ordinary manner ; as, se doubter, s'appercevoir, sattaquer, s'emparer, s'abstenir, s'ichapper, 360 Section. 1347 361 1348 362 1349 362 1350 365 1351 to 1354 366 1355 367 1356 367 1357 368 1358 369 to 372 1359 to 1368 371, 373 1369 to 1372 374 1373 375 1374 to 1376 377, 378 1377, 1378 377 1379 378 1380 Of Prepositions. Definition and Classification, A List of Prepositions according to their Regimen, Governing their Regimen without the help of another, With de, of, With o, to, . Of Prepositions Considered in Regard to their Signification, . Denoting Place, . Order, Union, . Separation, . Opposition, The End, . Cause and Means, A, de, en, Difference between en and dans, 380 380 to 382 1381 to 1391 i, 382 1392 382 1393 383 1394 383 J 395 384 1396 384 1397 385 1398 385 1399 386 1400 386 1401 386 1402 387 1403 387 to 389 1404 to 1407 389, 390 1408 to 1410 XXIV CONTENTS. En joined to a Verb and changing its Significa- tion, ..... 390, Difference between the same words being Ad- verbs or Prepositions .... Difference between prhs and prit, " " au tr avers and a tr avers, Prepositions governing other Prepositions with the aid of on Ellipsis, .... De, . . • . Excepti and hors, Pour, .... Jusque, ..... Par, ..... Of the Prepositions void, voila, . . " " pendant and durant " " devant and avant, A Noun maybe governed by two Prepositions, pro- vided they have the same regimen, Of the Use of the Article with Prepositions. A List of Prepositions requiring the use of the Article before their regimen, Exceptions, ..... Preposition en with and without the Article, Prepositions which sometimes take the Article, sometimes not, ..... Of the Repetition of Prepositions. Of the Place of Prepositions. Of the Preposition de, of. Infraction de, .... Nouns preceded by an Adjective and used in a partitive sense, ..... Indefinite Pronouns, guelque chose, quoi quece soit, rien, &c. with the Preposition de, of, Cardinal Numbers preceded by en and followed by de before an Adjective, De used instead of parmi, " " avant, .... " " depuis, Familiar expressions with de, De with plus and moins used instead of que, De used after plutdt que, De used with valoir mieux, De " " avant que, .... De " V* de crainte and de peur, Page. Section. 391 1411 to 1416 391 1417 to 1423 392 1424 393 1425 393 1426 393 1427 393 1428 393 1429 343 1430 394 1431 394 1432 394 1433 395 1434 395 1435, 1436 395 396 396 396 397 400 400 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 397 1442 to 1444 398 1445 to 1448 399 1449 399 1450 1451 1452 400 1453 401 1454 401 1455 401 1456 401 1457 402 1458 403 1459 403 1460 403 1461 404 1462 CONTENTS. XXV Page. Section. De used expletively, .... 404 1463 Difference between ne f aire que and nefaire que de, 405 1464 Be with rendre justice, avoir tort, avoir raison, &c. 405 1465 Idiomatical expressions in which de should not be used, * . 406 1466 Exceptions, ..... 406 1467 De preceded by lequel des deux, . 407 1468 An Infinitive, being the Nominative of a sentence, should not be preceded by de, 408 1469 Prendre une allee de traverse, . 409 1470 Manquer d'un peu de jugement, 409 1471 Susceptible de, . 410 1472 Of the Preposition a, to, ... 410 1473 Nepour, .... . 410 1474 Trrite contre, .... 410 1475 Hardi a, temeraire de, ingenieux &, . 411 1476 Allier a, 411 1477 Avoir affaire a, avoir affaire de, . 411 1478 Avoir du plaisir a, 411 1479 Avoir egard a, avoir des egards pour, . 412 1480 Manquer d'egards, . . ; 412 1481 Changer, meaning to barter, • 412 1482 Echanger, troquer, 412 1483 Changer, meaning to transform, . . 412 1484 Commuer, to commute, 413 1485 Changer, meaning to leave one thing for another, . 413 1486 Comparer a, and not avec, 413 1487 Par comparaison a, . 413 1488 Condamner a, and not en, 414 1489 Confier a, ... . 414 1490 Se confier, mettre saconfiance, prendre confiance en, 414 1491 Se cramponner a, and not sur, . 414 1492 Grimper sur, .... 415 1493 Deliberer sur, . 415 1494 Distinguer de, . 415 1495 Embarrasser de, pour, . 416 1496 Se familiariser avec, % , 417 1497 Etre familier avec, . 417 1498 Se fier a, to give faith, 417 1499 Se fier sur, to depend upon, . 417 1500 Lier a, to tie, .... 418 1501 Lier avec, to acquaint with, . 418 1502 Marier, joindre, unir a, 418 1503 Meier, a, avec. . 418 1504 XXVI CONTENTS. Page. Section. Mettre apres,for mettre d, 419 1505 Occuper d, de, to occupy, to think of, * . 419 1506, 1507 Amuser, d, de, 420 1508 Participera, . 420 1509 " de, 420 1510 Se plaire d, dans, en, . 420 1511 Prendre a temoin, 420 1512 " pour " . 421 1513 Se ranger de, 421 1514 « a, . 421 1515 Retrancher de, 422 1516 " a u, . . 422 1517 Reunir a, . 422 1518 Rever d, . . . . 422 1519 " de, 423 1520 Rever, without a Preposition, . 423 1521 Saigner du nez, 423 1522 Songer and penser, . 424 1523 Soupirer, 424 1524 to 1526 Soustraire d, . 425 1527 " de, 425 1528 Survivre «, ... . 425 1529 Tomber a terre, par terre, 425 1530 Aimer mieux, . 426 1531 to 1533 Suppression of the Verb before de fo 1- lowed by an Infinitive in Poetry or in animated style, 426 1534 Difference between hors and hors de . 427 1535 Au cas, en cas, 427 1536 to 1538 A defaut, au defaut, . 428 1539 to 1541 Avoir rapport d, avec, 428 1542 to 1544 Au travers de, a travers, . . 429 1545 to 1547 Pres and aupres, . 429,430 1548 to 1550 Vis-a-vis for envers, a Vigard de, ave c, 430 1551 Vers instead of envers, . 430 1552 Par mi, 430 1553 Entre, au mileau, . 431 1554 Sept d huit, 431 1555 Durant, . 432 1556 Avoir vu sur le journal, 432 1557 Void, voila, .... . 432 1558 Avant, devant, . 433,434 1559 to 1565 Avant, used as an Adverb, . . 434 1566 Tout d coup, tout d^un coup, 435 1567 to 1569 Aupres de, au prix de, . 435 1570 En, dans, 435 1571 Page. Section. 436 1572 437 1573 437 1574 437 1575 438 1576 438 1577 438 1578 438 1579 CONTENTS. XXV11 En, with a Noun qualified by an Adjective, En before lequel, .... En before the Plural Article, . En with Singular " Au used instead of en, dans, . En, dans, applied to time, En compared with a, and dans, A used for en or dans, En, dans, h, used with the words ville and campagne, . . . .637 1580, 1581 A used for en and dans before names of cities, .... Pour instead of a, En used idiomatically with some Verbs and changing their meaning, Eu used expletively, Enuser, and not en agir, bien ou mal, Dans improperly used for pour, A tout autre que vous, and not a tout autre qu'a vous, . . . 441 1588 When must a Noun, preceded by de, be used in the Singular or in the Plural ? 442 1589 An Infinitive, preceded by a, represents a passive idea, .... 443 1590 Faire, followed by an Infinitive, cannot be preceded by d,, Jouer a, Jouer de, De used adverbially, A before Nouns to express the use of a preceding Noun, . . . 445 1595 A used to denote the period of time or action, . . . .445 1596 A used to denote circumstances of events or actions, . . . 445 1597 A used to denote possession, office, duty, 445 1598 Remark on the employment of a and de, meaning turn, or right, or duty, . 446 1599 440 1582 440 1583 440 1584 440 1585 441 1586 441 1587 444 1591 444 1592 444 1593 444 1594 Of Adverbs. Definition, ..... 446 to 449 1600 to 1608 Of the different sorts of Adverbs, 449 1609, 1610 First Class, .... 449, 450 1611 to 1613 Second " 450 1614 Formation of Adverbs ending in ment, 450, 451 1615 to 1619 XXV111 CONTENTS. Adverbs of manner not ending in ment, Remarks on Adverbs ending in ment, Third Class, ..... Adverbs of quantity, A list of all the Adverbs classified according to their signification, .... Of the place of the Adverb, Of the negative Adverb ne, What is the place of the negative words ? . When is it that pas should be preferred to point ? " " pas or point should be suppressed ? Of Conjunctions. Page. Section. 451 1620 452 1621 to 1626 453 1627 to 1635 454 1636 to 1642 457 1643 to 1654 465 1655 to 1663 467 1664, 1665 468 1666 to 1668 469 1669 to 1673 471 1674 to 1699 478 1700 to 1706 480 1707 to 1724 489 1725 to 1748 494 1749 494 1750 to 1756 497 1757 to 1761 Definition, ..... Classification, .... Mode of using the Conjunction que, Of the regimen of Conjunctions, Conjunctions governing the Infinitive Mood, " " the Indicative Mood, " " the Subjunctive Mood, 499 1762, 1763 Of Interjections. 500 1764 to 1778 Grammatical Construction. Definition, ..... 503 1779 Construction of Affirmative Sentences, . . 503 1780 to 1788 Interrogative " . . 506 1789 to 1795 " Imperative " . . 509 1796 Of Inversion. Definition, 510 1797 Different kinds of Inversion, . . .511 1798 to 1802 Of the Ellipsis. Definition, 513 1803 Different kinds of Ellipsis, . . .513 1804 to 1806 Of Pleonasm. Definition, ..... 515 1807 Different kinds of Pleonasms, . . . 515 1808 to 1811 Of Syllepsis. Definition, 517 1812 CONTENTS. XXIX Page. Section. Of Grammatical Discordances. Of Discordances . . . . .518 1814, 1815 Of Amphibologies, . . . . 520 1816 to 1820 Of Gallicisms. Different kinds of Gallicisms, . . .521 1821 to 1827 Conjugation of Verbs. Avoir, to have, . . . . 524 1828 Y avoir, there to be, . . . . 528 1829 Etre, to be, . . . . . 530 1830 Aimer, to love, . . . . .434 1831 Remarks on the first Conjugation, . . 539 1832 Conjugation of the Verbs ending in eter, eler, ger, e'er, cer, yer, ier, .... 540 1832 to 1843 Finir, to finish, .... 549 1845 to 1863 Recevoir, to receive, .... 558 1864 Remarks on the Verbs of the Third Conjugation, 563 1865 to 1867 Rendre, to render, .... 564 1868 Remarks on the Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, 568 1869 to 1871 Conjugation of the Passive Verbs, . . 570 Eire aimi, to be loved, .... 570 1872 Of Pronominal Verbs, .... 575 1873 Of Reflective Verbs, ... 576 1874, 1875 Of Reciprocal Verbs, .... 577 1876 A List of Verbs which are Reflective in French, although they do not take this form in English, 578 1877 Conjugation of Reflective Verbs, . . 579 Maimer, to love one's self, . 579 1878 Of the Formation of the Tenses, . 584 to 588 1879 to 1889 A Table, showing the Terminations of all the Tenses and Persons in the Verbs of the Four Conjugations, ..... 589 1890 Conjugation of the Irregular Verbs, . 591 Alphabetical List of oil the Irregular Verbs of the Four Conjugations. A. Abattre, to pull down, to throw down, to feel, S'Abattre, £, to fall down, . Aborder, a, i, to land, (see page 653,) Absoudre, to absolve, S'abstenir, e, to abstain, to refrain, Abstraire, to abstract, Page. like Battre, 627 CC 627 Aimer, 534 Resoudre, 647 Tenir, 612 Traire, 65Z XXX CONTENTS, Accoucher, a, e, to bring forth, (see page 613,) Accourir, a, £, to run to, to hasten to, Accroire, to make one believe, . Accroitre, a, e, to increase, to accrue, to augment S' Accroitre, S, " " " Accueillir, to welcome, .... Acheter, to buy, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Achever, to achieve, to finish, (see page 547, sect 1841,) . . Acqudrir, to acquire, .... Adjoindre, to associate, to adjoin, . Admettre, to admit, .... Alidner, to alienate, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) AlUguer, to allege, " " " 1842,) Alter ■, £, to go, .... S'en Alter, e, to go away, Amener, to bring, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) Amonceler, to heap, ( " " " 1842,) . Apparaitre, a, e, to appear, Appartenir, to belong, . Appeler, to call, (see page 540,) . Apprendre, to learn, Appuyer, to support, Arriver, S, to arrive, (see page 654,) Assaillir, to assault, Asseoir, ) . , M . . * /'to sit down, S' Asseoir, e, > Assoir, > ., , M , . . > to sit down, . S' Assoir, t, > Astreindre, to subject, . S'Astreindre, 6, to confine one's self, Atteindre, to overtake, to reach, Atteler, to put to, (see page 540,) Attraire, to allure, to entice, Avancer, to advance, (see page 541,) Aveindre, to take out, to fetch out, Avenir, i, to happen, to chance, Avoir, to have, . Y Avoir, there to be, B. Battre, to beat, to strike, Se Battre, i, to fight, Blasphemer, to blaspheme, (see page 548, sect 1841,) . Boire, to drink, Page. Aimer, 534 Courir, 603 Croire, 632 ;, Croitre, 633 (< 633 Cueillir, 604 Aimer, 534 a 534 Acquerir, 600 Joindre, 638 Mettre, 640 Aimer, 534 c< 534 Aller, 592 S'enAller, 593 Aimer, 534 u 534 Paraitre, 643 Tenir, 612 Appeler, 540 Prendre, 645 Employer, 541 Aimer, 534 Assaillir 601 S' Asseoir, 616 Assoir, 617 Joindre, 638 u 638 (1 638 Appeler, 540 Traire, 651 Percer, 541 Joindre, 638 Tenir, 612 Avoir, 524 Y Avoir, 528 Battre, 627 ti 627 Aimer, 534 Boire, 628 CONTENTS. XXXI Page. Bouillir, to boil, ..... Bouillir, 602 Bourreler, to torment, (see page 549, sect. 1843,) Aimer, 534 Brake, to bray, ..... Traire, 651 Bruiner, to drizzle, .... Neiger, 599 Bruire, to roar, ..... Reduire, 646 C. Cacheter, to seal, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Aimer, 534 Ceindre, to gird, ..... Joindre, 638 Ctler, to conceal, (see page 548, sect. 1842,) Aimer, 534 CXUbrer, to celebrate ( " " ) «< 534 Cesser, «, i, to cease, (see page 653,) tt 534 Chanceler, to stagger, ( " 548, sect. 1843,) << 534 Changer, a, S, to changer, (see pages 540 and 653,) Venger, 540 Choir, e, to fall, (see page 653,) . Dechoir, 618 Circonscrire, to circumscribe, . Ecrire, 635 Circonvenir, to circumvent, Tenir, 612 Clore, to shut, to close, Clore, 629 Colleter, to collar, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Aimer, 534 Combattre, to fight, .... Battre, 627 Commettre, to commit, .... Mettre, 640 Comparaitre, to appear, .... Parahre, 643 Complaindre, to complain to, . Joindre, 638 Complaire, to comply, .... Plaire, 644 Se Complaire, £, to delight, u 644 Comprendre, to understand, Prendre, 645 Compromettre, to compromise, . Mettre, 640 Se Compromettre, £, to expose one's self, . " 640 Conclure, to conclude, .... Conclure, 630 Concourir, to concur, .... Courir, 603 Conduire, to conduct, .... Reduire, 646 Confire, to preserve, .... Confire, 630 Congeler, to congeal, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) Aimer, 534 Conjoindre. to conjoin, .... Joindre, 638 ConnaUre, to know, . • . . Paraitre, 643 Conqu^rir, to conquer, .... Acquerir, 600 Consentir, to consent, .... Sentir, 610 Construire, to construct, to build, . Reduire, 646 Contenir, to contain, .... Tenir, 612 Se Contenir, £, to refrain, .... t< 612 Contraindre, to constrain, . . : Joindre, 638 Contredire, (see sect. 1935,) Dire, 634 Contrefaire, to counterfeit, Faire, 636 Contrevenir, to infringe, .... Tenir, 612 Convaincre, to convince, Vaincre, 652 Convenir, a, i, to suit, to fit, (see page 653,) Tenir, 612 XXXII CONTENTS. Page. Coqueter, to coquet, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Aimer, 534 Corrompre, to corrupt, .... Rompre, 649 Coudre, to sew, .... Coudre, 631 Courir, to run, ..... Courir, 603 Couvrir, to cover, .... Ouvrir, 609 Craindre, to fear, ..... Joindre, 638 Croire, to believe, .... Croire, 632 Se Croire, £, to rely upon one's own judgment, . " 632 Croitre, a, S, to grow, (see page 653,) . . Croitre, 633 Cueillir, to gather, . . . . Cueillir, 604 Quire, to cook, to bake, .... Reduire, 646 Debattre, to debate, .... Se Debattre, e, to struggle, . . . Decacheter, to unseal, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Ddcampcr, a, g, to decamp, (see page 653,) Bleeder, S, to die, (see page 548, sect. 1842,) Diceler, to betray, to detect, (see page 548, sect 1843,) Dechoir, a, i, to decay, Ddcolleter, to uncover the neck, (see page sect. 1840,) .... Diconfire, to defeat totally, Ddconstruire, to take to pieces, Decoudre, to rip, Ddcouvrir, to discover, Decrire, to describe, Ddcroitre, a, S, to decrease, (see page 653,) Dedire, to disown, (see sect. 1964,) Se Dddire, e, to retract, ( " ) Deduire, to deduct, Defaillir, to fail, to faint, . D&faire, to undo, to defeat, Se Defaire, e, to part with, to get rid of, . Degeler, to thaw, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) Dtjoindre, to disjoin, Dimentir, to contradict, to belie, . Se Dementir, e, to belie one's self, Dimettre, e, to disjoint, Se Ddmettre, £ , to resign , Demeurer, a, £, to dwell, to live, to remain, page 653,) .... Ddpartir, to distribute, to share, Se Ddpartir, 6, to depart, (see page 653,) . Depecer, to carve, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) 547 Battre, u Aimer, a (« (« Dechoir, Aimer, Confire, Reduire, Coudre, Ouvrir, Ecrire, Croitre, Dire, Reduire, Faillir, Faire, a Aimer, Joindre, Sentir, (C Mettre, Aimer, Sentir, d Aimer, 627 627 534 534 534 534 618 534 630 646 631 609 635 633 634 634 646 606 636 636 534 638 610 610 640 640 534 610 610 534 CONTENTS. XXX11I Dttruire, to destroy, Se Detruire, e, to kill one's self, Dipeindre, to describe, Ddplaire, to displease, .... Se Dtylaire, i, to be displeased with, Ddpourvoir, to deprive, De"sapprendre, to unlearn, . Descendre, a, t, to descend, (see page 653,) Desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill-office, Deteindre, to discolor, Diteler, to unlearn, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) Ddtenir, to detain, .... trui, mt Devenir, e, to become, . D6vetir, e, to strip, to undress, Se Devitir, t, to leave off part of one's clothes, Dire, to say, to tell, Disconvenir, &, to deny, (see page 653,) , . Discourir, to discourse, Disjoindre, to disjoin, .... Disparaitre, a, e, to disappear, (see page 653,) Dissoudre, to dissolve, Se Dissoudre, 6, to dissolve, to be dissolved, . Distraire, to distract, to divert, Dormir, to sleep, .... E. S'Ebattre, e, to take one's pleasure, Echapper, a, 6, to escape, (see page 653,) Echoir, i, to happen, to chance, to fall to, to injure Eclairer, to lighten, . Echouer, a, i, to run aground, to miscarry, (see page 653,) Eclore, e, to come to life, to hatch, to blossom, (see page 653,) .... Econduire, to refuse, to discard in a polite manner Ecrire, to write, .... Elire, to elect, to choose, . Embellir, a,i, to embellish, (see page 653,) Emetlre, to express, to set forth, Emmener, to take away, (see page 548, sect. 1842, Emoudre, to sharpen, Emouvoir, to move, . S'Emouvoir, i, to be moved, Empirer, a, i, to grow worse, to make worse, (see page 653,) Employer, to employ, (see page 540,) Page. Joindre, 638 Plaire, 644 it 644 Pourvoir, 622 Prendre, 645 Vendre, 564 Servir, 611 Joindre, 638 Aimer, 534 Tenir, 612 Reduire, 646 a 646 Tenir, 612 Vetir, 614 it 614 Dire, 634 Tenir, 612 Courir, 603 Joindre, 638 Paraitre, 643 Resoudre, 647 a 647 Traire, 651 Dormir, 605 Battre, 627 Aimer, 534 Dechoir, 618 Neiger, 599 Aimer, 534 Clore, 629 Reduire, 646 Ecrire, 635 Lire, 639 Finir, 549 Mettre, 640 Aimer, 534 Moudre, 641 Mouvoir, 620 (C 620 Aimer, 534 Employer, 541 XXXIV CONTENTS Empreindre, to imprint, Enceindre, to enclose, . Enclore, to surround, Encourir, to incur, Endormir, to cause to sleep S'Endormir, S, to fall asleep, Enduire, to plaster, Enfreindre, to transgress, S'Enfuir, to run away, Enjoindre, to enjoin, S'enqudrir, to inquire, S'Entremettre, to interpose, Entrer, a, e, to enter, (see page 653,) Entreprendre, to undertake, Entretenir, to entertain, S'Entrelenir, 6, to discourse with, . Entrevoir, to glimpse at, S'Entrevoir, &, to see each other, . Entrouvrir, to open a little, Envoy er, to send, . S'Eprendre, i, to be smitten, Equivaloir, to be equivalent, Espdrer, to hope, Essay er, to try, Eteindre, to extinguish, Etinceler, to sparkle, Etiqueter, to label .E^re, to be, . . Eteindre, to bend close, Exclure, to include, Expirer, a, e, to expire, (see page 653,) Extraire, to extract, Faillir, to fail, . Faire, to do, to make, Falloir, to be necessary (must) , Feindre, to feign, Ficeler, to tie with pack-thread, (see page 548, sect 1843,) . Fleurir, to blossom, to flourish, Forclore, to debar, . Forfaire, to trespass, JVire, to fry, jPttir, to run away, to fly, Joindre, Page. 638 t( 638 Clore, 629 Courir, 603 Dormir, 605 (< 605 Reduire, 646 Joindre, 638 Fuir, 607 Joindre, 638 Acquerir, Mettre, 600 # 640 Aimer, 534 Prendre, 645 Tenir, 612 « 612 Voir. 626 (c 626 Otivrir, 609 Employer, Prendre, 541 645 Valoir, 625 Aimer, 534 Employer, Joindre, 541 638 Aimer, 534 u 534 Etre, 530 Joindre, 638 Conclure, 630 Aimer, 534 Traire, 651 Faillir, 606 Faire, 636 Falloir, 619 Joindre, 638 Aimer, 534 Fleurir, 607 Clore, 629 Faire, 636 Frire, 637 Fuir, 607 CONTENTS. XXXV G. Geindre, to whine, to moan, Geler, to freeze, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) Gesir, to lie, Grasseyer, to lisp, (see page 540,) Greler, to hail, . Gresiller, to rime, .... H. Hair, to hate, . Harceler, to torment, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) Hypothtquer, to mortgage, (see page 548, sect. 1842,) I. Importer, to matter, to import, . Induire, to induce, . Inquirer, to make uneasy (see page 548, section, 1842,) Inscrire, to inscribe, .... S' Inscrire, i, to enter one's name on a register, . Instruire, to instruct, .... Interdire, to interdict, . . . . Interrompre, to interrupt, (see page 653,) Intervenir, £, to intervene, (see page 653,) Introduire, to introduce, • J. Jeter, to throw, to cast, (see page 540,) Se jeter, e, to cast one's self, (see page 540,) Joindre, to join, .... Se joindre, to unite, . Lecher, to lick, (see page 548, section 1842,) Lire, to read, ..... Luire, to shine, to glitter, M. Maintenir, to maintain, Se Maintenir, t, to keep up, Malfaire, to do mischief, Maudire, to curse, (see page 634, section 1965,) Meconnaitre, to disown, to forget, to neglect, &c. Se MiconnaUre, e, to forget one's self, Midire, to slander, (seepage, 636, section 1963,) Page. Joindre, 638 Aimer, 534 Gesir, 608 Employer, 541 Neiger, 599 u 599 Hair, 608 Aimer, 534 534 Neiger, 599 Aimer, 534 Reduire, 646 Aimer, 534 Ecrire, 635 tt 635 Reduire, 646 Dire, 634 Rompre, 649 Tenir, 612 Reduire, 646 Jeter, 540 <( 540 Joindre, 638 « 638 Aimer, 534 Lire, 639 Reduire, 646 Tenir, 612 a 612 Faire, 636 Dire, 634 Paraitre, 643 a 643 Dire, 634 XXX VI CONTENTS, Mener, to lead, (see page 548, section 1841,) Mentir, to lie, to tell a lie, Se Me" prendre, 6, to mistake, Mettre, to put, to place, Monter, a, i, to mount, ascend, (see page 653,) Moudre, to grind, (grain,) Mourir, S, to die, Se Mourir, i, to be dying, Mouvoir, to move, .... Se Mouvoir, e, to move. N. Naitre, £, to be born, (see page 653,) Nigliger, to neglect, (see page 540,) Neiger, to snow, Niveler, to level, (see page 548, section 1843,) Nuire, to hurt, to do an ill office, Q. Obtenir, to obtain, Offrir, to offer, S' Offrir, i, to offer one's self, Oindre, to anoint, Omettre, to omit, Ouir, to hear, Ouvrir, to open, P. Paitre, to graze, . . . Parfaire, to perfect, .... Paraitre, to appear, .... Parcourir, to run over, Partir, a,e, to set out, (see page 653,) Parvenir, i, to arrive, to succeed, to reach, (see page 653,) ..... Payer, a, i, to pay, (see page 653,) Payer, to pay, .... Peindre, to paint, .... Peler, to peal, see page 548, section 1843,) Pinitrer, to penetrate, (see page 548, section 1842,) Perir, a, i, to perish, (see page 653,) Permettre, to permit, .... Plaindre, to pity, .... Se Plaindre, e, to complain, Plaire, to please, .... Pleuvoir, to rain, .... Page. Aimer, 534 Sentir, 610 Prendre, 645 Mettre, 640 Aimer, 534 Moudre, 641 Mourir, 608 a 608 Mouvoir, 620 <( 620 Naitre, 641 Venger, 540 Neiger, 599 Aimer, 534 Reduire, 646 Tenir, 612 Ouvrir, 609 (< 609 Joindre, 538 Mettre, 640 OuTr, 609 Ouvrir, 609 Paitre, 642 Faire, 636 Paraitre, 653 Courir, 603 Sentir, 610 Tenir, 612 Aimer, 534 Employer, 541 Joindre, 638 Aimer, 534 c« 534 Finir, 549 Mettre, 640 Joindre, 638 <( 638 Plaire, 644 Pleuvoir, 621 CONTENTS. Poindre, to dawn, to shoot forth, Possider, to possess, (see page 548, section 1842,) P oursuivre, to pursue, Pourvoir, to provide, Se Pourvoir, £, to provide one's self, Pouvoir, to be able, . . Prddire, to foretell, (see page 634, section 1965,) Prendre, to take, Prescrire, to prescribe, Se Prescrire, i, to lose by prescription, Pressentir, to foresee, Prdvaloir, to prevail, Se Privaloir, i, to take advantage, Privenir, to anticipate, to prevent, Prevoir, to foresee, Produire, to produce, Se Produire, S, to put one's self forward, Projeter, to project, Promettre, to promise, SePromeltre, e, to hope for, Promouvoir, to promote, Proscrire, to proscribe, Provenir, to proceed from, Q. Qutrir, to go and fetch, to send for, . R. Rabattre, to abate, to beat down, Se Rabattre, i, to turn about, Racheier, to buy again, (see page 548, section 1841,) Rajeunir, a, i, become young, (see page 653,) Rapiecer, to piece, (see page 548, section 1842,) Rappeler, to recall, (see page 540,) Rapprendre, to learn again, Rasseoir, to set down again, Se Rasseoir, e, to sit down again, Rebattre, to beat again, .... Reboire, to drink again, Rebouillir, to boil again, Recacheter, to seal again, (see page 547, section 1840,) Receler, to secrete, to receive stolen goods, (page 548, section 1842,) Rechoir, to fall again, .... Reclure, to shut up, .... Reconduire, to conduct back again, d XXXVU Page. Poindre, 645 Aimer, 534 Suivre, 650 Pourvoir, 622 tt 622 Pouvoir, 623 Dire, 634 Prendre, 645 Ecrire, 635 << 635 Sentir, 610 Valoir, 625 tt 625 Tenir, 612 Voir, 626 Reduire, 646 « 646 Jeter, 540 Mettre, 640 cc 640 Mouvoir, 670 Ecrire, 635 Tenir, 612 Acquerir, 600 Battre, 627 <« 627 Aimer, 534 Finir, 549 Aimer, 534 Appeler, 540 Prendre, 645 Asseoir, 616 c' 616 Battre, 627 Boire, 628 Bouillir, 602 Aimer, 534 (< 534 Dechoir, 618 Conclure, 530 Reduire, 646 XXXV111 CONTENTS. Reconnaitre, to recognize, Se Reconnaitre, S, to recognize one's self, Reconquirir, to reconquer, Reconstruire, to build again, Recoudre, to sew again, Recourir, to have recourse, Recouvrir, to cover again,. Ricrire, to write over again, Recroitre, to grow again, Recueillir, to gather, to reap, Se Recueillir, £, to recollect one's self, Recuire, to bake again, Redefaire, to undo again, Redescendre, a, 6, to come down again, (see page 653,) Redevenir, e, to become again, Redire, to say again, Redormir, to sleep again, Reduire, to reduce, Se Rdduire, i, to amount to, Refaire, to make again, Se Refaire, e, to recover, Refleurir, to blossom again, Refrire, to fry again, Regeler, to freeze again, (see page 549, section 1843,) Rigler, to regulate, (see page 548, section 1842,) Regner, to reign, (see page 548, section 1842,) Reintegrer, to reinstate, (see page 548, section 1842,) Rejoindre, to join again, Relive, to read over again, Reluire, to glitter, to shine, Remettre, to remit, to replace, Se Remettre, e, to recover, S'en Remettre, c, to refer a thing to somebody, Remoudre, to grind over again, Remonter, a, 6, to ascend again, (see page 653,) Renaitre, to revive, .... Rendormir, to fall to sleep again, Se Rendormir, i, to fall asleep again, . Renduire, to plaster anew, ]R.enouveler , to renew, (see page 548, section 1843,) Rentraire, to darn, .... Rentrer, a, e, to reenter, (see page 653,) Renvoyer, to send back, .... Repaitre, to feed, .... Se Repaitre, to delight in, ... Reparaitre, to reappear, Paraitre, Acquerir, Reduire, Coudre, Courir, Ouvrir, Ecrire, Croitre, Cuiellir, cc Reduire, Faire, Rendre, Tenir, Dire, Dormir, Reduire, Faire, << Fleurir, Frire, Neiger, Aimer, Joindre, Lire, Reduire, Mettre, Moudre, Aimer, Naitre, Dormir, (C Reduire, Aimer, Traire, Aimer, Employer, Pah re, (C Paraitre, Page. 643 643 600 646 631 603 609 635 633 604 604 646 636 564 612 634 605 646 646 636 636 607 637 599 534 534 534 638 639 646 640 640 640 641 534 641 605 605 646 534 651 534 540 642 642 643 CONTENTS. XXXIX Repartir, S, to setoff again, Repasser, a, e, to pass again, (see page 653,) . Repeindre, to paint again, Se Repenlir, e, to repent, Reprendre, to retake, Se Reprendre, e, to correct one's self, Reproduire, to reproduce, Requerir, to request, Resoudre, to resolve, . Se Rdsoudre, e, to resolve, Ressentir, to resent, " . Se Ressentir, S, to feel still, Ressortir, a, e, to go out again, Se Ressouvenir, e, to remember, Rester, a, S, to remain, (see page 653,) Restreindre, to restrain, Resulter, a, e, to follow, to result, (see page 653,) Retenir, to retain, to detain, Se Retenir, e, to forbear, to stop, Retomber, S, to fall again, (see page, 653,) Retourner, e, to return, " " Retraire, to redeem an estate, Revaloir, to repay, . Rivder, to reveal, to disclose, (see page 548, sec tion 1842,) Revenir, e, to come back, (see page 653,) Revetir, to clothe, to dress, Se Revetir, e, to put on one's clothes, Revivre, to revive, Revoir, to see again, Rire, to laugh, jSs Rire, e, to laugh at, Rompre, to break, -Se Rompre, e, to break, Rouvrir, to reopen, . S. Saillir, to project, to gush out, Saluer, to salute, to bow, Satisfaire, to satisfy, Savoir, to know, Secourir, to succour, to help, Se Secourir, i, to help one another, Siduire, to seduce, Semer, to sow, (see page 548, section 1841,) Sentir, to feel, to smell, Seoir, to fit, to fit well, Page. Sentir, 610 Aimer, 534 Joindre, 638 $entir, 610 Prendre, 645 cc 645 . Reduire, 646 Acquerir, 600 Resoudre, 647 a 647 . Sentir, 610 << 610 . « 610 Tenir, 612 Aimer, 534 Joindre, 638 Neiger, 599 Tenir, 612 cc 612 Aimer, cc 534 534 Traire, 651 Yaloir, 625 Aimer, 534 Tenir, 612 Vetir, 614 cc 614 Vivre, 652 Voir, 626 Rire, 648 " 648 Rompre, 646 cc 649 Ouvrir, 609 Assaillir, 601 Prier, 540 Faire, 636 Savoir, 623 Courir, 603 cc 603 Reduire, 646 Aimer, 534 Sentir, 610 Seoir, 624 xl CONTENTS. Servir, to serve, to be in use, Se Servir, £, to make use of, Sortir, a, i, to go out, Souffrir, to suffer, Soumettre, to submit, Se Soumettre, i, to submit one's self, Sourire, to smile, Souscrire, to subscribe, Soustraire, to subtract, Se Soustraire, i, to avoid, to escape, Soutenir, to maintain, to support, Se Soutenir, £, to stand up, Se Souvenir, i, to remember, Subvenir, to assist, to relieve, Suffire, to be sufficient, Suivre, to follow, S'en Suivre, i, to follow from, Surcroitre, to grow out, Surfaire, to exact, to ask too much, Surprendre, to surprise, Surseoir, to supersede, to put off, Surveniri, to befall, to happen, (see page 653,) Survivre, to survive, T. Taire, to conceal, to keep secret, Se Taire, 6, to keep silent, Teindre, to die, to color, Tenir, to hold, Se Tenir, $, to stand, S'en Tenir, t, to abide by, Tomber, &, to fall, (see page 653,) Tonner, to thunder, Traduire, to translate, to bring to justice, Traire, to milk, Transcrire, to transcribe, Transmettre, to transmit, Tressaillir, to start up, Trompeter summon with the sound of a trum pet, (see page 547, section 1840,) V. Vaincre, to vanquish, to conquer, Valoir, to be worth, Valoir mieux , to be better, Tenir, &, to come, (see page 653,) Page. . Servir, 611 CC 611 . Sentir, 610 Ouvrir, 609 . Mettre, 640 (C 640 . Rire, 648 Ecrire, 635 . Traire, 650 (C 650 Tenir, 612 H 612 . « 612 St 612 . Confire, 630 Suivre, 650 . a 650 Croitre, 633 . Faire, 636 Prendre, 645 . Surseoir, 624 ) Tenir, 612 • Vivre, 652 PI aire, 644 si 644 Joindre, 638 , Tenir, 612 <« 612 tt 612 Aimer, 534 Neiger, 599 Reduire, 646 Traire, 651 Ecrire, 635 Mettre, 640 Assaillir, 601 trum- Aimer, 534 Vaincre, 652 , Valoir, 625 • it Tenir, 625 612 CONTENTS. Xll Veiir, to clothe, to dress, Se Vitir, £, to clothe one's self, Vieillir, a, S, to grow old, (see page 653,) Vivre, to live, . Voir, to see, ..... Se Voir, g, to visit one another, Vouloir, to be willing, .... Regimen of Adjectives. A list of Adjectives always followed by the Prepo- sition d, to, Adjectives followed by the Preposition de, of, Adjectives which change their object when employ- ed before a Noun or a Verb, . Page. V^tir, 614 (< 614 Finir, 549 Vivre, 652 Voir, 626 ea femme il partagea woman he partook a ame a in farm las tired e je u in tub 1 ea rougedtre reddish "ai faisons let us make ai je feral I will make e verite a in fame * eai je partageai I partook ee ann^e year _ae aesophage aesophagus "ai m'mable amiable aie que j 'aie that I may have e pere a in fare ei veine vein eai _ais iplaie wound j'aimeraw I would love e in there, e etre where, when , pronounced ^ emphatically ai aine eldest i A 1 image fimes i in image ee in eel ~i ie imitation parto'e imitation part encore o in encore 'au eo tfwrore flageolet aurora flagelet i au ffwtomne autumn 6 cote o in clover < eau manteau cloak I .eo geole jail no correspond- | eu gagewre wager u pur ing sound in \ eue eue had (feminine) English. { ue pointwe sharp u flute ee u milr ripe 10 FRENCH GRAMMAR. eu jeune u in cuff " A eu jeune no correspond- ing sound in < ceu CEU ceuvre ncewd work knot English. eue queue tail ou couleur oo in too ou cowleur color ou voute oo in tool $ ao{1 aout August i i oue joue jaw "am ambition ambition an in hang < aon Saon Saon (n. of city) an anterieur ean mangeant eating em empirique empiric en encore encore "aim iaim hunger ain demmVi to-morrow in infamie en in strength < ein im pemdre impudent to paint impudent ym sympathie sympathy _y n syntaxe syntax ' aon xaon [geons ox-fly on profond on in front < eon nous man- we eat om sombre sombre un commun un in sung. \ eun 1 um a jewn emprwmt fasting loan 43. These simple sounds are sometimes found following each other in words, two by two ; the sound, produced by this coalition, is called diphthong. In diphthongs the two simple sounds are heard distinctly, although produced by a single emission of the voice. 44. The following table will show all the diphthongs of the French language, with the original sounds of which they are composed. Simple sounds, of Diphthongs. which the diph- Examples of the Signification of the preceding thongs are com- diphthongs in words in English, posed. French. ia i-a diacre deacon ia i-a galimatias nonsense iai } je mandiai I begged ie > i-e piud P il y ; iez J vous parlies you spoke iai } je parlais I spoke ie I i-e piece piece ie i imel honey io i-o Hole vial iau i-6 im'awler to mew iu i-u relmre binding ieu i-eu rek'ewr book-binder ieu ) . A lieu place ieue ( i-eu lieue league PRONUNCIATION. 11 iou i-ou chioume the crew of a galley- ian > ien 5 i-an -pliant bending patience bien patience ien i-in well ion i-on consolation consolation oi o-a boire to drink °' 1 oie ! boite box o-a lamproie lamprey eoi { n&geoiie fin oe J moelle marrow oin ou-in soin care oua ou-a wuage wheel-work oua ou-a nous joudmes we played oueu ou-eu \oueui gambler oue ~\ ]ouei to play oue 1 ouee ( ou-e ]0u6 \ouie played ouai J je jouai I played oue ) ouai 5 ou-e fouet je jouais whip I was playing [dollars oui ) ouie ) louis a gold piece, of about five OU-1 Vouie the hearing oueu ou-eu boueux muddy ouan ) ouen > louange praise ou-an Rouen Rouen, a city of France ouin ou-in babouin baboon ouon ou-on nous jowons we play ua ou-a lingwal lingual ua u-a mwable mutable ua u-a nous pudmes we did stink ueu u-eu sueui sweet uai "] je ipuai I did stink ue 1 , pwer to stink ue f u-e pwd stunk uee J nu6e cloud ue ) uai 5 r fiuet slender u-e je pwais I was stinking ui u-i cmsse thigh uie u-i ipluie rain uo u-6 impetwosite impetuosity ueu u-eii impetwewx impetuous owl uan ) uen ) chat-hwant u-an influence influence uin u-in yuin June uon u-on nous pwons we stink With the assistance of the preceding table, the student will be able to pronounce all the sounds of the diphthongs ; but we cannot insist too much upon the necessity of acquiring a cor- rect idea of them from the mouth of a teacher. 45. There are in French some terminations which present great difficulty to English pupils. We will give a list of them, with some slight indications as to their pronunciation, insisting 12 FRENCH GRAMMAR. always upon the necessity of a direct communication with teacher in order to obtain a correct idea of them. French words French terminations. in which thei are found. ' ble cable bre marSre cle (sound of kle) miracfe ere (sound of kre) acre dre defence fle muffle fre offre gle angle gre maigre pie yeuple pre ipiopre tre poutfre Corresponding sounds in English. at the end of a word sounds as bl at the beginning of bl-aze br-ace cl-ever cr-edit dr-ama fl-eet fr-ont gl-ue gr-ound pl-easure pr-une tr-ace OF PUNCTUATION, AND OTHER SIGNS USED IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 46. The marks of Punctuation are similar in French and in English, as well as the other signs used in writing ; they are called by the following names : Comma, , Semicolon, ; Colon, Period, Note of interrogation, ? Note of admiration, or exclamation, ! The parenthesis ( ) The dash, — A quotation, " " virgule. point, et virgule, deux points. un point. point oV interrogation. point oV admiration, ou d? exclamation, parenthese. le trait de separation, guillemets. 47. Cedilla, (p) cedille, gives to the c the sound of ss. 48. Diaeresis, ( •• ) trema, placed above the vowels e, i, u, to indicate that these vowels do not form a diphthong with the next vowel, but should be pronounced by themselves ; as, po'eme, hair, Saul PUNCTUATION. 13 49. The hyphen, ( - ) trait d'union ; this sign is used to con- nect together, first, compound words, as, arc-en-ciel ; second, the personal pronouns nominative and the verb, when placed after the verb in interrogative sentences, as, aime-la, aimons- nous ; third, the objective pronouns and the verb in the imper- ative mood, as, ecoute-moi, parle-lui ; fourth, it is also used, when, at the end of a line, a word being too long must be di- vided, and the latter part written in the next line. 50. The apostrophe ( y ) V 'apostrophe , which is used to show the elision of a vowel when followed by another vowel, or by an h mute ; as, Phomme, V etude, instead of le homme, la etude. This sign is employed merely for the sake of euphony. elision. 51. The apostrophe ( ' ), as we have just stated, is placed between two words to show the suppression of the vowel end- ing the first word before another vowel or an h mute. 52. This suppression is called elision, and causes the two words to be pronounced together, as if forming but one. The only vowels which suffer elision are, a, e, i. 53. This last vowel, t, is suppressed only in one word, si, if, when this word comes before the personal pronouns nominative of the third persons singular and plural, il, Us ; thus, instead of writing, 54. Si il, for if he, or si Us, for if they, the letter i is sup- pressed in the word si, and we write, sHl, s'ils. 55. The letters a, e, are suppressed in the following words, when the next word begins with a vowel or an h mute. le, meaning, the, him, it, P. la, " " her, " l\ fa *« I, y. me, u me, m\ te, " thee, t\ se, " himself, herself, itself, themselves, s\ 14 FRENCH GRAMMAR. ce, meaning, , this or that, it, c\ de, of, from, d\ ne, u not, n\ que, u that, which, whom, qu\ parceque, " because, parcequ? quoique, u although, quoiqu\ puisque " since, puisqu\ jus que , " until, jusqu\ vuque, u since, vugu\ desque, u as soon as, desqu\ quelque, " some, fyc, quelqu\ entre, u between, entr\ 56. In this last word, entre, the e final may be suppressed or not before another word beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; thus, we may write, entr'eux or entre eux, enWautres or entre autres, &c. 57. The words, Ze, la, ce, used as objective or nominative pronouns, do not suffer the elision, when placed after the verb, in interrogative sentences or in the imperative mood, and be- fore words beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; thus, we say, apportez le, or la, ici, bring it here ; est-ce a lui a parler 1 is it for him to speak ? OF GENDERS. 58. Gender, in all languages, marks the difference between the sexes. » 59. All that are of the male sex are said to belong to the masculine gender. 60. All that are of the female sex are said to be of the fem- inine gender. 61. This part of the language would present no difficulty to the student, if all the words to which the genders are applied were either male or female ; but inanimate objects have no sex, and yet have a gender. In English, this gender is called neu- GENDERS. 15 ter ; but in French there is no neuter gender, and the whole family of nouns are either masculine or feminine. How, then, can a foreigner distinguish which of the two he must apply to things ? There are no satisfactory rules to guide him in this difficult study ; time, practice, and a good dictionary are the only means which may assist him efficiently. Some grammarians pretend to have established rules which they call complete ; but the result of their efforts has only proved the inutility of the attempt. Where, in order to estab- lish a rule, we have to admit nearly as many exceptions as there are cases which conform to the rule, there is no rule, and it is far better to tell the student, at once, that he must arm himself with patience and perseverance, than to delude him in an undertaking, which, after all his efforts and loss of time, will leave him, perhaps, further from the point he wished to gain than he was before beginning the study of this difficult matter. But, although we proscribe, as fruitless, the modes of gaining a correct knowledge of the genders of the French language, through the medium of mere barren rules, we admit that there are indications which may be of great service to foreigners, and we will give them here, but only as matters for reference, and not to be committed to memory. We repeat, that a good dic- tionary is the only sure guide on this subject. 62. The terminations of words are distinguished, by gram- marians, as either masculine or feminine. 63. Words ending with an e mute are said to be of the fem- inine termination. 64. Words not ending with an e mute are said to be of the masculine termination. These denominatives, however, are far from being of a gen- eral application ; but, before entering upon the details of the exceptions, we will speak of the nouns which, denoting spe- cies, have a fixed gender, independently of their termination. 65. First ; God, angels, cherubim, and seraphim are of the masculine gender. 66. Second ; all names of living beings, and all proper names of men and women, are of the gender of the sex which they represent. 16 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 67. When, however, the same noun is employed to desig- nate both the male and the female in animals, this noun takes the gender of its termination, with the following exceptions. 68. First ; masculine nouns with feminine terminations. Aigle, eagle Bievre, heaver Buffle, buffalo Capricorne Capricorn Crabe, crab Congre, conger cygne, swan. dromadaire, dromedary. lievre, hare. merle, blackbird. rouge-gorge, red-breast. zebre, zebra. 69. Second ; feminine nouns with a masculine termination. Fourmi, ant souris, mouse. perdrix, partridge chauve-souris, bat. 70. Third ; all diminutive names of animals, whenever the animals of both sexes are called by the same denomination, are of the masculine gender, whatever may be the original noun from which they are derived ; as, Un lionceau, a young lion. Un souriceau, a young mouse. Un carpillon, a young carp. Un perdreau, a young partridge. Un vipereau, a young viper. Un becasseau, a young woodcock, &c. 71. The word becassine, snipe, being feminine, seems to be an exception to this rule, but it is not so ; because, although this noun is derived from becasse, it designates another species of birds, and not a young one of the same family. 72. Where the diminutive names of animals are not the same for both sexes, they follow the general rule, and are of the same gender as the object which they represent ; as, Un poulain, une pouliche, a colt. Un cochet, une poulette, a young chicken, &c. 73. Fourth ; diminutive names of inanimate objects take, generally, the same gender as the nouns from which they origi- nate ; as, GENDERS. 17 Batelet, masc. from bateau, masc. a small boat. Maisonette, fern. " maison, fern, a little house. Globule, masc. " globe, masc. a small globe , &c. 74. We say generally, because there are exceptions to the above rule ; as, Corbillon, masc. from Corbeille, fern, a small basket. Soliveau, " " solive, " a small beam. Cruchon " " cruche, " a small pitcher. Savonette, fern. " savon, masc. a wash-ball, &c. 75. Fifth ; all the names of the days, months, and seasons of the year are masculine, except automne, which is of both genders ; but, when the word mi, half, is prefixed to the name of a month, the compound word thus formed becomes femi- nine ; as, La mi-mai, the half of the month of May. La mi-aout, " " August. 76. So, also, La mi-careme, half of Lent. 77. The saint-days are also feminine ; as, La Saint- Jean, St. John's day. La toussaint, fyc. Jill-Saint 's day, &c. because these compound words are elliptical, and mean, La moitie de Mai, La moitie oVAoiit. ha fete de St. Jean, ha fete de tous les saints, &c. 78. Sixth ; 1. Names of trees are masculine, except yeuse, holm. 79. 2. Names of shrubs are masculine, except Aubepine, haivthorn. Bourdaine, black alder. Epine, thorn. Honce, brier. Vigne, vine. 80. 3. Names of metals are all masculine, as well as those of minerals, with very few exceptions. 2* 18 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 81. 4. Names of colors are all masculine, without reference to their termination. 82. Seventh ; 1. Names of mountains, except those which have no singular. 83. 2. The names of winds, except, La bise, north-east wind. La brise, light wind. La tramontane, tramontane. Les moussons, monsoon. 84. 3. The nouns designating the cardinal points, and names of countries, take the gender of their termination, ex- cept, Le Bengal e, Bengal Le Mexique, Mexico. Le Peloponese, Peloponnesus. Le Caire, Cairo. Le Maine, Le Perche, Le Rouergue, Le Bigorre, La Franch Comte, and perhaps a few others. 85. 4. Names of towns, boroughs, and villages are mascu- line, except those which take the article before them ; in which case the names are elliptical ; as, La Rochelle, for La Ville de Rochelle, La Nouvelle Orleans, " La Nouvelle Ville d'Orleans, &c. 86. But, when the name of a city is preceded by the word ville , city, which is feminine, then the compound expression is of the feminine gender ; as, La ville de Paris, La ville de Rouen, &c. 87. Eighth ; ordinal, distributive, and proportional numbers ; adjectives, infinitives, prepositions, adverbs, used as nouns, are all masculine ; as, GENDERS. 19 Le tiers, a third le quart, the fourth, &c. Un cinquieme, a fifth un dixieme, a tenth. Le quintuple, the quintuple, &c. Le necessaire, what is neces- L 'utile, what is useful. sary * Le boire, drinking Le manger, eating, &c. Lemieux, what is best Le contre, what is against, &c. 88. We must except the half, la moitie, and the following elliptical expressions ; Une courbe, for une ligne courbe, a curve. Une perpendiculaire, for une ligne, &c. a perpendicular. Une parallele, for une ligne parallele, a parallel, &c. Une antique, for une medaille, une sta- an old medal or tue antique, statue. as well as all similar expressions. 89. Ninth ; all nouns expressing virtues are feminine, ex- cept courage and merite, courage and merit. All nouns expressing vices are feminine. All nouns expressing crimes are masculine. GENDERS OF NOUNS, MOSTLY DEPENDING ON THEIR TERMINATION. 90. The names of fruits, grain, plants, and flowers general- ly take the gender of their termination ; there are, however, very many exceptions, which are too numerous to be mentioned here. The student, when in doubt, must consult his dic- tionary. 91. We will now give a table of all the masculine termina- tions, with the exceptions attached to each. 20 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Number^ Number of words of words of the Masculine. Terminations. Feminine. of the masculine feminine gender. gender. none tie aparte, arrete, henedi- 11 cite, comte, cote^ ete, te pate, traite, the, te, lethe. alibi, biribi* lundi, qui, • 40 grand merci, &c. 15 convoi, effroi, &c. oi 3o ergo, vertigo, indigo, Q fichu, ecru, ecu, tissu, . 10 &c. u 200 6 3 100 200 30 11 15 aim aloyau, anneau, &c. au bref, chalef, chef, fief, * relief, grief. daim, essaim, abat- faim. an, ban, cran, ecran, &c. bain, baise-main,avant- main, garde-main, tourne- main, essuie-main, grain, amitie, inimitie, moitie, . pitie. absurdite, beaute, cha- rite, cite, dignite, fidelite, 500 &c. fourmi, merci, gaqui, 4 apres-midi. foi, loi, paroi. 3 albugo, virago. 2 bru, gru, tribu, vertu. 4 eau, peau, surpeau, * sans-peau. clef, nef, soif. 3 faim, malfaim. 2 maman. 1 fin, main, nonnain. frein, &c. "cion sion succion, &c. cession, &c. scion, bastion, bestion,^ tion gestion, friction, &c. 1100 ixion. gion 'region, &c. nion opinion, &c. _xion . reflexion, fluxion, &c. gabion, &c. 'bion bandion, &c. dion lion, &c. lion rebellion, dent-de-lion. 3 tremion, &c. ^ mion > espion, &c. pion septentrion, &c. rion gavion, &c. vion alluvion. alcyon, clayon crayon, say on, trayon, lamprayon, yon none. amphictyon. 30 brise-raison. aison cargaison, &c. peson, beson. grison, groison, horison tison, oison, poison, con-< trepoison. buson. basson, caisson, cave- sson, taisson, poisson, co- sson, buisson, frisson, he- risson, maudisson, nouri- \ sson, palisson, polisson, unisson, saucisson. l_ arcanson, echanson, tenson, pinson. ison garnison, guerison, prison, ►trahison, cloison, foison, 11 moison, pamoison, toison. camuson. uson paisson, boisson, moi- Uson, cuisson, salisson, g mousson. nson chanson. GENDERS. 21 2d 30 750 70 15 12 700 250 15 20 40 charangon, cavegon. pingon, sugon, &c. bridon, gueridon, &c. gon don lon,ron baron, tendron, &c. abattis, appentis, iris, . tourne-vis, &c. bois, mois, carquois, harnois, &c. adent, chiendent, cure- , dent, Occident, trident, en &c. acharnement, juge- ment, &c. gent ment ballet, billet, basquet, et n &c. minuit, conduit, reduit, I uit &c. billot, brulot, complot &c. bout, gout, ragout, &c. faix, choix, crucifix prix, &c. taux, &c. houx, courroux, epoux &c. art, depart, champart, rempart, &c. effort, port, fort, tort, &c. fer, ver, liver, &c. air, eclair, &c. tour, contour, four, &c. ot _out ix aux oux art ort er air our bonheur, malheur, la- beur, honneur, deshon- Q00 neur, co3ur, anticceur, eur crevecceur, choeur, chou- fleur, pleur, equateur, secteur, &c. fagon, contrefacon, ^ malfagon, legon, rangon. dondon. 1 saidron, souillon, tatil- „ Ion. 6 brebis, souris, chauve- ,. 1 souris, vis, ins fois. dent, surdent. ~ gent, jument. 1 foret. nuit. 4 dot. glout. paix, croix, noix, poix, voix, perdrix. chaux, faux. 9 j toux. J hart, part. C mort, malemort. •x cuiller, mer. f chair. 5 Vcour, tour. aigreur, arapleur, ar- deur, blancheur, candeur, chaleur, chandeleur, cou- leur, clameur, douceur, douleur, epaisseur, erreur, faveur, defaveur, ferveur, fleur, passe-fleur, sans- fleur, fraicheur, frayeur, froideur, fureur, grand- eur, grosseur, hauteur, horreur, humeur, laideur, langueur, largeur, len- teur, liqueur, longueur, lourdeur, liseur, mai- greur, moiteur, noirceur, odeur, paleur, pesanteur, ^ peur, primeur,profondeur, puanteur, pudeur, impu- deur, rigueur, raideur, rondeur, rongeur, rou- sseur, rumeur, saveur, senteur, soeur, souleur, splendeur, sueur, teneur, terreur, tiedeur, torpeur, touffeur, tumeur, valeur, non-valeur, vapeur, ver- 22 FRENCH GRAMMAR. deur, vigueur, & mceurs. There are three old words, besides these ; basseur, tremeur, rancoeur, which are now obsolete, and com- plete the number, 76. As this list of exceptions is pretty accurate, all nouns with the termination ewr, which are not found among the above ex- ceptions, must be considered as being masculine. A TABLE OF NOUNS WHICH ARE MASCULINE IN ONE SIG- NIFICATION AND FEMININE IN ANOTHER. 92. As if it were not already difficult enough for a foreigner to learn the gender of the nouns of our language, he must know that there are certain of them that are sometimes mas- culine, and sometimes feminine, according to their significa- tion, as follows : Masculine. assistant, helper aide eagle, a great genius aigle an angel ange an alder-tree aune barb, a Barbary horse barbe bard , a poet barde redbreast berce a sort of privateer capre an ornament to painting, a cartouche scroll a caravan, a hog, coche cornet, a standard-bearer cornette a couple, a male and a fe- cour> ] e male ™ a Croatian soldier cravate crape crepe an echo, the return of a ^ ^o sound ensign, a standard-bearer enseigne example, model, instance exemple a gimblet, a piercer foret a large tun foudre keeper, warden garde hoar-frost givre the rolls, the register greffe gules in heraldry gueule guide, director guide Feminine. aid, help, support a Roman standard a kind of thornback an ell, a sort of measure beard a slice of bacon, horse armor cow parsnip caper, an acid pickle cartridge a notch, a sow a woman's head-dress, when in dishabille a brace, two of a sort a neckcloth a pancake Echo, a nymph a sign-post a copy for writing a wood, a forest lightning, a thunderbolt watch, hilt, nurse a serpent, in heraldry a graft the mouth of some beasts reins, for governing a horse GENDERS. 23 sunflower iris, rainbow, iris of the eye lacker, a kind of varnish a book a lot of otter's hair the handle of a tool a laborer memoir, a bill thanks mood, mode a pier or mound mould, cast, form a ship-boy the philosopher's stone office, business, prayers ombre, a game at cards the page of a prince a merry-andrew a hand's breadth pantomime easter, easter-day a comparison pendulum le Perche, a province of France summit, highest pitch anybody, nobody (pronoun) spade, at cards gnatsnapper, a bird a plane-tree a stove, a canopy post, a military station punto, at cards purple color, purples (a disease ) a pretence quadrille, at cards the calling back a hawk rest, relaxation a glass coach a sort of pear-tree satyr, a sylvan god serpentarius nap, slumber a smile a porter holder, book-keeper a tour, turn, trick triumph trumpeter a vase, a vessel a hat of Yigonia wool a veil heliotrope heliotrope, jasper iris spring crystal, proper name laque lacca, gum lac livre a pound loutre an otter manche a sleeve, English Channel manoeuvre the working of a ship memoire memory merci pity, mercy mode fashion mole mole, moon-calf moule muscle, shell-fish mousse moss, a plant ceuvre action, an author's work office pantry, larder, buttery ombre shade, shadow page page, in a book paillasse a straw bed „„!_.. the branch of a palm-tree, vic- paime tQry pantomime a dumb show paque the passover parallele a parallel line pendule a clock perche a Pole, perch, a fish periode period, epoch personne a person (a noun) pique a pike pivoine peony, a flower plane plane, an instrument poele a frying-pan poste the post for letters ponte the laying of eggs pourpre purple fish, purple dye pretexte pretext quadrille party of horse in a tournament reclame a catch- word (in printing) relache harbor remise a coach-house, a remittance sans-peau a sort of pear satyre a satire, a lampoon serpentaire snake-root, dragon's wort somme sum, load, name of a river souris a mouse Suisse Switzerland teneur tenor, purport, content tour tower, rook at chess triomphe a trump trompette trumpet vague a wave, surge vase the slime in ponds, lakes, &c. vigogne a vigon, a llama voile a sail 24 FRENCH GRAMMAR. TERMINATIONS SHOWING THE SIMILARITY OF WORDS IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 93. There are many words which are alike in both languages. These words are known by their terminations, as will be seen by the following list. Terminations. al ble ace ance ence ice acle ade age ege as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, moral, &c. " capable, fable, &c. , Bible, eligible, &c. , noble, double, soluble, &c. " face, grimace, grace, place, race, &c. " chance, complaisance, extravagance, ignorance, &c. " prudence, conference, continence, patience, &c. " artifice, auspice, edifice, orifice, &c. " miracle, obstacle, receptacle, spectacle, &c. " ambuscade, brigade, cavalcade, parade, &c. " age, adage, cage, image, page, &c. " college, privilege, siege, sortilege, &c. " vestige, sage, barge, charge, forge, strange, &c. ule " globule, ridicule, formule, mule, pustule, &c. ile " bile, debile, agile, docile, facile, fragile, &c. ine " carabine, doctrine, heroine, machine, &c. ion " action, fraction, legion, opinion, passion, &c. ant " arrogant, constant, elegant, elephant, piquant, &c. ent " absent, accident, compliment, content, element, &c. 94. Many other English words require only a change of termination ; as, gy ary ory cy ty ous or eous our, or ine ive 7 dy into gie as energy energie aire " military militaire oire " glory gloire ce " clemency clemence te " beauty beaute eux " courageous courageux u " dangerous dangereux eur " favor, error faveur, erreur in " clandestine clandestin if " attentive attentif rie " fury furie die " perfidy perfidie OF HOMONYMS. 95. Homonym comes from the Greek, and signifies similar, A homonym is a word which appears to be identical with another word, or at least nearly so, either in its sound or spelling, but which differs from it in signification. HOMONYMS. 25 There are two kinds of homonyms. 1st. Those which are identical, whose spelling is exactly alike ; a word of this kind, to be the homonym of another, must differ from it in its natural signification ; it is not sufficient that it differs only by one being taken figuratively and the other not. 2d. Those which, having the same pronunciation, or nearly so, differ from each other in their orthography. The following list of homonyms is the most complete we have been able to find in the grammars which have treated of this subject. to acquis acquired acre adherant adieu affaire ah! aigayer < aile aine air ais alene aleze Alicante amande amant ami an anche ancre ane antre Anvers Appelles appas apprendre appendre appret argot < art sharp to the taste (pres. part, of) toad- > here > farewell business ah! to soak and wash in } water j a wing the groin the air < a plank an awl, pitcher a large clout Alicant (city of Spain) almond a lover a friend a year reed an anchor an ass a cavern the name of a city name of a painter charms to learn to suspend preparation a sort of language among thieves art, method 3 A List of Homonyms. acquit acquit adherent a Dieu a faire as egayer elle haine aire aire haire hais haleine a V aise aliquante amende Aman amict en hanche encre Anne entre envers en vers appelle appat a prendre a pendre apres Argo hart (he) has receipt he acquired, that he might acquire an acre adherent to God to do (thou) hast to make merry she hatred the nest of an eagle a threshing-floor hair shirt (I) hate breath comfortable aliquant (term of arith.) a fine a proper name amice in hip ink a proper name between towards (to write) poetry (he) calls a bait to be taken to be hung after the name of a vessel a rope 26 FRENCH GRAMMAR, auspice a presage name of a wind hospice a hospital Autan autant as much autel an altar hotel a hotel auteur an author hauteur height avant before C avent \ a vent the advent wind (mill) avez (you) have ave a prayer bayer to gape bailler to give balai a broom ballet a ballet banc a bench ban a ban basse an instrument basse feminine of low rbat (he) beats bat pack-saddle Jbas low [bas a stocking batiste cambric baptiste a baptist beau handsome ] |^ x leases club (foot) beaucoup much beau cou a handsome neck beaute beauty botte booted belle feminine of handsome Bayle a proper name beni $ blessed (speaking of I persons) [ benit blessed (speaking of things) bete an animal bette white beet boite »** Ul boite (he is) lame maturity of wine bon good bond a bound bonace a calm at sea bonasse too good Jbou a sort of tea bout the end .bout (he) boils 'boue mud brocard taunt brocart brocade Seine fthe stage i name of a river, or a i sort of net I. feminine of sound r saine cense deemed sense sensible HOMONYMS. 27 'sans without sang blood sens sense cent one hundred «( (il) sent (he) feels e'en (est fait) it is all over s'en (il s'en he repents of it » repent) centaine a hundred sentene it centon a piece of poetry ! ' Santon (nous) sentons a sort of Turkish monk (we) fall cerf a stag serf a bondman ces these or those ses his (plural) c'est it is (il) s'est (tue) he has killed himself cet this or that sept seven rCher a river chair flesh cher chere t chaire dear fair the pulpit champ a field chant singing chaos chaos cahot a jolt chaud hot chaux lime chene an oak chaine a chain chosur a chorus cceur the heart choix choice (je) choie (I) coax chrie an amplification (je) crie (I) scream cil eye-lash s'il if he cite a city citer to summon clause f an article of a deed ] \ or treaty | a clerk close feminine of shut clerc clair clear clou a nail Cloud (saint) the name of a saint colon a planter Colomb a proper name conte a tale ( compte comte an account Count contant reciting content pleased, satisfied < comptant accounting qu'on tend that one holds corps the body \ cor cor horn, an instrument corn f cote coast cote a rib -\ cote cotte (d'armes) a quotation a coat of arms , I quote (-part) quota < cout the cost cou the neck coup a blow ( (je) couds (I) sew fcours a promenade, a mall cour a yard J cours court a course (of studies) short 1 .cour the court creme cream chreme chrism cri a shout ] eric a jack-screw (Jesus) Christ Christ crin (horse) hair craint feared (je) crois (I) believe (that he) may believe croix a cross < (qu'il) croie (il) croit (he) grows 28 FRENCH GRAMMAR. cru cru raw Ccrue cuir the skin of animals cuire cygne a swan signe Ccire ( Sire Cyr the name of a saint dans in ( dent \ dam danse the dance dense date a date datte degouter to disgust dego utter dela hence J dela ( de la delasser to refresh delacer r des des of the (plural) }dais (Dey Descartes a proper name des cartes deuil mourning d'ceil different different different Didon a proper name < dis done } (il) dit done dime tithe (nous) dimes divers several d'hiver C (je) dois doigt a finger < (il) doit t d'oie C don (Pedro) don a gift < done Cdont doux sweet Doubs Cdu du of the < (je) dus C (il) dut r au eau water Jaux (aulx echo an echo ecot r (je) emploie emploi employment 5 (tu) emploies ( (ils) emploient enter to engraft hanter envie envy (al') envi ere an era C (un pauvre) here { (il) erre ^ (il est) | (qu'il) aie es thou art ^ haie I (je) hais L(il) hait et and eh ! he ! etaim carded wool etain { etang etant being < (je) etends C (il) etend etat a state (Eta believed grown overflowing to cook a sign wax sire a tooth damage thick date (a fruit) to drop from there of the to unlace from a canopy the Dey (of Algiers) of the cards which belongs to the eye differing say then (he) says then (we) said wintry (I) owe (he) owes of goose Don (Pedro) then whose the name of a river what is owed (I) owed (he) owed to the " (plural) plural of garlic club (I) employ (thou) employest (they) employ to frequent with emulation a poor fellow (he) wanders (he) is (let him) have an edge (I) hate (he) hates oh ! ah ! pewter a pound (I) extend (he) extends a mountain HOMONYMS, 29 etourdi giddy etre to be eux them exaucer to enhance excedant exceeding excellant excelling faire to make fait a fact faite top faon fasse a fawn (that he) may make faux false ferie a vocation fi fie, fy fin the end flan a sort of cake foi faith ^f} a landed property foret forgat format fort a forest a galley slave the size of a book a fort a ditch fournil a laundry frais fresh (il) fume (queje) fusse (he) smokes I (that I) might be gai joyful gale the itch gant a glove geai jackdaw (a 1') etourdie hetre oeufs exhausser excedent excellent (fer I (il) ferre r (je) fais }faix ( faits J faite Jfete (il) fend face C faulx I (il) faut feerie C(je)fis ] (il) fit Cfils Cfaim I (il) feint flanc C (une) fois ready prix price, value pouce the thumb puce a flea (nous) policons (we) govern polissons (we) polish puits pus quelle queue quoi quoique raisonner rang ras reine requin resident rets Rhin ris rond roux rubicond sa sabbat a well pus quand when which a tail what although to reason rank thorn a queen a shark a diplomatic officer nets Rhine the laugh round red red her the sabbath (elle) pond pouls precedant premisse presidant C pres I pres Cpris \ (il) prit v (qu'il) prit { pousse \ (tu) pousses f puces J (que je) pusse ] (que tu) pu- L sses C (je) puis (he) is devoted to thee toi thou, or thee a roof r taon ox-fly ("thy (sing, masculine) thon a tunny ton < tune (as) t-on (paye) have they paid ? |_tone (je) tonds (I) shear fc (il) tond (he) shears wrong • (je) tords (il) tord (I) twist tort (he) twists r a tower Tours a name of a city tour } a trick, turn, turning- ( machine tous all (plural) tout all ! toux cough toue a tow-boat trace ( trace, I trace, he < ( traces ( Thrace a name of a country (tu) traces (thou) tracest trait an act, an arrow, &c. J tres (je) trais very (I) milk (the cow) tribut a tribute tribu a tribe ' Troie a name of a city trois three ► Troyes C a name of a city in ( France trop too much trot trot GENDERS. i tirant 1 tirant tyran a tyrant vas go (il) va vanter to prize venter veine a vein vaine f van vent the wind (je) vends ' (tu) vends vente , c (je) vante sale \ (tu) vantes -vert verre ver a worm vers vers verrat a tame boar { (tu) verras vesce a sort of pea vesse (je) vets (D/- \§*V vice a vice vis vile vile (feminine) ville 'vain vingt vin wine ^ (je) vins (il) vint^ ^/qu'il) vint violat of violets ^f^vioL i - fie} veux vceu avow y (l "voie voix the voice < (je) vois (il) voit L (que tu) voies r (a) vaue l'eau Vaud vos your (plural) veal (par mont et k par) vaux (le) votre yours • ' (je me) vautre ; (tu te) vautres 37 a rope pulling (he) goes to blow feminine of vain a cribble (I) sell (thou) sellest (I) prize (thou) prizest green a glass a verse towards (he) shall see (thou) shalt see vind (he) dresses (I) go a screw a city vain twenty (I) came (he) came that he might come (he) violated (thou) violatedst (I) am willing (he) is willing a road (I) see (he) sees (that thou) mayst see lost, wrecked a name of a country calf, veal wandering through the world (I) tumble (thou) tumblest 38 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE ARTICLE. 96. The definition of this word, Article, has been the sub- ject of long and spirited discussions among grammarians, who are, even to this day, far from agreeing with each other on the nature of its functions in language. We wish the public to understand, that our object in this grammar is, and will always be, to reach the intelligence of the greatest number, without pretensions to science or novelty. We are satisfied that new denominations, although more ra- tional than those already in use, are of no benefit in practice, and serve only to confuse the minds of pupils ; therefore : Without entering into the details of the numerous systems contained in the most celebrated works on the French lan- guage, concerning the nature of this part of speech, we shall adopt the definition of Levizac, as conveying the clearest idea, and being in conformity with the notions generally adopted by scholars and teachers. 97. u The article, being intended to express the direction of the mind towards the particular object which it has in view, is a word placed before common nouns, to designate that they are about to be taken in a definite sense." 98. Such being the definition of the article, it is evident that there cannot exist what is generally called an indefinite article ; therefore the words a, an, will be hereafter classed among the adjectives. 99. In English there is but one article, the. It is used before nouns of either gender and number ; it has neither elision nor contraction. 100. In French, on the contrary, the article agrees in num- ber and gender with the noun which it precedes ; it admits of elision and contraction. ARTICLE. 39 ELISION. Without elision. 101. Before a noun sing: masc. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, the is expressed by le " sing. fem. " " la " plur. masc. or fem. " les With elision. 102. Before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, £Ae is expressed by /' " sing. fem. " " /' Sing. Plur. Examples. Without elision. With elision in the singular. Masc. the day le jour Sing. M. the bird l'oiseau Fem. the night la nuit " F. the soul l'ame Masc. the owl le hibou " M. the man l'homme Fem. the hatred la haine " F. the inn l'hotellerie Masc. the days les jours Plur. M. the birds les oiseaux Fem. the nights les nuits " F. the soul les ames Masc. the owls les hiboux " M. the men les hommes Fem. the hatred les haines (plur.) " F. the inns les hotelleries CONTRACTION. 103. The contraction of the article takes place in the singu- lar masculine, and in the plural masculine and feminine, before all nouns, when it is preceded by either of the prepositions, o/and to, de, a ; so that, 104. of the, 1. before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated, is expressed by (contraction) clu (for de le) . *.* 2. before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, is expressed by (no contraction) de la. " 3. before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, is expressed by (no contraction) de V. " 4. before a noun plur. is expressed by (contraction) des (for de les). 105. to the, 1. before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant, or h aspirated, is expressed by (contraction) au (for a le). " 2. before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, is expressed by (no contraction) a la. ". 3. before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, is expressed by (no contraction) a l\ " 4. before a noun plural is expressed by (contraction) aux (for ales). 40 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Examples. 106. 1. of the day sing. masc. beg. with cons. (de le) du jour " owl (< (< tt h asp. (de le) du hibou 2. " night n fern. «< cons. de la nuit " hatred tt tt a h asp. de la haine 3. " bird a masc. n a vowel (de le) de l'oiseau " soul a fern. a a vowel (de la) de l'ame " man a masc. tt h mute (de le) de l'homme " inn (< fern. t< h mute (de la) de l'hotellerie 4. " days plur. masc. (C cons. (de les) des jours " nights it fem. tt cons. " des nuits " owls it masc. a h asp. " des hiboux " hatred a fem. tt h asp. " des haines " birds a masc. a a vowel " des oiseaux " souls a fem. tt a vowel " des ames " men a masc. it h mute " des hommes " inns it fem. a h mute " des hotelleries 107. 1. to the day sing. masc. beg. with cons. (a, le) au jour " owl « masc. a h asp. (a le) au hibou 2. " night <( fem. a cons. (a la) a la nuit " hatred it fem. a h. asp. (a la) a la haine : 3. " bird n masc. a a vowel (a le) a l'oiseau " soul a fem. a a vowel (a la) a l'ame " man it masc. (i h mute (a le) a l'homme " inn a fem. a h mute (a la) a, l'hotelleries 4. ',* days plur. masc. u cons. (a les) aux jours " nights tt fem. u cons. " aux nuits " owls a masc. a h asp. " aux hiboux " hatred << fem. a h asp. " aux haines " birds (« masc. a a vowel " aux oiseaux " souls u fem. a a vowel " aux ames " men n masc. a h mute " aux hommes " inns tt fem. a h mute " aux hotelleries 108. Now that we have explained the mechanism of the article, and have laid it down, as a principle, that the article is used before a noun taken definitely, agreeing with that noun in number and gender, let us explain what we understand by a noun taken definitely. 109. A common noun is definite when it signifies a whole species of persons and things, a distinct part of a whole species, or a single individual of a whole species. A common noun designates a whole species of persons and things, when it represents all the individuals named by that noun. ARTICLE. 41 Examples. Men are not wicked. Les hommes ne sont pas mechants. Children are troublesome. Les enfants sont turbulents. Man ought to rule his passions. L'homme devrait regler ses passions. In the first and last sentences, les hommes, Vhomme, desig- nate the whole species of beings called men. In the second, children signifies the whole species of beings called children. 110. The common noun designates a distinct part of a whole species, when, by some qualification, it separates a certain class from the whole : as, Examples. Wicked men are to be feared. Les hommes mechants sont a craindre. Studious children are loved by their Les enfants studieux sont aimes de masters. leurs maitres. A weak man is governed by his L'hommefaible est gouverne par ses passions. passions. In the first and last sentences we do not speak of all men, but of distinct classes of men ; those who are wicked, those who are weak. 111. The common noun designates a single individual of a whole species, when it presents to the mind the idea of a single object of that species : as, Examples. The king is loved by his subjects. Le roi est aime de ses sujets. France is a large kingdom. La France is un grand royaume. The man of whom you speak. L'homme dont vous parlez. In these three sentences we speak only of one king, of one country, called France, of one man, the one of whom you speak. 112. The functions of the article, as a part of speech, being to designate the noun which it precedes in a definite manner, it is evident that, where a sentence contains several nouns, used as nominatives or objectives, it must be repeated before each of them ; thus we say, Examples. The horses, cattle, sheep, and mules, Les chevaux, les bestiaux, les brebis are in the pasture. et les mules sont dans la prairie. I have bought the knives, the forks, J'ai achete les couteaux, les four- the glasses, and the decanter, of chettes, les verres, et \a carafe which we were in need. dont nous avions besoin. 4 # 42 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This rule, as well as the agreement of the article with the noun which it precedes, is without exceptions. 113. The article, being definite, cannot be placed before any other word but the common noun, or before words used as such, elliptically or idiomatically ; which is sometimes the case with adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions : as, Examples. 1. The miser is poor among his Itavare est pauvre au milieu de ses riches. richesses. 2. Eating is more necessary than Le manger est plus necessaire que drinking. le boire. 3. That man would know the how Get homme voudrait savoir le pour- and why of every thing. quoi et le comment de tout. 4. There are people who defend the II y a des personnes que soutiennent pro and con without any motive le pour et le contre sans autre but love of contradiction. motif que celui de contredire. It is evident that in these examples, Pavare is used for the man who is a miser, le manger and le boire for food and drinks, pourquoi and comment for the motive, le pour et le contre for one side of the question and the other ; those words, having changed their nature through an operation of the mind, which has made them common nouns, take the article in accordance with the general rule. 114. Common nouns are sometimes used in a partitive sense ; they are then preceded in English by some or any ; sometimes, however, these words are not expressed, but un- derstood ; but in French they must always be expressed and repeated before each noun ; as follows, Examples. Give me some bread (a part of the Donnez moi du (de le) pain. bread). Give me some beer (a part of the Donnez moi de la bierre. beer. Give me some apples (a part of the donnez moi des (de les) pommes. apples). Give me some water (a part of the Donnez moi de l'eau. water) . 115. It may be remarked, that the word some is expressed as the article of the should be before the same noun. This indication may be useful to students who already know how to render these two words in French. ARTICLE. 43 116. But if the common noun is preceded by an adjective, the article is suppressed, and the preposition alone is used ; as follows, Examples. Give me some good bread. Donnez moi de bon pain. Give me some good beer. Donnez moi de bonne bierre. Give me some good apples. Donnez moi de bonnes pommes. Give me some good water. Donnez moi de bonne eau. 117. After a negation the article is not expressed ; so we say of any before a noun preceded or not by an adjective : Examples. I have not any apples. Je n'ai pas de pommes. 1 have not any good apples, &c. Je n'ai pas de bonnes pommes, &c. 118. Observe, if the adjective be placed after the noun, the article should be used with the preposition o/, provided the sentence is affirmative ; if negative it follows the preceding rule. Examples. Give me some dried apples. Donnez moi des pommes seches. Give me some fresh bread. Donnez moi du pain frais. I have not any dried apples. Je n'ai pas de pommes seches. I have not any fresh bread. Je n'ai pas de pain frais. If we reflect upon the real meaning of the sentences we have used, to illustrate the above partitive expressions, we shall see that they agree with the general rule, that the article must be employed only before nouns taken in a determinate meaning ; for when I say, Give me some bread, I speak of the bread which is there, on the table before my eyes, or which in my mind ought to be there ; it is then definite, and the article is used ; but, when I say, Give me some good bread, I do not refer to any particular loaf of bread ; I do not care whether the bread be there or not ; I want some good bread, that is all ; the word bread, then, is indefinite, and the article must be omitted. The same mode of reasoning may be applied to the other cases, to show that there is no discrepancy with the rule in any of them, from the suppres- sion or addition of the article. 44 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 119. When a common noun is composed of a noun and an adjective, these two words form a sense which is indivis- ible ; they are the equivalent of a single word, and conse- quently ought to be preceded by the article, although employed in a partitive sense ; as, des petits-maitres. des petits-pates. des petites-maitresses. des petits-pois. 120. But when the noun does not form an indivisible sense with the adjective, it ought not to be preceded by the arti- cle ; as, We become as young children with- Nous devenons comme de petits en- out pride, malice, and disguise. fants sans orgueil, sans malice, et sans deguisement. des petits enfants would be incorrect. 121. The partitive sense should not be mistaken for the general sense, for in this latter case the article must be used ; as, It is the opinion of ancient philosophers. C'est l'opinion des anciens phi- losophes. This expression, des anciens philosophes, is not partitive, but signifies a whole. 122. The article is placed before the names of countries, regions, rivers, winds, and mountains ; as, France, the Pyrennees, and the Med- La France, les Pyrennees, et la iterranean sea, to the south ; Ger- Mediterranee au sud ; f Alle- many, Switzerland, and Italy, to magne, la Suisse, et Z'ltalie a the west. Z'ouest. 123. Exceptions ; 1st. The countries which have the same names with their capitals ; as, Naples and Corfu are delicious coun- Naples et Corfou sont des pays tries. delicieux. 124. 2d. The names of countries which are preceded by the preposition in, expressed by en ; as, He is in Italy. II est en Italic He lives in France. II vit en France. 125. 3d. The same exception takes place when they are joined to another noun by the preposition o/*, de ; as, the King of England. le Roi d'Angleterre. the Wines of France. les Vins de France. ARTICLE. 45 126. 4th. And, finally, when we speak of coming from those countries ; as, I come from Italy. Je viens d'ltalie. I arrive from Spain. J'arrive d'Espagne. 127. Some of these expressions are idiomatical ; but in the following, the King of England, the Wines of France, Eng- land and France are clearly used adjectively ; they mean only that the king is not the King of France or any other country, that he is the English King, and that the wines are neither Spanish nor German, but French. But, if we personify the name of the country, or if the mind attaches to it a definite idea, then the article must be used ; as, The politeness of France. La politesse de la France (or of the French people). The nobility of Germany. La noblesse de l'Allemagne (of the country which, being bounded as it is, is called Germany). 128. Although the general rule is, that the article should not be used before names of countries from which we come, it is retained before those of far distant regions ; and we say, I arrive from China. J'arrive de la Chine. I come from Peru. Je viens du Perou. And also before the names of certain provinces and cities which, formed of common nouns, always have the article be- fore them ; as, The Harbour of Grace. Le Havre de Grace. New-Orleans, &c. La Nouvelle-Orleans. 129. As to the names of mountains, they do not present any difficulty ; they all take the article, because before most of them the word mount is understood, and expressed before the others ; so we say, The Cordilleras. Les (monts) Cordillieres. The Alps. Les (monts) Alpes. The Apennines. Les (monts) Apennins. The mount Valerien. Le mont Valerien. The mountain of Carare. La montagne de Carare. Usage and practice are the only guides in these cases. 130. The names of rivers sometimes take the article, and sometimes not ; as, 46 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The water of the Seine is muddy. L'eau de la Seine est bourbeuse. I drink the water of the Seine. Je bois de l'eau de Seine. In the first example, the word Seine is definite in its mean- ing ; it limits the extent of the word ivater to that river called Seine, and the article is used. In the second example, the same word Seine is indefinite, and signifies only that I drink such water called Seine-water, in opposition to any other water ; as, Mississippi water, &c. &c. It is then used adjectively, and requires no article. 131. We say, also, River water is soft, L'eau de riviere est douce, Sea water is salted, L'eau de mer is salee, without the article, because riviere and mer are used only to qualify water, without defining the extent of the signification of the word water ; but if we speak of the water which fills up the depths of the sea, as a quantity of water, then we say, The water of the sea, L'eau de la mer, because it signifies the whole of the water which fills up that part of the globe which is covered with water. 132. The article is not placed before common nouns, if, in using these nouns, we do not mean a whole species, or a dis- tinct part, or a single individual of either ; that is to say, if we do not intend to express the extent of their signification ; as, The fields are filled with laurels, Les champs sont remplis t?e lauriers, jasmines, and other fine trees, de jasmins, et rf'autres jolis ar- and the mountains are covered bres, et les montagnes sont cou- with stocks which produce fine vertes de troupeaux qui fourni- wool. ssent de belles laines. In order to understand this rule well, we must distinguish two qualities in the common nouns, the signification, and the extent of that signification. The signification is ordinarily pre- cise, for it is very rare that we alter the meaning of a word ; but the extent of that meaning varies when the nouns express ideas either general, particular, or single, and in each of these cases it is determinate or definite ; so that a noun is definite when it expresses any of these three conditions, and it is in- definite when in the sentence there is nothing which shows clearly that it must be taken generally, in a particular manner, ARTICLE. 47 or individually, as in the words, lauriers, jasmins, &c, and the article must not be used. 133. Sometimes the common nouns are mere adjectives ; when we say, A table of marble is beautiful. Une table de marbre est belle. A snuff-box of gold is precious. Une tabatiere d'or est precieuse. the common nouns marbre, or, qualify table, and box, but in a vague and indefinite manner ; they are used for the sake of their signification alone, without any regard to the extent of that sig- nification. 134. But, if we say, A table of the marble which comes Une table du marbre que l'on tire from Italy is beautiful. d'ltalie est belle. A snuff-box of the gold which comes Une tabatiere de Vox que Ton tire from Mexico. du Mexique, the common nouns marbre and or are not only used in regard to their signification, but also to the extent of that signification, because it is not of marble and gold only that the table and snuff-box are made, but of the particular marble which comes from Italy, and of the gold which comes from Mexico ; there- fore the article must be used. 135. From these remarks, it results, that the common nouns are used without the article, when, — 136. First; they are used as titles of books, or chapters, or as directions ; as, Observations on the state of Eu- Observations sur l'etat de l'Europe. rope. General Reflections. Reflexions Ginirales. Preface. Preface. He lives in Piccadilly Street ; in II demeure Rue Piccadilly ; Rue Washington Street. Washington. 137. Secondly ; when they are under the government of the preposition in, en ; as, To be in town. Etre en ville. Tospeak as a sensible man. Parler en homme sense. 138. Thirdly ; when they are joined to the verbs avoir or faire, and some others, so as to express with them but a single idea ; as, To be afraid. Avoir peur. To excite pity. Faire pitie. 4S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 139. Fourthly ; when they are employed as apostrophes or interjections ; as. Courage, friends! defend your- Courage, amis! defendez vous ! selves ! 140. Fifthly ; when they change their primary signification into a qualification, which may take place in different ways ; as, Are you surprised that Napoleon Etes vous surpris que Napoleon ait was more than a man in some of ete plus qu'Aomme dans plusieurs his acts ? de ses actes ? We see with delight the vast fields Nous voyons avec delices les vastes covered with golden harvests, the campagnes couvertes de moissons rich gifts of Ceres. dorees, riches dons de Ceres. In the first sentence, the word homme is taken adjectively ; in the second, the phrase riches dons modifies moissons dorees, 141. Sixthly ; when they are used, at the beginning of an in- cidental sentence, elliptically ; as, All the nations of the globe have a Touts les peuples de la terre ont notion more or less clear of a Su- une idee plus au moins juste d'un preme Being; an evident proof Etre Supreme; preuve ividente that original sin has not totally que le peche originel n'a pas tout- obscured our understanding. a-fait obscurci notre jugement. The ellipsis here consists in the omission of the words which is, before evident proof ; which, if expressed, would be fol- lowed by a, une. 142. Seventhly ; when they are under the regimen of the words sorte, espece, genre, and others of the same nature ; as, A sort of peaches. Une sorte de p6ches. A kind of drawing. Un genre de dessin. A heap of rubbish. Tin monceau de decombres, A gang of robbers. Une bande de voleurs. A pile of books. Une pile de livres. A pack of dogs. Une meute de chiens. 143. Remarks. We must not mistake the above sentences for those in which taste and elegance alone cause the article to be suppressed, in order to give more rapidity and energy to the style ; as, Citizens, foreigners, enemies, peo- Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peu- ple, kings, emperors, pity and re- pies, rois, empereurs, le plaignent spect him. et le respectent. 144. There are many idiomatical and proverbial expressions ARTICLE. 49 which are constructed without the article, and would sound badly by its addition, but they prove nothing against the rule, and should be considered as the result of usage and habit only ; as, Poverty is no vice. Pauvrete n'est pas vice, (standing for La pauvrete n'est pas un vice.) In which usage has suppressed la and un. 145. The article should not be placed before nouns preceded by the pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, votre, leur, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, tous (used for chaque), certain, plusieurs, and tel ; nor before a cardinal number taken absolutely ; as, Twenty men fired at me. Vingt hommes firent feu sur moi. These pronouns and nouns of number exclude the article, be- cause they all operate as the article would before the common nouns ; they designate them in a precise manner, and give them the definite character which these nouns have in the mind of him who speaks. 146. But, if the cardinal numbers have a connexion with what precedes or follows, they are no longer used in an abso- lute mode, and must be preceded by the article ; as, On the occasion of the miracle of the Dans le miracle de la multiplication multiplication of loaves, the apos- des pains, les Apotres dirent au ties said to (the) Christ ; We Christ ; Nous n'avons que cinq have but five loaves and two fish- pains et deux poissons. Alors es. Then Jesus Christ, taking the Jesus Christ prenant les cinq pains five loaves and the two fishes, et les deux poissons, les benit. blessed them, &c. In the last part of this sentence, cinq pains, and deux pois- sons, are connected with what precedes, and must be pre- ceded by the article ; whereas, in the first part they are not, and no article is used. 147. Proper names of deities, men, animals, towns, and particular places do not take the article, if they are not taken in a limited sense ; as, God has made the world as it is. Dieu a fait le monde comme il est. Mars was the god of armies. Mars etait le dieu des armees. Pegasus was the horse of the Par- P6gase etait le cheval du Parnasse. n ass us. New York is a city of great beauty. New York est une ville d'une grande beaute. 148. But when those nouns are restricted in their meaning 5 50 FRENCH GRAMMAR. they become common nouns applied to one or several individu- als, and are used definitely ; as, The God of Christians. Le Dieu des Chretiens. The Mars of the Iliad. Le Mars de l'lliade. The Pegasus of Apollo. Le Pegase d'Apollon. The old New York. Vancienne New York. In the first examples, the words Dieu, Mars, Pegase, New York, are used only for the sake of their signification. In the last, on the contrary, they are used with regard to the extent of that signification ; hence, no article with the former, and the article with the latter. 149. Sometimes, in imitation of the Italians, the French join the article to the names of painters, poets, actors, and actresses of that nation ; but they do it only by an elliptical mode of expression ; there is always a common noun understood ; so we say, LaMalaspine, for La Contessa Malaspine. LeTasse, •' 11 poetaT&sso. Formerly, the same mode of expression was used with the name of some of our actresses with an idea of contempt or degradation ; it was then customary to say ; Mrs. Lemaure sings like a nightin- La Lemaure chante comme un ros- gale. signol. That is a trick played by Mrs. Gaus- C'est un tour joue par La Gaussin. sin. But now, among well bred people, this mode of expression is no longer in use, and would show a want of education in those who should employ it. 150. The article is seldom used before a noun after an adverb or word of quantity, and that word of quantity is always itself followed by the preposition of, de ; as, How many apples have you bought ? Combien de pommes avez vous ache- te/ He has as much courage as yourself. II a autant de courage que vous. A multitude of persons were drown- Une multitude de personnes furent ed. noyees. 151. Exceptions. Bien, as an adverb, is followed by the preposition of, and the article ; as, Many people have perished. Bien des gens ont peri. She is very kind. Elle a bien de la bonte. ARTICLE. 51 152. Plusieurs is followed by the noun without either pre- position or article when used as an adjective ; but when used as an adverb it follows the general rule, and takes de after it ; as, Several of my friends. Plusieurs de mes amis. Several persons have told me. Plusieurs personnes m'on dit. Tout, followed by a noun used definitely, requires that noun to be preceded by the definite article ; as, Every body says that you are good. Tout le monde dit que vous etes bon. 153. Remarks. Among the words of quantity are placed plus, moins,pas, point, jamais, which are followed by of, de, without the article ; as, He has more money than I. H &plus d 'argent que moi. He has less good qualities than vi- II a moins de qualites que de vices. ces. He has no fortune. II n'a pas or point de fortune. He never has any money. II n'a jamais d'argent. 154. It must be observed, that in the preceding sentences, where the article is not employed, the nouns which are de- prived of it are only taken with regard to their signification, and not as to the extent of that signification ; but we say, with the article, How many of the apples you have Combien des pommes que vous avez bought have you still ? achetees, avez-vous encore ? A great number of the persons who Un grand nombre des personnes qui have been to sea have perished, se sont mises en mer ont peri, He has many of the qualities and II a beaucoup des qualites et des vi- vices of his father, &c, ces de son pere, because, in these sentences, the words pommes, personnes, qual- ites, vices are restricted by the propositions which follow them, and are consequently definite. 155. The article is not used before nouns expressing the quality of a preceding noun, although it is expressed in Eng- lish in similar cases ; as, Ulysses, the father of Telemachus. Ulysse, phre de Telemaque. The Duke of York, the heir of the Le Due d'York, hdritier du Trone. crown. 156. In English, the adjective a or an is placed before nouns of measure, weight, and purchase ; but in French, the article le, la, or les is used in its stead ; as, 52 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Rye is sold for fifty cents a bushel. Le seigle se vend cinquante sols le boisseau. Sugar is worth ten cents a pound. Le sucre vaut dix sols la livre. Cider costs one dollar a gallon. Le cidre coute une gourde le gallon. It is more than thirty cents for the C'est plus de trente sols les deux two bottles. bouteilles. 157. Remark. When speaking of time, we say, He receives ten shillings a week. II regoit dix shellings par semaine. It would be a fault to say, la semaine. 1 58. In English, when the adverbs more or less are repeated to form a comparison, they must be preceded by the article the ; but, in French, the article is sometimes omitted, and some- times not ; so we say, The more we study, the less we Plus nous etudions, mains nous ap- learn. prenons. 159. But before the same adverbs in the following sen- tences ; Of all these ladies, your sister was De toutes ces dames, votre sceur the most distressed, etait la plus affligee, 160. The article is used, and in the feminine, because there is a word understood, dame, which, being feminine, commands the article to be of the same gender ; Your sister does not cry, even when Votre scsur ne pleure pas, meme she is the most distressed, quand elle est le plus affligee, The article is used in the masculine, because we express only a quality in the highest degree without any idea of com- parison with any other object ; therefore this locution, le plus affligee, is a sort of adverbial expression, and le plus, modifying the adjective, must remain invariable. 161. Le plus, le moins, le mieux, the most, the less, the best, are always invariable when they relate to a verb or an adverb, because then they form an adverbial expression ; as, Racine and Boileau are the poets Racine et Boileau sont les poetes who write the best, who express qui ecrivent le mieux, qui s'expri- themselves the most nobly. ment le plus noblement. Le mieux, le plus, refer to the verb ecrivent and to the ad- verb noblement, and not to Boileau and Racine. 162. The article must be repeated before two or more ARTICLE, 53 adjectives united by the conjunction (and) when they do not qualify the same noun ; as, The young and the old soldier. Le jeune et le vieux soldat. The great and the small apartment. Le grand et le petit appartement. These phrases are elliptical, and mean Le vieux soldat et le jeune soldat. Le grand appartement et le petit appartement. There are two nouns and there must be two articles. 163. But we say, The old and brave soldier. Le vieux et brave soldat. The great and beautiful apartment. Le grand et bel appartement. Because there is now but one soldier and one apartment, therefore a single determinative is necessary. A TABLE OF THE SAME WORDS EMPLOYED. With the Article. The writings of Cicero are full of the soundest ideas. Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins des idees les plus saines. (Restrictive sense of the word ideas, used in reference to the extent of its signification.) Divest yourself of the prejudices of childhood. Defaites vous des prejuges de l'en- fance. (Individual sense, restrictive of the extent of the signification of the word prljuge's applied to those of infancy only.) The different kinds of animals that are upon the earth. Les differentes especes des animaux qui sont sur la terre. (Individual sense applied to a whole species, the whole ex- tent of the signification of the word animaux.) Enter into the details of the rules of a good grammar. Entrez dans les details des regies d'une bonne grammaire. 5 # Without the Article. The writings of Cicero are full of sound ideas. Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins d'idees saines. (Indefinite sense of the words sound ideas without reference to the extent of their significa- tion ; then a mere qualification.) Have no prejudice with regard to this question. N'ayez point de prejuges sur cette question. (Sense vague and indefinite, of the word prejuge's; no reference as to the extent of its meaning.) There are different kinds of animals upon the earth. II y a differentes especes d'animaux sur la terre. (The word animaux used only to qualify especes, employed in- definitely without regard to the extent of its signification.) He enters into a long detail of frivo- lous rules. II entre dans un long detail de regies frivoles. 54 FRENCH GRAMMAR. (Individual sense restricting the meaning of the word regies, to those of a good grammar. Defi- nite.) He affects circumlocutions. II cherche des detours. (Partitive sense without an adjec- tive before the noun.) Avoid the air of affectation. Evitez l'air de /'affectation. (Individual sense reducing the meaning of the word air to that of affectation alone. Definite.) He loads his memory with the verses of Virgil and the phrases of Cicero. II se charge la memoire des vers de Virgile et des phrases de Ciceron. (Individual sense in which the words vers and phrases are limited to those of Virgil and Cicero. Definite.) Essays supported by strong expres- sions. Disco urs soutenu par des expres- sions fortes. (Partitive sense, the adjective placed after the noun.) Remark. When the adjective comes after the noun, as the noun signifies by itself a real being or a metaphorical being taken by imita- tion as a real one should be, that noun presents at once to the mind an idea of individuality, of an iso- lated being existing of itself. He has collected precepts of moral- ity. II a receuilli des preceptes pour la morale. (Partitive sense, individual.) Make use of the tokens we agreed upon. Servez vous des signes dont nous sommes convenus. (Positive, definite expression, signes meaning those we agreed upon and no others.) (The words regies frivoles used adjectively to qualify details ; indefinite.) He affects long circumlocutions. II cherche de longs detours. (Partitive sense with an adjective before the noun.) Avoid all that has an air of affecta- tion. Evitez tout ce qui a un air ^'affec- tation. (Indefinite sense in which air means any air (vague) and affec- tation only qualifies that noun.) He loads his memory with insipid verses and phrases. II se charge la memoire de vers et de phrases insipides. (Vague and indefinite sentence, in which the words vers and phrases are used without any regard to the extent of their significa- tion ; they are insipid, but whose are they ? Indefinite.) Essays supported by lively expres- sions. Discours soutenu par de vives ex- pressions. (Partitive sense, the adjective placed before the noun.) Remark. When the adjective precedes the noun, it presents at once to the mind an idea of qualifi- cation, unless the adjective serves with its noun, to create an individ- ual meaning, as in this sentence : It is the opinion of ancient philoso- phers, C'est l'opinion des anciens philosophes. Ancient philosophers forms but one single idea. A collection of precepts in morals. Receuil de preceptes de morale. (Sense of sort, qualifying collec- tion in a vague and indefinite manner.) Let us use tokens to understand each other. Servons nous de signes pour nous entendre. (Vague and indefinite expression, by which the mind remains in doubt as to the signes to be used.) ARTICLE, 55 Learning has always been the object of the esteem, praise, and admira- tion of man. Le savoir a toujours ete l'objet de /'estime, des louanges et de /'ad- miration des hommes. (Definite, precise meaning of the words estime, louanges, admira- tion, confined to those of man.) The riches of the mind can only be acquired by study. Les richesses de /'esprit ne peuvent s'acquerir que par l'etude. (Definite meaning of the word mind, which is here personified, and modifies richesses so as to limit the extent of its significa- tion.) The gifts of fortune are uncertain. Les dons de la fortune sont uncer- tains. (Sense undivided.) The connexion of proofs makes them please and persuade. L'enchainement des preuves fait qu' elles plaisent et qu'elles persua- dent. (Sense individual.) It is by meditation upon what we read that we acquire fresh know- ledge. C'est par la meditation sur ce qu'on lit qu'on acquiert des connoissan- ces nouvelles. (Partitive sense in which the noun comes before the adjective.) The advantages of memory. Les avantages de la me moire. (Sense individual.) The memory of facts is the most showy. La memoire des facts est la plus brillante. (Sense individual, definite.) The aim of good masters should be to cultivate the minds and reason of their pupils. Le but des bons maitres doit etre de cultiver l'esprit et la raison de leurs eleves. (Sense individual, which the two words bons maitres serve to ex- press.) It is an object of praise, esteem, and admiration. C'est un objet de louange, (/'estime, et (/'admiration. (Vague expression, which does not indicate the extent of the meaning of the words louange, estime, &c.) There is in Peru a prodigious abun- dance of useless riches. II y a au Perou une prodigieuse abondance de richesses inutiles. (Vague and indefinite meaning, in which richesses inutiles only qualifies abondance, without re- gard to the extent of its signifi- cation.) Gifts of fortune. Des dons de fortune. (Sense of sort used adjectively.) There is in this book an admirable connexion of solid proofs. II y a dans ce livre un admirable enchainement de preuves solides. (Sense of sort used adjectively.) It is by meditation that we acquire fresh knowledge. C'est par la meditation que Ton ac- quiert de nouvelles connoissances. (Partitive sense, in which the ad- jective comes before the noun.) There are different kinds of memory. II y a differentes sortes de memoire. (Sense of sort.) He has only a memory of facts. II n'a qu'une memoire de faits. (Qualificative expression, indefi- nite.) He has an air of pedantry, that shocks you at first sight. II y a un air de maitre qui choque au premier coup d'oeil. (Sense of qualification, indefinite.) 56 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The taste of mankind is liable to great changes. Le gout des hommes est sujet a bien des vicissitudes. (Sense individual ; what is said of men in general being applicable to each man individually.) He has no need of the lessons you wish to give him. II n'a pas besoin des legons que vous voulez lui donner. (Individual sense. Definite.) Spain, France, England. Zi'Espagne, la France, Z'Angleterre. (Definite.) The island of Japan. L'lle du Japon. (Name of a distant country, always used with the article.) He comes from China. II vient de la Chine. (Name of distant country, used with the article.) The extent of Persia. L'etendue de la Perse. (Name of a distant country, always preceded by the article.) He lives in Peru, Japan, China, East or West Indies, the United States, Brazil, &c. II vit au Perou, au Japon, a la Chine, aux Indes orientales, aux Indes occidentales, aux Etats Unis, au Bresil, &c. (Names of distant countries, al- ways used with the articles, even when expressing the place of residence.) The politeness of France. La politesse de la France. (Sense definite, meaning the po- liteness of the whole country called France.) The circumference of Ireland. La circonference de Z'lrlande. The interests of Spain. Les interets de Z'Espagne. (Same meaning as above.) The discovery of the art of printing is attributed to Germany. Society of chosen men. Societe d'hommes choisis. (Adjective sense, hommes choisis qualifying the word sociiti. He has no need of lessons. II n'a pas besoin de lemons. (Adjective sense, le$ons qualify- ing the word besoin. Indefi- nite.) The kingdoms of France, Spain, England. Les royaumes de France, d'Espagne, d'Angleterre. (Qualificative.) The island of Corfou. L'ile de Corfu. (Noun of country, used without the article.) He comes from Italy. II vient d'ltalie. (Noun of country not far off, used without the article.) He is in Persia. II est en Perse. (Noun of country preceded by en.) He lives in Italy, in England, in Malta, in Paris, &c. II demeure en Italie, en Angleterre, a Malte, a Paris, &c. (Nouns of countries always used without the article, expressing a place of residence. The wines of France. Les vins de France. (Adjective expression, meaning only that the wines are French, and not Spanish, German, &c.) Irish, linen. Toile d'lrlande. Spanish wool. Laines eTEspagne. (Same meaning as above.) The empire of Germany is divided into an infinity of small States. ARTICLE. 57 La decouverte de /'imprimerie est attribute a /'Allemagne. (Imprimerie used in the whole ex- tent of its signification, Alle- magne, personified expression, definite.) He comes from the French Flan- ders. II vient de la Flandre Frangaise. (Definite.) The water of the Rhine. L'eau du Rhine. The water of the sea is blue. L'eau de la mer est bleue. (Definite expressions, in which the word eau is applied to the whole amount of water con- tained in the Rhine and the sea.) L'empire J'Allemagne est divise en une infinite de petits etats. (Allemagne, used to qualify empire petits itats used to qualify in- finite" ; adjective meaning, indefi- nite.) He comes from Flanders. II vient de Flandre. (Indefinite, and one of those names of country which do not take the article, when preceded by 'coming from'.) Seine water. Eau de Seine. Salt-water fish. Poisson de mer. (Adjective expression, meaning that we do not mean the water of any other river than the Seine, and any other fish than those of the sea.) The God of the Christians is good God is good and merciful. and merciful. Le Dieu des Chretians est bon et Dieu est bon et misericordieux. misericordieux. The Jupiter of the pagans was the greatest of gods. Le Jupiter des payens etait le plus grand des dieux. (Nouns of divinity used restric- tively, definite.) Jupiter was the greatest of gods. Jupiter etait le plus grand des dieux. (Nouns of divinity, used without restriction, classed among prop- er names.) In order to render this table complete, it would be necessary to add a great number of examples to those already given, but the cases which remain to be illustrated present no difficulty. We will give now a list of nouns which are joined to verbs without the article, making with them but a single and indivisi- ble sense. TABLE OF NOUNS USED WITHOUT THE ARTICLE, AFTER A VERB OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. Avoir faim, soif, chaud, froid dessein compassion \ honte coutume mal besoin _envie, &c. to be hungry, thirsty, warm, cold, &c. to intend to have compassion, to pity to be ashamed to be in the habit to have pain to want to wish, &c. 58 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Chercher < fortune to seek fortune malheur, &c. to seek a quarrel Courir 4 fortune risque to run after fortune to risk j 'raison to challenge DemanderJ vengeance to ask vengeance justice, pardon to ask for justice, pardon i grace, &c. to supplicate Dire ! vrai, faux to tell the truth, a falsehood matines, vespres, &c. to say matins, vespers "prise to give one's enemy an advantage jour to appoint a day Donner < parole avis, caution to give word. to inform, to caution quittance to give a receipt .atteinte, &c. to hurt Echapper belle to make a narrow escape " raison to hear reason Entendre * ! raillerie to take a joke well ^malice to find out some wit in a throng vie qui dure to live within compass bonne chere to feast envie to raise envy reflexion to reflect honte to disgrace one honneur to do honor peur to affright plaisir to do a pleasure cas de quelqu'un to value somebody Faire alliance to make an alliance marche to conclude a bargain argent de tout to raise money out of any thing provision to provide with semblant to feign route to be bound to front to face face to face difficulte to make a scruple .faillite, &c. to fail Gagner gros to make large profits Mettre i ordre (a ses affaire) ^fin, &c. to settle (one's business) to put a stop "vrai to speak the truth Parler 4 raison to talk reason bons sens to talk with common sense .Frangais, Anglais, &c. to speak French, English, &c. "envie to envy temoignage to testify Porter < coup bonheur to strike to bring good luck malheur to bring ill luck _ compassion to sympathize " garde to take care patience to wait Prendre « seance medecine to sit to take some medicine conge to take leave _conseil, &c. to consult some body ARTICLE. 59 f service to assist p , J visite to pay a visit itendre < gorge t0 disgorge (_ amour pour amour, &c. to give love for love C lire to know how to read Sayoir signify, . Les (sues) acides de l'estomac. Le (endroit) fort de l'epee. Les (rem&des) purgatifs. Une (ligne) perpendiculaire. 349. The adjective is, then, only taken as a substantive when it expresses an idea which may, positively and actually^ be applied to things of different species, as in the following, ADJECTIVE. 101 What is true persuades. he vrai persuade. What is honest must be preferred IShonnHe doit etre prefere a Vagri- to what is agreeable and useful. able et a futile. The first proposition is true when speaking of a narrative, a system, an argument, a gesture, a sadness, a desire, &c, but it does not designate any of these ideas in particular, and repre- sents what is spoken of only as a thing, the nature of which is truth. 350. The same construction may be applied in the second sentence when the subject spoken of is what is honest, agree- able, and useful. VARIATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 351. The nature of adjectives being, as we have already stated, to express the qualities of nouns, by identifying them- selves with them, they must both have the same character- istics, and always be of the same number and gender. 352. Besides, the adjective may qualify the noun to which it is joined in a manner more or less extended ; this is what is called by grammarians degrees of signification in the adjectives. 353. We have, then, three distinct parts to consider in ad- jectives ; the gender, the number, the degrees of signification. OP THE GENDER IN THE ADJECTIVES. 354. The termination of the adjectives as they are found in dictionaries is masculine. 355. All the adjectives have for their termination in the masculine either an e mute, another vowel, or a consonant. 356. All adjectives in the feminine are ended with an e mute. 357. 1st. Thus, those which end with an e mute in the masculine, do not change their termination in the feminine; such are the following, Ridiculous, Ridicule. A ridiculous man, Un homme ridicule. A ridiculous woman, Une femme ridicule. 9* 102 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Fidele, facile, timide, rouge, riche, &c. Faithful, facile, timid, red, rich, &c. 358. 2d. Adjectives which in the masculine are ended with any other vowel than an e mute, make their feminine by the addition of an e mute to the masculine termination. Enchante, enchantee. poli, polie. bleu, bleue. Enchanted. polished. blue. 359. There is but one exception to this rule, which is Favorite, favori, favorite. 360. 3d. Adjectives ending in the masculine in an, ien, on, besides the addition of an e mute, double their last consonant in the feminine ; as, Christian, Chretien, Chretienne. Peasant, paysan, paysan we. bonne. Good, bon, 361. The Academy, in stating this rule, marks as excep- tions ; English, Anglican, Anglicane. Mahomedan, Mahometan, Mahometane. Persian, Persan, Persawe. Turkish government, Porte-Ottomawe, Sultan, Sultan, Sultane, &c. 362. Exception. Benign, benin, makes benigne. Cunning, malin, " matfgne. 363. 4th. Adjectives ending in the masculine with any other consonant than m or n, make their feminine by the addi- tion of an e mute to their last consonant ; as, Ugly, Great, Hard, Gray, Learned, Prompt, High, Strong, Cold, Fatal, laid, laide. grand, dur, grande. dure. gris, savant, grise. savante. prompt, haut, prompte, haute. fort, forte. froid, froide. fatal, fatale. vil, vile. 364. But this rule has an immense number of exceptions. We will explain them one after another. ADJECTIVE, 103 Adjectives ending with the letter c make their feminine in two ways ; some add he to the masculine ; as, Frank, White, Dry, franc, blanc, francAe. blancAe. seche. 365. Others make their feminine by changing c into que ; as, Public, Turk, Decayed, public, turk, caduc, publigwe. tnrque. c&duque. 366. The adjective Greek, grec, makes its feminine by keeping the c and adding que ; grecque. Raw, crud, makes crue. Pretty, gentil, " gentil/e. 367. Adjectives ending with / in the masculine, make their feminine by changing/ into ve ; as, Brief, Quick, New, Captive, bref, vif, neuf, captif, breve. Vive. neuve. captive, &c. 368. Adjectives ending in g, make their plural- by adding ue to the masculine ; as, Long, long, longwe. 369. Adjectives ending in el, eil, as, ol, ul, os, ot, make their feminine by doubling the last consonant and adding an e mute. Beautiful, Natural, Rosy, Fool, Void, Base, Fat, Neat, Stupid, Bigot, Similar, Old, (beau) bel naturel, vermeil, (fou) fol, nul, bas, gras, gros, net, sot, bigot, pareil, (vieux) viel bel/e. naturel/e. vermeil/e. folfe. nul/e. basse. grasse. grosse. nette. sotte. bigotte. pareil/e. vieil/e. The Academy says that the following adjectives make their feminine thus, Unpolished, Complete, mat, complet, mate, complete, discret, discrete. inquiet, secret, espagnol, devot inquiete. secrete, &c espagnole. devote. suspect, frais, suspecte; &c fraicAe. ras, dissous, absous, rase, dissoute. absoufe. jumeau, jume#e. 104 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Discreet, Anxious, Secret, Spaniard, Pious, Suspicious, Fresh, Close, Dissolved, Absolved, Twin, These exceptions are certainly of a strange nature ; but habit and the Academy require them ; they must then be admitted. 370. Adjectives ending in eur have several modes of termin- ation for the feminine. Those in eur derived from a present participle, by changing ant into ewr, make their feminine by changing eur into euse ; as, Dancer, danseur, danseuse. Deceiver, trompeur, trompeuse, Singer, chanteur, chanteuse, &c. 371. Those ending in teur, unless they are derived from a present participle, as in the preceding examples, change eur into trice; as, Accuser, accusateur, accusatn'ce. Conductor, conducteur, conductnce. Admirer, admirateur, admiratn'ce. Creator, createur, creatn'ce, &c 372. Exception. The following adjectives, although de- rived from present participles, make their plural in trice ; as, Debtor, debiteur, debitn'ce. Executor, executeur, executnce. Inspector, inspecteur, inspectnce. Inventor, inventeur, inventnce. Prosecutor, prosecuteur, prosecutn'ce. Enchanter, enchanteur, enchanteresse. 373. Those ending in erieur make their feminine by adding an e mute to this termination ; as, Exterior, exterieur, exterieure. Superior, superieur, superieure. Anterior, anterieur, anterieure, &c. We must add to this class the following : Of age, majeur, majeure. Minor, mineur, mineure. Better, meilleur, meilleure. ADJECTIVE. 105 374. There is a great number of nouns with this termination that must not be mistaken for adjectives, and make their fem- inine terminations in different manners ; they are easily distin- guished from adjectives by placing the word man, or woman, before them, and seeing if, thus accompanied, they are used in the language. A good dictionary is the best rule for such cases . Those who have a knowledge of the Latin will easily distin- guish how to form the feminine of the adjectives which are derived from it, because adjectives of that origin always end in trice; as, admirer, (Latin) admirator, admiratrix ; admirateur, admiratrice, &c. 375. There are also some adjectives terminating in eur, which have no feminine termination, and are used for either gender ; such as, (Lover of arts,) Author, Conqueror, amateur, auteur, amateur, auteur. vainqueur, &c. vainqueur, 376. Adjectives ending in x, change this letter into se, in the feminine ; as, Courageous, Generous, Happy, 377. Exceptions Reddish, False, Sweet, Prefixed, courageux, genereux, heureux, roux, faux, doux, prefix, courageuse. genereuse. heureuse, &c. Rousse. Fausse. Douce. Prefixe. 378. Five adjectives are entirely defective in their feminine termination, and, besides, change their masculine according to the letter which begins the next word, whether it is a conso- nant or a vowel ; as, Foolish, Old, Beautiful, New, Soft, ( before a consonant, or h aspirated, vowel, or h mute, consonant, or h aspirated, vowel, or h mute, consonant, or h aspirated, vowel, or h mute, consonant, or h aspirated, vowel, or h mute, consonant, or h aspirated, vowel, or A mute, jfolle. ? vieille. I belle. fou, fol. vieux, vieil, beau, bel, ve ^|nouvelle. nouvel, mou, mol, \ molle. 106 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 379. Of these five adjectives, two are not much used ; as, vieil and mol. Some adjectives have no feminine ; as, Active, Foppish, Pale, dispos. fat. paillet, &c. Some have no masculine ; as, Mellow, blette, &c. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 380. Numbers are divided into five classes ; as, 1st. Cardinal, 2d. Ordinal. 3d. Collective. 4th. Distributive. 5th. Proportional. 381. A Table of Cardinal, Ordinal, and Collective Num- bers. Cardinal Numbers. un,m. une, /. deux troig quatre cinq six 7 sept 8 huit 9 neuf 10 dix 11 onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze 15 quinze 16 seize 17 dix-sept 18 dix-huit 19 dix-neuf 20 vingt 21 vingt-et-un 22 vingt-deux, &c. 30 trente 31 trente-et-un, &c. 40 quarante 41 quarante-et-un, &c. 50 cinquante 51 cinquante-et-un, &c. 52 cinquante-deux 60 soixante 61 soixante-et-un, &c. 70 soixante-ot-dix Ordinal Numbers, premier deux-ieme, second trois-ieme quatr-ieme cinq-uieme six-ieme sept-ieme huit-ieme neu-vieme dix-ieme onz-ieme douz-ieme troiz-ieme quatorz-ieme quinz-ieme seiz-ieme dix-sept-ieme dix-huit-ieme dix-neu-vieme vingt-ieme vingt-et-unieme vingt-deuzieme trentieme trente-et-unieme quarantieme quarante-et-unieme cinquantieme cinquante-et-unieme cinquante-deuxierae, soixantieme soixante-et-unieme soixante-dixieme Collective Nouns of Number. first 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 30th 31st 40th 41st 50th unite unit couple, paire couple trio trio deux-couplesj tw p , e c g ou - demi-douz- { half a doz- huitaine eight inine days of prayer dixaine halfa score douzaine a dozen ( fortnight, quinzaine fifteen vingtaine a score a score and a half 51st &c.52d trentame quarantaine two scores cinquantainej^/Xlf 60th soixantaine 61st 70th three ADJECTIVE. 107 71 72 soixante-onze soixaute-douze, &c. soixante-onzieme soixante-douzieme 71st 72d 80 quatre-vingts quatre-vingtieme 80th quatrevingt- | four8coreg 81 90 91 100 101 200 quatro-vingt-un quatre-vingt-dix quatre-vingt-onze, «fec cent cent-un, &c. deux-cents quatre-vingt-unieme 81st quatre-vingt-dixieme 90th . quatre-vingt-onzieme 9lst centieme 100th cent-unieme, &c. 101st deux-centieine, &c. 200th centaine five scores deux-centaines ten scores 1,000 mille millieme 1,000th un-millier j one ^ ou - ' sand 2,000 deux-mille, &c. deux-millieme 2,000th deux-milliers tw ° ***- ( sand 10,000 ' 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 dix-mille un million un billion dix-milliemo millionieme billionieme 10,000th millionth billionth uno-myriade a myriad 1 million 1 million 1 billion 1 billion The formation of the ordinal adjective from the cardinal is so simple, that it requires no further explanation. 382. When, in French, we speak of the days of the month, instead of using the ordinal number, as is done in English, we employ the cardinal ; as, The eighth of April. Le huit Avril, or d'Avril. The 26th of the next month. Le vingt-six du mois prochain. 383. When the day of the month is used with the preposi- tion q/*, there is an ellipsis ; the words huitieme jour being under- stood instead of huit ; when without o/, there is a mere change of words. But, however, when we speak of the first day of the month, we keep the ordinal number as in the English ; as, The First of January. J J* P rem ! er Janvier (change of words). J (Le premier de Janvier (ellipsis) . This exception does not extend any further ; to say, The second day of the month, Le second du mois, is not correct. 384. Although the number onze (eleven) begins with a vowel, the article singular, Ze, la, does not make an elision be- fore it, and les is pronounced as if the word onze began with an h aspirated ; as, The eleventh of March. Le onze de Mars. The eleven apples were good. Les (7*)onze pommes etaient bonnes. 385. In the formation of some of the compound numbers, the word one is placed between the first and the last part ; as, in Twenty-one, vingt-et-un. Thirty-one, trente-et-un. Forty-one, quarante-et-un. Fifty-one, cinquante-et-un. Sixty-one, soixante-et-un. Seventy, soixante-et-dix (exception). 108 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 386. This rule does not extend to any other number, and it would be wrong to say, vingt-et-deux, trente-et-quatre, &c. Some write, soixante-et-onze, soixante-et-douze, but it is not right. This mode of counting in English, one and twenty, six and thirty, &c, is not used in French. 387. One, or a, placed before the words hundred and thou- sand, in English, are suppressed in French ; thus, one hundred, one thousand, are expressed by cent, mille. 388. In some parts of France, instead of soixante-et-dix and quatrevingt-dix, people say septante and nonante, but this lo- cution is reproved by well-educated people. 389. There are, besides the numerical adjectives already mentioned above, many others used in poetry, music, games, &c. ; as, Distich, distique. Tiercet, tercet. Quatrain, &c, quatrain. Solo, solo. Duet, duo. Music in three parts, trio. Quartet, &c. quatuor, &c. Two number ones (playing with dice), beset. Two number sixes, " " sonnet, &c. 390. Un millier is very often employed for one thousand weight. Quintal is only used in the sense of one hundred weight. 391. The Distributive Numbers are those expressing the different parts of a whole ; as, The half, la moitie. The third, le tiers. The fourth, le quart. The fifth, le cinquieme,&c. 392. The Proportional Numbers denote the progressive in- crease of things ; as, The double, le double. The treble, le triple. A hundred fold, le centuple, &c. ADJECTIVE. 109 OF NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES. 393. Adjectives agreeing in number, as well as in gender, with the nouns which they qualify, it becomes necessary now to examine what alterations they suffer in their termination when joined to a noun in the plural. 394. General Rule. Adjectives, whatever may be their termination, form their plural by the addition of an 5 to the feminine and masculine ; as, Masculine. Feminine. Good, Bon, bons. Bonne, bonnes. Polished, Poli, polis. Polie, polies, &c 395. This rule has no exceptions for the feminine termina- tion ; as to the other, there are two cases in which this rule is not observed. 396. 1st. Adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, do not change in the plural ; as, Big, gros, gros. Fat, gras, gras. Hideous, hideux, hideux. Jealous, jaloux, jaloux, &c 397. 2d. Adjectives ending in au and al make their plural by changing this termination into aux; as, Beautiful, beau, beaux. New, General, Equal, nouveau, general, egal, nouveaux. generaux. egaux, &c 398. All cardinal numbers indicate the plural, except one, un; for it would be absurd if a word, which in all cases denotes a plurality, should be followed by a singular noun : thus, two, deux; ten, dix; twenty, vingt, &c, are always in the plural ; as, Two men, deux hommes. Ten years, dix ans. Twenty days, vingt jours, &c. 399. The adjective quatre-vingts takes the plural termina- tion in the word twenty, provided it is not followed by another number ; as, Eighty men, quatre-vingts hommes. Eighty-two men, quatre-vingt-deux hommes. 10 110 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 400. The adjective hundred takes the plural in the same cases ; as, Two hundred days, deux cents jours. Two hundred and one days, deux cent un jours, &c. 401. The adjective thousand, mille, never takes the plural ; as, Ten thousand men, dix mille hommes. One thousand men, mille hommes. 402. The word thousand employed in dates is written mil, and means only ten hundred ; as, In 1830, en mil huit cent trente. 403. Although this example is correct, it is more elegant to say for, In eighteen hundred and thirty, en dix-huit cent trente. 404. The word mille, used as a noun, and meaning a mile, follows the rule of nouns and takes the plural ; as, A hundred miles, cent milks. 405. The adjectives crud, now cru, raw, nud, now nu, naked, make their plural, crus, nus. 406. The adjective, penitentiel, makes its plural, peniten- tiaux, Penitential psalms, Les psaumes pinitentiaux. Universal, universel, makes its plural universels, when em- ployed as an adjective, but taken as a noun used in philosophi- cal discussions it is written universaux (Academy, 1835) ; La these des universaux a fait dans The thesis on universals has been les siecles passes un grand sujet in past ages a great cause of dis- de dispute parmi les ecoles. pute among the schools. 407. Adjectives ending in ant, ent, follow the general rule, keeping the t and adding an s in their plural ; Caressing, caressant, caressants. Contented, content, contents. 408. But when using the qualificatives in ant, we must ascertain if they are really qualificatives or present participles, for in this last case they neither take the plural nor feminine ; ADJECTIVE. Ill Ces deux femmes, craignant de le chagriner, l'ont perdu des sa jeunesse. These two women, fearing to cause him pain, have spoiled him from his youth. 409. The adjective, all, tout, is an exception to the pre- ceding rule, because it drops the t in the plural ; All men are equal. Tous les hommes sont egaux. 410. The adjectives ending in the singular masculine in al are divided, with regard to the formation of their plural, into three categories. Most of them change al into aux. Some only add an s to the singular. Some, by being never joined to a masculine noun, have no plural in this gender, and then follow the general rule of femi- nine adjectives. 411. 1st. Adjectives in al, making their plural aux ; (Not in use.) (Academy.) ( (Most generally \ used in the fem.) (Academy.) {Les idits bur sauce.) (Noel & Chapsal.) [dais.) (Napoleon Lan- (Bouilliers.) [dais.) (Napoleon Lan- (Ibid.) (Ibid.) (Ibid.) (Ibid.) (Academy.) (Napoleon Land.) (Academy.) Annual, Archiepiscopal, Common, Baptismal, Biennial, Brutal, Pecuniary, Capital, Canonical, What belongs to the brain, Ceremonial, Claustral, Collateral, Collegiate, Colossal, Commensal, Conjugal, Decemviral, Decennial, Decimal, Disloyal, Diametrical, Doctrinal, What belongs to domains, Dorsal, Dotal, Equal, Electoral, Episcopal, Equilateral, Equinoctial, annal, archiepiscopal, banal, baptismal, biennal, brutal, bursal, capital, canonical, ■ cerebral, ceremonial, claustral, collateral, collegial, colossal, commensal, conjugal, decemviral, decennal, decimal, deloyal, diametral, doctrinal, > domanial, dorsal, dotal, egal, electoral, episcopal, equilateral, equinoxial, annaux. archiepiscopaux. banaux. baptismaux. biennaux. brutaux. bursaux. capitaux. canonicaux. cerebraux. ceremoniaux. claustraux. collateraux. collegiaux. colossaux. commensaux. conjugaux. decemviraux. decennaux. decimaux. deloyaux. diametraux. doctrinaux. domaniaux. dorsaux. dotaux. egaux. electoraux, episcopaux, equilateraux. equinoxiaux. (Girault, Juvivier.) (Academy.) 112 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Trusty, fe'al, feaux. (Ibid.) Feudal, feodal, feodaux. Fiscal, fiscal, flscaux. Fundamental, fondamental, fondamentaux. General, general, generaux. Grammatical grammatical, grammaticaux. (Ibid.) Horizontal, horizontal, horizontaux. (Napoleon Land.) Ideal, ideal, ideaux. (Ibid.) Illegal, illegal, illegaux. (Academy.) Immoral, immoral, immoraux. Impartial, impartial, impartiaux. (La Harpe.) Imperial, imperial, imperiaux. Unequal, inegal, inegaux. Infernal, infernal, infernaux. Lateral, lateral, lateraux. Legal, legal, legaux. Liberal, liberal, liberaux. Local, local, locaux. Loyal, loyal, loyaux. Lombrical, lombrical, lombricaux. (Napoleon Land.) Machinal, machinal, machinaux. (Academy.) (Girault,Juvivier.) Martial, martial, martiaux. Medicinal, medicinal, medicinaux. (Ibid.) Medical, medical, medicaux. (Ibid.) Meridional, meridional, meridionaux. Moral, moral, moraux. National, national, nationaux. Numeral, numeral, numeraux. (Academy.) Nuptial, nuptial, nuptiaux. Occidental, occidental, occidentaux. Ordinal, ordinal, ordinaux. Oriental, oriental, orientaux. Original, original, originaux. Paradoxical, paradoxal, paradoxaux. (Napoleon Land.) (Ibid.) Partial, partial, partiaux. Patriarchal, patriarcal, patriarcaux. Pectoral, pectoral, pectoraux. (Academy.) Presidial, presidial, presidiaux. Primordial, primordial, primordiaux. (Napoleon Land.) Principal, principal, principaux. Provincial, provincial, provinciaux. Pyramidal, pyramidal, pyramidaux. (Academy.) Quadrennial, quatriennal, quatriennaux. (Ibid.) Radical, radical, radicaux. Royal, royal, royaux. Rural, rural, ruraux. Seignorial, seigneurial, seigneuriaux. SeptentrionaL septentrional, septentrionaux. Sepulchral, sepulcral, sepulcraux. Social, social, sociaux. Transversal, transversal, transversaux. Trivial, trivial, triviaux. (Ibid,) Verbal, verbal, verbaux. Vertical, vertical, verticaux. Vital, vital, vitaux. V r ocal, vocal, vocaux. (Ibid.) ADJECTIVE. 412. 2d. Adjectives in a?, making their plural by adding Fatal, fatal, fatals. Final, final, finals. Glacial, (frozen,) glacial, glacials. Nasal, nasal, nasals. Naval, naval, navals. Theatrical, theatral, theatrals. 413. 3d. Adjectives in a 1, having no plural in the mascu Beneficial, beneficial, beneficiales. (Plural feminine.) Diagonal, diagonal, diagonales. Borial, boreal, boreales. Brumal, brumal, brumales. Crural, crural, crurales. Experimenta I, experimental, experimentales. Instrumental instrumental, instrumentales. Mental, mental, mentales. Frugal, frugal, frugales. Labial, labial, labiales. Natal, natal, natales. Patronal, patronal, patronales. Parochial, paroissial, paroissiales. Pascal, pascal, pascales. Pastoral, pastoral , pastorales. Proverbial, proverbial, proverbiales. Virginal, virginal, virginales. Zodiacal, zodiacal, zodiacales. 113 OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 414. There are three degrees of signification in the adjec- tives ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 415. 1st. The Positive is the adjective itself, expressing the quality of the noun without any increase or diminution ; as, Merit is modest, Gold is precious. Le merite est modeste. L'or est precieux. 416. 2d. The Comparative is so called, because it ex- presses a comparison between two or several objects. If we compare persons or things together, some are either equal, superior, or inferior, to the others ; thus there are three sorts of comparatives ; that of equality, that of superiority, and that of inferiority. 417. The comparative of equality is formed by adding aussi, as, before the adjective, and que, as, after it ; as, Gold is not so precious as diamond, L'or n'est pas aussi precieux que le diamant. 10* 114 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 418. The Comparative of superiority is formed by placing plus, more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it ; as, Gold is more precious than silver. L'or est plus precieux que l'argent. In English the comparative of superiority is formed either by placing more before the adjective, or by adding er to the termination of the adjective ; but these two modes of expres- sion must be rendered in the same manner in French ; as, Peter is richer than Paul, Pierre est plus riche que Paul. 419. The Comparative of inferiority is formed by prefixing moins, less, to the adjective, and placing que after it ; as, Silver is less precious than gold. L'argent est moins precieux que l'or. 420. When several adjectives qualify the same noun, each one must be preceded by one of the adverbs, aussi, plus, moins, according to the nature of the comparison, and the last adjective followed by que ; as, This woman is as beautiful, as Cette femme est aussi belle, aussi good, and as young as yourself. bonne, et aussi jeune que vous. This man is less beautiful, less Cet homme est moins beau, moins good, and less young than your- bon, et moins jeune que vous. self. This young lady is more handsome, Cette demoiselle est plus belle, plus more amiable, and younger than aimable, et plus jeune que vous. yourself. 421. There are three adjectives which are comparative by themselves ; Better, meilleur, instead of plus bon. Worse, pire, " plus mauvais. Less, moindre, " plus petit. 422. Beginners in the study of the French language being apt to confound these comparative adjectives with the com- parative adverbs, mieux, pis, moins, because they are rendered in English by the same words, better, worse, less, it is neces- sary, by a comparison between the two sorts of words, to show the difference of their formation ; Adjective, Meilleur, better, is the comparative of good, bon, and is used instead of plus bon, which is never said in French. Adverb, Mieux, better, is the comparative of well, bien (adverb), and is used instead of plus bien, which is never said in French. ADJECTIVE. 115 Adjective, Pire, worse, is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is used instead of plus mauvais. (Both, may be said in French.) Adverb, Pis, worse, is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used instead of plus mal. (Both may be said in French.) Adjective, Moindre, less, is the comparative of petit, less or smaller, and is used instead of plus petit. (Both may be said in French.) Adverb, Moins, less, is the comparative of pen, little, and is used instead of plus peu, which is never used. Examples. This fruit is good, but that is better. Ce fruit est bon, mais celui-ci est meilleur. I love you well, but I love him Je vous aime bien, mais je l'aime better. rnieux. His health is bad, but it has been Sa sante est mauvaise, mais elle a worse. ete pire. He used to speak badly, but he H parlait mal, mais il parle pis que speaks worse than ever. jamais. My income is small, but yours is Mon revenu est petit, mais le votre less. est moindre. I drink little, but you drink still less. Jebois peu, mais vous buvez encore moins. 423. 3d. The adjective is in the Superlative degree of com- parison, when it expresses the quality of the noun in the high- est degree, or in a very high degree ; hence there are two sorts of superlatives, the absolute and the relative. 424. The Superlative absolute is made by putting tres, fort, bien, very, before the adjective ; it is called absolute, because it expresses no relation to other objects ; as, Boston is a very fine city, Boston est une tres belle ville. 425. The adverbs, extremely, extremement, infinitely, infi- niment, are also the sign of the superlative absolute ; This woman is extremely amiable. Cette femme est extremement ai- mable. This man is supremely happy. Cet homme est infiniment heureux. 426. The superlative relative is formed by placing the article before the comparatives, plus, pis, moins, meilleur, pire, moindre ; it is relative because it expresses a relation to other objects ; the article must be of the same number and gender as the adjective. Paris is the finest of cities, Paris est la plus belle des villes. You are the smaller of the two. Vous etes le moins grand des deux. He is the worst of the family. II est le pire de la famille, &c. 116 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 427. When several adjectives in the superlative qualify a noun, the adverbs plus, moins, must be repeated before every one of them, as well as the article. OF THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES, 428. The place of adjectives before or after the noun is not indifferent in French. Some are always placed before the noun. Some are always placed after the noun. Some are indifferently placed either before or after the noun, so as to please the ear and conform to taste. Some, in fine, change entirely their signification by being placed before or after the noun. 429. Numerical adjectives are always placed before the nouns, as well as the fifteen following, when they are taken in their natural sense ; as, (Castle,) beautiful, beau, chateau. (Bread,) good, bon, pain. (Man,) brave, brave, homme. (Friend,) dear, cher, ami. (Animal,) pitiful, chetif, animal. (Hat,) great, grand, chapeau. (Boy,) big, gros, gargon. (Woman,) young, jeune, femme. (Dinner,) bad, mauvais, diner. (Horse,) wicked, mechant, cheval. (Book,) better, meilleur, livre. (Sorrow,) less, moindre, chagrin. (Cat,) small, petit, chat. (Coat,) old, vieux, habit. (Pain,) true, vrai, chagrin. Ten dollars, dix gourdes. The first man, le 'premier homme 430. Exception 1. Numerical adjectives are placed after proper names, nouns, and pronouns, when they are employed as quotations, and without the article. 431. Instead of the ordinal adjectives, used in English, the cardinal are employed in French, except when referring to the first number, but only after proper names and nouns ; as, ADJECTIVE. 117 Louis the Fourteenth, Louis Quatorze. (cardinal.) Louis the First, Louis Premier. Chapter Second, Chapitre Deux. Chapter First, Chapitre Premier. Page Fortieth. Page Quarante. He the Tenth, Lui Dixieme. 432. The above fifteen adjectives, when connected by a conjunction with another adjective, which, by its nature, ought to follow the noun, lose their place, and are placed after the noun ; as, She is a tall and well made woman. C'est une femme grande et beinfaite ; and not C'est une grande et Men faite femme, because the adjective faite, being derived from the past parti- ciple of the verb faire, ought to be placed after the noun. 433. It is seen by the preceding example, that although in English several adjectives may qualify a noun without the help of a conjunction ; in French this conjunction is required ; thus this phrase, He is an amiable, well behaved man, C'est un homme aimable et poll, (without a conjunction.) requires et between the two adjectives. 434. There are some few idiomatical expressions in which custom allows the noun to be placed between two adjectives ; as, He is a tall, thin man. C'est un grand homme maigre. 435. But where several adjectives follow a noun, and a rest is placed between them, so as to show that one qualification comes after another, to enumerate its different qualities, the conjunction is not required ; as, He is a well bred, rich, learned, elo- C'est un homme Men ne, riche, se- quent, and generous man. vant, Eloquent, et gemreux. 436. 2d. Adjectives formed from the past participles are always placed after the nouns ; this rule has no exceptions. A round face. Une figure arrondie. (arrondi.) ~] A well bred man. Un homme bien n£. (ne.) I past A civil man. Un homme poli. (poli.) [participles. A broken horse. Un cheval dompte. (dompte.) J 118 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 437. Adjectives formed from the present participle are gen- erally placed after the noun, but sometimes more elegantly before it ; it is a matter of taste. An entertaining work. Un ouvrage divertissant. A charming woman. Une charmante femme. 438. Adjectives which qualify in the following manner, are placed after the noun ; as, By the form, \ round ^ £able ronde. 3 ' <. square box, boite carree. ij v t u p pn i nr ^ white house, maison blanche. ay tne color, ^ green c ^^ ^ ^^ By the taste, $ bitter herb, herbe amere. J ' ( sweet wine, vin doux. By the flavor, odoriferous flower, fleur odoriferante. Bv the sound £ harmonious organ, orgue harmonieux. y ' ( sonorous instrument, instrument sonore. By expressing action , \ acti T e f torne y f procureur actif. J F s ' ( vigilant general, general vigilant. By expressing an effect, ( »<£*' ™f °£J%™- ^eo^tenithrnalj-a. pleasure, plaisir^, ~thes P eeies ofajs™ *£-«. *&££* ,, . ( French nation, nation Francaise. Expressing country. \ p ersian empirej empire p er ^ T _ , , . , _, f grotesque face, figure grotesque. In fine, those which ter- ile s h discours vutrile. minate in ague t J, ule, ^ cred dou8 woman femme cr ^^ and most of those in] pubHc good? bien puMic , ic, ique. L magnificent palace, palais magnifique. 439. It is only in poetry, or in prose of an elevated char- acter, that adjectives, formed from the perfect participle, are placed before the noun. 440. Compound words, where this order is not observed, are not exceptions to the above rule, because the adjectives make only one with the nouns : thus we write correctly, An innocent youth, un blanc-hec. Quicksilver, vif-a,rgent. Robin red-breast, rouge-gorge, &c. 441. 3d. All the adjectives which are not mentioned above may, when taken in their natural meaning, be placed before or after the noun ; it is a matter of taste, which exercises a great influence in the style of writing, by adding to the force or ele- gance of the language. It is not in a grammar that this ques- ADJECTIVE. 119 tion ought to find its place, it is enough for us to have noticed the fact as a caution. 442. 4th. The adjectives, whose significations are changed or modified by being placed before or after the noun, will be found in the following list : A LIST SHOWING THE MEANING OF SEVERAL SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 443. A noble appearance. L'air grand. 444. 445. A threatening exterior. L'air mauvais. A man who is tall. Un homme grand. 446. A man great in his views. Un homme grand dans ses vues. 447. A man of small stature. Un petit homme. 448. A credulous, simple man. Un bon homme. 449. A brave, courageous man. Un homme brave. 450. A cruel child, a cruel people, a cruel woman. Un enfant cruel, un peuple cruel, un femme cruelle. 451. Wood dead on the spot. Du bois mort. 452. A positive thing, positive news, a positive mark. Une chose, une nouvelle, une marque certaine. 453. A common voice. Une voix commune. 454. A false string. J] ne fausse corde. 455. Bad light, (for a picture.) J] n faux jour. 456. A false key. Une fausse clef. Manners of a courtier. De grands airs. An ignoble appearance, mephitic air. Le mauvais air. A great man. Un grand homme (is a man who has great talents, unless we add to the word man some qualities of the body, as a great thin man, un grand homme maigre.) A mean man. Un homme petit. A good man. Un homme bon. An honest man. Un brave homme. A child, a people, a woman, insup- portable, on account of their tem- per. Un cruel enfant, un cruel peuple, une cruelle femme. Wood of no value. Du mort bois. A certain thing, certain news, a cer- tain mark. Une certaine chose, une certaine nouvelle, une certaine marque. Unanimously. D'une commune voix. A tone which cannot agree with an- other. Une corde fausse. Fault in the shading of a picture. Un jour faux. A wrong key. Une clef fausse. 120 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 457. A back door, (so as to go out without being seen.) Une fausse porte. 458. Low water, (when the tide is low.) Une morte eau. 459. The last year of the war. La derniere annee de la guerre. 460. A cunning man. Un homme malin. 461. The Holy Spirit. Le saint esprit. 462. A wise woman. Un femme sage. 463. A big woman. Une grosse femme. 464. A man who has the character and manners of a gentleman. Un galant homme. 465. Une galante femme is not said in French. 466. A man who belongs to the no- bility. Un gentil-hovamQ. 467. A new coat, (newly made.) Un nouvel habit. 468. Wine recently made. Du vin nouveau. 469. A poor man, author, &c. (a man who has a poor mind.) Un pauvre homme, auteur, &c. 470. A poor orator, poor wine, poor fare, poor comedy, are terms of contempt or disdain. Un pauvre orateur, du pauvre vin. . Une pauvre chere, une pauvre comedie. 471. A poor language is that which has not all which is necessa- ry to convey ideas. Une langue pauvre. 472. A man who is bizarre, ridicu- lous, eccentric. Unplaisant homme. A mock door, (the appearance of a door, painted or made out of mar- ble, stone, or wood.) Une porte fausse. Water that does not run. Une eau morte. The last year, is the year preceding this one. L'annee derniere. The malign spirit, (the Devil.) Le malin esprit. The Holy Spirit common to the three persons of the holy trinity. L 'esprit saint. A midwife. Une sage-femme. A woman in a state of pregnancy. Une femme grosse. A man who is gallant with the la- dies, and tries to please them, &c. Un homme galant. A woman of irregular habits. Une femme galante. A man who is pretty, gay, lively, jovial, &c. Un homme gentil. A new coat, (of a new pattern.) Un habit nouveau. Wine of a new cask. Du nouveau vin. A poor man, author, (who has no money.) Un auteur pauvre. Un homme pauvre. Poor prince, poor queen, poor inno- cents ! are expressions of pity; the sound of the voice shows the meaning. Le pauvre prince, la pauvre reine. Les pauvres innocents ! A poor language, meaning not only that it is deficient in words, but has no softness, energy, or beauty. Une pauvre langue. A man who is gay, making other people laugh. Un homme plaisant. ADJECTIVE. 121 473. A man who is contemptible, impudent, &c. Un plaisant personnage. 474. A bad comedy, (scornfully.) Une plaisante comedie. 475. A tale without truth or proba- bility. Un plaisant conte. 476. A proud and impudent manner of speaking. Le haut ton. 477. An honest man. Un honnete homme. 478. A dishonest man. Un malhonntte homme. 479. A bad man, (in regard to his actions.) Un mtchant homme. 480. A poor, flat epigram. Une michante epigramme. 481. A new book, (another book.) Un nouveau livre. 482. Furieux, before a noun, means great. A furious tempest. Une furieuse tempete. The part of an actor, which is full of wit, sarcasm, &c. Un personnage plaisant An amusing comedy, (witty, &c.) Un comedie plaisante. An agreeable and pleasing tale. Un conte plaisant. A high tone, (in music.) Le ton haut. A polite man. Un homme honnite. A man of ill breeding. Un homme malhonnete. A bad man, (in regard to his thoughts and speech.) Un homme mediant. A wicked epigram. Une epigramme mechante. A new book, (recently published.) Un livre nouveau. Furieux, after a noun, means mad with rage. A furious lion. Un lion furieux. 483. Mortel, before a noun, means Mortel, after the noun, means apt to excessive. die. There are ten mortal leagues. This mortal life. 11 y a dix mortelles lieues. Cette vie mortelle. 484. An ugly man. A mean man. Un vilain homme. Un homme vilain. 485. Seul, before a noun, means Seul, after a noun, means without only one. company. An only man. A man alone. Un seul homme. Un homme seul. 486. The rich Lucullus, means Lu- Lucullus the rich, means that there cullus who is rich. are several Luculluses, and we speak of him who is rich. 487. Le riche Lucullus. Lucullus le riche. 11 122 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF ADJECTIVES CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR RELATIONS WITH OTHER WORDS. 488. The relations of adjectives with other words are the following : 1st. Agreement of adjectives with nouns. 2d. Use of adjectives with the article. 3d. Regimen of the adjective. OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 489. The adjective makes but one. with the noun which it qualifies ; consequently, it must follow the inflection of the noun and agree with it in number and gender ; as, Good father. Bon p&re. Good mother. Bonne mere. Exquisite wine. Excellents vins. Handsome women. Belles femmes. 490. Exceptions. From this rule we must except bare, nud, half, demi, when placed before a noun, and late, feu, when placed before the article or possessive pronoun ; as, He goes barefooted. II va raz-pieds. I will be with you in half an hour. Je serai a vous dans une demi-heme. The late queen. Feu la reine. 491. But the agreement takes place, if the adjectives nud and demi be placed after the noun, and feu between the article or pronoun and the noun ; as, His feet are bare. H a les pieds nus. I will be with you in an hour and a Je serai a vous dans une heure et half. demie. The late queen. La feue reine. My late mother. Ma feue mere. 492. Adjectives employed to qualify verbs are used adverb- ially and remain unchanged ; as, To sing out of tune. Chanter faux. She sings out of tune. Elle chante faux. She speaks aloud. Elle parle haut. 493. Some are employed as if they were prepositions, and then do not agree ; as, supposed, suppose; excepted, excepte : ADJECTIVE. 123 Suppose the truth of the fact. Suppose^ la veritedu fait. Except some wretches. Excepte quelques malheureux. 494. But if those adjectives are placed after the nouns, they take the agreement ; as, Some wretches being- excepted. Quelques malheureux exceptis. The truth of the fact being sup- La verite du fait suppose" e. 495. As a consequence of the above rule, we must admit that comparative and superlative adjectives must agree with the nouns they qualify, since they are but adjectives taken in a sense more or less extensive ; as, To the most perfect beauty, she adds A la beaute la plus parfaite, elle joint the most exquisite sensibility. la sensibilite la plus exquise. 496. Most generally, in French, comparatives and super- latives are placed after the noun, as above. 497. Sometimes the superlative refers to a noun which is not expressed, then we must in our minds reestablish the ex- istence of that noun, and make the superlative agree with it ; as Winter is the dullest of seasons. L'hiver est (la saison) la plus triste des saisons. The Bois de Boulogne is the most Le Bois de Boulogne est (le lieu pub- agreeable and the most frequent- lie) le plus agreable et le plus fre- ed among the public places in the quente des lieux publics des envi- neighbourhood of Paris. rons de Paris. .In these two sentences, the words saison and lieu public are understood, and it is with them that the superlatives agree. 498. Besides this general rule of the agreement of adjec- tives with their nouns, there are several particular ones which we must now explain. 499. 1st. When an adjective refers to two or more substan- tives this adjective is placed in the plural ; as, Kings and shepherds are equal after La roi et le berger sont 6gaux apres death. la mort. In order to understand this rule and apply it rightly, we must consider that the adjective may refer to persons or things : 500. When it refers to persons, the above rule has no ex- ceptions ; as, Philemon and Baucis were virtuous Philemon et Baucis etaient simples et and simple. vertueux. 124 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 501. When it refers to things, the noun may be used as a nominative or as regimen : if as a nominative, the agreement must take place ; as, Work and courage, united together, Le travail et le courage joints ensem- enable one to surmount every ob- ble font surmonter touts les obsta- stacle. cles. If used as regimen, the adjective must agree with the last ; as, He has his mouth and eyes open. II a la bouche et les yeux ouverts, or II a les yeux et la bouche ouverte. 502. But when the adjective is the object of the verb to 5e, it agrees with both nouns ; as, His patience and firmness are inex- Sa patience et sa fermete sont int- haustible. puisables. 503. 2d. When the adjective refers to two or several nouns of different genders, it agrees with the masculine and takes the plural ; as, My father and mother are satisfied. Mon pere et ma mere sont contents. 504. The adjective always receives the law of the substan- tive, but has no influence over it ; consequently, several adjec- tives placed before a noun expressing but a single object of its kind do not require that noun in the plural ; thus, this phrase. The English and French languages Les langues Anglaise et Francaise are much cultivated, sont fort cultivees, is not grammatical ; we must turn it differently, and say, La langue Anglaise et la langue Francaise sont fort cultivees. 505. But, if the adjective could be placed before the noun, which is not the case in the above sentence, Anglaise and Frangaise being adjectives of country and always following the nouns, or, if the article could idiomatically be placed before the adjective, then the repetition of the noun would not be neces- sary ; as, The first and second story. Le premier et le second etage. The ancient and modern history. L'histoire ancienne et la moderne. 506. Two adjectives, the first being qualified by the second, remain both invariable ; as, Light-brown hair. Des cheveux chatain clair. Light-rose silks. Des soies rose lendre. ADJECTIVE. 125 The reason of this rule is, that the first adjective is taken as a substantive ; it is as if we wrote, Des cheveux d'un chatain clair. Des soies d'un rose tendre. 507. There are adjectives which, by the genius of the lan- guage, are always applied to persons, and others to things ; we must, then, take care never to qualify a person with an adjective which only belongs to things, and vice, versa. The following phrases are not French : A deplorable prince, Un prince deplorable. An inconsolable thing. Une chose inconsolable ; because the adjective deplorable is only applied to things in French, while inconsolable is only applied to persons. In or- der to use these two adjectives, properly applied, as above, we should say : A prince whose fate is deplorable. Un prince dont le sort est deplorable. A prince inconsolable in his grief. Un prince inconsolable dans sa dou- leur ; because then the two adjectives apply to the sort of nouns which they are made to qualify. 508. There are expressions in which it seems difficult to know which is the noun with which the adjective must agree, but by analyzing the sentence the difficulty soon disappears ; as, This woman has a kind appearance. Cette femme a l'air bon. Your daughter appears to be witty. Votre fille a l'air spirituel. Many persons are inclined to write those sentences in this way : Cette femme a l'air bonne, Votre fille a l'air spirituel/e ; placing the adjectives in the feminine. If we reflect upon the meaning of those sentences, we find that they do not signify that the woman and the daughter are either good or witty, but their air is such ; consequently, it is upon the air and not the person, that the mind is directed, and the adjective should then agree with the former. 509. When we say, White silk stockings, Des bas de soie blancs, 11* 126 FRENCH GRAMxMAR. our mind does not think of the silk as a material which, being used, renders the stockings white, but it is only struck by the idea of the stockings ; and stockings being masculine plural, the adjective must be of the same number and gender. 510. But expressions like these : This apple seems to be cooked, Cette pomme a l'air cuit, These legs of mutton seem to be Ces gigots ont l'air cuit, roasted, although conforming to the preceding rule, are not correct ; be- cause we do not say, we cannot say, according to the genius of the language, un air cuit, an air cooked ; whereas, in the preceding examples, we say, very properly, un air bon, un air spiritual ; therefore, if we wish to express the ideas of an apple or a leg of mutton having the appearance of being cooked, we must turn the sentences differently, and say : Cette pomme a Pair d'etre cuite. Ces gigots ont l'air d'etre cuits. 511. There is a difference of construction between French and English sentences, expressing measure, which it is proper to mention here. In English, the substantive of measure is placed before the noun or adjective expressing dimension ; as, A tower two hundred feet high, or in height. In French, the word which expresses dimension is placed first, if it be an adjective, and the preposition of, de, is added to it as a regimen ; as, Une tour haute de deux cents pieds. 512. But, if it be an adjective taken substantively, or a sub- stantive itself, which expresses dimension, then it is placed after it, with the same preposition of, de, either before a noun of measure or dimension ; as, Une tour de deux cents pieds de haut, or de hauteur. 513. The English manner of expressing dimensions is to use the verb to be ; as, The walls of Algiers are twelve feet high and thirty feet thick. In French, we generally use the verb to have, avoir, without ADJECTIVE. 127 a preposition, and sometimes the verb to be, etre, with the prep- osition of, de ; as, Les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds de hauteur et trente pieds d'epaisseur. Les murs d'Alger sont de douze pieds de hauteur et de trente pieds d'epais- seur. 514. It is more elegant to render the last part of the sen- tence with sur, upon, instead of de, of, and say : Les murs d'Alger ont douze pieds de hauteur sur trente pieds d'epaisseur. Les murs d'Alger sont de douze pieds de hauteur sur trente pieds d'epais- seur. But the first locution of the two last is most generally adopted. 515. In comparative sentences, the English, to express dif ference, turn their phrases in this way ; as, She is taller than her sister by the whole head. But, Elle est plus grande que sa sceur de toute la tete, is the French construction to be adopted in similar cases. OP THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE ARTICLE. 516. Adjectives expressing only modes and qualities are not preceded by the article except in a few instances, which will be explained afterwards ; thus we say, without an article, Men are often good or bad only for Les hommes sont souvent bons ou the reason, that they have re- mauvais, par cela seul qu'ils ont ceived good or bad examples. re§u de bons ou de mauvais exem- ples. 517. But adjectives used as nouns are, like nouns, preceded by the article, if the case requires it ; as, Fools invent fashions and wise men Lesfous inventent les modes, et les conform to them. sages s'y conforment. 518. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives ex- pressing opposite qualifications, the article must be repeated be- fore each adjective ; as, 128 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The old and the new-raised soldiers Les vieux et les nouveaux soldats are fall of ardor. sont remplis d'ardeur. A man who cares for his reputation Un homme qui est jaloux de sa re- ought to frequent good and avoid putation doit frequenter la bonne bad company. compagnie etfuir la mauvaise. The reason of this is, that adjectives opposite in significa- tion cannot at the same time modify the same substantive ; a soldier cannot be young and old at once, and company cannot be both good and bad. Then there is an ellipsis in the two above examples, of the word soldier after old, and of the word company after good, and the existence of two nouns requires the use of the article before each, their meaning being definite. 519. But, if the qualifications expressed by the adjectives are similar, the noun being jointly modified by them, the ellip- sis does not exist, and consequently the article is not repeated ; as, The wise and pious Fenelon. Le sage et vertueux Fenelon. There being but one individual who is wise and pious. 520. When the qualifications, without being incompatible, are somewhat different, it is correct to repeat the article, al- though not indispensable ; as, The sensible and ingenious Fene- Le sensible et l'ingenieux Fenelon. Ion, Here one of the qualities belongs to the mind, the other to the heart ; but in general the ear must be consulted in cases similar to this in preference to rules. 521. Before adjectives prefixed to proper names, either to express their qualities, or to distinguish the person spoken of from those who might bear the same name, the article is used ; thus we say, The sublime Bossuet, Le sublime Bossuet. The virtuous Fenelon, Le vertueux Fenelon. The tender Racine, Le tendre Racine. Henry the Great, Henry le Grand. Louis the Fat, Louis le Gros. Louis the Beloved, Louis le Bien-aime. 522. The adjective preceding the noun shows but a distinct quality, but, when following it, points out the noun as a par- ticular one among others like it. The above examples demon- strate the truth of this remark. ADJECTIVE. 129 When a superlative relative precedes a substantive, the article serves for both ; as, The ablest men sometimes commit Les plus habiles gens font souvent les the grossest blunders. plus grandes fautes. 523. But if it follows the substantive, the article must be repeated ; Les gens les plus habiles font souvent les fautes les plus grandes. When two or more superlatives modify a noun, the sign of the superlative, either relative or absolute, must be repeated before each adjective ; as, It is equally the custom of the most C'est egalement la coutume des barbarous and the most civilized peuples les plus barbares et les people. plus civilises. and not, C'est egalement la coutume des peuples les plus barbares et civilises. This is in conformity to the rule already laid down, which says, that two adjectives of opposite meaning cannot qualify the same noun without the article being placed before both. 524. We have seen by the preceding rules, that when the article is used with the adjective, it always precedes it ; but there is an exception. 525. The adjective, all, tout, when employed with the arti- cle, always precedes it ; thus we say, Everybody says that you are a Tout le monde dit que vous etes un rogue. coquin. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES 526. The regimen of an adjective may be a substantive, or a verb preceded by a preposition. 527. Some adjectives have no regimen, because they have in themselves a complete, determined, and fixed signification ; as. Courageous, courageux. Brave, brave. Wise, sage, &c. 130 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 528. Some must have a regimen, because they ought to be restricted, to have a determined signification ; as, Able, capable. Ready, pret. Willing, dispose, &c. 529. Some, in fine, sometimes have a regimen, sometimes not. They have a regimen, when what we wish to express requires restriction. They have no regimen when employed by the mind in a general sense ; as, Sensible, sensible. Contented, content. Sorry, fache, &c. 530. Rule. We must not give a regimen to an adjective which should have none, and we must be careful not to give any, which is not authorized by usage. The application of this rule presents some difficulty ; it depends principally upon habit, which can be acquired only by time, and is often opposed to the rules of the language. We shall hereafter give a list of the adjectives most gener- ally used, with all the indications necessary to enable pupils to apply them right ; but we cannot insist too much upon the remark, that time, and reading good authors, can alone give a complete knowledge of this difficulty. 531. Before using an adjective it must be ascertained wheth- er it may be used in regard to persons, or to things ; we have already given some intimations about it, but we shall now state how to ascertain either of these two cases. 532. The adjectives which apply to persons are generally those which come from verbs which may have persons for their direct objects ; thus, although we may say, une action pardon- nable, une faute deplorable, we cannot say, une personne par- donnable, un prince deplorable, because, although we may say, pardonner une action, deplorer une faute, we cannot say, ac- cording to usage, pardonner une personne, deplorer un prince. 533. Another difficulty is, to ascertain which are the ad- jectives that may be restricted by verbs alone ; for then it is a fault to give them a substantive as an object ; in this phrase, for instance, PRONOUN. 131 Impatient du joug et de la con- Impatient of yoke and restraint, train te, the adjective impatient is used improperly, because usage has determined that it should be restricted by a verb ; so we say correctly, Impatient de commander, Impatient of command, and not, impatient du commandement. (See, at the end of the Grammar, a list of Adjectives with the prepositions which they govern.) OF THE PRONOUN. 534. The Pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. Although this definition is applicable to some of the words called pronouns, yet there are some among them which would be better called adjectives, because they are never employed without being joined to nouns ; but we shall keep this denomi- nation for all, because they are generally qualified by that appel- lation, and sometimes clearness is preferable to precision. 534. The pronouns are of great service in languages ; they not only save repetitions which would be insupportable and hard, but they spread over the style a clearness, animation, variety, and grace, which would not exist without their assist- ance. In this passage, for instance, which we extract from the works of the Abbot Girard ; The grammar ought to follow the II faut que la grammaire soit con- genius of the language of which duite par le genie de la langue it treats ; its method ought to be qu'e/Ze traite ; que la methode en clear and facile ; it should not soit nette et facile ; qu'e//e n'o- omit any of the laws consecrated mette aucune des lois consacrees by good practice; it should be par J 'usage ; et que tout y soit definite, precise, and illustrated exactement defini, ainsi qu'eclaire by examples, so that ignorant par des exemples, afin que les people may learn it, and the ignorants puissent Z'apprendre, et learned may approve it. que les savants lui donnent lew approbation. 536. The words, elle, en, y, l\ lui, leur, are pronouns, which replace the nouns, grammaire and savant. If, instead 132 FRENCH GRAMMAR. of them, we repeat the words themselves, the sentence is not tolerable, and presents the most ridiculous specimen of style ; as, II faut que la, grammaire soit conduite par le genie de la langue que le gram- maire traite ; que la methode de la grammaire soit nette et facile ; que la grammaire n'omette aucune des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et que tout dans la grammaire soit defini, ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, afin que les ignorants puissent apprendre la grammaire, et que les savants donnent a la grammaire l'approbation des savants. 537. We shall divide the pronouns into six different classes ; 1. Personal Pronouns. 2. Possessive " 3. Relative " 4. Absolute " 5. Demonstrative " 6. Indefinite. " OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 538. Personal pronouns are those which are used to desig- nate persons and things. There are three persons ; The First is that who speaks. The Second is that who is spoken to. The Third is that who is spoken of. Personal pronouns may be nominatives or objectives. 539. Of Personal Pronouns Nominative. 1 Person, sing. masc. and fem. I, je, I speak, je parle. 2 " " " Thou, tu, thou speakest, tu paries. 3 " " masc. He, il, he speaks, il parle. 3 " " fem. She, elle, she speaks, elle parle. ti a „„ „„ j r t* S il or ) it rains, il pleut. 3 masc. and fem. It, J ^ £ [t |g ^ J Q ^ no[ ^ [speaking of a carriage. 1 Person, plur. masc. and fem. We, nous, we speak, nous parlons. 2 " " " You, vous, you speak, vous parlez. 3 " " masc. They, ils, they speak, ils parlent. 3 " " fem. They, elles, they speak, elles parlent. 540. In the interrogative form, these pronouns are used as follows ; PRONOUN. 133 i ? ! ? Do I speak ? parle-je . Dost thou speak ? parles-tu Does he speak ? parle-t-il . Does she speak ? parle-t-elle Does it rain ? pleut-il ? Is it black ? est-elle noire ? \ ( S P eakin g of ( a carriage.) Do we speak ? parlons-nous ? Do you speak ? parlez-vous ? Do they speak ? parlent-ils ? S ( S P eakin § °f Do they speak? parlent-elles ? \ \y^™*\ Of Personal Pronouns Objective. 541. Personal Pronouns may be employed objectively ; directly without a preposition, or indirectly with a preposition. The verb may be affirmative or interrogative. Of Personal Pronouns employed as direct objects in the affirmative form. Me, me, he sees me, il me voit. Thee, te, he sees thee, il te voit. Him, le, he sees him, il le voit. Her, la, he sees her, il la voit. It, le or la, he sees it, il le or la voit Us, nous, he sees us, il nous voit. You, vous, he sees you, il vous voit. Them, masc. & fern, les, he sees them, il les voit. 542. It is seen by this table, that the objective English pronouns, me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them, are expressed in French by me, te, le, la, le or la, nous, vous, les, placed before the verb. 543. Of Personal Pronouns employed as direct objects in the interrogative form. Me, Thee, Him, her, It, Us, You, Them, masc. & fem. les, 12 me, does he see me ? me voit-il ? te, does he see thee ? te voit-il ? le, la, does he see him or her ? le or la voit-il ? le, la, does he see it ? le or la voit-il ? nous, does he see us ? nous voit-il ? vous, does he see you ? vous voit-il ? les, does he see them ? les voit-il ? 134 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 544. Of Personal Pronouns employed as indirect objects in the affirmative form, with the preposition, to, a. To me, me, he speaks to me, il me parle. To thee, te, he speaks to thee, il te parle. To him, to her, lui he speaks to him, to her, il lui parle. To us, nous, he speaks to us, il nous parle. To you, vous, he speaks to you, il vous parle. To them, masc. & fem. leur, he speaks to them, il leur parle. 545. It is seen by this table, that we express to me, to thee, to him, to her, to it, to us, to you, to them, by me, te, lui, lui, lui, nous, vous, leur, placed before the verb. 546. Of Personal Pronouns used as indirect objects in the interrogative form, with the preposition to, a. To me, me, do you speak to me ? me parlez-vous ? To thee, te, do we speak to thee ? te parlons-nous ? To him, to her, lui, do you speak to him, to her? lui parlez-vous ? To us, nous, do you speak to us ? • nous parlez-vous? To you, vous, do we speak to you ? vows parlons-nous? To them, leur, do you speak to them ? leur parlez-vous ? 547. Although this mode of expressing the personal pro- nouns applied to persons in the above manner with the prepo- sition to, is the most generally used, some verbs require another form ; with these, the pronoun must be placed after the verb, the preposition to, a, be expressed, and the construc- tion be as follows ; 548. To me, a moi, you think of me, \ ^r e JnU \ vous pensez a moi. To thee, a toi, I think of thee, " je pense a toi. To him, to her, alui, aelle,lthink of him, of her, " je pense alui, a elle. To us, a nous, he thinks of us, " il pense a nous. To you, a vous, he thinks of you, " il pense h vous. To them, a eux, m. you think of them, " vous pensez a eux. To them, a elles, f. you think of them, " vous pensez a elles. 549. In the interrogative form these pronouns keep the same place, after the verb, and are expressed in the same manner. 550. We have omitted in the above lists to express the pro- noun it, with the preposition to, as well as them, applied to things, because they require some explanations peculiar to themselves. These two words, to it, and to them, applied to things, are generally rendered by the letter y, which then be- comes a contracted pronoun ; but in some instances by lui and leur. To him, to her, to them, (this last referring to persons,) are also, sometimes, expressed by y, as follows ; PRONOUN. 135 To it, (speaking of things,) y. lui, \ lui, ( This reason is good, I yield to it. < Cette raison est bonne, je m'y ( rends. My horse is sick, an operation will be necessary for him, Mon cheval est malade, il faudra lui [_ faire une operation. f Your mare does not look well, you J ought to cut off her tail, j Votre jument n'a pas bonne mine, (_ il faut lui couper la queue. ("Your friend is absent, we often J think of him, (to him, in French,) j Votre ami est absent, nous y pen- (_ sons souvent. (for, a lui.) ("Your sister is sick, we often think J of her, (to her, in French,) 1 Votre soeur est malade, nous y pen- l_ sons souvent. (for, aelle.) fYour arguments are good, I see no reply to them, Vos raisons sont bonnes, je n'y vois point de replique. ("Your cattle are sick, you must give J them medicine, (ibr, to them,) j Vos bestiaux sont malades, il faut {_ leur donner une potion. Your brother and sister have been absent, we very often think of them, (for, to them,) Votre frere et votre sceur ont ete absents, nous y avons pense bien souvent, (for a eux.) 551. But although to him, to her, and to them, applied to persons, may thus be expressed by y, and to it sometimes by lui, it must be remembered that this is only applicable in a few cases, which are the result of usage, and consequently much discrimination must be used in regard to them. We will here- after give more explanations and illustrations about it. 552. Of Personal Pronouns employed with the preposition of, de. To it, To it, (feminine,) To him, To her, To them, (relating to things,) y, To them, (relating to things,) leur, To them, (relating to persons,) y , Of me, de moi, Of thee, de toi, Of him, delui, Of her, d'elle, Of us, de nous, Of you, de vous, Of them, (m. of pers.) d'eux, Of them, (fern. " d'elles, you speak of me. I speak of thee, I speak of him, I speak of her, he speaks of us, I speak of you, I speak of them, I speak of them, vous parlez de moi, je parle de toi. je parle de lui. je parle d'elle. il parle de nous. je parle de vous. je parle d'eux. je parle d'elles. 136 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 553. Of him, of her, and of them, speaking of persons, may also be rendered by en, which is then a contracted pronoun ; and of it (masculine and feminine), as well as of them, referring to things, are almost always expressed by the same word, en : as, Of it (speaking of things) er; Of him Of her, en { This reason is good, I confess it (of it). ( Cette raison est bonne, j'en conviens. ("This boat soon left us behind it. nr it •or.osin'nrr > I ^e Dateau nous laissa bientot loin de of S \ de lui ' d ' elle < lui » ^ ' Cette barque nous laissa bientot loin L d'elle. ("Your brother is absent, we speak of I him very often. j Votre frere est absent, nous en par- (_ Ions bien souvent. ("Your sister is beautiful, we are jealous j of her. j Votre sceur est belle, nous en sommes [_ jalouses. Those apples are very fine, give me some (of them). Ces pommes sont tres belles, donnez l_ m'en quelques unes. These boats go very fast, they will leave us far (from them) behind them. Ces bateaux vont tres vite, ils nous laisseront loin cfeux, Ces barques vont tres vite, elles nous laisseront loin d? elles. TYour brothers are absent, we often speak of them. Vos freres sont absents, nous en parl- ons souvent. Of them (speak- ) ing of things) 5 n k -}d'eux,d'e!les ing of things) Of them (speak- ) ing of persons) 5 Your sisters are sick, we often speak of them. i Vos sceurs sont malades, nous en par- l- Ions souvent. 554. Of him, of her, of them (speaking of persons), are as well rendered by en, as by de lui, oVelle, oVeux, oV elles ; but it is only in few cases that of it and of them (speaking of things) should be expressed by de lui, d'elle, oVeux, d 'elles ; they are generally rendered by en placed before the verb. 555. It results, from the preceding tables, that the personal pronouns in most cases are placed before the verbs with or without contraction, when used objectively. But, if the verb PRONOUN. 137 is in the imperative mood, then those pronouns are placed after it, and receive the following modifications : Kill me, (direct) Speak to me, (indirect) Think of me, (to me, in French) (indirect) Speak of me, Tuez moi. Parlez moi. Pensez a moi. Parlez de moi. 556. The pronouns of the second person singular and plural are only used in the imperative in the reflective form, and we will speak of them hereafter. Love him, (direct) Aimez-le. Love her, " Aimez-la. Love it, Aimez-le, or la, or ceci, or cela Speak to him, or to her, (indirect) Parlez-lui. Think of him (to him), " Pensez-a-lui. Think of her (to her), " Pensez-a-elle. Think of it (to it), Pensez-y. Speak of him, of her, " Parlez-de-lui, or d'elle, or en. Speaktof it, " Parlez-en. Love us, (masc. orfem.) (direct) , Aimez-nous. Speak to us, " (indirect) Parlez-nous. Think of us (to us), " " Pensez-a-nous. Love them, " (direct) Aimez-les. Speak to them, (speaking of per- sons) Parlez-leur. Think of them, (to them) (speaking of persons) Pensez-a-eux, or a elles. Think of them, (speaking of things) Pensez-y. Speak of them, (speaking of per- sons) Parlez-d'eux, d'elles, en. Speak of them, (speaking of things) Parlez-en. 557. It results from the preceding table, that among the per- sonal pronouns used objectively, some are always placed after the verb, and others sometimes before and sometimes after it. 558. The objective pronouns, always used after verbs, are : Me, or to me, Thee, or to thee, Her, Them, Moi. Toi. Elle. Eux, elles. 559. The objective pronouns, always used before the verb, are Me, or to me, Me. Thee, to thee, T e . Himself or herself, themselves, Se. To himself or herself, to themselves, Se. 12 138 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 560. Lui and eux, elle and elles, moi and toi, are used some- times with, and sometimes without, a preposition. 561. Me, te, and se are never used with a preposition. 562. The objective pronouns used sometimes before and sometimes after the verb are : Him, it, Her, it, to. J la. 5 Them, les. To him, to her, lui. To them, (speak- ing of persons) leur. To it, y. To them, y. Of it, en. Of them, en. Us, to us, nous. You, to you, vous. 563. Of these pronouns, lui, nous, and vous are used with and without prepositions ; but /e, la, les, y, and en always pre- cede or follow the verb without any. 564. Of Reflective Pronouns. Myself To myself a Thyself To thyself Himself Herself To himself To herself Of himself Of herself Itself Ourselves To ourselves To ourselves Yourselves me me a moi te te a toi se (lui meme) se (elle meme) se (a lui meme) se (a elle m6me) C de lui, or de lui I meme f d'elle, or d'elle I meme se C nous (nous ( memes) c nous (a nous I memes) C a nous (a nous I memes) C v ous a (vous I memes) I love myself I speak to myself I think of myself Thou lovest thyself Thou speakest to thyself Thou thinkest of thyself He loves himself She loves herself TT i . v , ~( il se parle (a lui He speaks to hirnseli < m # m e) She speaks to herself £ ellemSne) * tt i ru- ,.cilparledelui,or He speaks of himself £ de lui m ^ me „, ,'"■/•"-, ir r elle parle d'elle She speaks of herself | or d , elle m6me The fire is going out le feu s'eteint We love ourselves je m'aime je me parle je pense a moi tu t'aimes £ tu te paries > tu penses a, toi Cil s'aime (lui ( meme) £ elle s'aime (elle ( m^me) We speak to our- selves We think selves of our- You love yourselves nous nous ai- mons nous nous par- Ions (a nous memes) nous pensons a nous (a nous memes) vous vous ai- mez (vous memes) PRONOUN. 139 , Cvous (a vous You speak to your- S v 7 p s /° us P a J" To yourselves \ mgm v es) seh £ s £ mimes) , (a vous (a vous You think of ^S^f&^L* To yourselves \ m g mes) v selves j ™Z£ m, i „ /™~ m & m oe\ They love them- ils s'aiment Themselves se (eux memes) J^ (eux memes) , . „ a X They love them- elles s'aiment Themselves se (elles memes) J^ (elles m«mes) To themselves se(aeu X memes) Thereat ,o them- ft-F£«£ To themselves se(aelles memes) The^speak to them- eUe^se parient Themselves > The fires are m leg feux ^. (speaking of ^se out gnent thmgS) [One loves one's self on s'aime (soi- One'sself se, soi, soi meme <> , meme) j One loves but one's on n'aime que L self soi (soi-meme) TOne speaks to one's on se parle (a rp , lf C se, a soi, a soi J self soi-meme) 10 ones sen £ m * me < Qne thinkg of one , g on pense ^ soi [_ self (a soi-meme) 565. It results from this table, that the reflective pronouns me, te, and se, are always placed before the verb without a preposition ; whereas toi, moi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, and elles, with or without the adjective meme, and with or without a preposition, always follow the verb. Time and practice are the only sure guides in this case, as in many others. Of Reciprocal Personal Pronouns. 566. The idea of reciprocity implying, at least, the exist- ence of two persons, the reciprocal pronoun is only used with the three plural personal pronouns, nous, vous, and ils or elles. 567. Reciprocal verbs are always reflective ; consequently, the verbs used to express reciprocity must be accompanied by the reflective pronouns. 568. The reciprocity expressed by the verb may be between two or more persons or things. 140 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 569. When between two persons or things only, the recip- rocal pronoun is used in the singular ; when between more than two, it is placed in the plural ; as, First Person. We love each other, one another, Nous nous aimons l'un l'autre. We love each other, Nous nous aimons les uns les au- tres. Singular. Plural (more than two). We exchange trifles, Nous nous faisons des presents l'un Nous nous faisons des presents les a l'autre, uns aux autres. We speak of each other, Nous parlons l'un de l'autre, Nous parlons les uns des autres. Second Person. Singular. Plural. You love each other, one another, Vous vous aimez l'un l'autre, Vous vous aimez les uns les autres. You exchange trifles, Vous vous faits des presents l'un a, Vous vous faits des presents les l'autre, uns aux autres. You speak of each other, Vous parlez l'un de l'autre, Vous parlez les uns des autres. Third Person. Singular. Plural. They love each other, lis s'aiment l'un l'autre, Us s'aiment les uns les autres. They exchange trifles, lis se font des presents l'un a. l'au- lis se font des presents les uns aux tre, autres. They speak of each other, lis parlent l'un de l'autre, Us parlent les uns des autres. These horses will kill each other, Ces chevaux se tueront l'un l'autre, Ces chevaux se tueront les uns les autres. These houses are a nuisance to each other, Ces maisons se nuisent l'une a l'au- Ces maisons se nuisent les unes aux tre, autres. These rooms communicate one with the other, Ces chambres dependent l'une de Ces chambres dependent les unes l'autre, des autres. PRONOUN. 141 Of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives. 570. When, instead of one, there are several pronouns of different persons used as nominatives, the following rule must be observed : 571. The person who speaks is always mentioned the last, the person addressed is named first, and the verb is preceded by the plural pronoun of the first person, if a pronoun of the first person is among those employed as nominatives ; as, You and I will go hunting- to- Vous et moi, nous irons a la chasse morrow. demain. 572. If there is no pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, then the verb is preceded by the pronoun of the second person plural ; as, You and he will go hunting to- Lui et vous, vous irez a la chasse de- morrow, main. 573. If the pronouns of the three persons singular or plural are employed as nominatives, the verb is preceded by the pro- noun of the first person plural ; as, He, you, and I will go hunting to- Lui, vous, et moi, nous irons a la morrow. chasse demain. 574. We could say, as well, Nous irons a la chasse demain, lui, vous et moi ; but the order in which the pronouns are placed in regard to each other must never be altered. 575. Among the personal pronouns used as nominatives, je 9 tu, nous, and vous are of either gender ; as, Masculine. Feminine. I am good. Je suis bon, Je suis bonne. Thou art good. Tu es bon, Tu es bonne. We are good. Nous sommes bons, Nous sommes bonnes. You are good, Vous etes bons, Vous etes bonnes. 576. II is masculine singular ; elle, feminine singular ; Us, masculine plural ; elles, feminine plural ; as, He is lazy, II est paresseux. She is lazy, Elle est paresseuse. They are lazy, J gf. sont P^esseux. J J ' I Elles sont paresseuses, 577. Although personal pronouns nominative are generally placed before the verb, there are several exceptions ; as, 142 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 578. 1st. When used interrogatively, as has already been stated. 579. 2d. When the verb is in the subjunctive mood without a conjunction expressed before it ; as, May I with my own eyes see the Puisse-^'e de mes yeux voir tomber thunder fall ! la foudre ! 580. 3d. When the verb forms a proposition, which shows that the words of some person are referred to ; as, I shall be dissatisfied, said he, if Je serai mecontent, dit-z7, si vous re- yoa repeat my words. petez mes paroles. 581. 4th. When the verb is preceded by any of the follow- ing adverbs : Therefore, thus, aussi. At least, for all Perhaps, peut-etre. that, &c, toujours. Still, encore. Vainly, en vain, vainement At least, aumoins,dumoins. Therefore the king is very powerful. Aussi le roi est-?7 tres puissant. Perhaps we shall go to-morrow in- Peut-etre irons-nows demain a e la to the country. campagne. Still it is true, that you did behave Encore est-il vrai que vous vous con- badly, duisites tres mal. At least, it is certain that he is a Toujours est-il certain que c'est un rogue. coquin. Vainly did he try to stop my horse. En vain essaya-t-z7 d'arreter mon cheval. At least, it is certain that you have Du moins, au moins est-il certain deceived me. que vous m'avez trompe. 582. This exception is not absolute, for it would not be a fault against the language to place the pronoun before the verb, but then the locution would be flat and deprived of grace and elegance. 583. Sometimes the personal pronouns nominative are omit- ted, and replaced by moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, and elks, which have been represented as being used objectively ; but then the sentence is elliptical, and the mind has to supply the want of the personal pronouns ; as, I, betray the best of my friends ! Moi, trahir le meilleur de mes amis ! Je voudrais is here understood before moi, and moi is the subject only by apposition or reduplication. Thou, be guilty of such cowardice ! Toi, commettre une telle lachete ! Tu pourrois is understood before toi. PRONOUN. 143 He, leave his country in the time Lui, quitter son pays au moment du of danger ! danger ! 11 pourroit, is understood before lui. She, to have murdered her own Elle, avoir tue son propre enfant ! child ! Elk pourroit is here understood before elk. 584. The pronouns moi, toi, lui, &c. could also be placed at the end of the sentence in locutions similar to these, and even used conjointly with the personal pronouns nominative, je, tu, il, &c. as, I do maintain that you are a villain. Je pretends, moi, que vous etes un vilain. Thou sayest then, that thou art Tu dis done, toi, que tu as raison, right. &c. I, whose character he is destroy- Moi, dont il dechire le caractere, ing, always have heen kind to j'ai toujours ete bon pour lui. him. 585. These same pronouns, moi, toi, lui, &c. are likewise used as nominatives in impersonal phrases with the pronouns il, ce, &c. as, Who was sorry for all which had Qui fut fache de tout ce qui a ete been done ? it was I. fait ? ce fut moi. How many do remain of your past Combien de vos anciens amis vous friends ? I. reste-t-il ? Moi. 586. Those phrases are elliptical, and may be turned in this way : Qui fut fache de ce qui a ete fait ? je fas le seul, &c. Combien de vos anciens amis vous reste-t-il ? je suis le seul, &c. 587. The same pronouns may be also used as nominatives, when joined to a noun by a conjunction ; as, My father and I, we have been Mon pere et-moi, nous sommes al- hunting. les a la chasse. 588. The personal pronouns, toi and vous, may be used as nominatives in an apostrophe, preceded or not by the interjec- tions, oh ! ah ! as, Thou, whose smile is the delight of Toi ! or O toi,' dont le sourire fait my life ! le bonheur de ma vie ! You, whom I love; you, who are the Vous! O vous! que j'aime, vous ! cause of all my sorrows. qui etes la cause de toutes mes douleurs ! 589. The objective pronouns, lui and eux, maybe employed as subjects in distributive sentences, without being in apposi- tion ; as. 144 FRENCH GRAMMAR. My friends and my brother assisted Mes amis et mon frere m'ont se- me when I fell ; they took me couru dans ma chute, eux m'ont up, he dressed my wounds. releve, lui a panse mes blessures. 590. There can never be any ambiguity or doubt in regard to the noun which the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, singular or plural, represent, but it is not the same with those of the third person ; the following rule must then be ob- served : 591. The nominative pronouns, il, elle, Us, dies, must al- ways refer to a noun, either nominative or objective, employ- ed definitely ; but never to both, nor to a noun taken in an indefinite meaning ; thus the following sentence is correct : Nature, as a minister of the irrevo- Ministre des ordres irrevocables de cable decrees of God, never de- Dieu, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais viates from the laws which it has des lois qtfelle a re§ues delui; received from him ; it does not die n'altere en rien,les plans qui alter in any way his plans, and lui ont ete traces, et dans tout in all it accomplishes, it shows ce qu'elle accomplit, die presente the seal of the Almighty. le sceau de L'Eternel. Because the personal pronoun elle refers to nature, a nomina- tive used in a definite manner. Slavery does not prevent the hap- L'esclavage n'empeche pas le bon- piness of the slave when he has heur de Vesclave, quand il n'a not enjoyed the gift of liberty. pas joui du bienfait de la liberte. This sentence is correct, because il refers to esclave, which is used as the object of the noun bonheur, and is taken definitely. 592. But the following sentence, Racine has imitated Euripides, in Racine a imite Euripide dans tout all that he has beautiful in his ce quHl a de plus beau dans sa Phedra. Phedre. is incorrect, because il is used after two nouns, one being nom- inative, the other objective, and may relate to either Racine or Euripides ; the phrase then is ambiguous, and therefore in- correct. This sentence also is incorrect ; You have the right of chase, and I Vous avez droit de chasse, et je le think it well founded. trouve fonde, or, il est fonde se- lon moi. because, in the first mode of translation, le, the objective per- sonal pronoun, and in the second, il, the nominative personal pronoun, refer to droit de chasse, which is used indefinitely, not being preceded by an article. PRONOUN. 145 593. The following sentence is also incorrect : No peace for the wicked ; he seeks Nulle paix pour le mechant ; il la it, it flies. cherche, elle fuit. because la, the objective, and die,, the nominative pronouns, refer to nulle paix, when the meaning of the sentence re- quires that it should relate to paix in the affirmative. 594. This rule, which results from the necessity of clear- ness, so much required in the French language, is one of the most difficult in its application, and requires the constant atten- tion of the writer. 595. In the impersonal verbs, it, il, does not seem to take the place of a noun, as in the following phrases : It rains. 11 pleut. Many events have passed. II s'est passe bien des evenements. but the first sentence is elliptical, and means, le del (il) pleut, and the second could be constructed in this way : bien des evenements (il) se sont passes. Repetition of the Personal Pronouns. 596. Personal pronouns of the first and second person sin- gular or plural, must be repeated before each verb when em- ployed as nominatives, when these verbs are in different tenses ; but may not be repeated where the verbs are in the same tense ; this is a matter of taste. I maintain, and will always main- Je soutiens et je soutiendrai tou- tain, that one cannot be happy jours qu'on ne peut etre heureux without virtue. sans la vertu. You have always told me, and you Vous m'avez toujours dit, et vous repeat it now, that, in order to be me le repetez aujourd'hui, que happy, we must never look above pour 6tre heureux, il ne faut ja- ourselves, but always below. mais regarder an-dessus de soi, mais toujours au-dessous. 597. The pronouns, je, and vous, are repeated here because the verbs are not in the same tense, but the following phrases, I say and maintain, &c, 5 { e f* et maintiens, I Je dis etje maintiens, Vous pensez et croye; Vous pensez et vous croyez, You think and believe, 5 Z? us P ensez et cr °y ez ' 13 146 FRENCH GRAMMAR. are equally correct, with or without the repetition of the pro- noun, the verbs being in the same tense. 598. The personal pronouns nominative of the third person singular and plural, are not generally repeated when the verbs are in the same tense ; and when the verbs are in different ten- ses, the repetition may be dispensed with : He has never been and will never II n'a jamais rien valu, et (il) or ne be worth any thing. vaudra jamais rien. A graceful manner spoils nothing, La grace ne gate jamais rien, elle it adds to beauty, heightens mod- ajoute a la beaute, releve la mo- esty and gives it lustre. destie et y donne du lustre. He arrived this morning and will 11 est arrive' ce matin et il repartira depart again this evening. ce soir. 599. We have said generally when speaking of verbs used in the same tense ; it is because sometimes the pronouns must be repeated ; as, 600. 1st. When plural verbs succeed each other in the same tense, and we wish to suppress the conjunction and before the last, so as to give more power to the meaning of the sentence, the pronouns must be repeated ; as, Deceitful, cunning, hypocritical, Fourbes, adroits, hypocrites, dan- dangerous, they flatter, they ca- gereux, Us flattent, Us caressent, ress, they surround with entice- Us environnent de seductions, ments. This phrase, without the repetition of the pronouns, and with the conjunction et before the last verb, would be without force, and flat. 601. 2d. When in a sentence several verbs are employed in the same tense, and one of them has an object different from the others, the pronoun must be repeated, except before the last, when it is preceded by the conjunction and : Buffon has said, speaking of one of his plans in regard to style, This plan is not yet the style, but Ce plan n'est pas encore le style, it is its base ; it sustains it, it di- mais il en est la base, il le sou- reds it, it regulates its motion tient, le dirige, il r&gle ses mouve- and subjects it to its laws. ments, et les soumtt a ses lois. The verbs, soutient, dirige, have the same object, which is style ; the third has another, and the delicacy of our ears would be hurt, if the pronoun was not repeated ; but the last verb having the same object as that which precedes it, and the con- junction and being placed between the two, the repetition of the pronoun is not necessary. PRONOUN. 147 602. 3d. If the last verb be united to the preceding by a con- junction, which is itself followed by a long incidental sentence, the pronoun must be repeated before it ; as, He rushes upon his enemy, and af- II fond sur son ennemi, et apres ter having seized him with a vic- torious hand, he throws him down, as the severe Aquilon would the golden harvest which covers the plains. Vavoir renverse dune main victo- rieuse, il le renverse, comme le cruel Aquilon abat les moissons dorees qui couvrent la campagne. 603. 4th. Although the first verbs are used without pro- nouns, if the last is separated from them by a long incidental sentence, preceded itself by the conjunction and, this last verb must take the pronoun. Excited by an insatiable avidity, blinded by ambition still more insatiable, he renounces all feel- ings of humanity ; turns his strength against himself, and, in attempting the destruction of his fellow-men, in fact destroys him- self ; and after those days of car- nage, when the smoke of glory has vanished, he sees with an eye of sadness, the land devas- tated, the arts buried in oblivion, the nations scattered, the people weakened, his own happiness de- stroyed, and his real power an- nihilated. (Buffon, speaking of man.) Excite parl'insatiable avidite, aveu- gle par l'ambition, plus insatiable encore, il renonce aux sentiments d'humanite, tourne ses forces contre lui meme, cherche a s'en- tre detruire, se detruit en effet, et apres les jours de sang et de car- nage, lorsque lafumee de la gloire s'est dissipee, il voit d'un ceil triste sa terre devastee, les arts ensevelis, les nations dispersees, les peuples affaiblis, son propre bonheur ruine, et sa puissance reelle aneantie. Tn this sentence, the first verbs, tourne, cherche, se detruit, have no pronouns, but on account of the long, incidental sen- tence which follows et, the ear requires that the pronoun should be used before the last verb, il voit. 604. This rule, as well as the two preceding, are a matter of taste, and are not followed absolutely ; some excellent writers have disregarded them ; they are given here as a mat- ter of general information. 605. Personal pronouns nominative, of the three persons, singular or plural, must always be repeated before the verb, where the verbs are united by any conjunction except and and nor, et and ni. 148 FRENCH GRAMMAR. He lays down excellent principles, 11 donne d'excellents principes par- because he knows that upon them cequHl sait que les progres ulte- depends all further progress. rieurs en dependent. You tell a lie, for you are blushing. Vous dites un mensonge, car vous rougissez. He is good-natured, but he is weak. 11 est bon, mais il est faible. He promises and keeps his word. II promet et tient parole. He neither gives nor receives. II ne donne ni ne recoit. 606. Personal pronouns nominative, of either of the three persons, singular or plural, are always repeated before each verb, when passing from a negative to an affirmative sentence, and vice versa. He will, and he will not. 11 veut, et il ne veut pas. You say so, and you do not believe Vous dites cela,et vous ne le pen- it. sez pas. You do not love, and you wish oth- Vous n'aimez pas, et vous voulez ers to love you. qu'on vous aime. You do not go into the country, and Vous n'allez pas a la campagne, et you invite me to go there. vous m'invitez a y aller. 607. The personal pronouns nominative are not repeated before verbs, which, composed of another which precedes them, express the repetition of the same action ; as, I tell it and tell it again to you. Je vous le dis et le redis. He does it, and does it again. 11 lefait et refait, sans cesse. But they must be repeated before verbs which, although composed of that which precedes them, express a different ac- tion ; as, I dress and undress myself from Je m'habille etje me deshabille du morning to night. matin au soir. These two rules do not require any further illustration. 608. In all possible cases, the personal pronoun nominative must be repeated, if the first verb is followed by a regimen, although the verbs are in the same tense ; as, You shall love the Lord your God, Vous aimerez le Seigneur votre and observe his law. Dieu, et vous obeirez a sa loi. Of Personal Pronouns employed objectively. 609. It has been said already, that among the personal pro- nouns employed objectively, some were always placed before the verb, some always after, and some others were sometimes placed before, sometimes after. PRONOUN. 149 610. We have given complete illustrations of the general use of these pronouns ; we have now to refer to the rules which regulate them in the numerous cases where they may be used in the construction of sentences. 611. Preceded by a preposition, the pronouns, moi, toi, soi, nous, vous, lui, eux, tile, dies, are placed after the verb, in French, whether they are so in English or not ; as, You may depend on me. Vous pouvez compter sur moi. This depends on thee. Cela depend de toi. We all carry our nature with our- Chacun porte sa nature avec soi. selves. Why do you not think of us any Pourquoi ne pensez vous plus a more. nous. You always speak of yourself. Vous parlez toujours de vous. You write but to him. Vous n'ecrivez qu'a lui. He dreams only of her. II ne reve qu'a elle. I have a grudge against them. J'ai une dent eontr'eux. We cannot depend upon them. Nous ne pouvons pas compter sur elks. 612. When a verb, in the imperative, governs a personal pro- noun, and is followed by another verb in the infinitive, if the pronoun is the direct regimen of the verb in the imperative, it follows the rule already laid down for the pronouns used with a verb in the imperative ; Let me do this work. Laissez-moi faire cet ouvrage. Get thy portrait taken. Fais toi peindre. Hear him speak. Ecoutez le parler. Hear her sing. Ecoutez la chanter. 613. But if the imperative has no direct object, then the pronoun which follows it, being the object of the verb in the infinitive, follows the rule laid down for the pronouns used as direct or indirect object in the affirmative form ; as, Come and see me. Venez me voir. Go and get thy hair cut. Va te faire couper les cheveux. Go and speak to him or to her. Allez lui parler. Come and talk to them. Viens leur parler. 614. When two imperatives are joined together by the con- junctions, and, et, or, ow, it is somejimes more elegant to place the pronoun governed by the second verb, before it ; as, Polish and repolish it continually. Polissez le et le repolissez sans cesse. Keep them or send them back. Gardez les ou les renvoyez. 615. But as usage is the best regulator of languages, this 13* 150 FRENCH GRAMMAR. elegant mode of expression must not be employed indiscrimin- ately, and in most cases it would be better to place both pro- nouns after their respective verbs ; as, Love and protect him. Invite them and treat them well. Aimez le et protegez te. Invitez les et traitez les bien. 616. When two or more pronouns are used objectively with the same verb, and the preposition, to, a, or of, de, is gov- erned by the verb, or if either of the other pronouns is its direct object ; in all the tenses of the verb, whether affirmative, interrogative, or negative, except in the imperative, me, te, se, nous, vous, are placed first ; le, la, les, before lui, leur ; and y before en, which is always the last. I said it to him. You gave it to me. He gave it to thee. He has allowed himself to do it. You gave it to us. I had foretold it to you. I promised it to her. I have told it to them. I have given them (things) to them. I will make them pay attention to it. I will speak to them about it. I shall send some of it to them there. Je le lui ai dit. Vous me Z'avez donne. II te Z'a donne. II se Test permis. Vous nous Z'avez donne.. Je vous Z'avois pre dit. Je la lui ai promise. Je le leur ai dit. Je les leur ai donnees. Je leur y ferai faire attention, Je leur en parlerai. Je leur y en enverrai. 617. In imperative sentences, when affirmative, le, la, les y are always placed first, and moi and toi are placed after y, but nous and vous precede it, and en always comes the last ; as, Say it to him. Give it to him or her. Give them to them (speaking of things.) Conduct them there. Carry me thither. Behave thyself well there. Give us a call there. Behave yourself, (or yourselves,) well there. Give me some of it. Give him some of it. Send some of it to them. Send some of it to us there. Dites le lui. Donnez le or la lui. Donnez les leur. Conduisez les y. Conduisez y moi. Conduis y toi bien. Donnez nous y un bal. Conduisez vous y bien. Donnez m'en. Donnez lui en. Envoyez leur en. Envoyez nous y en. 618. Moi and toi are placed after y, because, if placed be- fore, the sound of the words, moi-y, toi-y, would be intolerable to the ear. PRONOUN. 151 619. It results from the preceding rules, that le, la, les, are always direct regimen, and y and en, always indirect, as well as leur. 620. Me, te, se, are sometimes direct, sometimes indirect, as well as nous, vous ; direct when me, te, se, stand for moi, toi, soi, and nous and vous, when not contracted for a nous, a vous. 621. When not in the imperative, moi, toi, may be the direct objects by apposition only ; as, Would you lose me, I, your friend ? Voudriez-vous me perdre, moi, votre allie ? Would I suspect thee of perfidy, Je te soupconnerais de perfidie, toi ! thee! 622. In any other case, they are only used as indirect ob- jects, preceded by a preposition, as has been already said. Lux, elle, eux, elles, are almost always used as indirect objects with or without prepositions, but they are occasionally em- ployed as direct objects by apposition, in distributive sen- tences ; as, I love them ; him for his frankness, Je les aime ; lui pour sa franchise, her for her gentleness. elle pour sa douceur. Protect him, him who formerly did Protegez le, lui qui autrefois vous a so much for you. fait tant de bien. Why don't you speak to him ? I, Pourquoi ne lui parlez vous pas ? speak to him, who has so behaved Moi, lui parler, a lui qui m'a fait towards me ! tant de mal ! Eux, elles, could be used in the same manner. 623. Soi is most generally preceded by a preposition ; then it is an indirect object ; sometimes it follows the verb without any preposition, and is the direct object ; however, it is only employed in sentences where there is an indefinite pronoun expressed or understood, or preceded by an impersonal verb ; We ought but seldom to speak of On ne doit parler que rarement de ourselves. soi. It is necessary to take care of our- II est necessaire de prendre soin de selves. soi, or, garde a soi. To love one's self and others is the Aimer soi et les autres est le devoir duty of an honest man. de l'homme de bien. (Aimer, in the infinitive, being indefinite by its nature, takes the place of the indefinite pronoun.) In attempting to deceive others, we En essayant de tromper les autres, often deceive ourselves. c'est souvent soi que Ton trompe ; or, on est souvent trompe soi- meme. (In this last passive sen- tence the pronoun soi becomes nominative.) 152 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 624. With ne que, meaning but, only, or by apposition, soi is employed as a direct object ; as, To love only or but ourselves, is to iV'aimer que soi, c'est n'etre bon a be good for nothing. rien. To act in this manner is to lose Agir ainsi, c'est se perdre soi-mime. one's self. 625. Whatever be the construction of the above sentences, the indefinite pronoun, when not expressed, is understood, and may be supplied by giving the sentence another turn. 626. When speaking of things, soi, preceded by the prepo- sition de or en, is used in a definite sense, then the phrases de soi, en soi, mean of its nature, in its nature ; as, Vice is odious in itself. Le vice est odieux en soi. The loadstone attracts iron (to it- L'aimant attire le fer de soi-meme. self). 627. The pronoun moi, used with the verb donner, to give, with or without the preposition to, a, does not convey the same idea. Donnez-moi signifies only asking for a thing. Donnez a moi means, that when the demand is made, the person, who is to give, is uncertain to whom he would give, and about giving to some one else. Of Personal Pronouns objective applied to persons or things. 628. The pronouns le, la, les, are used indifferently of per- sons and things. Speaking of a man,) I know him, Je le connais. of a book,) I shall sell it, Je le vendrai. of a woman,) I shall see her, Je la verrai. of a table,) I shall have it mended, Je la ferai raccommoder. of persons,) I love them, Je les aime. of things,) I shall buy them, Je les acheterai. 629. Elle, elles, preceded by a preposition, as well as lux, leur, meaning to him, to her, to them, a lui, a elle, a eux, a elles, have given rise to difficulties among grammarians ; we must therefore refer to usage, which should become our ruleo Although, speaking of persons, we generally say, We approached her. Nous nous approachames tfelle. I sat by him. Je m'assis pres de lui. And speaking of things ; PRONOUN. 153 I approached it. Je m'm approchai. I sat by it. Je m'assis aupres. 630. Yet, in many cases, with the prepositions, of, de, to, a, for, pour, after, apres, in, en, &c., the pronouns, elle, elles, lui, eux, leur, may be applied to things, as in the follow- ing sentences ; This river is so rapid, when it over- Cette riviere est si rapide, quand flows, that it carries away every elledeborde, qu'elle entraine avec thing- it meets in its course ; it elle tout ce qu'elle rencontre ; elle leaves nothing behind, but sand ne laisse apres elle que du sable and pebbles. et des cailloux. 631. We say, speaking of an army, We marched up to it. Nous marchames a elle. There is no other way to render this idea. 632. Usage requires us to say ; These things are good in them- Ces choses sont bonnes en elles- selves. memes. I love truth to such a degree that I J'aime tellement la verite que je sa- would sacrifice every thing for it. crifierais tout pour elle. Those reasons are solid in them- Ces raisons sont solides en elles- selves. memes. 633. With the verb, to be, etre, these pronouns are applied only to persons, and likewise when they are followed by the relatives who and whom, qui and que ; It is to her, it is of them that I C'est a elle, c'est d'elles que je parle. speak. It is she that I see. C'est elle que je vois. 634. Some grammarians pretend, that in answer to an in- terrogative sentence, the pronouns elle, elles, lux, leur, eux, may, with the verb to be, etre, relate to things ; as, Is this your snuff-box ? Yes, it is. Est-ce votre tabatiere ? Oui, c'est elle. 635. But if it may be allowed in conversation to use such an expression as this, the rules of the language do not permit us to use it in writing ; the grammatical answer ought to be, oui, ce Vest ; but, however, the other mode of expression, c'est elle, is more generally used. 636. Eux, lui, leur, are also, by the power of usage, em- ployed in speaking of beasts, flowers, and even inanimate objects ; as, 154 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These birds and dogs are my only Ces oiseaux et ces chiens sont mon pleasure, I love nothing but them ; seul plaisir, je n'aime qu'ewa?, eux they are my only diversion, I seuls m'occupent, je ne reve qu'a dream of nothing else. eux. Those horses are exhausted ; give Ces chevaux sont rendus ; donnez them a little wine. leur un peu de vin. These flowers will die, unless they Ces fleurs vont perir, si Ton ne leur have some water. donne un peu d'eau. These trees have too much fruit, Ces arbres sont trop charges, otez they ought to be cleared of some. leur une partie de leur fruit. I had my house repaired, and I gave J'ai fait reparer ma maison, et je lux it a new appearance. ai donne un air neuf. 637. We have seen now what is allowed by usage, but here is the rule ; The pronouns elle, elks, lui, leur, eux, ought to be applied to things, only when custom does not permit us to supply them by the pronouns y and en. 638. But these pronouns are used, very properly, in speak- ing of things personified, or of things to which qualities are attributed which belong only to persons ; as, They had built the labyrinth on the On avait bati le labyrinthe sur les banks of lake Maeris, and they bords du lac Maeris, et on lui avait had given it a prospect in propor- donne une vue proportionee a sa tion to its grandeur. grandeur. 639. Se, himself, herself, itself, is said of persons and things ; This flower is fading fast. Cette^ewr se fletrit vlte. This woman takes a walk. Cette/emwe se promene. 640. Soi is said of persons and things, but when used in speaking of persons, it refers only to an indefinite subject ; as, We all work for ourselves. Chacun travaille pour soi. He who speaks only for himself has Quiconque rapporte tout a soi n'a but few friends. pas beaucoup d'amis. 641. And when referring to things, it ought to have a defi- nite subject ; as, A favor always carries its reward Un bienfait porte toujours sa recom- with itself. pense avec soi. The remorse which crime always Les remords que le crime traine tou- carries with itself. jours apr&s soi. 642. Fis used most generally of things, and sometimes of persons, but only by an ellipsis ; as, Avoid lawsuits ; conscience often Evitez les proces ; la conscience s" 1 ?/ takes an interest in them, health interesse, la sante s'y perd, et la is ruined, and fortune is swal- fortune s'y engloutit. lowed by them. PRONOUN. 155 643. But in these sentences, Do you think of me ? Yes, I do, Pensez-vous a moi ? Oui, j'y pense, y refers to a noun of things which is in the mind ; it is here for my interests, my business. It is true, however, that in con- versation a few instances may occur in which y is used in re- gard to persons, but it is a mere license and by no rule. 644. En, as we have seen, is employed very properly speaking of persons and things. 645. The pronoun It is invariable when it takes the place of any other word but a noun ; thus, when used to represent an adjective, or a noun used adjectively, or a member of a phrase, it is never changed to la, les, whatever may be the number and gender of the adjective, or the sense of the sentence. Madam, are you sick? Yes, I am. Madame, etes vous maladet Oui, je le suis. Gentlemen, are you married ? Yes, Messieurs, etes vous marits ? Oui, we are. nous le sommes. Are you ministers of the king ? Etes vous ministres du roi ? Oui, Yes, we are. nous le sommes. Are you a mother ? Yes, I am. Etes vous mere ? Oui, je le suis. In the first two examples le takes the place of two adjec- tives, one in the singular feminine, the other in the plural masculine, and in the last two, that of two nouns used adjec- tively ; 646. Are you Madam de Genlis ? No, I Etes vous Madame de Genlis ? Non, am not. je ne la suis pas. Are you the mother of this child ? Etes vous la mere de cet enfant ? Yes, I am. Oui, je la suis. Are you the ministers of the king ? Etes vous les ministres du roi ? Oui, Yes, we are. nous les sommes. Are you the person who is sick? Etes vous la malade? Oui, je la Yes, I am. suis. Are you those who have just been Etes vous les mariis 1 Oui, nous married ? Yes, we are. les sommes. 647. In the first three sentences the pronoun relates to nouns employed as such, and in the last two, to two adjectives used as nouns, consequently it ought to agree in number and gender with its antecedent. 648. Therefore, in this sentence, Are you a daughter of the Duke ? Etes vous fllle de Monsieur le Due ? Yes, I am, Oui, je le suis, 156 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the pronoun is masculine, because the word fille is used as an adjective ; and in the following, Are you the daughter of the Duke? Etes vous la fille de Monsieur le Yes, I am, Due ? Oui, je la suis, the pronoun is feminine, because the word fille is used as a noun. 649. We ought to accommodate ourselves On doit s'accoutumer aux caractere to the temper of others as much des autres autant qu'on le peut. as we can. We must help the poor as much as Nous devons venir au secours des we can. pauvres autant que nous le pou- vons. Here the pronoun takes the place of an idea represented by a member of a sentence, and remains always singular masculine. 650. It is to be remarked, that although this pronoun is never employed in English in similar phrases, it should always be rendered in French. The reason of the above rule is easily understood. An adjective has in itself no gender or number of its own, it takes them only to show its connexion with a noun which it qualifies ; so that, when employed by itself, or when a noun changes its nature to become qualificative, they cannot com- municate what they have not, and the pronoun, which takes their place, ought to remain unchanged. As to the last case, where the pronoun replaces an idea, it ought still to remain invariable, an idea having no number or gender. This rule has been neglected by Madame Sevigne among others, and being one day remonstrated with for answering je la suis, to the question, Etes vous enrhumee 9 she exclaimed, u You may think what you please about it, but I believe that my chin Would at once be covered with beard if I said, Oin, je le suis." In spite of the powerful authority of the witty authoress, we insist on the necessity of following the above rule. PRONOUN. 157 OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 651. Grammarians do not agree upon the name to be given to these pronouns ; they are called, by some, mere adjectives, while others have preserved the old denomination of pro- nouns with the qualification of possessive, as they always denote possession. Both of these pretensions are sustained by arguments of equal force ; but as this discussion has no influence upon the rules which relate to the word itself, and it being only necessary to know how to use it properly, we shall take no part in the matter, and to satisfy both parties will call this part of speech, Adjective Possessive Pronoun. 652. The pronouns of this denomination are divided into two classes : 1st. Those which are always joined to a noun. 2d. Those which are never joined to a noun. Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns always joined to a Noun. 653. Among this class of pronouns, some refer only to one person, and some to several. 654. Those which refer only to one person, as the posses- sor, are : For the first person singular : (My) mon " second " " (Thy) ton " third " " (His her) son Mon, ton, and son are masculine singular. Ma, ta, and sa are feminine singular. Mes, tes, and ses are masculine and feminine plural. 655. Those which refer to several persons as possessing a single object, are : ma mes ta tes sa ses For the first person plural ; (Our) notre notre " second " " (Your) votre votre " third " (Their) leur leur Notre^ votre, and leur are masculine and feminine singular. 656. Those referring to several persons possessing several objects, are : 14 158 FRENCH GRAMMAR. First person, (Our) nos Second person, (Your) vos Third person, (Their) leurs Nos, vos, and leurs are masculine and feminine plural. 657. In English, these pronouns agree in number and gen- der with the possessor ; while, in French, they agree with the object possessed, and always precede it ; as, My horse, Mon cheval. (masculine.) Thy horse, Ton cheval. " His or her horse, Son cheval. " 658. The pronoun which precedes horse remains in the mas- culine, whatever may be the owner, because cheval is mascu- line. My cow, Ma vache. (feminine.) Thy cow, Ta vache. " His or her cow, Sa vache. " 659. The pronoun which precedes cow remains in the femi- nine, whatever may be the owner, because vache is feminine. My horses and cows, Mes chevaux et mes vaches. Thy horses and cows, Tes chevaux et tes vaches. His or her horses and cows, Ses chevaux et ses vaches. 660. The pronouns which precede horses and cows do not vary on account of the gender of these two nouns, as they be- long to either. Our horse and cow, Notre cheval et notre vache. Your horse and cow, Votre cheval et votre vache. Their horse and cow, Leur cheval et leur vache. 661. The pronouns notre, voire, and leur, being masculine and feminine, do not vary before cheval and vache ; but it must be understood, that, although they represent the third person plural, they are used in the singular, because they represent the property of one horse or one cow divided among several indi- viduals. . 662. But, if we wish to speak of several horses and several cows belonging to several individuals, then we have to employ the plural form of these very same pronouns of the third per- son plural ; as, Our horses and cows, Nos chevaux et nos vaches. Your horses and cows, Vos chevaux et vos vaches. Their horses and cows, Leurs chevaux et leurs vaches. PRONOUN. 159 663. These pronouns, nos, vos, and leurs, being of either gender, do not vary before masculine or feminine nouns. 664. Although the collective idea of several things or facul- ties belonging to several individuals ought to be expressed in most cases by the pronouns nos, vos, and leurs, these pro- nouns are put in the singular, notre, voire, and leur, when they relate to nouns which are never used in the plural, at least in their natural signification ; as with humanity, humanite ; hun- ger, faim ; thirst, soif ; health, sante, &c. Thus we say, Gentlemen, why don't you satisfy Messieurs, pourquoin'appaisez-vous your hunger, thirst, &c., pas voire faim, votre soif (and not vos /aims, vos soifs), We are dissatisfied with our health, Nous sommes mecontents de noire sante (and not de nos santes), Ladies, stop your impatience, give Mesdames, moderez votre impa- way to your humanity, tience, abandonnez-vous a. votre humanite (and not d vos impa- tiences, a vos humanite" s) , with the nouns faim, soif, sante, impatience, and humanite, in the singular, although, there being several persons spoken of, an idea of plurality seems to be attached to these nouns ; but they are never used in the plural in that signification. 665. We have already seen, that, as a matter of politeness, we use, in French, as is done in English, the personal pro- noun of the second person plural, instead of that of the second person singular, before the verb. In these instances, we must employ the corresponding possessive pronoun votre, your, and not ton, thy ; thus, speaking to a single person, we say, po- litely : You apply yourself too much to Vous etes trop applique dans vos your studies. etudes (and not tes etudes.) 666. From the illustrations given above, we may deduce the following rules : 667. Rule I. The adjective possessive pronouns of the first class are always joined to a noun, with which they agree in number and gender. 668. Exception. The masculine pronouns mon, ton, and son are employed with the feminine before nouns beginning with a vowel or an h mute, but only for the sake of euphony ; thus we say, My soul, Mon ame. (feminine.) His humanity, Son humanite. (feminine, h mute ) 160 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The feminine pronoun with such nouns would produce a sound intolerable to the ear. 669. Rule II. The adjective possessive pronouns must al- ways be repeated before each noun ; as, My father, brother, sister, and cous- Mon pere, mon frere, ma sceur, et ins are in the country. mes cousins sont a la campagne. They thus follow the same rule as the article in this res- pect. They also ought to be repeated before adjectives ex- pressing different qualities, although this is seldom observed in English ; as, I have shown him my finest and my Je lui ai montre mes plus beaux et ugliest dresses ; mes plus vilains habits ; because it is evident that there are different sorts of dresses ; the same not being able to be at once fine and ugly. But we should say : I have shown him my new and pret- Je lui ai montre mes neuves et jolies ty dresses, robes, because dresses may be at once neio and pretty. 670. Rule III. When we speak of an object which is suf- ficiently designated by the verb, or the sense of the sentence, not to leave any ambiguity in the mind in regard to the owner of what is spoken of, then, instead of using the adjective pos- sessive pronoun, the article is placed before the thing pos- sessed ; as, My head aches. J'ai mal a la tete (and not, a ma tete). It will be necessary to cut off his II faudra lui couper la jambe (and leg. not, sa jambe). He has been shot in the arm. II a regu un coup de feu au bras (and not, a son bras). These horses have run away. Ces chevaux ont pris le mors aux dents (and not, a leurs dents). He does not say what he has in his II ne dit pas ce qu'il a dans la pen- mind, see (and not, dans sa pensee). In the first example, it is clear that the person who is speak- ing cannot feel for the head of another. In the second, the pronoun lui is there for to him, and then shows what leg ought to be cut off. In the third, it is clear that a person cannot be shot in the arm of somebody else. In the fourth, the horses cannot take in their own mouths other horses' bits to run away with. PRONOUN. 161 In the last, the owner of the thought is sufficiently designated by the meaning of the sentence. 671. But, if the mind was not satisfied about the owner, if any ambiguity could exist by the use of the article, then the pronoun must always be employed in its place ; as, I see my leg- swelling. Je vois ma jambe qui enfle (and not la jambe). He gave him his hand to kiss. H lui donna sa main a baiser (and not la main). She boldly gave her arm to the sur- Elle donna hardiment son bras an geon. chirurgien (and not le bras). He loses all his blood. II perd tout son sang (and not tout le sang). In the first example, I may see my neighbour's leg swelling as well as mine, therefore the pronoun is necessary to relieve the ambiguity. In the second, he could give the hand of somebody else to kiss. In the third, she could take the arm of another and present it to the surgeon. In the fourth, the meaning would not be complete without the pronoun. 672. But we say, in a familiar manner : Give me your arm, Donnez-moi le bras, although another arm could be given instead of that asked for, because the persons speaking, in such cases, are so situated as not to leave any doubt in the mind as to the arm which one wishes to have. 673. When the verb is conjugated with two pronouns of the same person, and thus is reflective, there cannot be generally any ambiguity ; when I say : I have hurt my hand, Je me suis blesse a la main, it is clear that I speak of my hand, because the sentence could be turned thus : I have hurt myself in the hand ; and it is evident, that, if I have hurt myself, and if the part of my body hurt is the hand, that hand is mine. 674. But usage, that despot of languages, authorizes us to say : 14* 162 FRENCH GRAMMAR. He always finds himself upon his II se trouve toujours sur ses jambes, legs, I have seen him with my own eyes, Je l'ai vu de mes propres yeux, I have heard it with my own ears, Je l'ai entendu de mes propres o- reilles ; as if a man could be on any other legs but his own, or see with other eyes, and hear with other ears, 675. By another tyrannical power of usage, when we speak of a disease which is habitual to us, the pronoun is used, al- though no ambiguity would exist without it ; as, My headache has tormented me all Ma migraine m'a tourmente toute la day, journee ; as if a man could be actually tormented by the headache of any one else. 676. We never use the adjective possessive pronoun be- fore nouns which ought to be followed by the relative pronouns qui and que, as well as by a personal pronoun of the same per- son as themselves ; thus, we do not say, I have received the letter which you J'ai re§u votre lettre que vous m'avez wrote me, ecrite, but, J'ai rec_u la lettre que vous m'avez ecrite, because, if you wrote the letter, it is clear that the letter I have thus received, is yours. 677. The adjective possessive pronouns of the third per- son, son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, relate either to persons, to things personified, or to things alone. 678. When they relate to persons or things personified, they are always used to indicate their possession, and cannot be sup- plied by any other pronouns ; but, if they refer to things, the practice varies, as it does in regard to personal pronouns. 679. The pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, relating to things, may be used when the noun expressing the possessor is employed in the same sentence as nominative, as in the follow- ing : The country has its amusements. La campagne a ses agrements. These languages have their beau- Ces langues ont leurs beautes. ties. The church has its privileges. L'eglise a ses privileges. Because the nouns campagne, langues, and eglise, which are PRONOUN. 163 the possessors, are here the nominative of the verb to have, avoir. 680. But we could not say : Her head is beautiful. Sa tete est belle, (speaking of a statue.) Its streets are large. Ses rues sont larges. Its bed is deep. Son lit est profond. Its members are honest and en- Ses membres sont honnetes et lightened. eclaires. Because the nouns representing the possessor, which are under- stood, should not stand in the sentences as nominatives of the verb to be. These phrases should to be turned in another way ; as, The head of her is beautiful. La tete en est belle. The streets of it are large. Les rues en sont larges. The bed of it is deep. Le lit en est profond. The members of it are honest, &c. Les membres en sont honnetes, &c. 681. The reason of this rule arises from the fact, that the pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, indicate possession ; and that the faculty of possessing can only be attributed to living beings. We cannot pretend, that flowers and fruits are the property of a tree, which is an inanimate being, so that it would be im- proper to say : There is a beautiful tree, I admire Voila un bel arbre, j'admire ses its fruits, its flowers. fruits et ses fleurs. It should be, I admire the fruits and flowers of it. Ten admire les fruits et les fleurs. 682. But there are a great many cases in which the sense or construction of the sentence does not admit the use of the pronoun en, as for instance, those where the noun which pre- cedes the pronoun governs the preposition of, as, I admire the beauty of its edifices J'admire la beaute de ses edifices, and streets. (Speaking of a city.) de ses rues. We could not say here, J'en admire la beaute de.s edifices ; because en means de elle ; the preposition of, de, would be thus used twice to govern the same noun, which is against the genius of the language. 683. When any preposition precedes immediately the noun 164 FRENCH GRAMMAR. of the thing possessed, the pronouns son, ses, leur, and fours, are used to indicate the possession ; as, It is by her situation, joined to the C'est par sa situation, jointe a la wisdom of her government, that sagesse de son gouvernement, she unites within herself such qu'elle reunit dans son sein de vast advantages. si grands avantages. The pronoun en could not be introduced in this sentence on account of its construction ; so that we may lay down this rule : 684. When speaking of things, the pronoun en ought to be used with the article, instead of the possessive adjective pro- nouns, son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, provided the genius of the language admits of its being introduced in the sentence ; as, In short, every thing conspires to Tout enfin contribue a m'erc faire make me love that residence ; I aimer la residence ; j'en admire particularly admire the strict- surtout 1'exacte police, en meme ness of its police, at the same terns que les lois m'en paraissent time its laws appear to me ex- extremement sages, tremely wise. Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns which are never joined to a Noun. 685. These pronouns may relate to one or several persons. Those which relate only to one person, as the possessor, are, For the first person singular : Mine, le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes. For the second person singular : Thine, le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes. For the third person singular : His, her, its, le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes. Le mien le tien, le sien, are singular masculine. La mienne, la tienne, la sienne, " feminine. Les miens, les tiens, les siens, are plural masculine. Les miennes, les tiennes, les siennes, " feminine. 686. Those which relate to several persons possessing only one object, are, First person plural : Ours, le notre, la notre. Second " " Yours, le votre, la votre. Third " " Theirs. le leur, la leur. Le notre, le votre, le leur, are masculine. La notre, la votre, la leur, are feminine. 687. Those, in fine, which relate to several persons pos- sessing several objects, are, PRONOUN. 165 First person plural : Ours, les notres. Second " " Yours, les votres. Third " " Theirs, les leurs, Les notres, les votres, and les leurs, are of either gender. 688. These pronouns are never joined to a noun, but they relate to one, and cannot be used unless the noun to which they relate has been expressed before ; as, I have sold my horse ; have you J'ai vendu mon cheval ; avez vous still yours ? encore le voire ? You destroy your health ; I keep Vous detruisez votre sante ; je con- mine, serve la mienne. 689. They agree in number and gender with the noun to which they relate. Merchants, when they correspond with each other, generally do not observe this rule ; nothing is more common among them than beginning an answer to a letter by this barbarous phrase ; I have received yours dated such a J'ai regu la voire datee de tel jour, day. &c. The word lettre not being already expressed, the pronoun can- not be used ; the phrase should be turned thus ; J'ai regu votre lettre datee, &c. 690. The personal pronouns are employed instead of the possessive, when nouns of things are used instead of nouns of persons ; as, There is no better writer than he. II n'y a pas de meilleure plume que lui. There is not in the world a better II n'y a pas au monde de meilleure fencer than you. epie que vous. In these two sentences, plume is use for ecrivain (writer) and epee for tireur (fencer). 691. But if those two nouns were taken in their natural meaning, the possessive pronouns should be employed ; as, There are no better pens than II n'y a pas de meilleures plumes yours. que les votres. There is no better sword than II n'y a pas de meilleure epee que yours. la votre. If in the two first sentences the possessive pronoun was used instead of the personal, their meaning would be, 166 FRENCH GRAMMAR. There is no better pen than your pen, There is no better sword than your sword ; which is not the idea which the speaker has in mind. 692. The adjective possessive pronouns are never related to a noun taken indefinitely ; as in sentences like the following : He is not disposed to give pleasure, II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, and I am disposed to be benevo- et le mien est d'etre bienfaisant. lent. In the first ages of the world, the Dans les premiers ages du monde, father of each family governed chaque pere defamille gouvern- it with absolute power. ait la sienne avec un pouvoir ab- solu. Because a noun employed without an article, or without the equivalent of an article, cannot be followed by a pronoun refer- ring to that noun. The above sentences should be expressed as follows : II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et moi, je suis d'une humeur bien- faisante. Dans les premiers ages du monde, chaque pere de famille gouvernait ses enfants avec un pouvoir absolu. 693. But when these pronouns may refer to a noun taken definitely, they ought to be employed in preference to the cor- responding personal pronouns ; as, It is my brother's opinion as well C'est l'opinion de mon frere et la as mine. munne. it would be wrong to say de moi. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 694. Demonstrative pronouns are words whose functions are not to name the object spoken of, and so specify it by its qualities, but only to point it out among others. Demonstrative pronouns are divided into five classes, entirely distinct from each other. 1st. Those which always precede a noun. 2d. Those which always precede a preposition or a relative pronoun. 3d. Those which always follow a noun to point it out among others of the same kind. PRONOUN. 167 4th. Those which relate to a thing or an idea before ex- pressed. 5th. Those which are never joined to a noun, preposition, or relative pronoun. Demonstrative Pronouns always placed before a Noun. 695. The demonstrative pronouns which always precede a noun are four in number ; or, to say better, there is but one, which is modified according to the number and gender and the first letter of the noun following. This or that, ce, is used before a noun singular masculine, be- ginning with a consonant or h aspirated. " " cet, is used before a noun singular masculine be- ginning with a vowel or an h mute. " " cette, is used before all feminine nouns in the sin- gular. These and those, ces, is used before all plural nouns ; as, This book. Ce Zivre. This hamlet. Ce Aameau. This work. Cet ouvrage. That man. Cet homme. That woman. Cette femme. These men or women. Ces hommes et ces femmes. These pronouns relate equally to persons and things. Demonstrative Pronouns always followed by a Preposition or a Relative Pronoun. 696. There is but one pronoun of this class ; but by its agreement with the noun to which it relates, it changes in the following manner : This or that or he, celui, relating to a noun singular masculine. This or that or she, ce/Ze, " " " u feminine. These, those or they, ceux, " " " plural masculine. " " " celles, " « « " feminine. Thus, speaking of a book, which is masculine singular, we say, 168 FRENCH GRAMMAR. That of my brother. Celui de mon frere. Speaking of a cow which is feminine, we say, That of my brother. Celle de mon frere. Speaking of books, we say, Those of my brother. Ceux de mon frere. Speaking of cows, we say, Those of my brother. Celles de mon frere. 697. This pronoun, followed by a preposition, is said of persons and things. He, among you, who will distin- Celui de vous qui se distinguera le guish himself the most, shall be plus, sera recompense. rewarded. These are curious faces ; those of Voici de curieuses figures, celles Dantan do not look more gro- de Dantan n'ont pas un air plus tesque. grotesque. In the first of these two examples, celui refers to persons, and in the second, celles refers to things. 698. The pronoun celui ought not to be separated, by too many words, from the noun to which it refers ; thus the follow- ing sentence, Courage, a quality peculiar to the Le courage, cette qualite des ar- French armies, always became mees Franchises, devenait tou- fruitless, and often fatal, because jours inutile et souvent funeste, judgment was not that of our parceque la discretion n'etait counsels. pas celle de nos conseils. is not correct ; it is not because celle could possibly relate to any other noun than qualite, but because the mind is not im- pressed at once with the relation existing between these two words, and is thus exposed to a trouble which should never exist in the construction of sentences : it ought to be as fol- lows : Parceque la discretion ne dirigeait pas nos conseils. Or, repeating the word qualite, Parceque la discretion n'etait pas la qualite de nos conseils. 699. This pronoun celui cannot refer to a noun taken in an indefinite meaning ; thus we ought not to say ; PRONOUN. 169 This man is not wanting- in cour- Cet homme ne manque pas de cour- age, but that of his brother is far age, mais celui de son frere est superior. beaucoup plus remarquable. 700. The pronoun celui, when followed by a relative pro- noun, is said of persons and things ; as, He who does not know how to be- Celui qui ne sait pas se conduire, have himself, can never com- ne peut commander aux autres. mand others. I want a light ; bring me that which J'ai besoin d'une lumikre ; apportez- is on the table. moi celle qui est sur la table. 701. Sometimes the pronoun is suppressed before the rela- tive pronoun in sentences like the following : He, who wishes to be feared, is Qui veut se faire craindre, est rare- seldom loved. ment aime. 702. The pronoun celui can never be modified by an adjec- tive or a participle ; as, Among the letters we have receiv- Parmi les lettres que nous avons ed, give me that arrived from recues, donnez-moi celle arrivie England. d'Angleterre. Among your pens give me that Parmi les plumes donnez-moi celle which is good to write with. bonne pour ecrire. These two sentences are wrong ; in both of them the words, which is, qui est, ought to follow celle, to establish a connexion between the first and the last proposition ; as, Donnez-moi celle qui est arrivee d'Angleterre. Donnez-moi celle qui est bonne pour ecrire. Of Demonstrative Pronouns which always follow a Noun. 703. These pronouns are two in number, and have no other equivalent in English than the words here and there placed after a noun by apposition, to point it out among others ; they are expressed in French by ci for here, and la for there ; in old times, they were used by themselves, and many examples may be found in our best writers ; Madame de Sevigne made fre- quent use of them. She wrote, in a letter dated on the 16th of March, 1672, We shall see each other between Nous nous verrons entre ci et this day and Easter. Paques. 704. But in our days this pronoun ci is only used after names 15 170 FRENCH GRAMMAR. of persons and things, la is sometimes employed alone, but it is only elliptically, as : I dislike this man, and that woman Je n'aime ni cet homme-ci, ni cette also. femme-la. He is there alone. II est la seul. In the first example, ci refers to the nearest object, and Id to the farthest. In the second, la, standing by itself, means, in that place there , dans ce lieu la. Of Demonstrative Pronouns standing by themselves, being never followed either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative pro- noun. 705. This pronoun is a compound of the two last ; it points out a person or thing, and when used with either of the pro- nouns, ci or la, designates with the first the nearest, and with the last the most distant object. They have the meaning of this one, that one. This (one), or that (one), masc. sing. celui-ci, celui-la. " " fern. " celle-ci, celle-la. These (ones), those (ones), masc. plur. ceux-ci, ceux-la. " " fem. " celles-ci, celles-la. Thus, speaking of two men, we say, This is a good one, that one is bad. Celui-ci est bon, celui-la est me- chant. Speaking of two ladies, This one is handsome, and that one Celle-ci est belle et celle-la est is ugly. laide. Speaking of horses, These are gentle, but those are Ceux-ci sont doux, mais ceux-la restive. sont retifs. Speaking of peaches, These are ripe, and those green. Celles-ci sont mures, et celles-la sont vertes. Of Demonstrative Pronouns referring only to things, taken indefinitely or representing an idea already expressed. 706. This pronoun is a compound of the pronoun ce with PRONOUN. 171 the pronouns ci and la ; it refers only to things taken indefi- nitely, or to ideas already expressed ; it has neither feminine nor plural. This, ceci. That, cela. When used together, ceci relates to the nearest, and cela to the farthest object. This pronoun has no reference to the nature of the object to which it relates, it represents it as a substance ; and when applied to an idea, it only points it out as having been ex- pressed before, and this indefinite character deprives it of gender and number ; thus we say, This is only laughable, but that is Ceci n'est que risible, mais cela est horrible. horrible. Of the Pronoun ce joined to the verb to be. 707. Ce, prefixed to the verb to be, is always masculine and singular, unless the verb to be is followed by a pronoun of the third person plural, or by a noun plural, acting as nomina- tive of the following verb ; as, It is I who speak. C'est moi qui parle. It is thou who lovest. C'est toi qui aimes. It is he or she who shall go. C'est lui ou elle qui ira. It it we who will suffer. C'est nous qui souffrirons. It is you who lie. C'est vous qui mentez. It is these who shall go. Ce sont eux qui iront. 708. Any noun, plural or singular, could be substituted for the pronoun, singular or plural, of the third person ; as, It is my brother who shall do my C'est mon frere qui fera mon travail. work. It is my brothers who, &c. Ce sont mes freres qui, &c. 709. In interrogative sentences the pronoun ce comes after the verb, and before the nominative ; as, Is it I who speak ? Est-ce moi qui parle ? Is it the English who have done Sont-ce les Anglais qui ont fait this ? cela ? Is it the English whom you love ? Est-ce les Anglais que vous aimez ? In this last example, les Anglais are objective of the verb to love, whose nominative is vous ; the verb to be then must remain in the singular, according to the rule established above. 172 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 710. Ce, joined to the verb to be, forms a number of Galli- cisms, which are elegantly used in the language ; as, The way to encourage merit is to C'est encourager le merite que de reward it. le recompenser. To despise the true spirit of science C'est ne pas connaitre l'esprit de la is not to know it. science que de la mepriser. Hatred is a dreadful passion. C'est une terrible passion que la haine. These sentences, consecrated by usage, are not grammatical, and are used for these ; Recompenser le merite, c'est Fencourager, Mepriser la science, c'est ne pas la connaitre, La haine est une passion horrible ; which are correct, but are flat in comparison with the pre- ceding. 711. The pronoun ce, placed at the beginning of a sentence, ought to be repeated in the second member of that sentence, when the last begins with the verb to be. What I wish the most is, to go and Ce que je desire le plus, c'est d'aller see you. vous voir. 712. But if the verb to be is followed by a singular noun, the repetition is not indispensable ; so we may say ; What deserves our admiration the Ce qui merite le plus notre admira- most is virtue. tion est (or c'est) la vertu. 713. And when the verb to be is followed by an adjective, then the pronoun ce must not be expressed ; as, What you have just told me is hor- Ce que vous venez de me dire est rible. horrible. 714. Although the pronoun ce should not be placed at the beginning of the sentence, it is used before the verb to be, if what precedes the verb as an attribute is of a certain extent ; as, A sign of corruption in the manners Le signe de la corruption des mozurs of a country is the multiplicity of dans un Mat, c'est la multiplicite its laws. des lois. But we would say, True nobility is virtue, La vraie noblesse est la vertu ? because the attribute true nobility is of small extent* PRONOUN. 173 715. Foreigners have great difficulty in understanding when the English phrases, it is, he is, ought to be expressed by il est or by c'est. The following rules will leave no doubt in their minds. When it is, or he is, are followed by an adjective, an ad- verb, or a noun taken adjectively, they are always rendered by il est ; as, It is worthy of a great nation to II est digne d'une grande nation de build hospitals for their wounded construire des hopitaux, pour ses warriors. guerriers invalides. Do not depend upon him, he is not Ne comptez pas sur lui, il n'est pas a man of his word. homme de parole. It is well to be generous, provided it II est bien d'etre genereux pour- is not with other people's money. vu que cene soit pas avec l'argent des autres. 716. But c'est is used instead of il est before an adjective when answering to a question, or deducing a consequence, Is it necessary for us to go to Est-il necessaire que nous allions en Europe ? Yes, it is. Europe ? Oui, c'est necessaire. Yes, you are right, we must go to Oui, vous avez raison, nous devons war with England, it is indispens- faire la guerre a PAngleterre, able. c'est indispensable. 717. When, on the other hand, it is, or he is, are followed by a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, or even by a verb, then these phrases are expressed by c'est ; as, You may trust him, he is the man Vous pouvez vous fier a lui, c'est I esteem the most. Vhornme du monde que j'estime le plus. You may trust Mr. * * * *, he is a Vous pouvez vous fier a M. * * * *, man of his word. c'est un homme de parole. I ought to believe that story, be- J'ai du croire cette histoire, car c'est cause it is you who told it to me. vous qui me l'avez dite. What a man must care for is the Ce que l'homme doit preferer c'est useful, and not the agreeable. V utile et non Vagrtahle. By treating me as you do, you show Me traiter comme vous le faites, that you do not respect my char- c'est dire que vous n'estimez pas acter. mon caractere. 718. From the above illustrations, it results, that whenever it is, and he is, are translated by il est, the word which follows is never preceded by an article ; when, on the contrary, they are expressed by c'est before a noun, or an adjective taken as a noun, the article is always placed before both. 719. When it is is followed by a preposition, sometimes this phrase is expressed by il est, sometimes by c'est. 15* 174 FRENCH GRAMMAR. With the preposition of, il est is used in sentences like this ; It is my duty to tell you the truth. 11 est de mon devoir de vous dire la verite. 720. With any other preposition the phrase c'est is always used ; as, It is by gambling that one loses his C'est d, jouer que l'homme perd honor. l'honneur. It is by your fault that you have Cest par votre faute que vous vous ruined yourself. etes ruine. It is with sorrow that I see your Oest avec chagrin que je vois votre health declining. sante decliner. 721. Cest is also used very properly with a great number of adverbs, as well as in many Gallicisms consecrated by time and usage ; as, I bitterly repent the loss of your Oest amerement que je regrette la father. perte de votre pere. I admire this, it is perfectly done. J'admire ceci, c' 'est parfaitement fait. You are, indeed, welcome to re- Oest Men a vous a me reprocher proach me with this fault. cette faute. Of the Pronoun ce joined to a relative pronoun. 722. Ce, followed by a relative pronoun, relates only to things ; it is always masculine, and governs the verb which follows in the singular, because its meaning is vague, and not sufficiently specified to ascertain its gender and number ; as, What pleases is more dangerous Ce qui plait est plus dangereux than that which offends. que ce qui offense. 723. The relative pronouns to which ce may be prefixed, are qui, que, dont, and quoi. 724. With qui, que, dont, no preposition is ever used after ce, but always with quoi. 725. When joined to qui, ce qui is always employed as nominative of the verb following. 726. When joined to que, dont, quoi, the compound rela- tive pronouns ce que, ce dont, ce a quoi, are always the object of the verb following ; as, What makes me happy, makes you Ce qui me rend heureux, vous rend miserable. miserable. What I love you dislike. Ce que j'aime, vous ne l'aimez pas. That of which you speak is known Ce dont vous parlez est connu de by everybody. tout le monde. That in which you fail is the want Ce par quoi vous pechez, c'est le of mind. manque dejugement. PRONOUN. 175 In the first example, ce qui is nominative of the verb rend ; in the last three, ce qui, ce dont, ce par quoi, are objectives of the verbs j'aime, vous parlez, and vous pechez. 727. We have already stated, that when ce, followed by qui, que, dont, and quoi, begins a sentence, and is the nomina- tive of the verb to be, coming after the incidental proposition, complement of ce, this pronoun was sometimes repeated and sometimes omitted before the verb to be ; but when this verb is followed by a plural noun, or by a personal pronoun, then the repetition is indispensable ; as, What makes me feel indignant, is, Ce qui m'indigne, ce sont les actes the unjust acts which are daily d'injustice qui se commettent committed. touts les jours. What has saved me from my pain- Ce qui m'a sauve de mes reves peni- ful dreams is you. bles, c'est vous. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 728. We have seen already that the use of the personal pro- nouns is to designate persons and things ; that of relative pro- nouns is to recall the mind to them, and to explain or restrict their meaning. 729. Therefore, relative pronouns relate necessarily to ob- jects which have been spoken of before, and have been desig- nated by a noun or pronoun. 730. This noun or pronoun is called antecedent. This an- tecedent is not always expressed ; in many sentences it is un- derstood, but the mind supplies it with facility and places it immediately before the relative pronoun which belongs to it. 731. Relative pronouns also operate as conjunctions in con- necting two phrases together, when we say : The society in which we live is La societe que nous frequentons est pleasant. agreable. The relative que unites and makes only one sentence of these two : La societe est agreable, nous frequentons cette societe, 732. This pronoun affords also the advantage of determining, 176 FRENCH GRAMMAR. with the period which follows it, the extent of the signification which we intend to give to the first ; thus, in this instance, we do not pretend to say that society in general is pleasant, but only the particular society in which we live. And this idea is expressed by the insertion of que before this restrictive pe- riod. 733. The relative pronouns are six in number : Who, qui. Whom, que. Who, that, or whom, le quel. Whose, dont. What, quoi. Where, Oil. Ou, by a practice perhaps too much abused, is here used for au quel, to which. Of the Relative Pronoun Qui, who. 734. Qui, of either number and gender, is said of persons and things when used as a nominative, as in the following sen- tences : The man who gambles loses his IShomme qui joue, perd 1'honneur. honor. The book which pleases the most is Le livre qui plait le plus n'est pas not always the most useful. toujours le plus utile. 735. But when qui is objective, and then it is always pre- ceded by a preposition, it is only said of persons, or things personified ; as, The man to whom this beautiful Uhomme h quice beaujardin appar- garden belongs is very rich. tient est tres riche. Heaven, to which we are indebted Le del, & qui nous devons notre bon- for our happiness, will not cease heur, ne cessera pas de nous pro- to protect us. teger. 736. Sometimes by contraction, as a pure Gallicism, we use qui objectively for celui que, and la personne que ; in which case it follows the preceding rule ; as, I will, respecting these, believe Pen croixai, qui (celui que) vousvou- whom you please. drez. We ought not to become attached to On ne doit pas s'attacher sans savoir any one before we know whom we qui (celui que) l'on aime. love. PRONOUN. 177 737. When the pronoun qui is governed by the preposition of, de, and followed by a personal pronoun, we must employ the contracted relative pronoun dont in preference to de qui ; as, The lady of whom you speak is La femme dont vous parlez est ties much known. connue. De qui, instead of dont, would now be a fault against usage. 738. But, if the relative pronoun preceded by of were used instead of a personal pronoun followed by a noun, then de qui would be as well as dont ; as, The lady of whom your father spoke La femme de qui votre pere m'a par- to me is well known. le est tres connue. 739. The relative qui always agrees in number, gender, and person, with its antecedent ; that is to say, it governs the verb and adjectives which follow it in the same number, gender, and person as its antecedent ; but, for itself, it remains unchanged ; as, Before God had created living be- Avant que Dieu eut donne 1'etre, ings, nothing had life but himself; rien ne l'avait que lui seul ; il est it is he who has made all, and who celui qui a fait tout, et qui a fait has done all by his word alone. tout par sa parole. I, who have insulted you, why don't Moi qui vous ai insulte, pourquoi ne you kill me ? me tuez-vous pas ? You, who pretend to love me, why Vous qui pretendez m'aimer, pour- don't you revenge me ? quoi ne me vengez-vous pas ? In the first example, qui is singular, masculine, and of the third person, because God, Dieu, its antecedent, is singular, mascu- line, and of the third person. In the second, qui is singular, masculine, and of the first person, because moi, its antecedent, is singular, masculine, and of the first person. In the third, qui is of the second person, plural, and mascu- line, because vous, its antecedent, is of the second person, plu- ral, and masculine. 740. Qui ought not to be separated from its antecedent when this antecedent is a noun ; as, A young man who is obedient to the Un jeune homme qui est docile aux counsels which are given to him, conseils qui lui sont donnes, doit must certainly succeed in the infailJiblement reussir dans le world. monde. 741. However, there are phrases in which qui may be sep- 178 FRENCH GRAMMAR. arated from its antecedent, by a certain number of words, but it is only when the sense compels the pronoun to relate to it ; as, It has been necessary, above all, to II a fallu, avant toutes choses, vous make you read, in the Holy Scrip- faire lire, dans l'Ecriture Sainte, tares, the history of the people of Vhistoire du peuple de Dieu, qui God, which is the foundation of fait le fondement de la religion, religion. In this sentence, qui is separated from its antecedent by the words, du peuple de Dieu, but the sense compels the pronoun to relate to the word histoire ; because the words du peuple qualify history, and the words de Dieu qualify peuple ; there- fore the mind is obliged to go back as far as history, histoire, to find the antecedent of qui ; thus no ambiguity arises from the construction, and it may be used without fault. 742. But the following phrase is incorrect ; as, I write to him letters which I think Je lui ecris des lettres que je crois are admirable. qui sont admirables. Because the antecedent, lettres, being already followed by a rel- ative pronoun in the objective, que, cannot, in expressing the same idea, be the antecedent of another relative pronoun in the nominative ; for, if we change the pronouns que and qui for lesquelles, as they relate to letters, we shall have the following barbarous sentence : Je lui ecris des lettres lesquelles je crois lesquelles sont admirables. The sentence ought to be : Je lui ecris des lettres que je crois admirables, or, Je lui ecris des lettres qui me semblent admirables. 743. The pronoun qui may be separated from its antecedent when the antecedent is a personal pronoun used as a direct ob- ject ; as, He found her weeping scalding H la trouva qui pleurait a chaudes tears. larmes. I see him amusing himself. Je le vois qui s' amuse. because' the pronouns la and le, being employed for elle and lui, cannot possibly, on account of the rules of the language, be placed after the verb ; it is here a necessity which cannot be helped, and as, besides, no ambiguity arises from it, there cannot be any objection to complying with it. PRONOUN. 179 744. \V e have, also, Gallicisms of this kind authorized by usage ; as, Those are not the most unfortunate Ceux-la ne sont pas les plus mal- who complain the most. heureux, qui se plaignent le plus. 745. We ought to mention that the rule which requires the pronoun qui to follow immediately its antecedent, refers only to that pronoun used as nominative ; otherwise, the preposition always separates it from the noun to which it relates ; as, The persons in whom 1 feel inter- La personne pour qui je m'interesse. ested. 746. Sentences where qui is repeated, always relating to the same antecedent, are perfectly correct ; as, An author who is reasonable, who Un auteur qui est sense, qui connait knows his language, who medi- sa langue, qui medite sur son su- tates upon his subject, who takes jet, qui etudie a, loisir, qui con- proper time to study, and who con- suite ses amis, est presque sur de suits his friends, is almost sure of reussir. succeeding. The relative pronoun qui, thus repeated, relates immediately to its antecedent, un auteur, and thus is in conformity with the rule given above. 747. Although the pronoun qui, as a subject, ought not to be separated from its antecedent, it still retains all the privi- leges of a nominative towards the verb which it governs ; that is to say, it may be separated from it by appositions and inci- dental phrases ; as, Are you then the man who, when Etes vous done l'homme qui, lorsque I met him ten years ago, was beg- je le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, ging for his bread, and now pos- mendiait son pain, et qui mainte- sesses so great riches ? nant possede de si grandes ri- chesses ? In this sentence, the relative pronoun qui is separated from the verb which it governs, by the incidental phrases, lorsque je le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, but the sense is clear, and conse- quently regular. 748. But we could not place, between the antecedent and its relative pronoun, a preposition with its regimen ; as, The goddess, on entering, sees the table dressed, Admires such a line arrangement, and recognises the hand of the church. La diesse, en entrant, qui voit la nappe mise, Admire un si bel ordre, et reconnait l'eglise. Hearing this, with an arm that D'un bras, a ces mots, qui peut tout knows no resistance he destroyed renverser, il detruit tout ce qui all around him. l'entoure. 180 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 749. The relative qui ought not to be employed with an an- tecedent which is followed by a phrase which it governs ; as. Do not take my brother's horse, Ne prenez pas le cheval demon frlre which is lame. qui est boiteux. Let us go and see the sister of my Allons voir la sozur de mon ami qui friend, who is always sick. est toujours malade. Those sentences are incorrect, because they are not clear, and create ambiguity. In the first we cannot see clearly whether it is the horse or my brother who is lame. In the second we cannot see whether it is the sister or the friend who is sick. They ought to be constructed as follows ; Ne prenez pas le cheval boiteux de mon frere. Allons voir la sceur malade de mon ami. 750. We have said above, that the antecedent of relative pronouns was understood in many cases ; but it is generally when that antecedent is a pronoun. The pronouns which are understood are, in general, ce, ceZiti, ceZ/e, ceux, celles ; as, He who stands as surety ought to (Celui) qui repond, paye. pay. He who could work did so. Travaillait, (celui) qui pouvait. Let us play the game where the Jouons a (celui) qui perd gagne. loser is the winner. The first sentence ought to be, Celui qui repond, paye, The second, Celui qui le pouvoit, travaillait. The third, Jouons au jeu ou celui qui perd, gagne. All these sentences, and others like them, are idiomatical ; great attention is required to use the same privilege right, and one must be very well acquainted with the language before he omits a pronoun as the antecedent of qui ; Corneille himself has committed a great fault in this verse ; Et qui seroit heureux, qui pourrait aujourd'hui. PRONOUN. 181 Celui is understood before qui, but que seroit heureux qui is not French. The following is a pretty verse ; Que sont heureux, ceux qui peuvent aimer ! How happy are those who may love ! But take away ceux, and you have, Que sont heureux qui peuvent aimer, which is a fault against the language. It may be seen how far a word expressed, or omitted, may spoil the noblest ideas, and the best expressions. 751. A great number of phrases may be rendered obscure in their meaning by an improper use of the relative pronoun qui ; in order to be always clear a particular attention ought to be paid, so as to ascertain if the relative pronoun qui is the subject of a proposition determinative, or merely explicative. 752. The proposition is explicative, when it leaves to its nominative the whole extent of its signification, without any restriction, and serves only to point out a propriety, a quality of the subject ; as, Man, who is a reasonable being, Uhomme,qui est un itreraisonnable, ought never to forget the dignity ne devrait jamais oublier la dignite of his nature. de sa nature. Qui, here, is an equivalent for parceque, because ; this proposition explains the nature of man, but does not restrict it ; it is then explicative. 753. A proposition is determinative, when it limits the noun to which it relates ; as, The man who respects the laws of Z/homme qui respecte les his de son his country is a good citizen. pays est un bon citoyen. Without the determinative proposition, qui respecte les lois de son pays, we should speak of man in general, or of mankind. This proposition, then, restrains, diminishes the extent of the signification of the noun, man ; it is, then, determinative. 754. By a proper application of this distinction in the nature of a proposition, we may render the following sentence either clear or obscure ; we mean to express that a person gave a reward to those of his servants who had been faithful to him ; but if we say, making the proposition explicative, 16 182 FRENCH GRAMMAR. II recompensa ses serviteurs qui ne l'avaient point abandonne dans le malheur, the phrase is obscure, and seems to imply that all his servants had followed him, and that he rewarded them all, which is not the case. Whereas, if we make the proposition determinative, by ad- mitting this form, II recompensa ceux de ses serviteurs qui ne l'avaient point abandonne dans son malheur, the ambiguity disappears, and what the mind wishes to express is fairly understood ; thus too much care cannot be used in the use of the pronoun qui, if we wish to express exactly what the mind has in view. 755. The pronoun qui, when its antecedent is a noun, ought always to relate to a noun taken in a definite sense ; thus the following sentences are wrong, He received me with a politeness II m'a recu avec politesse qui m'a which charmed me, charme, Man is a reasonable animal, who, L'homme est animal raisonnable, &c, qui, &c, because, as we have already stated, qui can only relate to a definite noun or to an adjective taken as a noun ; then in these two sentences, the words, animal raisonnable, and avec politesse, are mere qualificatives, expressing a situation, a mode of being ; therefore qui cannot relate to them ; but if we make animal and politesse definite, or if at least we give them a determinate meaning by the addition of the prepositive an, un, une, then the nature of these words is so modified as to enable them to be the antecedent of qui ; thus the above sentences, so modi- fied, are correct, II m'a regu avec une politesse qui m'a charme. L'homme est un animal raisonnable qui, &c. 756. Some sentences, where nouns are used without the article, seem at first of an indefinite character, and consequently not adapted to the use of qui ; but with a little attention, it is easily perceived that the signs of that definite nature are under- stood, and the mind supplies them without trouble ; as, He has not a book, which is not his II n'a pas de livre, qui ne soit de son own choice. choix. PRONOUN. 183 He behaves himself as a man who II se conduit en homme qui connait knows the world. le monde. He is overwhelmed with misfor- II est accable de maux qui ne lui tunes which do not give him a laissent pas un moment de repos. moment of peace. This is a sort of fruit that does not C'est une sorte de fruit qui ne murit ripen in Europe. pas en Europe. All these sentences are elliptical, and if we supply the words which the ellipsis obliges us to omit, we shall see that the vague meaning of the nouns, livre, homme, maux, and fruits, would change, and become determined ; as, H n'a pas un livre, &c. II se conduit comme un homme, &c. II est accable de plusieurs maux, &c. Ce fruit est d'une sorte qui, &c. Of the Relative Pronoun, Que. 757. The relative pronoun que relates to persons and things ; it is of either gender and number ; and is never used as a nominative or an indirect object. Its only function is that of a direct object, and consequently it cannot exist in a sentence without an antecedent, which, generally, it immediately follows. 758. We say, generally ; because it may be separated from its antecedent by a certain number of words, when the mind may, without trouble or ambiguity, recur to that antecedent, of which those words are but the complement ; as in this sen- tence : What is an army ? It is a body Qu'est ce qu'une armee ? C'est acted upon by an infinity of differ- un corps anime oVune infinite de ent passions, which a skilful man passions diffe' rentes, ^u'un homme incites to the defence of the habile fait mouvoir pour la de- country, fense de la patrie. It is impossible to mistake the antecedent of the pronoun que, although it is immediately preceded by passions differentes, because these words, d\me infinite de passions differentes, re- strain the extent of the signification of the adjective anime, so that the mind recurs without difficulty to the antecedent, corps. All sentences of like construction, in which such an opera- tion of the mind could not be performed without ambiguity, are defective, and ought to be avoided. 184 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 759. Foreigners are, sometimes, much embarrassed in dis- tinguishing que, relative, from que, exclamative, or conjunc- tive. Que is always exclamative when placed at the beginning of a sentence ; Always conjunctive when it has no antecedent clearly ex- pressed ; Always relative pronoun when it has an antecedent from which it is not separated by a preposition expressed or under- stood. In the following sentence these three different qualifications of the word que are easily discovered ; How man is to be pitied, when he Que Phomme est a plaindre, quand forgets that it is his reason which il oublie que c'est la raison que son his heart must consult ! cceur doit consulter ! The first que is merely exclamative ; the second is a con- junction, because it has no antecedent to be traced, and the third is a relative pronoun, because it is immediately preceded by its antecedent, raison. But this sentence is defective, because it contains the word que three times, which is a great fault of style. 760. Que, exclamative, is easily known by its being placed at the beginning of sentences ; Que, pronoun, is ascertained to be such when it may be replaced by lequel with the noun to which it is supposed to relate ; in this phrase, The man whom I associate with is L'homme que je frequente est un learned. savant. Que is relative, because it is there for Vhomme lequel homme je frequente, &c. In any other cases que is but a conjunction, and its function is simply to connect propositions together, in order to form sentences. 761. There are a great number of cases in which que seems to be used as an indirect object, being a contraction of a prep- osition and the relative ; but, as no advantage could be derived from such a qualification, and as, in many instances, it would PRONOUN. 185 become extremely difficult to establish the distinction, it is pref- erable to class those cases in the list of conjunctions entirely ;- thus in the following phrases : A fountain cannot throw out soft Une fontaine ne peut jeter de 1'eau water by the same pipe that it douce par le meme tuyau qu'elle throws out salt water. jette de l'eau salee. I have received your letter with as J'ai recu votre lettre avec toute la much satisfaction, as one ought satisfaction que Ton doit recevoir to receive such a favor. d'une telle faveur. In the first example que seems to be there for by (the) which, par lequel, and in the second for avec laquelle, with which, and thus seems to stand as an indirect object ; but in the fol- lowing : Considering the manner I have De la fac,on que j'ai parle, on doit spoken, the}? ought to have un- m'avoir compris. derstood me. It is to you that I want to speak. C'est a, vous que je veux parler. It is in God that we ought to place C'est en Dieu que nous devons pla- our confidence. cer notre confiance. 762. Que is called a mere conjunction by the grammarians who call it a pronoun in others ; why this difference ? Is not que, in the first sentence, apparently for de laquelle, in the second, for auquel, and in the third for dans lequel. Such discrepancy cannot then produce any other result than confusion ; and to avoid it we shall place que, in cases like those, among the conjunctions, and call it such. Of the Relative Pronoun, Lequel. 763. The relative pronoun lequel is used for persons and things. It takes either number and gender ; as, Lequel, singular masculine. Lesquels, plural masculine. Laquelle, singular feminine. Lesquelles, plural feminine. 764. The pronoun lequel should be used either as a nom- inative or as a regimen, only to avoid an ambiguity, as in the following sentence : 16 * 186 FRENCH GRAMMAR. As soon as I had done the business Aussitot que je fus debarrasse des of the court, T went to see the affaires de la cour, je fus voir man who had spoken to me about Vhomme qui m'avait parle du the marriage of Madame de Mi- mariage de Madame de Mira- ramion, who appeared to have mion, lequel me parut dans les kept the same opinion. memes sentiments. Lequel here is indispensable for the sake of clearness, for if, instead of it, qui had been used, then an ambiguity would have arisen as to whether Vhomme or Madame Miramion was the antecedent of qui. 765. Now we avoid as much as possible all occasions where lequel would be necessary, either as a subject or a regimen. Our ear dislikes the use of that word, and phrases ought to be arranged so as to spare the necessity of using it at all. 766. Formerly lequel was often used to avoid the repetition of the pronoun qui ; as, The priests were of the Aaron fam- Les pretres etaient de la famille ily, and only those who were of d'Aaron, et il n'y avait que ceux that family could perform sacri- qui etaient de celle famille, les- fices. quels pussent exercer la sacrifi- cature. This phrase, written by Racine himself, would now be shocking to our ears, and should be turned differently ; as, Les pretres etaient, de la famille d'Aaron, les seuls qui pussent exercer la sacrificature. 767. Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, with the prepo- sition of, de, are either preceded or followed by a noun which is thus united to the principal sentence, and by which it is gov- erned. 768. When followed by the noun, it is better not to use it, and employ dont as a contraction of duquel, de laquelle, &c. The Thames, whose bed is deep La Tamise dont le lit est profond and rapid, &c. et rapide, &c. The prince, whose reputation is Le prince dont la reputation est compromised, &c. compromise, &c. De laquelle, duquel, here would be wrong. 769. But if lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, with the preposition of, are preceded by the noun, then duquel, de la- quelle, &c. can only be used ; as, PRONOUN. 187 The Thames, in the bed of which La Tamise dans le lit de laquelle so much riches are buried. tant de richesses sont enfoncees. The prince, whose reputation is so Le prince a la reputation duquel much thought of. on attache tant d'importance. 770. With the preposition to, a, when speaking of persons, qui ought to be preferred to lequel, laquelle, &c. ; as, The kings whom we must obey are Les rois, d, qui il faut obeir, ne sont not always the tyrants of the pas toujours les tyrans du peu- people. pie. Auxquels would be against usage. The same rule should be observed with any other prepo- sition. 771. But when speaking of things, auquel, auxquels, a la- quelles, auxquelles, ought to be chosen ; as, The dignities to which he aspires. Les places awzquelles il aspire. Of the Relative Pronouns, Dont, De qui, Duquel, De la- quelle, Desquels, Desquelles, and Quoi. 772. The relative pronoun dont relates to persons and things ; it is either plural or singular, masculine or feminine, and is employed for duquel, de laquelle, &c. and de qui, de quoi. We have already stated, when it ought to be used in pre- ference to duquel, &c. and wtten not ; but we must add here, that it ought always to be replaced by duquel, de laquelle, &c. when an ambiguity would arise from its use, or else the phrase must be altered in its construction ; as, The goodness of the Lord, of La bonte de Dieu, de laquelle (and which we feel the effects every not dont) nous ressentons tous day of our lives, ought to induce les jours les effets, devrait bien us to practise his commands. nous engager a suivre ses com- mandements. De laquelle is used here to show, that the antecedent is bonte, which is singular feminine, and with which it agrees ; by using dont, the relative pronoun could as well have Dieu as bonte for its antecedent, and the sentence would be ambiguous, which must always be avoided. 773. We shall repeat here, that, speaking of persons, de qui 188 FRENCH GRAMMAR. is better than dont, provided the antecedent be a noun ; but if a pronoun, dont ought to be preferred ; as, The lady we speak of is good. La dame de qui nous parlons est bonne. It is you of whom we spoke. C'est vous dont nous parlions. However, the first sentence with dont would not be a fault, ex- cept against taste, whereas the second, de qui, instead of dont, would be an offence against grammar. 774. Foreigners, when using the pronoun dont or de qui, ought to bear in mind, that they should be followed by the nominative of the next verb, always preceded by the article, when this nominative is not a pronoun ; as, The French people ought never to Les Francais ne doivent jamais forget the memory of Napoleon, oublier la memoire de Napoleon, whose great deeds have covered dont les hautsfaits ont couvert le the country with glory. pays de gloire. 775. Of all the relative pronouns quel is the only one which takes the article, and this article is so intimately joined to it that the pronoun is never used without it, and makes with it a single word, when contracted or not. 776. When the relative pronoun quoi is used, it is always employed instead of lequel, preceded by a preposition. It is only employed in relation to things, and relates to either number or gender. 777. It follows, but preceded by a preposition, the noun or pronoun to which it relates, and precedes the nominative of the verb following ; as, These are things to which you pay Ce sont des choses a quoi vous ne no attention. faites aucune attention. These are conditions without which Ce sont des conditions sans quoi the affair would not have been V affaire n'aurait pas ete conclue. agreed upon. That is the cause for which he has Voila le sujet pour quoi on l'a ar- been arrested. rete. In the first example, a quoi, is for auxquelles ; in the second, sans quoi is for sans lesquelles ; in the third, pour quoi is for pour lequel. In our days, auxquelles, sans lesquelles, and pour lequel would certainly be preferred. 778. But quoi has a vague meaning which makes it prefera- PRONOUN. 189 ble to lequel, where its antecedent is ce or rien, that or nothing, whose signification is also vague and indefinite ; therefore, we must say, It is that of which we do not think C'est a quoi Ton ne songe gueres. much. There is nothing which I should H n'y a rien a quoi je sois plus dis- like better to do. pose. It is that of which I always dream. C'est de quoi]e reve sans cesse. 779. But as we must always have some oddities in a lan- guage, dont ought to be preferred to de quoi, with Hen as an antecedent ; as, There is nothing which we cannot H n'y a rien dont Dieu ne soit l'au- trace to God as the author. teur. Of the Relative Pronoun Ou. 780. The relative pronoun ou is of either number and gen- der, but relates only to things. It is used alone, and with the prepositions de, of, and par, by, with which it makes the two compound relatives oVou and par ou. 781. These three relatives are used for auquel, to which, dans lequel, in which, duquel, from which, and par lequel, by which ; as, There house where I live. La maison ou je vis (dans laquelle). That is the end to which I aim. C'est le but ou je tends (auquel). We ought to consider a good educa- On doit regarder l'education comme tion as a blessing on which de- un bienfait d^ou depend le bon- pends the happiness of kingdoms heur des royaumes et des peuples and people. (duquel). The places through which he has Les lieux far oit il a passe sont ties passed are very interesting. interessants (par lesquels). 782. We ought to use the relatives ou, d'ou, and par ou only when their antecedents, or the verbs to which they are joined, indicate a sort of motion or rest, at least metaphorically, as is expressed in the two first sentences. The word maison, in French, has two significations ; when it means house, we say : The house which he has left. La maison d'ou il est sorti. When it means race, we say : The family which he comes from. La maison dont il sort. 190 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 783. Absolute pronouns are those which have no relation to an antecedent. They are five in number : Who, whom, qui. What, que, quoi, quel. Which, lequel. 784. Those pronouns are the same words which have al- ready been used as relative pronouns, but their functions in the language not being the same, they have received a new name appropriated to their new employment. There is no difficulty in distinguishing, qui, absolute, from qui , relative. 785. Qui is an absolute pronoun when it may be changed thus : what person, quelle personne, or by who is that who, quel est celui qui, in this sentence : Who doubts that a young- man who Qui doute que le jeune homme qui practises virtue enjoys more real cultive la vertu, ne goute un bon- happiness than one who spends heur plus solide que celui qui his life in dissipation and pleas- passe sa vie dans la dissipation et ure. le plaisir ? The first qui is the only one which is absolute, because it is the only one that may be changed to signify what person. The other two are relatives. 786. Qui, when an absolute pronoun, is only said of per- sons, whether employed by itself, or with a preposition ; as, Who speaks ? Qui parle ? To whom do you speak ? A qui parlez-vous ? Of whom do you speak ? Be qui parlez-vous ? With whom are you ? Avec qui etes-vous ? Foreigners often commit the fault of applying this pronoun to things ; it must be avoided carefully. 787. The pronoun qui, offering to the mind but a vague and indefinite idea, is generally used in the singular and masculine ; as, Which of you will be bold enough Qui de vous sera assez hardi pour to attack me? m'attaquer ? PRONOUN. 191 788. But in some few cases it may relate to a noun feminine and plural ; as, Who are those people we see on the Qui sont ces personnes que nous hill ? voyons sur la colline ? However, quelles sont ces personnes, &c., would be better. 789. The absolute pronoun qui forms a great number of Gallicisms, which have been adopted from frequent use ; as, They are fighting to know who shall lis se battent pour savoir qui l'aura, have him. or, a qui Vaura. You will find your match. Vous trouverez a qui parler. Which is worse. Qui pis est. It was, which would be the more C'etait a qui des deux serait le plus foolish of the two. fou. 790. When the absolute pronoun qui is used interrogatively without a preposition, it is turned by many persons by who is it who, qui est-ce qui ; as, Who has said that to you ? Qui vous l'a dit ? qui est ce qui vous l'a dit ? But this last mode of expression is a true pleonasm and a Gallicism, which ought to be avoided. 791. In proverbial interrogative sentences, qui is said of things ; as, What makes the bird ? Its plu- Qui fait l'oiseau ? C'est le plu- mage, mage. What makes the monk? It is not Qui fait le moine ? Ce n'est pas his dress. son habit. But we should not say : What are the states of the north ! Qui sont les itats du nord ? What are the ancient empires ? Qui sont les anciens empires. because these phrases are not proverbial; quel, quelle, &c, ought to be used instead of qui. 792. Que and quoi are only said of things in all circum- stances. They signify what thing, quelle chose ; as, What could courage do for us in Que pouvait la valeur dans ce fu- this fatal battle ? neste combat ? What are you occupied about now ? A quoi . vous occupez-vous mainte- nant ? 793. Que is sometimes used for de quoi and a quoi idiomat- ically ; as, 192 FRENCH GRAMMAR. What is the use of science without Que (a quoi) sert la science sans la virtue ? vertu ? What is the use for a miser to own Que (de quoi) sert a, l'avare d'avoir treasures ? des tresors ? 794. In interrogative sentences, que has the meaning of qu'est-ce-que, what is it that. What do you say ? Que dites vous ? means qtfest-ce que vous dites ; but this expression ought to be rejected for the other. 795. Que and quoi govern the preposition of, c?e, when placed before an adjective ; as, What is the news ? Que dit-on de nouveau ? What is more instructive and amu- Quoi de plus instructif et de plus sing than to read the celebrated amusant que de lire les auteurs writers in their own language ? celebres dant leur propre langue ? 796. Quoi is seldom used in French, but its use becomes indispensable, when it supplies a whole sentence, and saves the necessity of repetition ; as, He is a wise legislator who, after C'est un sage legislateur qui, apres giving to his nation such laws as avoir donne a sa nation des lois to make its inhabitants happy and capables d'en rendre les habitants good, made them swear that they bons et heureux, leur fit jurer de would not violate any of them n'en violer aucune durant son ab- during his absence ; after which, sence ; aprbs quoi, il partit, s'exi- he went away, exiled himself from la soi-meme de sa patrie, et his country, and died poor in a mourut pauvre dans une terre foreign land. etrangere. In this sentence, quoi expresses most of its first part ; thus, Leur avoir donne de bonnes lois et leur avoir fait jurer, &c. 797. Quel always precedes a noun of which it takes the number and gender. It is said of persons and things, and denotes generally a feel- ing of admiration ; as, What man may expect constant Quel homme peut se promettre un happiness ? bonheur constant ? What modesty, what gentleness, Quelle mo destie^we^e douceur, mais but, above all, what artless and surtout quelle grace naive et pi- lively grace ! quante ! 798. Ohy oVou, and par ou are absolute pronouns, when they are found at the beginning of a sentence, and they may be PRONOUN. 193 turned by the noun of a thing united to the pronoun quel, or when they stand for what, quoi; as, Where do you go ? (En quel lieu) ou allez-vous ? Where do you come from ? (Be quel lieu) d'ou venez-vous ? What place do you intend to pass (Par quel lieu) par ou passerez- by ? vous ? What do you aspire to ? (A quoi) ou aspirez-vous ? How do you intend to succeed ? (Par quoi) par ou en viendrez-vous a bout ? OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 799. Indefinite pronouns are words, which serve to designate in an indefinite manner, which relate only to a vague object, and present to the mind nothing fixed or precise. 800. The words which are called indefinite pronouns are not all real pronouns ; some would be better qualified by being called adjectives ; but as they are generally known under the name of pronouns, for the sake of clearness we will give them this denomination. 801. Indefinite pronouns are divided into four classes, dis- tinct from each other ; as, 1st. Those which are never joined to a noun. 2d. Those which are always joined to a noun. 3d. Those which are sometimes joined to a noun, and some- times not. 4th. Those which are followed by the conjunction que. Of Indefinite Pronouns which are never joined to a Noun. 802. The pronouns of this class are the following : On, some one, they, you, we, somebody, people. Quelqu'un, somebody, one, some one. Quiconque, whoever, whosoever. Chacun, everybody, each, every one. L'un l'autre, one another. Autrui, other people, others. Personne, nobody, no one. Rien, nothing, not any thing, any thing. 17 194 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These words are real pronouns, because they are never joined to the noun to which they relate, but on the contrary take its place. 803. On. This pronoun is always used as a nominative ; it indicates a sort of third person vague and indefinite ; it is probably derived from the word homme, man, as an abbreviation ; in fact, when we say, One plays, one studies, On joue, on etudie, it is as if we said, man plays, man studies. This pronoun, which is in constant use in the language, is only said of persons, and always governs the singular and the masculine ; as, They. They speak, they play. On parle, on joue. They came to light. On en vint aux mains. One. One loves to flatter one's self. On aime a se flatter. A man. A man is not always master of his On n'est pas toujours maitre de soi. own temper. A woman. It is not always in the power of a On n'est pas toujours maitresse woman to go where she likes. d'aller ou l'on veut. Somebody. Somebody knocks at the door. On frappe a. la porte. People. People think and say openly. On pense et Ton dit tout haut. We. We acquire experience at our own On acquiert de 1'experience a, ses expense. . depens. You. You will find troublesome people On trouve par tout des importuns. everywhere. When I tell you that I depend upon Quand on vous dit que Ton compte you. sur vous. PRONOUN. 195 Although this pronoun, by its vague and indefinite nature ought never to govern the plural or the feminine, as we have already stated, usage has authorized a few cases in which this rule is not observed, as may be seen in the preceding exam- ples ; but they do not affect the rule, and should be con- sidered as mere idiomatical expressions. To those of the preceding illustrations, in which the plural and feminine are employed, we shall add the following ; (A woman.) One is not always young and pretty. On n'est pas toujours jeune et jolie. When one is pretty, one is not igno- Quand on est jolie, on ne l'ignore rant of it. pas. They are not slaves to be so badly On n'est pas des esclaves pour etre treated. si maltraites. 804. When the pronoun on is preceded by any of the words, et) ow, si, V ought to be prefixed to the pronoun for the sake of euphony ; as, If we knew how to limit our wishes, Si Von savait borner ses desirs, on we should spare ourselves a great s'epargnerait bien des maux, et deal of trouble, and we should Von se procurerait beaucoup d'a- gain many advantages. vantages. The place where one goes. Le lieu ok Von va. 805. But this rule should not be observed where the pro- noun on is followed by a word beginning with an Z, as Ze, la, Zwi, les, &c, even for the mere satisfaction of the ear ; as, They will receive a letter, and they On recevra une lettre, et on la lira will read it aloud. tout haut. Von la lira would be intolerable. 806. The same remark is applicable to the word que, when followed by a verb beginning with the letter c, having the sound of k ; as, We learn much more easily what On apprend beaucoup plus facile- we understand, than that which ment les choses que Von comprend, we do not. que celles que Von ne comprend pas. Laziness is a fault which is rarely La paresse est un defaut que Von corrected. corrige rarement. 807. But when que is followed by a verb beginning with any other letter than c, then the Z is suppressed or not, ac- cording to taste. 196 FRENCH GRAMMAR. SOS. The pronoun on should be repeated before each verb which has it for its nominative ; as, They praise him, blame him, threat- On le loue, on le blame, on le me- en him, caress him ; but whatever nace, on le caresse ; mais quoiqu'o/i they do, they cannot get along fasse, on ne peut en venir a bout, with him. 809. When the pronoun on is repeated, it must relate to the same object. The following phrase, One believes himself to be loved, On croit etre aime, et Von ne vous and one is not loved, aime pas, is incorrect, because the pronoun on has two antecedents ; it is not the same person who believes he is loved, and who does not love ; we ought to say, On croit etre aime, et on ne Pest pas. 810. Quelqu J un. Some one, somebody, one. Quelqu'un has two different significations, whether it refers to a noun or not. 811. When it refers to a noun, it signifies une personne y a person, and is never said of things. 812. When, with this meaning, it is used as a nominative, it takes the feminine and plural, but never when objective ; as, Nominative. Have any of you, ladies, heard of Quelqu'unedexo}is,mesdames,a4-ette this story ? entendu cette histoire ? Some one says that you are a rogue. Quelques uns assurent que vous etes un coquin. Objective. I have it from somebody. Je le tiens de quelqu'un. I heard some one say. J'ai oui dire a quelqu'un. 813. The last two examples, applied to a lady or to ladies, should not take the feminine or plural ; it would be wrong to say, Je le tiens de quelqu'une. J'ai entendu dire a quelques uns. 814. When quelqu'un does not refer to a noun, it is said of persons and things, and takes both number and gender. It is generally followed by a noun or a pronoun, preceded by of; as, PRONOUN. 197 (Speaking of a lady.) I know some of your friends. Je connais quelqu'une de vos amies. Would some of you do me a favor? Quelqu'une de vous voudrait-elle me faire une faveur ? Have you still any of those pam- Avez vous encore quelques unes de phlets ? 9 ces brochures ? 815. We have employed the word generally when saying that a noun or a pronoun preceded by de ought to follow quelqu'un in this meaning, because it may sometimes be used alone, in phrases like these ; We expect some gentlemen ; some Nous attendons des messieurs ; il will probably come. en viendra bien quelqu'un. Several ladies have promised me to Plusieurs dames m'ont promis de come ; some will, I hope. venir, il en viendra quelqu'une, j'espere. 816. Quiconque. Whoever, whosoever. Quiconque signifies quelque personne que ce soit whoever it may be ; it has no plural, is generally masculine, but takes the feminine occasionally. It is only said of persons, and has the peculiarity of contain- ing the relative qui and its antecedent, so as to be used as the nominative of two verbs, or to be the nominative of one and the object of another ; as in the following sentences, Whoever knows men, learns not to Quiconque connait les hommes, op- trust them. prend a s'en defier. This speech is for those who are Ce discours s'adresse a, quiconque est guilty. coupable. In the first sentence, quiconque is nominative of the verbs connait and apprend, and in the second, it is nominative of est and objective of s'adresse. 817. In the following sentence, according to the decision of the Academy, the pronoun is used in the feminine, as having a positive relation to women ; Whoever of you will be bold enough Quiconque de vous sera assez hardie to slander me, I will cause her to pour medire de moi, je Ten ferai repent of it. repentir. But this mode of expression is out of use, and should be avoided ; it should be as follows, Celle de vous qui sera assez hardie, &c. 17* 19S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 818. Chacun, Everybody, every one, each. Chacun signifies all the individuals of a species taken one after another ; it is said of persons and things, and means chaque personne, everybody, or, every sample, chaque exemple ; as, Go, each to your house. Allez vous en, chacun (chaque per- sonne) chez vous. Return those medals each into its Remettez ces medailles, chacune proper place. (chaque exemple) a sa place. 819. Chacun has no plural, but takes the feminine, as may be seen in the last example. This pronoun follows the same rule as quelqu'un, and is, as as well as that pronoun, only applied to persons when it has no antecedent, but it never takes the plural. Every one of you, ladies, has heard Chacune de vous, mesdames, a en- of this. tendu dire cela. 820. With an antecedent, on the contrary, it refers to per- sons and things, taking either gender, Take these pamphlets, and send Prenez ces brochures, et envoyez each to its direction. chacune a son adresse. 821. When chacun is followed by a noun or pronoun, which it governs, it requires the preposition of before both ; Try separately each of your friends, Eprouvez chacun de vos amis separe- and see how many are sincere. ment, et voyez combien il y en a de sinceres. Perhaps you will find an enemy in Peut-etre trouverez vous un ennemi each of them. dans chacun d'eucc. 822. The old phrase, un chacun, for every one, is no longer admitted in the language. We have now" to solve a difficulty, so much the more em- barrassing that its solution rests upon a very subtle mode of reasoning. 823. Chacun, although being always singular, is sometimes followed by the adjective pronouns, son, sa, ses, his, her, and sometimes by leur, leurs, their ; the following rules must be observed in these cases. 824. When in the sentence there are no plural nouns, of which chacun is the distributive, son, sa, ses, ought to be used ; PRONOUN. 199 He gave each one his share. II donna a, chacun sa part. Let every one mind his own busi- Que chacun songe a ses affaires. ness. We shall reward each one according Nous recompenserons chacun suivant to his merit. son merite. 825. But when chacun is contrasted with a plural noun, of which it is the distributive, the following distinction should be made ; If the mind rests more directly on the distributive, which is always singular, son, sa, ses are used after it ; as, Men ought to love each other, each Les hommes devraient s'aimer les for his own interest. uns les autres, chacun pour son propre interet. They have all brought their offer- lis ont tous apporte lews offrandes ings to the temple, each accord- au temple, chacun suivant ses ing to his means and devotion. moyens et sa devotion. If we follow the mind in the construction of these two sen- tences, we find the first may be turned in this way ; Men ought to love each other, each for the interest of each ; therefore each occupies the mind, and not men, and the pronoun of the third person singular is used. The second sentence means, that those who had brought their offerings had done it, each one according to the devotion and means of each, and not of all. 826. But if chacun contrasts with a plural noun, of which it is the distributive, and the mind is impressed more particularly with the plural idea than with the distributive itself, then leur, leurs, are used after chacun ; as, Men ought to have, each for the Les hommes devraient avoir, chacun interest of all, love for one an- pour leur interet, de l'amour les other. uns pour les autres. Alexander wished that even the Alexandre voulut que les betes beasts, and the walls of cities, memes, et les murailles des villes, should testify, each one in its temoignassent chacune a leur ma- way, their grief for the death of niere, leur douleur de la mort Hephaestion. d'Ephestion. Leur is used in these two sentences, because the first means that men ought to love each other, not for the interest of each individual, but for that of all ; and the second signifies that the beasts and walls ought to show their grief according to the way of all the beasts and all the walls, and not according to the manner of each beast or wall in particular ; the mind is then 200 FRENCH GRAMMAR. impressed with the idea of the plural, therefore the pronoun of the third person plural ought to be used. 827. Besides this mode of reasoning, to apply the pronoun right, there are indications in the construction of the sentence which tell which of the pronouns of the third person singular or plural must be employed ; they are as follows : 828. When chacun is placed after the regimen of the verb, which regimen expresses the objects to be distributed, the col- lective meaning denoted by the plural is expressed and com- pleted, and it remains only to apply chacun to each individual of the species expressed by the collective ; thus, son, sa, or ses must be chosen. 829. When, on the contrary, chacun is placed before the regimen, which denotes the object to be distributed, the col- lective meaning is not expressed. When chacun appears in the sentence, that collective idea, which is plural, exists and is conveyed to the last ; then leur or leurs must be employed. This remark refers to the two last examples, and the other to the two first. 830. But sometimes the verb has no regimen ; then we can only refer to what the mind intends to express, and use the singular or plural according to the result. In the following sentence : All have voted, each according to Tous ont vote chacun suivant ses, or his or their judgment, leurs lumieres, if we wish to say, that, in fact, each of the judges has voted according to the best of his mind, but that all have done the same, so that this last circumstance is the most striking of the two ; then we must say, Touts les juges ont vote suivant leurs lumieres, because the words touts and chacun occupy but the second place in the mind ; but, if we do not care about the judges as a body, but only mean that each one of them has given his opinion, so that this idea is the principal object of our thoughts, then we must say : Touts les juges ont vote chacun suivant ses lumieres ; but, after all, these distinctions are so nice, that in cases sim- PRONOUN. 201 ilar to this it is better to use the singular, because the collective sense has finished with the verb. 831. When chacun is followed by a pronoun, this pronoun is always used in the plural ; as, The queen said to the deputies, that La reine dit aux deputes, qu'il etait it was time for them to return to terns qu'ilss'enretournassont cha- their home. cun chez eux. 832. Autrui. Other people, others. Autrui signifies others, and is only said of persons ; it is rarely used speaking of a single individual ; it has neither gen- der nor number ; it is never joined to an adjective, and is al- ways preceded by a preposition ; as, Do not envy other people's property. N'enviez pas lebien d' autrui. Do not do to others what you would Ne faites pas a autrui ce que vous not have done to you. ne voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. 833. The pronoun autrui presents a difficulty, which is, to know whether and when the adjective posesssive pronouns, son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, or the relative pronoun en must be used with it. Son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs ought to be used with autrui, when the nouns to which these pronouns are prefixed, are themselves preceded by a preposition ; as, You may take interest in others, Vous pouvez epouser les interets without approving all their ac- d' autrui sans etre le panegyriste tions. de toutes leurs actions. 834. But when the nouns to which son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs ought to be prefixed are not preceded by a preposition, then the relative en is used with the article ; as, Take interest in others, but take Prenez les interets d'autrui, mais care not to espouse their quarrels. ayez soin de iVen pas epouser les querelles. Leurs querelles would be a fault. 835. Uun V autre. One another. Uun V autre is said of persons and things .; it takes the fem- inine, Vune Vautre, and the plural, as, les uns les autres, les 202 FRENCH GRAMMAR. unes les autres ; and always keeps the article before each of the words un and autre. These two words are used conjointly or separately. 836. When used conjointly, they express a reciprocity be- tween several persons or things ; then Vun acts as governing, and V autre as governed, so that the last only admits of a prep- osition before it ; as, One must help another, On doit se secourir Vun V autre, which means, L'un doit secourir l'autre ; (Vun being nominative, and V autre objective.) People always suffer on account of Les peuples soufrrent toujours des the wars which states carry on guerres que les etats se sont les against (each] other) one another. uns aucc autres. 837. Uun Vautre should not be mistaken for Vun et V au- tre, which has a signification entirely different ; when we say, They destroy each other, lis se detruisent Vun et Vautre, we express that each one destroys himself ; but when we say, lis se detruisent Vun Vautre, we express that one destroys the other ; as, Fire and water destroy each other, Le feu et l'eau se detruisent Vun or one another. Vautre. Uun et Vautre, in a sentence like this, would have no meaning. 838. The two words, Z'wiand Vautre, when used separately, indicate division ; they are no longer a single pronoun, but two distinct ones ; then Vun may be governed by a preposition as well as Vautre, which is not the case when they are united. Uun is used for the yerson or thing spoken first ; Vautre, for the other ; as, Passions understand one another ; Les passions s'entendent les unes if we give way to one, we cause avec les autres; si l'on se laisse another to appear. aller aux unes, on attire les autres. 839. Personne. Nobody, no one. Personne is either a noun or a pronoun, but in either case it is only said of persons. PRONOUN. 203 Personne, as a noun, is always feminine. Personne, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular. 840. Personne, as a pronoun, signifies nobody, no one, nul, qui que ce soit. It is always followed by a negation in affirmative sentences ; when used interrogatively, the negation is sometimes dispensed with; as, There is no person so badly in- II n'y a. personne si peu instruit des formed about business as not to affaires qui ne sache quels sont ses know his own interest. interets. No one knows whether he is worthy Personne ne sait sHl est digne d'a- of love or hatred. mour ou de haine. T - ir . „ - t i „ 3 S Personne veut-il venir avec moi ? or Is any one willing to come with me r < n . ., . , •^ ° ^ Personne ne veut-il venir avec moi ? That office suits him better than any Cette place lui convient mieux qu'& body else. personne. (Elliptical.) 841. Personne, used for qui que ce soit, whoever, is only employed in sentences which denote exclusion ; as, Is there any one here ? No, no- Y-a-t-il quelqu'un ici ? Non, per- body. sonne. 842. Personne here is used elliptically for il n'y a personne; so that, if the negation is not apparent in the sentence, it is easily supplied by the mind, in destroying the ellipsis. 843. When personne means quelqu'un, somebody, it is used only as nominative, and in phrases expressing interrogation or doubt ; then it is never followed by the negation ; as, I doubt if any body has ever de- Je doute que personne (quelqu'un) scribed nature so well as Guessner. ait jamais peint la nature aussi bien que Guessner. Has any one ever told a tale with Personne (quelqu'un) a-t-il jamais more candor than La Fontaine ? conte plus nafvementque La Fon- taine ? If ever any one is bold enough to Si jamais personne (quelqu'un) est undertake it, he will succeed. assez hardi pour l'entreprendre, il reussira. 844. Although the generality of grammarians admit that the pronoun personne is always masculine and singular, some pre- tend that when it evidently refers to ladies, it ought to take the feminine ; we agree with them, that in such cases the mas- culine should not be used, but we further say, that the pro- noun ought not to be used at all, and the phrase be turned so as to dispense with it, as in the following ; instead of saying, 204 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Ladies, there are none of you bold Mesdames, il n'y a personne de vous enough to deny the truth of my assez hardie pour nier la verite de arguments ; mes arguments ; the sentence ought to be turned thus : Mesdames, y-a-t-il aucune de vous qui soit assez hardie pour, &c. The difficulty thus disappears, and the sentence is correct. 845. Rien. Nothing, any thing. Rien is also either a noun or pronoun. As a noun, it signifies a thing of little value. As a pronoun, it means nothing, is always singular and mas- culine, and only said of things. Rien has two different significations, whether it is used with or without negation. 846. Rien, accompanied by a negation, signifies nulle chose, any thing ; as, It is better to do nothing than to II vaut mieux ne rien faire que de spend one's time in trifles. faire des riens. In this sentence, the first word rien is a pronoun, means noth- ing, and is preceded by the negation ; the second word riens is in the plural as a noun, and means trifles. He does not apply himself to any II ne s'applique a rien de solide. thing substantial. 847. Rien, joined to the verb compter 7 to count, although without a negation, still signifies nothing ; as, When one speaks as you do, it Quandon parlecomme vous le faites, makes others think that you count on donne a. penser que Von compte for nothing virtue, honor, and pour rien, la vertu, l'honneur, et probity. la probite. 848. Rien, without a negation, signifies quelque chose, some- thing, and is used only in sentences expressing interrogation or doubt ; as, I doubt if there is any thing better Je doute que rien (quelque chose) calculated to make an impression soit plus capable de faire impres- upon people, than the sight of the sion sur les peuples, que la vue des calamities which have visited malheursqu'aeprouveslaFrance. France. Is any thing better calculated to Rien flatte-t-il si delicieusement flatter the mind and the ear than 1'esprit et l'oreille, qu'un discours a speech wisely conceived and no- sagement congu et noblement ex- bly delivered ? prime PRONOUN. 205 849. Rien, used as a direct object, is, in the simple tenses of verbs, placed after the verb, and in the compound tenses, between the auxiliary and the past participle ; as, He says nothing. II ne dit rien. He has said nothing. II n'a rien dit. 850. But when it is the object of an infinitive, it is placed before that infinitive ; as, I cannot give you any thing. Je ne puis vous rien donner. As an indirect regimen it is always placed after the verb, what- ever may be the mood ; as, Not to think of any thing is better Ne penser a rien vaut mieux que de than to think of evil. penser au mal. Rien governs the preposition of, de, before the following adjective ; as, Is any thing more delightful ? Est-il rien de plus dilicieux 9 That man has nothing pleasing Cet homme n'a en lui rien de plai- about him. sant. Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun. 851. The pronouns of this class are five in number ; as, Quelque, some. Chaque, every, each. Quelconque, whoever, whatever. Certain, certain, some. Un, a, an. These words ought not to be classed as pronouns ; they are adjectives ; but as custom and usage have determined their de- nomination, we shall keep it, so as to be understood by all. 852. Quelque. Some, any. Quelque signifies one or several among a greater number ; it is said of persons and things, and takes either number and gen- der ; as, Do you bring any news ? Apportez-vous quelque nouvelle ? Some (a) writer has said that. Quelque auteur a dit cela. I have bought some books. J'ai achete quelques livres. I heard from some persons that you J'ai entendu dire par quelques per- were dead. sonnes que vous etiez mort. 18 206 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 853. Chaque. Every, each. Chaque is of either gender, but has no plural ; it is a dis- tributive adjective which designates a person or a thing taken separately. Each man has his tastes, each coun- Chaque homrae a ses gouts, chaque try its manners. pays ses usages. The English pronoun every gives rise to many mistakes among foreigners, and consequently requires some explanation. 854. When every is joined to a noun, the extent of its sig- nification must be ascertained before translating it ; if the mean- ing of the noun, joined to the pronoun each, awakens in the mind the idea of individuality, this pronoun ought to be expressed by the word chaque ; as, During the review, each soldier re - Pendant la revue, chaque soldat re- ceived a compliment for his good gut un compliment pour sa con- behaviour in presence of the duite en presence de l'ennemi. enemy. At the exhibition of paintings each A l'exposition de peinture, chaque picture was placed in a proper tableau etait place dans un jour light. convenable. The mind, in these two sentences, cannot help dividing the soldiers and pictures by individualities, because one soldier re- ceived his compliment after another had received his, and each picture was placed one by one, so as to receive its proper light. 855. But if, on the contrary, the meaning expressed by each, and the noun which follows presents to the mind the idea of a whole, without reference to individualities, then each is render- ed by tout, all ; as, Every man is born with good and Touts les hommes naissent avec de bad propensities. bons et mauvais penchants. I visited my cellar and found every J'ai visite ma cave et j'ai trouve bottle empty. toutes les bouteilles vides. In these two sentences the mind attaches no importance to the individuality of man and bottle, it is struck only with the idea of them, as a whole, and every is expressed by tout. 856. When chaque is used for every, it should always be followed by a noun ; this phrase, which is generally used, These books cost me one dollar Ces livres me coutent une gourde each, chaque, PRONOUN. 207 is wrong, and ought to be turned thus ; Chacun de ces livres me coute une gourde. 857. Quelconque. Whoever, whatever. Quelconque is a real adjective, of either gender and number ; it means quelque ce soit, whatever (it may be), quelqu'il soit, quelqu'elle soit, whoever (he or she may be). 858. Although generally applied to things, it is sometimes said of persons. 859. It is generally accompanied by a negation and placed after it ; then it is only used in the singular. He was left with nothing at all. II ne lui est demeure chose quelcon- que (not used). There is no reason which could II r?'y a raison quelconque capable compel him to do it. de l'y obliger (not used). There is nobody in the world whom II n'y a homme quelconque auquel je I may trust. puisse me fier (not used). A line being given, you must find Une lignegiteZcon^Meetantdonnee, its length. trouvez sa longueur. Two points being given, you must Deux points quelconques etant don- find the third. nis, trouvez le troishkne. 860. Certain. Certain, some. Certain generally means some, quelque ; it is said of persons and things, and takes either number and gender. It is usually preceded by un, a, an, but sometimes not ; as, I know this from a certain author. Je sais ceci oVun certain auteur. Certain facts have come to my ear. Certains faits sont parvenus jus- qu'a moi. 861. The pronoun certain must not be mistaken for the ad- jective, which means sure, positive ; as, A certain fact and a fact certain are Un certain fait et un fait certain two different things. sont deux choses tres differentes. 862. Un. A, an. This pronoun, improperly named by most grammarians an indefinite article, has a vague and indefinite sense, and means some, certain, quelque certain ; it is applied to persons and things, takes either gender, and has no plural except when pre- ceded by the article the, les ; as, 208 FRENCH GRAMMAR. We have seen a man running-. Nous avons vu un homme qui cou- rait. I heard a handsome woman sing- J'ai entenduwne belle femme chant- ing, er. Some were talking, some were Les uns parlaient, les autres riaient. laughing. Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to Nouns, sometimes not. 863. The pronouns of this class are the following : Nul, No, none. Aucun, " Pas un, no not one. Autre, other. L'un et 1'autre, both, either. Meme, same. Tel, such. Plusieurs, several, many. Tout, all, every, every thing. These words, employed by themselves, are real pronouns ; when joined to a noun they are mere adjectives. 864. Nul No, no one. Nul, no, no one, either pronoun or adjective, is a sign of exclusion ; it is always accompanied by a negation ; it is of either gender, but never takes the plural when used as a pro- noun. No one knows whether he deserves Nul ne sait s'il est digne d'amour love or hatred. ou de haine. No one shall be received in my Nulle ne sera re§ue dans ma fa- family, unless she deserves it mille, a moins qu'elle ne le me- (speaking of ladies). rite. 865. The pronoun nul may be followed by the preposition of, de, in sentences like the following : None of those who went there have Nul de ceux qui y ont ete n'en est returned. revenu. 866. Nul, as an adjective, takes the feminine, but no plural, except when referring to a noun expressed before ; and when meaning a thing of little or no value ; as, PRONOUN. 209 There is no truth in this picture. II n'y a nulle verite dans ce tableau. These treaties, these deeds are Ces traites, ces actes sont nuls. void. 867. The Academy authorizes the use of nul, adjective, as a regimen ; as, This man is so obstinate that he Cet homme est si entier qu'il ne will hear nothing. se rend a nulle raison. But it is better to give preference to aucun, any, and say, Cet homme est si entier qu'il ne se rend a aucun raison. 868. Aucun. No, no one. Aucun, as a pronoun, means no, no one, nul, it takes either gender, is always accompanied by a negative, and is only used in the plural, in the language of the courts of law, and in light style, after the manner of Marot. It is no longer used in the singular, when signifying some one, quelqu'un ; as, Some one told me you were dead Aucun m'a dit que vous etiez mort one hundred years ago. il y a cent ans (not used). This sentence is no longer admitted into the language. I have looked for your books, but I J'ai cherche vos livres,mais je n'en have not found any. ai trouve aucun. No one is permitted to trespass on II n'estpermis kaucuns d'empieter another's property. sur la propriete d'autrui (term of law). Marotic style. Some have said that in this wicked Aucuns ont dit que dans ce siecle age, &c. felon, &c. Some will say that I am crazy. HP aucuns diront que je suis fou. 869. When followed by the preposition of, aucun is accom- panied by the negation, except in interrogative sentences ; as, No one has yet given me her exer- Aucune de vous ne m'a encore cises. donne ses exercises. Will any one of you tell me why Aucune de vous me dira-t-elle pour- the earth turns around the sun ? quoi la terre tourne autour du soleil ? 870. Aucun, used as an adjective, has the meaning of no, no one, not any, none ; it is of either gender, and sometimes takes the plural. It is used with a negation, except in phrases expressing in- terrogation or doubt ; as, 18* 210 FRENCH GRAMMAR. You have no way of succeeding in this affair. I do not wish it, any how. When he died he left no will. I have paid no attention to your sister. Was ever any man happier than you? The best comparison, perhaps, which has ever been made is that of Pope about the Alps, in his Essay on Criticism. 871. Aucun, when followed rule ; as, None of the ladies I have loved have been true to me. Will any person present tell me the news of the day ? I doubt if any one of the persons whom I have known, has been as unfortunate as myself. Vous n'avez aucun moyen de reus- sir dans cette affaire. Je ne le veux en aucune maniere. II n'a fait aucunes dispositions avant sa mort. Je n'ai rendu aucuns soins a votre soeur. Aucun homme fut-il jamais plus heureux que vous ? La plus belle comparaison qu'il y ait peut-itre en aucune langue est celle que Pope atiree des Alpes, dans son Essai sur la Critique. by de, follows the preceding Aucune des femmes que j'ai aimees ne m'a ete fidele. Aucune des personnes presentes voudra-t-elle me dire la nouvelle du jour ? Je doute qu'aucune des personnes que j'ai connues, ait ete plus mal- heureuse que moi. 872. Pas un. No, not one. Pas un, as a pronoun, is only used as a nominative, and in familiar or proverbial expressions ; as, Not one believes it, not one says it. Pas un ne le croit, pas un ne le dit. He is as learned as any one. II est aussi savant que pas un. 873. It takes either gender, never the plural, and is always accompanied by a negation. 874. Pas un, as an adjective, takes either gender, no plural, and is always accompanied by a negation ; it excludes more strongly than the adjective aucun; as, Of all the works I know there is De touts lesouvrages que jeconnais not one without a fault. il n'y en a pas un sans defauts. 875. Pas un, either as a pronoun or an adjective, is said of persons and things. Pas un, before a noun or a pronoun, is always followed by the preposition of, de. There is not one of these paintings II n'y a pas un de ces tableaux qui ne which does not come from a great soit d'un grand maitre. master. PRONOUN. 211 876. Aucun and pas un appear in many sentences without being apparently followed by a noun, but they keep their char- acter of adjectives, if they are preceded by the relative pro- noun en ; as, Of all nations on the globe, there is De toutes les nations quicouvrent le not one that has not an idea, more globe, il n'y en a pas une qui n'ait or less distinct, of God. une idee, plus ou moins confuse, de la Divinite. Of the crowd of friends who sur- Du grand nombre d'amis qui vous round you in prosperity, some- entourent dans la prosperite, sou- times not one remains true in vent il ne vous en reste pas un adversity. dans l'adversite. 877. Autre. Other. Autre, other, is either a pronoun or an adjective, and takes both number and gender ; it is applied to persons and things, and serves to distinguish them. It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun. Would another be more useful to Un autre pourroit-il vous etre plus you ? utile ? Nevertheless, in this case, it is more of an adjective than a pronoun, because there is a noun understood, which is homme, man. 878. It is an adjective when joined to a noun, or preceded by the pronoun en, which takes the place of the noun, or when used in elliptical sentences ; as, The ancients did not believe in Les anciens ne croyaient pas qu'il another world. y eut un autre monde. The temple of Solomon being de- Le temple de Solomon ayant ete stroyed, they built another by detruit, on en rebatit un autre par order of Cyrus. les ordres de Cyrus. We cannot be happy in this world Nous ne pouvont etre heureux dans and the other. ce monde et dans V autre (monde) . (Ellipsis.) Autre is sometimes used to represent a person, but indefi- nitely ; as, I had rather you would learn it of J'aime mieux que vous l'appreniez any other person than of me. de tout autre que de moi. (El- lipsis.) 879. Vun et Vautre. JVi Pun ni Vautre. Both, either. Neither. Vun et Vautre signifies the assemblage of several persons or things, and takes either number and gender. 212 FRENCH GRAMMAR. It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun ; as in the follow- ing, Both state the same fact. L'un et l'autre rapportent le meme fait. 880. But it is an adjective when joined to a noun in the singular ; as, It is rare to use both hands equally II est rare qu'on puisse se servir well. egalement bien de l'une et l'autre main. 881. Here a difficulty is raised by grammarians ; must the verb which follows Pun et Pautre, ni Vun ni Pautre, be placed in the singular or plural ? Let us first examine the case of Pun el Pautre. The Academy thinks that we may indifferently use the singular or the plural after Pun et Pautre, and in the last edition of its Dictionary, we find ; t-v^, • j C Uune et V autre est bonne. Either is good. J VuM et ZWg SQnt bonneg Voltaire almost always employs the singular ; as, Both will soon see their last hour. Vun et V autre bientot voit son heure derniere. Either thing now would be too l?un et Pautre aujourd'hui seroit blamable. trop condamnable. Many distinguished authors do the same ; but, notwithstanding these respectable authorities, we think the plural alone ought to be admitted, because each of the pronouns, Pun, Pautre, taking the place of a noun, ought to act upon the verb as the nouns would ; therefore, two nouns, employed as nominative, always commanding the plural, the singular cannot possibly be used after Pun et Pautre. 882. We think that the same rule ought to be given in regard to ni Pun ni Pautre. 883. Although the Academy, Vaugelas, and others, admit of both plural and singular after it ; yet these illustrations given by the Academy are not correct ; Neither of them has done his Ni Fun ni l'autre n'a fait son de- duty, voir. Neither of them is his father. Ni l'un ni l'autre n'est son pere. There is no difficulty in regard to the first of these two PRONOUN. 213 examples, because the idea of plurality is attached to both ni Vun ni Vautre, and devoir ; there are two persons, there are two duties, and of course the verb ought to be plural, and the pronoun referring to the duty of each ought to be the collective pronoun of the third person plural used in the singu- lar, because each of the persons spoken of had but one duty to perform ; therefore this phrase ought to be read as follows, Ni Vun ni V autre n'ont fait leur devoir. But can we say, Ni 1'un ni l'autre ne sont mon pere ? We believe not, because, if we analyze the sentence, we find that it signifies this ; Ni 1'un ni l'autre ne sont l'homme qui est mon pere. Then pere and homme in the singular correspond to a plu- rality expressed by ni Vun ni Vautre^ and to a plural verb, which is wrong, and against the genius of the language ; we could not say, Gentlemen, you are not the man Messieurs, vous n'etes pas Vhomme who is my father. qui est mon pere. The difference between this sentence and the preceding is only in the second person plural being substituted for the third ; in both cases there is the same plurality, and if the expression is incorrect in one case, it is no better in the other. The only way of avoiding this difficulty is, then, to give another form to the sentence ; and say, Aucun des deux n'est mon pere. The sense remains the same, and the ambiguity disappears. Sometimes ni Vun ni Vautre stands elegantly after the verb ; in which case the verb always take the plural ; as, Neither of them is dead. lis ne sont morts, ni 1'un ni l'autre. 884. When the two pronouns, Vun, Vautre, are separated by the disjunctive ow, or, there is no difficulty in its use ; the result of the use of this word being necessarily to exclude one object and retain the other ; the nominative is then forcibly in the singular, and the verb ought to follow ; 214 FRENCH GRAMMAR. One or the other shall come with Uun ou V autre viendra avec moi. me. 885. Meme. Same. Meme may be considered either as a pronoun or an ad- jective ; it relates to persons and things, and takes either gender or number. 886. When a pronoun, it denotes identity, that is to say, that the person or thing so spoken of is no other than that which has been spoken of already. Thus, speaking of a man, we say, The same has come to see me. Le mime est venu me voir. Speaking of an affair, I always work at the same. Je travaille toujours a la meme. 887. When an adjective, meme may signify identity or similarity ; as, (Identity.) In Germany, the same churches En Allemagne les mimes eglises sometimes serve for Catholics and servent quelquefois pour les cath- Protestants. oliques et les protestants. (Similarity.) It is rare to find two persons of the II est rare de trouver deux personnes same character. du mime caractere. 888. When an adjective, mtme always precedes the noun which it qualifies. 889. Meme is sometimes added to a noun to give more force to its signification, and then signifies the word self, in English ; as, It is virtue itself. C'est la vertu meme. It is myself. C'est moi-meme. 890. Meme, as a pronoun or an adjective, must not be mistaken for the adverb, which means even, as in the follow- ing ; Stars, animals, and even plants, Les astres, les animaux, les plantes were among the Egyptian deities. mime, etoient au nombre des di- vinites Egyptiennes. Meme, here, is placed after plantes, to give more elegance and rapidity to the sentence, by means of an ellipsis, the conjunction and being suppressed ; the natural construction would be, PRONOUN. 215 Les astres, les animaux, et meme les plantes, &c. But the other is far preferable. The following verses of Racine have been criticized ; Jusqu'ici la fortune et la victoire memes Cachaient mes cheveux blancs sous trente diademes, because it has been supposed that meme was used by him as an adjective, qualifying the two nouns, fortune and victoire ; if such was the case, Racine would not have failed to recall the two nouns, by adding the pronoun elle to meme ; saying, La fortune et la victoire elles memes ; but meme here is but an adverb, and written in the plural, because at the time when Racine was w r riting, usage still per- mitted to orthography this adverb memes or meme ; he was then right in choosing such a termination as would suit the rhyme of the next verse. 891. Tel Such. Tel is a pronoun or an adjective, masculine or feminine, and applies to persons and things. 892. Tel, as a pronoun, is used to designate a person or thing in an indefinite manner ; as, The storm will fall upon some one L'orage tombera sur tel qui ne s'y who does not think of it. attend pas. It takes the place of a proper name ; as, Who told you that ? Such a one. Qui vous a dit cela ? Un tel. And, in fine, is used instead of such a person who, in some Gallicisms ; as, He who sows, does not always reap. Tel qui seme, ne moissone pas tou- jours. Tel is in this sentence for the pronoun celui, 893. Tel, as an adjective, indicates a comparison between two persons or things, but without expressing what or whom they are compared to ; as, Such a man as you is born to aspire Un homme tel que vous, est ne pour to honor and glory. aspirer a la gloire et aux honneurs. The obstinacy of the rebels is such L'obstination des rebelles est telle as not to be easily conquered. qu'onnepeutfacilementlavaincre. 216 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 894. When such, in English, is placed at the beginning of a sentence, and used in a partitive sense, if it refers to a single object or individual, it must, in French, be preceded by tm, tme, and if to several, by the preposition de, when placed before the noun, and des, if placed after it ; as, Such a man is not calculated to Un tel homme n'est pas fait pour command respect. commander le respect. Such men are not calculated to be De tels hommes ne se font point loved. aimer. Such horses as yours cannot run Des chevaux tels que les votres ne very fast. peuvent courir tres vite. 895. Plusieurs. Several, many. Plusieurs is either a pronoun or an adjective ; it is mas- culine or feminine, and always plural. When a pronoun, plusieurs is only said of persons, and designates an indefinite number of them ; Many are deceived by attempting to Plusieurs sont trompes en essayant deceive others. de tromper les autres. 896. Plusieurs, as an adjective, relates to persons and things ; as, Many philosophers have been de- Plusieurs philosophes se sont trom- ceived upon the nature of the soul. pes sur la nature de 1'ame. 897. Tout. All, every, every thing. Tout is sometimes a pronoun and sometimes an adjective, and takes both gender and number in this last qualification. 898. Tout, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular, and signifies every thing ; as, Every thing in our heart ought to Tout doit dans notre cceur ceder a. yield to justice. l'equite. He laughs at every thing. II rit de tout. 899. This pronoun, used as the direct object of a verb, is placed after it in simple tenses, and, in compound tenses, be- tween the auxiliary and past participle ; as, He confesses all. II avoue tout. He has confessed every thing. II a tout avoue. 900. But when an indirect object, it is always placed after the verb, either in simple or compound tenses ; as, PRONOUN. 217 He thinks of every thing. U pense a tout. He has thought of every thing. II a pense a lout. The same rule is observed in the infinitive mood. 901. Tout, as an adjective, has two different meanings ; it expresses either the generality or the whole extent of a thing ; or it means every. In the first acceptation, it requires the arti- cle before the noun which it qualifies ; as, We must all die. Tout le monde meurt. All the horses have been taken for Tous les chevaux ont ete pris pour the army. Parmee. 902. In the other meaning, the article is not used before the noun which immediately follows the adjective ; as, Every man ought to sacrifice his life Tout homme doit sacrifier sa vie pour for his country. son pays. When used for every, tout is always placed in the singular. 903. In the first signification, tout may accompany not only the adjective possessive pronouns, but even the following : nous, vous, eux, ce, celui, ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-la, and le. 904. With the adjective pronouns, tout is always placed first ; as, All my friends, all thy brothers, and Tous mes amis, tous tes freres, et all his family were at my nuptials. toute sa famille etaient a mon ma- nage. 905. Tout always follows nous, vous, and eux ; as, All of us, all of you, all of them. Nous tous, vous tous, eux tous. 906. Tout precedes the demonstrative pronouns ce celui, ce- ci, cela, celui-ci, and celui-la ; as, All that I say is true. Tout ce que je dis est vrai. All those who were at the party Tous ceux qui etaient au bal etaient were my friends. mes amis. I do not like all this, nor all that. Je n'aime ni tout ceci, ni tout cela. Look at those books, and give me Regardez ces livres et donnez-moi all these and all those. tous ceux-ci et tous ceux-la. 907. With le, la, and les, as objective pronouns, tout follows the verb which governs them, in simple tenses, and, in com- pound ones, is placed between the auxiliary and past participle, as follows : I like them all. Je les trouve tous bons. I have experienced them all. Je les ai tous dprouves. 19 21S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 908. Tout is sometimes used adverbially; its signification then is merely expletive, and it takes neither gender or number ; as, He speaks aloud. II parle tout haut. He told her coldly that he did not II lui dit tout froidement qu'il ne 1'ai- love her. moit pas. 909. Sometimes tout signifies although very, quoique-tres ; entirely, entierement ; or however, quelque. Then it is sub- ject to some particular rules. 910. Rule I. Tout, employed for any of the three above words, remains unchanged before a masculine adjective ; as, Horses of that color are generally Les chevaux de ce poil sont gene- very good or very bad. ralement tout bons on tout mau- vais. Children, however amiable they Les enfants, tout aimdbles qu'ils sont, may be, have always a great ne laissent pas d'avoir bien des many faults. defauts. Although much frightened, they Tout effrayes qu'ils etaient, ils se made a good defence. defendirent bien. 911. Rule II. Tout, employed instead of the same three words, and placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel or an h mute, takes neither gender nor number ; as, These fruits are entirely different Ces fruits la sont tout autres que les from the others. premiers. Virtue, however strict it may be, is La vertu, tout austere qu'elle est, fait a source of true pleasure. gouter de vrais plaisirs. These engravings, although very in- Ces gravures, tout interessantes qu* teresting, do not always please. elles sont, ne laissent pas d'en- nuyer a la longue. 912. But tout takes both number and gender before a femi- nine adjective beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated ; as, They were much surprised to see Elles furent toutes surprises de nous us. voir. That is an empty head. C'est une tete toute vide. Although very wise and learned, Toutes sages et toutes savantes qu' their company is very irksome. elles sont, leur societe est tres ennuyeuse. These young ladies, however pretty Ces demoiselles, toutes jolies qu'elles they may be, are not pleasing at all. sont, ne sont nullement aimables. 913. Rule III. Tout, used for one of the three above words, changes neither gender nor number before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant, when the adjective is immediately preceded by an adverb ; it also remains unchanged before an adverb ; as, These young ladies are as pretty as Ces demoiselles sont tout aussi jolies you. que vous. She is just like you. Elle est tout comme vous. This river flows softly. Cette riviere coule tout doucement. PRONOUN. 219 Of Indefinite Pronouns followed by Que. 914. These pronouns are the following : Qui que (ce soit), whoever (it may be). Quoi que (ce soit), whatever (it may be). Quelque, whoever, whatever. Quelque que, whatever, however. Tel que, such as. Tout que, however. 915. Qui que ; Qui que ce soit. Whoever, whoever it may be. Qui que and qui que ce soit signify whoever ', whoever it may be, are always singular and masculine, and only said of per- sons. They are used with or without a negation. Without a negation, they mean, as we have said, whoever, whatever person it may be, and govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as, Whoever may call, say that I am Qui que ce soit qui vienne, dites que engaged. je suis occupe. Whomever we speak to, we must be A qui que ce soit que nous parlions, polite. nous devons etre polis. Whoever you maybe, I do not wish Qui que vous soyez, je ne desire pas to associate with you. me lier avec vous. 916. The result of these examples is, that when qui que ce soit is a nominative, it is followed by the relative qui, and when objective, by que ; thus, when nominative, the words que ce soit must follow the first qui, to avoid the immediate repetition of the same word qui ; but, when objective, these words, que ce soit, may be omitted, as may be seen in the last example. 917. Accompanied by a negation, qui que ce soit signifies personne, any body, and the verb following is placed in the in- dicative mood ; as, We ought never to slander any On ne doit jamais mal parler de qui body. que ce soit. Nobody has prejudiced me against Qui que ce soit ne m'a prevenu con- you. tre vous. 918. Quoi que (ce soit). Whatever, whatever it may be. Quoi que and quoi que ce soit signify whatever and whatever 220 FRENCH GRAMMAR. it may be ; they are always singular, masculine, and only said of things. They are used with or without a negation. Without a negation, they mean whatever it may be, and govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as, Whatever he is doing, he leaves it Quoi que ce soit quHl fasse, il quitte at once when his duty calls him sur le champ, quand son devoir out. l'appelle. Whatever he may do, he will never Quoi qu'il fasse il ne reussira ja- succeed. mais. 919. These pronouns being used only in the objective case, are never followed by qui. With a negation, they signify nothing, rien> and are followed by the indicative ; as, Without proper care we cannot sue- Sans une application convenable ceed in any thing. nous ne pouvons reussir en quoi que ce soit. 920. Remark. Although quoi que seems to have nearly the same signification as quoi que ce soit que, its similarity with quoique, although, both in meaning and writing, requires, for the sake of clearness, that it should be rendered by quelque chose que, which conveys the same meaning and destroys the ambiguity ; thus, in the above example, it would have been better to write : Quelque chose qu'il fasse, &c. 921. Quelque. Whoever, whatever. Quel que signifies whoever may be the who, or what- ever may be the that, quelque soit le qui. It is said of persons and things, and takes both number and gender ; it is used only as a nominative, and requires the verb which follows in the subjunctive mood. 922. This pronoun is never followed by a noun or an adjec- tive, but always by a verb, and agrees with the noun which it represents ; as, Criminals ought to be punished, Les criminels doivent 6tre punis quels whoever they may be. quails puissent etre. Whatever may be the offers of an Quelles que soient les ojfres d'un en- enemy, we must always mistrust nemi, on doit toujours s'en defier. them. PRONOUN. 221 923. Quelque que. Whatever, whoever. Quelque que has two different significations ; if joined to a noun, it signifies quelque soit le qui, whoever may be the who, or that ; it takes the number of the noun which follows, because it is a mere adjective ; as, Whatever may be the rank that you Quelque rang que vous occupiez. occupy. Whatever riches you may possess. Quelques richesses que vous posse- diez. 924. This rule is also applied to the case where the noun is immediately preceded by an adjective ; as, Whatever may be the great deeds Quelques belles actions qu'il fasse ; which he accomplishes ; because the addition of the adjective does not change the func- tions of quelque, which then modifies the noun thus qualified. 925. But when joined to an adjective not immediately fol- lowed by its noun, to a past participle, or to an adverb imply- ing qualification, it then signifies quoique, however, and a quel- que point que, whatever ; its nature changes, and from an ad- jective it becomes an adverb, and, consequently, remains invari- able ; as, However powerful they may be. Quelque puissants qu'ils soient. However respected you may be. Quelque considiris que vous soyez. However skilfully they attempt to Quelqu 'adroitement qu'ils s'y pren- do it. nent. 926. This pronoun, whatever may be the class to which it belongs, governs the next verb in the subjunctive. The use of this pronoun is a great trouble to foreigners, who ought to apply themselves to distinguish, with the help of the preceding rules, what is the class to which belongs the word they wish to make use of. 927. Tel qur. Such as. Tel que is employed in making comparisons ; as, We fear to see ourselves as we are, On craint de se voir tel ?w'on est, because we are not as we ought parcequ'on est pas tel qu'on de- to be. -vrait etre. 19* 222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. It would be a fault to use quel que instead of tel que. 928. Tout que. We have already said all that relates to this pronoun. Telque and toutque govern the indicative mood, because the sentences in which they are used, signify a fact of a positive character, and do not admit of doubt, wish, fear, &c Foreigners, not being sufficiently acquainted with the genius of our language, should be put on their guard, on account of these pronouns, because, being followed by que, they would be induced to apply the subjunctive to the verb following. OF THE VERB, 929. The verb is the most important of all the parts of speech; it enters into the formation of all sentences, to unite our thoughts together, to modify them, and show if they refer to the present, past, or future time ; its functions consist in expressing actions, feelings, and situations. Unique by the extent of its qualities, this word is the soul and spirit of our discourse, and it is only through its aid that we may express what agreement or disa- greement there is between the persons and objects which we compare together. This part of speech is emphatically called verb, from the Latin word verbum. Without this it is impossible to express an idea ; and if we suppress it sometimes, for the sake of rapidity in style, it is only because the mind may easily supply it ; but it should always be found in the grammatical analysis. There are many definitions of the verb, but the clearest and most complete is that given by the Academy, as follows : 930. " The verb is a part of speech which expresses either an action performed or felt by the nominative or subject, or simply the situation or the quality of the subject, and which is conjugated with the assistance of persons, numbers, tenses, and moods." VERB. 223 931. There is, in fact, but one single verb, to be, Ure, be- cause it is the only one which expresses affirmation ; without it, there is no sentence ; words will only present to the mind un- connected ideas, and society would be deprived of the means of correspondence among its members ; but this only verb is not always to be found in its simple and natural form. The desire to shorten sentences induced man to invent words con- taining in themselves the verb and the quality of the object spoken. Hence these words, aimer, hair, raisonner, to love, to hate, to reason, have properly been called verbs, because they hold that verb in their signification ; for he loves, il aime, means he is loving, il est aimant ; je hais, 1 hate, means I am hating, je suis ha'issant, &c. These verbs are consequently but abbreviated expressions, composed of two elements, the verb itself and the quality which modifies it. 932. In French, as well as in English, it is always easy to recognise a verb from another part of speech by the tempora- ry addition of the personal pronouns nominative, je, tu, il, &c. ; in this sentence, for instance : A judgment according to law. Un jugement conforme aux lois. the word conforme is an adjective, because it qualifies juge- ment, and does not permit any of the pronouns je, tu, il, &c. to be placed before it ; but in the following : An honest man always suits his L'honnete homme conforme tou- conduct to his duty and the laws jours sa conduite a ses devoirs et of his country. aux lois de son pays. The word conforme is a verb, because with the pronouns je, tu, il, &c. it presents to the mind an idea able to satisfy it. 933. Each verb expresses, then, the idea of existence, real or intellectual, and that of a determinate modification attached to existence, and as our mind may attribute this combination either to a single object or to several, to the person who speaks, to that who is spoken to, or who is spoken of, the verbs must have modifications in order to express these differ- ent views of the mind ; thus the following sentences ; I am ploughing, thou art, he or she Je laboure, tu laboures, il ou e]\e is, we are, you are, they are laboure, nous labourons, vous la- ploughing, bourez, ils ou elles labourent, 224 FRENCH GRAMMAR. express all, the existence attached to the idea of ploughing, but the first, ^'e laboure^ shows that the idea of existence, thus modified, refers to a single person, and that this person is my- self; the second, tu laboures, means that the same idea, with the same modification, is addressed to the person spoken to, &c. 934. Since the only verb to be, etre, being modified ac- cording to the wants of the mind, expresses sufficiently all its ideas, why is it, then, that we have invented so many words which contain in themselves the verb and its modifications ? Let us attempt, as an answer to this question, to construct a sentence without the help of these compound words, and see how our ear and taste would be pleased ; as, L'ambition est une passion qui ileve l'homme ou le digrade, qui en fait un heros ou le rend capa- ble des plus grands crimes. Ambition is a passion which raises man or degrades him, makes L'ambition est une passion qui est } , • o , „ *» „ VTW «. ' u;™ +r , ,, . „, r , , j/ him a hero or exposes nim to olet^/ynt 7 hr»mmo rm pot IP rfpa-M- . * elevant l'homme, ou est le digra- dant, qui est faisant de lui un he- ros ou est le rendant capable des plus grands crimes. the greatest crimes. Without any further remarks, it is evident, that if the first sen- tence is elegant and pleases the ear, the other is shocking by the repetition of the same sound, ant\ and the dullness which reigns in the arrangement of the words. OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS. 935. The verb, having to express the modified existence of its subject, should receive alterations corresponding to the different situations in which the subject is to be found. 936. We then distinguish in a verb, the numbers, that is to say, the singular, when the action, expressed by the verb, is performed by a single person ; as, This child is reading. Cet enfant lit. and the plural, when that action is performed by several per- sons ; as, VERB. 225 These children are reading. Ces enfants lisent. 937. By the word personne, applied to verbs, we understand the modifications which it receives as referring to one who speaks, one who is spoken to, or is spoken of; this modifica- tion is felt both by the nominative or subject of the verb, and the verb itself. The subject is either a noun or a pronoun. When a pronoun, this pronoun, by its alterations, indicates the person of the verb, and the verb, by its termination, shows under the control of what pronoun it is. The subject, when a noun, always governs the third person. 938. We say of a verb that it is in the first person, when the action expressed by the verb is performed by the person who speaks, as, Ising,je chante ; we sing, nous chantons. 939. The verb is in the second person, when it is the per- son spoken to who performs the action ; as, Thou singest, tu chantes ; you sing, vous chantez. 940. The verb is in the third person, when it is the person spoken of who performs the action ; as, He or she sings, il ou elle chante ; they sing, Us ou elles chantent. 941. In French as well as in English, although we speak only to one person, politeness requires that we employ the second person plural instead of that of the singular ; thus we say, Sir, you write very well. Monsieur, vous e'crivez (and not tu tens) fort bien. 942. In passive and neuter verbs, conjugated with to be, of which we shall soon speak, when vous is used instead of tu, the verb to be takes the plural, but not the word which modifies that verb : thus we say ; Madam, you are loved. Madame vous ties aimee, (and not aimees.) although vous and etes are in the plural. 226 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE TENSES OF THE VERB. 943. We have said that a verb expresses the idea of the existence of a subject, modified according to the direction of the mind ; that is to say, that a verb expresses an action or a situation. But this action or situation may have taken place in the past, or may be taking place at the time we speak, or may take place in the future. 944. There are, then, new accessory ideas to be added to those of number and persons, and to that of the principal idea of the modified existence expressed generally by the verb. 945. Since, as we have seen, the termination changes in the verb, to express, by this material alteration the modification of the subject, in regard to persons and number, it ought to change also to characterize these new accessory ideas relating to dif- ferent periods of time ; thus, I did plough yesterday, Je labourai hier, expresses an action which is past at the time I speak. I am ploughing now, Je laboure main tenant, expresses an action which takes place at the time I speak. I shall be ploughing to-morrow, Je labourerai demain, expresses an idea in the future, which has not been accom- plished yet, but shall be. These three expressions, Je labourai, je laboure, je la- bourerai, which all belong to the same primitive idea of exist- ence, modified by the idea of ploughing, and stand modified in the same manner in regard to the accessory idea of number and persons, being all in the first person singular, have re- ceived different terminations to express, besides, the new modi- fications of times ; and it is by the difference in these termina- tions, that one expresses the present, another the past, and the last the future. 946. These different forms are called tenses, in the verbs, because they express the relations existing between the action VERB. 227 represented by the verb, and the different periods during which this action might have taken place. Each verb has, then, three distinct forms. One to express an action in the present ; One to express an action in the past ; One to express an action in the future. We shall follow this order in the examination of tenses, so as not to differ with the general arrangements of most gramma- rians, although it would be more rational to begin with the past. Of the Present. 947. There is, and there can be, but one way to conceive the idea of the Present. As soon as a fact has taken place, it belongs entirely to the past, and if it has not yet taken place, it belongs to the future ; a fact cannot, then, be more or less present, and for this reason we have but one way to express it ; I am ploughing, I am suffering. Je laboure, je souffre. 948. The actuality of an action, or situation, does not con- sist in its being instantaneous, as taking place in a time which is metaphysically indivisible ; it depends upon what is taken as a unity of time ; thus we say, very properly, I study the grammar, J'etudie la grammaire, although we do not pretend to express, that the study of the grammar takes place at the moment the person speaks, but that the study of the grammar is his habitual occupation, and will remain such until he has learned it. 949. The measure of time which constitutes the present is, then, relative to what is spoken of, and may be of a longer or shorter duration. When we say, He sows some wheat this year, and II seme du ble cette annee, et l'an- the next he will sow some oats, nee prochaine il semera de l'a- voine, we do not pretend to express that he is sowing wheat during the whole year, but he has sown wheat when he had to do it. 228 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 950. We also employ the present to express the habitual action or situation of the subject ; as, He loves music, he fights like a lion, II aime la musique, il se bat comme he feels the misfortunes of his un lion, il souffre des malheurs de country. sa patrie. Which does not signify, that he loves music, or fights, or feels, at the moment spoken of, but that his habitual and natural dispositions are such as is expressed by the verbs. 951. The present is, sometimes, expressed under the form of the imperfect ; as when we say to a person we meet in the street, I was going to see you. J ? allois vous voir. Or to some one who enters the room, I was thinking of you this moment. Je m'occupais de vous dans ce mo- ment. This form of the present is owing to the circumstances of the fact ; for when I say, J'allois chez vous, I express that I was in the act of going when I met you ; the action of going to your house is, then, in part, past at the time I speak, and simultaneous with our encounter, and it is only because this encounter is itself present that f allots expresses the present on this occasion. The same mode of reasoning is applicable to all phrases of similar construction. 952. Sometimes, also, we use the present, in speaking of facts utterly past, but it is then because we bring our mind back to the time when the fact took place, as if we were present at the action ; it is a figure allowed by the laws of the language, which often gives to the style more rapidity, ele- gance, and animation. Of the Imperfect. 953. One of the greatest difficulties of the French language, for English scholars, consists in distinguishing the difference existing between this tense and the preterite definite ; a differ- ence which does not exist in their language, or which, at least, VERB. 229 there is no particular manner of representing by words ; there- fore we shall enter into such details as are necessary not to leave a doubt about the proper use of these two tenses. 954. The imperfect is used to express a past action in several different points of view, which we shall examine sepa- rately. When I say, I was ploughing when your father Je labourais quand votre pere ar- came, riva, the act of ploughing is, in reality, past at the time when I speak, but it was present at the time when the father came ; it was simultaneous with this last fact. By this tense, then, we express a past in regard to the time when we speak, and a pres- ent in regard to the time we speak of; and for this reason, of a mixture of the present with the past, this form of the verb has been called imperfect. Therefore we shall lay down this first rule ; 955. 1st. The imperfect is used to express an action which was taking place at the same time that another action took place. When we say, During your absence I went (I used Pendant votre absence fallals a. la to go) to the post-office every day, poste tous les jours, When I was in Washington I went Quand ^etais a Washington, '^allais (I used to go) to Congress every au Congres tous les jours, day, in the first of these two sentences the verb expresses an ac- tion often repeated, a habit of life ; in the second, the verb fetais expresses a situation of some duration, and fallals a habit ; in both cases the imperfect should be used to convey to the mind the idea of the speaker ; thus we lay down as a rule, 956. 2d. When we wish to express an action in the past as being habitually done, or a fact which implies the idea of duration, the imperfect should be used to convey these ideas to the mind of the hearer. When we say, Napoleon was a great man, but he Napoleon etait un grand homme, was too much addicted to war, mais il aimait trop la guerre, 20 230 FRENCH GRAMMAR. we express in this sentence neither a fact, having taken place at the same time with another, nor a habit or situation, but a qualification, a disposition of the mind, of the soul, and the im- perfect is still used in cases of the kind ; hence the following rule ; 957. 3d. When we wish to express a situation of the mind, or natural feelings and dispositions, in a time which is passed, the imperfect should be used. When we say, My father was a hundred years old Mon pere avait cent ans quand il when he died, mourut, we express a fact which seems at once definite, but which, in reality, does not signify that my father had lived exactly ninety- nine years, and three hundred and sixty-five days, but that he had, at least, lived a hundred years, without having reached his hundred and first year, and that such was about his age when he died. My father was born in England, Mon pere ttait ne en Angleterre, signifies that my father is no more at the time I speak ; if he were still living, the present should be used instead of the im- perfect ; thus, 958. 4th. When we speak of the age or the birth of a person who is no more, the imperfect should be used ; as well as when we speak of the habitual occupations of his life, or of his natural disposition. 959. 5th. When, in English, the signs of the conditional, would, should, might, ought, are employed with a verb, and preceded by if, si, signifying, suppose that, the imperfect is used in French, instead of the conditional ; as, If you would come to-morrow I Si vous veniez demain, je vous would pay you. payerais. If I should go into the country to- Si ^allais a la campagne demain, morrow I should want your ser- j'aurais besoin de vos services. vices. 960. 6th. The imperfect may be used when we speak of an event, the effect of which was continued, although it oc- curred in a time definitely past, as yesterday ; When did you lose your purse ? I Quand avez-vo us perdu votre bourse? lost it this morning ; I had it last Je I'ai perdue ce matin ; je Vavais night. hier au soir. VERB. 231 The action expressed by the verb avoir, although past definitely, yesterday, implies duration, since the fact of having the purse yesterday was continued until this morning, when I lost it, and consequently requires the imperfect. We shall enter into more minute details upon this tense and the following, in our work on translation. Of the Preterite Definite. 961. The preterite definite is the perfect of the Latin ; it is used in speaking of an action or a fact which took place at a time entirely past, of which nothing remains which is speci- fied in the sentence, or clearly understood, and which may always be discovered by the thread of events in the relation. The time, to be entirely and definitely past, so as to re- quire the preterite definite, must be such as to show clearly that what has been taken as the unit of time is completely elapsed ; whether this unit of time is a day, a week, a month, a year, an age, &c. This tense is not generally used in conversation, but is usually found in relating historical events, and for this cause is called, by some grammarians, the historical preterite. I went to church last Sunday. J'allai a 1'eglise Dimanche dernier. I received yesterday, last week, last Je re^us des nouvelles de nos amis, month, last year, some news from hier, la semaine dernitre, le mois our friends. dernier, Vannie derniere. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. Napoleon fut vaincu a Waterloo. Caesar came, saw, and conquered. Cesar vint, vit, et vainquit. The difference between this preterite and the imperfect may be nearly explained, by stating, that generally the imperfect corresponds to the English past, expressed by the verb to be, followed by the present participle ; or when the verb may be preceded by the verb to use, as, he used to read, he used to be honest, instead of he read, he was honest, &c. ; whereas the preterite corresponds to the past, expressed by the infinitive, preceded by did. This is a mere indication, not absolutely correct, but near enough to the truth to help pupils until they have accustomed their minds to understand the whole meaning and the exact difference of the two tenses. 222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of the Preterite Indefinite. 962. This preterite is used to express that an action or a fact has taken place, but without reference to any particular time, or period of time, and without intimating whether the ac- tion or fact spoken of is entirely past or not. There is, in fine, in the idea conveyed by this preterite, something vague and in- definite which completely distinguishes it from the preceding tense ; when I say, I have ploughed my field this morn- J'ai laboure mon champ ce matin, the act of ploughing is certainly in the past, as regards the time when I speak, but it took place during the morning, which is a part of the day, which day is not over. This last circum- stance is characterized in the language by using the preterite indefinite ; according to this principle we should say, He has worked much this week, [II a beaucoup travaille cette seniaine, and he worked much yesterday, J et or the day before yesterday, ) II travailla beaucoup hier ou avani l_ hier ; because, the week not being entirely past, the preterite definite could not be used ; whereas, it should be employed in the last part of the sentence, the day spoken of being entirely over, though the week is not. According to the same principle, we should say, My pupils have studied well this Mes elevesont Men etudid cette ann6e 9 year, and they did study well last et ils etudikrent bien le mois der- month ; nier ; using the preterite indefinite first, because the year is not past, and the preterite definite afterwards, because the month is over. 963. We see, then, that the choice to be made between these two tenses depends upon what is taken as a unit to measure the time, whether a day, a week, a month, or a year ; if that unit of time be over, the preterite definite ought to be used ; if not entirely done, then the preterite indefinite ; but it must be observed, that this unit of time can never be less than twenty-four hours. 964. The preterite indefinite is also used when we wish to VERB. 233 express an action or a situation which is past, without fixing the time in a precise manner, or when we speak of a fact or action which has usually taken place ; thus, we say, He has read much, studied much ; II a beaucoup lu, beaucoup etudii ; he has benefited himself by his il a profitl de ses lectures ; il a reading; he has reflected all his riflidii to ute la vie, life, because, in all these propositions, we wish to express but a habit, or a past action, without any precise reference to the time when it took place. It seems that, in cases like these, the time taken as the unit is the life of the person spoken of, and as this life is not over, according to the preceding rules, this preterite is the tense which should express it. This explanation conforms so much to the principles already explained, that, if we spoke of a person who is no more, we should use the preterite definite or the pluperfect, and say, II hit beaucoup, ilprojita de ses lectures, or 11 avait beaucoup lu ; il avait beaucoup profile, &c. ; because then the unit of time, which is life, would be entire- ly over. Although the distinction, thus established between these two preterites ought to be strictly observed in the language, for- eigners might be deceived by hearing Frenchmen using them indifferently one for the other. The only conclusion to be de- rived from this remark is, that a great many of my country- men do not speak their own language properly ; but their ex- ample ought not to be followed. Of the Pluperfect. 965. The pluperfect is used to express that a fact has taken place before another fact which is also past, without reference to the length of time elapsed between the two ; the fact ex- pressed by this tense is then doubly past, once in regard to the time when it is mentioned, and once as to the event which it has preceded ; which makes it more than past, and from 20* 234 FRENCH GRAMMAR. which originated its name of the Pluperfect^ which means past more than perfectly past , or past twice ; as, I had breakfasted when you came J'avais dijeuni quand vous vintes to my house. chez moi. The breakfast is done, and it was done before you came, hence the pluperfect. Preterite Anterior. 966. We have said, speaking of the pluperfect, that it ex- pressed that a fact had taken place before another fact which is also past, without reference to the time elapsed between the two facts ; but, if we wish to establish a more intimate rela- tion between these two facts, so as to show that one took place immediately before the other, thus showing the time in a definite manner, then we make the first fact a preterite definite, and the idea will be expressed by a preterite anterior to an- other preterite ; hence the name of this tense. In this sen- tence : I had ploughed my field before my Teus lahouri mon champ avant que neighbour began his. mon voisin commengdt le sien. we mean to say, I had just done ploughing my field, when my neighbour began his ; which conforms to the definition stated above. The use of the pluperfect, in a case like this, would not convey the meaning of the speaker, who then would only say, as a matter of fact, that he had done ploughing his field before the other began, but at any period before, which is not what he had in mind. Of other ways of expressing the Past. 967. We sometimes, in order to be more precise, use ex- pressions of a peculiar nature which belong to the idiom of the language. For instance, to express that a fact has just taken place, in- VERB. 235 stead of making a phrase which would require the use of sev- eral words, the two verbs, venir, to come, and sortir, to go out, are elegantly used ; as, I have just done reading this work. Je mens de finir la lecture de cet ouvrage. I have just spoken to him about this Je sors de lui parler de cette affaire. affair. (Not much used.) These sorts of preterite express the past which is the near- est to the present. Of the forms of Verbs which relate to the Past. 968. We have, then, according to what precedes, five dif- ferent ways of expressing past events : The Imperfect ; The Preterite Definite ; The Preterite Indefinite ; The Pluperfect ; The Preterite Anterior ; without mentioning the manner of expressing a fact just past with the verbs venir and sortir. With these forms, we may indicate with precision all that is connected with the past, so as to satisfy the mind of both the speaker and hearer. Of the Future. 969. The future is, as we have already said, a tense which expresses that an action or a fact has not yet taken place, but will or shall take place. This action or fact in the future may be understood in two different manners ; when I say, I shall plough my field, Je labour erai mon champ, I express, in a manner simple and absolute, an action which I intend to perform in the future, without referring to any partic- ular time. This form remains the same, whatever may be the 236 FRENCH GRAMMAR. epoch in the future when the action shall be performed ; for I may say, with the same propriety, I shall plough in an hoar, this eve- Je labourerai, dans une heure, ce ning, to-morrow, in a week, in a soir, demain, dans une semaine, month, in a year, in an age. dans un mois, dans un an, dans un siecle. 970. This form is called Future Present, Simple, or Abso- lute. Present, because it is not mixed with any idea connected with the past. Simple, because it is expressed without the assistance of any of the auxiliary verbs. Absolute, because it expresses an action or situation in the future in an absolute manner, without reference to any particular time in that future. Sometimes the form of the present is used to express a fu- ture, as in this sentence : I start to-morrow at eight o'clock. Je pars demain a huit heures. But it is evident, that the idea of the future is not rendered by the present je pars, but by the addition of the adverb demain ; and, if we say je pars, and not je partirai, it is probably be- cause we wish to express, that the person who speaks has posi- tively made up his mind to go, in a manner as positive and sure as if he had to go right away, the very minute he speaks ; he wishes to express how certain, how positively sure he is to start the next day. Of the Future Past, or Anterior. 971. The other form of expressing a future is the following : I shall have ploughed my field when J'aurai laboure mon champ quand you come back. vous revindrez. In this case, we express an action which is not done yet, and consequently future in regard to the moment we speak, but which shall be done and past when another fact takes place. This form, then, expresses altogether a future as to the time when we speak, and a past as to another action in the future. This double consideration of a future joined to a past has caused this tense to be called Future Past ; and we see well enough how these two qualifications do not imply contradiction. VERB. 237 It is also called a Composed or Compound Future, because the use of this tense requires the assistance of the auxiliary verb to have. The two forms of the future are found in the following verses of La Fontaine : When my time comes to go among the dead, I shall have lived without cares, and died without remorse. Quand le moment viendra d'aller trouver les morts, faurai vicu sans soins, et mourrai sans remords. 972. Thus, we have now shown eight different forms in the verbs, eight tenses, to express the different periods of time when an action may take place. We must not forget that all these forms express the same fundamental idea of existence modified by the particular meaning of its complement, the act of ploughing ; that all the words referring to this idea, which we have analyzed, have the same root, to plough, and their ter- mination only varies. When, besides the fundamental idea of ploughing, we wish to express an incidental idea of persons, number, or time, by these means, each variety in the idea is expressed by a sign differing from others, so as to avoid confu- sion in transmitting it. 973. In order to express those tenses, we sometimes em- ploy simple forms ; as, I am walking, I was reading. Je marche, je lisais. Sometimes compound ones ; as, I have walked, I had read. J'ai marche, j'avais lu. Hence two sorts of tenses ; simple tenses and compound tenses. Simple tenses are those which are expressed without the as- sistance of the auxiliary verbs, to have and to be. Compound tenses are those which require the use of the auxiliary verbs, to have or to be. 238 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF MOODS. 974. The word mood is derived from the Latin word modus, and signifies manner. We understand, then, by moods, different ways of expres- sing the existence of a subject, with its attribute ; in other words, moods contain different forms assumed by the verb, in order to express an affirmation ; there are in French five moods, which are ; The Indicative ; The Conditional ; The Imperative ; The Subjunctive ; The Infinitive. 975. There are in languages two general kinds of moods ; some are personal, some impersonal, The personal moods are those where the verb, by its termi- nations, agrees with its subject ; there are four of this class : The Indicative ; The Conditional ; The Imperative ; The Subjunctive. 976. The impersonal moods are those in which the verb does not change its termination, and has no subject to agree with. There is but one mood of this class in French, which is the infinitive. 977. Personal moods are the only ones which may be used to express a proposition, since it is only in these moods that the verb identifies itself with its subject, and receives modifi- cations from it in number and person. 978. Impersonal moods, on the contrary, cannot be used to express a proposition, because they are deprived of the forms which would enable them to receive the influence of a subject ; they require, to form a proposition, the assistance of another verb in a personal mood ; as, To revenge the death of a father, Venger la mort d'un pere, is not a proposition ; nothing is affirmed or denied by a sub- VERB. 239 ject ; it may be considered, at the most, as the nominative of another phrase, with a verb in a personal mood ; as, To revenge the death of a father is Venger la mort d'un phre est tou- always legitimate. jours legitime. The extent of the meaning of what are called moods, and of their functions, in enabling the mind to communicate its con- ceptions, will be entirely demonstrated by examining each mood in its private capacity. Of the Indicative Mood. 979. As the eight forms, which we have already examined, have the faculty of expressing an affirmation in a positive man- ner, they belong to the same mood, which we might call affir- mative ; but as it is generally called indicative, we shall keep this denomination, to be better understood by all. The indicative mood, then, is that which expresses affirma- tion in a positive and absolute manner, and has, for accomplish- ing its functions in the language, eight tenses or forms, accord- ing to the wants of the mind. These tenses are : The Present ; The Imperfect ; The Preterite Definite ; The Preterite Indefinite ; The Pluperfect ; The Preterite Anterior ; The Future Absolute ; The Future Past. We shall see afterwards that this mood, with the conditional, are the only ones which are able to express an opinion, or judgment. Of the Conditional Mood, 980. When I say ; I should plough if my oxen were in Je tabourerais si mes bceufs etaient good order, en bon etat, or, 240 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I would have ploughed if it had not J'aurais laboure s'il n'avait pas plu, rained. or, J'eusse laboure s'il, &c. I do not express any longer, as in the indicative mood, that I am, have been, or shall be ploughing, in a positive, absolute manner, but that the act of ploughing is depending on a condi- tion or a supposition ; if my oxen were well, if it had not rained. The action expressed by the verb is then understood in a different manner by the mind ; it is no longer an absolute affir- mation, but a conditional one, depending on a supposition. All the forms of language which express this condition of the mind, produce a new mood, a new manner of thinking, which is called conditional. Let us see now what are the different forms of this mood. 981. They are few in number, and ought to be so, because, if, when we affirm that a thing shall be, is, or has been, it is necessary we should be precise about the time and circumstan- ces, this necessity is not so great when the affirmation is only conditional, the circle in which the mind operates not being so large. In the sentence ; I would plough if it did not rain, Je labourerais s'il ne pleuvait pas, we express that the act of ploughing would be performed now, if the rain did not fall now ; the action would then be in the present, if something had not happened in the present, which prevented me from ploughing ; the mind is then in the present, in the act itself, and in the condition attached to it, and on that account the tense which expresses that idea is called Condition- al Present. But when I say, I should have ploughed if it had J'aurais laboure 1 s'il n'avait pas plu, not rained, 982. We express a fact which would have taken place in the past, if another fact, also in the past, had not prevented it ; this double character of the past, attached to the fact itself, and the condition on which it depends, gives to this tense such a character as to deserve the name of Conditional Past. This tense is applied with equal propriety to the past, in all its mod- ifications, for we say, VERB. 241 I should have ploughed this morn- J'aurais laboure ce matin, hier, il y ing, yesterday, twenty or a hun- a vingt ans ou il y a cent ans, dred years ago, &c. &c. or, J'eusse laboure ce matin, hier, &c. 983. If now we wish to express that the act of ploughing would have been ended at a certain period, or before a certain period, if certain facts had not happened, we ought to employ the pluperfect of the conditional, or the preterite anterior ; as, I should have done ploughing three J'aurais or j'eusse eu laboure il y a months ago if the rain had not trois mois si la pluie ne m'avait stopped me. arrete. Because the first of these tenses refers to an act which ought to have taken place in the past, if another fact which was also in the past, had not taken place, which is the character of the plu- perfect ; and the second to a fact which should have immediate- ly taken place before another, if the other had not happened, which is the character of the preterite anterior. 984. The conditional affirmation is, then, the distinct charac- teristic of every form of the conditional mood ; sometimes, it is true, the condition is not expressed, but it is always under- stood. In this sentence, for instance ; One would never believe that he On ne croirait jamais que ce futla was the same person, meme personne, the condition is not expressed but understood, and may be easily supplied ; as, tie ««« - ii -i i™ir „* u- o^ C O" ne croirait jamais que ce futla (It one would only look at his an- > . J . ,, ^ , pearance V i meme personne, si Ton s'en tenait ,, t aux apparences. The forms proper to the conditional are these : The Conditional Present ; The Conditional Past ; The Pluperfect of the Conditional ; The Preterite Anterior of the Conditional. However, the grammarians do not consider these two last forms of the conditional as constituting an effectual part of this mood, and they do not appear in the conjugation of verbs. 21 242 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of the Imperative Mood. 985. Sometimes we do not affirm positively, nor condition- ally, but we order, we request the subject to perform the act, or to place himself in the situation, expressed by the verb. This new mode of considering the effect of the verb is called imperative, and is expressed by the imperative mood, from the Latin imperare, which signifies to order, to command. Thus the command, or positive demand, is the qualification, the characteristic, which constitutes the form of the imperative. These forms are only two in number. 986. We may order the action, expressed by the verb, to take place immediately ; as, Laboure, Plough. Qu'il laboure, Let him plough. Labourons, Let us plough. Labourez, Plough. Qu'ils labourent, Let them plough. And this form, relating to the time present, is necessarily a pres- ent ; or it expresses a fact or situation which should always be such at any period of our life, and is still a present ; as, Let us be always just. Soyons toujours justes. Let us always be on our guard. Soyons toujours sur nos gardes. 987. But if we wish the action of the verb to be performed before a certain time or fact which we specify ; as, Have ploughed this field before my Ayez laboure ce champ avant mon return, retour, we thus express a wish or order which has to be performed or accomplished at a future period, and this form belongs to the future ; but as it signifies also that this act should be passed before another (my return), this future would be the future past of the imperative. 9S8. However, this last tense of the imperative mood is not considered by grammarians as an indispensable accessory of the imperative, and does not appear in the conjugation of verbs. We mention it here only as a natural consequence of an operation of the mind which may render its use necessary. VERB. 243 989. Neither of these two forms of the imperative has a first person in the singular, because, generally, man does not com- mand or order himself. We do what we have in view without proffering the order, or if we do it, as in this phrase, Keep up thy courage, my friend, Prends courage, mon ami, which is sometimes used in speaking to one's self, we use the second person singular, because the mind divides him who speaks into two persons, one of whom addresses the other. 990. The third person singular, and plural, are preceded by the conjunction que, that, as borrowed from the subjunctive, and because they are always supposed to be preceded by the words I wish, I order ; as, QuHl laboure, means Je veux, fordonne, qu'il laboure. Of the Subjunctive Mood. 991. Sometimes the action expressed by the verb depends upon an idea expressed by a preceding verb, existing or un derstood in the sentence, whose signification should be the manifestation of a desire, fear, doubt, order, anxiety, wish , as, I wish he may plough. Je desire qu'il laboure. I feared that he might not plough Je craignais qu'il ne labourdt pas a in time. tems. I doubt if he comes. Je douie qu'il vienne. I order you to leave the premises. J'ordonne que vous quittiez les lieux , &c. 992. All the forms which express this particular view of the mind belong to a mood called subjunctive, from the Latin word subjungere, which means to unite, with an idea of submission. Let us examine the different forms or tenses of this mood. When I say, I wish him to plough now, Je desire qu'il laboure dans ce mo- ment, I wish him to plough next week, Je desire qu'il laboure la semaine prochaine, the form, quHl laboure, which is the same in either case, expresses a present in the first sentence, and a future in the second. To these two questions, 244 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Does he plough ? Shall he plough ? Laboure-t-il ? Labourera-t-il? the same answer may be made ; I doubt if he ploughs, or, if he shall Je doute qu'il laboure. plough. Therefore this form is altogether a present and a future, and we shall call it the present and future of the Subjunctive. Of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive. 993. We may say, I had doubted, I have doubted, I J'avais doute, j'ai doute, je doutai, doubted, that he might plough. je doutais qu'il labourat. In either of these cases the action of ploughing is past in regard to the moment when I speak, but it is simultaneous with that of doubting ; it thus represents a past and a present in two different points of view, and at the same time, the de- pendence required by the subjunctive ; the tense used to express this situation of the mind, represented by the verb, ought, then, to be called the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, for the same reasons which have qualified the imperfect of the indicative. Of the Preterite of the Subjunctive. 994. The Preterite of the Subjunctive expresses an action already past at the moment we speak, or an action in the future at that moment, but which the mind considers as being already past, when that expressed by the first verb takes place, as in the following ; It has been necessary that he should II a fallu qu'il ait laboure. plough. He shall not come to my house II ne viendra pas chezmoi qu'il rCait before he has ploughed. laboure. The first sentence expresses a definite past, entirely accom- plished. The second means, that the action of ploughing, which is in the future, but will be past and completed at the time when the VERB. 245 action of the first verb is performed, and consequently requires the appellation of preterite, and on account of the dependence of the second verb in regard to the first, the tense which repre- sents this situation is called the Preterite of the Subjunctive. 995. Of the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive. They had feared that I might have On avait craint que j'ewsse labourb ploughed too soon. trop tot. This sentence expresses, evidently, a pluperfect, according to what has been said when speaking of the indicative mood, because the fact of having ploughed too soon was past before the time when the fear was experienced. They wished that I might have On desirerait que yeusse laboure ploughed before such a time. avant telle epoque. This phrase, which expresses a future in regard to the time when we speak, is a pluperfect in regard to the time spoken of ; and the second verb being under the control of the first, this tense is named the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive, Of the Infinitive Mood. 996. When a verb expresses an action or a situation without reference to time, number, and persons, that verb is said to be in the infinitive mood. This denomination does not express in itself the meaning of the word, but it is authorized by usage and practice. To plough, to suffer, to render, Labourer, souffrir, rendre, signify, simply, to be ploughing, to be suffering, to be render- ing, or to exist with the modification of ploughing, suffering, or rendering, without saying whether the action expressed by the verb is performed by me, or some other, by one or sev- eral, now, in the past, or the future ; these verbs are then said to be in the infinitive mood. Let us examine now what are the modifications or different forms of this mood. 21* 246 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of the Present Participle. 997. The Present Participle is a modification of the infini- tive mood, being deprived of number and persons, but always referring to the time present ; it expresses, like the verb, the fact of existence, modified by the meaning of the verb. Ploughing, Labourant, signifies, existing in performing the act of ploughing. This tense, joined to the verb to be, serves to decompose, and ex- press the action contained in the verb itself; it is invariably terminated in ant, and expresses always the idea of simulta- neousness with the epoch spoken of, and for this reason is called the Present Participle. The appellation, participle, comes from the fact that it participates with the verb to be in expressing the action of all the verbs. Of the Past Participle. 998. The Past Participle is a modification of the infini- tive mood, having no persons, expressing no action, but a situation. Ploughed, Laboure, signifies, existing with the modification of being ploughed. The past participle, with the verbs to have and to be, forms the compound tenses of all the verbs ; it always expresses a relation anterior to the time present, and for that reason is called the past participle. With the verb to have it shows the action of the subject, and with the verb to be its situation, and in this latter case agrees with it in number and gender. The termination of this tense varies considerably, according to the different conjugations, and the fact of the verb being regular or irregular. The rules which establish its agreement with its nominative and direct object constitute the most difficult part of our lan- guage. We shall, hereafter, explain them, so as not to leave any embarrassment in the mind of the student. VERB. 247 999. Let us now recapitulate, in few words, what we have said at some length, of the different moods of the verb. Infinitive. 1000. This mood expresses simply the fact of existing, with a specified modification. It has three forms or tenses ; The Present of the Infinitive. The Present Participle. The Past Participle. Indicative. 1001. This mood has for its distinct characteristic, to affirm in a positive and absolute manner. It has eight forms or tenses ; The Present. The Imperfect. The Preterite Definite. The Preterite Indefinite. The Pluperfect. The Preterite Anterior. The Future Present or Absolute. The Future Past. Conditional. 1002. This mood affirms, but on a condition expressed or understood. Its principal forms or tenses are two in number ; The Conditional Present. The Conditional Past. Imperative. 1003. This mood expresses order or demand ; it is appli- cable to the present and future, and has but one form or tense ; The Imperative Present. Subjunctive. 1004. This mode expresses fear, doubt, anxiety, wish, order, and is always under the control of another verb, which precedes it, expressed or understood ; it is also always pre- ceded by que in all its tenses and persons- 248 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These tenses or forms are four in number : The Present ; The Imperfect ; The Preterite ; The Pluperfect. The verb, instead of being affirmative, might be interroga- tive, thus answering to the wants of the mind when any ques- tion is to be asked. Under this form the verb has but two moods, the Indicative and Conditional, and may be expressed under ten different forms or tenses, which belong to these two moods. OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS. 1005. The verbs, in regard to the manner in which they are employed with their tenses and persons are divided into three classes : Regular Verbs ; Irregular Verbs ; Defective Verbs. Regular verbs are those whose terminations in their different tenses and persons, primitive or derivative, are like those of the verb which is used as a model. The irregular verbs are those whose terminations do not conform to those of the standard verbs in all the tenses and persons. Defective Verbs are those which are deficient in some of their tenses and persons. 1006. The verbs, in regard to their functions in the lan- guage, are divided into six distinct classes : 1st. The Auxiliaries to have and to be, which are used to form the compound tenses of all the verbs, including themselves. 2d. The Active Verbs. 3d. The Passive Verbs. 4th. The Neuter Verbs. 5th. The Reflective Verbs. 6th. The Impersonal Verbs. VERB. 249 Auxiliary Verbs. 1007. The auxiliary verbs are, to have and to be, avoir and etre. They are called auxiliary, from the Latin word auxilium, which means succour, help ; because they serve to conjugate all the verbs in their compound tenses. Active Verbs. 1008. Active verbs are those which have a direct object ; as, aimer, to love ; lire, to read ; ecrire, to write. They are known to be active, because they may be followed by somebody or something, quelqu'un or quelque chose ; thus, we may say, To love something or somebody ; to Aimer quelqu'un ou quelque chose ; read something, to write some- lire quelque chose, ecrire quelque thing. chose. The verb avoir, to have, when not employed as an auxiliary, but expressing possession, is an active verb ; as, I have a book ; I have, what ? a J'ai un livre ; j'ai, quoi ? un livre. book. Passive Verbs. 1009. Passive verbs are those whose action is applied or felt by the subject ; as, I am loved, he is burned, we are Je suis aime, il est brule, nous beaten. sommes battus. In these sentences the subject does not act, but is acted upon by the verb. Passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. All the active verbs may be conjugated in the passive form, but the neuter verbs cannot. Neuter Verbs. 1010. Neuter verbs are those which have no direct object, that is to say, after which cannot be placed the words somebody or something ; such are, 250 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Togo, Aller, To speak ill (of), Medire, To fall, Tomber, because we cannot say, To go somebody, speak ill some- Aller quelqu'un or quelque chose, body, fall something. medire quelqu'un or quelque chose, tomber quelqu'un or quel- que chose. Reflective Verbs. 1011. Reflective verbs are those which are conjugated with two personal pronouns of the same person, one nominative, and the other objective. They are called reflective, because the nominative receives the action of the verb, or, in other words, the action of the verb reflects upon the nominative ; as, I flatter myself, he flatters himself, Je me flatte, il se flatte, &c. &c. In je me flatte, je is the subject who flatters, me is the object or person flattered ; therefore, the one who flatters, and he who receives flattery, being the same person, the action of the verb returns or reflects upon him who acts, or upon the nomin- ative, and the verb is thus made reflective. 1012. In reflective verbs, the objective pronoun is some- times the direct, and sometimes the indirect object of the verb ; in this sentence, I love myself, Je m'aime, or J'aime moi, me or moi is the direct object of the verb ; but, in the follow- ing : I say to myself, Je me dis, or Je dis a moi, me or a moi is the indirect object, and should be preceded by a preposition, to receive the action of the verb. 1013. There are two sorts of reflective verbs : 1st. Those which are never conjugated, or used, without two pronouns of the same person preceding the verb ; as, I repent, I mock, &c, Je me repens, Je me moque, &c. ; we could not say, je repens^je moque, &c. VERB. 251 1014. Those which are sometimes conjugated with one, and sometimes with two pronouns of the same persons, according to the idea we have to express ; as, I praise myself, Je me loue, I burn myself, Je me brule, because we may say, in other cases, je loue^je brule. 1015. Reflective verbs are sometimes reciprocal, and be- come such by the addition of a reciprocal pronoun after them ; they express that the action of the verb is reflected upon the nominative as well as upon somebody else ; as, They love each other. lis s'aiment Pun l'autre. They hurt each other. lis se font du tort les uns aux au- tres. The action expressed by the reciprocal verbs always con- cerning at least two persons, this verb is always used in the plural ; if it relates only to two individuals, the reciprocal pro- noun remains in the singular ; if it concerns more than two, then the reciprocal pronoun is put in the plural. The two above examples illustrate both cases. Reciprocal Verbs. 1016. The reflective and reciprocal verbs are all conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. (See the conjugation of these verbs, at the end of the Grammar.) Impersonal Verbs. 1017. Impersonal verbs are those which, in their conjuga- tion, admit only the third person singular of each tense ; as, It rains, it snows, it is necessary, II pleut, il neige, il est necesssaire. &c. The verb to be, in English, admits of the two third per- sons, singular and plural ; but, in French, it follows the general rule, and is only used in the third person singular. 252 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OP CONJUGATIONS, 1018. The word conjugation comes from the Latin conju- gation which means union, junction, coupling together under the same yoke. To conjugate a verb is to recite it with all its tenses, per- sons, and numbers ; that is say, to repeat it, with all the modi- fications produced by modes, tenses, persons, and numbers. We have already examined and explained all that relates to the tenses and moods ; let us see now what we understand by persons and numbers. OF PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 1019. There are three persons in the verb : Thejirst is that who speaks ; The second is that who is spoken to ; The third is that who is spoken of. 1020. As we have seen under the article personal pronouns nominative, the pronouns of the first person are je in the sin- gular, and nous in the plural : thus, when we say je parle, I speak, there is but one person who speaks ; when we say nous parlons, there are several persons speaking. 3 021. The pronoun of the second person is tu in the sin- gular, and vous in the plural ; but usage and politeness require generally the use of these two pronouns in the singular ; thus, addressing a single person, we say, tu paries, or vous parlez ; addressing several, vous parlez. 1 022. The pronouns of the third person are il and elle in the singular, Us and elles in the plural ; thus, speaking of one person, we say, jf/ or elle parle, he or she speaks ; and of sev- eral, lis or elles par lent, they speak. Names of things or persons are all in the third person, sin- gular or plural ; as, The sun shines. Le soleil brille. Men are good. Les hommes sont bons. Napoleon was great. NapoUon etait grand. VERB. 253 1023. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. What we have just said of persons renders further explanation unnecessary. OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF CONJUGATIONS. 1024. We have, in French, four conjugations distinguished from each other by the difference in the termination of the present tense of their infinitive. 1025. The first conjugation has its infinitive terminating in er ; as, aimer, to love, parler, to speak. 1026. The second conjugation has its infinitive ending in ir ; as, finir, to finish, mourir, to die. 1027. The third conjugation has its infinitive terminating in oir ; as, recevoir, to receive, vouloir, to be willing. 1028. The fourth conjugation has its infinitive ending in re ; as, rendre, to render, prendre, to take, boire, to drink. 1029. The four conjugations include all the French verbs in their compass. Grammarians are at great variance as to the classification of verbs in conjugations ; although they cannot find any other terminations than these four, some pretend, in order to facilitate the study of verbs, that they ought to divide them into as many conjugations as there are groups of them which may be conjugated alike, and call them regular, reducing thus the number of the irregular verbs almost to nothing. Some do not go so far, and admit as regular those only which, by their number, may form separate classes, leaving thus a larger number irregular. 1030. But these different systems, after all, are of no assist- ance to the student ; on the contrary, they produce a confusion in his mind. Having a great number of classes of regular verbs with the same termination, he is at a loss to remember to which class any particular verb may belong ; therefore, we will preserve the old plan, and admit only four conjugations ; take a verb as a model in each one ; call regular all those which are conjugated alike in all tenses and persons, and irregular, those which differ from them. 22 254 FRENCH GRAMMAR. In order to facilitate the study of the conjugations, we shall place at the end of this grammar the models of each one, with its modifications in form, as well as a complete table of all the irregular verbs, conjugated in full with all their tenses and per- sons. OF MIDDLE VERBS. 1031. Now that we have shown the verb in all its phases of regularity and irregularity ; in its different forms, affirmative, negative, and interrogative ; in its four conditions, active and passive, reflective and reciprocal ; it becomes necessary to ex- plain a peculiar property of a certain number of them, that of being used sometimes actively, and sometimes passively, with or without the same auxiliary verb to have. These verbs are called Middle Verbs , from the Greek, which admits of three voices, active, passive, and middle ; the last of which is so called because it partakes of the two others. The knowledge of these verbs is of great importance to foreigners, who have no indications to understand their mean- ing without it. ACTIVE MEANING. PASSIVE MEANING. Abetir. To stupefy. To grow stupid. Too great severity stupefies chil- This child grows stupid from day dren. to day. La trop grande severite abetit les Cet enfant abetit de jour en jour, enfants. Abonnir. To better, to improve. To grow better. Cool cellars better, improve wine. That wine will grow better in time. Les caves fraiches abonnissent le Ce vin abonnira avec le temps, vin. Jlccoutumer. To accustom. To use. Children must be early accustomed His father used to teach him most- to labor. ly by examples. On doit accoutumerde bonne heure Son pere avait accoutume de l'un- les enfants au travail. struire surtout par des exemples. (Not used.) (This verb is middle only in compound tenses.) VERB. 255 Accroitre. To increase. To augment. He thinks of nothing but increas- His fortune augments every day. ing his fortune. II ne pense qu'a accroitre sa for- Sa fortune accroit tous les jours, tune. Agreer. To accept. To approve. I beg you would accept my servi- He had purchased the place, but it ces. was not approved by the king. Veuillez agreer mes services. II avait achete la place, mais le roi ne l'avait point agree. Amaigrir. To make lean. To grow lean. Abstinence makes him lean. The cattle will grow lean here. Le jeune l'amaigrit. Les bestiaux amaigriront ici. Jlmoindrir. To lessen. To lessen. This will lessen your income. Your income will be considerably lessened by it. Ceci amoindrira votre revenu. Votre revenu en amoindrira con- siderablement. (Not used.) Arreter. To arrest. To stop. We must arrest the current of this After eight days travelling we brook. stopped at Boston. U faut arreter le cours de ce ruis- Apres huit jours de voyage, nous seau. arr6tames a Boston. Augmenter. To increase. To augment. He increases his income every day. His income augments every day. II augmente son revenu tous les Son revenu augmente tous lc jours. jours. les Baisser. To let down. To fall. When the play was over, they let The stock begins to fall. down the curtain. Quand la piece fut jouee, on bais- Les actions commencent a baisser. sa le rideau. Battre. To beat. To beat. He beats the drum. The drum was beating. II bat la caisse. Le tambour battait. Blanchir. To whiten. To grow white. This paste whitens the skin. A fool's head never grows white. Cette pate blanchit la peau. Une tete de fou ne blanchit jamais. 256 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Bouffir. To bloat. To swell. The humors have bloated his His face is swelling. whole body. Les humeurs lui ont bouffi tout le Le visage lui bouffit. corps. Branler. To shake. To shake. He shakes his head. His head was shaking. II branle la tete. La tete lui branlait. B riser. To break. To break. Her lover broke his shackles. The ship broke to pieces on the rocks. Son amant a brise ses fers. Le vaisseau se brisa en mille pieces contre les rochers. Bruler. To burn. To be burning. Formerly they used to burn the One could see the ship burning. dead. Autrefois on brulait les morts. Onpouvait voir le vaisseau bruler. Brunir. To make brown. To grow dark. The weather makes the skin Your hair begins to grow dark. brown. Le hale brunit le teint. Vos cheveux commencent a brunir. Casser. To break. To break. The fatigues of war have broken In the midst of the operation the his constitution very much. rope broke. Les fatigues de la guerre l'ont Au milieu de l'operation la corde beaucoup casse. cassa. Changer. To change. To change. This storm will change the weath- Fashion changes from day to day. er. Les modes changent de jour en Cet orage changera le temps. jour. Chauffer. To heat. To be heated. While they heat the bath. While the bath is heating. Pendant qu'on chauffera le bain. Pendant que le bain chauffera. Clore. To shut. To shut. I have not shut my eyes. That door does not shut well. Je n'ai pas clos Pceil. Cette porte ne clot pas bien. VERB. 257 Commencer. To begin. To begin. We must begin the day well. The day did not begin successful- II faut bien commencer la journee. Le jour n'a pas commence heur- eusement. Communier. To give the communion. To receive communion. His curate gave him the comraun- He has received the communion ion. from his curate. Son cure lui a donne la commun- II a communie de la main de son ion. cure. Continuer. To continue. To last. He has continued his inquiries. If the war lasts, we are lost. II a continue ses recherches. Si la guerre continue nous sommes perdus. Coucher. To put to bed. To sleep. We must put this child to bed. We slept at the house of a friend. II faut coucher cet enfant. Nous couchames chez un ami. Couler. To cast. To run. To cast a plate of glass. The ink is too thick, it does not run free. Couler une glace. L'encre est trop epaisse, elle ne coule pas bien. Couver. To brood. To lie hid. He broods ill designs. The fire lies hid under the ashes. II couve de mauvais desseins. Le feu couve sous la cendre. Crever. To burst To burst. This load of powder will burst the The barrel could not resist, and gun. burst. Cette charge de poudre crevera le Le canon ne put resister, et creva. canon. Cuire. To cook. To boil. Cook the meat before a small fire. These peas will never boil well. Cuisez la viande a petit feu. Ces pois ne cuisent pas bien. Debarquer. To disembark. To be disembarked. We disembarked the troops at Bos- The troops were disembarked in ton. Jamaica. Nous debarquames les troupes a Les troupes debarquerent a la Ja- Boston. ma'ique. 22* 258 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Debonder. To open. To burst. Open the dam. The pond burst forth. Debondez l'etang. L'etang a debonde. Decoucher. To put out of bed. To lie out. Do not put that child out of bed. To lie out is a bad habit. Ne decouchez pas cet enfant. Decoucher est une mauvaise habi- tude. Degeler. To thaw. To be thawed. The air has thawed the river. The river begins to be thawed. Le vent a degele la riviere. La riviere commence a degeler. Degorger. To open. To empty. It would be necessary to open the If the sewer empties, the neigh- sewer, bourhood will be infected. II faudrait degorger l'egout. Si l'egout degorge, le voisinage sera infecte. Dejucher. To unroost. To unroost. Go and unroost the chickens. The chickens will unroost soon. Allez dejucher les poules. Les poules dejucheront bientdt. Deloger. To dislodge. To decamp. Th ey will dislodge the enemy. The enemy decamped during the night. On delogera l'ennemi. L'ennemi delogea pendant la nuit. Denicher. To dislodge. To decamp. They have dislodged the robbers The enemy were frightened and from their den. decamped during the night. On a deniche les voleurs de leur Les ennemis eurent peur et deni- repaire. cherent pendant la nuit. Derougir. To take off the redness. To fade. Her face was quite red with the Her face will fade in the open air. small-pox, and one month of time took off all the redness. Elle avait la figure toute rouge de Sa figure derougira a Pair, la petite verole, un mois Pa en- tierement derougie. Descendre. Take down. To reach. You must take down this picture. Her hair reaches to her waist. Descendez ce tableau. Les cheveux lui descendent jus- qu'a la ceinture. VERB. 259 Desenfler. To take the swelling away ; to let rp a k ate out the wind. Let out the wind of this football. The swelling of his arm begins to abate. Desenflez ce ballon. Son bras commence a. desenfler. Desenivrer. To sober. To be sober. Sleeping has sobered him. He is never sober. Le sommeil l'a desenivre. II ne desenivre jamais. Diminuer. To impair. To lessen. His misfortunes have impaired his His credit lessens every day. credit. Ses malheurs ont diminue son Son credit diminue tous les jours. credit Discontinuer. To stop. To cease. They stopped playing. War has not ceased for the last twenty years, lis discontinu&rent le jeu. La guerre n'a pas discontinue de- puis vingt ans. Doubler, To double. To be doubled. He has doubled his fortune in two His fortune has been doubled by years. trade. II a double sa fortune en deux ans. Sa fortune a double dans le com- merce. Dresser. To carry high. To stand. This girl carries her head very His hair stood on end. high. Cette jeune fille dresse la tete Les cheveux lui dresserent sur la bien haut. tete. Durcir. To harden. To harden. A great heat hardens the ground. Oak hardens in water. La grande chaleur durcit la terre. Le chene durcit dans l'eau. Echauffer. To warm. To be warmed. He is so cold that we cannot warm He is so cold that he cannot be him. warmed. II a si froid que nous ne pouvons II a si froid qu'il ne saurait Pechauffer. s'echauffer. 260 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Echouer. To run on shore. To be run on shore. The pilot ran his ship on shore. Our vessel was run on shore on a sand bank. Le pilote echoua son vaisseau sur Notre vaisseau echoua sur un banc le rivage. de sable. Embellir. Embellish. To grow handsome. This fountain will embellish your She grows handsome every day. garden. Cette fontaine embellira votre jar- Elle embellit tous les jours, din. Emmaigrir. To make thin. To grow thin. The excess of labor had made him He grows thinner every day. thin. L exces du travail l'avait emmaigri. II emmaigrit touts les jours. Empirer. To make worse. To grow worse. Medicines have made him worse. The patient grew worse at night. Les remedes ont empire sa mala- Le malade empira vers le soir. die. Encherir. To raise the price. To rise in price. You have raised the price of your Wheat has risen in price this year. goods. Vous avez encheri vos marchan- Le bled a encheri cette annee. dises. Enfler. To swell. To be swelling. The rains have swelled the river. The river is swelling rapidly. Les pluies ont enfle la riviere. La riviere enflerapidement. Enfoncer. To sink. To sink. We must sink this log in the wa- His house sunk in a cavity. ter. II faut enfoncer ce pieu dans l'eau. Sa maison enfonca dans une cavite. Enlaidir. To disfigure. To grow ugly. The small-pox has disfigured her. This woman grows more and more ugly- La petite verole l'a enlaidie. Cette femme enlaidit de plus en plus. VERB, 261 Epaissir. To thicken. To thicken. Food thickens the blood. Preserves thicken by boiling. Les aliments epaississent le sang. Les confitures epaississent en cui- sant. Etouffer. To suffocate. To be suffocated. The . excessive heat suffocates our Our workmen are suffocated with laborers. the heat. L'excessive chaleur etouffe nos Nos ouvriers etouffent de chaleur. ouvriers. Fermer. To shut. To shut. Take care to shut your door. This door does not shut well. Ayez soin de fermer votre porte. Cette porte ne ferme pas bien. Finir. To have an end. This affair will have no end. Cette affaire ne finira jamais. FUchir. To bend. Let every knee bend before him. Que tout genou flechisse devant lui. To finish. I shall soon finish this affair. Je finirai bientot cette affaire. To bend. He will never bend his knees. U ne flechira jamais le genou. To melt. The heat melted all the wax. La chaleur fondit toute la cire. To fry. We must fry this salmon. II faut frire ce saumon. Fondre. To be melting. The snow is melting. La neige fond. Frire. To be frying. This salmon has been frying in the pan. Ce saumon a fri dans la poile. Geler. To freeze. To be frozen. The cold has frozen the wine in the The wine has been frozen in the casks. ; casks. Le froid a gele le vin dans les bar- Le vin a gele dans les barriques. riques. Glacer. To freeze. To be frozen. The intense cold has frozen even Fountains of living water are never the wine. frozen. Le grand froid a glace meme le vin. Les fontaines d'eau vive ne glacent jamais. 262 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Gonfler. To swell. To swell. Vegetables never swell the stomach. As soon as he has eaten, his stom- ach swells. Les legumes ne gonflent jamais Aussitot qu'il a mange, l'estomac l'estomac. lui gonfle. Griller. To scorch. To broil. The fire has scorched his legs. Let us drink while the chops broil. Le feu lui a grille les jambes. Buvons pendant que les cotelettes grillent. Grossir. To swell. To swell. The rains have swelled the river. The river has swelled much. Les pluies ont grossi la riviere. La riviere a bien grossi. Guerir. To cure. To be cured. My physician has cured him per- He is very sick, but he will soon be fectly. cured. Mon medecin l'a gueri parfaite- II est tres malade, mais il guerira ment. bientot. Hausser. To raise. To be raised. They have raised his wages this His wages have been raised this year. year. On a hausse ses gages cette annee. Ses gages ont hausse cette an nee. Jaunir. To make yellow. To turn yellow. Make this linen yellow. The wheat turns yellow. Jaunissez cette toile. Les bles jaunissent. Joindre. To join. To join. We must join these two planks. These two planks do not join. II faut joindre ces planches. Ces deux planches ne joignent pas. Lacker. To slack. To slacken. You ought to slack this rope. This rope slackens too much. Vous devriez lacher cette corde. Cette corde lache trop. Lever. To lift. To shoot. We cannot lift this heavy stone. Barley shoots sooner than wheat. Nous ne pouvons lever cette enorme L'orge leve plus tot que le bled, pierre. VERB. 263 Loger. To lodge. To live. We cannot lodge three thousand We live near the palace. men in these barracks. Nous ne pouvons loger trois mille Nous logeons pres du palais. hommes dans cette caserne. Manquer. To miss. To be wanted. You have missed a fine opportunity. Provisions were wanted in the city. Vous avez manque une belle occa- Les vivres manquaient dans la ville. sion. Monter. To carry up. To amount. Carry up this furniture to my room. These sums amount to ten thousand dollars. Montez ces meubles dans ma Ces sommes montent a dix mille chambre. gourdes. Multiplier. To increase. To multiply. They will increase the sentries. Rabbits multiply with an incredible rapidity. On multipliera les sentinelles. Les lapins multiplient avec une in- croyable rapidite. Noircir. To blacken. To blacken. The sun blackens the skin. The skin blackens in the sun. Le soleil noircit la peau. La peau noircit au soleil. Ouvrir. To open. To be opened. You must open this door. This window is never opened. II faut ouvrir cette porte. Cette fenetre n'ouvre jamais. Paitre. To pasture. To graze. Lead these sheep to pasture. The horses are grazing in the pas- ture. Paissez ces moutons. Ces chevaux paissent dans la prairie. Parquer. To pen up. To be penned. They have penned up their sheep. Our sheep are not yet penned, lis ont parque leurs moutons. Nos moutons ne parquent pas encore. Passer. To pass. To be carried. They have passed the cannons in the The cannons were carried in the boats. boats, lis ont passe les canons dans les Les canons passerent dans les ba- bateaux. teaux. 264 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Peiner. To fatigue. To be fatigued. This work will fatigue us extremely. Horses are fatigued much on that road. Cet ouvragenous peinerabeaucoup. Les ehevaux peinent beaucoup sur cette route. Pencher. To incline. To bend downward. Incline this vase a little. This tree bends downward. Penchez un peu ce vase. Cet arbre penche. Pendre. To hang. To hang. We have hung our raisins in the The fruit which hangs from that sun. tree. Nous avons pendu nos raisins au Les fruits qui pendent a cet arbre. soleil. Peser. To weigh. To weigh. We must weigh this bale of cotton . This bale weighs two hundred pounds. II faut peser cette balle de coton. Cette balle pese deux cents livres. Peupler. To stock with. To increase. They have stocked this pond with There are no fish which increase carps. more than the carp. On a peuple cet etang de carpes. II n'y a pas de poisson qui peuple autant que la carpe. Plier. To fold. To sink. You must fold your arm. The floor sunk under the weight. II faut plier votre bras. Le plancher pliait sous le poids. Plonger. To dip. To dive. They have dipped that man in the These fishermen dive to the bottom sea. of the sea. On a plonge cet homme dans la mer. Ces pecheurs plongent jusqu'au fond de la mer. Porter. To support. To bear. Two columns support this gallery. These shelves do not bear steadily. Deux colonnes portent cette galerie. Ces tablettes portent a faux. Poser. To lay. To bear. Lay this beam on the wall. The beam does not bear enough on the wall. Posez cette poutre sur le mur. Cette poutre ne pose pas assez sur le mur. VEBR. 265 Pourrir. To rot. To rot. The rain has rotted the crop. Fruit rots when kept too long. Les pluies ont pourri la recolte. Les fruits pourrissent quand on les garde trop long terns. Preter. To lend. To stretch. I shall lend you my carriage. That leather stretches like a glove. Je vous preterai ma voiture. Ce cuir prete comme un gant. Profiter. To gain. To improve. He has gained by the advice given Our advice has improved him much, him. II a proflte des avis qu'on lui a don- Nos avis lui ont beaucoup proflte. nes. Quadrupler. To increase fourfold. To increase fourfold. His economy has increased his in- His income has increased fourfold. come fourfold. Ses economies ont quadruple son Son revenu a quadruple. revenu. Raccourcir. To shorten. To grow short. She has shortened her dress. The days shorten every day. Elle a raccourci sa robe. Les jours raccourcissentchaque jour. Rafraichir. To refresh. To cool. We must refresh the wine. The wine will cool in water. II faut rafraichir le vin. Le vin rafraichit dans l'eau. Rajeunir. To make one appear younger. To grow younger. This wig makes you appear much This woman grows younger every younger. day. Cette perruque vous rajeunit beau- Cette femme rajeunit tous les jours. coup. Rapetisser. To lessen. To lessen. You must lessen this table. The days are lessening. Rapetissez cette table. Les jours rapetissent. Redoublir. To increase. To increase. This news has increased my afflic- My fears are increasing. tion. Cette nouvelle a redouble mon afflic- Mes craintes redoublent. tion. 23 266 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Reflechir. To reflect. To be reflected. Mirrors reflect the rays of the sun. The rays of the sun are reflected by a mirror. Les miroirs reflechissent les rayons Les rayons du soleil reflechissent du soleil. d'un miroir. (Not used.) Refroidir. To refresh. To cool. The rain has refreshed the air. While the soup cools. La pluie a refroidi Pair. Pendant que la soupe refroidira. Relever. To relieve. To recover. This inheritance has relieved his To be just recovered of an illness. distresses. Cette succession a releve ses affaires. Relever de maladie. Reposer. To settle. To lie. Sleeping settles the complexion. He lies on his bed. Le sommeil repose le teint. II repose sur son lit. Ressusciter. To resuscitate. To be resuscitated. Jesus Christ resuscitated Lazarus. Jesus Christ was resuscitated the third day. Jesus Christ ressuscita Lazare. Jesus Christ ressuscita le troisieme jour. Retarder. To delay. To be delayed. Why delay this marriage ? This marriage is delayed from day to day. Pourquoi retarder ce mariage ? Ce mariage retarde de jour en jour. Reverdir. To paint green again. To become green again. Those rails must be painted green The trees begin to become green again. again. II faut reverdirces barreaux. Ces arbres commencent a reverdir. Roidir. To stretch. To stiffen. Stretch your arm. He stiffened with cold. Roidissez votre bras. II roidissait de froid. Rompre. To break. To break. He has broken the doors. This beam will break. II a rompu les portes. Cette poutre rompra. VERB. 267 Rotir. To burn. To be scorching. The excessive heat has burnt the You are scorching under the sun. plants. L'excessivechaleurarotilesplantes. Vous rotissez au soleil. Rouler. To roll. To roll. He rolled his eyes about as if he His eyes rolled in his head. were possessed. II roulait les yeux comme un pos- Les yeux lui roulaient dans la tete. sede. Roussir. To redden. To turn red. Air reddens paper. Your paper will turn red. L'air roussit le papier. Votre papier roussira. Saigner. To bleed. To be bleeding. They bled him on the arm. His wounds are still bleeding. On l'a saigne au bras. Ses blessures saignent encore. Secher. To dry up. To dry. The sun dries up prairies. The cloak will dry in the sun. Le soleil seche les prairies. Le manteau sechera au soleil. Sonner. To ring. To ring. They are about ringing for dinner. The bell rings. On va sonner le diner. Le cloche sonne. Suffoquer. To suffocate. To be suffocating. His catarrh will suffocate him. He is suffocating with heat. Son catarrhe le suffoquera. II suffoque de chaleur. Tarir. To dry up. To be dried up. The heat has dried up the fountains. The fountains have been dried up. La chaleur a tari les fontaines. Les fontaines ont tari. Tenir. To hold. To hold. The king held the power but a short These parts do not hold together. time. Le roi ne tint le pouvoir que peu de Ces parties ne tiennent pas ensemble, terns. Tirer. To fire. To be fired. They fired the guns at once. The guns were fired at twelve. On tira le canon aussitot. Le canon tira a midi. 268 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Tourner. To turn. To turn. You will have to turn the wheel. The earth turns around the sun, Vous aurez a tourner la roue. La terre tourne autour du soleih Trainer. To drag. To linger. To drag a malefactor on a hurdle. This business lingers. Trainer un malfaiteur sur la claie. Cette affaire traine. Transir. To chill. To chill. The cold chills me. I am chilling with cold. Le froid me transit. Je transis de froid. Tremper. To dip. To soak. Dip these clothes in cold water. These clothes have been soaking for two days. Trempez ce linge dans l'eau froide. Ce linge trempe depuis deux jours. Tripler . To treble. To treble. He will soon treble his income. His income will soon treble. II triplera bientot son revenu. Son revenu triplera bientot. Varier. To vary. To vary. One must vary one's style. The wind has varied several times. On doit varier son style. Le vent a varie plusieurs fois. Verdir. To make green. To turn green. We must make this trellis green. All turns green in the spring. II faut verdir ce treillage. Tout verdit au printems. Verser. To upset. To upset. This coachman will upset us. This coach will upset. Ce cocher nous versera. Cette voiture versera. Vieillir. To make one grow old. To grow old. Sorrow made him grow old very He has grown old in business fast. Le chagrin l'a vieilli bein vite. II a vieilli dans les affaires. VERB. 269 OF A CHOICE BETWEEN THE AUXILIARY VERBS to be AND to have. 1032. We are sometimes embarrassed to know when a verb must be used with to have or to be, according to the meaning of the sentence. Some neuter verbs, for instance, must be conjugated with to be ; as, to die. to be bom. to succeed. to set out. to arise, to report, to remain, to result, to return, to come back, to go out. to come, to fall, to come. Accourir, to hasten. Mourir, Aller, to go. Naitre, Arriver. to arrive. Parvenir, Choir, to fall. Porter, Convenir, to confess, to agree Provenir, upon. Reporter, Deborder, to overflow. Rester, Deceder, to die. Resulter, Dechoir, to decay. Retourner, Devenir, to become. Revenir, Echoir, to fall. Sortir, Eclore, to hatch. Survenir, Entrer, to enter. Tomber, Intervener, to intervene. Venir, Examples. Les gardes sont accourus aussitot. Ces enfants itaient alUs dans la prairie. Vous ties arrive" de trop bonne heure. Elle est chue en montant l'escalier. Nous sommes convenus de nos torts. lis itaient convenus de prix. La riviere est debordee. Ces grands hommes sont tous de- cides. Ce prince est dechu de sa grandeur. Les vrais litterateurs sont devenus rares. Votre billet sera ichu avant votre retour. Ces ceufs sont 6clos. II est intervenu dans cette affaire. Leurs parents sont morts. Nos malheurs sont nis de nos dis- sensions. Quand \\fut parti pour la campagne je revins chez moi. Que de gens sont parvenus a des emplois qu'ils ne meritent pas. 23* The guards have hastened at once. These children had gone in the prairie. You have arrived too early. She has fallen in going up stairs. We have confessed our faults. They had agreed upon the price. The river has overflowed its banks. These great men are all dead. The prince has fallen from his grandeur. Literary men have become rare. Your note will become due before your return. These eggs have hatched. He has intervened in this affair. Their parents are dead. Our misfortunes have arisen from our quarrels. When he went into the country, I came home. How many people have obtained sit- uations which they do not de- serve. 270 FRENCH GRAMMAR. L'erreur dans laquelle il est tombd, serait elle provenue de son igno- rance ? lis sont re-partis pour la campagne. II en est re" suite de grands malheurs. Nous e"tions retourne's au chateau. Vos enfants seraient revenus avec nous. Cette nouvelle est survenue a, 1 'in- stant. Je doute que le tonnere soit tombe. lis sont venus implorer ma clemence. Has his error arisen from his igno- rance ? They have started again for the country. Great misfortunes have arisen from this. We had returned to the mansion. Your children would have come back with us. This news has arrived just now. I doubt if the thunderbolt has reach- ed the ground. They came to implore my clemency. 1033. But some of these verbs are occasionally conjugated with to have, according to the meaning of the sentence, as will be shown hereafter. The following neuter verbs are conjugated with to have : Apparoitre, Comparaitre, Contrevenir, Convenir (to be to appear, to appear, to contravene convenient), Courir, to suit, to run. Disparaitre, Echouer, Paraitre, Subvenir, to disappear. to shipwreck . to appear, to supply, to relieve. L'ombre du grand Hector nous a apparu. Les temoins ont comparu ce matin. Les infideles ont souvent contrevenu a leurs traites. Cette maison et cet ameblement lui auraient convenu. Les soldats ont couru vers leur ge- neral. Ces fantomes ont disparu soudain. Un vaisseau Americain a echoue de- vant le port. Nous avons paru quand on nous a appeUs. La vraie charite aurait subvenu aux i besoins de ces malheureux. The spirit of the great Hector has appeared to us. The witnesses have appeared this morning. The infidels have often contravened their treaties. This house and furniture would have suited him. The soldiers have run to their gen- eral. These ghosts have disappeared sud- denly. An American vessel was ship- wrecked in sight of the harbour. We have appeared when we were called. True charity would have relieved the sufferings of these unfortunate people. 1034. We may, however, use the verb courir with the verb to be in some cases, as the following : Ce pretre est fort couru, Ce cerf a ete fort couru, This preacher is much run after, This deer has been run hard, because, when the verb courir signifies rechercher, seek after, VERB. 271 or poursuivre, run after, it is then an active verb, which may be turned in the passive form. 1035. The verbs, Aborder, to disembark, Baisser, to fall, Croitre to grow, Decroitre, to decrease, Dechoir, to decline,' Diminuer, Embellir, Grandir, Rajeunir, Vieillir, to diminish, to grow handsome, to grow up, to grow young, to grow old, take the verb to have or to be, according to their signification ; they take to have, if they intend to express an action ; and to be, if they express the situation of the subject : With to have. With to be. Our vessels have disembarked at When they had disembarked, we Havre. dismounted from our horses. Nos vaisseaux ont abordi au Havre. Quand ilsfurent abordes nous mimes pied a terre. The shares have fallen from day to They have fallen to-day more than day. ever. Les actions ont baissd de jour en Elles sont baissdes aujourd'hui plus jour. que jamais. That child has grown during his This plant is prodigiously grown. sickness. Cet enfant a cru durant sa raaladie. Cette plante est criie prodigieuse- ment. The water has much decreased since They have now decreased much. the drought. Les eaux ont beaucoup ddcrd depuis Elles sont maintenant bien d&cr&es. la secheresse. From that time he has declined from He has lost much of his credit. day to day. Depuis ce tems il a dicM de jour en II est bien dichu de son credit. jour. The price of corn has not dimin- He is, in fine, diminished one half. ished for the last six months. Le prix du ble n'a pas diminue" de- II est enfin diminut de moitie. puis six mois. He has grown much handsomer dur- One would say that she has grown ing his absence. handsome. II a fort embelli pendant son absence. On dirait qu'elle est embellie. This young man has grown much Surely, you are much grown. this year. Ce jeune homme a beaucoup grandi Surement vous etes bien grandie. cette annee. He seems to have grown younger See, how she has grown younger. since we saw him last. II paroit avoir rajeuni depuis que Voyez, comme elle est rajeunie. nous ne l'avons vu. 272 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This woman has grown old very Let us agree that we have grown fast. much older. Cette femme a vieilli tres vite. Convenons que nous sommes bien vieillis. 1036. We shall now allude to some verbs whose significa- tion is entirely different when conjugated with to have or to be ; as, Accroitre. Accroitre is conjugated with to have, when meaning to in- crease, and is followed by a direct object ; and with to be, when it has no direct object ; as, With to have. With to be. He has increased his fortune very Their treasures are wonderfully in- rapidly. creased. II a accrit sa fortune tres rapide- Leurs tresors sont prodigieusement ment. accrus. They had increased their riches The waters of the Seine are consid- wonderfully. lis avaient accrti leurs richesses d' une maniere prodigieuse. erably increased since the last few days. Les eaux de la Seine sont considera- ment accrues depuis quel ques jours. His pride had increased with his power. Son orgueil Halt accrit par la puis- sance. 1037. Jlccoucher. Accoucher, meaning to deliver a woman, takes the auxiliary verb to have ; and the auxiliary to be, when it signifies to be delivered of a child ; as, With to have. With to be. This midwife had delivered several This lady has been delivered of a ladies of our acquaintance. male infant. Cette sage femme avait accouche" plu- Cette dame est accouchie d'un enfant sieurs dames de notre connais- male. sance. Who, Madam, is the skilful man We shall go and see you when you who has delivered you of your are delivered of your child, child ? Quel est, Madame, l'habile homme Nous irons vous voir quand vous qui vous a accouchde 1 serez accoucMe. We say, equally well, This lady has been happily deliv- Cette femme a accouchi heureuse- ered, ment, VERB 273 because the act of being delivered is only looked upon, and not the individual or subject. 1038. Cesser. The verb cesser takes the auxiliary to have, when it ex- presses an action ; and to be, when it expresses the situation of the subject ; as, With to have. He has ceased his work. II a cesse" son travail. With to be. The works have ceased. Les travaux sont cesses. The gout had ceased tormenting When the contagion ceased, they him. thanked God for it. La goutte avait cessi de le tourmen- Quand la contagion fut cesse" e on en ter. remercia Dieu. They have ceased complaining, lis ont cesse" de se plain dre. The storm has ceased at last. L'orage est enfin cessi. My fever has ceased (meaning that The fever has ceased (past entirely), the fever has ceased temporarily, but will certainly come back). Ma flevre a cesse. La fievre est cessSe. 1039. Changer. Changer takes the auxiliary to have, when it means an ac- tion, and is followed by a direct object ; and to be, when ex- pressing the situation of the subject ; as, With to have. With to be. We have changed our clothes. This man is changed dreadfully. Nous avons change" nos habits. Cet homme est horriblement change". Why don't you change this water The wind is changed. into wine ? Pourquois ne changez-\ous pas cette Le vent est changi. eau en vin ? They have changed their money, lis ont changi leur argent. These instruments have changed their sound. Ces instruments ont change de son. She is changed so much that no- body would know her. Elle est. si changte qu'on a peine a la reconnaitre. 1040. Commencer. This verb takes the auxiliary to have, when expressing an action ; and to be, when expressing the situation of the subject ; 274 FRENCH GRAMMAR. With to have. They have begun their work, lis ont commence" leurs travaux. With to be. The work is not begun yet. Les travaux ne sont pas encore com- mences. This child begins to know how to read. Cet enfant commence a savoir lire. The ball commenced o'clock. Le bal a commence a minuit The ball had already begun when we were introduced. Le bal 6tait de"ja commend quand nous fumes presentes. at twelve I shall have left the country when the year begins. J'aurai quitte la campagne quand 1'annee sera commence'e. 1041. Demeurer and Rest er. These two verbs take the auxiliary to have, when they mean to remain, to live for a certain time ; and to be, when meaning to remain permanently ; as, With to have. We have remained or lived five years in France. Nous avons demeure cinq ans en France. You have not remained long enough in the country. Vous xCavez pas demeure assez long- tems a la campagne. His wound remained eight days be- fore it was closed up. Sa blessure a demeuri huit jours a. se fermer. He remained in Paris but eight days. II vCa resti a Paris que huit jours. I have remained seven months with- out leaving my room. Vai resU sept mois sans sortir de ma chambre. With to le. He remained in Paris to finish his education. II est reste a, Paris pour y finir son education. After a hard contest, victory re- mained on our side. Apres un rude combat, la victoire est demeure" e de notre cote. He remained silent in the presence of the king. II est reste court, parlant devant le roi. Three thousand men remained on the field of battle. Trois mille hommes sont demeures sur le champ de battaille. They remained in Lyons to see the factories, lis sont restes a. Lyon pour y voir les manufactures. 1042. Echapper. This verb takes the auxiliary to have, when expressing an action, and meaning eviter, to avoid ; ne pas Ure entendu, not to be heard ; ne pas etre apergu, not to be perceived ; n'etre pas compris, not to be understood ; s'etre soustrait, to have made an escape : and to be, when meaning se sauver, to run away, to escape, or laisser oiler, to escape, to slip ; as, VERB. 275 With to have. With to be. He has escaped death. He has escaped from prison. II a 6chappe (evite) la mort. (Not II s'est ichappe de prison, used.) You would have escaped this He has escaped from the hands of trouble. the watch. Vous auriez £chapp6 (evite) cette II est ichappd des mains des gen- peine. (Not used.) darmes. What you have just said has es- Racine has made this fault through caped me. mistake. Ce que vous venez de dire m'a Cette faute est ichappee a Racine. echappi. The deer will have escaped the I had forgotten that name. dogs. Le cerf aura ichappe les chiens. Ce nom xa'Uait e"chapp6. (Not used.) This fault has escaped Voltaire. He has dropped his pen. Cette faute a echappi a Voltaire. La plume lui est ichappee. These sailors have escaped the This nonsense has slipped out of his storm. mouth. Ces matelots ont tchappi la tern- Cette sottise lui est echappe'e. pete. 1043. Entrer and Sortir. Entrer and Sorlir take to have, when they have a direct ob- ject ; and to be, when they have but an indirect object ex- pressed or understood ; as, With to have. With to be. They have entered the wine in the When you came into my room, I was cellar. reading. On a entrt le vin dans la cave. Quand vous Ues entre dans ma chambre, je lisais. Have you brought up my horse ? We went out early this morning. «/2uez-vous sorti mon cheval ? Nous sommes sortis de bonne heure ce matin. They have brought you out of a sad As soon as they went out, we went trouble. to bed. On vous a sorti d'une mauvaise af- Aussitot qu'ils furent sortis nous al- faire. lames au lit. Rentrer and ressortir follow the same rule. 1044. Expirer. Expirer takes to have, when it means, to breathe one's last, to expire ; and to be, when meaning to cease, to finish ; as, With to have. With to be. Jesus Christ expired on the cross. The vacations will be expired when I shall return to town. Jesus Christ a expire sur la croix. Les vacances seront expirees quand je retournerai a la ville. 276 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These soldiers breathed their last, Peace had not expired when hos- loading the enemy with impre- tilities again began, cations. Ces soldats ont expire en chargeant La paix n'etait pas expiree quand 1'ennemi d'impreeations. la guerre recommenga. 1045. Monter and Descendre. These verbs take to have when they are taken in an absolute meaning, or followed by a direct object, and to be, when they have an indirect object ; as, With to have. With to be. He has ascended three hours to He was raised by degrees to the reach the top of the mountain. post he occupies. II a monte" trois heures pour arriver II est monte par degres au poste au sommet de la montagne. qu'il occupe. He had got up a very high flight We should have ridden on horse- of stairs. back. II a monte un escalier tres eleve. Nous serions montes a cheval. He has come down to reach this The red has mounted to his face. place. II a descendu pour venir ici. Le rouge lui est monte a la figure. They have descended the stairs Have they come down from their quicker than they liked. room? lis ont descendu les escaliers plus Sont-ils descendus de leur cham- vite qu'ils ne l'auraient voulu. bre ? Peace has come down to the earth. La paix est descendue sur la terre. They came down stairs quicker than they chose. Us sont descendus plus vite qu'ils ne l'auraient voulu. We say also, in another meaning ; We mounted our guard. We have come off guard. Nous avons monte 1 notre garde. Nous avons descendu la garde. Have you wound up the clock? They have taken down that pic- ture. Jlvez-vous monU la pendule ? On a descendu ce tableau. He rode a splendid horse. The barometer has fallen a little. II montait un superbe cheval. Le barometre a descendu un peu. 1046. Passer. This verb takes to have when it expresses the action of passing from one place to another, with such circumstances as to indicate motion, and also when meaning to hand a thing, VERB 277 to be admitted or received, but it takes to be when the action of passing is entirely accomplished, and in some idiomatical ex- pressions which will be found below ; as, With to have. With to be. We passed by Lyons. Nous avons passe par Lyon. The ambassador has passed through Vienna. L'ambassadeur est Vienne. passe par He has passed to America where They passed over into England he resides. ten years ago. II a passe en Amerique ou il re- lis sont passes en Angleterre ily a dix ans. The troops have passed. Les troupes sont passees. Do you know if their blood has passed pure to them as well as their nobility ? side. Our friends have passed the Alps. Nos amis ont passe les Alpes. We have passed through Cham- pagne after having crossed the Meuse. Nous avons passe 1 par la Champagne Savez-vous si leur sang est passe apres avoir passe" la Meuse. chez eux aussi pur que leur no- blesse. The empire of the Assyrians has Our fine days are passed. passed into the hands of the Medes. L'empire des Assyriens a passe Nos beaux jours sont passes. aux Medes. I have passed (handed) this child These silks are out of fashion. through the window. J'ai passe" cet enfant par la fenetre. Ces soies sont passees de mode. This word has passed (has become This tapestry is faded. usual, or has not been remarked). Ce mot a passe. Cette tapisserie est passee. The fair is over. La foire est passee. This expression has become a proverb. Cette expression est passee en pro- verbe. This word is out of use. Ce mot est passi. 1047. Perir. This verb takes to have when we use with it the circumstan- ces attending the fact expressed by its meaning ; but it takes to be when the time or circumstances attending the fact of perish- ing are not mentioned ; as, 24 278 FRENCH GRAMMAR. With to have. With to be. The army perished from cold and This good mother went to meet her hunger. children, but she perished. UarmAt a p6ri de /aim et de froid. Cette tendre mere etait partie pour rejoindre ses enfants, mais elle est p6rie. These wretches perished in the What has become of the prisoners middle of the battle. with whom our prisons were crowded ? they perished. Ces malhereux ont piri au milieu Que sont devenus les prisonniers de la battaille. dont nos prisons etaient pleines ? lis sont peris. 1048. Sonner, Sonner takes to have when it signifies to produce a sound, cause a sound to be produced, and it takes to be when meaning to be announced by a sound ; as, With to have. The bells have rung. Les cloches ont sonne. The clock has struck five. La pendule a sonne cinq heures. He has not said one word. II n'a pas sonne 1 le mot. This piece of money has sounded, Cette piece d'argent a sonne. This sentence sounded well. Cette periode a bien sonne 1 . The dinner has rung. Le diner a sonne. To ring for a servant. Sonner un domestique. To play the horn. Sonner de la trompe, &c. With to be. The mass has rang. La messe est sonnee. Three o'clock struck while we sat at the table. Trois heures etaient sonnies quand nous nous mimes a table. Vespers will ring before the end of the repast. Les vepres seront sonnies avant la fin du repas. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 1049. We have seen, that to affirm is the principal function of the verb. We call subject or nominative the word which VERB. 279 represents the person or thing which performs the action of the verb, or is in the situation expressed by it. The attribute of the verb is the word which modifies the fact of existence ex- pressed by the verb ; in other words, the subject expresses the person or thing about which we affirm something, and the attri- bute is the result of this affirmation. 1050. The subject is always represented by a noun or a pronoun, and the attribute by an adjective joined to a verb, or implied in that verb ; w 7 hen we say, virtue is amiable, the adjec- tive amiable, is joined to the verb to be, and this verb express- es the connexion we w 7 ish to establish between virtue and the qualification of amiability ; but if we say, Pierre vit, Peter lives, the adjective is implied in the verb, vit, lives, since this verb signifies, est vivant, is living. This decomposition of the verb may be performed for all the verbs ; the only exception is in the verb etre, to be, when it does not signify exister, to exist. 1051. It is always very easy to find out what is the subject of a verb, by applying to that verb the question, qui est ce qui 1 who ? the answer to the question is the nominative. When we say Pierre vit, Peter lives, if we ask, qui est-ce qui vitl who lives ? the answer, Pierre, Peter, shows that Peter is the subject. Pule First. 1052. The subject, whether a noun or a pronoun, is gener- ally placed before the verb ; as, We love reading. Man is never pleased with his fate. Nous aimons la lecture. Vhomme n'est jamais content de son sort. Exceptions. 1053. 1st. In interrogative sentences, if the subject be a pronoun, it always goes after the verb ; as, Will you give me this book ? Shall we go home to-morrow ? Voulez-wms me donner ce livre ? Retournerons-nous demain a la maison ? 280 FRENCH GRAMMAR. If the subject be a noun and be employed alone without the assistance of the personal pronoun, it is placed after the verb ; as, What would have been the fate of Quelle eut ete la destinSe de la France if Napoleon had died on France si Napoleon fut mort sur the throne ? le trone ? But the subject, being a noun, keeps its place before the verb, if the interrogation is to be made by the corresponding pronoun ; as, Is France happier now than she La France est-dle plus heureuse was formerly ? aujourd'hui qu'autrefois ? When the verb in interrogative sentences, being followed by the pronouns, il, die, on, has for its last letter a vowel, in order to avoid a disagreeable sound which would be shocking to the ear, the letter t is placed between the verb and the pronoun ; as, Does he arrive ? Shall she come ? Do you like thieves? Arrive-t-il ? Viendra-t-elle ? Aime-t-on les coquins ? The interrogation in the first person singular, being made by placing the pronoun je after the verb, produces, sometimes, such disagreeable sounds to the ear, that it becomes necessary to change the natural disposition of the words ; thus, Do I sleep ? Do I run ? Do I lie ? Dors je ? Cours-je ? Ments-je ? would be intolerable ; and we are compelled to say, Est-ce que je dors ? Est-ce que je cours ? Est-ce que je ments ? Is it that I sleep ? Is it that I run ? Is it that I lie ? 1054. 2d. The subject is also placed after the verb, when the verb is employed in a quotation ; as, Be happy, said he. I die innocent, said Louis XVI., on the scaffold. Soyez heureux, dit-il. Je meurs innocent, dit Louis XVL, sur Vichaffaud. 1055. 3d. The same disposition is observed, when, ex- pressing a wish, we make use of the subjunctive mood ; as, May the people be convinced, that Puissent les peuples se convaincre there is no greater scourge than qu'il n'y a pas de plus grand a revolution ! fleaux que les Revolutions ! VERB. 281 When the subjunctive is used to express quand meme, though, and a conditional ; as, Though the universe should crum- Did Punivers s'ecrouler a ses pieds ble at his feet he would not be il n'en seroit pas £mu. moved. The natural construction of these two sentences should be ; Je souhaite que touts les peuples soient convaincus, &c. Quand meme l'univers s'ecrouleroit, &c. But the other form is more energetic and animated. 1056. 4th. The nominative or subject is still placed after the verb, when this verb has for its object or regimen a pro- noun which precedes it ; as, The news brought by the messen- La nouvelle ^w'apporta le courier ger was good. est bonne. The man who was killed by your L'homme que tua votre ami etait friend was my son. mon fils. 1057. 5th. The nominative should also be placed after the verb, in impersonal sentences ; as, A great calamity has happened to II m'est arrive un grand malheur. me. 1058. 6th. When the sentence begins with the words, tel, such, ainsi, thus ; as, Such was the fury of the soldiers Telle etait la fureur du soldat que that nothing could stop them. rien ne put l'arreter. Thus ended this bloody affray. Ainsi finit cette sanglante tragidie. But this transposition of words can only take place when the verb has no regimen. 1059. In fine, we must place the subject after the verb when that subject is followed by a number of words which belong to it. 1060. Sometimes this exception to the general rule is abso- lute, and sometimes a matter of taste. It is absolute when the words which belong to the subject form an incidental proposi- tion, which, by its extent, would deter the mind from the con- nexion existing between the verb and its subject, as in the fol- lowing sentence : 24* 282 FRENCH GRAMMAR. There, in the midst of prairies, en- amelled with flowers, are creep- ing, in winding mazes, a thousand small streams, which disperse everywhere a pure and limpid water. La, au milieu de prairies emaillees de fleurs, serpentent mille petits ruisseaux qui distribuent parlout une eau pure et limpide. Or when we wish to avoid a construction which would seem heavy and wanting in harmony ; as, Did you see the sacrifice where Vites-vous le sacrifice ou coula le the blood of so many victims sang de tant de victimes ? ran? The construction, ou le sang de tant de victimes coula, would be flat and deprived of the harmony required by the ear. 1 06 1 . This rule is a matter of taste when we wish to awake the attention on a subject by an unexpected and bold transi- tion ; as, In fine, to the honor of France, a man had been admitted in the government, who was greater by his mind and virtues than by the honors conferred on him. Enfin, pour l'honneur de la France, etait entre dans l'administration des affaires publiques, un homme plus grand encore par ses vertus et par son esprit que par ses di- gniUs. Rule Second. 1062. The verb must be in the same person and number as its subject or nominative ; as, I did not know who I was, where I was, whence I came. O nature ! how beautiful thou art in thy amiable simplicity! Virtue is the most precious among the gifts of Heaven. Faith and reason equally prove the truth of this. Je ne savais pas qui fetais, ou fttais, d'ouje venais. Oh ! nature ! que tu es belle dans ton aimable simplicite ! La vertu est le plus precieux des dons du Ciel. La foi et la raison prouvent egale- ment cette verite. In the first sentence etais is in the first person singular, be- cause je, personal pronoun nominative, is singular and of the first person. In the second, es is in the second person singular, because tu is in the same person and number, &c. VERB. 283 Exceptions. 1063. 1st. Although the verb has two nominatives in the singular, this verb remains in this number if the two subjects are united by the conjunction or, ou, because the nature of this conjunction is, to exclude one or the other of the nouns from acting in common upon the verb ; thus we say, Seduction or terror carried him to La seduction ou la terreur Yentraina the side of the rebels. du cote des rebelles. 1064. But if of the nominatives, separated by or, one be singular and the other plural, the verb must agree with the last ; as, The credit given by this dignity, or Le credit que donne cette place, ou the riches which are attached to les richesses qui y sont attachees, it, make him anxious to get it. la lui font rechercher. Or, Les richesses qui sont attachees a cette place, ou le credit qu'elle donne, la lui fait rechercher. 1065. When the nominatives, joined by ou, or, are both pronouns of the third person singular, the verb is always used in the singular ; as, He or she shall come with me. II ou elle viendra avec moi. 1066. But if these pronouns are of different persons, the verb takes the plural ; as, You or I shall do it. Vous ou moi le ferons. You or she has done it. Vous ou elle Vavez fait. 1067. 2d. The same exception is observed when the two subjects are united by the conjunctions comme, aussi que, aussi Men que, de meme que, as well as, and other similar expres- sions ; but in these cases the verb agrees with the first of the two subjects ; as, The king means well, as well as his Le roi aussi Men que son ministre minister. veut le bien. His honesty, as well as his other Son honnetete, autant que ses autres high qualities, make him respect- grandes qualites, \efait respecter. able. 106S. 3d. The verb is still used in the singular, when, with several nominatives, singular or plural, an expression is used after them which repeats them all in one word ; as all, 2S4 FRENCH GRAMMAR. tout, that, ce, cela, ceci, nothing, rien, &c. ; or when the conjunction but, mais, is placed before the last of the subjects in the singular ; as, Fortune, dignity, honors, all disap- Biens, dignites, honneurs, tout dis- pear in death. parait a la mort. Amusements, conversation, plays, Amusements, conversations, spec- nothing could divert him from his tacles, rien ne peut l'arracher a sa grief. douleur. Perfidies, conflagrations, massacres, Perfidies, incendies, massacres, ce are but a feeble picture of the n'est la. qu'une faible esquisse horrors which took place. des horreurs qui ont eu lieu. Not only all his riches and dignities, Non seulement toutes ses richesses but all his virtue vanished. et toutes ses dignites, mais toute sa vertu s'evanouit. 1069. In poetry none of these rules and exceptions are absolutely required, and our best writers are full of examples of these licenses, but they must be regarded as mere privileges attached to genius, and must not induce others to imitate them. Thus we find in Boileau ; On dit que ton front jaune et ton teint sans couleur Perdit en ce moment son antique paleur. And in Racine ; Que ma foi, mon amour, mon honneur, y consente. And in Delille ; Et si V ombre, la paioc, la UberU, mHnspire. The place of the subjects, in regard to the verb, does not exercise any influence upon the agreement of the verb with them ; in this phrase, for instance, He represented to me in what dis- II me representait l'accablement oil tress he was with a large family, le mettaient unefamille nombreuse, a lawsuit, and a malicious prose- un prods, et une michante affaire. cution brought against him. Although the nominatives are placed after the verb, it would be a fault to place this verb in the singular. 1070. 4. We have already, in the article entitled Indefinite Pronouns, seen how the verb agrees with ni Pun ni Vautre, neither the one nor the other, but when the conjunction ni, instead of being used with a pronoun, is used with nouns, the verb following always takes the plural ; as, Neither gold nor grandeur make us Ni Vor ni la grandeur ne nous happy. rendent heureux. VERB. 285 1071. There has been a long controversy among gramma- rians to decide how the verb ought to agree in the following sentence ; He was one of those who contrib- II fut un de ceux qui contribua, or uted the most efficiently to the contribuerent,le plus efficacement ruin of the country. a la ruine de la patrie. Some say that there is no fault in adopting indifferently one or the other of these two modes. Some pretend that the verb must agree with one, un ; but let us see what is the true construction of this phrase ; it signifies that he was one among those who did contribute to the ruin of the country ; conse- quently it was more than one who contributed ; and thus con- structed, the sentence shows clearly that the verb is acted upon by more than one person, and should take the plural. Third Rule. 1072. When the nominative of the verb is a collective partitive noun, followed by of, de, the verb takes the plural, if the noun which follows de, of, is in the plural, and remains singular if that noun is in the singular. We call collective partitive, nouns similar to the following ; Most, La plupart. An infinity, Une infinite. A crowd, Une foule. A multitude, Une multitude. A number, Un nombre. The greatest part, La plus grande partie. A sort, Une sorte, &c. To which we must add words expressing quantity ; as, A few. Peu, Many. Beaucoup, Some (enough). Assez, Less. Moins, More. Plus, Too many. Trop, All, every. Tout, How many. Combien que, Most men are too prompt in their La plupart des hommes sont trop judgments. prompts dans leurs jugements. A crowd, an infinity, a multitude of Une foule, une infinite", une multitude young Phenicians, were perform- de jeunes Phtniciens dansaient les ing the dances of their country. danses de leur pays. 286 FRENCH GRAMMAR. So many years of habit were chains Tant d'anntes d'habitude itaient des of iron, which had tied me to chaines de fer qui me liaient a those two men. ces deux hommes. Singular. Most part of the world are equally La plupart du monde est egalement apt to receive impressious. facile a recevoir des impressions. Was ever so much beauty crowned ? Jamais tant de beaute" fut elle cou- ronnee ? 1073. The words, an infinity, the most part, une infinite, la plupart , employed by themselves, govern the verb in the plural ; An infinity think, Une infinite pensent, The most part are of this opinion, La plupart sont de cette opinion, because the sentences in which they are used are elliptical, and imply the idea of a plural noun after them, preceded by de, of. 1074. Collective nouns, not partitive, follow the general rule of nouns, and are not plural in all cases, as they are in English ; thus we say equally well, The people of the South of France, Le peuple du midi de la France, or or of the Southern Provinces of des Provinces Meridionales de la France, are quick, passionate, France, est v if, ardent, emporte! and irritable ! 1075. But there are cases in which the verb ought to be put in the plural, and this is the case, when the mind is more strongly impressed by the idea represented by the plural noun preceded by of, than by the collective noun in the singular ; thus we say, One half of the trees which I have La moitie des arbres qui j'ai plantes planted are dead, sont morts, The little strength which was left to Le peu de forces qui restaient a ce this patient is not lost, malade ne sont pas perdues, Every sort of fruit is not good to Toute sorte de fruits ne sont pas eat, bons a manger, with the verbs in the plural, because the mind is principally struck by the idea of the arbres, forces, fruits, which are in the plural, and not by the collectives moitie, le peu, toute sorte, used in the singular. 1076. But we say, with the singular, The great number of carriages Le grand nombre de voitures arrSta stopped our progress, notre marche, The quantity of grains of sand are La quantitt des grains de sable est innumerable, innombrable, VERB. 287 because what strikes the mind is not carriages nor grains, but the number of them, and that number, being expressed in the singular, commands the verb in the same number. 1077. Impersonal verbs are never affected by the number of their real nominatives ; as, A multitude of soldiers made their II parut une multitude de soldats. appearance. OF THE REGIMEN OR OBJECT OF VERBS. 1078. A word is said to be a regimen or object, when it depends immediately on another word, and restrains its signifi- cation. The regimen or object of a verb is, then, a word which depends on that verb and restrains its signification. 1079. A word may restrain the signification of a verb directly or indirectly. 1080. A word restrains the signification of a verb directly when it follows the verb immediately, without the help of a preposition, expressed or understood, and it is then called the direct regimen, or object. 1081. A word restrains the signification of a verb indirectly, when it follows it, being preceded by a preposition, expressed or understood ; the prepositions generally used in such cases, are de, of, and a, to. 1082. We discover the direct object of a verb by apply- ing to it the question, whom 9 qui ? or ivhat 9 quoi ? the answer is the direct object. When we say, / love ; whom 9 God ; J'aime ; qui ? Dieu. 1 study ; what? Natural phi- losophy ; J'etudie ; quoi ? La physique ; the words Dieu, God, la physique, natural philosophy, are the direct objects of the verbs faime, fetudie, I love, I study. 1083. The indirect object of a verb is discovered by ask- ing the questions, de qui, de quoi, a qui, a quoi, of whom, of what, to whom, to what ; the answer to these questions shows the indirect object ; as, J complain ; of whom 9 of you ; Je me plains ; de qui ? de vous. / repent; of what 9 of my 288 FRENCH GRAMMAR. fault ; Je me repens, de quoi ? de ma faute. / speak ; to iohom9 to Peter; Je parle ; a qui ? a Pierre. J yield; to what 9 to my grief ; Je succombe ; a quoi ? a ma douleur. The words vous, Pierre, faute, douleur, are the indirect ob- jects of the verbs je me plains, je parle, je me repens, je suc- combe. 1084. A verb may have for its regimen three sorts of words, a verb in the infinitive, a noun, or a pronoun. But before examining the rules which belong to each of these three cases, let us see which among them may be used with the different sorts of verbs. 1085. We have already seen that the word, which, with an active verb, answers to the questions, whom 9 or what ? is called the direct object of that verb ; but, besides this direct object, some active verbs may have another object preceded generally by the prepositions a, to, or de, of, which, then, is the indirect object of those verbs ; as, I have given a book to his brother. J'ai donne un livre a son frere. He has accused his sister of impru- II a accuse sa sozur d' imprudence. dence. 1086. There are also verbs which, besides their direct ob- ject, may have two indirect ones ; one preceded by the prep- osition of, and the other by to ; as, I gave him a lesson to write. Je lui donnai une leqon a derive. The word lui stands for a lui, so that lui and ecrire are both indirect objects of the verb donnai, and lepon its direct object. 1087. Passive verbs take the preposition de, of, and par, by, before their indirect object ; as, The mice are eaten by the cat. La souris est mangee par le chat. A child good and docile is loved by Un enfant doux et docile est aime de his parents. ses parents. Remarks. 1088. In passive verbs, the preposition 'par, by, is never used with the word Dieu, God ; thus, we say, God will punish the wicked. Les mechants seront punis de Dieu. VERB. 289 1089. Passive verbs are often used without a regimen ; as, Rome was plundered several times. Rome fut plusieurs fois saccag6e. 1090. When a passive verb is followed by a noun preceded by the preposition de, of; par, by, is used with the regimen or object of that noun ; as, Your conduct will be approved gen- Votre conduite sera approuvie d'une erally by those who are wise and commune voix par les personnes enlightened. sages et eclairees. 1091. Some neuter verbs have no object; as, dor mir, to sleep ; but the greatest number are followed by the preposition a or de ; as, All excesses are injurious to the Tout genre d'exces nuisent a la health. sante. He is slandering everybody. H mtdit de tout le monde. 1092. There are some which govern both of these preposi- tions before two indirect objects ; as, He has inquired about you of your II a demande de vos nouvelles a vo- brother. tre frere. 1093. Reflective verbs have for their regimen or object the pronouns me, te, se, nous, and vous, myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. These pronouns are sometimes the direct, and sometimes the indirect objects of those verbs. They are direct in the following sentences : I flatter myself. Je me flatte (or Je flatte moi) . Thou lovest thyself. Tu ifaimes (tu aimes toi). We love ourselves. Nous nous aimons (nous aimons nous). They are indirect in the following : We make ourselves a law of silence. Nous nous faisons une loi du silence (nous faisons a nous). You do honor to yourselves. Vous vous faites honneur (vous faites honneur a vous). Of the Verb as a Regimen or Object. 1094. A verb in the infinitive limits the signification of an- other verb, or is its object or regimen, either without the help of a preposition, or with the prepositions a, to, or de, of. 25 290 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1095. Some verbs never take a preposition before the in- finitive which they govern : such are, aller, to go ; aimer mieux, to prefer ; falloir, to be necessary ; envoyer, to send ; daigner, to deign, &c. ; as, He goes to seek the book you want. II va chercher le livre dont vous avez besoin. Let the justice of the king pass. Laissez passer la justice du roi. We must set out. llfautpartir, &c. 1096. Some require the preposition of before the infinitive which they govern ; as, achever, to achieve ; affecter, to af- fect ; conseiller, to advise ; craindre, to fear ; promettre, to promise, &c. : Are you sure to find him ? Etes vous assuH de le trouver. Do you not fear to go alone ? Ne craignez-vous pas Waller seul. Do you promise me to change ? Me promettez-vous de changer ? &c. 1097. An immense number take the preposition d, to, be- fore the infinitive governed by them ; as, avoir, to have ; aimer, to love ; consentir, to consent ; parvenir, to succeed, &c. : I have to write a letter. Vai a ecrire une lettre. I love hunting. Yaime a chasser. I consent to make the first step. Je consens a faire le premier pas, &c. Foreigners, then, must resort to a good dictionary as a guide, and, through the illustrations contained in it, get the habit of knowing surely how to express themselves according to cir- cumstances. However, in order to facilitate this difficult and barren sub- ject, we will give an abridged list of verbs generally used with or without the prepositions to and of before the infinitive gov- erned by them. 1098. Of Verbs governing, without a Preposition, the Infini- tive which follows them. Aimer mieux to like better Confesser to confess Aller to go Considerer to consider Amrmer to affirm Croire to believe Appercevoir to perceive Daigner to deign Assurer to assure Declarer to declare Avoir beau to be in vain Deposer to depose Avouer to own Desirer to desire Compter to intend Devoir to owe VERB, 291 Ecouter to listen Pouvoir to be able Entendre to hear Rapporter to report Envoyer to send Reconnaitre to recognize Epier to espy Regarder to look at Esperer to hope Retourner to return Faire to make Savoir to know Falloir to be necessary S'imaginer to imagine Laisser to leave Sembler to seem Nier to deny Se trouver to find Observer to observe Souhaiter to wish Oser to dare Soutenir to maintain Ouir A to hear Temoigner to testify Paraitre to appear Valoir mieux to be better Penser to think Venir to come Pretendre to pretend Voir to see Publier to publish Vouloir to be willing Although this list is far from being complete, it contains the verbs which are generally used before infinitives without a prep- osition, and may be of great service to the student. 1099. Of Verbs governing the Preposition de, of, before the Infinitive ivhich follows them. Abstenir Abuser Achever Affecter Affliger Apprehender Approuver Arreter Attendrir Attrister Avertir Avoir pitie Blamer Censurer Cesser Choisir Chagriner Charger Commander Conclure Conjurer Conseiller Contraindre Convaincre Convenir Craindre Decharger Decider to abstain to abuse to achieve to affect to afflict to apprehend to approve of to stop to soften to grieve to warn to have pity to blame to censure to cease to choose to vex to charge to command to conclude to conjure to advise to constrain to convince to agree to to fear to discharge to decide on Decourager to discourage Defendre to defend Deg outer to disgust Deliberer to deliberate Demander to demand, or to beg as a favor Desesperer to despair Desoler to make one mad Determiner to determine Detourner to deter from Differer to differ Dire to say Disconvenir to disagree Dispenser to dispense Dissuader to dissuade Divertir to divert Ecrire to write Edifier to edify Effrayer to frighten Embarrasser to embarrass, to puzzle Empecher to hinder Enjoindre to enjoin Entreprendre to undertake Epouvanter to terrify Essayer to try Etre d 'accord to concur in Excuser to excuse 292 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Enrager Etre surpris Exempter Exiger Feindre Finir Forcer Fremir Gener Gronder Hair Hesiter Inspirer Jouir Juger a, propos Jurer Justifier Louer Mander Manquer Medire Mediter Menacer Meriter Mettre hors d'etat Murmurer Negliger Notifier Offrir Omettre Ordonner Oublier Pardonner Parler Permettre Persuader Plaindre Pleurer Prescrirc Presser Presurner Prevenir Prevenir Prier Priver Professer Profiter Proraettre Proposer Punir Reeommender Recompenser Redouter Refuser Rejouir Remercier Reprendre Reprimander to enrage to stare to exempt to require to feign to finish to compel to shudder at to make uneasy to scold to hate to hesitate to inspire to enjoy to find proper to swear to justify to praise to write word to want to slander to meditate to threaten to merit to disable from to murmur at to neglect to notify to offer to omit to order to forget' to pardon to speak to permit to persuade to pity to cry for to prescribe to press to presume to caution against to apprize of to pray to deprive to profess to improve to promise to propose to punish to recommend to reward to dread to refuse to rejoice to thank to reprove to reprimand Reproacher Resoudre Retenir Rougir Scandaliser S'abstenir S'accommoder S'acquitter S'affliger S'amouracher S'appercevoir S'approcher S'attrister S'aviser Se chagriner Se charger Se consoler Se defier Se demettre Se depecher Se desaccoutumer Se deshabituer Se desister S'edifier S'efTrayer S'emanciper S'emparer S'empresser S'ennuyer S'enorguillir S'etonner S 'exempter Se faire gloire Se flatter Se garder Se hater S'impatienter S'indigner S 'in former S'ingerer S'inquieter Se meler Se moquer Se piquer Se piquer de Se plaindre Se precipiter Se presser Se ranger Se rebuter Se rejouir Se repentir Se ressouvenir Se retenir to reproach' to resolve upon to keep from to blush at to scandalize to abstain to make, to shift to perform to grieve to fall in love to perceive to approach to be sorrowful to think to grieve one's self to take charge of to comfort one's self to mistrust to resign to make haste to leave off doing << t< to desist to edify one's self to get frightened to take liberty to take possession to hasten to grow weary to grow proud to be surprised to free one's self to glory in to flatter one's self to take care not to to haste to grow impatient to be indignant to inquire to take upon one's self to fret to meddle with to laugh at to pretend to pride one's self on to complain to overhasten one's self to hasten to revenge to be disheartened to rejoice at to repent to remember to keep one's self VERB. 293 Se retracer Se saisir Se scandaliser Se servir Se soucier Se vanter Sommer Soupgonner Suffire to remember to seize to be offended at to use to care to boast to summon to suspect to suffice Suggerer Supplier Surprendre Susciter Tacher Tromper Troubler Tourmenter User to suggest to beseech to surprise to put in mind to try to deceive to trouble to torment to use 1100. Of Verbs governing the Preposition Infinitive which follows them. Acceder to accede Obeir Accoutumer to accustom Obvier Adherer to adhere Pardonner Admettre to admit Parvenir Aider to help Passer son temps Aimer to love Penser Apprendre to learn Perdre Appreter to afford matter Persister Arriver to arrive Plaire Assigner to summon Porter Autoriser to authorize Pourvoir Chercher to seek Pousser Comdaraner to condemn Prendre plaisir Convier to invite Presenter Contribuer to contribute Pretendre Condescendre to condescend Proceder Compatir to compassionate Provoquer Con sister to consist Regarder Consentir to consent Renoncer Contraindre to constrain Resister Depenser to spend Rester Destiner to design Rever Disposer to dispose S'abandonner Donner to give S'abaisser Dresser to train up S'abuser Demeurer to stay S'accorder Deplaire to displease S 'accoutumer Desobeir to disobey S'acharner Eclairer to light S'aguerrir Employer to employ S'amuser Encourager to encourage S'appliquer Enhardir to embolden S'appreter Enseigner to teach S'arreter Exciter to excite S'assujettir Exercer to exercise S'astreindre Engager to induce S'attacher Inciter to incitej S'attendre Incliner to incline S'avilir Limiter to limit Se complaire Montrer to show Se decider Nuire to hurt Se deplaire a, to, before the to obey to obviate to forgive to arrive to spend one's time to think to lose to persist to please to induce to provide to excite to delight to present to pretend to proceed to provoke to hesitate to renounce to resist to remain to think to indulge [self to humble one's to be mistaken to agree to accustom to be enraged to inure one's self to be amused to apply one's self to prepare to stand upon to subject to submit to give one's self to to expect to vilify- to please one's self to resolve to be displeased in 25 294 FRENCH GRAMMAR, Se disposer to prepare one's self Se plaire to please one's self Se determiner to resolve Se preparer to prepare one's S'endurcir to inure one's self self S'engager to bind one's self Se resoudre to resolve upon S'exposer to expose one's self Se retrancher to confine one's self Se fier to trust Servir to serve S'habituer to use one's self Song-er to think Se livrer to give one's self to Subvenir to relieve Se mettre to go to Suffire to suffice Se mettre to give one's self to Tendre to aim S'obstiner to be obstinately Travailler to work bent Venir and > Revenir 5 to come to S'occuper to spend one's time to come again to S'opiniatrer to be obstinate Viser to aim These lists ought to be sufficient ; for, as we have said, it is impossible to establish rules, so as to fix the use of the preposi- tions. There are verbs which govern three or four of them, changing thus their signification to obey the wants of the mind ; we repeat here, that a good dictionary is the only guide in this part of the study ; but in order to throw some light upon so difficult a matter, we will give some illustrations of the most useful verbs contained in the above lists ; they will be a sort of guide for the student, and will show him how he must make use of his dictionary for the others. As this part of the Grammar is to be consulted only by those who are already acquainted with the language, we shall not translate into English the ex- amples illustrating the rules. (See these illustrations at the end of the Grammar.) Of the Noun as Regimen or Object of a Verb. 1 101. A verb may govern two nouns, but not in the same manner ; one of those nouns is the immediate object of the verb, and is called, on that account, its direct object ; the other receives its action with the help of a preposition, and is called its indirect object. Thus in this sentence, I prefer rest to pleasure, Je preflre le repos au plaisir, repos is the direct, and plaisir the indirect, object of the verb je prefere. 1102. A verb can have but one direct object ; therefore, when a verb has two objects, one must be direct and the other indirect ; as, VERB. 295 I have given a book to my sister. J'ai donne un livre a ma sozur. The reason of this rule is, that an action cannot operate immediately and directly upon two different objects with the same impulse of the mind ; it is, then, with reason that the following verse of Racine has been severely condemned ; Ne vous informez pas ce que je deviendrai, Do not inquire what will become of me, because we find in it two words, vous and ce, acting as direct objects of the verb informer, when they receive the action of that verb through a different direction of the mind ; grammar requires that it should be written as follows, Ne vous informez pas de ce que je deviendrai, because, then, informez has but a direct object, the preposition of giving to the word ce the character of being indirectly the object of that verb. 1103. When we say, that a verb ought not to have two direct objects, we do not mean, that the direct action of a verb cannot be felt by several nouns, but that they must be joined together, so as to make a whole, by the conjunctions and, et, nor, m, or, ou, &c. ; as, I love reading, drawing, music, and J'aime la lecture, le dessin, la ma- dancing, sique, et la danse, I love neither reading, drawing, Je n'aime ni la lecture, ni le dessin, music, nor dancing, ni la musique, ni la danse, I love either reading or drawing, or J'aime la lecture, ou le dessin, ou music or dancing. la musique ou la danse, because these different nouns receive the action of the verb through the same impulse, and constitute but one single opera- tion of the mind. 1104. A verb ought not to have two indirect objects to express the same relation. Thus we must not say, It is you whom I speak to. C'est a vous a qui je parle. It is of you that I speak. C'est de vous dont je parle. It is to the town that I go. C'est a la ville ou je vais. In order to show the fault of these phrases, it is only neces- sary to suppress the word c'est, which is used here only to render more apparent what is spoken of ; thus we shall have, Je parle a. vous a qui. Je parle de vous dont. Je vais a la ville a la quelle. 296 FRENCH GRAMMAR. In this last sentence a laquelle is the equivalent of ou. It is, then, evident, that there is but one relation to be expressed by the verb, and this relation being already made known by a vous, de vous, a la ville, the objects a qui, dont, ou, are without any function, and consequently improperly used. Instead of em- ploying this useless relation, the two propositions, or mem- bers of these sentences, ought to be united by a conjunc- tion, and that, que, be used for that purpose ; we must then say, C'est a vous que je parle. C'est de vous que je parle. C'est a la ville que je vais. 1105. Neither should we say, C'est id ou je demeure, It is here where I live, C'est la oil je vais, It is there where 1 go, because, if in these sentences the verb has not two indirect objects, they contain two adverbs expressing the same circum- stance, and one alone is sufficient ; we must say then, C'est id queje demeure. C'est la que je vais. In fact, the mind has entirely accomplished its object with these words, je demeure ici, je vais la ; the adverb ou, placed after ici and la, not adding any thing to the sense, ought to be suppressed, and replaced by the conjunction que, to unite the two propositions. 1106. We must never give a verb an object different from that which it requires ; for instance, nuire, to hurt, parler, to speak, pardonner, to forgive, require an indirect object, because we say, nuire a quelqu'un, to hurt some one, parler a quelqu'un, to speak to some one, pardonner a quelqu'un, to forgive some one ; then we must not say, \ They have hurt each other, lis se sont nui les uns les autres, They have spoken to each other, lis se sont parle les uns les autres, Though guilty I forgave them, Quoique coupables je les ai pardon- nes. but we ought to write, lis se sont nui les uns aux autres. Us se sont parle les uns aux autres. Quoique coupables, je leur ai pardonne. VERB. 297 1107. A noun cannot be governed by two verbs, unless both act upon it in the same relation. Thus a noun cannot be the direct object of one verb and the indirect object of another ; as in the following sentence ; This officer attacked the city and Cet officier attaqua et se rendit took it ; maitre de la ville ; ville being the direct object of attaqua, and the indirect of se rendit maitre. 1108. A noun cannot be the indirect object of two verbs which do not govern the same preposition ; as, Men are submissive to God, and Les hommes sont soumis et dipen- they depend on him, dent de JDieu, because the verb etre soumis governs the preposition to, a, and dependre, the preposition of, de. These two sentences ought to be constructed differently, in order to give to each verb the regimen which it requires ; thus we should say, Cet officier attaqua la ville et s'en rendit maitre. Les hommes sont soumis a Dieu et en dependent. 1109. When a, verb has different modes of governing, the same mode ought to be employed for every period governed by the verb ; thus the following sentence is incorrect, These reasons will not prevent pub- Ces raisons Vi 1 empicheront pas Vin- lic indignation from bursting out dignation generate de percer de on all sides, nor the right which toutes parts, ni at all times. 1135. With the conjunction si, if, the pluperfect is used af- ter a conditional past, when the action following is temporary, but if permanent, the imperfect ought to be employed; as in the following sentence : I should have bowed to you if I had seen you. Je vous aurais salue sije vous avais vu. The pluperfect shows that the person who speaks, generally sees, but has not seen you that time ; the action of not seeing is transitory; but if the person who speaks is blind, the action would become permanent, and then the imperfect should be used ; as, I would have bowed to you if I Je vous aurais salue sije voyais. could have seen you. Thus the following phrase is incorrect : 26* t\VV^ 306 FRENCH GRAMMAR. He would not have suffered this in- II n'aurait pas souffert cet affront suit if he was sensible. sHl avait We sensible. Because sensibility is not a temporary disposition ; a person has natural sensibility or not, therefore, the imperfect should be used instead of the pluperfect ; as, II n'aurait pas souffert cet affront sHl itait sensible. Of the Relation between the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood and those of the Indicative and Conditional Moods. 1136. When the verb of the principal proposition is in the * pQi » fe ' Q4 ) , or in the future of the indicative, that of the incidental proposition is placed in the present of the subjunctive, if the person who speaks wishes to express a present or a future ab- solute ; but it is placed in the preterite, if to express a past ; as, Present. I must go into the country. 11 faut que faille a, la campagne. Do you doubt now, that success will Doutez-vous aujourd'hui que le suc- crown your efforts ? ces ne couronne vos efforts ? Future Absolute. It will be necessary for me to go in- Tifaudra que faille a la campagne. to the country. Will you doubt still, that success Doutez-vous encore que le succes may crown your efforts ? ne couronne vos efforts ? Past. You must have been very lazy to Ilfaut que vous ayez ete bien pares- have succeeded so little in your seux pour avoir si mal reussi dans studies. vos etudes. 1137. Nevertheless, although the first verb be in the present, the second proposition may be placed in the imperfect or the pluperfect of the subjunctive, when there is in the sentence a conditional expression ; as, There is no man, whatever may be II iCy a pas d'homme, quelque me- his merit, who would not be much rite qu'il soit, qui nef&t tres mor- mortified, if he knew all that peo- tifie, s'ilsavoit tout ce qu'on pense pie think of him. de lui. I doubt whether this affair would Je doute que cette affaire eitt riussi have succeeded without your as- sans votre protection. sistance. 1138. When the verb of the principal proposition is in the VERB. 307 imperfect) any of the preterites, the pluperfect, or one of the conditionals, that of the incidental proposition is placed in the imperfect of the subjunctive, to express a present or a future, and in the pluperfect of that mood, to express a past ; as, Present. IMPERFECT. I wished sincerely that new success- Je desirais sincerement que de nou- es might silence envy. veaux succes fissent taire l'envie. PRETERITE DEFINITE. Caligula wished that the Romans Caligula voulut que les Romains lui would render him divine honors. rendissent les honneurs divins. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. God has permitted that the invasion Dieu a permis que l'invasion des bar- of the barbarians might overthrow bares renversdt l'empire Romain. the Roman empire. PLUPERFECT. I had ordered that all the documents Vavais ordonne que toutes les pieces should be placed under your eyes. fussent mises sous vos yeux. Future. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had done ploughing my field be- J'ews fini de labourer mon champ fore you came. avant que vous n'arrivassiez. CONDITIONAL PRESENT. I should like that men would form Je voudrais que les hommes nefor- only one large republic, whose mdssent qu.^ \ine granderepublique, supreme chief should be God, and dont Dieu serait le chef supreme of which every nation should be et dont chaque nation serait as a large family. comme une grande famille. CONDITIONAL PAST. Would you have wished that, in or- Auriez-vous voulu que pour me ven- der to avenge myself, I should ger, je sacrifiasse mon bonheur sacrifice my own happiness. personnel. Past. IMPERFECT. I did not know that you had made Je ne savais pas que vous eussiezfait so thorough a study of the mod- une etude si approfondie des lan- ern languages. gues modernes. PRETERITE DEFINITE. You did not think that wickedness Vous ne crMes pas que la mechante and hatred would have produced et la haine e&ssent pu produire de such deplorable results. si tristes resultats. 308 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. You have not believed that they "Vous vCaviez pas cru qu'on etittendu had prepared a trap for your sim- un piege a votre innocence, plicity. PLUPERFECT. We had not been aware that the Nous avions ignorS que le roi vous king had granted you this favor. eut accordd cette faveur. CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. You would not be pleased if we had Vous trouveriez mauvais que nous disobeyed your orders. eussions contrevenu a vos ordres. CONDITIONAL. PAST. You would not have been pleased, Vous aurieztrouve mauvais que nous if we had not accomplished your n'eussions pas executt vos ordres. orders. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had done ploughing my field be- Veus laboure mon champ avant que fore you arrived. vous nefussiez arrvoi. 1139. Nevertheless, with the preterite indefinite, the verb of the incidental proposition may be used in the present, if it expresses an action which may be accomplished at all times ; as, God has covered the eye with thin Dieu a entoure l'ceil de tuniques and transparent coats, which we minces ettransparentes afin qu'on may see through. puisse voir a travers. 1140. The same verb should be placed in the preterite of the subjunctive, if it expresses that this fact, which may be done at all times, has been accomplished in the past ; as, He must have solicited his judges. II afallu qu'il ait sollicite ses juges. A knowledge of the arrangement of tenses with each other is so important, that, in order to make it as easy as possible, we have constructed a general table, where one may, at once, see what are the relations which are sanctioned by the nature of the language. VERB. 309 A TABLE, SHOWING THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MOODS AND TENSES. Relation of the Tenses of the Indicative to each other. 1141. The Present (je lis, I read) corresponds _ , C When you read. To the same tense, [ Quand vous lisez# m , _ . x , . . $ When you have read. To the Preterite Indefinite, ^ Quand vous avez lu> 1142. The Imperfect (je lisais, I was reading) corres- ponds m . C When you were writing. . To the same tense, * Quand vous ecriviez. m * r> , . t\ c •* £ When you did write. To the Preterite Definite, \ Quand vous 6crivites> m j_ ii *• ■» t' j * •* f When you have written. To the Preterite Indefinite, J Quand vous avez ^ 1143. The Preterite Definite (je vins, I came) corres- ponds a* *u -d * •* a * ■ f When you had done ploughing. To the Preterite Anterior, £ Quand voug e{ites lab J^f 1144. The Pluperfect (j'avais Ztt, I had read) corresponds To the Imperfect, \ Jf he * ^ cam f e in " ^ ' £ Quand vous entnez. m .. „ . , «... C When you came in. To the Preterite Definite, J Quand ' yous entrates< m ,i' n. i j^t-j * !, ( When you have come in. To the Preterite Indefinite, \ Quand > 0U8 gtes entr6> t 1 a. r> t •.. a * • ( When you had come in. To the Preterite Anterior, \ Quand yous ^ ^ 1145. The Preterite Anterior (j'eus fini de labourer, I had done ploughing) corresponds To the Preterite Definite, i ^ he ^ ^ Cam f ' ' ( Quand vous vintes. 1146. The Future (je lirai, I shall read) corresponds To the same tense, i When you shall come. £ Quand vous viendrez. To the Future Past, i J he * y° u sha11 ha J e . done ' (. Quand vous aurez fini. 310 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1147. The Future Past (faurai lu, I shall have read) cor- responds rt- . -, .■ „ C When you shall come, To the Future Present, J Quand ; oug viendrez . rr- iL in x t> * ( When you shall have done. To the Future Past. ^ Quand ' vous aurez fini Many persons commit the fault of employing the future present and past with si, if, meaning suppose that ; the present or the preterite indefinite should be used in their place as follows : 1148. The Future Present or Absolute corresponds rp, xl _ r, ... .j. C You shall go if I wish it. To the Present, with if \ Yqqs parti % z s • je ^ 1149. The Future Past or Anterior corresponds ["You shall go to-morrow, if I have To the Preterite Indefinite, with if J v had time t0 f\ e P are 7°™ .?***• ' J ' ] V ous serez parti demain, si fat eu le L temps d'arranger votre affaire. 1150. The Conditional Present corresponds To the Infect, with ,/, { $%£$£& l £& "' 1151. The First Conditional Past corresponds C You should have set out, if I had To the Pluperfect, with if \ wished it. C Vous seriez parti, si je Yavais voulu. 1152. The First Conditional Past corresponds To the Second Conditional Past, 5 You \ ho ^ have set 0Ut ' if l had „,-,. •/• ' < wished it. with if Vous seriez parti, si je Yeusse voulu. 1153. The Second Conditional Past corresponds TYou should have set out, if I had To the same tense and if, J 17 wlshedlt : .. . . ,, J ' j Vous fussiez parti, si je Yeusse |_ voulu. When, instead of the conjunction si, if, the condition is expressed by quand, when, the following relations take place. 1154. The Conditional Present corresponds If a miser possessed all the gold in the world, he would not be satis- To the same tense, on se tue, C'est pour que nous donnions, que Dieu nous donne, and the ambiguity disappears. 1312. But when the use of the infinitive mood does not cre- ate an ambiguity, it should be preferred to the subjunctive, and even to the indicative, which renders the style sometimes ob- scure and languid ; thus, in the following sentences, It is better for a man to be unfortu- II vaut mieux etre malheureux que nate than guilty, coupable, is better than, II vaut mieux qu'on soit malheureux que coupable ; VERB. 349 My brother is sure to succeed, Mon frere est sur de reussir, is better than, Mon frere est sur qu'ilriussira. 1313. A verb in the infinitive may be the regimen of anoth- er verb with or without the help of a preposition. (See what we have said about this case, page 289.) 1314. Our language admits of two infinitives, one after the other ; then the last is the object of the first ; as, I will make him know it. Je veux le \mfaire savoir. I dare not permit them to write. Je n'ose leur permettre d'icrire. 1315. But three or more infinitives used in this way would make the style confused, heavy, and disagreeable to the ear ; our good writers have proscribed such a practice ; therefore, we must not say : I think I shall be able to go and see Je crois pouvoir aller voir vos pa- your parents. rents. Do not think that you can exercise N'allez pas croire pouvoir j 'aire jouer all the powers of eloquence. tous les ressorts de l'eloquence. Such sentences must be constructed differently, in order to be correct ; as, Je crois que je pourrai aller voir vos parents. N'allez pas croire que vous sachiez faire jouer touts les ressorts de l'elo- quence. OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 1316. The present participle is always terminated in ant ; as, etant, being ; aimant, loving ; parlant, speaking. This word, which applies equally to the three persons, is in- variable ; that is to say, takes no number or gender, whatever may be the noun to which it relates ; thus, we write, A man reading. Un homme lisant. Men reading. Des hommes lisant. A woman reading. Une femme lisant. Women reading. Des femmes lisant. 1317. The present participle ought not to be mistaken for 30 350 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the adjective, which differs from it only by its signification, the two words being alike in their construction. 1318. The present participle expresses an action, or a tem- porary situation ; it has generally an object direct or indirect, expressed or understood. When the object is not expressed, in order to ascertain whether the word is a participle, we must put an object after it, and see if the sentence will be correct with it ; if so, it is a participle ; if not, it is an adjective. There is another way of ascertaining the nature of the present par- ticiple : if a doubt arise about the nature of the word, we must try to translate it by qui, with another tense of the verb, or place before this last tense one of the conjunctions lorsque, quand, when, jparceque, because, puisque, since, &c, and if the transformation produces a sentence which agrees with the mind and the genius of the language, then the doubtful word is a present participle ; if not, it is an adjective. Thus in the following phrase : He is a man of good nature, obli- C'est un homme d'un bon caractere, ging his friends when he can do obligeant ses amis quand il le peut. it. Obligeant here is evidently a present participle, because it expresses a temporary action, has a direct object, his friends, and could be replaced by qui oblige ses amis, &c, who obliges his friends, &c. These men, foreseeing danger, put Ces hommes, pHvoyant le danger, themselves on their guard. se mirent sur leurs gardes. Prevoyant is a present participle, for the reasons above stated. Those persons loving everybody, Les personnes aimant toutlemonde, generally love nobody. n'aiment generalement personne. The above remark applies to aimant. 1319. The adjective, derived from the present participle, called by the grammarians verbal adjective, expresses the sit- uation, the permanent state of the noun to which it relates ; it may be constructed with any tense of the verb to be, but cannot be used with qui and the verb from which it is derived ; it has no object, direct or indirect, as in the following phrases : They are obliging persons. Ce sont des personnes obligeantes. VERB. 351 Obligeantes does not express an action, but a natural and permanent disposition of the heart, which disposes those per- sons to oblige others at all times. We could not say here, qui obligent, because there is no regimen to be found ; but we could say, qui sont obligeantes, so as to designate a quality, and not an action ; therefore this word is an adjective, and must agree in number and gender with the noun which it qualifies. Persons who are inclined to love Les personnes aimantes ont plus de have much more satisfaction than jouissances que les autres. others. These provident persons have per- Ces personnes prevoyantes ont ap- ceived the danger. percu le danger. Aimantes and prevoyantes are adjectives for the same reason as obligeantes, in the first example. Although the above remarks ought to be sufficient to enable a native to ascertain, in all cases, when a word is a participle or a verbal adjective, we will now, for the sake of foreigners, add some few illustrations, so as to banish all possible doubt on the subject. Observations. 1320. The present participle ought to express an action or a temporary situation reacting on somebody or some thing ; thus, in the following sentences : Carthage, resisting the whole forces Carthage resistant a toutes les forces of the Romans, was taken by sur- des Romains, fut surprise plutot prise rather than defeated. que vaincue. Here are some unfortunate people Voici des infortunes, palpitant en- still living under the ruins. core sous les mines. Their ambition increasing with their Leur ambition croissant avec leurs riches, from merchants they be- richesses, de marchands ils devin- came conquerors. rent conquerants. These ideas, running incessantly in Ces idees roulant a tout moment this wild soul, inspired it with a dans cette ame farouche, lui in- secret and silent rage. spiraient une rage muette et ca- chee. Resistant is put for when it resisted ; palpitant, for qui pal- pitent ; croissant, for as it increased ; roulant, for by running ; and, consequently, each one of these words is a present par- ticiple, which must remain invariable ; there is no possible doubt about it. 352 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Les rues sont remplies de ces en- fants inUressants, tremblants de froid, mourants de faim, et sans cesse pleurants. Les rues etaient remplies d'enfants, interessant tout le monde en leur favour, tremblant de peur a la vue de leurs maitres cruels, et pleu- rant amerement la perte de leur liberte. 1321. But in the following : The streets are filled with these in- teresting children, shivering with cold, dying with hunger, and al- ways crying. The streets were filled with children, interesting everybody in their fa- vor, trembling with fear at the sight of their cruel masters, and crying bitterly for the loss of their liberty. The mind might hesitate at the proper qualification of the words interessant, tremblant, and pleurant, which are adjec- tives in the first sentence, and participles in the second ; but, if we apply the rule already laid down, we find no difficulty in accounting for the difference. The words inte- ressants, tremblants, mourants, and pleurants do not express a temporary action, but the state, the manner of being of the children, and could be changed into adjectives which present no doubt about their real character ; as, tremblants de froid, into transis, frozen ; mourants de faim into affames, starving ; pleurants, into eplores, in despair. Whereas, in the second sentence, interessant is followed by a direct object, tout le monde, and could be translated by qui interessaient ; tremblant de peur has an indirect object, and is a temporary feeling caused by the sight of the cruel masters, which might vanish with the cause which produces it ; pleurant has a direct object and could be expressed by qui pleuraient. These words, then, have all the properties of the present participle, and ought to be written accordingly. In the following sentences, we shall make use of The Present Participle. These men, whom you suppose to be so wild, live as we do. Ces hommes que vouscroyez si sau- vages sont des hommes vivant comme nous (qui vivent comme nous). This property, belonging to the her- itage, has to be sold. Ces biens, dependant de la succes- sion, doivent etre vend us (that is to say, because they belong). The Verbal Adjective. These small insects, which are im- perceptible to the sight, are be- ings having life as we have. Ces petits insects imperceptibles a la vue, sont des etres vivants comme nous (enjoying existence, life). They have sold all the property be- longing to the inheritance. On a vendu touts les biens depen- dants de la succession (which were belonging). VERB 353 1322. According to the rule already established, if the word, terminating in ant, may admit of the verb to be, being placed before it, it is then an adjective, and if not, a participle. 1323. There are some of the present participles which are never used as adjectives ; as, Ayant, having. Babillant, tattling. Badinant, trifling. Etant, being. Folatrant, dallying Gambadant, Gesticulant, Sanglotant, Soupirant, gamboling, gesticulating, sobbing, sighing, &c. 1324. Others have for corresponding adjectives words sounding alike, but whose orthography is different ; as, Participles. Adjectives. Extravagating, extravaguant, extravagant, extravagant. Intriguing, intriguant, intrigant, intriguer. Fabricating, fabriquant, fabricant, manufacturer. Being vacant, vaquant, vacant, vacant. Adhering, adherant, adherent, adherent. Abounding, affluant. affluent, running into. Coinciding, coincidant, coincident, coincident. Differing, differant, different, different. Compensating, equivalant, equivalent, equivalent. Excelling, excellant, excellent, excellent, Neglecting, negligeant, negligent, neglectful. Preceding, precedant, precedent, precedent. Presiding, presidant, president, president. Residing, residant, resident, residing. 1325. From what we have said already, it is easily perceived, that the best guide to ascertain whether a word, terminating in ant, is a participle present or an adjective, is to analyze the sentence, and see what is the real meaning of the word, and act according to the result of the examination ; but there are some general indications which may serve as a guide ; as, 1326. 1st. The word ending in ant is always a participle when it has a direct object, or when it is preceded by the negation ne ; as, A daughter caressing her mother. Une fille caressant sa mere. Children tormenting themselves. Des enfants se tourmentant. As you do not work, you ought to Ne travaillant pas vous devez etre be poor. pauvre. 1327. 2d. It is still a participle when, expressing an idea of cause, or motive, it may receive another form and be pre- ceded by one of the conjunctions because, as, since ; as, 30* 354 FRENCH GRAMMAR. As her hair was floating on her Ses cheveux flottant sur ses epaules, shoulders, it attracted the notice attiraient tous les regards, of all. It attracted notice because it was floating, the action of the hair was the cause of the attraction. Whereas we should say with the adjective : These children had magnificent hair Ces enfants avaient de magnifiques floating upon their shoulders. cheveux jiottants sur leurs e- paules. Here the hair is naturally floating and hanging on their shoulders ; there is no action expressed, but a state or a con- dition, and no effect produced by it. 1328. 3d. When we wish to express an action with an idea of special time, or sameness of time : See these children anxious to obey, Voyez ces enfants obtissant a 1'envi, flying to gratify the wishes of courant au devant des desirs de their mother. leur mere. I saw them running before us. Je les voyais courant devant nous (when they were running). 1329. 4th. When the word ending in ant admits of the preposition in, en, being placed before it, it can be but a present participle ; as, They have hurt themselves in play- lis se sont blesses en jouant. ing. Slander increases by the silence of La calomnie va toujours croissant the slandered. par le silence du calomnie. In the last sentence, en, in, could be prefixed to the word croissant, thus it is a participle. OP THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 1330. The Past Participle used without an auxiliary verb agrees, like the adjective, in number and gender, with its ante- cedent. Surrounded on all sides, they Entouris de toutes parts, ils se thought themselves lost and forced crurent perdus et forces de se to surrender. rendre. 1331. The past participle, accompanied by the auxiliary verb to 6e, always agrees with the nominative of the verb ; as, VERB. 355 The Greeks were persuaded that Les^Grecs etaient persuadis que the soul is immortal. l'ame est immortelle. 1332. Sometimes the nominative, instead of preceding the past participle, follows it ; but this arrangement of words does not interfere with the agreement of the participle ; as, When he saw the urn, in which Quand il vit l'urne ou etaient dipo- were deposited the ashes of Hip- sies les cendres d'Hippias, il versa pias, he shed a flood of tears. un torrent de larmes. 1333. The past participle, conjugated with to have, agrees with the direct object of the verb, whenever the direct object is placed before it, and remains invariable when it is placed after, or when the verb has no direct object. Thus we should write, making the past participle agree, the following sentences : Here is the letter which I have Voici la lettre que j'ai regue, received, Here are the letters which I have Voici les lettres que j'ai regues, received, Where is thy book ? I have lost it, Ou est ton livre ? Je l'ai perdu, Where is thy pen ? I have lost it, Ou est ta plume* Je l'ai perdue, Where are thy books ? I have lost Ou sont tes livres ? Je les ai perdus, them, They have congratulated me, lis w'ont felicitd, He has congratulated us, II nous a filiates, My son, I have rewarded thee, Mon Jils, je Z'ai recompense, My sons, I have rewarded you, Mes Jils, je vous ai recompenses, What sorrow I have experienced ! Quelle peine j'ai eprouvee ! What trouble they have caused me ! Que de disagrements ils m'ont causes ! How many books have you read ? Combien de livres avez-vous lus ? because the past participles regue, regues, perdu, perdue, per- dus, felicite, felicites, &c, are preceded by their direct ob- jects que, le, la, les, me, nous, te, vous, se, or by a noun preceded by quel, que de, combien de. 1334. But we write, without making the participle agree, the following sentences : We have received your letter, Nous avons regu votre lettre, They have lost their books, Ils ont perdu leurs livres, I have rewarded my sons, J'ai recompense mes jils, because the direct objects, lettre, livres, jils, are placed after the verb, and after their participles regu, perdu, recompense. 1335. We will give also, without any alteration in the participle, the following examples : 356 FRENCH GRAMMAR. They have answered our expecta- lis ont Hpondu a notre attente, tions, We have sung, Nous avons chant6, This army has perished, Cette armee a peri, because the verb repondre has no direct object and chante and peri have no object at all. We conclude, then, from what precedes, and from the ex- amples given, that, 1336. 1st. The nominative has no influence over the past participle conjugated with to have. 1337. 2d. The neuter verbs conjugated with to have, never change their past participle, because they never have a direct object. Thus, in these sentences, The five hours during which I have Les cinq heures que j'ai dormi, been sleeping, The ten years during which I have Les dix ans que j'ai v6cu, lived, the past participles of the verbs dormir and vivre do not change, because the relative que, which precedes them, al- though apparently their direct object, is but an indirect object standing for pendant lesquelles, during which ; those sentences are then elliptical, and used for Les cinq heures pendant lesquelles j'ai dormi. Les dix ans pendant lesquels j'ai vecu. 1338. In reflective verbs, although conjugated with the verb to be, instead of to have, the past participle follows exactly the same rule as the participle conjugated with to have ; that is to say, it agrees with its direct object when preceded by it, and remains invariable when the direct object follows it, or when there is no direct object at all. Thus, we write, making the participle agree, The letter which they have ad- La lettre qu'ils se sont adressee, dressed to each other, They have showed it to each other, lis se la sont montrde, They have blamed themselves, lis se sont blames, because the past participles, adresse, montre, blame, are pre- ceded by their direct objects, que, la, se. VERB. 357 1339. But we write, without making the participles agree : They have addressed a letter to lis se sont adress6 une lettre, each other, Thev thought that I was joking, lis se sont imagine que je plaisan- tais, because the past participles, adresse, imagine, are followed by their direct objects, une lettre and que je plaisantais. 1340. We still write, without making the participle agree, They have written to each other . lis se sont icrit. We have succeeded each other. Nous nous sommes succide. The past participles, ecrit, succede, having no direct ob- ject, in these sentences, which stand for lis ont ecrit a eux-memes. Nous avons succede a nous-memes. It results, from what precedes, that 1341. 1st. The past participles of the verbs which can only be used reflectively, always agree, because these verbs have for their direct regimen the reflective pronoun, which always precedes them. Thus we write : We have abstained from all re- Nous nous sommes dbstenus de toutes flections, reflexions, My friends, you have repented of Mes amis, vous vous etes repentis de all your sins, toutes vos fautes, The troops have rendered them- Les troupes se sont emparees de la selves masters of the town, ville, making the past participles, abstenu, repenti, empare, agree with their direct objects, nous, vous, se, placed before them. 1342. There is but one verb of this class, which is an exception to this rule, it is s'arroger, to arrogate, because it never has for its direct object the second pronoun ; thus we write, without agreement, They have arrogated rights to Us se sont arrogi des droits, themselves, because the direct object, des droits, is placed after the par- ticiple ; but we write, with agreement, The rights which they have arro- Les droits qu'ils se sont arroges, gated to themselves, because the direct object, droits, is placed before the parti- ciple. 358 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1343. 2d. The past participle of reflective verbs, originating from neuter verbs, remains invariable, because these verbs, as well as all neuter verbs, are deprived, by their nature, of a direct object. Thus we write without agreement, We have hurt ourselves. Nous nous sorames nui. They have pleased themselves. lis se sont plu. 1344. The following verbs are the only ones which, with the reflective form, derive their origin from the neuter verbs ; as, Se plaire. To delight in. Se deplaire. To displease one's self. Se complaire. To be pleased with. Se rire. To laugh at. Se sourire. To smile at one's self. Se parler. To speak to one's self. Se succeder. To succeed. Se nuire. To hurt one's self. Se convenir. To agree with each other. Se ressembler. To resemble each other. Se suffire. To be sufficient to one's self. Consequently the past participle of these verbs remains inva- riable. 1345. The above rules, four in number, are sufficient to re- solve all difficulties in the agreement of the past participle ; but as the application of these rules might present some diffi- culties, we will now give some illustrations in which a pupil may detect, at once, which word is the direct object, and not feel embarrassed about the agreement of the participle. These illustrations will complete the explanation of these rules. Remarks and Illustrations of the Rules in regard to the Past Participle. 1346. Excepte, vu, attendu, y compris, suppose. We have said that the past participle, used without an auxil- iary, agrees as an adjective with its antecedent, or the noun which it qualifies ; but in the following sentences : VERB. 359 The inhabitants were put to the sword, except women and chil- dren, He sold his mansion, the farm in- cluded, This circumstance being supposed, what course will you take ? Seeing your levity, I cannot trust you, Considering his infirmity he was exempted from military service, Les habitans furent passes au fil de l'epee, excepte les femmes et les enfants, II vendit son chateau, y compris la ferme, Suppose cette circonstance, quel parti prendrez vous ? Vu votre legerete, je ne puis me fier a, vous, Attendu son infirmite, il fut ex- empte du service militaire, the words excepte, y compris, suppose, vu, attendu, are ellipti- cally used as prepositions, and consequently remain invariable ; excepte is put for hormis, except, with the exception of, a V ex- ception de ; y compris, for avec, with ; vu and attendu, for a cause de, on account of. When these words are not used as prepositions they follow the rules of the participles ; as, Exempted from the common law of nature, this woman lived one hun- dred and twenty years. We all went out, our daughters being excepted. Exceptee de la loi commune, cette femme vecut cent vingt ans. Nous sortimes, nos Jilles exceptees. The reason of the invariableness of these five words and others of a similar nature, is in the ellipsis of the verb to have, which takes place in some cases, as, for instance, when we say : They murdered the inhabitants ex- cept the children. After ten o'clock I shall not wait any longer for you. Paid one hundred dollars to Mr. Received two hundred dollars of Mr. S**. You will find here, included, a copy of what you want. On massacra les habitans (ayant) excepte les enfants. (Ayant) passe dix heures, je ne vous attendrai plus. (Ayant) paye cent gourdes a, M. S**. (Ayant) regu deux cents gourdes de M. S**. Vous trouvez ci-inclus, or ci-joint copie de ce que vous demandez, or vous trouverez ci-incluse, or ci-jointe la copie de ce qui vous demandez. it is seen that the compound participles ci-inclus, ci-joint re- main invariable before a noun taken indefinitely, and agree when the noun is definite. But we say also : Ci-joint la copie, ci-joint les lettres. without agreement ; in such cases, these expressions ought to be considered as adverbial. 360 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Some verbs, according to their meaning, are active or neu- ter. 1347. Past Participles of Verbs, which are Active or Neuter? according to their signification. When active, the past participle of these verbs agrees with their direct object ; when neuter, they remain invariable. We say equally well : This servant has served us faith- Ce domestique nous a servis fidele- fully. ment. This servant has been very useful Ce domestique nous a bien servi. to us. We say, servir quelqu'une, to serve somebody, and servir a quelqu'un, to be useful to somebody. The first expression means to be in the service of some one, to help him, to assist him, the other signifies, to be of some use, useful ; thus one is an active verb, and the other neuter, and hence the differ- ence in the orthography of their past participles in the two sen- tences above. The verbs, Aider to help, Applaudir to applaud, Commander to command, Fuir to run from, Insulter to insult, Manquer to want, to fail, to miss, and a few others, are equally active or neuter according to their meaning ; thus we write : ACTIVE. NEUTER. He has helped us in our wants. He ha3 helped us to come down. II nous a aides dans nos besoins. II nous a aide a descendre. He has applauded us when we He has approved of our having have spoken. acted thus. II nous a applaudis quand nous II nous a applaudi d'en avoir agi avons parle. ainsi. We have been commanded for We have been ordered to go out. twelve o'clock. On nous a commandos pour midi. On nous a commande de sortir. The enemy has fled from us. Time has fled from us. L'ennemi nous a fuis. Le temps nous a fui (before us). He has insulted us grossly. He has insulted us by his luxury. II nous a insulles grossierement. II nous a insulU par son luxe. VERB. 361 He has aimed at us and has missed Time has failed to us. us. ' ' II nous a vises et nous a manques. Le temps nous a manque. 1348. 0/ Pa$J Participles followed by an Adjective or an- other Past Participle. We say : They have believed that we were On nous a crus coupables par ce guilty, because they have seen qu'on nous a vus embarrasses. that we were confused. They have believed, whom 1 us ; they have seen, whom ? us. This pronoun, us, nous, is evidently here the direct object of the two verbs to believe and to see; therefore the past participles must agree with it ; the adjectives coupable and embarrasse have no influence over the participles. The same remark is appli- cable to the following sentences : They were happy to see us again lis furent heureux de nous revoir because they thought we were car ils nous avaient crus perdus. lost. By making our soul like to himself, En faisant l'ame a son image, Dieu God has made it capable to love /'a faite capable de l'aimer et de him and to know him. le connaitre. In the following sentence must the participle agree ? I sent my letter to the post-office, J'ai envoye ma lettre a la poste as soon as I had finished it. aussitot que je l'ai eu Jinie. Here fai eu Jini presents to the mind only a single verb, as favais Jini, I had done, and if we were to make the past participle eu agree with lettre, there would be in the same verb two agreements for a single direct object, and two effects for one cause. In phrases like this, the past participle is a mere sign of anteriority, and should remain invariable ; but we write : This letter, I had it written from Cette lettre, je Z'ai eue ecrite de la the hand of the King himself, main meme du Roi, because the participle eu is no longer a sign of anteriority, but expresses the idea of possession, and must agree with lettre, which is the thing possessed. 31 362 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1 349. Past Participles followed by the nominative of the Verb. Nothing can replace the enjoyment Rien ne peut suppleer lajoi'e qu'ont destroyed by remorse. detruite les remords. The remorse has destroyed, what ? the enjoyment ; thus the relative que referring to joie, and preceding the past parti- ciple, the agreement must take place. 1350. Past Participle followed by an Infinitive, which is itself preceded by a Preposition. Study the lesson which you have Etudiez la legon que vous avez ou- forgotten to learn. blie d'apprendre. Study the lesson which has been Etudiez la legon qu'on vous a don- given you to learn. nee a apprendrt. Jn the first example the participle does not agree because its direct object is the verb which follows it ; for it is not the les- son which may have been forgotten, since it has not been learned, but it is to learn it, which has been forgotten ; the meaning of the sentence is this : You have forgotten to learn your Vous avez oublie d'apprendre votre lesson; study it. legon ; etudiez la. In the other example, on the contrary, legon is the direct object of the past participle, represented by que; because there would be nothing to learn if the lesson had not been giv- en ; therefore the past participle must agree with it. There is always an easy method of ascertaining when the agreement should take place in such sentences ; if there is agreement, the word which is considered as the direct object may be placed between the participle and the preposition which precedes the infinitive. Thus we may say here : On a donni la legon a apprendre, but we cannot say : On a oublie' la legon d'apprendre, but On a oublie d'apprendre la legon ; the participle must agree in the first case, and not in the second. We should write also : How many difficulties he had to Combien de difficult^ il a eues a surmount, surmonter, because we may say : VERB. 363 II a eu des difficultis a surmonter. Here are the enemies which the Voila les ennemis que la reine a Queen had to fight. eus a combattre. In order to judge of the miraculous Pourjuger de la propagation mi- extension of the Christian faith, raculeuse de la foi Chretienne, we must consider what obstacles il faut considerer les obstacles it had to surmount. qu'elle a eus a surmonter. 1351. Past Participle followed by an Infinitive without a Preposition. When a past participle is followed by an infinitive without a preposition, it agrees if its direct object is the pronoun which precedes it, and does not agree, if that direct object is the in- finitive, which follows it : This lady has a fine voice, I have Cette femme a une belle voix, je heard her sing. /'ai entendue chanter. I have heard, whom 1 the lady ; 1 have heard her singing ; then la is the direct object of the participle, and this participle must agree with it, because the pronoun precedes. This song is very pretty, I have Cette romance est tres jolie, je l'ai heard it sung. entendu chanter, I have heard, whatl some one sing the song; therefore, the direct object of the participle is not song, but the infinitive chanter, to sing, and the participle should remain invariable. I let them go, Je les ai laisses partir ; I have let whom ? them go. Thus les is the direct object of the participle, and, being placed before, the agreement must take place ; but, in They have let the enemy overtake lis se sont laissi surprendre ipzr l'en- them, nemi, they have let, what ? the enemy overtake them. Then the in- finitive surprendre is the direct object of the participle, and them, expressed by se, the object of overtake. Therefore, there is no agreement ; the infinitive being placed after the par- ticiple. It is seen, that the past participle laisse, followed by an infin- itive, follows the same rule as any other participle in the same case, agreeing with its direct object if placed after it, and re- maining invariable if placed before it. 364 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1352. Sometimes the infinitive is understood after the parti- ciples of the verbs devoir, to owe, pouvoir, to be able, and vouloir, to be willing, as in the following sentences : 1 rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que could. j'ai pu (lui rendre). I rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que ought. j'ai du (lui rendre). I rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que wished. j'ai voulu (lui rendre). And in these cases the participle remains invariable, having, as a direct object, the infinitive, which is understood. But, if the infinitive is not understood after those past parti- ciples, they follow the general rule and agree with their direct object when placed before them ; as, He has paid me all the sums he H m'a paye toutes les sommes qu'W owed me. m'a dues. He sticks strongly to what he has H veut fortement les choses qu'il a une wished once. fois voulues. 1353. There is a mechanical way of ascertaining whether the past participle, followed by an infinitive, must agree or not ; it consists in changing the infinitive into the present participle, and seeing if the sense produced by this transformation con- forms to the idea meant to be expressed. In this sentence, for instance : The woman whom I have heard La femme que j'ai entendue chanter, sing, we may say, La femme que j'ai entendue chantant ; because it is the woman who sang. But in the following : The song which I had heard sung, La romance que j'ai entendu chan- ter, we cannot say, La romance que j'ai entendu chantant ; because a song does not sing. Hence, there is agreement in the first case, and none in the other. We see also, then, that if the noun, which is consid- ered as the direct object of the past participle, may be the nominative of the infinitive following, the participle agrees with VERB. 365 it, and if not, there is no agreement ; for the first sentence could be turned by La femme que j'ai entendue qui chantait ; in which qui, the nominative of the verb chanter, has for its antecedent, femme, the direct object of the past participle. The past participle may be preceded by two direct objects, in which case it always agrees ; because one belongs to the in- finitive, and the other to the participle, as in the following : Such is, my son, the cause of the Telle est, mon fils, la cause des tears which you have seen me larmes que tu m'as vue verser. shed. (It is a mother who speaks.) (C'est une mere qui parle.) in which larmes is the direct object of verser, and me, that of the participle vu. 1354. The two following sentences come under the control of these rules : The persons, who were thought dan- Les personnes qu'on. a crues dan ge- gerously wounded, have received reusement blessees, n'ontregu que but slight bruises. de legeres contusions. The persons who, I have been as- Les personnes qu'on m'a assure sured, have been dangerously avoir 6te dangereusement bles- wounded, have received but slight sees, n'ont regu que de legeres bruises. contusions. In the first phrase, the past participle crues, which in fact re- lates to the noun personnes, may, by decomposing the sentence, be constructed with this word or a pronoun which represents it ; as, They have been thought wounded. \ °" ks *™ e , s bles£ * es ' . J t -klles ont ete crues blessees. Thus the relative que is both the object of the past parti- ciple and the nominative of the following verb, hence the agree- ment. Whereas, in the last phrase, the past participle does not modify the noun personnes ; les personnes assurees would have no meaning. We could not say : TOn les a assuries grievement bles- They have been assured dangerous-J sees. ly wounded. j Elles ont ete assurdes grievement (_ blessees. The relative que, which precedes assure, is the nomina- tive of the expression, avoir ete blessees, and forms, with that 31* 366 FRENCH GRAMMAR. expression, the direct object of the past participle assure ; as, They have assured, what ? That On assure, quoi ? Qu'elles devaient they ought to be dangerously 6tre dangereusement blessees, or wounded, or That they had been dangerously Qu'elles avaientete dangereusement wounded. blessees. And as the sense does not allow the pronoun que to be the di- rect object of the participle, the agreement does not take place. The following illustrations, taken from our best writers, will confirm the preceding rule still more strongly : The words which they said had been Les paroles qu'on a dit avoir £tt pro- pronounced, noncees. It is a thing which they thought C'est une chose qu'on a pensi devoir would be convenient to me. me convenir. The individuals whom they thought Les personnes qu'on apensectre sus- to be suspicious. pectes. Above the desk, an unknown hand, Au-dessus du pupitre, une main which was said to be that of the etrangere, qu'on a dit ttre celle du lord of the village, has written chatelain du village, a ecrit ces these verses. vers. Louis XIV. had in his soul a part of Louis XIV. avait dans l'ame une the grandeur, which people had partie de la grandeur, qu'on a- thought, until then, existed only vait cru jusqu'alors n'exister qu'- around him. autour de lui. 1355. Past Participle of the Verb Faire followed by an Infinitive. The past participle of the verb faire, when prefixed to an infinitive, loses its primitive origin and signification ; it forms, with the infinitive, a compound word, at least, in the mind of the writer ; they become inseparable, and the parti- ciple does not change, whatever may be its direct object and the place of that object in the sentence ; thus, in our mind, this phrase, They caused them to leave the On les a. fait sortir. place, signifies On a. fait sortir eux, and not On a. fait eux sortir ; or else, On a fait en sorte qu'ils sortissent. VERB. 367 This phrase cannot be decomposed into On les a faits, ils sont sortis ; as we might say, On les a laisses, ils sont sortis, for On les a laisses sortir, It is evident, then, that the verb faire has changed its nature and signification, and the general rule is not applicable to it. 1356. Past Participle preceded and followed by Que. The past participle, preceded and followed by que, is invari- able ; as, The answer which I foresaw would La reponse ^wej'avais privu qu'on be made to you. vous ferait. The troubles which I saw you to be Les embarras que j'ai vu que vous in. aviez. because this participle has always for its direct object the last clause of the sentence ; for instance, in this case : I had foreseen, what ? That they would make you an answer. I had seen, what ? That you were in trouble. And as these direct objects are placed after the verb, there is no agreement. 1357. Past Participle preceded by Lui or Leur, employed instead of Le, La, Les. It is a business which I have left C'est une affaire que je leur ai laissd them the trouble to settle togeth- demeler ensemble, er. The grammatical construction would admit of the direct pro- noun les, instead of the indirect leur, but usage has made this last prevail ; and by decomposing the sentence, we find its construction to be : C'est une affaire que j'ai laisse* ct, eux le soin de demeler ensemble. 368 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The direct object being, then, le soin de demeler, &c., placed after the participle, there is no agreement. These pronouns lui and leur, for le, la, or les, ought always to be preferred when they are preceded by a direct object, whether a noun or a pronoun, as in the following : I have see a him do it. Je le lui ai vu faire. This is a thing which I heard them C'est une chose que je leur ai enten- say. du dire. Your sister drank the prescription ; Votre soeur a bu la potion ; je la lui I have seen her drink it. ai vu boire. But, if the phrase could be constructed otherwise, as, Je /'ai vu le faire, Je /'ai vue la boire, then the verb voir has a direct object as well as boire, and the participle agrees ; but this construction is not always possible. Analogy would require that the same rule should be applied to the pronouns of the first and second persons singular or plu- ral ; but usage still interferes here, and most of our best writers make the participle agree with them ; as, This is a question, gentlemen, which C'est une question, messieurs, qu'on has been left for you to decide. vous a laiss^s demeler. Such is, my son, the cause of the "Voila, mon fils, la cause des pleurs tears which you have seen me que vous m' ! B.vez vue verser (speak- shed. ing of a mother). 1358. Past Participle preceded by Le, representing a member of a sentence. The past participle is always invariable when preceded by V representing a part of a sentence ; because V is there instead of cela, which, being always singular and masculine, cannot cause the participle, of which it is the direct regimen, to take any number or gender. We shall then write : This letter is more interesting than Cette lettre est plus interessante que I had supposed (it would be). je ne /'avais cru. The affair was less serious than I L'affaire est moins serieuse que je expected (it to be). ne /'avais cru. This perfidy has taken place, as I Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme je had supposed (it would be). /'avals suppose". Famine happened, as Joseph had La famine arriva comme Joseph foretold (it would come). /'avait prddit. VERB. 369 These sentences stand instead of the following : Cette lettre est plus interessante que je n'avais cru qu'elle etait interes- sante. f ^ L'affaire fut moins serieuse que je n'avais pense qu'elle serait serieuse. Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme j'avais suppose qu'elle aurait lieu. La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph avait predit qu'elle arriverait. 1359. Past Participle preceded by the Pronoun En. Speaking of flowers, we say, I have gathered them, Je les ai cueillies, if we wish to express that we gathered them all ; and we say, I have gathered some, J'en ai cueilli, if we speak only of a part of them. In the first instance, the pronoun les is the direct object of the verb, and the participle, being preceded by it, must agree with it ; but in the second sentence en is used elliptically y and the natural construction would be, J'ai cueilli une certaine quantite de cela ; then de cela (speaking of flowers) is expressed by en placed before the verb, and une certaine quantity which is sup- pressed, being the direct object, and placed after the parti- ciple, cannot have any influence upon it ; hence no agreement. There is no discrepancy about this rule ; it is admitted by all. Thus we write : He has troops, and has asked for II a des troupes, et il en a demandd some more from the other nations aux autres peuples de la Grece. of Greece. Alas ! I was blind in my vows, for Helas ! J'etais aveugle en mes voeux I made some against "thee, when aujourd'hui, I made some for him. J'en ai fait contre toi, quand j'en Kifait pour lui. 1360. But we say, with agreement, We have informed them of it, Nous les en avons inf omits, He has blamed us for it, II nous en a blame's, The opinion which I had conceived h'opinion que j'en avais congue, of it, She has boasted of it publicly Elle s'en est vantie assez publique- enough, ment, Thank Heaven, who has revenged Rendez graces au ciel, qui nous en us, a venges, 370 FRENCH GRAMMAR. because the participles informes, blames, congue, vantee, ven- ges, are preceded by their direct objects, les, nous, que, se, nous, and then follow the general verb. 1361. But must we write, with agreement, How many flowers he has gathered ! Combien de fleurs il a cueillies ! and other phrases constructed like it ? The grammarians are divided on this question, but generally the agreement is adopted, and we think it is very proper, because if we place the ques- tion, He has gathered what 9 the answer is, some flowers ; flowers is, then, the direct object of the participle, and it must agree with it ; then in this sentence, speaking of flowers, How many I have gathered of them, Combien yen ai cueillies, combien and en compose, together, the direct object of the verb, the mind refers no longer to a word understood, the phrase is full, complete ; the attention of the hearer is fixed on the collective noun, combien, and en, its determinative, and the agreement necessarily follows, because that direct object, thus composed, precedes the participles. We write, ac- cording to the same principle : He has gained as many battles as Autant de batailles il a Ivories, au- he has fought. tant il en a gagndes. Speaking of faults, how many I Des fautes, combien, or que yen ai have committed ! commises ! Such is the opinion of our best writers and grammarians ; as, Voltaire, La Fontaine, Rousseau, Racine, BufTon, Mas- sillon, Damergue, Lemare, Bescher, Ranier, Courson, &c. How many men have we not seen, Combien en a-t-on vus, jusqu'aux even at the foot of the altar, pre- pieds des autels, sent a heart full of criminal dis- Porter un cceur petri de penchants positions ! criminels ! How many among the most elegant Combien en ai-je vus, je dis des plus I have seen blowing their fingers , huppes, from cold in the yard of my house. A souffler dans leurs doigts, dans ma cour, occupes ! 1362. But then, wherefore write the following in the inter- rogative form, the past participle remaining in the singular masculine ? Of flowers, how many have you Des fleurs, combien en avez-vous gathered ? cueilli J Of pages, how many have you Des pages, combien en avez-vous xvritten ? icrit ? VERB. 371 It is, because there is here an uncertainty as to the number of flowers gathered, or the number of pages written, and then the pronoun en, having a vague meaning, does not recall sufficiently to the mind the noun which it represents ; an excla- mation, or affirmation, compels the agreement, but an interro- gation, or a doubt, seems to forbid it, at least in cases similar to these ; thus, speaking of pages, we say, without agreement : I do not know, I do not see, tell me Je ne sais pas, je ne vois pas, dites how many you have written of moi combien vous en avez ccrit. them. The word combien is, besides, the complement of the first verb, which establishes a great difference between this case and those where the agreement takes place. 1363. When the word of quantity is not used as a noun, and is not followed by the pronoun en as a determinative, the participle remains invariable ; as, Speaking of a book : I have read much of it. Ten ai beaucoup lu. Speaking of the world : He has seen so much of it. II en a tant vu. Speaking of work : "We have done enough of it. Nous en avons assez fait. Speaking of wine : He has taken too much of it. II en a trop pris. Speaking of men : I have seen many of them* who were J'en ai beaucoup vu qui philoso- wiser philosophers than I am. phaient bien plus sagement que moi. The words beaucoup, taut, assez, trop, &c, in these sen- tences, are but adverbs, which could be placed after the par- ticiples ; as, J'en ai lu beaucoup. II en a vu tant. Nous en avons fait assez, &c. 1364. We should write also, without agreement, the follow- ing sentence, although the adverb precedes the pronoun en, 372 FRENCH GRAMMAR. He mistrusts his friends ; he had II se merle des amis, tant Hen am so many who were untrue, d'infideles, because tant is not used here as a noun. In the next sentence, He has written more books than II a ecrit plus de livres que vous you have read, n'en avez lu, the complement, which is understood, is not easy to find ; the sentence could be analyzed as follows : He has written many works, and II a ecrit beaucoup d'ouvrages, et you have not read as many, vous en avez lu moins, then the conjunction que is replaced by et, the negation ne has disappeared, and the complement, which was understood, is moins, less. We could analyze it also as follows : He has written works in great II a ecrit des ouvrages en grande quantity, and you have read others quantite, et vous avez lu d'autres in less quantity. ouvrages en moindre quantite. 1365. But whatever be the construction put upon it, the pronoun en not being preceded in the same proposition by a word of quantity used as a noun, the agreement cannot take place. 1366. But in this sentence, This man has obliged me ; the Cet homme m'a oblige ; les services services which I received from que yen ai re£us m'on rempli de him have impressed me with la plus vive reconnaissance, deep gratitude, en is the indirect object of the participle and services its direct object, which, being placed before it, commands the agreement. 1367. We generally write in the singular masculine : Of this liquor, how much I have De cette liqueur, combien j'en ai hi. drunk. Of glory, the less he desired it, the De la gloire, moins il en a dtsiri more he obtained of it. plus il en a eu. It is, probably, because, the mind not thinking of the nu- merical words, combien, plus, moins, the expression becomes merely vague, and the pronoun en being indeterminate, the participle which refers to it has to remain invariable. 1368. It results from what has been already said, that when- ever the pronoun en precedes an expression of quantity, repre- VERB. 373 senting a plural noun, it expresses a fraction of a whole which has distinct parts, and the agreement takes place ; whereas, if the noun, represented by the word of quantity, is in the singular, the pronoun expresses but a part of a single whole, and hence no agreement ; which is generally admitted. 1369. Mr. Bescher extends this observation to the noun itself, and writes the following phrase without agreement : How much science he has acquired. Que de science il s'est acquis. See how much grass he has tram- Voyez que d'herbe il zfouM. pled down. As much wisdom as he has showed. Autant de sagesse il a moniri. The more diffidence he had, the less Plus de defiance il a eu, moins de confidence he inspired in others. confiance il s'est attirt. 1370. But there are cases when the agreement ought to take place with the noun, and others when it should be with the word of quantity which precedes it ; thus we should say with Racine : Was ever so much virtue crowned ? Jamais tant de vertu fut-elle couronnie ? With Voltaire : Such temerity should be soon pun- Tant de temiriti serait bientot sw- ished, nie. And with La Chaussee : So much delicacy is false or dan- Tant de delicatesse est fausse ou gerous. dangereuse. 1371. But we should say also with Charles Nodier : Never has so much virtue been Jamais tant de vertu n'a ete reuni a found united to such intelligence, tant d'intelligence, More severity would be dangerous, Plus de severite serait dangereux, because the mind is more particularly struck with the idea of the adverbs tant and plus. 1372. The agreement, it is seen, depends on the operation of the mind, more than upon the words themselves, and in such cases we must never consult them alone. It is on the same principle that Boinvillers has written : What magnificence has our maker Que de magnificence le createur a displayed in this vast universe ! deployie dans ce vaste univers ! The more property we have got Autant de fortune nous avons amas- together, the more solicitude we see, autant de sollicitude nous avons have to keep it. eue pour la conserver. 32 374 FRENCH GRAMMAR. So we may lay down the following rule : The past participle preceded by the pronoun en (partitive) only varies when this pronoun completes the meaning of an expression of quantity, and represents a plural noun, and when it is not found in a sentence expressing interrogation or doubt. 1373. Past Participle used with Impersonal Verbs. The great heat we had, has been very injurious. Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a fait ont beaucoup nui. Les " " qu'il yaeu " " When we say of a man : He has made a journey, he found II a fait un voyage, il y a eu du pleasure in it, plaisir, the pronoun il relates to a noun which is definite ; but when I say : The weather has been cold, II a fait froid, We had much heat, II y a eu de grandes chaleurs, It rains, it snows, II pleut, il neige, this same pronoun il is indefinite, it relates to nobody, to no noun expressed before, and for that reason the verb is called impersonal. Then no word can be called the direct object of a verb, the action of which is performed by nobody ; and we write, without agreement, The bad weather we had, Les mauvais temps qu'il y a ew, The great heat we had, Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a /mY, because there is no question here of bad weather had, or great heat made by anybody. The verbs avoir, to have, faire, to make, have lost their former and natural signification and desig- nate only the existence of a fact, and the relative que is not the object of any verb. These expressions are purely idiomatical, and do not comport with any satisfactory analysis. VERB. 375 1374. Past Participle preceded by several Nouns and agreeing only with one. I have seen disappear the crowd of J'ai vu disparaitre la. foule de flat- flatterers which my fortune had teurs que la fortune avait formie gathered around me. autour de moi. I have seen disappear this crowd of J'ai vu disparaitre cette foule de flatterers which my fortune had fiatteurs que ma fortune avait at- attracted around me. tires autour de moi. In the first example we can, before the enunciation of the participle formie, make the relative pronoun que relate to the noun foule, rather than to the noun fiatteurs, and by examining the sense of the sentence, we discover that the mind alludes more to the first than to the last ; it is the crowd which is formed ; therefore we make the relative que agree with the crowd, foule, and the participle is written in the feminine. In the second example, on the contrary, it is to the flatter- ers that the mind alludes in preference to the crowd, and con- sequently the participle ought to agree with it and be written in the masculine plural. 1375. When a participle is preceded by several nouns with which it could possibly agree, we must find out which is that, whose relation with it seems the most intimate ; and this will fix the agreement ; we have already made this remark, speak- ing of the adjective and the verb. We give now a set of examples to illustrate this rule ; as, What an amount of stones they Quelle quantite de pierres on a ti- have already hauled out of the rees de cette carriere. quarry. I had a serious disease, caused by J'eus une maladie serieuse causee drinking too large a quantity of par la trop grande quantite de liquor. liqueurs que j'avais hue. How could I, Madam, stop this Comment pourrais-je, Madame, ar- flood of tears, which time has reter ce torrent de larmes que le not dried, and which so many temps n'a pas epuist, que tant de just causes for joy have not ex- justes joies n'ont pas tari ? hausted ? 1376. We should, then, write in the plural : This flood of tears which he has Ce torrent de larmes qu'il a essuyees. dried up. (We do not say essuyer un torrent.) 376 FRENCH GRAMMAR. What does the sinner see in the long Que voit le pecheur dans cette succession of days, which he has longue suite de jours qu'il a ^as- passed on earth. s6s sur la terre. (We say passer des jours ;) and in the singular : What a deluge of evils has he not Quel deluge de maux n'avait-il pas spread over the earth ! repandus sur la terre ! He had disinherited his daughter as C'est s&fille, aussi bien que ses fils, well as his sons, qu'il avait dtsMritee, It is a man or a woman whom they C'est un homme on une femme have murdered, qu'on a assassinee, (making the participle agree with the last noun, because the mind is no more interested in one than in the other.) It is one half of the camp which C'est la moitie du camp qu'on a they have burned. brulce. Turenne is one of the best generals Turenne est un des meilleurs g6- that France has produced. neraux que la France ait pro- duits. It is more the general than the offi- C'est plus le giniral que les officiers cers whom they have blamed. que l'on a blamd. (The general has been blamed.) 1377. Past Participle with the Adverb Le peu. Le peu, the little, or the few, or the want of, has two differ- ent significations ; it means a small quantity, or the want of something. When it means a small quantity, the agreement is determined by the noun which follows it. When it means the want of any thing, it is with this word, and not with the noun following, that the participle agrees ; as, The little affection which you have Le peu ^affection que vous lui avez shown him has given him cour- montrde lui a donne du courage ; age, (there is some affection shown.) The want of affection which you Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez have shown him has discouraged montri l'a decouragd, him, (there is no affection shown.) In the first example, le peu, signifies a small quantity, for there has been some affection shown ; thus que relates to affec- tion, which, being feminine, governs the participle in the same number. VERB. 377 In the second example, on the contrary, le peu signifies the want ; there has been no affection shown, for without the want of affection he would not have been discouraged ; then que re- lates to the want, le pen, which, being singular and masculine, governs the participle in the same number and gender. 1378. The participle, preceded by le peu, agrees, when the sense of the sentence allows the suppression of these two words, and remains invariable when that suppression cannot take place. In the first sentence, if we suppress le peu, we have : L'affection que vous lui avez montree lui a donne du courage, which is correct. In the second, we have : L'affection que vous lui avez montree l'a decourage, which is nonsense. Hence agreement in the first case, and none in the other. The want of horses for the service Lepeu de chevaux que nous avons eu of the artillery made us lose the pour le service de l'artillerie, nous battle. a fait perdre la bataille. The few horses which were given to Le peu de chevaux qu'on nous a us being exhausted, were of no donnes, etant extenues, ne servi- avail. rent a rien. 1379. Of the Past Participles Coute and Vain. Coute and valu, although they are participles from neuter verbs, conjugated with to have, are sometimes susceptible of agreement ; but then they are used actively, and signify, causer, to cause, exiger, to require, instead of couter ; and pro- curer, to procure, rapporter, to bring, instead of valoir. Thus, we say, with agreement : The trouble which this affair has Les peines que cette affaire m'a caused me. coHUes, that is to say, m'a causees ; The honors which this office has Les honneurs que cette place m'a procured to me, valus, that is to say, have procured to me ; because here, the verbs 32* 378 FRENCH GRAMMAR. couter and valoir are used actively, and preceded by their di- rect objects peines and honneurs. But we could say, without agreement : This affair cost me a great deal of Cette affaire m'a coUe une peine in- trouble, finie, This work has brought me an extra Cet ouvrage m'a valu une gratifica- compensation, tion, because the direct objects of the verbs couter and valoir, une peine infinity une gratification, are placed after the verb. 1380. Remarks. We have said that the only rule about the past participle wag- to make it agree with its direct object only when that direct ob- ject precedes it in the construction of the sentence, and we have given all the necessary explanations to enable a person to find what is the word which is in reality the direct object of the verb ; there are some few cases in which the agreement of the past participle takes place, when the noun with which it agrees does not appear clearly to be its direct object ; we advert to some reflective verbs whose signification does not suffer the analysis of the sentence in the ordinary manner ; as, To suspect, Se douter, To perceive, S'appercevoir de quelque chose. To find fault with, S'attaquer a. quelqu'un, To seize, S'emparer d'un object, To abstain, S'abstenir, To escape, S'echapper, and others similar to these. We will now examine into these difficulties and show how to decide upon them. We write the following sentences showing the agreement, She has suspected that her servants Elle s'est douUe que ses domes- used to rob her, tiques la volaient, She has perceived that her husband Elle s'est appergue que son mari la deceived her, trompait, Why has this lady found fault with Pourquoi cette dame s'est-elle atta- me on account of a fact which I quie a moi pour un fait auquel know nothing about ? je suis completement etranger ? The English have always seized up- Les Anglais se sont toujours empa- on every thing they thought prop- res de ce qui leur a convenu sans er, without consulting right or jus- egard pour le droit et la justice? tice, VERB 379 If these children had abstained from Si ces enfants s'itaient abstenus de eating unripe fruit, they would manger des fruits verts il n'au- not have been sick, raient pas ete malades, The prisoners have escaped from Les prisonniers se sont 6chapp£s de jail, prison, although it is impossible to analyze these sentences in any way satisfactory to the mind ; because we do not say, in French, Doubt somebody, Douter quelqu'un, Perceive one's self, Appercevoir soi-meme, Find fault with somebody, Attaquer quelqu'un, Escape somebody, Echapper quelqu'un, Seize some one, Emparer quelqu'un, Abstain from some one, &c. Abstenir quelqu'un, with the meaning given to these verbs in the preceding sen- tences ; yet the reason why usage has made them agree, is probably because they could be constructed as follows : She has put herself in doubt {for Elle s'est mise en doute. she suspected). She went to perceive {for she per- Elle s'est mise a appercevoir. ceived). She went to find fault {for she Elle s'est mise a attaquer. found fault with). She took possession {for she has Elle s'est mise en possession. seized). But whatever may be the reason, it is a matter of fact, that these verbs, and others of a similar nature, are made to agree by the tyrannical power of usage. We say, also, This house has been built in a few Cette maison s'est bdtie en peu de months. mois. This house has been well sold, well Cette maison s'est bien vendue, bien rented. louee. This house has been demolished in Cette maison s'est dimolie en peu de a short time. terns. Because we use to say, figuratively, Cette maison se batit, 11 se demolit, " se loue, " se vend ; in which it is evident, that the mind operates upon the neutral nature of these reflective verbs and makes them active ; thus, when, in order to find the direct object of these participles, we ask the question, What ? we must be satisfied with such an ir- rational answer as the following ; 380 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This house has built, what ? Itself. " demolished, what ? Itself. " sold, " rented, " " because, if we were not, the pronoun preceding the verb ought to be its indirect object and represent a, to, with the di- rect pronoun, which would be still worse ; we could never un- derstand the meaning of the following sentences : Elle a dout£ a elle mime. " appercu •* " attaque " a, quelqu'un. " empare " " abstenu " " echappe " Cette maison abati a elle meme. " a loue " " a demoli " " a vendu " Thus, we may lay down the following rule : The participle of a reflective verb agrees with the reflective pronoun which precedes it, when this pronoun is identical with the nominative, and cannot possibly be replaced by the same pronoun preceded by the preposition d, to. OF PREPOSITIONS. 1381. The word Preposition, whicb is expressed in Latin by prcepositio, is formed of prce, before, avant, devant, and ponere, to place, placer. Preposition, then, means what is placed before. Prepositions are words which serve to express or show the several relations which persons and things have with each other. 1382. Prepositions are invariable ; they have neither gen- der or number ; alone, they express nothing ; they have a sig* nification only when followed with a regimen expressed or un- derstood. 1383. They have, then, none of the properties belonging to nouns, but sometimes they are, however, used as nouns> taking PREPOSITION. 381 the article in either number, but not in either gender ; as in the following expressions : The front of the house. Le devant de la maison. To start first. Prendre les devants. The back part of the house. Le derri&re de la maison. The inside of the palace. Le dedans du palais. The outer part of the city. Les dehors de la ville, &c. 1384. It would be a great perfection in a language, if prep- ositions should express but one relation, between persons or things ; the style would be clearer ; but it happens, too often, that the same preposition expresses not only different relations, but relations which are entirely opposite ; for instance, in these sentences, Approach the fire ; stand back from Approchez-vous du feu; eloignez- the fire, vous du feu, the preposition de, of, expresses in the first part of the phrase a relation of approximation, and in the last a relation of re- moval. 1385. We may divide prepositions into three different classes : 1st. According to the formation of the word itself. 2d. " " signification of the word. 3d. " u regimen which it governs. The first class of prepositions are either simple or com- pound. 1386. 1st. The prepositions which are called simple are expressed by one word only, as a, to, de, of, pour, for, sans, without, avec, with, &c. The prepositions which are called compound are expressed by the union of several words ; as, vis-a-vis de, opposite, a la reserve de, except, a cote de, by the side of, &c. 1387. 2d. The prepositions, in regard to their significa- tion, are divided into as many classes as there are relations among words. 13S8. 3d. The prepositions, in regard to their regimen, are divided into three classes : 1. Those which do not require the use of another preposi- tion before the noun governed by them. 382 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 2d. Those which govern the preposition of. 3d. Those which govern the preposition to. 1389. Examples of the first class. Before you. After him. Behind them. Avant vous. Apres lui. Derriere eux, &c. 1390. Examples of the second class. Far from Paris. Near Bath. Out of London. Loin de Paris. Pres de Bath. Hors de Londres. 1391. Examples of the third class. As far as Canterbury. As to myself. On your account. Jusqu'd Cantorbery. Quant a moi. Par rapport a vous. Before entering into the examination of the prepositions in regard to their signification, which is the best method to dis- cuss such a difficult subject, we shall, for the sake of foreigners who wish to learn the language, give a list of all our prepo- sitions according to the nature of their regimen. A List of Prepositions divided according to their Regimen. 1392. As we have already said, some prepositions are fol- lowed by the noun which they govern without the help of any other preposition; some require the preposition de, of; four in number only, require the preposition a, to. 1393. The following prepositions govern their regimen with- out the help of another : A, to. Durant, during. De, of. Pendant, whilst. Des, since, from. Entre, between. Avant, before. Parmi, among. Devant, before. Environ, about. Derriere, behind. Vers, towards. Avec, with. Envers, towards. Attendu, considering. Selon, according to. Vu, considering. Suivant, according to. Chez, at one's house. Comme, as. Apres, after. Contre, against. Depuis, since. Touchant, concerning. Dans, in. Concernant, concerning. En, in. A travers, through. PREPOSITION. 383 Sans, without. Sous, under. Pour, for. Dessus, upon. Moyennant, Nonobstant, with the help of. Dessous, under. notwithstanding. De-dessus, from upon. Excepte, except. De-dessous, from under. Hormis, except. Par-dessus, over. Hors, save. Par-dessous, under. Malgre, in spite of. Par de 5a, Par de la, this side. Outre, besides. that side. Par, by. Sauf, saving. Sur, upon, on. 1394. The ; following prepositions govern de, of, before their regimen : Aupres, near. Au derriere, behind. Pres, near. autour, around. Proche, near. aux environs de, about. Faute, Hors, for want of. out. A l'exclusion, 1 one being ex- cluded. Loin, far. Au milieu, in the midst. Le long, along. Au niveau, level with. Ensuite, after. A cote, by the side. A cause, on account. Aux depens, at the expense of. A l'egard, with respect to. A la mode, after the fashion of. A 1'insu, ( without one's t knowing. A force, Aux prix, by. for. A l'exception, c with the excep- ( tion of. A raison, at the rate. Vis-a-vis, towards, opposite. A moins, for less than. A l'opposite, in opposition to. A la reserve, with the exception Au travers, through. A couvert, secure from. Au lieu, instead. A l'abri, sheltered from. Au moyen, by means. Au de-ca, this side of. Au peril, at the risk. Au de-la, beyond. A fleur, even with. Au-dessus, above. A rez, level to the ground. Au-dessous, below. A la faveur, by the means of. Au-devant, before. En depit, in spite of. Most of these prepositions are composed of a preposition joined to a noun ; and this is the reason why they require the preposition of between the two nouns, which could not follow each other without it. 1395. The prepositions governing a, to, before their regi- men are the following : Jusque, until. Quant, as. Par rapport, as regards. Sauf, without prejudice to. The last one, sauf, is sometimes followed by to, sometimes not ; for we say : Saving your opinion. Sauf votre opinion. He has paid the debt, without preju- II a paye la dette, sauf a lui a re- dice to his claim against you. courir contre vous. 384 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of Prepositions considered in regard to their Signification, 1396. The relations which are established by prepositions among persons and things, are so numerous and so diverse, that it would be nearly impossible to establish an accurate distinction among them all ; therefore we shall only consider those which are the more distinct, so as not to create confu- sion in the mind of the learner. We will, then, reduce the number of relations to eight ; as, 1st. Relations of place. 2d. u order, or arrangement. 3d. u union, connexion. 4th. " separation. 5th. " opposition. 6th. That which marks the end which the mind has in view. 7 th. That which marks the cause. 8th. That which marks the means. 1397. 1st. The prepositions which have reference to place are the following : Chez, at one's house : He is at home. II est chez lui. Every one ought to be master in Chacun doit etre le maitre chez soi. his own house. Dans, in : He is in the house. II est dans la maison. He takes a walk in the garden. II se promene dans le jardin. Devant, before : Your image is always before my Yotre image est toujours devant mes eyes. yeux. Derriere, behind : An ambitious man never looks be- L'ambitieux ne regarde jamais der- hind. Here lui. Parmi, among : How many fools there are among men ! Que de fous parmi les hommes ! Sous, under : Fish live under the water. Le poisson vit sous l'eau. Sur, upon : Most birds live upon trees. La plupart dee oiseaux vivent sur les arbres. PREPOSITION. 385 Vers, towards : He takes his course towards the II se dirige vers Test. east. The magnet points to the north. L'aimant tourne vers le nord. 1398. 2d. Those which mark order, arrangement, are the following : Avant, before : The news arrived before the mes- La nouvelle est arrivee avant le senger. messager. Jlpres, after : Vain people do not like to walk Les personnes vaines n'aiment pas behind. a marcher apres les autres. Entre, between : There is a treaty of peace between II y a un traite de paix entre les the different powers of Europe. differentes puissances de l'Europe. Depuis, since, from : Since the time of the creation men Depuisla. creation, l'homme ne s'est have not improved much. pas ameliore. Des, from, since : This river is navigable from its Cette riviere est navigable d&s sa source. source. 1399. Those which mark union, connexion, are the follow- ing : Jlvec, with : We must know those with whom II faut connaitre ceux avec qui Ton we associate. s associe. Durant la guerre, les peuples, les arts, le commerce et les sciences souffrent egalement. Durant, during : During wars, people, arts, com- merce and sciences, suffer equally. Outre, besides : In order to succeed in the world, Pour reussir dans le monde, il faut, we must have much complaisance, outre des qualites aimables, un besides amiable qualities. grand fond de complaisance. Pendant, during. Pleasures are more lively and varied Les plaisirs sont plus varies et plus during the winter ; but are they vifs pendant l'hiver; mais valent- better than those we enjoy in the ils mieux que ceux dont nous country during the summer ? jouissons a la campagne pendant l'ete. 33 386 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Suivanty according to : I will decide according to circum- Je me deciderai suivant les circon- stances. stances. Selon, according to : A wise man acts according to the L'homme sage agit selon les maxi- principles of reason. mes de la raison. 1400. 4th. Those which indicate separation are the fol- lowing : Sans, without : A woman may be amiable without Une femme peut etre aimable sans beauty. btauti. Hors, except : All is lost except honor. Tout est perdu Tiors l'honneur. Excepte, besides : Besides or except five or six phi- ExcepU cinq ou six philosophes losophers truly enlightened, all reellementeclaires, tousles pay- the pagans were plunged in ig- ens etaient plonges dans l'igno- norance. ranee. Hormis except : All have come home except my Touts sont rentres hormis mon brother. frere. 1401. 5th. Those which indicate opposition are the follow- ing Contre, against : The people are leagued against the Les peuples sont ligues contre le best of Kings. meilleur des Roi. Malgre, in spite. He has done that in spite of me. II a fait cela malgri moi. Nonobstant, notwithstanding : He has persevered in his views, II a persiste dans ses vues, nonob- notwithstanding all that has stant tout ce qu'on a pu lui en been said about it. dire. 1402. 6th. Those which indicate the end, are the following : Envers, towards : It is well to be charitable towards II est bien d'etre charitable envers the poor. les pauvres. PREPOSITION. 387 Touchant, about : He wrote me about this affair. II m'a ecrit touchant cette affaire. Pour, for : Formerly men sacrificed them- Autrefois Phomme se sacrifiait selves for their country, they pour la patrie, il travaillait pour toiled for glory ; in our days they la gloire ; de nos jours il ne fait work only for their interests and rien que pour ses interets et pour pleasures. ses plaisirs. 1403. 7th. Those which indicate the cause and means are the following : Par, by : He has succeeded by his prayers. II a reussi par ses prieres. Moyennant, by means of : I hope to succeed by means of your J'espere reussir vioyennant votre assistance. assistance. Mendu, considering, on account : The messenger has not been able Le courier n'a pu partir attendu to sail, on account of head winds. les vents contraires. 1404. 8th. The three prepositions, a, to, de, of, en, in, which form the last class, are employed in so many different ways, that we cannot dispense with speaking of them at some length. 1405. A, to, indicates principally a relation of attribution ; as, This book is mine. I told my mind to my friend. Who owns this garden ? Ce livre est a moi. J'ai dit ma pensee a mon ami. A qui ce jardin appartient-il ? But this preposition indicates, also, 1st. Place : I live in Versailles. 2d. The End : I am going into the country. 3d. Order : They go two by two. 4th. State : He feels at ease. Je demeure h Versailles. Je vais a la cainpagne. lis vont deux a deux. II est a son aise. 388 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 5th. Quality : There is no gold twenty-four ca- II n'y a pa3 d'or a vingt-quatre ca- rats fine. rats. Sometimes this preposition is merely expletive, and hence forms Gallicisms of which we shall speak hereafter ; as, Let us see who shall have it. Voyons a qui l'aura. This preposition is sometimes used for selon, according to ; as, This is not according to his taste. Ceci n'est pas a son gout. Sometimes instead of pour, for ; as, I take you as a witness. Je vous prends h temoin. Sometimes instead of avec, with ; as, They fought with swords. II se sont battus a l'epee. Sometimes instead of sur upon, on ; as, As soon as he had put his foot on Aussitot qu'il eut mis pied a terre. land. Sometimes instead of jusqu^a, until ; as, Until we see each other again. Au revoir (which means jusqu'au revoir). 1406. .De, of, indicates principally a relation of extraction, that is to say, that from which a thing is extracted, whence it comes, or takes its name. This is the reason why we say, with de, of, A marble table. Une table de marbre. A silver dish. Un plat d'argent. A bridge made out of bricks and Un pont de brique et de terre. stones. But it indicates, also, 1st. Property : The book of Peter. Le livre de Pierre. 2d. Quality : This man has a lion's courage. Cet homme a un courage de lion. 3d. Place : To go out of France. Sortir de France. To come from Italy. Venir d'ltalie. 4th. Situation : To die of hunger. Mourir de faim. To jump with joy. Sauter de joie. PREPOSITION. 389 5th. Cause, Means : To live on fruit. Vivre de fruits. This preposition is used in many other cases, and serves to construct a great number of idiomatical and adverbial expres- sions ; as, anew, de nouveau ; deliberately, de propos deli- here, &c. 1407. En, in, indicates also many relations of a different nature ; as, 1st. Place : To live in America. Vivre en Amerique. To go to France. Aller en France. 2d. State : To be in good health. Etre en bonne sante. To be at peace, at war. Etre en paix, en guerre. To be with a night-gown on. Etre en robe de chambre. 3d. Cause : To do a thing by hatred to anoth- Faire une chose en haine d'un au- er. tre. 1408. En, dans, in, have a very similar signification, but dans marks a sense fixed and determinate ; as, Politeness reigns more despotical- La politesse regne plus despotique- ly in the capital than it does in ment dans la capitale que dans the provinces. les provinces. En, on the contrary, indicates a sense vague and indetermi- nate ; as, To live in the country. Vivre en province. But if we specify what province, then dans takes its place ; as, To live in the province of York. Vivre dans la province d'York. It is for the same reason that, although we say, indefinitely, To give one's self to be a specta- Se donner en spectacle aux autres, cle for others, we cannot use en if spectacle be qualified by an adjective, destroying the vagueness of the expression ; as^ Se donner en spectacle funeste. This sentence is not grammatical, although it is found in Racine. 33* 390 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1409. A and en, to and in, give an entirely different mean- ing to sentences otherwise composed of the same words ; the following, for instance, My master is in town, Mon maitre est a la ville, signifies that my master lives in town now and not in the coun- try ; but the following, Mon maitre est en ville, signifies that my master is not at home. We say also : The army has begun the campaign. L'armee est entree en campagne. meaning that war has been commenced ; but we say : My master has gone into the country; Mon maitre est alle a la compagne; meaning that my master has left the city. 1410. Respecting these modes of expression, usage must be consulted ; there is no sure indication to guide a foreigner, and time and practice are the best teachers which he may hope to find. How can he distinguish, for instance, that if he wishes to express that he lives in Paris, he must say : I live in Paris. je demeure d Paris, but if he speaks of any other thing but his residence, he must use dans instead of a ; as, There are more than a million of II y a plus d'un million d'ames dans souls in Paris. Paris. 1411. En is sometimes joined to verbs, and entirely chang- es their signification. We shall give some examples : 1st. If this business don't succeed, I Si cette affaire ne reussit pas, je will lay the blame on you. m'en pendrai a vous. 1412. 2d. They had gone so far that they On en etait venu si avant, qu'il fal- had to conquer or die. lait vaincre ou mourir. 1413. 3d. In presenting him with this pres- En lui faisant ce present, il assura ent, he assured his friend that a son ami qu'il n'en resterait pas he would not stop there. la, or qu'il ne s>en tiendrait pas la, or qu'il n'en demeurerait pas la. 1414. 1st. People who know that they are Les gens qui se noient se prennent drowning grasp at any thing they a. tout ce qu'ils trouvent a leur find at hand. portee. PREPOSITION. 391 1415. 2d, They had come as far as the woods lis etaient venus jusqu'au bois qui on the side of the main road. borde la grande route. 1416. 3d. He gets hold of the rope, of the 11 se tient a la corde, aux branches, branches, &c. &c. He lives there. 11 demeure la. 1417. We have already said, that prepositions always have a regimen expressed or understood ; this distinguishes them en- tirely from the adverbs, which never have any regimen from the very nature of their signification. These two kinds of words must never be mistaken for each other. 1418. A word is a preposition when it does not represent a complete meaning without the assistance of a regimen, which, although not expressed, is easily supplied by the mind. In the following sentences : What did they do afterwards ? Que firent-ils apres? He lives far off. II demeure loin. Nothing has been done since. II ne s'est rien fait depuis. The words apres, loin, and depuis are prepositions, because the words cela, dHci, from here, and cette chose, this thing, are understood after them. 1419. But, in the following : Do not go so far, N'allez pas si avant, avant is an adverb, because it cannot be followed by a regimen. 1420. The same difference exists between autour and alentour, around ; autour is a preposition, which has no com- plete meaning without a regimen ; as, All the courtiers of the court were Tous les grands de la cour etaient around the throne. autour du trone. Whereas alentour is an adverb, which cannot have a regi- men ; as, The king was on his throne, and his Le roi etait sur son trone, et ses fils sons were around it. etaient alentour. 1421. The same remark applies to avant and auparavant, before. Avant may be followed by a regimen, which is gen- erally the case ; as, 392 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I shall not go before Easter-day. Je ne partirai pas avant Paques. Auparavant never has any regimen, and is an adverb ; as, They say that you will soon go ; On dit que vous partirez bientot ; but come and see us before you mais venez nous voir auparavant. go- 1422. The following sentence : Come and see us before you go, Venez nous voir avant de partir, was formerly written, Venez nous voir avant que de partir. Usage now proscribes this mode of expression. Venez nous voir avant que partir, would be a fault of language, the conjunction avant que govern- ing always the subjunctive mood after it ; it ought to be writ- ten : Venez nous voir avant que vous partiez. 1423. Some grammarians pretend that avant, auparavant, and alentour are not adverbs, but mere prepositions, which they attempt to prove by the analysis of some phrases ; it may be so in some few cases, but they defy analysis in most all in- stances, so that it is far better to consider the words as adverbs altogether, so as to create no confusion in the mind of the stu- dent ; as in the following phrases : He has gone far enough into the II est alle assez avant dans le bois, woods. He has come when the winter was II est arrive bien avant dans l'hiver. far advanced. Impress this truth deeply in your Gravez cela bien avant dans votre memory. memoire. I had warned him long before. Je 1'avais averti longtems aupara- vant. The surrounding echoes. Les echos d 'alentour. 1424. Foreigners, and too many Frenchmen, often mistake the adjective pret, ready, for the preposition pres, near. The adjective pret governs the preposition a, to, after it, whereas the preposition pres, near, governs de, of ; as, I am ready to do what you please. Je suis pret a faire ce qui peut vous plaire. My work is nearly finished. Mon ouvrage est prbs d'etre fini. De, of. Excepte, Pour, for. Hors, Jusque, until. Par, PREPOSITION. 393 1425. The same fault is often made with the two preposi- tions, a travers and au travers, though au travers is followed by de, of ; as, He fought his way through the en- II se fit jours au travers des ennemis. emy. Whereas a travers has no preposition after it ; as, II se fit jour a travers les ennemis. 1426. There are prepositions which govern other preposi- tions, with the assistance of an ellipsis. They are the follow- ing : except, by. 1427. The preposition de, of, governs after it the following : apres, after, avec, with, en, in, entre, between, chez, at the house of, and par, by ; as, I speak after good authority. Je parle d'apres une bonne autorite. The upper part, the lower part. La partie d'en haut, la partie d'en bas. It is not always easy to distinguish II n'est pas toujours facile de distin- one's friends from one's enemies. guer ses amis, d'avec ses enne- mis. There are few among them. II y en a peu d'entre eux. I am coming from his house. Je viens de chez lui. By the king's orders. De par le roi. 1428. Excepte and hors, except, govern nearly all other prep- ositions ; as, I have played against everybody ex- J'aijoue contre tout le monde ex- cept you. cept6, hors contre vous. When hors is used in this acceptation, it never takes of after it ; as, Except this, this article. Hors ceci, hors cet article. 1429. Pour, for, governs apres, after, dans, in ; as, That will be for after dinner. Ce sera pour apres diner. In a fortnight. Pour dans quinze jours. But these phrases are not much used now, and it would be better to turn them differently. 1430. Jusque may be followed by a, to, par, by, en, dans, in, sur, upon, and sous, under ; as, 394 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Until to-morrow. Jusqu'a demain. As far as the other side of the moun- Jusque par dela les monts. tains. I followed him even to the roof. Je le suivis jusque sur le toit. We went as far as Italy, Nous allames jusqu'en Italie, &c. 1431. Par, by, may be followed by chez, at the house of, dessus, above, dessous, under, devant, before, derriere, behind, and dega, dela, this way, that way ; as, Come by my house. Passez par chez moi. He is over head and ears in busi- II a des affaires par dessus les yeux. ness. He is on the other side of the sea. II est par dela les mers. You seized me from behind. Vous m'avez pris par derrihre, &c. These expressions, although grammatical, are far from being elegant, and ought to be avoided ; it would be better to say : Passez chez moi. II est au dela des mers. II vit en deca des monts, &c. 1432. To the above remarks we have to add the three fol- lowing : 1st. The prepositions void, voila, behold, are formed from the imperative mood of the verb voir, to see, with the addition of the adverbs ci, here, and la, there ; they are the only ones which may be preceded by a personal pronoun as their regi- men ; as, Here I am. Me voici. There thou art. Te voila. Here she is. La voici. Here is some. En voici. There we are. Nous voila. 1433. 2d. Pendant and durant, during, whilst, have nearly the same meaning, but they are not always used to express the same idea. Durant implies continuation ; pendant refers only to time without implying necessarily the idea of continuation ; thus, we should say : The enemy have quartered during Les ennemis se sont cantonnes du- the winter, rant l'hiver, if we mean that they have remained quartered during all the winter ; and, Les ennemis se sont cantonnes pendant l'hiver, if we mean only that they took their quarters during the PREPOSITION. 395 winter, without implying that they remained so during the whole time. 1434. 3d. Devant ought to be used only to signify in the presence of or opposite to; as, They have appeared before the Us ont parti devant le juge. judge. He lives opposite the church. II demeure devant l'eglise. And avant ought to be used but to express a relation of pri- ority of time and place ; as, He has arrived before me. II est arrive avant moi. The article is placed before the L'article est place avant le nom. noun. But usage, and even the Academy make devant refer to place, and avant refer to time only, and we must submit to their decision. 1435. A noun, as we have already said, may be governed by two prepositions, provided these two prepositions do not re- quire a different regimen ; thus, we should say, He who, according to circumstan- Un homrae qui, selon les circon- ces, writes for or against a party, stances, ecrit pour ou contre un is a contemptible man. parti, est un homme meprisable. 1436. But it would be wrong to say : Un homme qui e*crit, selon les circonstances, enfaveur ou contre un parti, est, &c. because pour and contre govern the same regimen ; and enfa- veur governs de after it, while contre does not. We have now to examine the use of prepositions with the article, their repetition, and their place. Of the Use of the Article with Prepositions. 1437. Prepositions being necessarily followed by a regimen, this regimen is itself accompanied by other words which com- plete and determine its meaning. Some of the prepositions require their regimen to be pre- ceded by the article, and some do not ; but there are others which sometimes require the article and sometimes not. This 396 FRENCH GRAMMAR. admission of the article depends on the meaning of the sen- tence being definite or indefinite. 1438. Rule 1st. The following prepositions require the use of the article before their regimen : Avant, before, Devant, before. Apres, after. Derriere, behind. Chez, at the house of. Durant, during. Dans, in. Pendant, it Depuis, since. En vers, vers, towards. Excepte, hors, except. Hormis, except. Nonobstant, notwithstanding. Parmi, among. Selon, according to. Sans, under. Suivant, it Touch ant, about. 1439. But when the nouns governed by these prepositions are definite in themselves, the article, not being necessary to give them that character; is then suppressed, as before pro- nouns, proper names of persons, cities, &c. ; thus, we say : At your house. In Paris. Under Henry IV. Chez vous. Dans Paris. Sous Henry IV. 1440. Rule 2d. The preposition en, in, is, except in a very few cases, never followed by an article ; as, To be in office. Etre en place. To fish in muddy water. Pecher en eau trouble. This business has been discussed be- Cette affaire a ete discutiee en plein fore the whole parliament. parlement. This woman is under her husband's Cette femme est en puissance de control. mari. He is in the way of succeeding. II est en passe de reussir. He acts as a king. II agit en roi. We say that en, in a very few cases, could be followed by the article ; they are the following : 1st. Before a noun singular beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; as, I have done this in the absence of J'ai fait cela en /'absence demon my father. pere. 2d. In some old expressions, consecrated by time ; as, In the presence of God. En la presence de Dieu. This law-suit has been acted upon Ce proces a 6te juge en la grande in the great hall. chambre. But in no case is this preposition ever followed by the arti- cle used in the plural. PREPOSITION. 397 1441. Rule 3d. The following prepositions sometimes require, and sometimes do not require, the article after them : A, De, Entre, Malgre, Pour, to. of. between. in spite of. for. Avec, Contre, Outre, Par, Sans, with. against. besides. by. without. Sur, upon. With the Article. Without the Article To play on the smooth. Jouer sur le velours. To be on foot. Etre sur pied. St. Paul says, that the wife should be subordinate to the authority of the husband. St. Paul veut qu'il y ait de la subor- dination entre la femme et le mari. Without the passions where would be the merit. Sans les passions ou serait le merite. This bundle has come by the mes- senger. Ce paquet est arrive par le messa- ges A little politeness does no harm between husband and wife. Un peu de facons ne gate rien entre mari et femme. To live without the passions, is to live without pleasure or pain. Vivre sans passions, c'est vivre sans plaisirs et sans peines. He goes only by fits and starts. II ne va que par sauts et par bonds. Of the Repetition of Prepositions. 1442. The prepositions, a, e?e, en, to, of, in, are invariably- repeated before each noun ; as, He owed his life to the clemency and the magnanimity of the con- queror. A true patriot is happy to serve his country, and to contribute to its glory. The same prejudices are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and even America. II dut la vie a la clemence et a la magnanimite du vainqueur. Un homme devoue a son pays est heureux de le servir et de contri- buer a sa gloire. Les memes prejuges existent en Europe, en Asie, en Afrique, et en Amerique. 1443. Other prepositions, and principally those of one syl- lable, are repeated when their regimens have no similarity in their signification ; as, In peace and in war. By strength and skill. With courage and inhumanity. 34 Dans la paix et dans la guerre. Par la. force et par Vadresse. Avec courage et avec inhumaniU, 398 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1444. On the contrary, they are not repeated when their regimens are synonymous, or nearly so : In effeminacy and idleness. Dans la mollesse et l'oisivete. By force and violence. Par la force et la violence. "With courage and intrepidity. Avec courage et intrdpidiU. Through dangers and obstacles. A travers les dangers et les obstacles. Of the Place of Prepositions. 1445. Prepositions have no fixed place in the French lan- guage ; when a word is governed by one of them, it is placed sometimes at the beginning, sometimes at the end, sometimes, again, in the middle of the sentence ; this word generally ex- presses a modification of another word ; it ought, then, to be placed so as to show clearly the relation which the mind has in view, and, provided the idea is expressed clearly, it matters not where the preposition is placed, the ear is the only guide, and must be consulted with care. 1446. Rule. Prepositions which, with their regimen, ex- press a circumstance of another word, ought, if possible, to be placed near the word which they thus modify ; as, "We see many people who, although On voit bien des gens qui, avec very witty, commit great faults. beaucoup d'esprit, commettent de grandes fautes. I have sent to the post-office the J'ai envoye a laposte les lettres que letters which you have written. vous avez ecrites. Do you think you can, by kindness, Pensez-vons pouvoir ramener, par reclaim those misguided minds ? la douceur, ces esprits egares ? 1447. If, in these sentences, we change the place of the prepositions, there will be an ambiguity, because we may say, with another meaning : Commettre des fautes avec esprit. Ecrire des lettres a la poste. Des esprits egares par la douceur. Therefore, when a preposition is used to modify, with its regimen, a preceding word, clearness must be consulted first, then the ear, and above all, ambiguity ought to be avoided. PREPOSITION. 399 1448. The use of prepositions, in order to be explained completely, would require volumes. We will give, hereafter, several long lists of the verbs and adjectives which require prepositions before their regimen, with illustrations for each case ; a laborious work, which is not to be found so complete in any other grammar, and was much needed by those who wish to acquire a correct knowledge of the language. We will now enter into some details about this difficult matter, and follow in the steps of Boinvillers, who has said all that it is important to know of the subject. We have already said, that prepositions determine really the relation which exists between two propositions, one being the antecedent, the other the complement ; we have also de- scribed the different relations established by them ; we will now examine some of the most difficult cases for foreigners to understand fully. 1449. Of the Preposition de, of. When a noun depends upon another, or upon an infinitive, expressing a state of dependency, the preposition, of, de, is generally used to express this kind of relation ; as, The sight of nature delights me. Le spectacle de la nature m'en- chante. I admire the greatness of the works J'admire la grandeur des ouvrages of God. de Dieu. I do honor the power of the King of J'honore la puissance du Roi des kings. rois. Most men do not understand their La plupart des hommes ehtendent interests well, for instead of quiet- rnal leurs interets; au lieu de la ness, they seek honors which tranquillite, ils recherchent les destroy the peace of life. honneurs qui detruisent le repos de la vie. Kings have around them crowds of Les rois ont autour c?'eux quantite courtiers and flatterers, who think dc courtisans et de flatteurs, qui of nothing but to ruin them, pro- ne cherchent que les moyens de vided they are weak enough to les perdre, quand ils ont la fai- lend their ears to their deceiving blesse de preter l'oreille a leurs adulations. adulations mensongeres. (We must not forget that du is used for de le, and des for de les.) 1450. Infraction de. It would be wrong to say, an infraction against the law, une infraction contre la loi ; for we say, infringe, violate, trans- 400 FRENCH GRAMMAR. gress a law, as well as a violation, a transgression of the law ; why not say, then, an infraction of the law, une infraction de la hi ; we find in D'Aguesseau, the great chancellor of France : It is to the law alone that man is C'est a la loi seule que Thomme responsible for the infractions of doit compte des infractions de la the law itself. loi meme. Some persons say, for an infraction of the law, une infrac- tion a la loi ; in using such an expression, they mistake the word infraction for contravention, which requires to, a, after it, because we say, with the infinitive, contrevenir a la loi. 1451. Nouns preceded by an Adjective, and used in a partitive sense. When a noun, taken in a partitive sense, is preceded by an adjective, the preposition, of, de, alone, without the article, is used before it, whether the noun be employed as a nomina- tive or a regimen ; as, Numerous flocks were wandering in De nombreux troupeaux erraient dans the valley. la plaine. We saw young shepherds seated Nous vimes de jeunes bergers assis under high poplars. sous de hauts peupliers. 1452. Indefinite Pronouns quelque chose, quoi, quoi que ce soit, rien, &c. The indefinite pronouns and nouns, quelque chose, some- thing, quoi, what, quoi que ce soit, whatever it may be, rien, nothing, are always followed by de, of, when preceding an adjective : as, Something majestic. Quelque chose de majestueux. What is more noble than this con- Quoi de plus noble que cette con- duct, duite. I could not obtain from them any Je ne n"ai pu obtenir d'eux quoi que thing good. ce soit dehon. I know nothing more delicate. Je ne connais rien de plus delicat. 1453. Cardinal numbers preceded by en and followed by de before an Adjective. When a cardinal number has for its antecedent the pronoun en, the adjective or past participle which follows the number ought to be preceded by of, de : as, PREPOSITION. 401 Out of thirty battles which were Sur trente batailles qui furent liv- fought, there was not one lost. rees, il n'y en eut pas une deperdue. Out of three hundred young men Sur trois cents jeunes gens qui ont who have studied, there are not etudie,il n'y ena, yas trois dliabiles three able to compose in Latin. a composer en Latin. But if the cardinal number had to be followed by a noun instead of an adjective, the phrase would be defective, and should be constructed differently : as, Out of two hundred inhabitants, we Sur deux cents habitants, nous en counted one hundred and thirty con tames cent trente qui se firent of them who made themselves soldats. soldiers. We could not say : Nous en comptames cent trente de soldats. 1454. De used instead of parmi, among. De is often used instead of parmi, among : as in the fol- lowing sentences, Among twenty crowns which were De vingt ecus qui nous furent remis, paid us, we found fifteen counter- il s'en trouva quinze de faux. feit. One of my friends has gone to Un de mes amis est alle en Ame- America. rique. None of the passengers have per- Pas un des passagers n'a peri. ished. Who of you would dread the rage Qui de vous craindrait les fureurs de of Neptune? Neptune? None of us have foreseen the return Personne de nous n'avait prevu le of the king. retour du roi. Cato passed for the wisest man Caton passait pour le plus sage des among the Romans. Romains. 1455. De used for avant, before. De is still used instead of avant, before : as, I do not believe he will come before Je ne crois pas qu'il vienne de huit eight days. jours. 1456. De used for depuis, since. I have not slept for (since) ten Je n'ai pas dormi de dix jours, days. (Not much used.) 1457. Familiar expressions used loith de. We also use de in the following familiar expression : Behold, here is a new thing now! En voila bien d'un autre, mainte- nant. . ' 34* 402 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Many people write the same expression in the feminine, but it is a fault ; we find in Gresset : En voici bien d une autre, eh ! dis moi, je te prie. and in Chabanon : Moi femme ! oh ! pour le coup, en voici bien aVune autre. Although de is often used instead of parmi, this last word must not be employed instead of de. Thus we could not say : Of all the senses which I have just Parmi touts les caracteres que je described the best is taste. viens de decrire le meilleur est la saveur. because parmi is only applied in French to living beings ; whereas, de is used for all cases. Thus we say : De tous les caracteres que je viens de decrire, le meilleur est la saveur. Of all the novels which have been De touts les romans qui ont paru published for many years, I have depuis bien des annees je n'en not found one that pleased me so ai trouve aucun qui m'ait autant much as Don Quixote. plu que Don Quichotte. 1458. De used with plus and moins, more, less, instead of que, that. De must be used after the adverbs plus and moins, more, less, where the term of comparison, which follows the adverb of quantity, represents some precise and positive measure of this same quantity ; as, This cellar appears longer by half Ce caveau parait plus long que a foot than the other. l'autre tfun demi-pied. This man is all of a head shorter Cet homme est plus petit que vous than you. de toute la tete. This book is not worth more than Ce livre ne vaut pas plus de deux two dollars. gourdes. This room is not less than twenty Cette chambre n'a pas plus de feet long. vingt pieds de longueur. The first sentence meaning, that, the cellar has a greater number of half feet in length than the other by one half foot. The second sentence meaning that measuring the man by the length of a head, he was a whole head less in height than the other. The third sentence meaning, that, the book is not worth a greater number of dollars than two. PREPOSITION. 403 The fourth sentence meaning that the room has not a less number of feet in its length than twenty. It would be a fault to say : Ce livre ne vaut pas pins que deux gourdes Cette chambre n'a pas plus que vingt pieds de longueur, &c. We also say : You are much taller than I. Vous etes plus grand que moi de beaucoup. 1459. De used after plutot que, rather than. De is used after the conjunction que, that, preceded by plu- tot, rather ; as, I will renounce life and its pleas- ures, rather than commit such an act of injustice. May God let me perish rather than permit idleness and voluptuous- ness to invade my heart. Je renoncerai a la vie, a ses dou- ceurs, plutot que de commettre une telle injustice. Que Dieu me laisseperirpZu/df^we de souffrir que la mollesse et la volupte s'emparentde mon cceur. 1460. De used with valoir mieux, to be better, followed by que. De is also used with valoir mieux, to be better, followed by que; as, It is better to suppress a witty ex- pression, which is about to es- cape our lips, than to pain any one by it. It is a hundred times better to run the risk of incurring ingratitude, than to fail to discharge the du- ties of humanity. II vaut mieux etouffer un bon mot qui est pres de nous echapper, que de faire de la peine a qui que ce soit. E vaut mieux cent fois s'exposer a faire des ingrats, que de manquer aux devoirs de l'humanite. 1461. De used with avant que. De is used after avant que before an infinitive ; as, We must think before acting. I will bring you back to the island of Ithaca before going to Epirus. We must pay our debts, the salary of our workmen, the wages of our servants, before being char- itable. Before writing books, learn how to think. II faut penser avant que rf'agir. Je vous ramenerai a Ithaque avant que d'aller en Epire. II faut payer ses dettes, le salaire de ses ouvriers,les gages de ses domestiques, avant que de faire des charites. Avant que d'ecrire, apprenez a penser. We shall see, speaking of the conjunctions when and if, 404 FRENCH GRAMMAR. where the conjunction que may be suppressed in sentences sim- ilar to the preceding. 1462. De used in the phrases, de peur de, de crainte de, for fear of or that. It is by a reprehensible neglect that some writers omit the use of de, of, in expressions similar to these : de peur que, de crainte que, for fear that ; it would be wrong to write, with a well known author, Let us not judge others with too Ne jugeons pas les autres avec much severity, for fear that they trop de severite, crainte qu'ils ne should retaliate upon us with the nous rendent la pareille; same spirit ; it ought to be de crainte. We must also say : Pride does not approve of any thing, for fear of appearing sub- missive to the opinions of others. Charles the Seventh abstained from eating for fear of being poison- ed by his wife, and absolutely died for fear of dying. L'orgueil n'approuve rien de peur t/'avoir Pair de se soumettre a l'opinion d'autrui. Charles Sept s'abstint de manger de peur d'etre, or par la peur d'etre, empoisonne par sa femme, et se laissa mourir de peur de mourir. 1463. De used expletively. De, in many expressions, is merely expletive, has no distinct functions, could be dispensed with, and is used only as an idiom arising from habit and usage, as in the following sentences : An honest father. A queer genius. One woufd have said he was a real devil when he recited his poetry. There were thirty killed, and one hundred and sixty wounded. If I was you, I would not bear that. The month of September is the most pleasant of the year. The river Rhone is the most rapid. It is a crime not to acknowledge a service. Although you have to come, let it not prevent you from writing to us. What is more glorious than for one to conquer his passions ? I am not so foolish as to aspire to the grandeur of the earth. Un honnete homme de p£re. Un drole de corps. On aurait dit cfun demoniaque, quand il recitait ses vers. II y en eut trente de tues et cent soixante de blesses. Si j'etais de vous je ne souffrirais pas cela. Le mois de Septembre est le plus agreable de l'annee. Le fleuve du Rhone est le plus ra- pide. C'est un crime que de ne pas re- connaitre un service. Quoique vous deviez venir,ne lais- sez pas de nous ecrire. Quoi de plus beau que de vaincre ses passions ? Je ne suis pas si fou que ePambition- ner les grandeurs de la terre. PREPOSITION. 405 It is a great misery to have law- C'estunegrandemisereque d'avoir suits. des proces. You are very cruel to treat him Vous etes bien cruel de le trailer thus. ainsi. It is not enough to be clear, we C'est peu que cTetre clair, il faut must be precise. etre precis. I have not yet kissed him to-day. Je ne l'ai pas encore embrasse d'aujourd'hui. 1464. Difference between ne faire que, and ne faire que de. There is a great difference between the two following ex- pressions, ne faire que and ne faire que de. They are used one for the other from want of knowing their true significa- tion ; the following sentences will show how they differ : She has just left the house. Elle ne fait que de sortir. She is constantly going in and out Elle ne fait que sortir de la mai- of the house. son. You do nothing but sing instead of Vous ne faites que chanter au lieu working. de travailler. We had just finished this reading Nous ne faisions que J'achever when you came in. cette lecture quand vous etez en- tre. 1465. Rendre justice, avoir tort, avoir raison, fyc. The expressions, rendre justice, to be just, avoir tort, to be wrong, avoir raison, to be right, perdre courage, to lose courage, and other similar phrases, being taken in an absolute meaning, that is to say, conveying to the mind but one absolute idea, ought to be written, You give yourself very little credit, Vous ne vous rendez^?as justice, and not Vous vous rendez peu de justice. You are more wrong than he is, Vous avez plus tort que lui, and not Vous avez plus de tort que lui. They are right to appreciate lis ont bien raison d'estimer la science, science, and not Vous avez bien de la raison d'estimer la science. We should be less dispirited, Nous perdrions moins courage, and not Nous perdrions moins de courage, because in all these sentences the adverbs of quantity could be 406 FRENCH GRAMMAR. placed after the compound expressions so as to modify them ; as, Vous vous rendez justice peu. Vous avez tort plus que lui. lis ont raison beaucoup, &c. Nous perdrions courage moins, &c. which shows that the adverb modifies the compound word as a whole, instead of acting only on a part of it. 1466. ldiomatical expressions in which de ought not to be used. Several writers are wrong when they use the preposition de in the following idiomatical expressions, which serve to express a moral difference between persons and things ; as, They are very far from having ex- II s'en faut beaucoup (and not de pressed all that may be said on beaucoup) qu'on ait tout dit sur this subject. cette matiere. How far are the modern historians Combien (and not de combien) s'en from being equal to Herodotus faut-il que les historiens mod- and Titus Livius. ernes egalent Herodote et Tite Live. They were very near losing their II s'en fallut bien peu (and not de case. bien peu) qu'ils ne perdissent leur proces. Voltaire has said also : Before Peter the Great, Russia was II s'en fallait beaucoup, avant Pierre very far from having as large a le Grand, que la Russie fut aussi population as it has now. peuplee qu'elle l'est de nos jours. Neither is it more correct to say : il s'en fallait de beaucoup, than it would be to say : il s'en fallait de bien, which expres- sion is rejected by all ; and besides, the analysis shows, that as the pronoun en means de cela, of it, the verb falloir, if de were used before the adverb, would have two different relations, each governed by de, of, which is against the general rules of the language, as we have explained before. 1467. But when we wish to express that the quantity or the magnitude of any thing, (modified by the adverb,) which ought to be found in an object, is deficient, then we must use the preposition de, of; as, You think you have returned me Vous croyez m'avoir tout rendu, all, but you are far from having mais il s'en faut de beaucoup. done it. PREPOSITION. 407 If I am not as tall as you, there is Si je ne suis pas aussi grand que but very little difference. vous, il ne s'en faut pas de beau- coup, or il s'en faut de peu. This vase was not far from being II s'en falJait de peu que ce vase full. ne fut plein. This page is very near ended. II s'en faut de peu que cette page soit terminee. Because in these sentences the adverbs have really their character of adverbs of quantity, acting upon objects which may be actually counted for more or less, and not referring to a moral difference between persons and things which cannot, in fact, be appreciated in the same manner ; and in such cases these adverbs are invariably accompanied by the partitive prep- osition de, of. The above sentences, if constructed differently, would present clearly the necessity of the preposition de ; as, Vous croyez, &c. mais il manque beaucoup de ce qu'il faudrait pour cela (en). Si je ne suis pas, &c. il ne manque pas beaucoup, or il manque peu, de ce qu'il faudrait pour cela (en). 1468. De preceded by lequel des deux or similar expressions. We must not say, as many often do : Which was the more intrepid, Ce- Lequel des deux fut le plus intrepide, sar or Alexander ? de Cesar ou d' Alexandre ? The following analysis demonstrates the fault of this con- struction, which, although much in use, is absurd ; in this sen- tence we distinguish three distinct propositions ; as, 1st. Who was the more intrepid ? Qui fut le plus intrepide ? 2d. Was Cesar more intrepid than Cesar fut-il plus intrepide qu' Alex- Alexander ? andre ? 3d. Was Alexander more intrepid Alexandre fut-il plus intrepide que than Cesar ? Cesar ? Thus, Cesar and Alexander are each the subject of a prop- osition ; but the subject or nominative of a proposition cannot be preceded by a preposition, it ought to be used purely by itself ; therefore, we must write : Lequel des deux fut le plus brave, Cesar ou Alexandre ? It was thus that the Latins were accustomed to speak ; it is thus that the English, Italians, and all those who have a lan- guage based upon reason, do speak in our days, and as their ex- ample is right, we must follow it. 408 FRENCH GRAMMAR. But the preposition de, of, ought to be retained in the fol- lowing sentence : Which of the two have historians Duquel des deux, les historiens ont- spoken of most honorably, Trajan ils parle le plus honorablement, or Marcus Aurelius ? de Trajan ou de Marc-Aurele ? because we find, in the analysis, Have they spoken more honor- ably of Marcus Aurelius than of Trajan ? Thus, duquel des deux, de Trajan, de Marc-Aurele, are governed by the verb to speak, which requires the preposition de, of, after it. By comparing this sentence, beginning with duquel, &c, with the preceding, which begins with lequel, and seeing that the first requires de before its complement when the other does not, we may conclude, that whenever a sentence constructed as they are begins with duquel, the complement takes de ; when, on the contrary, it begins with lequel, the complement takes no preposition. 1469. An Infinitive, being the Nominative of a sentence, is never preceded by De. Nothing is more ridiculous than to place the preposition de at the beginning of a sentence which has an infinitive for its nominative ; the infinitive, then, following the same rule as the noun, which cannot, in any case, be preceded by a preposition when employed as a nominative ; therefore, the following sen- tences of a celebrated preacher are wrong : To wish to sound the heart of De vouloir sonder le cceur des sou- kings, would be to trespass on verains, ce serait entreprendre sur the rights of him who sounds the les droits de celui qui sonde les abysses. abimes. To place limits on his power, was De mettre des homes a son pouvoir, to limit the happiness of this mon- e'etait vouloir en mettre au bon- archy. heur de cette monarchie. They ought to begin with, Vouloir sonder, &c, and, Mettre des bomes, &c. These sentences ought not to be confounded with the fol- lowing, which requires o/before the infinitive : A man ought to be ashamed not to De manquerk sa parole, touthomme keep his word, doit avoir honte, because the infinitive, instead of being used as a nominative, is PREPOSITION. 409 there governed by the verbal expression avoir honte, which re- quires de, of, after it ; this becomes evident by reversing the phrase ; as, Tout homme doit avoir honte de manquer a sa parole. The other construction, beginning with the infinitive, gives sometimes more strength and brilliancy to the expression. 1470. Prendre une alUe de traverse. It is a fault of language to say, as many people do : Let us take this cross road, this Prenons ce chemin de traverse, cette cross path ; allee de traverse ; because we cannot say une allee de traverse, as we say une al- Ue de peupliers, meaning planted with poplars, the preposition de having a signification which does not suit the mind, in the former, when it does in the latter ; we must say, then, Prenons ce chemin, cette allee qui traverse ; or, still better : Prenons ce passage. 1471. Manquer oVunyeu de jugement. It is wrong to say : Your mind was not quite right Vous avez manque d'un peu efejuge- this case. ment dans cette affaire. It ought to be : Vous avez manque unpen de jugement dans cette affaire. The former means : You have been deficient in a little of judgment, which is not what is meant ; and the latter : You have been a little inconsiderate in judging, which conveys exactly the idea the speaker has in his mind. We have, at great length, shown how and with what adjec- tives the preposition de, of, ought to be used, and we refer the learner to that part of the grammar which relates to them. 35 410 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The past participles : Accuse, accused, Fache, displeased Charge, charged, Fatigue, tired, Cheri, f cherished, Ravi, delighted, Comble, crowded, Rempli, filled, Ennuye, wearied, Satisfait, satisfied, and many others, which must not be mistaken for the same words used adjectively, govern the preposition de, of. 1472. Susceptible de. We say, with propriety : Youth is capable of receiving all La jeunesse est susceptible de rece- sorts of impressions. voir toute sorte d 'impressions. But this adjective must not be used to express that a person is able to do a thing, or has the capacity, or the necessary quali- ties for obtaining what he aims at, as in the following : This person is able to fill such a sit- Cette personne est susceptible de rem- uation. plir cette situation. It ought to be, est capable de. 1473. Of the Preposition a, to. We have already explained what are the adjectives and verbs governing the preposition a, to. The past, participles : Adonne, addicted, Expose, exposed, Exerce, exercised, Permis, permitted, which must not be mistaken for the adjectives expressed by the same words, govern the preposition a, to. 1474. Born for, Ne pour. We say ne pour, born for ; as, Alexander was bora to cause the Alexandre etait ne pour le malheur misery of kings contemporary with des rois ses contemporains. him. 1475. Irritated at, Irrite contre. We say irrite contre, irritated against ; as, PREPOSITION. 411 The neighbouring nations were irri- Les nations voisines etaient irriUes tated against him. contre lui. J 476. Hardi a, temeraire de, ingenieux a. The adjectives hardi, bold, ingenieux, skilful, and temeraire, bold, have no other regimen than a verb in the infinitive ; as, You are bold to undertake that Vous etes hardi a entreprendre tout which is above your strength. ce qui est au-dessus de vos forces. We are skilful in creating ourselves Nous sommes ingenieux a nous troubles. cre~er des peines. You are very bold to solicit an office Vous etes bien t&meraire de solliciter for which you are not qualified. un emploi auquel vous ne conve- nez pas. As to adjectives which have a different regimen from a, to, see what we have said in the article on adjectives. 1477. To unite, Allier. The verb allier, to unite, governs the preposition a, to ; as, He knew how to unite wisdom to II sut allier la douceur a l'eloquence. eloquence. Virtue cannot unite with crime. La vertu ne peut s'allier au crime. She has married into one of the Elle s'est alliie a une des plus riches richest families in London. families de Londres. 1478. Avoir affaire a, avoir affaire de. Avoir affaire a, to have to deal with, and avoir affaire de, to have need of, must not be used indifferently, the one for the other ; we should say : We have to deal with hard people. Nous avons affaire a des gens diffi- ciles. We must take care now whom we On doit prendre garde aujourd'hui have to deal with. a qui Von a affaire. We are in want of money. Nous avons affaire ^'argent. What do I want of all these suck- Qu'ai-je affaire de touts ces para- ers ? sites ? 1479. Avoir duplaisir a. Avoir du plaisir, to take pleasure, governs the preposition a 1 to, and not de, as some writers have used it ; thus, we say : We find true delight in assisting II y a un vrai plaisir a obliger un an honest man. honnete homme. 412 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1480. Avoir egard a, avoir des egards pour. Avoir egard must not be mistaken for avoir des egards ; the former signifies, to take into consideration ; as, Be so kind as to take my request in- Veuillez avoir dgard a ma priere. to consideration. We must always take into conside- On doit toujours avoir dgard au sexe ration the age and sex of those et a l'age des personnes a qui l'on we address. parle. The latter signifies, to have respect for ; as, A well bred child always has re- Un enfant bien eleve a toujours des spect for his parents. egards pour ses parents. Shame on those who have no re- Honte a ceux qui n'ontpasd'^ganfe spect for old age, pour la vieillesse. 1481. Manquer oV egards. Manquer d'egards, to be wanting in respect, follows the same rule as avoir des egards, and governs pour. 1482. Changer, meaning to barter. Changer, meaning to barter, governs the preposition contre, against, instead of pour, for ; as, He has bartered his furniture for II a change ses meubles contre des pictures of great value. tableaux de grand prix. We shall barter this old edition for a Nous changerons cette vieille edition new one. contre une nouvelle. 1483. Echanger and troquer, to exchange. Echanger and troquer, to exchange, are generally used in an absolute sense ; as, They have exchanged prisoners. On a ichangd les prisonniers. I have exchanged my old coat. J'ai troqud mon vieil habit. 1484. Changer, meaning to transform, to change. Changer, meaning to transform, to change, to convert, gov- erns the preposition en, in ; as, You vainly flatter yourself that you Vous vous flattez vainement de chan- can transform all metals into gold . ger touts les metaux en or. Christ changed water into wine. Le Christ a change 1 l'eau en vin. PREPOSITION. 413 1485. Commuer, to commute. Commuer, meaning to commute, to change, governs also the preposition en, in ; as, The king has commuted the sen- Le roi a commud la peine de cinq ans tence of five years of hard labor to de travaux forces en celle de cinq that of five years in jail. ans de prison. 1486. Changer, meaning to leave one thing for another. Changer, meaning to leave one thing for another, governs the preposition de, of ; as, You ought to change your language Vous devriez changer de langage et and conduct. de conduite. 1487. Comparer a, and not avec. It is more correct to say, comparer a, to compare to, than comparer avec, to compare with. This latter forms a sort of pleonasm, because comparer comes from the Latin comparare, which is composed of par are cum; consequently the preposition avec, cum, with, used with the verb is a repetition of the same word included in the verb itself ; thus, we must write : How ! art thou not ashamed to compare thyself with the great king ? Let us compare the works of nature with those of man. There is no church to be compared with that of St. Peter. If time compared with time, measure with measure, and term with term, amounts to nothing, what will it be if we compare time with eternity, where there is neither measure nor term ? Quoi ! tu n'as pas honte de te com- parer au grand roi ! Comparons les ceuvres de la nature aux ouvrages de l'homme. II n'y a pas d'eglise a. comparer a celle de St. Pierre. Si le temps compare au temps, la mesure a la mesure, le terme au terme, se reduit a rien, que sera- ce si l'on compare le temps a. l'eternite qui n'a ni mesure ni terme ? 1488. Par comparaison a, and not, en comparaison de. We ought to say, par comparaison a, and not, en comparai- son de ; therefore we write : He made himself but little con- spicuous during the political trou- bles, at least in comparison with his three colleagues. 35* II se fit peu remarquer pendant les temps de troubles, du moins par comparaison a ses trois collegues. 414 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1489. Condamner a, and not en. The verb condamner, lo condemn, governs only the pre- position a, to : as, They were condemned to ten years Us furent condamnis a dix ans of exile. d'exil. They sentenced this impudent slan- On condamna cet impudent calom- derer to pay a fine of three hun- niateur a trois cents gourdes dred dollars. d'amende. It would be sinning against the language to say, as some lawyers do : On condamna cet impudent calomniateur en trois cents gourdes d'amende. Us furent condamnis en dix ans d'exil. 1490. Confier a. Formerly it was customary to say, confier en, to trust to, speaking of inanimate things, but now this mode of expression is banished from the language, and we must always say, con- fier a : as, We must not trust our secrets to On ne doit pas confier ses secrets a every body. tout le monde. Into what hands have you trusted A quelles mains avez vous confii ce this precious pledge ? precieux depot ? 1491. Se confier, mettre sa confiance, prendre confiance en. But se confier, to have confidence, mettre sa confiance, to place confidence, prendre confiance, to rely on, require the preposition en, in : as, Happy is the king who loves his Heureux le roi qui aime son peuple, people, who is loved by them, qui en est aime, qui se confie en who has confidence in his neigh- ses voisins, et qui a leur confi- bours, and possesses their confi- ance. dence. He who places too much confidence Celui qui met une trop grande cow- in himself exposes himself to the fiance en soi-meme s'abandonne a mercy of the wicked. la discretion des mechants. Do you think that he relied on the Croyez-vous quHl ait pris confiance man with whom he was asso- en celui qu'il a associe a ses tra- ciated in his works ? vaux ? 1492. Se cramponner a, and not sur. It is wrong to say : We must cling on the walls, II faut se cramponner sur la muraille, because sur means upon, at the top of, which implies contra- PREPOSITION. 415 diction with the signification of the verb, for, once on the top of the wall, it is unnecessary to cling to it ; and, besides, this verb comes from the noun crampon, which is a sort of iron hook stuck to the wall, in order to help a person to mount it, ex- cluding entirely the idea of upon. We should therefore say : II faut se cramponner a la muraille. 1493. Grimper sur, to climb. The verb grimper, to climb, on the contrary, conveys the idea of getting at the greatest height of an object, whether it be a tree, a wall, or a mountain, and consequently requires upon after it. We must therefore say : It is always dangerous to climb a II est toujours dangereux de grim- tree, per sur les arbres. How have you succeeded in climb- Comment avez-vous fait pour grim- ing to the top of that peak ? per sur le sommet de ce pic ? It is, then, wrong to say : Grimper la muraille, ) Grimper la montagne, > without the preposition sur. Grimper l'arbre. ) 1494. Deliberer sur, touchant, to deliberate upon, on. Lawyers, magistrates, and people of similar avocations, are accustomed to say : To deliberate a business, Deliberer une affaire, meaning, to take cognizance of it ; but the verb deliberer is intransitive, and consequently requires its object to be preceded by a preposition, which is sur, upon, touchant, touching ; therefore we must say : We shall deliberate to-morrow on Nous dilibererons demain sur or this affair. touchant cette affaire. 1495. Distinguer de, to distinguish from. Authors do not agree, whether the verb distinguer, to dis- tinguish, should be followed by the preposition de, from, alone, or accompanied by avec, with. The Academy uses them both, and we should hardly dare to oppose such high authority ; but not perceiving the necessity of this, as the two together Discerner, to discern. Separer, Ecarter, to deviate. Eloigner, Distraire, to divert. Demeler, 416 FRENCH GRAMMAR, have in reality only the signification of de, of, we, for our own use, would employ this preposition alone, and say : Let us know how to distinguish our Apprenons a distinguer nos vrais true friends from those who are amis de (and not d'avec) ceux not such. qui ne le sont pas. The Jews know how to distinguish Les Juifs savent distinguer la fausse false from true coin. monnaie de (and not d'avec) la bonne. The same remark applies to the following verbs : to separate, to remove, to discern. 1496. Embarrasser de, pour. Must we say, to be embarrassed with or for, etre embar- rasse de or pour ? as in the following : I am embarrassed to know what use Je suis embarrasse" de or pour l'em- to make of my money. ploi de mon argent. In order to fix the proper use of these two prepositions, de and pour, we must consider whether the embarrassment arises chiefly from the thing spoken of, or more particularly from circumstances attached to it ; in the first instance de is used, in the other, pour, for : as, I am not embarrassed with my Je ne suis pas embarrasse de mon money, but I am embarrassed for argent, mais je le suis pour l'em- the use which I ought to make ploi que je dois en faire. of it. I am not embarrassed about trans- Je ne suis pas embarrasse. de traduire lating Juvenal, but I should find Juvenal, mais je le serais pour en some difficulty in translating some traduire certains passages devant of its passages before modest peo- des personnes chastes. pie. He would feel embarrassed to an- II serait embarrasse" de vous repondre swer you at once, but he would sur le champ, mais il ne le serait not be so if he had time to think. pas pour vous repondre a loisir. If the embarrassment falls more directly on the object spoken of, we must use sur, on, instead of de or pour : as, I am embarrassed about the step I Je suis embarrasse" sur le parti que have to take. j'ai a prendre. But in no case ought the preposition a, to, to be used with the verb embarrasser ; therefore it is wrong to say : We should be much embarrassed to Nous serions bien embarrasses a lo- lodge so many people. ger tant de monde. PREPOSITION. 417 It ought to be, pour loger. 1497. Se familiariser avec, to familiarize oneh self with. It is a gross fault to say, to familiarize one's self to crime, se familiariser an crime ; this verb requires avec, with. This fault is the result of this verb being improperly used for s'ac- coutumer, to accustom one's self, which requires the preposition to ; thus we must say : By often speaking- a language we En parlant souvent une langue, nous familiarize ourselves with its nous familiarisons avec les tour- proper construction. nures qui lui sont propres. and not aux tournures. 1498. Eire familier avec. Many persons commit a fault of another kind, quite as bad as the preceding, by saying : He has been for a long time fami- II est depuis longtems familier avec liarized to tell lies. le mensonge. It is familiarise avec, &c, which ought to be employed here ; or, changing the construction : Le mensonge lui est depuis longtems familier. 1499. Se fier, to give faith, requires a, to. Se fier, meaning to put faith, requires the preposition a, to, after it : as, This gentleman is a man of honor, Monsieur est homme d'honneur, I put faith in his word. je me fie a sa parole. He who puts faith in everybody Celui qui se fie a tout le monde veut wishes to be deceived. bien etre trompe. We do not admit the use of en after se fier, and we think that those who do so mistake this verb for se confer. 1500. Se fier, meaning to depend upon, requires sur. When the verb se fier means to depend upon, it is better to employ with it the preposition sur, upon, rather than en, in : as, Caesar depended upon his good for- Cesar se fiait sur sa bonne fortune, tune, which had never deserted qui ne l'avait jamais abandonne. him. How many people there are who Combien de gens se fient trop sur depend too much upon their own leur propres forces ! strength ! 418 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1501. Lier, meaning to tie, requires a, to. The verb lier, to tie, to bend, governs the preposition a, to : as, You ought to tie the goat to this II fallait lier la chevre a cet arbre. tree. Great interests tie me to your father. De grands interets me lient a votre pere. We are bound to the king by a Nous sommes lies au roi par un solemn oath. serment solemnel. 1502. Lier, meaning to acquaint icith, requires avec, with. But the verb Her, meaning to acquaint with, requires avec after it : as, I intend to become acquainted with J'ai dessein de me Her avec votre your family. famille. We have been acquainted for years Nous sommes lies depuis longtems with all that is literary in Europe. avec tout ce qu'il y a de litteraire en Europe. We say also : Acquaintance with men of genius Les liaisons avec les hommes de cannot but be profitable. genie ne peuvent etre que profita- bles. 1503. Marier, joindre, unir, to marry, to join, to unite, require a, to. The verbs marier, to marry, joindre, to join, unir, to unite, are of the same kind as the preceding, and require to, after them : as, We must marry her to a wise and II faut la marier oun jeune homme intelligent young man. sage et intelligent. The vine is well married to the La vigne se marie tres bien a l'or- young elm. meau. If you wish to marry them together Si vous vonlez les unir l'un a l'autre I will join to the portion of the je joindrai a la dot de la mariee bride a handsome present. un riche present de noces. 1504. Meier a, avec, to mix with, among. The verb meter requires the preposition a, to, when it means to join, to unite ; but it requires avec, with, when it signifies to mix, to mingle : as, In joining the crowd one is seen En se melant a la foule, on n'est only by few. appergu que d'un petit nombre de personnes. We must know how to unite what II faut savoir meler 1' utile a l'agre- is useful to what is agreeable. able. PREPOSITION. 419 This silk is mixed with the thread. Cette soie est melee avec le fil. We must mix water with wine. II faut meter l'eau avec le vin. He mixed an antidote with the II mela de l'antidote avec le poison, poison. 1505. Mettre apres, for mettre a. A most barbarous expression has found its way into the mouths of many well-bred people ; it is this : Put the horses to the coach, Mettez les chevaux apres la voi- ture. which means, Put the horses behind the carriage. This phrase ought to be : Mettez les chevaux a la voiture. Yet we say, in a familiar manner : They have been for many days lis sont depuis longtems apres ce making this great work. grand travail. But this expression is as wrong as the preceding ; it ought to be constructed as follows : lis sont depuis longtems occupees a ce grand travail. 1506. Occuper, to occupy, to employ, requires to. The verb occuper has two distinct meanings. When it signi- fies to be occupied, with an idea of work attached to it, it re- quires the use of the preposition a, to ; as, We must help the poor by employ- II faut secourir le pauvre, en Toe- ing them in useful things. cupant it des choses utiles. Why do you occupy yourself with Pourquoi vous occupez-vous a l'e- foreign languages before learn- tude des langues etrangeres, ing your own maternal tongue ? avant d'avoir appris votre langue maternelle ? 1507. Occuper, meaning to think of, requires de. But when occuper means to think of, it governs the pre- position de ; as, You trouble yourself too much Vous vous occupez trop de ce qui se about what is passing in the city. passe dans la ville. A miser thinks only of his riches. L'avare ne s'occupe que de ses ri- chesses. 420 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1508. Amuser a, de. The verb amuser, to amuse, follows the same rule, according to its signification ; thus, we say : This young man takes pleasure in Ce jeune homme s'amuse still more so. Si, so. Aussi, as. Moins, less. Universellement, universally, generally, &c. Generalement, (( u Doucement, softly, kindly. Assurement, assuredly, certainly. Particulierement, particularly. Principalement, principally, &c. Surtout, above all, especially. Apres tout, after all. Au contraire, on the contrary, on the reverse, &c 1653. Of Interrogative Adverbs. Ou, where. D'ou, whence. ADVERB. 465 Quand, when. Combien, how much, how many, &c. Combien de fois, how many times. Comment, how. Pourquoi, why. 1654. Having thus, at great length, shown what the ad- verbs are, we have now to explain how they must be used ; for it is not unimportant whether they be placed before or after the words which they modify. The nature of the adverb is elliptical ; it is used generally as an abbreviation ; it is a sort of proposition by itself, since we find in it not only a separate idea, as we do in the noun, pronoun, article, adjective, and preposition, but an entire and complete sense. It is employed not only to express some circumstance of time and place, but also a modification ; this modification being produced, not only by a quality merely de- clarative, but by an active quality expressed by a verb, or even by a passive quality ; it is consequently more frequently em- ployed to qualify a verb, than an adjective. We may per- ceive, then, that the adverb must never be too far from the adjective, whose extent of signification it ought to restrain, or from the verb itself, which it is to modify. 1655. Of the Place of the Adverb. Adverbs, as we have said, modify verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. Let us see what is their place in regard to these words. 1656. \st Rule. The adverb is generally placed after the verb in the simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and the past participle in the compound : as, The best informed man, is gener- L'homme le mieux informe est or- ally he who thinks the least of dinairement celui qui pense le plus himself. modestement de lui-meme. Have you ever seen a more tedious Avez-xous jamais vu un plus ennu- pedant ? yeux pedant ? 466 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1657. Remark. We always place after the verb the com- pound adverbs , or adverbial expressions : as, This is the fashion. C'est a la mode. He has acted in accordance with his II a agi consiquemment a ses princi- principles. pes, or consequemment. We also place after the verb adverbs which designate time in a relative manner : as, One ruins his health by working On se mine la sante a travailler late. tard. One must go to bed and get up On doit se coucher de bonne heure et early. se lever matin. 1658. Exception 1st. Adverbs of arrangement are placed either before or after the verbs, as well as those which express time in a fixed and determinate manner ; thus we may say : We must first do our duty, secondly Nous devons premidrement faire seek honest pleasures. notre devoir, secondement chercher des plaisirs honnetes. The weather is fine to-day, it will Aujourd'hui il fait beau, demain il rain to-morrow. pleura. Or, H fait beau aujourd'hiii, il pleuvra demain. 1659. Remark. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the monosyllabic adverbs are placed either before or after this infinitive ; thus we may say : To sing well. Bien chanter, or chanter bien. To speak better. Mieux parler, or parler mieux. We must, in these cases, consult the ear and taste. 1660. Exception 2d. The following adverbs ought to be placed before the verb : comment, how, ow, where, pourquoi, why, combien, how much, how many, quand, when. How do you do ? Comment vous portez-vous ? Where do you go ? Oh allez-vous ? Why do you not like and respect Pourquoi n'aimez-vous pas et ne God ? respectez-vous pas Dieu ? You do not know when you will Vous ne savez pas quand vous die. mourrez. How much have you paid for your Combien avez-vous paye votre mai- house ? son ? How many oranges have you Combien d 'oranges avez-vous ache- bought ? te ? ADVERB. 467 1661. 2d Rule. The adverb is always placed before the adjective which it modifies : She is a very handsome, very sensi- C'est une femme fort belle, tres ble, and very honest woman. sensible, et infiniment honnete. 1662. 3d Rule. When two adverbs are used together, adverbs of quantity are always placed before the others, as well as the three following, souvent, often, toujour s, always, jamais, never : as, So often, very happily, most adroit- Si souvent, tres heureusement, le ly, less honestly. plus adroitement, moins honnete- ment. They are always together. lis sont toujours ensemble. They shall never be closely united. lis ne seront jamais itroitement unis. It is often the case that he arrives C'est souvent soudainement qu'il suddenly. arrive. 1663. However, the adverb souvent, often, may be pre- ceded by an adverb of quantity : as, So often. Si souvent. Very often. Trts souvent. Too often. Trop souvent. Adverbs of quantity are often found in the same sentence, modifying each other ; but only a long use of the language can indicate, with certainty, which of them must be placed first ; the understanding must be exercised, and the adverb expressing the idea which is to be modified must always be used the last : as, So little, too little, very little, much Si peu, trop peu, tres or bien peu, more, much less, &c. beaucoup plus, beaucoup moins, &c. It is clear, that in the above expressions the mind refers to these adverbs, peu, little, plus, more, moins, less, in a manner, which is expressed by the modifying adverbs, si, trop, tres, &c, placed before them. 1664. Of the Negative Adverb ne. There is no word in the French language of a more difficult application, than the negative ne; we will adopt on this subject 468 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the opinions of Bauzee, as Levizac has not hesitated to do the same himself. 1665. A negation is expressed in French either by the word ne alone, or by ne accompanied by pas, point, or any other negative or restrictive word ; thus we have to consider the four following questions : 1st. What is the place of the negative words ? 2d. When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and vice versa ? 3d. When is it that pas and point may be suppressed ? 4th. When is it that pas or point ought to be suppressed ? But before discussing these points, let us remove a wrong impression which exists among foreigners, and among too many French people, that is, that in the French language two nega- tions are equal to an affirmation ; this fact, although true in Latin, is not true in French. 1666. 1st Question. What is the Place of the negative words 9 JVe in all cases is placed before the verb, and precedes all the pronouns and adverbs which the construction of the sen- tence requires to be placed before it : as, You do not say. Vous ne dites pas. You do not think so. Vous ne le pensez pas. I am going into the country and I Je vais a la campagne et je n'y shall not carry my daughter there. menerai pas ma fille. The place of pas or point varies. 1667. When the verb is in the present of the infinitive mood, they are sometimes placed before, sometimes after the verb ; the ear must be consulted as well as taste : placed before, the negation has a stronger meaning. We say : In order not to see. Pour ne voir pas, or pour ne pas voir. But the second expression is stronger than the first. When the verb is in the imperative mood, pas or point are always placed after the verb : as, Do not play. Ne jouez pas or point. Do not hurt me. Ne me faites pas mal. ADVERB. 469 1668. In all other moods, and in all tenses of these moods, as well as in those of the infinitive, except the present, the tenses are either simple or compound ; if simple, the two negations, pas or point, go after the verb ; if compound, they are placed between the auxiliary and past participle : as, He does not speak. II ne parle pas. Not speaking. Ne parlant pas. He has not spoken. II n'a pas parle. Having not spoken. iV'ayant pas parle. Has he not spoken ? iVa-t-il pas parle ? 1669. When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and vice versa 9 In order to decide upon this question, we must know what is the power of these two words ; their use, in most cases, depends upon the views of the mind. Point denies more strongly than pas. Point designates something permanent, stable. He reads not, he plays not, II ne lit point, il ne joue point , signify, that he never reads, he never plays. Point, then, designates a habit, conveys an idea of duration. Pas, on the contrary, expresses something which is transi- tory, temporary, accidental. When I say : He does not read, he does not play, II ne lit pas, il ne joue pas, I mean to mention only, that he does not read or play now, at this moment ; pas, then, marks the state of the moment. Point indicates a negation without reserve ; as, He has no wit. II n'a point d'esprit. That is to say, he has no mind at all. This phrase is equiva- lent to the expression, He is stupid. But if we use pas, and say : II n'a pas d'esprit, we express only that his mind has nothing striking, which is not so absolute as the former expression. From the foregoing considerations, the Academy concludes, that 40 470 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1670. Pas is to be preferred to point : 1st. Before si, plus, moins, autant, &c, and other compar- ative expressions ; as, Milton is not less sublime than Ho- Milton n'est pas moins sublime mer. qu'Homere. 1671. 2d. Before nouns of number ; as, Not ten years since. II n'y a pas dix ans. Point, on the contrary, is the only word which ma}' be used in some elliptical phrases, as the following : I thought I had an honest man to Je croyais avoir affaire a un honnete deal with, but it is not so. homme, mais point. And in answer to an interrogation ; as, Shall you go to the theatre to Irez-vous au theatre ce soir ? Point. night ? No. In these two cases, usage does not admit the employment of pas, but it would be better to use the negative adverb non. At the end of a sentence, it is more elegant to use point than pas ; as, They laughed at him, and he did On s'amusait a ses depens, et il ne not perceive it. s'en appercevoit point. 1672. The Academy establishes another distinction between pas and point in interrogative sentences ; when we say : Have you not seen such a person ? N'avez-vous point vu telle personne ? we wish to ask only a simple question, w T hich is, whether you have not seen such a person ; our mind has nothing else in view. But, if we say : N'avez-vous pas vu telle personne ? we wish to express the idea that we think that the individual to whom the question is put has, in fact, seen the person, and we only pretend to ascertain it. 1673. When is it that we may with elegance and propriety suppress pas or point ? Pas or point may be elegantly suppressed with the verbs cesser, to cease, oser, to dare, pouvoir, to be able, savoir, to ADVERB. 471 know (meaning, with Tie, to be ignorant of). This omission is simply an elegance, but we seldom dispense with it. He does not cease crying. II ne cesse de pleurer. He did not dare to resist him face to II n'osa lui resister en face. face. He could not succeed in this affair. II neput reussir dans cette affaire. He does not know what he says. II ne salt ce qu'il dit. Pas and point are also suppressed in interrogative sentences which express a negation or a doubt ; as, Is there a man whom she does not Y-a-t-il un homme dont elle ne me- slander ? dite ? Have you a friend who is not my Avez-vous un ami que ne soit un friend also ? des miens ? 1674. When is it that pas or point ought to be suppressed ? Pas and point are omitted, — 1st. When the negative is clearly expressed either bywords which restrict it, or by those which do not require restriction, and, finally, by such words as are employed to express the smallest parts of any thing considered as a whole, employed without an article. 1675. In the first case, when the negation is sufficiently an- nounced by words which restrict it, we say, He does not go out much. II ne sort gueres. I shall not go out for three days. Je ne sortirai de trois jours. In these two sentences, gueres and de trois jours are suffi- ciently restrictive to complete the negative idea without the help of pas. 1676. In the second case, when the negation, ?&e, is accom- panied by Avords which admit of no restriction, being entirely negative in themselves, we say, I never take any tea. Je ne fiends jamais de the. I will not see him while I live. Je ne le verrai de ma vie (meaning never). I do not think of it any more. Je n'y pense plus. Not one believes in it. Pas un n'y croit. Do not use any of these stratagems. N'employez aucun de ces strata- g6mes. He pleases nobody. II ne plait a personne. He loves nobody. II n'aime personne, or qui quece soit. You admire nothing. Vous n'admirez rien. 472 FRENCH GRAMMAR. You value nothing. Vous ne prisez quoi que ce soit. He has remained with nothing. II ne lui est reste chose quelconque. I did not think of it at all. Je n'y pensais nullement. I do not wish it at all. Je n'en veux aucunement, &c. In these sentences, the words jamais, de ma vie, plus, pas un, aucun, personne, qui que ce soit, rien, quoi que ce soit, quel- conque, nullement, and aucunement, do not require any restric- tion, being themselves entirely restrictive and negative. 1677. In the third case, when the negative word ne is fol- lowed by expressions signifying the smallest parts of a thing considered as a whole, without an article, we say : He does not see at all. II n'y voit goutte. He has not gathered a bit of it. II n'en a cueilli brin. He will not taste it at all. II n'en tatera mie. These three expressions are kept in the language, but they are old and but little used, except the first. He does not say a word. II ne dit mot. 1678. But, if the words expressing the smallest parts of a thing considered as a whole are preceded by a numerical ad- jective, the second negation, pas, is required after the verb : He does not say a word which is not II ne dit pas un mot qui ne soit in- interesting, teressant. In this speech, there are not three Dans ce discours, il n'y a pas trots words to be corrected. mots a reprendre. There is not a bit of it. II n'y en a pas un brin. 1679. Pas is also used with ne, before the preposition de, of; as, I do not doubt that, &c. II ne fait pas de doute que, &c. He never makes any useless ad- II ne fait pas de demarche inutile, vance. 1680. Remark. When, after sentences similar to the pre- ceding, the conjunction que or a relative pronoun is followed by a negative phrase, pas or point is suppressed ; as, I never commit an excess without Je ne fais jamais d'exces que je w'en being sick. sois incommode. I did not see a single person y ester- Je ne vis personne hier qui ne vous day who did not praise you. louat. I will make no objection to you but Jene vous femiaucune objection, que what I can sustain with sufficient je ne l'appuie de bonnes preuves. proofs. 1681. 2d. When two negative propositions are connected together by the negative conjunction ni ; as, I neither love nor respect him. Je ne l'aime ni ne l'estime. ADVERB. 473 When the negative conjunction ni is repeated in the nomina- tive of the verb ; as, Neither gold nor grandeur renders Ni l'or ni la grandeur ne nous ren- us happy. dent heureux. When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the at- tribute ; as, He is neither prudent nor wise. H w'est ni prudent ni sage. When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the ob- ject ; as, He has neither debts nor lawsuits. II w'a ni dettes ni proces. Remark. We may employ the second negation pas, when ni is not repeated, and is separated from the first negation, ne, by a number of words, which may prevent the recollection of the negative idea ; as, I do not like this vain display of eru- Je n'aime pas ce vain etalage d'eru- dition shown without discrimina- dition, prodiguee sans choix et tion or taste, nor this superabun- sans gout, ni ce luxe de mots qui dance of words which signify ne disent rien. nothing. 1682. 3d. When ne, used with que, has the meaning of seulement, only, but ; as, A man who loves himself only is Un homme qui rc'aime que lui, n'est loved by nobody. aime de personne. When the verb is preceded by que, used instead of pour- quoi, why, we say : Why are you not as reasonable as Que Ti'etes vous aussi raisonnable your brother ? que votre frere ? When the verb is preceded by amoins que, or si, having the same meaning, unless ; as, I shall not go out unless you call for Je ne sortirai pas amoins que vous ne me. veniez me prendre. I shall not go to his ball, if he does Je n'irai pas a son bal, s'il ne m'y not send me an invitation by let- invite par une lettre. ter. 1683. 4th. When, before the conjunction que, the word rien, nothing, is understood ; as, He does nothing but laugh. H ne fait (rien) que rire. When the conjunction que may be turned by sinon, si ce n'est que, if not ; as, 40* 474 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Too many masters serve but to Trop de maitres a la fois ne servent trouble the mind. (a rien, si ce n'est, or sinon a) insult me ? because venir relates to something vague ; we do not see who has to come and insult ; it ought to be : Qu'ai-je done fait pour que vous veniez m'insulter. 1756. Rule 2d. We prefer the indicative or subjunctive mood to the infinitive, when we wish to avoid the repetition of the word de, either because the meaning of this word is changed, or because its repetition would render the style heavy, and disagreeable to the ear : as, Aristippus ordered his companions Aristippe chargea ses compagnons to tell his fellow-citizens, on his de dire, de sa part, a ses conci- part, to think in time to get toyens de songer de bonne heure ready fur the coming struggle. a se preparer a la lutte. This sentence, thus constructed, is intolerable to the ear ; it ought to be written : Aristippe chargea ses compagnons de dire, de sa part, a ses concitoyens quHls songedssent de bonne heure a se preparer a la lutte. We also use the indicative instead of the infinitive, merely for the sake of harmony ; as in this case : I am sure, with time and firmness, Je suis sur, avec de la patience et to succeed in curing him. de la fermete que je parviendrai a le guerir (instead of deparvenir). CONJUNCTION. 497 Of Conjunctions governing the Indicative Mood. 1757. The conjunctions which govern the indicative mood after them, are the following : Bien entendu que, De raeme que, A la charge que, Aussi bien que, Ainsi que, Non plus que, Autant que, Parce que, Outre que, Attendu que, A cause que, Puisque, Vu que, Lorsque, C'est pour cela que, Pendant que, Dans le temps que, Durant que, Tandis que, Depuis que, Tant que, Aussitot que, Des que, A mesure que, A ce que, Peut-etre que, A condition que, To which we may add the following : Si, Quand, Comme si, Pourquoi, &c. Comme, 1 agree to it, provided you will be J'y consens, A condition que vous one of the party. serez de la partie. One must work as much as one can. II faut travailler autant jw'on le peut. You will take some other measures, Vous prendrez d'autres mesures, si if you are prudent. vous Ues prudent. When a man is wise, he avoids Quand on est sage, on e*vite le dan- danger, ger, &c. 1758. All these conjunctions govern the indicative mood because they are always preceded by verbs which express affirmation in a direct, positive, and independent manner. They do not present any difficulty. However, there are six others, which require particular attention, because they sometimes govern the indicative mood, sometimes the subjunc- tive : they are Sinon que, Tellement que, En sorte que, De sorte que, Si ce n'est que, De maniere que, This difficulty will be avoided by observing the following rules. 1759. We have seen, in treating of verbs, that the verb of the incidental proposition ought to be in the indicative mood, 42* 498 FRENCH GRAMMAR. when the verb of the principal proposition expresses affirma* tion in a direct, positive, and independent manner ; but it ought to be used in the subjunctive, when the verb of the principal proposition expresses doubt, surprise, admiration, uncertainty, fear, &c, that is to say, an impulse of the mind. It is ac- cording to this rule, that these six conjunctions govern the indicative or subjunctive mood ; thus, we should say, with the indicative : He has behaved so as to deserve the II s'est conduit de maniere, or de respect of honest people. telle sorte, qu'il a merite l'estime des honnetes gens. He answered nothing, but that he I] ne repondit rien, sinon tfw'il ne le would not do it. voulait pas. and with the subjunctive : You must behave so as to deserve Comportez vous de maniere or de the respect of honest people. telle sorte que vous meritiez l'estime des honnetes gens. I only fear that he may not succeed Je ne crains rien, sinon l'am- bition soit un vice, elle est nean- moins la base de bien des vertus. Quelque bien informes qiCWs soient, ils ne connaissent pas la cause de cet eft'et merveilleux. There is no difficulty with these conjunctions ; the only care to be taken is, not to use them except with the verb in the subjunctive. Before we finish what we have to say on conjunctions, we will add a few words in respect to the place which the inciden- tal propositions, formed with their assistance, ought to occupy. 1763. Rule. When a sentence is composed of two prop- ositions, united by a conjunction, harmony and clearness require, generally, that the shortest be placed first ; as, When passions leave us, we vainly Quand les passions nous quittent, flatter ourselves that we leave nous nous flattons en vain que them. c'est nous qui les quittons. One is not to be pitied, if he allows On n'est point a plaindre quand, au his mind to be taken up with defaut de biens reels, on trouve chimeras instead of things which le moyen de s'occuper de chi- have a real value. meres. If these sentences were constructed in the other way, there would be no harmony, and no clearness, at least in the last proposition. This fault in constructing sentences will appear clearly in the next example : 500 FRENCH GRAMMAR. We could not reconcile with the On ne peut concilier avec la justice justice of God, the sight of vir- de Dieu le spectacle de la vertu tue languishing in irons, while dans les fers, tandis que le vice vice is permitted on the throne, est sur le trone, sans admettre without admitting a future life. une autre vie. OF INTERJECTIONS. 1764. The word interjection is formed from the Latin words inter, between, among, and jacere, to throw. We, in fact, call interjections indeclinable words, placed between other words, according to passionate impulses of the soul. We will not indicate what is the interjection which ought to express each particular condition of the soul. The mind may need a master to know how to enunciate with clearness and pre- cision the ideas which it wishes to combine ; but the heart has no need of any, to depict, with truth, the pleasure which it en- joys, or the sorrow which weighs upon it. 1765. The number of interjections ought to be proportionate to that of the various feelings which the soul may experience ; but sometimes opposite feelings are expressed by the same word ; because interjections, not expressing an idea, but only a cry of nature, depend, as to their signification, upon the inflec- tion of the voice, and the gesture which accompanies them. However, there are some of these words which are principally adapted to express some of the precise passions of the heart. 1766. To express pain, grief, we use : Me ! ay ! oh ! ah ! Ah! ay ! oh ! ah ! Helas ! alas ! Oufl o, pho ! Mon Dieu! good God ! as, Ah ! what have I not suffered since Ah ! que n'ai je pas souffert depuis I saw you last ! que je ne vous ai vu ! Pho ! What a hot day ! Ouf! Quelle chaleur ! 1767. To express joy and desire : Ah! ah ! Bon! good ! as, Ah! how glad I am to see you Ah! que je suis aise de vous re- again voir! 1768. To express fear : He! ah ! 01 alas ! as, Alas ! what will become of us ? Ah ! qu'allons nous devenir ? O ! what have I done ? He ! qu'ai-je fait f INTERJECTION. 501 1769. To express hatred, contempt, and disgust : Fi, fi done! fy, fy upon ! pugh ! &c, as, Fy ! the villain! fy, for good fare ! Fi! le vilain ! fi de la bonne chere ! Fy ! What are you about ? Fi done ! Y pensez-vous ? 1770. For expressing derision : Oh! eh ! zest ! O ! pshaw ! straw ! nonsense ! Oh ! what a queer man ! he boasts Oh ! le plaisant homme ! il se vante of being in favor with the great! d'etre bien aupres des grands ! nonsense ! ztst ! 1771. To express consent : Volontiers, soit ! well ! let it be so ! Well ! I consent to it. Soit, voluntiers j'y consens. 1772. To express admiration : Oh! O ! O ! how beautiful that is ! Oh ! que e'est beau ! 1773. To express surprise: Oh! O! Bon Dieu ! good God ! Misericorde ! bless me ! mercy upon me ! &c. O ! oh! I did not think of that! Oh! oh! je n'y prenais pas garde! Good God ! ought we to have ex- Bon Dieu! devions nous nous at- pected such a thing ? , tendre a cela ? 1774. The Academy remarks, that the interjection, 0! serves to express several impulses of the soul, and most gram- marians agree with the Academy in this respect ; but we think we can give a better idea of this word, by saying, that it ex- presses an exclamation, and always supposes that we address somebody or something ; it is, besides, almost always followed by a noun ; as, O! ashes of a husband! O! Tro- O! cendres d'unepoux! O! Troy- jans ! O ! father ! ens ! O ! mon pere ! O! how vain are the projects O! de quels vains projets cette vie which this life is made up of! est tissue ! In this last example, O ! is not followed by any noun, but there is one understood ; it is as if we said : O, mortals ! O, my friends ! O, my O, mortels ! O, mes amis ! O, mon God ! Dieu ! 1775. To express encouragement: Ca ! now! Jlllons ! well ! Courage ! courage ! Oh, pa ! what now ! Tenez ferme ! hold on, &c. Courage, my friends ! Courage, mes amis ! Well, courage! go ahead, my good Allons, ferme ! poussez, mes bons friends of the court. amis dc cour. 502 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1776. To warn: Gare ! take care! Hola! holla! Ho, hoa! ho there ! Hem ! hem ! so ho ! Tout beau ! softly ! Gare Veau ! take care below ! &c. Take care ! you will fall. Gare ! vous allez tomber. Hem, hem, come here. Hem, hem, venez ici. 1777. To call : Hold! holla ! He ! O ! &c. Holla ! is there any one at home ? Hola ! y-a-t-il quelqu'un ? O ! here, I want to speak to you. He ! ecoutez que je vous dise. 1778. To silence: Chut ! hush! Paix ! silence! St! peace, hush. Hush ! do not come nearer. Chut ! n'approchez pas davantage. Interjections have no particular place in the discourse ; they are put according as the feelings require them ; the only care is, not to use them between two words which must never be separated by any other word ; as between the nominative and the verb, between the noun and the adjective which modifies it. What may be added to these remarks belongs to taste and habit, and not to a grammar. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1779. Grammatical construction is the order which the genius of the language has established for the use of the parts of speech in constructing sentences. A sentence may be expositive, interrogative, or imperative. A sentence, when expositive, may be affirmative, or nega- tive. CONSTRUCTION OF AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES. 1780. An affirmative sentence maybe simple or compound. It is simple, when it has but one subject and one attribute : as, God is just. Dieu est bon. Virtue is amiable. La vertu est aimable. A sentence may be compound in several ways ; by having several subjects and one attribute ; by having one subject and several attributes ; or by having several subjects and several attributes. 1781. When a sentence is compound in respect to the sub- ject, that sentence may be divided into as many simple prop- ositions as there are simple ideas in the subject, and each of these simple propositions will have different subjects with the same attribute ; thus, in the following sentence : Energy of character, the habit of L'energie du caractere, l'habitude privations, and constancy in mis- des privations, et la Constance fortune, are very useful for our dans les soufTrances, sont tres happiness, utiles a notre bonheur, we find the three simple propositions : 504 FRENCH GRAMMAR. L'energie da caractere est tres utile a notre bonheur, L'habitude des privations est tres utile a notre bonheur, La Constance dans les souffrances est tre3 utile a notre bonheur. 1782. When a sentence is compound in respect to the attri- bute, it may be decomposed into as many simple propositions as there are simple ideas in the attribute, and each of these simple propositions will have the same subject, with a different attribute. Thus, in the following sentence : Most men are egotists, and judge La plupart des hommes sont ego- from appearances, istes, et jugentsurlesapparences, there are two propositions : La plupart des hommes sont egoistes, La plupart des hommes jugent sur les apparences. 1783. When a sentence is compound in respect to the at- tribute and the subject, it may be decomposed : 1st. Into as many propositions, with the same attribute, as there are simple ideas in the compound subject. 2d. Each of these elementary propositions may be decom- posed into as many simple propositions as there are simple ideas in the compound attribute ; as for instance : Pride and dissipation destroy the L'orgueil et la dissipation detruisent sweetest enjoyments of the heart, les plus douces jouissances du they are an obstacle to our in- cceur, sont un obstacle a notre struction, and expose us to many instruction, et nous exposent a inconsiderate actions. bien des demarches inconsiderees. By decomposing, first, the subject, we have the two follow- ing propositions, with the compound attribute : L'orgueil detruit les plus douces jouissances du cceur, est un obstacle a notre instruction, et nous expose a bien des demarches inconsiderees. La dissipation detruit, &c. By decomposing, now, the attribute of each of these two elementary propositions, we have the six following : L'orgueil detruit les plus douces jouissances du cceur. L'orgueil est un obstacle a notre instruction. L'orgueil nous expose a bien des demarches inconsiderees. La dissipation detruit, &c. La dissipation est un obstacle, &c. La dissipation nous expose, &c. 1784. As every sentence, whatever its composition, may be decomposed in the same manner, we have now to GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 505 examine what should be the arrangement of words in a simple proposition used affirmatively : 1st. The subject, modified or not by qualifications, or an incidental proposition. 2d. The verb. 3d. The adverb ; (in compound tenses the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the past participle.) 4th. The regimen, or regimens, if there are several : as, God, who is good, governs the world with wisdom. Dieu, qui est bon, gouverne sagement le monde. subject, incidental proposition. verb. adverb. regimen. A good prince deserves the love of his subjects. Un bon prince merite V amour de ses sujets. subject qualified, verb. regimen. If we wish to add to this idea, that such prince deserves also the esteem of other nations, with the help of the conjunction et, and, we add this idea to the first, and these two simple propositions make the compound : Un bon prince merite l'amour de ses sujets et l'estime des autres nations. We find, here, the application of what we have said, in treat- ing of conjunctions ; that is to say, that their functions consist in uniting isolated propositions ; without their assistance the language would be unintelligible, from the necessity of repe- titions, or the want of means to express the connexion of our ideas. 1785. But when two propositions in a sentence are united by a conjunction, which of the two propositions must stand first ? 1st. If the two propositions are of the same extent, the im- pulse of the mind alone should be followed : as, One is not to be pitied when he is On n'est point a plaindre quand on loved. est aime. or, Quand on est aime, on n'est point a plaindre. 1786. 2d. If the two propositions are not of the same extent, harmony and perspicuity generally require the shortest to be placed first : as, We are not to be pitied, when, in- On n'est point a plaindre, quand, stead of hearing the voice of rea- au lieu d'ecouter la voix de la son, we abandon ourselves to our raison, on s'abandonne a ses mau- evil passions. vais penchants. 43 506 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1787. When, instead of two propositions, there are several, their assemblage is called a period. Periods, in order to be clear, require the shortest propo- sitions to be placed first, as in the following example, taken from Flechier : N'attendez pas, Messieurs, Que j'ouvre une scene tragique; Que je represente ce grand homme etendu sur ses propres trophees ; Que je decouvre ce corps pale et sanglant, aupres duquel fume encore la foudre qui l'a frappe ; Que je fasse crier son sang comme celui d'Abel, et que j'expose a vos yeux les images de la religion et de la patrie eploree. Four propositions are the largest number which can be admitted by a good style, consistently with clearness and harmony. 1788. A negative sentence differs from an affirmative in the use of the two negative words, ne and pas, properly employed, as we have already stated in the article on adverbs. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES USED INTERROGATIVELY. 1789. A sentence is said to be interrogative, when used to ask a question. An interrogative sentence may be positive or negative. A sentence which is interrogative and positive may have for its nominative, either 1st. A noun. 2d. A personal pronoun. 3d. An absolute pronoun. 4th. A demonstrative pronoun. 5th. An interrogative adverb. 1790. 1st. When the nominative oi an interrogative sen- tence, used positively, is a noun, the sentence begins with that noun, then the verb, followed by a personal pronoun, of the same number and gender as the nominative, the other parts of speech following the same order as in affirmative sentences : as. Is the river higher to-day than it La riviere est elle plus haute au- was yesterday ? jourd'hui qu'hier ? GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 507 1791. 2d. When the nominative of the verb, on the con- trary, is a personal pronoun, the verb, followed by that pro- noun, begins the sentence : as, Do you like to study as well as to Aimez-vous 1 'etude autant que le play ? jeu ? When the verb is reflective, the reflective pronoun begins the sentence, then the verb, followed by the personal pronoun, as above : as, Have you always behaved so as to Vous etes-vous toujours conduit de command the respect of others ? maniere a. commander le respect d'autrui ? 1792. 3d. When the nominative is an absolute pronoun, the interrogation may be made in two different ways ; if the absolute pronoun is employed simply with the verb, that pro- noun begins the sentence, and the verb which follows it is still followed by its nominative : as, What does your father say ? Que dit votre pere ? What do you say ? Que dites-vous ? Whom do you love ? Qui aimez-vous ? What are you thinking about? A quoi pensez-vous ? Which of these two horses do you Lequel preferez-vous de ces deux prefer ? chevaux ? Where do you go ? Whence do you Ou allez-vous ? D'oU venez-vous ? come ? When, instead of the simple absolute pronoun, we use, in asking a question, the compound expression, qui est-ce qui 9 who is it who ? qui est-ce que 9 who is it whom ? qu' est-ce que, what is it that ? the interrogation being included in these com- pound expressions, the following verb is used affirmatively, and is preceded by its nominative : as, Who has told you that ? Qui est-ce qui vous a dit cela ? In this sentence, the interrogation is made by qui est-ce ; ce being the interrogative pronoun, the qui following being the nominative of the verb, and vous its indirect object. Whom have you seen ? Qui est-ce que vous avez vu ? The interrogation here is made by the compound expression qui est-ce ; que is the object of the verb, and vous its nomina- tive. 508 FRENCH GRAMMAR. What have you said ? Qu'est-ce que vous-avez dit ? The interrogation here is completed by the compound ex- pression qu'est-ce ; que is the object, and vous the nominative of the verb. 1793. 4th. When the nominative of a verb is a demonstra- tive pronoun, it immediately follows the verb in interrogative sentences, and is expressed by ce : as, Is it you ? Est-ce-vous ? Do you speak to me ? Est-ce que vous me parlez ? 1794. 5th. When we ask a question with an interrogative adverb, this adverb always begins the sentence, and the nomi- native of the verb is placed after it : as, How do you do ? Comment vous portez-twws ? Why do you like this man ? Pourquoi aimez vous cet homme ? When an interrogative sentence is negative, the same ar- rangement of words is observed, and the two negative words, ne and pas, are placed according to the rules laid down in the article on adverbs ; that is to say, ne precedes the verb, and pas is placed after the interrogative pronoun which follows it : as, Is not the river higher to-day than La riviere n'est-elle pas plus haute it was yesterday ? aujourd'hui qu'hier ? Do you not like to study as well as N'aimez-vous pas l'etude autant que to play ? le jeu ? Have you not always behaved so as N'avez-vous pas toujours agi de ma- to command respect from others ? ni£re a commander le respect ? What have you not said about me ? Que n'&vez-vous pas dit de moi ? 1795. We will now give a list of the interrogative words in English, with their signification in French. Who ? Qui ? Qui est-ce qui ? Who speaks ? Qui parle ? or, qui est-ce qui parle ? Whom 9 Qui ? Qui est-ce que ? Whom do you love ? Qui aimez- vous ? or, qui est-ce que vous aimez ? What ? Quoi ? Que ? Quel ? Qu'est-ce que What are you thinking about ? A quoi pensez-vous ? What do you mean ? Que voulez-vous dire ? or, qu'est-ce que vous voulez-dire ? What course will you pursue ? Quel parti prendrez-vous ? GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 509 Which 9 Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles ? Which do you admire the most? Le quel admirez-vous le plus ? Na- Napoleon or Charlemagne ? poleon ou Charlemagne ? When ? Quand ? When do you return? Quand reviendrez-vous ? Where ? Ou ? Where are you going ? Oil allez vous ? Whence 1 D'ou ? Whence do you come ? B*ou venez vous ? How ? Comment ? How do you do ? Comment vous portez-vous ? Homo much ? Combien ? How much did you pay for that ? Combien avez-vous paye cela? How many 2 How many bushels of wheat did Combien de boisseaux de ble avez- you buy ? vous achete ? Why! Why do you love me ? Pourquoi m'aimez-vous ? CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 1796. In sentences simply imperative, the verb is always placed first, in the first and second persons, but in the third person it comes after the pronoun, preceded by que ; the other words occupy the same place as they do in affirmative senten- ces. We have kept the third person in the imperative mood, in accordance with a usage adopted by most grammarians ; but we will observe here, that, in fact, the imperative mood has no third person. When the verb is used in that person, the proposition is elliptical, there is another verb understood, and what is called the third person of the imperative is in reality that of the subjunctive mood. Let us go into the country. Mlons a la campagne. Come and see me to-morrow. Ve.nez me voir demain. Let him go into the city. QuHl aille a la ville. Let the children go to walk. Que les enfants aillent se prome- ner. 43* 510 FRENCH GRAMMAR. When the imperative sentence is negative, the negative words, ne, pas, are placed as in interrogative sentences ; as, Do not go into the country. N'allez pas a la campagne. Do not let him go out, I forbid it. Ne le laissez pas sortir, je le de- fends. The construction which we have mentioned in sentences, either affirmative, interrogative, or imperative, is called direct or regular, because the words are placed in the order in which they should be, to satisfy the wants of the mind ; but this order is sometimes altered in order to give the style more force, more rapidity or elegance. The construction is then called irregu- lar, and the transformations which it has to suffer are called figures. The construction may be figurative in several ways, the principal of which are called inversion, ellipsis, pleonasm, and syllepsis ; the others are not exactly within the province of grammar. Of Inversion. 1797. Inversion is the transposition of a word or of a prop- osition into a place different from that which is ordinarily as- signed to it. An inversion must never affect the clearness of a sentence, and should be used only to introduce more perspicuity, ener- gy, or harmony into the language. There are two sorts of inversion in French, one more, the other less striking. We find an example of each in the follow- ing passage from Flechier : La valeur n'est qu'une chose aveugle et impetueuse, qui se trouble et se precipite, si elle n'est eclairee et conduite par la probite et par la pru- dence, et le capita ine n'est pas accompli, sHl ne renferme en soi Vhomme tclairi ei Vhomme sage. Quelle discipline peut etablir dans son camp celui qui ne peut rigler ni son esprit ni sa conduite ? Et comment saura cal- mer ou emouvoir, selon ses desseins, dans une armee, tant de passions difFerentes, celui qui ne sera pas mailre des siennes. The first two sentences give an illustration of a slight inver- sion, the last two of a very striking one. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 511 Written without inversion the preceding lines should stand as follows : Si la valeur n'est eclairee et conduite par la probite et par la prudence, elle n'est qu'une chose aveugle et impetueuse, — et si le capitaine De renferme pas en soi l'homme eclaire et 1'homme sage, il n'est pas ac- compli, — celui qui ne peut regler son esprit ni sa conduite, quelle dis- cipline peut-il etablir dans son camp ? — et celui qui ne sera pas maitre de ses passions, comment saura-t-il calmer ou emouvoir, selon ses des- seins, dans une armee, tant de passions differentes ? What a difference between these two constructions ! The latter is heavy and cold, and the former is brilliant, harmonious, and rapid. These two modes of inversion, although employed very of- ten in the various styles of writing, have a peculiar character, and should not be used indifferently. The first belongs more especially to elevated style, while the other should be restricted to a simple style. 1793. Let us examine now what are the different ways which usage has introduced and grammar has sanctioned in the inver- sion of sentences. 1st. The verb is very well placed after the noun which gov- erns it ; as, Tout ce que lui promet Vamittt des Romains, instead of Tout ce que l'amitie des Romains lui promet. Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce que peut, pour la defense d'un royaume, un general d'armee qui s'est rendu digne de commander, instead of Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce qu'un general d'armee, qui s'est rendu digne de commander, peut pour la defense d'un royaume. 1799. 2d. The verb may be placed after its object, gov- erned by the preposition de, of ; as, C'est d'un homme viritablement Eclaire que je vous parle, instead of Je vous parle d'un homme veritablement eclaire. De touts les hommes c'est le plus digne de pitie, instead of C'est de touts les hommes, le plus digne de pitie. 512 FRENCH GRAMMAR. D'une voix plaintive il s'ecria, instead of II s'ecria d'une voix plaintive. 1800. 3d. The verb may be preceded by its regimen, gov- erned by the preposition d, to ; as, A tant dHnjures, qu'avez-vous repondre ? instead of Qu'avez-vous a repondre a tant d'injures ? Sans doute a ce discours, il ne s'attendait pas, instead of Sans doute il ne s'attendait pas a ce discours. But the verb can never be preceded by its direct object. One of our old poets has committed a fault in writing : Par mille inventions, le public on depouille, On doit cueillir le fruit et non Varbre arracher. 1801. 4th. Several prepositions, as apres, dans, par, sous? contre, followed by their complement, are elegantly placed before the verb : as, Apres ses pri&res aecoutume'es, elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant, instead of Elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant apres ses prieres accoutumees. Dans un tel etat defaiblesse, que pouvait elle entreprendre ? instead of Que pouvait elle entreprendre dans un tel etat de faiblesse ? Par la hi du corps, je tiens a ce monde qui passe, et par la foi, je tiens a Dieu qui ne passe point, instead of Je tiens a ce monde qui passe, par la loi du corps, et je tiens a Dieu qui ne passe point, par la foi. Contre des assauts si violents, il n'employait que la patience, instead of II n'employait que la patience contre des assauts si violents. 1802. 5th. Finally, we may properly place before the prin- cipal sentence the conjunctions, quand, parceque, puisque. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 513 d'autant plus que, quoique, lorsque, &c, with the propositions governed by them ; as, PuisquHl le veut, qu'il le fasse, instead of Qu'il le fasse puisqu'il le veut. Tout austere que parait la vertu, elle n'en est pas moins attrayante, instead of La vertu n'en est pas moins attrayante, tout austere qu'elle paraisse. We see, by what precedes, that inversions are used both in prose and poetry, but they must always be employed with care, they must never destroy the clearness of style, but should be calculated to introduce into it rapidity, harmony, and force. Of the Ellipsis. 1803. The ellipsis is the omission of one or several words necessary to render the construction complete. For an ellipsis to be proper, it is necessary that the mind should be able to supply, without trouble, the word or words which have been omitted. An ellipsis is faulty whenever it creates obscurity, confusion, or ambiguity. 1804. The introduction of this figure into language is the result of the want which man feels to shorten the mode of ex- pressing his ideas ; by using the ellipsis, the speech becomes more rapid, more concise, is more graceful, and harmonious. 1805. An ellipsis may be more or less striking ; it is hardly perceived in the following sentence : Puissiez-vous etre heureux! which is used instead of Je souhaite que vous puissiez etre heureux. It is more apparent in the answer to this phrase ; as, Quand viendrez-vous ? Demain, instead of Je viendrai demain. 514 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The following sentences are elliptical : Nous ferons la moisson a la mi-aout, instead of a la moittt du mois d'aout. Que vous a-t-il repondu ? Rien, instead of 11 ne m?a rien ripondu. Corneille has made an admirable use of the ellipsis in the following sentences. Me dee is asked : Que vous reste-t-il ? Moi, answers she. This word moi, instead ofy'e me reste, is sublime. In anoth- er part, Prussias, addressing Nicomedus, tells him : Et que dois-je etre ? Roi, replies Nicomedus. This single word, Roi, expresses the whole. These two ad- mirable passages should not exist without the use of the ellipsis. 1806. The ellipsis, then, as we have already stated, is the omission of one or several words, or even of a whole phrase ; but the following rule should be observed : An ellipsis ought to be so constructed, that the listener should not be able to perceive that there are words omitted in what he hears, and besides, it should be consecrated by usage. This rule is correct, but the nature of the language has a great influence in determining the propriety of an ellipsis. Po- etry admits what would be rejected in prose. In this verse of Racine, for instance : Je t'aimais inconstant, qu'eusse-je fait fidele ? the ellipsis is bold ; but is there any possible mistake as to the meaning of the writer ? Certainly not : the mind sees at once that he intends to say : Je t'aimais quoique tu fusses inconstant ; que rfaurais-je pas fait si iu eusses ite fideie. But while the verse is bold and energetic, this language is heavy and cold. Hermione, who speaks in this verse, was in a vio- lent passion, and wished to express at once, in one word> if possible, the storm which was raging in her bosom. Hence the sublimity of this figure, which would be faulty in prose, or even in poetry, if Hermione had been speaking calmly and in cold blood. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 515 We will give another example of an ellipsis rejected in prose and admitted in poetry. La Bruyere has said : Si j'epouse, Hermas, une femme avare, elle ne me ruinera point ; si une joueuse, elle pourra m'enrichir ; si une savante, elle pourra m'instruire ; si une prude, elle ne sera point emportee ; si une emporUe, elle exer- cera ma patience ; si une coquette, elle voudra me plaire ; si une galante, elle le sera peut-etre jusqu'a m'aimer ; si une devote repondez, Hermas, que dois-je attendre de celle qui veut tromper Dieu et qui se trompe elle-meme ? The several ellipses of this period are clear, and in some way necessary to avoid a tedious repetition ; how is it, then, that they are shocking ? It is because usage, the tyrant of language, does not authorize them in prose ; but in poetry they are perfectly proper, as in Delille : Le sol le plus ingrat connaitra sa beaute. Est-il nu ? Q,ue des bois parent sa nudite. Convert ? Portez la hache en ces forets profondes. Humide ? En lacs pompeux, en rivieres fecondes, Changez cette onde impure, et par d'heureux travaux, Corrigez a la fois, l'air, la terre et les eaux. Aride en/in? Cherchez, sondez, fouillez encore ; L'eau, lente a se trahir, peut-etre est pres d'eclore. Ellipses are frequent in the French language, but we cannot too often repeat, that usage, taste, clearness, and harmony must always be consulted before making use of them. Of Pleonasm. 1807. The word Pleonasm comes from the Greek, and sig- nifies redundancy. Pleonasm, as a figure, consists in the use of a word or words which could be dispensed with without altering materi- ally the meaning of the sentence. A pleonasm, to be proper, must be authorized by usage ; and usage authorizes it only where it gives more energy to the expression, or shows more distinctly the feelings of the speaker. Hence there are two sorts of pleonasm : one resulting from the construction of the sentence ; the other from an impulse of the soul. 1808. We make a pleonasm of the first kind, when we insert 516 FRENCH GRAMMAR. in the sentence a word, or some words, which are unnecessary to complete its meaning ; as, que, moi, vous, meme, en, &c, without which the phrase would be sufficiently clear ; as in the following : Avant que de parler, prenez moi ce mouchoir. Faites les moi les plus laids que ]'on puisse. II vous la prend et l'emporte. J'irai moi-mime. C'est ]m-m6me. Je m'en retourne ; il s'en va. Voler en Pair; les pierres tombent en has. These modes of expression should be admitted, because usage consecrates them, although they contain useless words, sometimes arranged in a manner which is not regular. It is in compliance with this tyranny of usage, that the Academy, in the following sentence, retains the letter y, which is entirely useless to the meaning : C'est une affaire oil il y va du salut de l'etat. 1809. Ne, in many cases, is a mere pleonasm, without meaning of its own, and without influence upon that of the sen- tence ; as, Je crains qu'on ne vienne. J'empecherai que vous ne soyez puni. Prenez garde qu'il ne tombe. If we omit this particle we, the sense remains the same ; but these expressions are derived from the Latin ; ne takes the place of ne or quin, without implying the idea of a negation, and usage requires it to be retained. Enfin, seulement, a tout hasard, apres tout, and similar ex- pressions, are often mere pleonasms, which may be easily de- tected as such, with a little acquaintance with the language. 1810. The second sort of pleonasms is of greater impor- tance in the expression of our thoughts ; it corresponds with the impulse of our soul, and gives more power and energy to the style. It generally consists in the repetition of a word, or in the addition of a word having the same meaning as another preceding it, but restraining or extending its signification ; as, in the following : S'il ne veut pas vous le dire, je vous le dirai, moi. II lui appartient bien a lui de parler comme il fait. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 517 «3e 1'ai entendu de mes propres oreilles. Et que m'a fait a moi cette Troie oU je cours. C'est a vous a sortir, vous qui parlez. Je l'ai vu, dis-je, vu, de mes propres yeux vu, ce que Ton appelie vu. Et je ne puis du tout me mettre dans l'esprit. Qu'il ait ose tenter les choses que l'on dit. All these pleonasms are authorized by usage, and taste ad- mits them ; because they possess some of the qualities which belong to this figure. 1811. But usage rejects all those which are the mere re- petition of an idea, and which, instead of giving grace or force to the style, render it heavy and flat ; as, S'erc^regorger les uns les autres. Engagements rdciproques de part et d 'autre. Cadavres inanimes. Tempete orageuse. The following is a pleonasm of the same kind, frequently used : Dans le principe, pour deconcerter et faire trembler les factieux, on n'au- rait eu seulement qu'a se montrer. Settlement is useless, being already expressed by ne que. Of Syllepsis. 1812. Syllepsis is a figure in which a word relates more to our meaning, than to the expressions used in a sentence. When we say, for instance : II est dix heures, L'an mil huit cent trente, our mind thinks only of the fact itself, and not of the arrange- ment of words used to express that fact ; thus, il is in the mas- culine gender, although heure is feminine ; an is in the singular number, although referring to more than one year. Je crains qu'il ne vienne. J'empecherai qu'il ne se tue. J'ai peur qu'il ne meure. In these sentences, the word ne is not used negatively, but. as we wish exceedingly that the events expressed by the last verb may not take place, we are willing to do any thing to pre- 44 518 FRENCH GRAMMAR. vent them, and the negative ne is introduced to show that dispo- sition of our mind ; we should be equally well understood with- out it, but usage requires it to be preserved. There is an elegant syllepsis in the following lines of Racine : Entre le peuple et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge ; Vous souvenant, mon fils, que cache sous ce lin, Comme eux vous futes pauvre et comme eux orphelin. Carried away by his feelings, the poet forgets that he has used the word peuple in the singular ; and, impressed with an idea of plurality, he makes the pronoun eux agree with the idea in his mind, which then regarded the pauvres and orphelins ex- isting among the people. For the same reason, Bossuet and Mezongui have said : Quand le peuple Hebreux entra dans la terre promise, tout y celebrait leurs ancetres. Mo'ise eut recours au Seigneur et lui dit : Que ferai-je a ce peuple ? Bi- entot Us me lapideront. Leurs and Us stand for les Hebreux. OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES. J813. Grammatical discordances consist in the arrangement of words contrary to the rules of the language. There are two principal sorts of discordances, one merely called Discordance ; the other called Amphibology. Of Discordances. 1814. There is a discordance in language, whenever the words used in the formation of sentences do not agree with each other, either because their construction is contrary to analogy, or because they connect together dissimilar ideas, be- tween which the mind perceives an opposition, or cannot see a sufficient affinity. We will give several examples to illustrate this definition : Notre reputation ne depend pas des louanges qu'on nous donne, mais des actions louables que nous faisons. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 519 This sentence is incorrect, because the verb dependre being used negatively in the first proposition, cannot govern the sec- ond, which is affirmative. It should be : Our reputation depends, not upon Notre reputation depend, non des the praises which are bestowed louanges qu'on nous donne, mais on us, but upon the praiseworthy des actions louables que nous actions which we perform. faisons. 1815. The most common discordances are those which arise from the wrong use of tenses, as in the following sen- tence : II regarde votre malheur comrae une juste punition du peu de com- plaisance que vous avez eu pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous pria de lui rendre service ; because the two preterites, definite and indefinite, cannot agree together. It should be : II regarde votre malheur comme une juste punition du peu de complai- sance que vous eutes pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous pria de lui ren- dre service. There is also a discordance in the following sentence : On en ressentit autant de joie que d'une victoire complete dans un autre temps ; because the verb, which is understood in the second sentence, establishing a comparison with the first, ought to be in the con- ditional past, whereas, the verb of the first proposition is in the preterite definite, and therefore cannot be omitted. It should be: On en ressentit autant de joie qu'on en aurait ressenti d'un victoire com- plete. The following verse of Racine is also incorrect : Le flot qui Yapporta recule epouvante ; because the form of the present cannot agree with that of the preterite definite. It should be : Le flot qui Pa apporte recule epouvante, or, Le flot qui l'apporta recula epouvante. 520 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of Amphibologies. 1816. There is an amphibology in a sentence, when it may- receive two different interpretations ; this fault must be care- fully avoided, for, as we speak or write only to be understood, perspicuity is the most essential quality in language. An amphibology is occasioned by the wrong use of moods or tenses in the verbs, of the personal pronouns il, le, la, &c, of the possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, &c, or by giving a wrong place to nouns. Examples. 1817. Of an amphibology of the first kind : Q,u'ai-je fait pour venir accabler en ces lieux Un heros sur qui seul j'ai pu tourner les yeux ? Pour venir forms an amphibology, on account of the use of the infinitive with the conjunction pour when that infinitive can- not have the same nominative as that of the first verb ; we do not know here, whether venir relates to the person who speaks or to the person spoken to ; therefore the subjunctive should be used with que; as, Qu'ai-je fait pour que vous veniez, &c. 1818. Of an amphibology of the second kind : Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses de Crassus lui firent croire qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces deux grands hommes. There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do not see clearly to whom relate the pronouns il and lui of the second proposition. They seem to refer to Cesar ; whereas, in fact, they relate to Crassus. It should be : Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses de Crassus firent croire a ce dernier qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces deux grands hommes. 1819. Of an amphibology of the third kind : Valere alia chez Leandre ; il y trouva son fils. There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do not see what noun the pronoun son relates to ; we do not GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 521 perceive whether Valere found his own son, or the son of Le- andre. 1820. Of an amphibology of the fourth kind : J'ai envoye les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la poste. A la poste, placed at the end of the sentence, creates an amphibology, because we do not know at once whether the let- ters have been written at the post-office, or merely sent there, after having been written somewhere else. OF GALLICISMS. 1821. There are several sorts of Gallicisms ; some result from the introduction into writing of expressions no longer in use ; others consist in irregularities and deviations from the customary rules of the language ; some, also, consist in mere ellipses, while others can only be attributed to the caprice of custom. The three kinds of Gallicisms mentioned last are called Gallicisms of Construction, and are the only ones of which we shall speak here. 1822. The Gallicism of construction, which destroys the clearness of a sentence, ought to be avoided. We should ad- mit only those which, consecrated by long usage, do not affect perspicuity, or introduce such irregularities of construc- tion, as to offend the rules of grammar. According to this principle, we should not say now : Et qu'ainsi ne soit, instead of, Ce que je vous dis est si vrai que, &c. ; because it destroys the clearness of the sentence, as in the fol- lowing : J'etais dans ce jardin, et qu'ainsi ne soit, voila une fleur que j'y ai cueillie, that is to say, and as a proof of it, Voila une fleur, &c. This expression has not been used since the time of Mo- liere and La Fontaine. 44* 522 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1823. One of the most common Gallicisms is that in which the impersonal verb il y a, there is, is used instead of il est, it is, or il existe, it exists, as in the following : 11 y avait une fois un roi, instead of, instead of, II etait une fois un roi. 11 y a cent a, parier contr'un. Cent sont a parier contr'un. There are two Gallicisms in this sentence : 11 n'y a pas jusqu'aux enfants qui ne s'en melent. 1824. The verb falloir forms a Gallicism with the pronoun en, when it is conjugated in the reflective form, with the double pronouns il, se ; as, II s'en faut, il s'en fallait, &c. It then means, to be wanting ; and, when preceded by an ad- verb of quantity, the pronoun il is omitted ; as, Peu s'en faut, tant s'en faut. The several modes of using the verb falloir, to be necessa- ry, will be found in the following sentences : He is far from being so clever as II shin faut bien qu'il soit aussi ha- he thinks. bile qu'il croit l'etre. He was very near failing in that Peu s'en est fallu qu'il n'ait suc- undertaking. combe dans cette entreprise. He was as near as possible being 11 ne s'en est presque rien fallu qu'il killed. n'ait ete tue. You say it wants twenty pounds to Vous dites qu'il s'en faut vingt In- complete the sum ; but you are vres que la somme entiere n'y mistaken, it cannot want so soit ; mais vous vous trompez, il much. ne peut s'en falloir tant. His cold is entirely well, or very Son rhume est entierement gueri, nearly so. ou peu s'en faut. How near quarrelling were these Que s'en est-il fallu que ces deux two friends ? amis ne soient brouilles ? I am not satisfied with your appli- Je ne suis pas content de votre ap- cation to study ; far from it. plication a l'etude, tints' en faut. So far from this play pleasing me, Tant s'en faut que cette comedie I think it insufferable. me plaise, elle me semble au contraire detestable. I was far from approving your con- 11 s'en fallait beaucoup que je vous duct on that occasion. approuvasse dans cette circon- stance. The following sentences are also Gallicisms : He is far from being generous. II n'est rien moins que genereux. You may say what you please, but, Vous avez beau dire, mais, &c. &c. GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 523 By what I can see, or as the mat- A ce qu'il me semble. ter appears to me. Here we are lamenting. Nous voila a nous lamenter. What wretched beings we are ! Q,u'est ce que de nous ! 1825. Many Gallicisms arise from the use of the preposi- tion en ; some of this kind will be found in the following ex- pressions : Whom are you angry with ? whom A qui en avez-vous ? do you want to speak to ? What does he aim at ? what would Ou en veut-il venir ? he be at ? He is angry with him. II lui en veut The conjunction que also produces a great number of Galli- cisms ; as, Gambling is a terrible passion. C'est une terrible passion que le jeu. It is in vain, then, that I work. C'est done en vain que je travaille. That is not too much. Ce n'est pas trop que cela. There is nothing like having cour- II n'est que d'avoir du courage, age. 1826. Many others arise from the use of the prepositions a, de, dans, apres, &c. ; but enough has been said already upon this subject in treating of the prepositions. 1827. Gallicisms are very often resorted to in simple style ; La Fontaine and M. de Sevigne abound in them. The mid- dling style has not so many, and the solemn oratorical but few ; and these, even, are of a peculiar nature. We will give two examples of this kind, taken from the tragedy of Iphigenia, by Racine : Avez-vous pu penser qu'au sang d'Agamemnon Achille preferat une fille sans nom, Qui de tout son destin-ce qu'elle a pu comprendre, C'est qu'elle sort d'un sang, &c. And, Je ne sait qui m'arrete et retient mon courroux, Que par un prompt avi3 de tout ce qui se passe, Je ne coure des Dieux divulguer la menace. In the first example, qui is used as a nominative, without re- lating to any verb. In the second, je ne sais qui wHarrete que je ne courre is con- trary to the rules of construction. But it is said, as an excuse, that these extraordinary sentences, far from being faulty, pos- sess the more beauty, as they belong to a particular kind of lan- guage. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1828. Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb TO HAVE. in its four different forms. INFINITIVE MOOD. to have avoir. having ayant. not to have ne pas avoir, n'a- voir pas. PARTICIPLE PRESENT. not having n'ayant pas. PARTICIPLE PAST. had eu, eue, eus, eues. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have had not to have had avoir eu. n'avoir pas eu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE, having had ayant eu. Affirmative. j'ai tu as il or elle a nous avons vous avez ils or elles ont. not having had n'ayant pas eu. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and In* terrogative. have I not ? &c. I have not, &c. have I ? &c. je n'ai pas ai-je ? tu n'as pas as-tu il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or a-t-elle nous n'avons pas avons-nous vous n'avez pas avez-vous ils or elles n'ont ont-ilsoront-elles?n'ont-ils or n'ont- pas. elles pas? n 'ai-je pas ? n'as-tu pas n' a-t-il or n 'a-t-elle pas n'avons-nous pas n'avez-vous pas AVOIR, TO HAVE, 525 IMPERFECT. I had, &c. j'avais tu avais il or elle avait nous avions vous aviez I had not, &c. had I ? &c. je n avais pas avais-je tu n'avais pas avais-tu il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle pas nous n'avions pas avions-nous vous n 'aviez pas aviez-vous ils or elles avaient. ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or elles?n'avaient-ils or ent pas. elles pas had I not ? &c. n'avais-je pas n'avais-tu pas n'avait-il or elle pas n'avions-nous pas n' aviez-vous pas I had, &c. j'eus tu eus il or elle eut nous eumes vous eutes PRETERITE DEFINITE. I had not, &c. had I ? &c. je n'eus pas eus-je tu n'eus pas eus-tu il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle nous n 'eumes pas eumes-nous vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous had I not ? &c. n' eus-je pas n'eus-tu pas n 'eut-il or elle pas n'eumes-nous pas n'eutes-vous pas ils or elles eurent. ils n'eurent pas. eurent-ils or elles ? n'eurent-ils pas PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have had, &c. I have not had, &c. have I had ? &c. have I not had ? &c. j'ai eu je n'ai pas eu ai-je eu n'ai-je pas eu tu as eu tu n'as pas eu as-tu eu n'as-tu pas eu il or elle a eu il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle eu n'a-t-il or elle pas eu eu nous avons eu nous n'avons pas avons-nous eu n'avons-nous pas eu eu vous avez eu vous n'avez pas avez-vous eu n'avez-vous pas eu eu ils or elles ont eu. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles eu?n'ont-ils or elles pas eu. pas eu ? PLUPERFECT. I had had, &c. I had not had, &c. had I had ? &c. had I not had ? &c. j avais eu tu avais eu il or elle avait eu je n avais pas eu tu n'avais pas eu il or elle n'avait pas eu nous n'avions pas eu vous n'aviez pas eu ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'avai- eu. ent pas eu. nous avions eu vous aviez eu avais-je eu n avais-je pas eu avais-tu eu n'avais-tu pas eu avait-il or elle eu n'avait-il or elle pas eu avions-nous eu n'avions nous pas eu aviez-vous eu n 'aviez-vous pas eu avaient-ils or elles n'avaient-ils or eu ? elles pas eu ? I had had, &c. j'eus eu tu eus eu il or elle eut eu. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. Ihadnothad, &c. had I had ? &c. je n'eus pas eu tu n eus pas eu il or elle n'eut pas eu. eus-je eu eus-tu eu eut-il or elle eu ? had I not had ? &c n'eus-je pas eu n'eus-tu pas eu n'eut-il or elle pas eu ? 526 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous eumes eii nous neumes pas eumes-nous en n eumes-nous pas eu eu vous eutes eu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous eu n'eutes-vous pas eu eu ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ilsor elles eu. rent pas eu. eu pas eu FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will I shall or will not shall or will I shall or will I not have, &c. have, &c. have ? &c. have ? &c. j aurai tu auras il or elle aura nous aurons vous aurez ils or elles auront. ils or elles n'au- ront pas. je n aurai pas aurai-je tu n'auras pas auras-tu il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle pas nous n 'aurons pas aurons-nous vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous n aurai-je pas n'auras-tu pas n 'aura-til or elle pas n'aurons-nous pas n'aurez-vous pas auront-ils or elles ? n'auront-ils or elles pas? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have had, &c. j 'aurai eu tu auras eu il or elle aura eu nous aurons eu vous aurez eu ils or elles auront eu. I shall or will not have had, &c. je n'aurai pas eu tu n'auras pas eu il or elle n'aura pas eu nous n'aurons pas eu vous n'aurez pas eu ils or elles n 'au- ront pas eu. shall or will I shall or will I not have had ? &c. have had ? &c. aurai-je eu n'aurai-je pas eu auras-tu eu n'auras-tu pas eu aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle eu pas eu aurons-nous eu n'aurons-nous pas eu aurez-vous eu n'aurez-vous pas eu auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or elles eu ? pas eu ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, would, could, or might have, &c. j'aurais tu aurais il or elle aurait nous aurions vous auriez ils or elles au- raient. I should, would, could, or might not have, &c. je n'aurais pas tu n'aurais pas il or elle n'aurait pas nous n'aurions pas vous n'auriez pas ils or elles n'au- raient pas. should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might I have ? &c. I not have ? &c. aurais-je aurais-tu aurait-il or elle aurions-nous auriez-vous auraient-ils or elles ? n'aurais-je pas n'aurais-tu pas naurait-il or elle pas n'aurions-nous pas n'auriez-vous pas n'auraient-ils or elles pas ? AVOIR, TO HAVE. 527 CONDITIONAL PAST. I should, would, could, or might have had, &c. j'aurais eu tu aurais eu il or elle aurait eu nous aurions eu vous auriez eu ils or elles au- raient eu. I should, would, could, or might not have had, &c. je n'aurais pas eu tun'auraispaseu il or elle n'aurait pas eu nous n'aurions pas eu vous n'auriez pas eu ils or elles n'au- raient pas eu. should, would, could, or might I have had ? &c. aurais-je eu aurais-tu eu aurait-il or elle eu aurions-nous eu auriez-vous eu auraient-ils or elles eu ? should, would, could, or might I not have had ? &c. n 'aurais-je pas eu n'aurais-tu pas eu n'aurait-il or elle pas eu n'aurions nous pas eu n'auriez-vous pas eu n'auraient-ils or elles pas eu ? have, &c. aie qu'il ait ayons ayez qu'ils or qu'elles aient. IMPERATIVE MOOD, have not, &c n aie pas qu'il n'ait pas n'ayons pas n'ayez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may have, &c. que j'aie que tu aies qu'il or qu'elle ait que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'ils or qu'elles aient. PRESENT. that I may not have, &c. que je n'aie pas que tu n'aies pas qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas que nous n'ayons pas que vous n'ayez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas, IMPERFECT. that I might have, &c. que j'eusse que tu eusses qu'il or qu'elle eut que nous eussions que vous eussiez qu'ils or qu'elles eussent. that I might not have, &c. que je n'eusse pas que tu n'eusses pas qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas que nous n'eussions pas que vous n'eussiez pas qu'ils or. qu'elles n'eussent pas. PRETERITE. that I may have had, &c. que j'aie eu que tu aies eu qu'il or qu'elle ait eu que nous ayons eu que vous ayez eu qu'ils or qu'elles aient eu. that I may not have had, &c. que je n'aie pas eu que tu n'aies pas eu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas eu que nous n'ayons pas eu que vous n'ayez pas eu qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas eu. 528 FRENCH GRAMMAR, PLUPERFECT. that I might have had, &c. que j'eusse eu que tu eusses eu qu'il or qu'elle eut eu que nous eussions eu que vous eussiez eu qu'ils or qu'elles eussent eu. that I might not have had, &c. que je n'eusse pas eu que tu n'eusses pas eu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas eu que nous n'eussions pas eu que vous n'eussiez pas eu qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas eu. 1829. Conjugation of the impersonal verb, THERE TO BE. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. there to be there not to be y avoir. ne pas y avoir or n'y avoir pas. PARTICIPLE PRESENT. there being there not being y ayant. n'y ayant pas. PAST Or PERFECT. there to have been not there to have been y avoir eu. . ne pas y avoir eu or n'y avoir pas eu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. there having been there not having been y ayant eu. n'y ayant pas eu. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. Interrogative and Negative. there is or there there is not or is there or are is there not or are are there are not there ? there not ? il y a. il n'y a pas. y a-t-il? n'y a-t-il pas ? IMPERFECT. there was or there were il y avait. there was not or was there or there were not were there ? il n'y avait pas. y avait-il ? was not there or were not there ? n'y avait-il pas ? Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. 529 PRETERITE DEFINITE. there was or there was not or was or were there were there were not there ? il y eut. il n'y eut pas. y eut-il ? was or were not there ? n'y eut-il pas ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. there has or there has or has or have have been have not been there been . p il y a eu. il n'y a pas eu. y a-t-il eu ? has or have not there been ? n'y a-t-il pas eu ? there had been il y avait eu. there had not been PLUPERFECT. had there been ? had not there been ? il n'y avait pas eu. y avait-il eu.' n'y avait-il pas eui there had been il y eut eu. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. had there been there had not been il n'y eut pas eu. y eut-il eu had not there been ? n'y eut-il pas eu FUTURE ABSOLUTE. there will or shall be il y aura. there will or shall not be will or shall there be ? il n'y aura pas. y aura-t-il ? will or shall not there be ? n'y aura-t-il pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. there will or shall there will or shall shall or will there shall or will there have been not have been have been ? not have been? il y aura eu. il n'y aura pas eu. y aura-t-il eu ? n'y aura-t-il pas eu? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. there would, could, there would, could, would, could, should or might should or might should or might be not be there be ? y il aurait. il n'y aurait pas. y aurait-il ? would, could, should or might there not be ? n'y aurait-il pas ? there would, could, there would, could, would, could, should or might should or might should or might have been not have been there have been il y aurait eu. il n'y aurait pas eu. y aurait-il-eu ? 45 would, could, should or might there not have been ? n'y aurait-il pas eu ? 530 FRENCH GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that there may be qu'il y ait. that there might be qu'il y eut. that there may have been qu'il y ait eu. that there may not be qu'il n'y ait pas, IMPERFECT. that there might not be qu'il n'y eut pas. PRETERITE. that there may not have been qu'il n'y ait pas eu. PLUPERFECT. that there might have been that there might not have been qu'il y eut eu. qu'il n'y eut pas eu. to be etre. being etant. 1830. Conjugation of the Verb TO BE, Etre. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Negative. not to be ne pas etre. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. not being n'etant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. been 6t6. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE. to have been not to have been avoir ete* n'avoir pas ete COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. having been ayant ete. not having been n'ayant pas ete. ETRE, TO BE. 531 INDICATIVE MOOD. Affirmative. trti.iL Negative. Interrogative. JYegative and In- terrogative. I am, &c. I am not, &c. am I ? &c. am I not ? &c. je suis tu es il or elle est je ne suis pas tu n'es pas il or elle n'est pas suis-je es-tu est-il or elle ne suis-je pas n'es-tu pas n'est-il or elle pas nous sommes nous ne sommes sommes-nous ne sommes-nous vous etes ils or elles sont. pas vous n'etes pas etes-vous ils or elles ne sont sont-ils or elles ? pas n'etes-vous pas ne sont-ils or elles pas. pas? IMPERFECT. I was, &c. I was not, &c. was I ? &c. was I not ? &c. j'etais tu etais il or elle 6tait je n'etais pas tu n'etais pas il or elle n'etait etais-je etais-tu etait-il or elle n'etais-je pas n'etais-tu pas n'etait-il or elle nous etions vous etiez pas nous n'etions pas vous n'etiez pas etions-nous etiez-vous pas n'etions-nous pas n'etiezvous pas ils or elles etaient. ils or elles n'etai- ent pas. etaient ilsor elles? n'etaient-ils or el- les pas ? I was, &c. je fus tu fus il or elle fut PRETERITE DEFINITE. I was not, &c. was I ? &c. je ne fus pas fus-je tu ne fus pas fus-tu il or elle ne fut fut-il or elle pas was I not ? &c. ne fus-je pas ne fus-tu pas ne fut-il or elle pas ne fumes-nous pas nous fumes nous ne fumes fumes- nous pas vousfutes vous ne futes pas futes-vous ne futes-vous pas ils or elles furent- ils or elles ne fu- furent-ils or elles ? ne furent-ils or el- rent pas. les pas ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have been, &c. I have not been, have I been ? &c. have I not been ? &c. &c. j'ai ete je n'ai pas ete ai-je ete n'ai-je pas ete tu as ete tu n'as pas ete as-tu ete n'as-tu pas ete il or elle a ete il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle ete n'a-t-il or elle pas ete ete nous avons ete nous n'avons pas avons-nous ete n'avons-nous pas ete ete vous avez ete vous n'avez pas avez-vous ete n'avez-vous pas ete ete ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles ete?n'ont-ils or elles ete. pas ete. pas ete ? 532 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PLUPERFECT. I had been, Sac. I had not been, had I been ? &c. had I not been? &c &e. j'avais ete je n'avais pas ete avais-je ete n'avais-je pas ete tu avais ete tu n'avais pas ete avais-tu ete n'avais-tu pas ete il or elle avait ete il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle n'avait-il or elle pas ete ete pas ete nous avions ete nous n'avions pas avions-nous ete n'avions nous pas ete ^te vous aviez ete vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous ete n'aviez-vous pas ete ete ils or elles avai- ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or n'avaient-ils or ent ete. ent pas ete, elles ete ? elles pas ete? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had been, &c. I had not been, had I been ? &c. had I not been ? &c. &c. j'eus ete je n'eus pas ete eus-je ete n'eus-je pas ete lu eus ete tu n'eus pas ete eus-tu ete n'eus-tu pas ete il or elle eut ete il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle ete n'eut-il or elle pas pas ete ete nous eumes ete nous n'eumes eumes-nous ete n'eumes-nous pas pas ete ete vous eutes ete vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous ete n'eutes-vous pas ete ete ils or elles eu- ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or rent ete. rent pas ete. ete? elles pas ete t FUTURE PRESENT. I shall or will be I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not &c. not be, &c. be ? &e. be ? &c. je serai je ne serai pas serai-je ne serai-je pas tu seras tu ne seras pas seras-tu ne seras-tu pas il or elle sera il or elle ne sera sera-t-il or elle ne sera-t-il or elle pas pas nous serons nous ne serons serons-nous ne serons nous pas pas vous serez vous ne serez serez-vous ne serez-vous pas pas ils or elles seront. ils or elles ne se- seront-ils or elles? ne seront-ils or ront pas. elles pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will I shall or will not shall or will I shall or will I not have been, &c. have been, &c. have been ? &c. have been ? &c. j'aurai ete je n'aurai pas ete aurai-je ete n'aurai-je pas ete tu auras ete tu n'auras pas auras-tu ete n'auras-tu pas ete ete il or elle aura il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle ete. pas ete. ete? pas ete ? ETRE, TO BE. 533 nous aurons ete nous n'aurons aurons-nous ete n'aurons-nous pas pas ete ete vous aurez ete vous n'aurezpas aurez-vous ete n'aurez-vous pas ete ete ils or elles auront ils or elles n'au- auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or ete. ront pas ete. ete? elles pas ete ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might be, &c. not be, &c. I be ? &c. I not be ? &c. je serais je ne serais pas serais-je ne serais-je pas tu serais tu ne serais pas serais-tu ne serais-tu pas il or elle serait il or elle ne se- serait-il or elle ne serait-il or elle rait pas pas nous serions nous ne serions serions-nous ne serions-nous pas pas vous seriez vous ne seriez seriez-vous ne seriez-vous pas pas ils or elles se- ils or elles ne seraient-ils or ne seraient-ils or raient. seraient pas. elles ? elles pas ? PAST. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might have been, &c. not have been, I have been? I not have been? &c. &c. &c. j'aurais ete je n'aurais pas aurais-je ete n'aurais-je pas ete ete tu aurais ete tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu etc" n'aurais-tu pas ete ete il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle n'aurait-il or elle ete pas ete ete pas ete nous aurions ete nous n'aurions aurions-nousete n'aurions-nouspas pas ete ete vous auriez ete vous n'auriez auriez-vous ete n'auriez-vous pas pas ete etc* ils or elles au- ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or n'auraient-ils or raient ete. raient pas ete. elles ete ? elles pas ete . ? IMPERATIVE MOOD. be be not sois ne sois pas qu'il or qu'elle soit qu'il or qu'elle ne soit pas soyons ne soyons pas soyez ne soyez pas qu'ils or qu'elles soient. qu'ils or qu'elles ne soient pas. 45* 534 FRENCH GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may be, &c. que je sois que tu sois qu'il or qu'elle soit que nous soyous que vous soyez qu'ils or qu'elles soient. that I may not be, &e. que je ne sois pas que tu ne sois pas qu'il or qu'elle ne soit pas que nous ne soyons pas que vous ne soyez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne soient pas IMPERFECT. that I might be, &c. que je fusse que tu fusses qu'il or qu'elle fut que nous fussions que vous fussiez qu'ils or qu'elles fussent. that I might not be, &c. que je ne fusse pas que tu ne fusses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne fut pas que nous ne fussions pas que vous ne fussiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne fussent pas. PRETERITE. that I may have been, &c. que j'aie ete que tu aies ete qu'il or qu'elle ait ete que nous ayons ete que vous ayez ete qu'ils or qu'elles aient ete. that I may not have been, &c. que je n'aie pas ete que tu n'aies pas ete qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas ete que nous n'ayons pas ete que vous n'ayez pas ete qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas ete. PLUPERFECT. that I might have been, &c. que j'eusse ete que tu eusses ete qu'il or qu'elle eut ete que nous eussions ete que vous eussiez ete qu'ils or qu'elles eussent ete. that I might not have been, &c. que je n'eusse pas ete que tu n'eusses pas ete qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas ete que nous n'eussions pas 6t6 que vous n 'eussiez pas ete qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas ete. 1831. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in ER. FIRST CONJUGATION. AIMER. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to love aimer. not to love n'aimer pas. AIMER, TO LOVE. 535 PRESENT PARTICIPLE. loving not loving aimant. n'aimant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. loved aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. to have loved not to have loved avoir aime. n'avoir pas aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE, having loved not having loved ayant aime. n'ayant pas aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. I love, &c, or I I love not, &c, do Hove? &c., am loving. or I do not love, or am I lov- or I am not lov- ing ? ing. j aime tu aimes il or elle aime nous aimons vous aimez ils or elles ai- ment. je n aime pas tu n'aimes pas il or elle n'aime pas nous n'aimons pas vous n'aimezpas Ils or elles n'ai- ment pas. aime-je aimes-tu aime-t-il or elle aimons-nous aimez-vous aiment-ils or elles ? Negative and In- terrogative. do I not love? &c., or am I not lov- ing ? n aime-je pas n'aimes-tu pas n'aime-t-il or elle pas n'aimons-nous pas n'aimez-vous pas n 'aiment-ils or elles pas ? IMPERFECT. I loved, or I did love, or I was loving, &c. j'aimais tu aimais il or elle aimait nous aimions vous aimiez ils or elles ai- maient. I loved not, or I did not love, or I was not loving, &c. did I love, or was I loving ? &c. je n aimais pas aimais-je tu n'aimais pas aimais-tu il or elle n 'aimait aimait-il or elle pas nous n'aimions aimions-nous pas vous n'aimiez pas aimiez-vous ils or elles n'ai- aimaient-ils or maient pas. elles ? did I not love, or was I not lov- ing ? &c. n 'aimais-je pas n'aimais-tu pas n 'aimait-il or elle pas n'aimions-nous pas n'aimiez-vous pas n'aimaient-ils or elles pas? 536 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I loved, or did love, &c. j'aimai tu aimas il or elle aima nous aimames vous aimates ils or elles ai- merent. PRETERITE DEFINITE. I loved not, or did I love? &c. did not love, &c. je n'airaai pas aimai-je tu n'aimas pas aimas-tu il or elle n'aima aima-t-il or elle pas nous n 'aimames aimames-nous vous n aimates aimates-vous pas ils or elles n'ai- aimerent-ils or merent pas. elles ? did I not love ? . &c. n'aimai-je pas n' aimas-tu pas n'aima-t-il or elle pas n'aimames-nous pas n'aimates-vous pas n 'aimerent-ils or elles pas ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have loved, I have not loved, have I loved ? &c. &c. &c. j'ai aime je n'ai pas aim6 ai-je aime tu as aime tu n'as pas aime as-tu aime il or elle a aime il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle ai- aime me nous avons aime nous n'avons pas avons-nous aime aime vous avez aime vous n'avez pas avez-vous aime aime ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles aime. pas aime. aime have I not loved ? &c. n'ai-je pas aime n 'as-tu pas aime n'a-t-il or elle pas aime n'avons-nous pas aime n'avez-vous pas ai- me n 'ont-ils or elles pas aime ? I had loved, &c. j'avais aime tu avais aime il or elle avait ai- me nous avions ai- me vous aviez aime ils or elles avai- ent aime. PLUPERFECT. I had not loved, had I loved ? &e. &c. je n'avais pas ai- avais-je aime me tu n'avais pas ai- avais-tu aime me il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle pas aime aime nous n'avions pas avions-nous ai- aime me vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous aime aime ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or elles ent pas aime. aime ? had I not loved ? &c. n 'avais-je pas ai- me n'avais-tu pas ai- me n 'avait-il or elle pas aime n'avions-nous pas aime n'aviez-vous pas ai- me n'avaient-ils or elles pas aime ? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had loved, &c. I had not loved, had I loved ? &c. &c. j'eus aime je n'eus pas ai- eus-je aime me tu eus aime tu n'eus pas ai- eus-tu aime me il or elle eut ai- il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle ai- me pas aime me had I not loved r &c. n 'eus-je pas aime n'eus-tu pas aime n'eut-il or elle pas AIMER, TO LOVE- 537 nous eumes ai- nous n eumes pas eumes-nous ai- n eumes-nous pas me aime me akne vous eutes aime vous n'eutes pas eiites-vous aime n'eutes-vous pas aime aime ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or elles aime. rent pas aime. aime? pas aime ? FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will love, &c. I shall or will not love, &c. shall or will I love ? &c. shall or will I not love ? &c. j'aimerai tu aim eras il or elle aimera je n'aimerai pas tu n'aimeras pas il or elle n'aime- aimerai-je aimeras-tu aimera-t-il or elle n'aimerai-je pas n 'aimeras-tu pas n 'aimera-t-il or elle nous aimerons ra pas nous n'aimerons aimerons-nous pas n'aimerons-nous vous aimerez pas vous n'aimerez aimerez-vous pas n'aimerez-vous pas ils or elles aime- ront. pas ils or elles n'ai- meront pas. aimeront-ils or elles? n 'aimeront-ils or elles pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have loved, &c I shall or will not have lov- ed, &c. shall or will I have loved ? &c. shall or will I not have loved ? &c. j'aurai aime je n'auraipas ai- me tu n'auras pas aurai-je aime n 'aurai-je pas aime tu auras aime auras-tu aime n'auras-tu pas ai- il or elle aura ai- aime il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle me n'aura-t-il or elle me pas aime aime pas aime nous aurons aime nous n'aurons aurons-nous ai- n'aurons-nous pas vous aurez aime pas aime vous n'aurez pas me aurez-vous aime aime n'aurez-vous pas ils or elles auront aime ils or elles n'au- auront-ils or elles aime n'aurontils or elles aime. ront pas aime. aime ? pas aime ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, could, would, or might love, &c. j'aimerais tu aimerais il or elle aimerait nous aimerions vous aimeriez ils or elles aime- raient. I should, could, would, or might not love, &c. je n'aimerais pas tu n'aimerais pas il or elle n'aime- rait pas nous n'aimerions pas vous n'aimeriez pas ils or elles n'ai- meraient pas. should, could, should, could, would, ormight would, or might I love ? &c. I not love ? &c. aimerais-je aimerais-tu aimerait-il or elle aimerions-nous aimeriez-vous aimeraient-ils or elles ? n aimerais-je pas n'aimerais-tu pas n 'aimerait-il or elle pas n'aimerions-nous pas n 'aimeriez-vous pas n'aimeraient-ils or elles pas ? 538 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I should, could, I should, could, should, could, should, could, would, or might would, or might would, or might would, or might have loved, &c. have not loved. I have loved? I not have lov- &c. &c. ed ? &c. j aurais aime tu aurais aime il or elle aurait aime nous aurions ai- me vous auriez ai- me ils or elles au- raient aime. je n aurais pas aime tu n 'aurais pas aime il or elle n 'aurait pas aime nous n 'aurions pas aime vous n'auriez pas aime ils or elles n'au- raient pas aime. aurais-je aime aurais-tu aime aurait -il or elle aime aurions-nous ai- me auriez-vous aime auraient-ils or elles aime ? n 'aurais-je pas ai- me n'aurais-tu pas ai- me n'aurait-il or elle pas aime n'aurions-nouspas aime n 'auriez-vous pas aime n'auraient-ils or elles pas aime ? love, or do love IMPERATIVE MOOD. love not, or do not love aime qu'il or qu'elle aime aimons aimez qu'ils or qu'elles aiment. n aime pas qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas n'aimons pas n'aimez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may love, &c. que j'aime que tu aimes qu'il or qu'elle aime que nous aimions que vous aimiez qu'ils or qu'elles aiment. PRESENT. that I may not love, &c. que je n'aime pas que tu n'aimes pas qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas que nous n'aimions pas que vous n'aimiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas. that I might love, &c. que j'aimasse que tu aimasses qu'il or qu'elle aimat que nous aimassions que vous aimassiez qu'ils or qu'elles aimassent. that I may have loved, &c. que j'aie aime que tu aies aime qu'il or qu'elle ait aime IMPERFECT. that I might not love, &c. que je n'aimasse pas que tu n'aimasses pas qu'il or qu'elle n'aimat pas que nous n'aimassions pas que vous n'aimassiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aimassent pas. PRETERITE. that I may not have loved, &c. que je n'aie pas aime a que tu n'aies pas aime qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas aime REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 539 que nous ayons aime que nous n'ayons pas aime que vous ayez aime que vous n'ayez pas aime qu'ils or qu'elles aient aime. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas aime. PLUPERFECT. that I might have loved, &c. that I might not have loved, &c. que j'eusse aime que je n'eusse pas aime^ que tu eusses aime que tu n'eusses pas aime qu'il or quelle eut aime qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas aime que nous eussions aime que nous n'eussions pas aime que vous eussiez aime que vous n'eussiez pas aime qu'ils or qu'elles eussent aime. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas aime. REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 1832. This conjugation has only four irregular verbs ; as, Aller, to go. S'en aller, to go away. Envoyer, to send. Renvoyer, to send back. All other verbs ending in er are called regular ; but sev- eral of them undergo changes in the orthography of some of their tenses and persons. These irregularities, which have not been deemed sufficient to cause these verbs to be classed among the irregular, deserve, however, the most careful at- tention ; because, without a full knowledge of them, it is im- possible to write or pronounce the language correctly. The following table will give a complete idea of these irreg- ularities . The tenses and persons marked with an asterisk are the only ones which are irregular. 540 FRENCH GRAMMAR. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS eter eler ger INFINITIVE PRE" to throw to call to avenge jeter appeler venger PRESENT throwing calling avenging jetant appelant vengeant PAST thrown called avenged jete appele venge COMPOUND OF to have thrown to have called to have avenged avoir jete avoir appele avoir venge COMPOUND OF having- thrown having called having avenged ayant jete ayant appele ayant venge INDICATIVE jeorj tu il or elle nous vous ils or elles throw call avenge jette # appelle * venge jettes * appelles * venges jette * appelle * venge jetons appelons vengeons * jetez appelez vengez jettent * appellent * vengent IMPER- threw called avenged je or y jetais appelais vengeais * tu jetais appelais vengeais * il or elle jetait appelait vengeait * nous jetions appelions vengions vous jetiez appeliez vengiez ils or elles jetaient appelaient vengeaient * JETER, ETC 541 ENDING AS FOLLOWS : eer cer yer MOOD. ler. to agree to pierce to employ to pray agreer percer employer prier. PARTICIPLE. agreeing piercing employing praying agreant percant employant priant. PARTICIPLE. agreed pierced employed prayed agree perce employe prie. THE PRESENT. to have agreed to have pierced avoir agree avoir perce THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. having agreed having pierced ayant agree ayant perce MOOD. to have employed to have prayed avoir employe avoir prie. having employed having prayed ayant employe ayant prie. agree pierce employ pray agree perce emploie * prie agrees perces emploies * pries agree perce emploie * prie agreons pergons * employons prions agreez percez employez priez agreent percent emploient * prient. FECT. agreed pierced employed prayed agreais percais * employais priais agreais pergais * employais priais agr£ait pergait * employ ait priait agreions percions employions priions agreiez perciez employiez priiez agreaient pergaient * employaient priaient, 46 542 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PRETERITE I threw or did called or did call avenged or did throw avenge jeorj' jetai appelai vengeai * tu jetas appelas vengeas * il or elle jeta appela vengea * nous vous jetames jetates appeiames appelates vengeames * vengeates * ils or elles jeterent appelerent vengdrent PRETERITE I have thrown called avenged j'ai jete appele venge tu as (< (< tt il or elle a (< u a nous avons a (i a vous avez a (( a ils or elles ont it, 11 PLU- I had thrown called avenged j'avais jete appele venge tu avais a (< tc il or elle avait a (( a nous avions (C (C a vous aviez u (( n ils or elles avaient " a n PRETERITE I had thrown called avenged j'eus jete appele venge tu eus ct " il or elle eut a (< (< nous eumes a tc a vous eutes u (< a ils or elles eurent " (( a FUTURE I shall or will throw call avenge jeorj' tu jetterai * appellerai * vengerai jetteras * appelleras * vengeras il or elle jettera * appellera # vengera nous jetterons * appellerons * vengerons vous jetterez * appellerez # vengerez ils or elles jetteront * appelleront * vengeront JETER, ETC. 5 DEFINITE. agreed or did agree pierced or pierce did employed or did employ prayed or did pray agreai agreas agrea agreames agreates agreerent per§ai * pergas * perga # pergames * pergates* percerent i employai employas employa employames employates employment priai prias pria priames priates prierent. INDEFINITE. agreed pierced employed prayed agree ii perce a employe prie «( a (< it (( (( << a l< «< t( a it a a a PERFECT. agreed pierced employed prayed agr£e perce employe prie 543 ANTERIOR. agreed agree pierced perce employed employe" prayed prie it PRESENT. agree pierce employ agreerai percerai emploierai * agreeras perceras emploieras * agreera percera emploiera * agreerons percerons emploierons * agrderez percerez emploierez * agreeront perceront emploieront * pray prierai prieras priera prierons prierez prieront. 544 FRENCH GRAMMAR, FUTURE I shall or will have j'aurai tu auras il or elle aura nous aurons vous aurez ils or elles auront thrown jete called appele avenged venge CONDITIONAL I should, would, throw could, or might je or j' tu il or elle nous vous ils or elles jetterais * jetterais * jetterait # [etterions * jetteriez * jetteraient * I should, would, thro wo eould, or might have j aurais tu aurais il or elle aurait nous aurions vous auriez ils or elles auraient jete call appellerais * appellerais # appellerait * appellerions * appelleriez # appelleraient called appele avenge vengerais vengerais vengerait vengerions vengeriez vengeraient avenged venge PAST. qu'il or qu'elle qu'ils throw jette * jette * jetons jetez or qu 'elles jettent * call appelle * appelle * appelons appelez appellent # IMPERATIVE avenge venge venge vengeons * vengez vengent SUBJUNCTIVE that I may throw que je or j' jette * que tu jettes * qu'il or qu'elle jette* que nous jetions que vous jetiez qu'ils or qu'elles jettent * call appelle # appelles * appelle * appelions appeliez appellent * avenge venge venges venge vengions vengiez vengent JETER, ETC. 545 ANTERIOR. agreed pierced employed prayed agree perce employe* prie* MOOD. SENT. agree pierce employ pray agreerais agreerais agreerait agreerions agreeriez agreeraient percerais percerais percerait percerions perceriez perceraient emploierais * emploierais * emploierait * emploierions * emploieriez * emploieraient * prierais prierais prierait prierions prieriez prieraient agreed pierced employed prayed agree perce employe prie* u » t( u u tt it « tt ti » u it tt u It MOOD. agree pierce employ pray agree agree agr^ons agreez agr^ent perce perce percons * percez percent emploie * emploie * employons employez emploient * prie prie prions priez prient. MOOD. SENT. agree pierce employ pray agree perce emploie * prie agrees perces emploies * pries agree perce emploie * prie agreions percions employions prions " agreiez perciez employiez priez* agr^ent percent 46* emploient * prient. 546 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1MPER- that I might throw call avenge que je or j' jetasse appelasse vengeasse * que tu jetasses appelasses vengeasses * qu'il or qu'elle jetat appelat vengeat * que nous jetassions appelassions vengeassions * que vous jetassiez appelassiez vengeassiez * qu'ils or qu'elles jetassent appelassent vengeassent * PRETER- that I may have thrown called avenged que j'aie jete appele venge que tu aies (< u a qu'il or qu'elle ait (C u K que nous ayons a u U que vous ayez u u u qu'il or qu'elles c< <( C( aient PLU- that I might have thrown called avenged que j'eusse jete appele venge que tu eusses u a « qu'il or qu'elle eut " Ct u que nous eussions " (( a que vous eussiez a K u qu'ils or qu'elles a « u eussient 1833. From the foregoing table it results, that the verbs ending in eter double the t, whenever this letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, e.s, ent. 1834. That the words ending in eler double the /, whenever this letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, es, ent. 1835. That the verbs ending in ger keep the e after the g, whenever this letter, according to the conjugation of the verb aimer, ought to precede the vowels a and o, so as to continue to the g the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 1836. That the verbs ending in eer must keep the two ee-s all through the conjugation, in all tenses and persons. 1837. That the verbs ending in cer take a cedilla under the c, whenever this letter is followed by one of the vowels, a, or o, so as to preserve the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 1838. That the verbs ending in yer change the letter y into ij whenever the y should be followed by an e, mute. JETER, ETC. 547 FECT. agree agr^asse agreasses agreat agreassions agreassiez asrreassent pierce per§asse * pergasses # per§at * percussions * percassiez * per9assent # employ eraployasse employasses employat employassions employassiez employassent pray priasse priasses priat priassions priassiez priassent. agreed agree pierced perce employed employe prayed prie u agreed agree pierced perce employed employe prayed prie 1839. That the verbs ending in ier do not take, in the first and second persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, the termination of the imperfect of the indicative, as the verb aimer does, but that of the present of the indicative. 1840. But these exceptions are themselves subject to some restrictions ; for instance, there is a certain number of verbs ending in eter, which instead of doubling the letter t be- fore a mute syllable, as jeter, keep a single £, but take a grave accent over the e preceding it. They are the follow- ing : Acheter, Colleter, Coqueter, Decolleter, Etiqueter, Suracheter, Trompeter, to buy. to collar. to coquet. to uncover the neck. to label. to overpay. to summon with sound of trumpet. 548 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1841. The verbs ending in ecer, enter, ener, ever, evrer, are conjugated in the same manner, taking a grave accent over the e, whenever it is followed by a mute syllable, as in the fol- lowing : Depecer, Semer, Mener, Achever, Sevrer, to carve, to sow. to lead, to finish, to wean. The present of the indicative of these verbs is written as follows : J'achete and not j'achette. Je depece Je seme Je mene, J'acheve, Je sevre, je depece. je seme, je mene. j'acheve. je sevre. 1842. All the verbs ending in Ebrer Ecer Echer Eder Egler Egner Eguer Eler Emer Ener Equer Erer Eter Etrer as celebrer, " rapiecer, " pecher, " deceder, " regler, " regner, u alleguer, " reveler, blasphemer, aliener, hypothequer, adherer, empieter, pen etrer, to celebrate, to piece, to commit sin, to die, to regulate, to reign, to allege, to reveal, to blaspheme, to alienate, to mortgage, to adhere, to encroach, to penetrate, change the acute accent which is on the c of the penultimate syllable into a grave accent in all the tenses and persons in which this syllable is followed by e, es, ent ; as, Je c&ebre, Tu regies, lis revelent, I celebrate, thou regulatest. they reveal, &c. 1843. Among the verbs ending in eler, there are some which, instead of doubling the I before a mute syllable, take a grave accent over the e which precedes the I. They are the following : FINIRj TO FINISH. Peler, to peal. Bourreler, to torment. Congeler, to congeal. Degeler, to thaw. Geler, to freeze. Harceler, to torment. Regeler, to freeze again. rhese verbs are conjugated in the following manner I peal, Je pele, and not pelle. He torments, 11 harcele, " harcelle. They torment, lis bourrelent, " bourellent. It will thaw. 11 degelera, " degellera. It congeals, 11 congele, " congelle. It would freeze, 11 gelerait, " gellerait. 549 1844. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of about twenty-five hundred, in the first person singular of the present of the indicative, under the interrogative form, take a grave accent over the last e ; as, nime-je 9 &c. Most gram- marians recommend the use of the acute accent in this case, instead of the grave ; but the pronunciation induces us not to fall into their views, because this last e always sounds as if a grave accent were placed over it. SECOND CONJUGATION. F1NIR. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in IR. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to finish not to finish finir. ne pas finir. 1845. This tense expresses a present in regard to the verb which precedes it ; as, Je le vois I see him \ Je l'ai vu I have seen him \ travailler, work, Je le verrai I shall see him J PRESENT PARTICIPLE. finishing not finishing finissant. ne finissant pas. 550 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1846. This tense, as well as the past participle, and the compound of the present participle with the past, expresses ei- ther a present, a past, or a future, according to the tense of the principal verb of the sentence ; as, II est II a ete II sera Je suis J'ai e"te Je serai He is He has been He will be I am 1 have been I shall be Ayant desire le voir, I / aime de mon pere, ( father. having wished to see him. suppliant, supplicating. loved by my PAST PARTICIPLE. finished fini. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. having finished ayant fini. not having finished n 'ayant pas fini. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have finished not to have finished avoir fini n'avoir pas fini. 1847. This tense expresses a past in reference to the tense of the verb which precedes it ; as, I believe, or did believe that I saw Je crois, or je croyais Y avoir vu ve- him coming. nir. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. I finish, &c. je finis tu finis il or elle finit nous finissons vous finissez Negative. Interrogative. Interrogative and Negative. I do not finish, do I finish ? &c. do I not finish ? &c. je ne finis pas finis-je tu ne finis pas finis-tu il or elle ne finit finit-il or elle pas nous ne finissons finissons-nous vous ne finissez finissez-vous pas ils or elles finis- ils or elles ne fi- finissent-ils or sent. nissent pas. elles? &c. ne finis-je pas ne finis-tu pas ne finit-il or elle pas ne finissons-nous pas ne finissez-vous pas ne finissent-ils or elles pas ? FINIR, TO FINISH. 551 1848. This tense expresses that a fact is taking place, that a thing is done at the moment when a person speaks ; as, What are you doing now ? I am Que faites vous actuellement ? Je working. travaille. IMPERFECT. I finished or was I finished not or did I finish or did I not finish or finishing, &c. was not finish- was I finish- was I not finish- ing, &c. ing ? &c. ing ? &c. je finissais je ne finissais finissais-je ne finissais-je pas pas tu finissais tu ne finissais finissais-tu ne finissais-tu pas pas il or elle finissait il or elle ne finis- finissait-il or nefinissait-il or elle sait pas elle pas nous finissions nous ne finis- finissions-nous ne finissions-nous sions pas pas vous finissiez vous ne finissiez finissiez-vous ne finissiez-vous pas pas ils or elles finis- ils or elles ne fi- finissaient-ils or ne finissaient-ils or saient. nissaient pas. elles ? elles pas ? 1849. This tense is used to express the past in several ways : 1st. To signify that a fact took place at the same time that another fact was taking place ; as, While you were walking this morn- Tandis que vous vous promeniez ce e y ing, I was working. matin, je travaillais. 2d. To express an habitual disposition of the mind, an ha- bitual occupation in the past ; as, People thought formerly that the On croyait autrefois que le soleil sun was turning round the earth. tournait autour de la terre. While I was in the country, I used Quand jVto'sala campagne, je mon- to ride on horseback every day. tais a cheval tous les jours. 3d. To express any fact in the past implying duration ; as, Upon my return from hunting, I saw En revenant de la chasse, je vis un a tree which grew near an old arbre qui croissait pres d'un vieux wall. mur. 4th. To speak of the birth of a person who is no more ; as, Napoleon was born in Corsica. Napoleon Itaxb ne en Corse. 552 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PRETERITE DEFINITE. I finished or did I finished not or did I finish ? &c. finish, &c. je finis tu finis il or elle finit nous finimes vous finites did not finish. &c. je ne finis pas tu ne finis pas il or elle ne finit finit-il or elle pas nous ne finimes finis-je finis-tu fimmes-nous pas vous ne finites finites-vous pas ils or ellesfinirent. ils or elles ne fi- nirent pas. finirent-ils or elles ? did I not finish ? &c. ne finis-je pas ne finis-tu pas ne finit-il or elle pas ne finimes-nous pas ne finites-vous pas ne finirent-ils or elles pas ? 1850. This tense expresses a fact which took place in the past at a specific time, of which nothing remains. Twenty-four hours, at least, must have elapsed since the fact spoken of took place, to allow the use of this tense. The unit of time, employed to designate the period when the fact spoken of took place, must be passed, to admit of the use of this tense ; thus, we cannot employ it in speaking of a fact which took place this week, this month, this year, &c, if the words week, month, year, &c, are the unit of time used in the sentence ; it must be, at least, last week, last month, last year, &c. ; as, I wrote to France last year, last J^crivis en France l'annee derniere, month, last week, yesterday. le mois dernier, la semaine der- niere, hier. The battle of Bunker Hill was the La bataille de Bunker Hill Jut le first step of the Americans to- premier pas des Americains vers wards their independence. Pindependance. PRETERITE INDEFINITE, I have finished, &c. j'aifini . tu as fini il or elle a fini nous avons fini vous avez fini ils or elles ont fini. 1851. This in the past, but I have not finish- ed, &c. je n'ai pas fini tu n'as pas fini il or elle n'a pas fini nous n'avons pas fini vous n'avez pas fini ils or elles n'ont pas fini. tense is used to without regard have I finished ? &c. ai-je fini as-tu fini a-t-il or elle fini avons-nous fini avez-vous fini ont-ils or elles fini ? have I not finish- ed ? &c. n'ai-je pas fini n'as-tu pas fini n 'a-t-il or elle pas fini n'avons-nous pas fini n'avez-vous pas fini n'ont-ils or elles pas fini ? express a fact which took place to time ; its meaning is always FINIR, TO FINISH. 553 vague in reference to time ; the mind, in making use of it, not seeming to attach any importance to the period in the past, but only to the fact itself : I have answered your letter this J'ai rdpondu a. votre lettre cette week. semaine. We breakfasted this morning in the Nous avons dijeund ce matin a la country. campagne. This tense is that which is most generally used in conversa- tion or in writing letters, when no great precision is wanted in regard to time ; the preterite definite, on the contrary, is em- ployed in writing history, or relating facts, when it is neces- sary to specify in a precise manner the epoch when the facts took place. PLUPERFECT. I had finished, &c. I had not finished, &c. had I finished ? &c. had I not finished ? &c. j'avais fini tu avais fini il or elle avait fini nous avions fini je n'avais pas fini tu n'avais pas fini il or elle n'avait pas fini nous n'avions pas fini avais-je fini avais-tu fini avait-il or elle fini avions-nous fini n'avais-je pas fini n'avais-tu pas fini n'avait-il or elle pas fini n'avions-nous pas fini vous aviez fini ils or elles avaient fini. vous n'aviez pas fini ils or elles n'a- vaient pas fini. aviez-vous fini avaient-ils or elles fini ? n 'aviez-vous pas fini n'avaient-ils or elles pas fini ? 1852. This tense is used to express a fact which happened before another fact which is itself past, but without defining in a particular manner at what time, before the other, the fact took place : I had dined when he came. J'avais dine quand il arriva. This sentence expresses the fact, that I had dined before he came, but without mentioning how long before. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had finished, &c. j'eus fini tu eus fini il or elle eut fini I had not fin- ished, &c. had I finished ? had I not finished ? &c. &c. je n'eus pas fini eus-je fini n'eus-je pas fini tu n'eus pas fini eus-tu fini n'eus-tu pas fini il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle fini n'eut-il or elle pas pas fini fini 47 554 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous eumes fini nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous fini n'eumes-nous pas fini fini vous eutes fini vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous fini n'eutes-vous pas fini fini ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent ils or elles fini. rent pas fini. fini ? pas fini ? 1853. This tense expresses, that a fact took place before another fact which is past, but immediately before : When I had finished all my busi- Quand j'ews fini toutes mes affaires ness I went away. je partis. The meaning of this sentence is, that as soon as I had fin- ished my business I went away : I had done ploughing my field be- Tens laboure mon champ avant fore you. vous. This sentence signifies, that we were ploughing our fields at the same time, but I had done first. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will finish, &c. je finirai tu finiras il or elle finira nous finirons vous finirez ils or elles fini- ront. I shall or will not finish, &c. je ne finirai pas tu ne finiras pas il or elle ne finira pas nous ne finirons pas vous ne finirez pas ils or elles ne finiront pas. shall or will I finish? &c. finirai-je finiras-tu finira-t-il or elle finirons-nous finirez-vous finiront-ils or- elles ? shall or will I not finish ? &c. ne finirai-je pas ne finiras-tu pas ne finira-t-il or elle pas ne finirons-nous pas ne finirez-vous pas ne finiront-ils or elles pas ? 1854. We use this tense to express that a fact will take place at a time which has not yet come : I shall receive my money to-morrow, Je recevrai demain mon argent, et je and I will start for Paris. partirai pour Paris. FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have finished, &c. j'aurai fini tu auras fini il or elle aura fini I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not not have fin- have finished ? have finished ? ished, &c. &c. &c. je n'aurai pas fini aurai-je fini tu n'auras pas fini auras-tu fini il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle pas fini fini n'aurai-je pas fini n'auras-tu pas fini n 'aura-t-il or elle pas fini FINIR, TO FINISH. 555 nous aurons fini nous n'aurons aurons-nous fini n'aurons-nous pas pas fini fini vous aurez fini vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous fini n'aurez-vous pas fini fini ils or elles auront ils or elles n'au- auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or fini. ront pas fini. fini ? elles pas fini ? 1855. This tense indicates the future in reference to the past, by showing that a fact will take place when another fact shall have taken place : I will go and see yon when I have J'irai vous voir quand yaurai dine. dined. CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might finish, &c. not finish, &c. I finish ? &c. I not finish ? &c. je finirais je ne finirais pas finirais-je ne finirais je pas tu finirais tu ne finirais pas finirais-tu ne finirais-tu pas il or elle finirait il or elle ne fini- finirait-il or elle ne finirait-il or rait pas elle pas nous finirions nous ne finirions finirions-nous ne finirions-nous pas pas vous finiriez vous ne finiriez finiriez-vous ne finiriez-vous pas pas ils or elles fini- ils or elles ne finiraient-ils or ne finiraient-ils raient. finiraient pas. elles? or elles pas ? 1856. This tense serves to express that a fact would take place at a time, present or future, provided some condition should be accomplished : If I had dined, I would go out with Si j'avais dine, je sortirais avec you. vous. If the weather were fine to-morrow, Si le terns etait beau demain, nous we would go into the country. irions a la campagne. CONDITIONAL PAST. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might have finished, not have fin- I have finished ? I not have fin- &c. ished, &c. &c. ished ? &c. j'aurais fini je n'aurais pas aurais-je fini n'aurais-je pas fini fini tu aurais fini tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu fini n'aurais-tu pas fini fini il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle n'aurait-il or elle fini pas fini fini pas fini 556 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous aurions fini nous n'aurions aurions-nous fini n'aurions-nous pas pas fini fini vous auriez fini vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous fini n'auriez-vous pas fini fini ils or elles au- ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or n'auraient-ils or raient fini. raient pas fini. elles fini ? elles pas fini ? 1857. This tense is used to express that a fact would have taken place in the past on some condition : I would have been in the country, if Z'aurais Hi a la campagne, si vous you had asked me. m'en aviez prie. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do finish, &c. finis qu'il or qu'elle finisse finissons finissez qu'il or qu'elles finissent. do not finish, &c. ne finis pas qu'il or qu'elle ne finisse pas ne finissons pas ne finissez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent 1858. This mood serves to express the present in reference to the act of commanding-, and a future in reference to what is commanded : Work in order to learn. Be wise in order to be happy. Travaillez a vous instruire. Soyez sage pour 6tre heureux. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may finish, &c. que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il or qu'elle finisse que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. that I may not finish, &c. que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il or qu'elle finisse que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils or qu'elles finissent, 1859. This tense, which is always preceded by another verb, expressed or understood, is used to express a time present or future, according to the meaning of the sentence. I wish you to come and see me. Je veux que vous veniez me voir. (Present.) I doubt much that he comes. Je doute fort qu'il vienne. (Future). FINIR, TO FINISH. 557 IMPERFECT. that I might finish, &c. that I might not finish, &c. que je finisse que je ne finisse pas que tu finisses que tu ne finisses pas qu'il or qu'elle finit qu'il or qu'elle ne finit pas que nous finissions que nous ne finissions pas que vous finissiez que vous ne finissiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. 1860. This tense is most generally applied to a fact which is past, but it sometimes refers to a fact in the future, accord- ing to the sense of the sentence : I wished you had come with me Je desirais que vous vinssiez hier yesterday to pay a visit. faire une visite avec moi. (Past.) I wished he might come next week. Je desirais qu'il vint la semaine prochaine. (Future.) PRETERITE. that I may have finished, &c. that I may not have finished, &c. que j'aie fini que je n'aie pas fini que tu aies fini que tu n'aies pas fini qu'il or qu'elle ait fini qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas fini que nous ayons fini que nous n'ayons pas fini que vous ayez fini que vous n'ayez pas fini qu'ils or qu'elles aient fini. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas fini. 1861. This tense serves to express a fact which is past, but also, sometimes, a fact in the future, according to the sense of the sentence : I had to finish my work this morn- II a fallu que j'cze fini mon ouvrage ing before six o'clock. ce matin avantsixheures. (Pas°.) I must have my work done before II faut que i'aie fini mon ouvrage twelve o'clock. avant midi. (Future.) PLUPERFECT. that I might have finished, &c. that I might not have finished, &c. que j'eusse fini que je n'eusse pas fini que tu eusses fini que tu n'eusses pas fini qu'il or qu'elle eut fini qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas fini que nous eussions fini que nous n'eussions pas fini que vous eussiez fini que vous n'eussiez pas fini qu'ils or qu'elles eussent fini. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas fini. 1862. This tense, like the two preceding, serves to ex- press a past or a future, according to the meaning of the sentence : 47* 558 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I should have liked that you had Vaurais desire que vous fussiez venu come to my house yesterday. hier chez moi. (Past.) I did not believe you would have Je ne croyais pas que vous eussiez done so soon. sitotjini. (Future.) 1863. All the verbs of this conjugation, whose termina- tions, in all their tenses and persons, are similar to those of finir, are regular. They are two hundred and two in num- ber. The others are irregular, and will be found conjugat- ed in this grammar to the number of ninety-two. Several grammarians, with the idea of reducing the number of the ir- regular verbs of this conjugation, have found proper to group them into four different classes, but without any other result for the pupil than to create a confusion in his mind ; we shall not adopt this plan, therefore, but shall conjugate all the irregular verbs of this conjugation, as well as those of the others, sepa- rately, according to their alphabetical order. The best way to ascertain whether a verb of this conjugation is regular or not, is to refer to its present participle. If its ter- mination in that tense is issant, the verb is regular ; otherwise it is irregular. THIRD CONJUGATION. RECEVOIR, 1864. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in OIR. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to receive not to receive recevoir. ne pas recevoir, ne recevoir pas PRESENT PARTICIPLE. receiving not receiving recevant. ne recevant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. received Re5u, ue, us, ues. - RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 559 COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND FAST PARTICIPLE. to have received not to have received avoir regu. n'avoir pas regu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. having received not having received ayant regu. n'ayant pas regu. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. Affirmative. I receive, &c. Je regois tu regois il or elle regoit nous recevons vous recevez ils or elles regoi- vent. Negative. Interrogative. I do not receive, &c. Je ne regois pas tu ne regois pas il or elle ne re- goit pas nous ne rece- vons pas vous ne recevez pas ils or elles ne re- goivent pas. do I receive ? &c. regois-je regois-tu recoit-il or elle recevons-nous recevez-vous regoivent-ils or elles ? Negative and Interrogative. do I not receive ? &c. ne reCois-je pas ne regois-tu pas ne recoit-il or elle pas ne recevons-nous pas ne recevez-vous pas ne regoivent-ils or elles pas ? I received or was receiving, &c. je recevais tu recevais il or elle rece- vait nous recevions vous receviez ils or elles rece- vaient. IMPERFECT. I received not or did I receive or was not receiv- was I receiv- ing, &c. ing ? &c. je ne recevais recevais-je pas tu ne recevais recevais-tu I did receive, &c. je regus tu regus il or elle regut pas il or elle ne re- recevait-il or elle cevait pas nous ne rece- recevions-nous vions pas vous ne rece- receviez-vous viez pas ils or elles ne re- recevaient-ils or cevaient pas. elles ? PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did not receive, did I receive ? &c. &c. je ne regus pas regus-je tu ne regus pas regus-tu il or elle ne re- regut-il or elle gut pas did I not receive or was I not re- ceiving ? &c. ne recevais-je pas ne recevais-tu pas ne recevait-il or elle pas ne recevions-nous pas ne receviez-vous pas ne recevaient-ils or elles pas ? did I not not re- ceive ? &c. ne regus-je pas ne regus-tu pas ne regut il or elle pas 560 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous recjumes nous ne refines re^mes nous ne resumes-nous pas pas vous rentes vous ne rentes re9utes-vous ne re9iites-vous pas pas ils or elles re^u- ils or ellesne re- re^urent-ils or ne rec^urent-ils or rent. ^urent pas. elles ? elles pas ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have received, I have not receiv- have I received ? have I not receiv- &c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? &c. j'ai recu je n'ai pas re^u ai-je recu n'ai-je pas re^u tu as re^u tu n'as pas re<^u as-tu re9u n'as-tu pas recu il or elle a re^u il or elle n'apas a-t-il or elle re- n'a-t-il or elle pas recu cu re9u nous avons recu nous n'avons pas avons-nous re9u n'avons-nous pas re9u re9u vous avez re9u vous n'avez pas avez-vous re9u n'avez-vous pas re9u re9u ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles n'ont-ils or elles re9u. pas re9u. re9u ? pas re9u ? PLUPERFECT. I had received, I had not receiv- had I received? had I not receiv- &c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? &c. j'avais re9u je n'avais pas re- avais-je re9u n'avais-je pas re9u tu avais re9u tu n'avais pas re- avais-tu re9u n'avais-tu pas re9u cu il or elle avait il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle n'avait-il or elle re9u pas re9u re9u pas re9u nous avions recu nous n'avions pas avions-nous re9u n'avions-nous pas re9u re9u vous aviez re9u vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous re9u n'aviez-vous pas re9u re9u ils or elles avai- ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or n'avaient-ils or ent re9u. ent pas re9u. elles re9u ? elles pas re9u ? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had received, I had not receiv- had I received ? had I not receiv- &c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? fee. j'eus re9u je n'eus pas re- eus-je re9u n'eus-je pas re9u 9u tu eus re9u tu n'eus pas re- eus-tu re9u n'eus-tu pas re9u 9u il or elle eut re- il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle re- n'eut-il or elle pas 9U pas re9u 9U re9u nous euraes re- nous n'eurnes eumes-nous re- n'eumes-nous pas 9u pas re9u 9u re9u vous eutes re9u vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous re9u n'eutes-vous pas re9u re9u ils or elles eurent ils or illes n'eu- eurent-ils or el- n'eurent-ils or el- re9u. rent pas re9u. les re9u ? les pas re9u ? RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 561 I shall or will re- ceive, &c. je recevrai tu recevras il or elle recev- ra nous recevrons vous recevrez ils or elles re- cevront. FUTURE PRESENT. I shall or will shall or will I not receive, &c. receive ? &c. je ne recevrai pas tu ne recevras pas il or elle ne re- cevra pas nous ne recev- rons pas vous ne recev- rez pas ils or elles ne recevront pas. recevrai-je recevras-tu recevra-t-il or elle recevrons-nous recevrez-vous recevront-ils or elles ? shall or will I not receive? &c. ne recevrai-je pas ne recevras-tu pas ne recevra-t-il or elle pas ne recevrons-nous pas ne recevrez-vous pas ne recevront-ils or elles pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have receiv- ed, &c. j'aurai recju tu auras re^u il or elle aura recu nous aurons recu vous aurez recu ils or elles au- ront recu. I shall or will not have re- ceived, &c. je n'aurai pas recu tu n'auras pas recu il or elle n'aura pas recu nous n aurons pas recu vous n'aurezpas recu ils or elles n'au- ront pas recu. shall or will I have receiv- ed ? &c. aurai-je re^u auras-tu re$u aura-t-il or elle recu aurons-nous re^u aurez-vous recu auront-ils or el- les recu ? shall or will I not have received ? &c. n'aurai-je pas recu n'auras-tu pas recu n'aura-t-il or elle pas recu n'aurons-nous pas re 911 n'aurez-vous pas recu n 1 nuront-ils or el- les pas re$u ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might receive, &c. not receive, &c. I receive ? &c. I not receive ? &c, je recevrais tu recevrais il or elle recev- rait nous recevrions vous recevriez ils or elles re- cevraient. je ne recevrais pas tu ne recevrais pas il or elle ne re- cevrait pas nous ne recev- rions pas vous ne recev- riez pas ils or elles ne recevraint pas. recevrais-je ne recevrais-je pas recevrais-tu ne recevrais-tu pas recevrait-il or ne recevrait-il or elle elle pas recevrions-nous ne recevrions- nous pas reeevriez-vous ne recevriez-vous pas recevraient-ils or ne recevraient-ils elles ? or elles pas ? 562 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PAST. I should, would, could, or might have received, &c. j'aurais recu tu-aurais recu il or elle aurait recu nous aurions re- cu vous auriez recu ils or elles au- raient recu. I should, would, could, or might not have re- ceived, &c. je n'aurais pas recu tu n'aurais pas recu il or elle n'au- rait pas recu nous n'aurions pas recu vous n'auriez pas recu ils or elles n'au- raient pas recu. should, would, could, or might I have receiv- ed? aurais-je recu aurais-tu recu aurait-il or elle recu aurions-nous re- cu auriez-vous re- auraient-ils or elles recu ? should, would, could, or might I not have re- ceived ? &c. n'aurais-je pas recu n'aurais-tu pas recu n'aurait-il or elle pas recu n'aurions-nous pa3 recu n'auriez-vous pas recu n'auraient-ils or elles pas recu ? do receive, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not receive, &c. recois qu*il or qu'elle ne recoive recevons recevez qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent. ne recois. pas qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas ne recevons pas ne recevez pas qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may receive, &c. que je recoive que tu revives qu'il or qu'elle recoive que nous recevions que vous receviez qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent that I may not receive, &c. que je ne recoive pas que tu ne recoives pas qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas que nous ne recevions pas que vous ne receviez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne recoivent pas. IMPERFECT. that I might receive, &c. que je recusse que tu re^usses qu'il or qu'elle recut que nous recussions que vous recussiez qu'ils or qu'elles recussent that I might not receiye, &c. que je ne recusse pas que tu ne recusses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne recut pas que nous ne recussions pas que vous ne recussiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne recussent pas. RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 563 PRETERITE. that I may have received, &c. that I may not have received, &c. que j'aie regu que je n'aie pas regu que tu aies regu que tu n'aies pas regu qu'il or qu'elle ait regu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas regu que nous ayons regu que nous n'ayons pas regu que vous ayez regu que vous n'ayez pas regu qu'ils or qu'elles aient regu. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas regu. PLUPERFECT. that I might have received, &c. that I might not have received, &c. que j'eusse regu que je n'eusse pas regu que tu eusses regu que tu n'eusses pas regu qu'il or qu'elle eut regu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas regu que nous eussions regu que nous n'eussions pas regu que vous eussiez regu que vous eussiez pas regu qu'ils or qu'elles eussent regu. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas regu. 1865. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of two hundred and thirty, end in oir in the infinitive. Of these, seven only are regular ; they are easily recognized by their termination in evoir ; the others are called irregular, and will be conjugated in this grammar in all their tenses and per- sons. The seven regular verbs of this conjugation are the follow- ing : Apercevoir, to perceive. Concevoir, to conceive. Decevoir, to deceive. Percevoir, to collect taxes. Recevoir, to receive. Devoir, to owe. Redevoir, to owe again. 1866. When the letter c, which is found in the first five verbs of this list, is followed, in the conjugation of the verb, by any of the vowels a, o, or w, a cedilla is placed under it, to change the hard sound that c has before these vowels into the soft sound which is required by the pronunciation. 1867. In the past participle of the verb devoir , which is du, the last letter, w, takes a circumflex accent, to distinguish this word from the contracted article du, of the ; the accent is not kept in the feminine. The past participle redu, from redevoir^ takes no accent. 564 FRENCH GRAMMAR. FOURTH CONJUGATION. RENDRE. 1868. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in re. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to render not to render rendre. ne pas rendre. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. rendering not rendering rendant. ne rendant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. rendered rendu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. to have rendered not to have rendered avoir rendu. n'avoir pas rendu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PAP. having rendered not having rendered ayant rendu. n'ayant pas rendu. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. I render, &c. I do not render, do I render ? &c. &c. je rends je ne rends pas est-ce que je rends tu rends tu ne rends pas rends-tu il or elle rend il or elle ne rend rend-il or elle pas nous rendons nous ne rendons rendons-nous pas vous rendez vous ne rendez rendez-vous pas ils or elles ren- ils or elles neren- rendent-ils or dent. dent pas. elles ? Negative and Interrogative* do I not render ? &c. est-ce que je ne rends pas ne rends-tu pas ne rend-il or elle pas ne rendons-nous pas ne rendez-vous pas ne rendent-ils or elles pas ? RENDRE, TO RENDER. 565 IMPERFECT. I rendered or was render- ing, &c. je rendais tu rendais il or elle rendait nous rendions vous rendiez ils or elles ren- daient. I rendered not or was not ren- dering-, &c. je ne rendais pas tune rendais pas il or elle ne ren- dait pas nous ne rendions pas vous ne rendiez pas ils or elles ne rendaient pas. did I render or was I render- ing ? &c. rendais-je rendais-tu rendait-il or elle rendions-nous rendiez-vous rendaient-ils or elles ? did I not render or was I not render- ing ? &c. ne rendais-je pas ne rendais-tu pas ne rendait-il or elle pas ne rendions-nous pas ne rendiez-vous pas ne rendaient-ils or elles pas ? PRETERITE DEFINITE. I rendered or did render, &c. je rendis tu rendis il or elle rendit nousrendimes vous rendltes ils or elles ren- dirent. I rendered not or did not ren- der, &c. je ne rendis pas tu ne rendis pas il or elle ne ren- dit pas nousne rendimes pas vous ne rendltes pas ils or elles ne rendirent pas. did I render ? &c. rendis je rendis-tu rendit-il or elle rendimes-nous rendites-vous rendirent-ils or elles ? did I not render ? &c. ne rendis-je pas ne rendis-tu pas ne rendit-il or elle pas ne rendimes-nous pas ne rendites-vous pas ne rendirent-ils or elles pas ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have rendered, &c. j'ai rendu tu as rendu il or elle a rendu nous avons rendu vous avez- rendu ils or elles ont rendu. I have not ren- dered, &c. je n'ai pas rendu tu n'as pas rendu il or elle n'a pas rendu nous n'avons pas rendu vous n'avez pas rendu ils or elles n'ont pas rendu. have I rendered ? have I not render- &c. ed ? &c. ai-je rendu as-tu rendu a-t-il or elle ren- du avons-nous ren- du avez-vous rendu ont-ils or elles rendu ? n 'ai-je pas rendu n 'as-tu pas rendu n'a-t-il or elle pas rendu n'avons-nous pas rendu n 'avez-vous rendu n'ont-ils or elles pas rendu ? pas PLUPERFECT. I had rendered. &c. j'avais rendu tu avais rendu il or elle avait rendu I had not render- had I rendered ? had I not render- ed, &c. &c. je n'avais pas avais-je rendu rendu tu n'avais pas avais-tu rendu rendu il or elle n 'avait avait-il or elle pas rendu rendu 48 ed ? &c. n'avais-je pas ren- du n 'avais-tu pas ren- du n'avait-il or elle pas rendu 566 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous avions ren- du vous aviez rendu ils or elles avai- ent rendu. I had rendered, &c. j'eus rendu tu eus rendu il or elle eut ren- du nous eumes ren- du vous eutes rendu ils or elles eu- rent rendu. nous n avions pas rendu vous n'aviez pas rendu ils or elles n'a- vaient pas ren- du. avions-nous ren- du aviez-vous rendu avaient-ils or elles rendu ? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had not render- ed, &c. je n'eus pas ren- du tu n'eus pas ren- du il or elle n'eut pas rendu nous n'eumespas rendu vous n'eutes pas rendu ils or elles n'eu- rent pas rendu. had I rendered ? &c. eus-je rendu eus-tu rendu eut-il or elle ren- du eumes-nous ren- A du eutes-vous rendu eurent-ils or elles rendu ? n avions-nous pas rendu n'aviez-vous pas rendu n'avaient-ils or elles pas rendu ? had I not render- ed ? &c. n'eus-je pas rendu n'eus-tu pas rendu n 'eut-il or elle pas rendu n'eumes-nous pas rendu n'eutes-vous pas rendu n 'eurent-ils or elles pas rendu ? I shall or will render, &c. je rendrai lu rendras il or elle rendra nous rendrons vous rendrez ils or elles ren- dront. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will shall or will I not render, render ? &c. &c. je ne rendrai pas rendrai-je tu ne rendras pas rendras-tu il or elle ne ren- rendra-t-il or elle dra pas nous ne rendrons rendrons-nous pas vous ne rendrez rendrez-vous pas ils or elles ne rendront-ils or rendront pas elles ? shall or will I not render ? &c. ne rendrai-je pas ne rendras-tu pas ne rendra-t-il or elle pas ne rendrons-nous pas ne rendrez-vous pas ne rendront-ils or elles pas ? I shall or will have render- ed, &c. j'aurai rendu tu auras rendu il or elle aura rendu nous aurons ren- du vous aurez ren- du ils or elles au- ront rendu. FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will not shall or will I have rendered, have render- &c. ed ? &c. shall or will I not have rendered ? &c. je n'aurai pas aurai-je rendu n'aurai-je pas ren- rendu du tu n'auras pas auras-tu rendu n'auras-tu pas ren- rendu du il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle pas rendu rendu pasrendu nous n'aurons aurons-nous ren- n'aurons-nous pas pas rendu du rendu vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous ren- n'aurez-vous pas rendu du rendu ils or elles n'au- auront-ilso?' elles n'auront-ils or elles rontpasrendu. rendu? pasrendu? RENDRE, TO RENDER. 567 CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, could, or might render, &c. je rendrais tu rendrais il or elle ren- drait nous rendrions vous rendriez ils or elles ren- draient. I should, would, could, or might not render, &c. je ne rendrais pas tu ne rendrais pas il or elle ne ren- drait pas nous ne rendrions pas vous ne rendriez pas ils or elles ne ren- draient pas. should, would, could, or might I render ? &c. rendrais-je rendrais-tu rendrait-ilor elle rendrions-nous rendriez-vous rendraient-ils or elles ? should, would, could, or might I not render? &c. ne rendrais-je pas ne rendrais-tu pas ne rendrait-il or elle pas ne rendrions-nous pas ne rendriez-vous pas ne rendraient-ils or elles pas ? I should, would, could, or might have rendered, &c. j'aurais rendu tu aurais rendu il or elle aurait rendu nous aurions ren- du vous auriez ren- du ils or elles au- raient rendu. I should, would, could, or might not have ren- dered, &c. je n'aurais pas rendu tu n'aurais pas rendu il or elle n'au- rait pas rendu nous n'aurions pas rendu vous n'auriezpas rendu ils or elles n'au- raientpas ren- du. should, would, could, or might I have render- ed? &c. aurais-je rendu aurais-tu rendu aurait-il or elle rendu aurions-nous ren- du auriez-vous ren- du auraient-ils or elles rendu ? should, would, could, or might I not have render- ed ? &c. n'aurais-je pas ren- du n'aurais-tu pas ren- du n'aurait-il or elle pas rendu n'aurions-nous pas rendu n'auriez-vous pas rendu n'auraient-ils or elles pas rendu ? do render, &.c. rends qu'il or qu'elle rende rendons rendez qu'ils or qu'elles rendent IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not render, &c. ne rends pas qu'il or qu'elles ne rende pas ne rendons pas ne rendez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may render, &c. que je rende que tu rendes qu'il or qu'elle rende que nous rendions que vous rendiez qu'ils or qu'elles rendent. that I may not render, &c. que je ne rende pas que tu ne rendes pas qu'il or qu'elle ne rende pas que nous ne rendions pas que vous ne rendiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. 563 FRENCH GRAMMAR. that I might render, &c. que je rendisse que tu rendisses qu'il or qu'elle rendit que nous rendissions que vous rendissiez qu'ils or qu'elles rendissent. that I may have rendered, &c. que j'aie rendu que tu aies rendu qu'il or qu'elle ait rendu que nous ayons rendu que vous ayez rendu qu'ils or qu'elles aient rendu. IMPERFECT. that I might not render, &c. que je ne rendisse pas que tu ne rendisses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne rendit pas que nous ne rendissions pas que vous ne rendissiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendissent pas. PRETERITE. that I may not have rendered, &c. que je n'aie pas rendu que tu n'aies pas rendu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas rendu que nous n'ayons pas rendu que vous n'ayez pas rendu qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas rendu, PLUPERFECT. that 1 might have rendered, &c. that I might not have rendered, &e. que j'eusse rendu que tu eusses rendu qu'il or qu'elle eut rendu que nous eussions rendu que vous eussiez rendu qu'ils or qu'elles eussent rendu. que je n'eusse pas rendu que tu n'eusses pas rendu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas rendu que nous n'eussions pas rendu que vous n'eussiez pas rendu qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas rendu. 1869. All the verbs of this conjugation end in re in the present of the infinitive, as rendre, to render. They are about two hundred and forty in number. Those which are conjugated like rendre, in all their tenses and persons, are called regular ; forty of them belong to this class ; they are the following : Appendre (not used), Attendre, Confondre, Corresponds, Defendre, Demordre, Dependre, Descendre, Detendre, Detordre, to hang up. to wait, to expect. to confound. to correspond. to defend. to give up. to take down, or to depend on, upon, to go down, to descend, &c. to unbend, to loosen, to untwist. Distendre, Entendre, Epandre, Etendre, Fend re, Fondre, Mevendre (not used), Mordre, Mor fondre, Parfondre (not used), Pendre, to distend, to extend. to hear, to under- stand. to spread. to spread. to split. to melt. to undersell. to bite. to be very cold. to melt equally. to hang. OTHER VERBS ENDING IN RE. 569 to lose. Revendre, to sell again. to lay eggs. Sons entendre, to understand. to cut in two. Survendre (not to sell too dear. to pretend. used), to split again. Suspendre, to suspend. to melt again. Tendre, to hold out, to to bite again. bend. to render. Tondre, to shear. to spell, to shed. Tordre, to twist. to answer. Vendre, to sell. to twist again. Perdre, Pondre, Pourfendre, Pretendre, Refendre, Refondre, Remordre, Rendre, Repandre, Repondre, Retordre* All the other verbs of this conjugation are irregular, and will be conjugated in this grammar. 1870. There is a sure method of ascertaining whether a verb of the fourth conjugation is regular or not ; if the pres- ent participle ends in dant, the verb is regular ; if not, the verb is irregular. 1871. It must be remembered, that when the first person singular of the present of the indicative, of any verb, has only one syllable, we cannot use it interrogatively ; thus, we cannot say, rends~je 9 do I sell ? prends-je 9 do I take ? &c. ; the only exceptions are : Fais-je ? Dis-je ? Dois- je Vois-je ? Ai-je ? Vais-je ? Do I do ? Do I say ? Do I owe ? Do I see ? Have I ? Do I go This remark is applicable to nearly all the verbs of the fourth conjugation, whatever may be the number of their sylla- bles. Another form must, then, be given to the verb : as, Est-ce que je vends ? Is it that I sell ? &c. The interrogation being made in the verb to be, est-ce y the verb following is used in the affirmative form. 48' 570 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1872. Conjugation of the PASSIVE VERBS. We will only give a single model for the conjugation of the passive verbs, because the form is the same in the four conju- gations. INFINITIVE MOOD. to be loved etre aime. being loved etant aime. PRESENT. not to be loved n'etre pas aime. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. not being loved n'etant pas aime. COMPOUND OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE., to have been loved not to have been loved, avoir ete aime. n'avoir pas e"te aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. having been loved ay ant ete aime. not having been loved n'ayant pas ete aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. Affirmative. I am loved, &c. je suis aime, ee tu es aime, ee il est aime elle est aimee nous sommes aimes, ees vous etes aimes, ees ils sont aimes elles sont aimees. Negative. I am not loved, &c. je ne suis pas aime, ee tu n'es pas aime, ee il n'est pas aime elle n'est pas aimee nous ne sommes pas aimes, ees vous n'etes pas aimes, ees ils ne sont pas aimes elles ne sont pas aimees. Interrogative. am I loved ? &c. suis-je aime, ee es-tu aime, ee est-il aime est-elle aimee sommes-nous aimes, ees 6tes-vous aimes ees sont-ils aimes sont-elles ai- mees ? Negative and Interrogative. am I not loved ? &c. ne suis-je pas aime, ee n'es-tu pas aime, ee n'est-il pas aime n'est-elle pas aimee ne sommes-nous pas aimes, ees n'etes-vous pas aimes, ees ne sont-ils pas aimes ne sont-elles pas aimees ? PASSIVE VERBS. 571 IMPERFECT. I was loved, &c. j'etais aime,ee tu etais aime, ee il etait aime elle etait aimee nous etions ai- mes, ees vous etiez aimes, ees ils etaient aimes elles etaient ai- mees. was I loved ? &c. I was not loved, &c. je n'etais pas etais-je aime, ee aime, ee tu n'etais pas etais-tu aime, ee aime, ee il n 'etait pas etait-il aime aime elle n'etait pas etait-elle aimee aimee nous n'etions pas etions-nous ai- aimes, ees mes, ees vous n'etiez pas etiez-vous ai- aimes, ees mes, ees ils n'etaient pas etaient-ils aimes aimes elles n'etaient etaient-elles ai- pas aimees. mees ? was I not loved ? &c. n'etais-je pas ai- me, ee n'etais-tu pas aime, ee n'etait-il pas aime n'etait-elle pas aimee n'etions -nous pas aimes, ees n'etiez-vous pas aimes, ees n'etaient-ils pas aimes n'etaient-elles aps aimees ? I was loved, &c. je fus aime, ee tu fus aime, 6e il fut aime" elle fut aimee nous fumes ai- mes, ees vous futes aimes, 6es ils furent aimes elles furent ai- mees. PRETERITE DEFINITE. I was not loved, was I loved ? &c. &c. fus-je aime, ee fus-tu aime, ee fut-il aime fut-elle aimee je ne fus pas ai- m^, ee tu ne fus pas aime, ee il ne fut pas aime elle ne fut pas aimee nous ne fumes fumes-nous ai- pas aimes, ees mes, ees vous ne futes pas futes-vous ai- aimes, ees mes, ees ils ne furent pas furent-ils aimes aimes elles ne furent pas furent-elles ai- aimees. mees ? was I not loved ? &e. ne fus-je pas aime, ee ne fus-tu pas aime, ee ne fut-il pas aime ne fut-elle pas aimee ne fumes-nous pas aimes, ees ne futes vous pas aimes, ees ne furent-ils pas aimes ne furent-elles pas aimees ? PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have been loved, &c. I have not been loved, &c. j'ai ete aime, ee je n'ai pas ete aime, ee tu as ete aime, tu n'as pas ete ee aime, ee il a ete aime il n'a pas ete aime elle a ete aimee elle n'a pas ete aimee have I been have I not been loved ? &e. loved ? &c. ai-je ete aime, ee n'ai-je pas ete aime, ee as-tu ete aime, n'as-tu pas ete ee aime, ee a-t-il ete aime n'a-t-il pas ete aime a-t-elle ete ai- n'a-t-elle pas ete mee aimee 572 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous avons ete nous n'avons pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees vous avez ete vous n'avez pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees ils out ete aimes ils n'ont pas ete aimes elles ont ete ai- elles n'ont pas mees. ete aimees. avons-nous ete aimes, ees avez-vous ete aimes, ees ont-ils ete aimes ont-elles ete aimees ? n avons-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'avez-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'ont-ils pas ete aimes n'ont-elles pas ete aimees ? PLUPERFECT. I had been loved, &c. j'avais ete aime, ee tu avais ete aime, ee il avait ete aime elle avait ete aimee nous avions ete aimes, ees vous aviez ete aimes, ees ils avaient ete aimes elles avaient ete aimees. I had not been loved, &c. je n 'avais pas ete aime, ee tu n'avais pas ete aime, ee il n'avait pas ete aime elle n'avait pas ete aimee nous n'avionspas ete aimes, ees vous n'aviez pas ete aimes, ees ils n'avaient pas ete aimes elles n'avaient pas ete aimees had I been loved ? &c. avais-je ete aime, ee avais-tu ete aimee, ee avait-il ete aime avait-elle ete aimee avions-nous ete aimes, ees aviez-vous ete aimes, ees avaient-ils ete aimes avaient-elles ete aimees ? had I not been loved ? &c. n'avaisje pas ete aime, ee n'avais-tu pas ete aime, ee n'avait-il pas ete aimee n'avait-elle pas ete aimee n'avions-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'aviez-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'avaient-ils pas ete aimes n'avaient-elles pas ete aimees ? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had been loved, &c. j'eus ete aime, ee tu eus ete aime, ee il eut ete aime elle eut ete ai- mee nous eumes ete aimes, ees vous eutes ete aimes, ees ils eurent ete aimes elles eurent ete aimees I had not been loved, &c. je n'eus pas ete aime, ee tu n'eus pas ete aime, ee il n'eut pas ete aime elle n'eut pas ete aimee nous n'eumes pas ete aimes, ees vous n'eutes pas ete aimes, ees ils n'eurent pas ete aimes elles n'eurent pas ete aimees. had I been loved ? &c. eus-je ete aime, ee eus-tu ete aime, ee eut-il ete aime eut-elle ete ai- mee eumes-nous ete aimes, ees eutes-vous ete aimes, ees eurent-ils ete aimes eurent-elles ete aimees ? had I not been loved ? &c. n'eus-je pas ete aime, ee n'eus-tu pas ete aime, ee n'eut-il pas ete aime n'eut-elle pas ete aimee n'eumes-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'eutes-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'eurent-ils pas ete aimes n'eurent-elles pas ete aimees ? PASSIVE VERBS. 573 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will be loved, &c. je serai aime, ee tu seras aime, ee il sera aime elle sera aimee nous serons ai- mes, ees vous serez ai- mes, ees ils seront aimes elles seront ai- mees. I shall or will not be loved, &c. je ne serai pas aime, ee tu ne seras pas aime, ee il ne sera pas aime elle ne sera pas aimee nous ne serons pas aimes, ees vous ne serez pas aimes, ees ils ne seront pas aimes elles ne seront pas aime es. shall or will I be loved ? &c. serai-je aime, ee seras-tu aime, ee sera-t-il aime sera-t-elle aimee serons-nous ai- mes, ees serez-vous ai- mes, ees seront-ils aimes seront-elles ai- shall or will I not be loved ? &c. ne serai-je pas ai- me, ee ne seras-tu pas ai- me, ee ne sera-t-il pas ai- me ne sera-t-elle pas aimee ne serons-nous pas aimes, ees ne serez-vous pas aimes, ees ne seront-ils pas aimes ne seront-elles pas aimees ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will I shall or will not shall or will I shall or will I not have been lov- have been lov- have been lov- have been lov- ed, &c. ed, &c. ed ? &c. ed ? &c. j'aurai ete aime je n'aurai pas ete aurai-je ete ai- n'aurai-je pas ete ee aime, ee me, ee aime, ee tu auras ete ai- tu n'auras pas auras-tu ete ai- n'auras-tu pas ete me ee ete aime, ee me, ee aime, ee il aura ete aime il n'aura pas ete aura-t-il ete ai- n'aura-t-il pas ete aime me aime elle aura ete ai- elle n'aura pas aura-t-elle ete n'aura-t-elle pas mee ete aimee aimee ete aimee nous aurons ete nous n'auronspas aurons-nous ete n'aurons-nous pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees aimes, ees ete aimes, ees vous aurez e*te vous n'aurezpas aurez-vous ete n'aurez-vous pas aim^s, ees ete aimes, ees aimes, ees ete aimes, ees ils auront ete ils n'auront pas auront-ils ete ai- n'auront-ilspasete aimes ete aimes mes aimes elles auront ete elles n'auront pas auront-elles ete n'auront-elles pas aimees. ete aimees. aimees ? ete aimees ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might be loved, &c. not bo loved, &c. I be loved ? Elc. I not be loved ? &c. je serais aime, je ne serais pas serais-je aime, ne serais-je pas ee aime, ee ee aime, ee tu serais aime, tu ne serais pas serais-tu aime, ne serais-tu pas ee aime, ee ee aime", ee 574 FRENCH GRAMMAR. il serait aime elle serait aimee nous serions ai- mes, ees vous seriez ai- mes, ees ils seraient ai- mes elles seraient aimees. il ne serait pas aime elle ne serait pas aimee nous ne serions pas aimes, ees vous ne seriez pas aimes, ees ils ne seraient pas aimes elles ne seraient pas aimees. serait-il aime serait-elle aimee serions-nous ai- mes, ees seriez-vous ai- mes, ees seraient-ils ai- mes seraient-elles ai- mees ? ne serait-il pas aime ne serait elle pas aimee ne serions-nous pas aimes, ees ne soriez-vous pas aimes, ees ne seraient-ils pas aimes ne seraient-elles pas aimees ? could, or might have been lov- ed, &c. j'aurais ete ai- me, ee tu aurais ete ai- me, ee il aurait ete ai- me elle aurait ete aimee nous aurions ete aimes, ees vous auriez ete aimes, ees ils auraient ete aimes elles auraient ete aimees I should, would, could, or might not have been loved, &c. je n'aurais pas ete aime, ee tu n'aurais pas ete aime, ee il n'aurait pas ete aime elle n'aurait pas ete aimee nous n'aurions pas ete aimes, ees vous n'auriez pas ete aimes, ees ils n'auraient pas ete aimes elles n'auraient pas ete aimees. should, would, could, or might I have been loved? &c. aurais-je ete ai- me, ee aurais-tu ete ai- me, ee aurait-ils ete ai- me aurait-elle ete aimee aurions-nous ete aimes, ees should, would, could, or might I not have been loved ? &c. n'aurais-je pas ete aime, ee n'aurais-tu pas ete aime, ee n'aurait-il pas ete aime n'aurait-elle pas ete aimee n'aurions-nous pas auriez-vous ete n'auriez-vous pas pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees auraient-ils ete n'auraient-ils pas aimes ete aimes auraient-elles ete n'auraient-elles aimees r pas ete aimees, be loved sois aime, ee qu'il soit aime qu'elle soit aimee soyons aimes, ees soyez aimes, ees qu'ils soient aimes qu'elles soient aimees. IMPERATIVE MOOD. be not loved ne sois pas aime, ee qu'il ne soit pas aime qu'elle ne soit pas aimee ne soyons pas aimes, ees ne soyez pas aimes, ees qu'ils ne soient pas aimes qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may be loved, &c. que je sois aime, ee que tu sois aime, ee qu'il soit aime qu'elle soit aimee PRFSENT. that I may not be loved, &c. que je ne sois pas aime, ee que tu ne sois pas aime, ee qu'il ne soit pas aime qu'elle ne soit pas aimee PRONOMINAL VERBS. 575 que nous soyons aimes, ees que vous soyez aimes, ees qu'ils soient aimes qu'elles soient aimees. que nous ne soyons pas aimes, ees que vous ne soyez pas aimes, ees qu'ils ne soient pas aimes qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. IMPERFECT. that I might be loved, &c. que je fusse aime, ee que tu fusses aime, ee qu'il fut aime qu'elle fut aimee que nous fussions aimes, ees que vous fussiez aimes, ees qu'ils fussent aimes qu'elles fussent aimees. that I might not be loved, &c. que je ne fusse pas aime, ee que tu ne fusses pas aime, ee qu'il ne fut pas aime qu'elle ne fut pas aimee que nous ne fussions pas aimes, ees que vous ne fussiez pas aimes, ees qu'ils ne fussent pas aimes qu'elles ne fussent pas aimees. PRETERITE. that I may have been loved, &c. que j'aie ete aime, ee que tu aies ete aime, ee qu'il ait ete aime qu'elle ait ete aimee que nous ayons ete aimes, ees que vous ayez ete aimes, ees qu'ils aient ete aimes qu'elles aient ete aimees. that I may not have been loved, &c. que je n'aie pas ete aime, ee que tu n'aies pas ete aime, ee qu'il n'ait pas ete aime qu'elle n'ait pas ete aimee que nous n'ayons pas ete aimes, ees que vous n'ayez pas ete aimes, ees qu'ils n'aient pas ete aimes qu'elles n'aient pas ete aimees. PLUPERFECT. that I might have been loved, &c. que j'eusse ete aime, ee que tu eusses ete aime, ee qu'il eut ete aime qu'elle eut ete aimee que nous eussions ete aimes, ees que vous eussiez ete aimes, ees qu'ils eussent ete aimes qu'elles eussent ete aimees. that I 'might not have been loved, &c. que je n'eusse pas ete aime, ee que tu n'eusses pas ete aime, ee qu'il n'eut pas ete aime qu'elle n'eut pas ete aimee que nous n'eussions pas ete aimes, ees que vous n'eussiez pas ete aimes, ees qu'ils n'eussent pas ete aimes qu'elles n'eussent pas ete aimees. 1873. Of Pronominal Verbs. Pronominal verbs are those in which each person is conju- gated, through all the tenses, with two pronouns of the same person, one being nominative, the other objective. If the nominative of the verb, instead of being a pronoun, 576 FRENCH GRAMMAR. is a noun, then the nominative pronoun is not used, and the objective must be of the same number and person as the nom- inative, that is to say, of the third person singular or plural, ac- cording to the number of this nominative. (For the reflective pronouns see the Grammar.) The pronominal verbs are either reflective or reciprocal. 1874. Of Reflective Verbs. Reflective verbs are either active or neuter. (See the Gram- mar.) Some active verbs are used impersonally with the re- flective form ; but then they admit only of the third person sin- gular. They assume this form, in a passive sense, for the sake of brevity and energy ; as, There are a great many houses II se batit beaucoup de maisons building this year, cette annee, instead of Beaucoup de maisons sont baties cette annee. A great battle will be fought to- II se donnera une grande bataille morrow, demain, instead of Une grande bataille sera donnee demain. Reflective verbs have their simple tenses conjugated like those of the verbs from which they are derived, whether ac- tive or neuter, regular or irregular ; but their compound tenses are conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be, without ex- ception, and the past participle agrees in number and gender with its nominative. 1875. When a reflective verb is used in the infinitive mood, preceded by another verb, the reflective pronoun placed before the infinitive must be of the same number and person as the nominative of the first verb ; as, I wish to take a walk. Je veux me promener. Thou wishest to take a walk. Tu veux te promener. He or she wishes to take a walk. II or elle veut se promener, &c. My brother wishes to take a walk. Mon frere veut se premener. My brothers wish to take a walk. Mes freres veulent se promener. Foreigners must pay attention to this rule, in order to avoid RECIPROCAL VERBS. 577 a fault very common among them, which consists in using the reflective pronouns of the third person singular or plural before the infinitive, whatever may be the person and number of the nominative of the first verb ; a fault into which they are led by observing the pronoun sc so commonly prefixed to the infini- tive of the reflective verbs. The application of this rule may present some difficulties in the case of impersonal verbs, which are used elliptically ; but by the analysis of the sentence, they are easily removed ; as. You must go and take a walk, 11 faut aller vous promener. This phrase stands for : II faut que vous alliez vous promener, in which the preceding rule finds its application without diffi- culty. 1876. Of Reciprocal Verbs. A verb is reciprocal when it expresses the reciprocal ac- tion of two or more nominatives upon each other. These verbs are conjugated, in all their tenses and persons, like the reflective verbs, with the exception, that they have no singular number, as they indicate the reciprocal action of several per- sons or things upon each other. When the reciprocity expressed by the verb is exercised upon two persons only, the reciprocal pronoun, Pun, Pautre, is used in the singular. When, on the contrary, the reciprocity relates to more than two persons, the pronoun is used in the plural, les uns, les autres. In either of the two preceding cases, if the persons used as nominatives are of the masculine gender, the pronoun is of the same gender, Pun, Pautre, les uns, les autres ; if one of the nominatives is masculine and the other or others are feminine, the pronoun is still used in the masculine ; but if the nominatives are all feminine, then the pronoun is used in the same gender ; as, Pune, V autre, les unes, les autres. There are in French a great number of verbs which are used in the reflective form, although in English they do not admit of 49 578 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the reflective pronouns, one's self, myself, thyself , himself or herself, &c. They will be found in the following list. 1877. A LIST OF VERBS WHICH ARE REFLECTIVE IN FRENCH, ALTHOUGH THEY DO NOT TAKE THIS FORM IN ENGLISH. S'abstenir, S'accorder, S'adresser, Se baigner, Se raidir, Se facher, Se liquefier, Se mourir, S'empresser, S'eclipser, Se remplumer, S'attendrir, S'opiniatrer, Se degouter, Se renouveler, Se resoudre, Se faire, Se garder, S'epanouir, Se vanter, Se dechainer, S'enrhumer, Se soucier, Se plaindre, S'avancer, S'aboucher, Se figer, Se glisser, Se plaire, Se complaire, S'appetisser, Se desister, S'acquitter, S'entretenir, Se defter, Se determiner, S'ecouler, S'efforcer, Se recrier, s'attendre, S'evaporer, Se fletrir, S'evanouir, S'endormir, to abstain. to agree. to apply. to bathe. to bear up against to be angry, to be offended, to become liquid. to be dying. '• eager. " eclipsed, to begin to thrive, to be moved. • ' obstinate. " out of conceit with, to be renewed. " resolved. " silent, to beware, to blow, to boast, to break loose, to catch cold, to care for. to complain, to come forward. to confer, to congeal, to creep into, to delight in. (C to diminish, to desist. to discharge. to discourse with, to distrust, to determine. to elapse, to endeavour. to exclaim, to expect, to evaporate. to fade away, to faint away, to fall asleep. Se rendormir, S'acharner, Se figurer, S'imaginer, Se remplumer. S'attrouper, S'ecouler, S'envoler, S'emporter, Se gangrener, S'enivrer, Se paraliser, Se lever, S'ennuyer, Se desister, Se demettre, S'en aller, Se coucher, S'attrister, S'amender, S'enhardir, S'assoupir, Se familiariser, S'impatienter, Se radoucir, S'appauvrir, S'enorgueillir, S'enrichir, Se lasser, Se guerir, S'enquerir, S*entremettre, S'ingerer, S'agenouiller, Se moquer, Se saisir, Se liguer, S'accouder, S'appuyer, Se depecher, Se hater, S'evader, to fall asleep again to fall furiously upon, to fancy. to new feather, to flock in crowds. to flow out. to fly away, to fly into a pas- sion, to gangrene, to get intoxicated. " palsied. " up. " weary, to give over. " up. to go away. " to bed. to grieve, to grow better, bold. " drowsy. " familiar. " impatient. " milder. " poor. " proud. " rich. " tired. to heal. to inquire. to intermeddle. it to kneel down, to laugh at. to lay hold of. to league. to lean on one's elbow, to lean upon, to make haste. to make one's es- cape. REFLECTIVE VERBS. 579 S'echapper, S'allier, Se marier, Se meler, Se fondre, Se meprendre, Se mefier, Se mutiner, S'opposer, Se deborder, Se farder, S'apercevoir, S'obstiner, Se putreiier, S'expatrier, Se revolter, Se dedire, Se rejouir, Se souvenir, Se ressouvenir, Se repentir, Se demettre, Se retracter, S'endetter, S'enfuir, Se vendre, to make one's es- cape. to make an alli- ance. to marry. to meddle with. to melt. to mistake. to mistrust. to mutiny. to oppose. to overflow. to paint. to perceive. to persist. to putrefy. to quit one's country. to rebel. to recant. to rejoice. to remember. it to repent to resign. to retract, to run in debt, to run away, to sell. S'acheminer, S'apetisser, S'asseoir, S'attabler, Se glisser, S'arreter, S'esquiver, S'attacher, Se raidir, Se baisser, S'efforcer, Se debattre, Se soumettre, S'abonner, Se rendre, S'enteter, Se formaliser, Se piquer, Se refugier, Se reposer, S'enraciner, Se fier, Se promener, Se retirer, S'etonner, S'emerveiller, to set off. to shrink, to sit down. " " at the table, to slip, to stay, to steal away, to stick to. to stiffen, to stoop. to strive, to struggle, to submit, to subscribe, to surrender, to take a strong fancy, to take offence. " pet. " refuge. " rest. H root, to trust, to walk, to withdraw, to wonder. CONJUGATION OF REFLECTIVE VEPcBS 1878. S'aimer, to love one's self. to love one's self s'aimer. loving one's self s'aimant. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. not to love one's self ne pas s'aimer. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. not loving one's self ne s'aimant pas. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have loved one's self not to have loved one's self s'etre aime. ne pas s'etre aime. 580 FRENCH GRAMMAR. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. having loved one's self not having loved one's self s'etant aime. ne s'etant pas aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. I love myself, &c. je m'aime tu t'airaes il or elle s'aime nous nous aimons vous vous aimez ils or elles s'ai- ment. Negative. I love not love myself, &c. je ne m'aime pas tu ne t'aimes pas il or elle ne s'aime pas nous ne nous ai- mons pas vous ne vous ai- mez pas Ils or elles ne s'aiment pas. Interrogative. do I love myself? &c. m'aime-je t'aimes-tu s'aime-t-il or elle nous aimons-nous vous aimez-vous s'aiment-ils or elles ? Negative and In- terrogative. do I not love my- self ? &c. ne m'aime-je pas ne t'aimes-tu pas ne s'aime-t-il or elle pas ne nous aimons- nous pas ne vous aimez-vous pas ne s'aiment-ils or elles pas ? IMPERFECT. I loved myself, &c. je m'aimais tu t'aimais il or elle s'aimait nous nous amni- ons vous vous aimiez ils or elles s'ai- maient. I did not love myself, &c. je ne m'aimais pas tu ne t'aimais pas il or elle ne s'ai- mait pas nous ne nous ai- mions pas vous ne vous ai- miez pas ils or elles ne s'ai- maient pas. did I love my- self? &c. m'aimais-je t'aimais-tu s'aimait-il or elle nous aimions- nous vous aimiez-vous s'aimaient-ils or elles ? did I not love my- self? &c. ne m'aimais-je pas ne t'aimais-tu pas ne s'aimait-il or elle pas ne nous aimions- nous pas ne vous aimiez- vous pas ne s'aimaient-ils or elles pas? PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did love my- self, &c. je m'aimai tu t'aimas il or elle s'aima nous nous ai- mames vous vous ai- mates ils or elles s'ai- merent. I did not love myself, &c. je ne m'aimai pas tu ne t'aimas pas il or elle ne s'ai- ma pas nous ne nous ai- mames pas vous ne vous ai- mates pas ils or elles ne s'ai- merent pas. did I love my- self? &c. m'aimai-je t'aimas-tu s'aima-t-il or elle nous aimames- nous vous aimates- vous s'aimerent-ils or elles ? did I not love my- self? &c. ne m'aimai-je pas ne t'aimas-tu pas ne s'aima-t-il or elle pas ne nous aimames- nous pas ne vous aimateV vouspas ne s'aimerent-ils or elles pas ? S'AIMER, TO LOVE ONE'S SELF. 581 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have loved my- self, &c. je me suis aime, ee tu t'es aime, ee il or elle s'est ai- me, ee nous noussommes aimes, ees vous vous etes aimes, ees ils or elles se sont aimes, ees. I have not loved myself, &c. je ne me suis pas aime, ee tu ne t'es pas ai- me, ee il or elle ne s'est pas aime, ee nous nous ne sommes pas aimes, ees vous ne vous etes pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se sont pas aimes, ees. have I loved myself? &c. me suis-je aime, ee t'es-tu aime, ee s'est-t-il or elle aime, ee nous sommes- nous aimes, ees, vous etes-vous aimes, ees se sont-ilsor elles aimes, ees ? have I not loved myself ? &c. ne me suis-je pas aime, ee ne t'es-tu pas aime, ee ne s'est-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous sommes- nous pas aimes, ees ne vous etes-vous pas aimes, ees nese sont-ilsor elles pas aimes, ees ? PLUPERFECT. I had loved my- self, &c. je m'etais aime, ee tu t'etais aime, ee il or elle s'etait aime, ee nous nous etions aimes, ees vous vous etiez aimes, ees ils or elles s'e- taient aimes, I had not loved myself, &c. je ne m'etais pas aime, ee tu ne t'etais pas aime, ee il or elle ne s'etait pas aime, ee nous ne nous eti- ons pas aimes, ees vous ne vous e- tiez pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne s'e- taient pas ai- mes, ees. had I loved my- self? &c. m'etais-je aime, ee t'etais-tu aime, ee s'etait-il or elle aime, ee nous etions-nous aimes, ees vous etiez-vous aimes, ees s'etaient-ils or elles aimes, had I not loved my- myself? &c. ne m'etais-je pas aime, ee ne t'etais-tu pas ai- me, ee ne s'etait-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous etions-nous pas aimes, ees ne vous etiez-vous pas aimes, ees ne s'etaient-ils or elles pas aimes, ees ? PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had loved my- self, &c. . je me fus aime, ee, tu te fus aime, ee il or elle se fut aime, ee nous nous fumes aimes, ees vous vous futes aimes, ees, ils or elles se fu- rent aimes, ees, I had not loved myself, &c. je ne me fus pas aime, ee tu ne te fus pas aime, ee il or elle ne se fut pas aime, ee nous ne nous fumes pas ai- mes, ees vous ne vous futes pas ai- mes, ees ils or elles ne se furent pas ai- mes, ees. 49* had I loved my- self? &c. me fus-je aime, ee te fus-tu aime, ee se fut-il or elle aime, ee nous ftlmes-nous aimes, ees vous futes-vous aimes, ees se furent-ils or elles aimes, ees ? had I not loved myself ? &c. ne me fus-je pas ai- me, ee ne te fus-tu pas ai- me, ee ne se fut-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous fumes- nous pas aimes, ees ne vous futes-vous pas aimes, ees ne se furent-ils or elles pas aimes, 582 FRENCH GRAMMAR. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not love myself, not love my- love myself? love myself ? &c. &c. &c. &c. je m'aimerai je ne m'aimerai m'aimerai-je ne m'aimerai-je pas pas tu t'aimeras tu ne t'aimeras t'aimeras-tu ne t'aimeras-tu pas pas il or elle s'aimera il or elle ne s'ai- s'aimera-t-il or ne s'aimera-t-il or mera pas elle elle pas nous nous aime- nous ne nous ai- nous aimerons- ne nous aimerons- rons merons pas nous nous pas vous vous aime- vous ne vous ai- vous aimerez- ne vous aimerez- rez merez pas vous vous pas ils or elles s'aime- ils or elles ne s'aimeront-ils or ne s'aimeront-ils or ront. s'aimeront pas. elles? elles pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not have loved my- not have loved have loved my- have loved my- self, &c. myself, &c. self ? &c. self ? &c. je me serai aime, je ne me serai me serai-je aime, ne me serai-je pas ee pas aime, ee ee aime, ee tu te seras aime, tu ne te seras te seras-tu aime, ne te seras-tu pas ee pas aime, ee ee aime, ee il or elle se sera il or elle ne se se sera-t-il or elle ne se sera-t-il or aime, ee sera pas aime, aime, ee elle pas aime, ee ee nous nous serons nous ne nous se- nous serons-nous ne nous serons- aimes, ees rons pas aimes, aimes, ees nous pas aimes, ees ees vous vous serez vous ne vous se- vous serez-vous ne vous serez-vous aimes, ees rez pas aimes, aimes, ees pas aimes, ees ees ils or elles se se- ils or elles ne se se seront-ils or ne se seront-ils or ront aimes, ees. seront pas ai- elles aimes, elles pas aimes, mes, ees. ees ? ees ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might love myself, &c. not love myself, I love myself ? I not love my- &c. &c. self? &c. je m'aimerais je ne m'aimerais m'aimerais-je ne m'aimerais-je pas pas tu t'aimerais tu ne t'aimerais t'aimerais-tu ne tu t'aimerais-tu pas pas il or elle s'aime- il or elle ne s'ai- s'aimerait-il or ne s'aimerait-il or rait merait pas elle elle pas s'aimer, to love one's self. 583 nous nous aime- rions vous vous aime- riez ils or elles s'ai- meraient. nous ne nous aimerions pas vous ne vous ai- meriez pas ils or elles ne s'aimeraient pas. PAST nous aimenons- nous vous aimeriez- vous s'aimeraient-ils or elles ? ne nous airnenons- nous pas ne vous aimeriez- vous pas ne s'aimeraient-ils or elles pas ? I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might have loved my- not have loved I have loved I not have lov- &c. myself, &c. myself? &c. ed myself? &c. je me serais ai- me, ee tu te serais aime, ee il or elle se se- rait aime, ee nous nous seri- ons aimes, ees vous vous seriez aimes, ees ils or elles se se- raient aimes, ees. je ne me serais pas aime, ee tu ne te serais pas aime, ee il or elle ne se se- rait pas aime, ee nous ne nousse- rions pas ai- mes, ees, vous ne vous se- riez pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se seraient pas ai- mes, ees. me serais-je ai- me, ee te serais-tuaime, ee se serait-il or elle aime, ee ne me serais-je pas aime, ee ne te serais-tu pas aime, ee ne se serait-il or elle pas aime, ee nous senons-nous ne nous senons- aimes, ees nous pas aimes, ees vous seriez-vous ne vous seriez-vous aimes, ees pas aimes, ees se seraient-ils or elles aimes, nese seraient-ils or elles pas aimes, ees ? love thyself, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not love thyself, &c. aime-toi qu'il or qu'elle s'aime aimons-nous aimez-vous qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. ne t'aime pas qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas ne nous aimons pas ne vous aimez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may love myself, &c, que je m'aime que tu t'aimes qu'il or qu'elle s'aime que nous nous aimions que vous vous aimiez qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. that I may not love myself, &c« que je ne m'aime pas que tu ne t'aimes pas qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas que nous ne nous aimions pas que vous ne vous aimiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment p£ IMPERFECT. that I might love, &c. que je m'aimasse que tu t'aimasses qu'il or qu'elle s'aimat that I might not love, &c. que je ne m'aimasse pas que tu ne t'aimasses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aimat pas 584 FRENCH GRAMMAR. que nous nous aimassions que vous vous aimassiez qu'ils or qu'elles s'aimassent. que nous ne nous aimassions pas que vous ne vous aimassiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aimassent pas. PRETERITE. that I may have loved myself, &c. that I mav not have loved myself, &c. queje me sois aime, ee que tu te sois aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle se soit aime, ee que nous nous soyons aimes, ees que vous vous soyez aimes, ees que je ne me sois pas aime, ee que tu ne te sois pas aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle ne se soit pas aime, ee que nous ne nous soyons pas aimes, ees que vous ne vous soyez pas aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles se soient aimees, qu'ils or qu'elles ne se soient pas ees. aimes, ees. PLUPERFECT. that I might have loved myself, &c. that I might not have loved myself, &c. que je ne me fusse pas aime, ee que tu ne te fusses pas aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle ne se fut pas aime, ee que nous ne nous fussions pas aimes, ees que vous ne vous fussiez pas aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles se fussent aimes, qu'ils or qu'elles ne se fussent pas ees. aimes, ees. que je me fusse aime, ee que tu te fusses aimee, ee qu'il or qu'elle se fut aime, ee que nous nous fussions aimes, ees que vous vous fussiez aimes, ees OF THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 1879. We have stated already, that the tenses of the verbs are divided into two classes ; those of the first class are called primitive, those of the other derivative. Primitive tenses are those which serve to compose the others : they are five in number : 1st. The Present of the Infinitive. 2d. The Present Participle. 3d. The Past Participle. 4th. The Present of the Indicative. 5th. The Preterite Definite. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 585 Derivative tenses are those which are formed from the primitive. 1880. 1st. From the present of the infinitive, are derived two tenses. The future absolute, by changing r, re, oir, into rai : as, Aimer, Finir, Recevoir, Rendre, Aimerai. Finirai. Recevrai. Rendrai. The conditional present, by changing r, re, oir, into rais as. Aimer, Finir, Recevoir, Rendre, Aimerais. Finirais. Recevrais. Rendrais. Exceptions. In the first conjugation, aller, to go, makes its future firai, and its conditional firais. In the second conjugation, To run, Courir, makes To die, Mourir, " To acquire, Acquerir, " To conquer, Conquerir, " To gather, Cueillir, " To project, Saillir, (mean- \ it ing, to hang out, to project) £ To assail, to thrill, Assaillir and Tre ditional regularly. To hold, Tenir, makes To come, Venir, " In the third conjugation, To have, Avoir, makes To become due, Echoir, " To be necessary, Falloir, " To be able, Pouvoir, " To know, Savoir, " To sit down, S'Asseoir, " To see, Voir, " All the compounds of voir make their future and conditional in the same manner, except pourvoir, to provide, and prevoir, to foresee, which make theirs regularly. makes je courrai, courrais. je mourrai, mourrais. je acquerrai, je conquerrai, je cueillerai, acquerrais. conquerrais. cueillerais. je saillerai, saillerais. Uir, make their future and con- je tiendrai, je viendrai, tiendrais. viendrais. j'aurai, j'echerrai, il faudra, aurais. echerrais. faudrait. je pourrai, je saurai, pourrais. saurais. je m'assierai, m'assierais, or je m'asseyerai je m'assoirai, , m'asseyerais, or m'assoirais. je verrai, verrais. To rain, Pleuvoir, To be worth, Valoir, To be willing, Vouloir, il pleuvra, je vaudrai, je voudrai, pleuvrait. vaudrais. voudrais. 586 FRENCH GRAMMAR. In the fourth conjugation, makes To make, To be, Faire, Etre, je ferai, je serai, ferais. serais. 1881. 2d. From the present participle are derived three tenses, or parts of tenses. (1st.) The three persons plural of the present of the indica- tive, by changing ant into oris, ez, ent : as, Aimant, Finissant, aimons, finissons, aimez, finissez, aiment. finissent. In the third conjugation, only the first and second persons plural of the present of the indicative are derived from the present participle ; the third is irregular : Recevant, recevons, recevez. Rendant, rendons, rendez, rendent. 1882. Exceptions. In the third conjugation, Ayant makes Sachant " avons, savons, avez, savez, ont. savent. In the fourth conjug ation, Faisant makes Disant " Etant faisons, sommes, faites, dites. etes. font, sont. All the compounds of faire and dire follow the same rule. The three persons plural of the imperative, being the same as the corresponding persons of the present of the indicative, are also derived from the present participle. 1883. (2d.) The imperfect of the indicative, in all the per- sons, singular and plural, by changing ant into ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, aient. Aimant, aimais, aimais, aimait, Exceptions : aimions, aimiez, aimaient. Ayant Sachant makes avais, &c. savais, &c. 1884. (3d.) The present of the subjunctive, by changing ant into c, es, e, ions, iez, ent : as, Aimant, aime, aimes, aime, aimions, aimiez, aiment. Finissant, rinisse, finisses, finisse, finissions, finissiez, finissent. Voyant, voie, voies, voie, voyions, voyiez, voient. Rendant, rende, rendes, rende, rendions, rendiez, rendent. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 587 1885. Exceptions. In the first conjugation, Allant makes aille, ailles, aille, allions, alliez, aillent. In the second conjugation. Tenant makes tienne, tiennes, tienne, tenions, teniez, tiennent. Venant " vienne, viennes, vienne, venions, veniez, viennent. In these two verbs, as well as in aller, the first and second persons plural are formed regularly. In the third conjugation, all the verbs in evoir : as, Recevant makes re^oive, regoives, regoive, recevions, receviez, regoivent. The first and second persons plural are regularly formed. Pouvant makes puisse, puisses, puisse, puissions, puissiez, puissent, Valant " vaille, vailles, vaille, valons, valez, vaillent. Voulant " veuille, veuilles, veuille, voulions, vouliez, veuillent. The first and second persons plural are regularly formed in vouloir. Mouvant makes meuve, meuves, meuve, mouvions, mouviez, meuvent. Same remark as above for the first and second persons plural. The verb falloir, having no present participle, makes its present of the subjunctive in an irregular manner, faille. In the fourth conjugation, Faisant makes fasse, fasses, fasse, fassions, fassiez, fassent. Bnvant " boive, boives, boive, buvions, buviez, boivent. Prenant " prenne, prennes, prenne, prenions, preniez, prennent. In the two latter of these verbs, the first and second persons plural are regularly formed. Etant makes sois, sois, soit, soyons, soyez, soient. The third persons of the imperative mood, being similar to those of the present of the subjunctive, are also derived from the present participle. 1886. Remark. This derivation from the present participle, in the case of the verbs ending in yer, has no influence over 588 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the rules already given, in reference to changing ymto i, before mute syllables ; as, Voyant, que je voie, &c. Essayent, que j'essaie, &c. 1887. 3d. With the past participle are formed all the com- pound tenses of all the verbs without exception, by employing this participle with the tenses of the auxiliary verbs, avoir, etre, as may be seen in the different forms of conjugation already given. 1888. 4th. From the first person of the present of the in- dicative is formed the second person singular of the imperative mood, by suppressing only the personal pronounce \ as, J'aime, aime. Je finis, finis. Je recois, recois. Je rends, rends. Exception : 1st Conjugation, Je vais makes va. 3d Conjugation, J'ai makes aie. Je sais makes sache. 4th Conjugation, Je suis makes sois. 1889. 5th. From the preterite definite is formed the im- perfect of the subjunctive, by changing, in the first conjugation, ai, &c. into asse, asses, at, assions, assiez, assent, and in the three others, by adding se to the first person, u ses to the second person, " A over the third person ; and changing mes into ssions for the first person, u tes into ssiez for the second person, " rent into ssent for the third person ; as, 1st. J'aimai, tu aimas, il aima, nous aimames, vous aimates, ils aimerent. Aimasse, aimasses, aimat, aimassions, aimassiez, aimassent. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 5S9 2d. Je finis, tu finis, il finit, Finisse, finisses, finit, 3d. Je recus, tu recus, il recut, Recusse, recusses, recut, 4th. Je rendis, tu rendis, il rendit, nous rendimes, vous rendites, ils rendirent Rendisse, rendisses, rendit, rendissions, rendissiez, rendissent. nous finimes, finissions, nous resumes, recussions, vous finites, ils finirent. finissiez, finissent. vous recutes, recurent. recussiez, re^ussent. 1890. A TABLE SHOWING THE TERMINATIONS OF ALL THE TENSES AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS OF THE FOUR CON- JUGATIONS. Singular. FIRST CONJUGATION. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Plural. e ons es ez e. ent. IMPERFECT. ais ions ais iez ait. aient. PRETERITE DEFINITE. ai A mes as A tes a. rent. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. rai rons ras rez ra. ront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. rais rions rais riez rait. raient 50 590 FRENCH GRAMMAR, IMPERATIVE MOOD. e ons e ez ent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. e ions es iez e. ent. IMPERFECT. sse ssions sses ssiez A t ssent. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. er. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. ant. PAST PARTICIPLE. e. ee. SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH CONJUGATIONS. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Plural. s ons s ez t. IMPERFECT. ent. ais ions ais iez ait. PRETERITE DEFINITE. aient. s A mes s A tes t. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. rent. rai rons ras rez ra. ront. CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 591 CONDITIONAL PRESENT. rais rions rais riez rait. raient IMPERATIVE MOOD. ons ez ent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. e ions es iez e. ent. IMPERFECT. sse ssions sses ssiez *t ssent. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. 2d. er. 3d. oir. 4th. re. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. ant. The past participle, in the three last conjugations, varies too often to permit us to give it a regular termination. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. First Conjugation. 1891. Irregular Verbs, as we have already stated, are those which differ, in some of their tenses and persons, from those which we have given as models of the four regular conju- gations. Whatever may be the irregularity of a verb, it is irregular only in its simple tenses ; the compound are all regular ; there- fore we will suppress them in the following conjugations. There are only four irregular verbs in the first conjugation. They are the following : 592 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Aller, S'en aller, Envoyer, Renvoyer, to go. to go away. to send. to send back. Present. aller 1892. Aller, to go. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. allant INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Imperfect. je vais tu vas nous allons vous allez j'allais tu allais nous allions vous alliez Preterite Definite, j'allai tu alias nous allaraes vous allates Future Absolute, j'irai tu iras nous irons vous irez CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j irais nous irions allons tu irais vous iriez IMPERATIVE. allez Present. Imperfect. Past Participle. alle\ il or elle va ils or elles vont il or elle allait ils or elles allaient. il or elle alia ils or elles all&rent. il or elle ira ils or elles iront. il or elle irait ils or elles iraient. qu'il or qu'elle aille. qu'ils or qu'elles aillent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que j'aille que tu ailles que nous allions que vous alliez que j'allasse que tu allasses que nous alias- que vous allas- sions siez qu'il or qu'elle aille qu'ils or qu'elles aillent. qu'il or qu'elle al- lat qu'ils or qu'elles allassent. The compound tenses of this verb as conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. Remark. Although the verb aller takes the auxiliary Ure in its compound tenses, yet, when the idea intended to be expressed is, that a person has been to a certain place, but has returned from it, we substitute for this verb the compound tenses of the verb to be ; the verb aller expressing only the s'en aller, to go away. 593 fact of a person's having gone somewhere, without implying the idea of returning ; as, John has gone to school this morn- Jean a ete a l'ecole ce matin. (He ing\ has been, but has returned.) Jean est alls a l'ecole ce matin. (He has gone, but has not returned. ) We use the verb alltr to express the idea of going to see a person, when, while speaking, we are out of the house of the person we intend to visit ; but, if in the house, the verb venir ought to be employed ; as, I will go and see you to-morrow. J'irai vous voir demain. (Being out of the house.) I will come and see you to-morrow. Je viendrai vous voir demain. (While in the house.) Thus, aller signifies to go from where we are, to any other place, and venir signifies to come again to the place where the person is who speaks. 1893. S'en aller, to go away. This verb presenting some difficulty to foreigners, we will conjugate it in all its tenses, and in the affirmative, negative, in- terrogative, and negative and interrogative forms. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to go away not to go away s'en aller. ne pas s'en aller. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. going away not going away s'en allant. ne s'en allant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. gone away en alle. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have gone away not to have gone away, s'en etre alle. ne s ' en gtre pas alle. 50* 594 FRENCH GRAMMAR. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. having gone away s'en etant alle. not having gone away ne s'en etant pas alle. Affirmative. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Negative. Interrogative. I go away, &c. I do not go away, do I go away ? &c. &c. je m'en vais je ne m'en vais m'en vais-je pas tu t'en vas tu ne t'en vas t'en vas-tu pas il s'en va il ne s'en va pas s'en va-t-il nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allons- lons allons pas nous vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en allez- lez allez pas vous ils s'en vont, ils ne s'en vont s'en vont-ils pas. IMPERFECT. Negative and Interrogative. do I not go away ? &c. ne m'en vais-je pas ne t'en vas-tu pas ne s'en va-t-il pas ne nous en allons nous pas ne vous en allez vous pas ne s'en vont-ils pas ? I was going a- I was not going was I going a- was I not going way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. away? &c. je m'en allais je ne m'en allais m'en allais-je ne m'en allais-je pas ne t'en allais-tu pas ne s'en allait-il pas pas tu t'en allais tu ne t'en allais t'en allais-tu pas il s'en allait il ne s'en allait s'en allait-il pas nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allions- ne nous en allions- lions allions pas nous nous pas vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en alliez- ne vous en alliez- liez alliez pas vous vous pas ils s'en allaient. ils ne s'en al- s'en allaient-ils ? ne s'en allaient-ils laient pas. pas ? PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did go away, I did not go a- did I go away ? did I not go away? &c. way, &c. &c. &c. je ne m'en allai m'en allai-je ne m'en allai-je pas tu ne t'en alias t'en allas-tu je m'en allai tu t'en alias il s'en alia pas ne t'en allas-tu pas il ne s'en alia s'en alla-t-il pas ne s'en alla-t-il pas pas nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allames- ne nous en al- lames allames pas nous lames-nous pas vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en allates- ne vous en allates- lates allates pas vous vous pas ils s'en allerent. ils ne s'en al- s'en allerent-ils ? ne s'en allerent-ils lerent pas. pas s'en alleRj to go away. 595 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have gone I have not gone have I gone have I not gone away, &c. away, &c. away ? &c. away ? &c. je m'en suis alle je ne m'en suis m'en suis-je alle ne m'en suis-je pas pas alle alle tu t'en es alle tu ne t'en es pas t'en es-tu alle ne t'en es-tu pas alle' alle il s'en est alle il ne s'en est pas s'en est-il alle ne s'en est-il pas alle alle nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en sommes- ne nous en sommes alles sommes pas nous alles sommes-nous alles pas alles vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en etez- ne vous en etes- etes all£s etes pas alles vous alles vous pas alles ils s'en sont alles ils ne s'en sont s'en sont-ils al- ne s'en sont-ils pas pas alles les ? alles ? PLUPERFECT. I had gone a- I had not gone had I gone a- had I not gone a- way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. way ? &c. je m'en etais al- je ne m'en etais m'en etais-je al- ne m'en etais-je le pas alle le pas alle tn t'en etais al- tu ne t'en etais t'en etais-tu alle ne t'en etais-tu le pas alle pas alle il s'en etait alle il ne s'en etait s'en etait-il alle ne s'en etait-il pas pas alle alle nous nous en e- nous ne nous en nous en etions- ne nous en etions- tions alles etions pas al- nous alles nous pas alles les vous vous en e- vous ne vous en vous en etiez- ne vous en etiez- tiez alles etiez pas alles vous alles vous pas alles ils s'en etaient ils ne s'en e- s'en etaient-ils ne s'en etaient-ils alles taient pas al- alles ? pas alles ? les. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had gone a- I had not gone had I gone a- had I not gone a- way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. way ? je m'en fus alle je ne m'en fus m'en fus-je alle ne m'en fus-je pas pas alle alle tu t'en fus alle tu ne t'en fus t'en fus-tu alle ne t'en fus-tu pas pas alle alle il s'en fut alle il ne s'en fut s'en fut-il alle ne s'en fut-il pas pas alle alle* nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en fumes- ne nous en fumes- fumes alles fumes pas al- nous alles nous pas alles les vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en futes- ne vous en futes- futes alles futes pas al- vous alles vous pas alles Us ils s'en furent ils ne s'en furent s'en furent-ils ne s'en furent-ils alles pas alles alles ? pas alles ? 596 FRENCH GRAMMAR. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not go away, &c. not go away, go away ? &c. go away ? &c. &c. jem'enirai je ne m'en irai m'en irai-je ne m'en irai-je pas pas tu t'en iras tu ne t'en iras t'en iras-tu ne t'en iras-tu pas pas il s'en ira il ne s'en ira s'en ira-t-il ne s'en ira-t-il pas pas nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en irons- ne nous en irons- irons irons pas nous nous pas vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en irez- ne vous en irez- irez irez pas vous vous pas ils s'en iront. ils ne s'en iront s'en iront-ils ? ne s'en iront-ils pas. pas ? FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not have gone not have gone have gone have gone away ? away, &c. away, &c. away ? &c. &c. je m'en serai al- je ne m'en serai m'enserai-je al- ne m'en serai-je ]6 pas alle le pas alle tu t'en seras al- tu ne s'en seras t'en seras-tu al- ne t'en seras-tu le pas alle le pas alle il s'en sera al- il ne s'en sera s'en sera-t-il al- ne s'en sera-t-il le pas alle le pas alle nous nous en se- nous ne nous en nous en serons- ne nous en serons- rons alles serons pas alles nous alles nous pas alles vous vous en se- vous ne vous en vous en serez- ne vous en serez- rez alles serez pas alles vous alles vous pas alles ils s'en seront ils ne s'en seront s'en seront-ils ne s'en seront-ils alles. pas alles. alles ? pas alles ? CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might go away, &c. [ not go away, &c. I go away ? &c. I not go away ? &c. je m'en irais je ne m'en irais m'en irais-je ne m'en irais-je pas pas tu t'en irais tu ne t'en irais t'en irais tu ne t'en irais-tu pas pas il s'en irait il ne s'en irait s'en irait-il ne s'en irait-il pas pas nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en irions- ne nous en irions- irions irions pas nous nous pas vous vous en iriez vous ne vous en vous en iriez- ne vous en iriez- iriez pas vous vous pas ils s'en iraient. ils ne s'en iraient s'en iraient-ils ? ne s'en iraient-ils pas. pas ? s'en aller, to go away. 597 PAST. I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might have gone away, not have gone I have gone I not have gone &c. away, &c. away ? &c. away ? &c. je men serais alle tu t'en serais alle il s'en serai t al- le nous nous en se- rious alles vous vous en se- riez alles ils s'en seraient alles. je ne men serais pas alle tu ne t'en serais pas alle il ne s'en serait pas alle nous ne nous en serions pas alles vous ne vous en seriez pas alle's ils ne s'en se- raient pas alles. nren serais-je alle* t'en serais-tu alle s'en serait-il al- le nousenserions- nous alles vous en seriez- vous alles s'en seraient-ils alles. ne nren serais-je pas alle ne t'en serais-tu pas alle ne s'en serait-il pas alle ne nous en seri- ons nous pas alles ne vous en seriez- vous pas alles nes'en seraient-ils pas alles. IMPERATIVE MOOD. go away va-t-en qu'il s'en aille allons-nous en allez-vous en qu'ils s'en aillent. do not go away ne t'en va pas qu'il ne s'en aille pas ne nous en allons pas ne vous en allez pas qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may go away, &c. que je m'en aille que tu t'en ailles qu'il s'en aille que nous nous en allions que vous vous en alliez qu'ils s'en aillent. that I may not go away, &c. que je ne m'en aille pas que tu ne t'en ailles pas qu'il ne s'en aille pas que nous ne nous en allions pas que vous ne vous en alliez pas qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. IMPERFECT. that I might go away, &c. que je m'en allasse que tu t'en allasses qu'il s'en allat que nous nous en allassions que vous vous en allassiez qu'ils s'en allassent. that I might not go away, &c. que je ne m'en allasse pas que lu ne t'en allasses pas qu'il ne s'en allat pas que nous ne nous en allassions pas que vous ne vous en allassiez pas qu'ils ne s'en allassent pas. 598 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PRETERITE. that I may have gone away, &c. que je m'en sois alle que tu t'en sois alle qu'il s'en soit alle que nous nous en soyons alles que vous vous en soyez alles qu'ils s'en soient alles. that I may not have gone away, &c. que je ne m'en sois pas alle que tu ne t'en sois pas alle qu'il ne s'en soit pas alle que nous ne nous en soyons pas alles que vous ne vous en soyez pas alles qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles. PLUPERFECT. that I might have gone away, &c que je m'en fusse alle que tu t'en fusses alle qu'il s'en fut alle que nous nous en fussions alles que vous vous en fussiez alles qu'ils s'en fussent alles. that I might not have gone away, &c. que je ne m'en fusse pas alle que tu ne t'en fusses pas alle qu'il ne s'en fut pas alle que nous ne nous en fussions pas alles que vous ne vous en fussiez pas alles qu'ils ne s'en fussent pas alles. 1894. Envoyer, to send. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. envoyer. envoyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. envoye. Present. j'envoie nous envoyons tu envoies vous envoyez il envoie ils envoient. Imperfect. j'envoyais nous envoyions tu envoyais vous envoyiez il envoyait ils envoyaient. Preterite Definite j'envoyai nous envoyames tu envoyas vous envoyates il envoya ils envoyerent. Future. j'enverrai nous enverrons tu enverras vous enverrez il enverra ils enverront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j'enverrais nous enverrions tu enverrais vous enverriez il enverrait ils enverraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. envoyons envoie envoyez qu'il envoie qu'ils envoient NEIGER, TO SNOW. 599 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que j envoie que nous envoy- ions que tu envoies que vous envoy- iez qu'il envoie qu'ils envoient. que j'envoyasse que tu envoyasses qu'il en voyat que nous envoy- que vous envoy- qu'ils envoyassent. assions assiez Conjugate after the same manner the verb renvoyer, to send back. These two verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. We have seen, that defective verbs are those which are not used in all their tenses and persons. 1895. The following verbs are not only defective, but im- personal also, that is to say, they are used only in the third person singular of each tense. Neiger, to snow. Arriver, to happen. Bruiner, to drizzle. Degeler, to thaw. Eclairer, to lighten. Geler, to freeze. Greler, to hail. Gresiller, to rime. Importer, to matter. Resulter, to follow. Tonner, to thunder. (Speaking of the weather.) 1896. Neiger, to snow. Present. neiger. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. neigeant. Compound of the Infini- avoir neige. tive, and of the Pres- ent Participle. Present. Imperfect. Preterite Definite. Preterite Indefinite. Pluperfect. Past Participle. neige. ayant neige. INDICATIVE MOOD. il neige, it snows, il neigeait, it snowed, il neigea, it did snow. il a neige, it has snowed, il avait neige, it had snowed, 600 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Preterite Anterior. Future Absolute. Future Anterior. il eut neige, il neigera, il aura neige, it had snowed. it shall or will snow. it shall or will have snowed. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. Past. il neigerait, il aurait neige. it should, &c, snow. it should, &c, have snowed. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. Preterite, Pluperfect. qu'il neige, qu'il neigeat, qu'il ait neige, qu'il eut neige, that it may snow. that it might snow. that it may have snowed. that it might have snowed. All the verbs contained in the list of defective and imper- sonal verbs on the preceding page, are conjugated like neiger. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 1897. Acquerir, to acquire. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. acquerir. Present Participle. acquerant. Past Participle. acquis. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. j'acquiers nous acquerons j'acquerais nous acquerions Preterite Definite, j'acquis nous acquimes Future. j'acquerrai nous acquerrons tu acquiers vous acquerez tu acquerais vous acqueriez tu acquis nous acquites tu acquerras vous acquerrez il acquiert ils acquierent. il acquerait ils acqueraient. il acquit ils acquirent. il acquerra ils acquerront. CONDITIONAL, MOOD. Present. j'acquerrais tu acquerrais il acquerrait nous acquerrions vous acquerriez ils acquerraient. ASSAILLIR, TO ASSAULT. 601 IMPERATIVE MOOD. acquiers qu'il acquiere acquerons acquerez qu'ils acquierent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que j'acquiere que tu acquieres qu'il acquiere que nous acque- que vous acque- qu'ils acquierent. nons nez Imperfect. que j'acquisse que tu acquisses qu'il acquit que nous acquis- que vous acquis- qu'ils acquissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1898, The following verbs are conjugated in the same manner : Conquerir, to conquer. Querir, to fetch. Reconquerir, to conquer again. Requerir, to require. S'enquerir, to inquire. Of these verbs : Conquerir is defective, and only used in the present of the infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past participle, and all the compound tenses. Querir is only used in the present of the infinitive, with the verbs oiler, envoyer, and venir ; but the compound expressions which it forms with these verbs are rarely employed by well- educated people. Reconquerir is used only in the same tenses as conquerir. S'enquerir is used in the present of the infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past participle, and all the compound tenses. (Not much used.) 1899. Assaillir, to assault. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle assaillir. assaillant. assailli. 51 602 FRENCH GRAMMAR. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. j'assaille nous assaillons tu assailles vous assaillez il assaille ils assaillent. Imperfect. j'assaillais nous assaillions tu assaillais vous assailliez il assail! ait ils assaillaient. Preterite Definite . j'assaillis nous assaillirnes tu assaillis vous assaillites il assaillit ils assaillirent. Future Present. j'aissaillirai nous assaillirons tu assailliras vous assaillirez il assaillira ils assailliront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j'assaillirais nous assaillirions tu assaillirais vous assailliriez il assaillirait ils assailliraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. assaillons assaille assaillez qu'il assaille qu'ils assaillent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que j'assaille que nous assail- lions que j'assaillisse que nous assail- lissions que tu assailles qu'il assaille que vous assail- qu'ils assaillent. liez que tu assaillisses qu'il assaillit que vous assail- qu'ils assaillissent lissiez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner tressaillir, to start. 1900. Bouillir, to boil. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. bouillir. Present Participle. bouillant. Past Participle. bouilli. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. je bous nous bouillons je bouillais nous bouillions tu bous vous bouillez tu bouillais vous bouilliez Preterite Definite, je bouillis tu bouillis nous bouillimes vous bouillites Future Present. je bouillirai tu bouilliras nous bouillirons vous bouillirez il bout il bouillent. il bouillait ils bouillaient. il bouillit ils bouillirent. il bouillira ils bouilliront. COURIR, TO RUN. 603 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je bouillirais nous bouillirions tu bouillirais vous bouilliriez bouillons IMPERATIVE MOOD. bous bouillez il bouillirait ils bouilliraient. qu'il bouille qu'ils bouillent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je bouille que nous bouil- lions que je bouillisse que nous bouil- lissions que tu bouilles qu'il bouille que vous bouilliez qu'ils bouillent. que tu bouillisses qu'il bouillit que vous bouillis- qu'ils bouillissent. siez The compound tenses of bouillir are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner ; Ebouillir, Rebouillir, to boil away. (Not used.) to boil again. 1901. These three verbs are not much used, except in the third persons of their several tenses, simple and compound. If any other person of these verbs is wanted, we use the verb faire, to make, with the infinitive ; as, I am boiling peas. Jefais bouillir des pois. But, in the passive sense of the verb to boil, bouillir is properly used in all its persons ; as, I am, I was, boiling with anger. Je bous, je bouillais de colere. 1902. Courir, to run. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle courir. courant. INDICATIVE MOOD. couru. Present. je cours tu cours nous courons vous courez il court ils courent. Imperfect. je courais tu courais nous courions vous couriez il courait ils couraient. 604 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Preterite Definite . je courus nous courumes tu courus vous courutes il courut ils coururent. Future Absolute. je courrai nous courrons tu courras vous courrez il courra ils courront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present: je courrais nous courrions tu courrais vous courriez il courrait ils courraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. cours qu'il coure courons courez qu'ils courent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je coure que tu coures qu'il coure que nouscourions que vous couriez qu'ils courent. Imperfect. que je courusse que tu courusses qu'il courflt que nous courus- que vous courus- qu'ils courussent* sions siez 1903. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the verb avoir , to have. (See the exception, page 270, sec. 1034.) Conjugate in the same manner : Accourir, Concourir, Discourir, Encourir, Paxcourir, Recourir, Secourir, to run to. to concur. to discourse. to incur. to run over. to have recourse- to help. The compound tenses of the verb accourir are sometimes conjugated with etre, to be. (See page 269, sec. 1032.) 1904. Cueillir, to gather. Present. cueillir. Present. Imperfect INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle, cueillant. INDICATIVE MOOD. je cueille nous cueillons tu cueilles vous cueillez je cueillais tu cueillais nous cueillions vous cueilliez Past Participle. cueilli. il cueille ils cueillent il cueillait ils cueillaient. DORMIR, TO SLEEP. 605 Preterite Definite, je cueillis tu cueillis nous cueillimes vous cueillites il cueillit ils cueillirent. Future Absolute, je cueillerai tu cueilleras il cueillera nous cueillerons vous cueillerez ils cueilleront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je cueillerais tu cuellerais il cueillerait nous cueillerions vous cueilleriez ils cueilleraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. cueillons cueille cueillez qu'il cueille qu'ils cueillent Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je cueille que tu cueilles qu'il cueille que nous cueil- que vous cueil- qu'ils cueillent. lions liez que je cueillisse que tu cueillises qu'il cueillit que nous cueil- que vous cueil- qu'ils cueillissent. lissions lissiez The compound tenses of this and the following verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. to welcome. to gather, to reap. 1905. These verbs are conjugated after the same manner as cueillir. Accueillir, Recuiellir, 1906. Dormir, to sleep. Present. dormir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. dormant. Past Participle. dormi. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. je dors nous dormons je dormais nous dormions tu dors vous dormez tu dormais vous dormiez tu dormis vous dormites Preterite Pefinite. je dormis nous dormimes Future Absolute, je dormirai tu dormiras nous dormirons vous dormirez 51* il dort ils dorment. il dormait ils dormaient. il dormit ils dormirent. il dormira ils dormiront. 606 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je dormirais tu dormirais nous dormirions vous dormiriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. dormons dors dormez il dormirait il dormiraient. qu'il dorme qu'ils dorment. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je dorme que tu dorrae3 qu'il dorme que nous dormions que vous dormiez qu'ils dorment. que je dormisse que tu dormisses qu'il dormit que nous dor- que vous dormis- qu'ils dormissent. missions siez 1907. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Endormir, to lull asleep. Redormir, to sleep again. The two reflective verbs : S'endormir, Se rendormir, to fall alseep, to fall asleep again, have their compound tenses conjugated with etre, to be, as all other reflective verbs. 190S. Faillir, to fail. This verb is defective, and only used in the tenses of the in- finitive mood, the preterite definite, and its derivative, the im- perfect of the subjunctive, as well as in all the compound tenses. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle- faillir. faillant. Preterite Definite, je fail lis tu faill is nous faillimes vous faillites Imperfect of the que je faillisse que tu faillisses Subjunctive. que nous faillis- que vous faillis- sions siez Past Participle. failli. il fail! it ils faillirent qu'il faillit qu'ils faillissent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. FUIR, TO FLY. 607 1909. Fleurir, to blossom, to flourish. This verb is regular in all its tenses and persons, when it means to blossom; but when used figuratively, and meaning to flourish, it makes its present participle florissant, and its imper- fect florissais, &c. Thus we say : The arts were flourishing at Rome. Les arts florissaient a Rome. Commerce being flourishing-, the Le commerce florissant, la ville city appears lively. parait gaie. 1910. Refleurir, to flourish again, follows the same rule. These two verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1911. Fuir, to fly. Present. fuir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. fuyant. Past Participle. fui. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je fuis tu fuis il fuit nous fuyons vous fuyez ils fuient. Imperfect. je fuyais tu fuyais il fuyait nous fuyions vous fuyiez ils fuyaient. Preterite Definite, je fuis tu fuis il fuit nous fuimes vous fuites ils fuirent. Future Absolute, je fuirai tu fuiras il fuira nous fuirons vous fuirez ils fuiront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je fuirais nous fuirions tu fuirais vous fuiriez il fui rait ils fuiraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. fuis fuyons fuyez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il fuie qu'ils fuient Present. que je fuie que tu fuies qu'il fuie que nous fuyons que vous fuyez ' qu'ils fuient. Imperfect. que je fuisse que tu fuisses qu'il fuit que nous fuissions que vous fuissiez qu'ils fuissent The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 608 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1912. Conjugate in the same manner shnfuir, to run away, with the verb etre, to be, in its compound tenses. 1913. Gesir, to lie. This verb is defective, and no longer in use ; but we still say, il git, he lies, ci-glt, here lies, and gissant, lying, in obit- uary sentences. 1914. Hair, to hate. This verb is regular, except in the singular of the present of the indicative, in which the diaeresis is suppressed, as well as in the second person singular of the imperative ; as, Je hais, tu hais, il hait ; hais. It is conjugated with avoir, to have. The diaeresis, placed over the i, causes this letter to be sounded by itself, and prevents its being joined to the preced- ing vowel in the pronunciation. 1915. Mourir, to die. Present. mourir. Present. Imperfect. Preterite Definite. Future Absolute. Present. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. mourant. INDICATIVE MOOD. je meurs nous mourons je mourais nous mourions je mourns nous mourumes je mourrai nous mourrons tu meurs vous mourez tu mourais vous mouriez tu mourus vous mourutes tu mourras vous mourrez je mourrais nous mourrions CONDITIONAL MOOD. tu mourrais vous mourriez Past Participle. mort. il meurt ils meurent. il mourait ils mouraient. il mourut i]s moururent il mourra ils mourront. il mourrait ils mourraient* OUVRIR, TO OPEN. 609 IMPERATIVE MOOD. meurs 3 mourez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il meure qu'ils meurent. Present. que je meure que tu meures qu'il meure que nous mou- que vous mouriez qu'ils meurent rions Imperfect. que je mourusse que tu mourusses qu'il mourut que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils mourussent russions russiez This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. The reflective verb se mourir is conjugated like the preceding. 1916. Ou'ir, to hear. This verb is only used now in the preterite definite, in the imperfect of the subjunctive, in the infinitive, and all its com- pound tenses ; as, J'ouis, il oui't, que j'ouisse, qu'il ou'it, ou'ir, j'ai oui, &c. with the auxiliary, avoir, to have. The signification of this verb is far from being so extended as that of entendre ; it is said only of a temporary sound which we hear by chance and without design. We must not use it in speaking of a minister, a lawyer, a speech, but we say very properly : To hear the mass. Ou'ir la masse. Lord ! deign to hear our prayer. Seigneur! daignez ou'ir nos prieres. Speaking of a vague rumor we say : 1 have heard it. Je l'ai oui dire. 1917. Ouvrir, to open. Present, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. ouvrir. Present Participle. ouvrant INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. ouvert. > j'ouvre tu ouvres nous ouvrons vous ouvrez il ouvre ils ouvrent 610 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Imperfect. nous ouvnons Preterite Definite, j'ouvris nous ouvrimes Future Absolute, j'ouvrirai nous ouvrirons tu ouvrais vous ouvriez tu ouvris vous ouvrite3 tu ouvriras vous ouvrirez Present. Present. Imperfect. CONDITIONAL MOOD. j'ouvrirais tu ouvrirais nous ouvririons vous ouvririez IMPERATIVE MOOD. ouvre ouvrons ouvrez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que j'ouvre que tu ouvres qu'il ouvre que nous ouvrions que vous ouvriez qu'ils ouvrent que jouvrisse que tu ouvrisses qu'il ouvrit que nous ouvris- que vous ouvris- qu'ils ouvrissent. sions siez il ouvrait ils ouvraient. il ouvrit ils ouvrirent. il ouvrira ils ouvriront il ouvrirait ils ouvriraient. qu'il ouvre qu'ils ouvrent 1918. Conjugate this verb and the following with the auxil- iary avoir ) to have : Rouvrir, Entr'ouvrir. Couvrir, Recouvrir, Decouvrir, Offrir, Mesoffrir (not used), Souffrir, to open again, to half open, to cover, to cover again, to discover, to offer, to underbid, to suffer. 1919. Sentir, to feel. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. sentir. sentant. INDICATIVE MOOD. senti. Present. je sens tu sens nous sentons vous sentez il sent ils sentent. Imperfect. je sentais tu sentais nous sentions vous sentiez il sentait ils sentaient. Preterite Definite. je sentis tu sentis nous sentimes vous sentites il sentit ils sentirent. SERVIR, TO SERVE. 611 Future Absolute. je sentirai tu sentiras nous sentirons vous sentirez. CONDITIONAL MOOD. il sentira ils sentiront. Present. je sentirais tu sentirais noussentirions vous sentiriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. il sentirait ils sentiraient sens sentons sentez qu'il sente qu'ils sentent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je sente que tu sentes qu'il sente que nous sentions que vous sentiez qu'ils sentent. Imperfect. que je sentisse que tu sentisses qu'il sentit que nous sentissi- que vous sentis- qu'ils sentissent. ons siez The tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 1920. Conjugate in the same manner : Consentir, Presentir, Ressentir, Mentir, Dementir, Repartir, to consent, to foresee. to resent, to lie. to give the lie. to reply. 1921. Conjugate with etre, to be : Se ressentir, to feel still. Se repentir, to repent. Partir, to set out, to depart. Repartir, to set out again. Sortir, to go out. Ressortir, to go out again. The two last verbs are sometimes also conjugated with avoir, to have. (See page 275, sec. 1043.) 1922. Servir, to serve. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. servir. servant. Past Participle. servi. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. je sers nous servons tu sers vousservez il sert ils servent. 612 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Imperfect. je servais tu servais nous servions vous serviez Preterite Definite, je servis tu servis nou3 servimes vous servites Future Absolute, je servirai tu serviras nous servirons vous servirez il servait ils servaient. il servit ils servirent. il servira ils serviront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je servirais nous servirions tu servirais vous serviriez' il servirait ils serviraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. servons sers servez qu'il serve qu'ils servent. Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, que je serve que tu serves qu'il serve que nous servi- que vous serviez qu'ils servent. ons que je servisse que nous servis- sions que tu servisses que vous servis- siez qu'il servit qu'ils servissent. 1923. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have, as well as desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill office to some body. The reflective verb se service takes the auxiliary etre, to be. Asservir, a compound of servir, and meaning to subject, is regular, and is conjugated like Jinir. 1924. Tmir, to hold, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present . Participle. Past Participle. tenir. tenant. INDICATIVE MOOD. tenu. Present. je tiens nous tenons tu tiens vous tenez il tient ils tiennent. Imperfect. je tenais nous tenions tu tenais vous teniez il tenait ils tenaient. Preterite Definite je tins nous tinmes tu tins vous tintes il tint, ils tinrent. Future Absolute. je tiendrai nous tiendrons tu tiendras vous tiendrez il tiendra ils tiendront TENIR, TO HOLD. 613 Present, CONDITIONAL. MOOD. je tiendrais nous tiendrions tu tiendrais voqs tiendriez il tiendrait ils tiendraient IMPERATIVE MOOD. tenons tiens tenez qu'il tienne qu'ils tiennent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je tienne que nous tenions que tu tiennes que vous teniez qu'il tienne qu'ils tiennent Imperfect, que je tinsse que nous tinssi- que tu tinsses que vous tinssiez qu'il tint qu'ils tinssent. The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to have. 1925. Conjugate, after this manner : Appartenir,* Avenir, Circonvenir,* Contenir,* Contrevenir,* Convenir, Deprevenir,* Detenir,* Devenir, Disconvenir, Entretenir,* Intervenir, Maintenir,* Mesavenir, Obtenir,* to belong, to happen, to circumvent, to contain, to contravene, to agree, to unprepossess. to detain, to become, to disagree, to entertain. to intervene, to maintain, to succeed ill. to obtain. Parvenir, Prevenir,* Provenir, Redevenir, Retenir,* Revenir, S'abstenir, Soutenir,* Se ressouvenir, Se souvenir, Subvenir,* Survenir, Venir, to attain. to prevent, to in- form. to proceed from. to become again. to retain. to come back. to abstain. to sustain. to recollect. to remember. to relieve. to come unexpect- edly. to come. Those of the above verbs which are marked with an aste- risk are conjugated with avoir, to have, and the others with etre, to be. 1926. Avenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the present of the indicative, il avient, and in the past participle, avenu. 1927. Provenir, to proceed from, is only used in its third persons, singular and plural, and in its compound tenses. 52 614 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1928. Vetir, to clothe. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. vetir. vetant. Past Participle vetu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je v£ts nous vetons tu vets vous vetez il vet ils vetent. Imperfect. je vetais nous vetions tu vetais vous vetiez il vetait ils vetaient. Preterite Definite je vetis nous vetiraes tu vetis vous vetites il vetit ils vetirent. Future Absolute. je vetirai nous veiirons tu vetiras vous vetirez il vetira ils vetiront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je vetirais nous vetirions tu vetirais vous vetiriez il vetirait ils vetiraient IMPERATIVE MOOD. vetons vets vetez qu'il vete qu'ils vetent Present, Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je vete que tu vetes qu'il vete que nous vetions que vous vetiez qu'ils vetent. quejevetisse que tu vetisses qu'il vetit que nous vetissi- que vous vetissiez qu'ils vetissent. ons The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir y to have. 1929. Conjugate, in the same manner : Re vetir, to clothe. D6v£tir, to strip, to undress. Se vetir, Se devetir, to dress. to divest one's self. The last two verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, to be* BENIR, RESSORTIR, ETC. 615 1930. Remark. The verb benir, to bless, which is not included in this list, has two past participles, beni, e, speaking of persons, and binit, e, speaking of things ; as, Be blessed among all women. Soyez btnie parmi toutes les femmes (speaking of the Holy Virgin). The promises of the courtiers are Les promesses des grands ne sont too often but court holy water. trop sou vent que de 1'eau Unite de cour. 1931. When ressortir signifies to be under the jurisdiction of a court, and repartir means to divide, these two verbs are regular, and are conjugated like Jinir ; as, This business was under the juris- Cette affaire ressortissait a la cour, diction of the court. and not ressortait. When he returned to the army, he Quand il repartait pour l'armee, il divided his property among his repartissait ses biens entre ses friends. amis. It must be remembered, that repartir, to start again, is writ- ten without any accent, but repartir, to divide, has an acute accent over the e. 1932. Ferir is only used in the infinitive, and in the follow- ing expression : Without striking a blow. Sans coup/^n'r. 1933. Saillir, a term of architecture, has but the infinitive, present participle, saillant, and the third persons, singular and plural, of the present of the indicative. When meaning to gush, to spout out, it has the same tenses, and the past partici- ple, sailli, with all the compound tenses, but then it is conjuga- ted like^rar; as, This cornice projects too much. Cette corniche saille trop. The water gushed with much force. Les eaux saillissent avec beaucoup de force. 616 FRENCH GRAMMAR. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 1934. Avoir , to have. This verb (active and auxiliary) has been already conjugated in all its forms. Ravoir, to have again. This verb, active and defective, is only used in the present of the infinitive. Y Avoir , there to be. This verb, impersonal, has been conjugated in all its forms. 1935. S'Asseoir, to sit down. Present. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. s'asseyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. Present. Imperfect. je m'assieds nous nous asse- yons je m'asseyais nous nous asse- yions tu t'assieds vous vous asse- yez tu t'asseyais vous vous asse- yiez il s'assied ils s'asseyent. il s'asseyait ils s'asseyaient. Preterite Definite je m'assis tu t'assis il s'assit nous nous assimes vous vous assites ils s'assirent. i Future Absolute. je m'assierai, or tu t'assieras, or il s'assiera, or je m'asseyerai tu t'asseyeras il s'asseyera nous nous assie- vous vous assie- ils s'assieront, or rons, or rez, or nous nous asse- vous vous asse- ils s'asseyeront. yerons yerez CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je m'assierais, or tu t'assierais, or il s'assierait, or je m'asseyerais tu t'asseyerais il s'asseyerait nous nous assie- vous vous assie- ils s'assieraient, lions, or riez, or or nous nous asse- vous vous asseye- ils s'asseyeraient. • yerions riez s'asseoir, to sit down. 617 IMPERATIVE MOOD. tOl asseyons-nous asseyez-vous SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je m asseye que nous nous asseyions que je m'assisse que nous nous assissions que tu t asseyes que vous vous asseyiez qu tu t'assisses que vous vous qu'il s'asseye qu'ils s'asseyent. qu'ils s'asseye qu'ils s'asseyent. qu'il s'assit qu'ils s'assissent. This verb, like all reflective verbs, is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. 1936. The verb asseoir, used actively, is conjugated like the reflective, with the exception of the reflective pronouns, which must be suppressed, and then it takes avoir, to have, in its compound tenses. 1937. The Academy, as well as usage, permits this verb to be conjugated in the following manner : Present. assoir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. assoyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. j assois nous assoyons j assoyais nous assoyions Preterite Definite, j'assis nous assimes Future Absolute, j'assoirai nous assoirons tu assois vous assoyez tu assoyais vous assoyiez tu assis vous assites tu assoiras vous assoirez Past Participle. il assoit ils assoient. il assoyait ils assoyaient il assit ils assirent. il assoira ils assoiront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. j assoirais nous assoirions tu assoirais vous assoiriez il assoirait ils assoiraient. assoyons IMPERATIVE MOOD. assois assoyez qu'il assoie qu'ils assoient. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que j'assoie que tu assoies qu'il assoie que nous asso- que vous assoyiez qu'ils assoient. yions 52* 618 Imperfect. FRENCH GRAMMAR. que j assisse que nous assis- sions que tu assisses que vous assis- siez quil assit qu'ils assissent. These three modes of conjugating the verb asseoir are in use in France, and admitted by the Academy, but we recommend the first as the most generally adopted by people of educa- tion. 1938. Choir, to fall. This verb is extremely defective, and used only in the pres- ent of the infinitive, and sometimes in the past participle and compound tenses ; but it is an old word, and ought to be avoided. 1939. Dechoir, to decay. Present. dechoir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. decheant. Past Participle. dechu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je dechois tu dechois nous dechoyons nous dechoyez Imperfect. (Not used.) Preterite Definite, je dechus tu dechus nous dechumes vous dechutes Future Present. (Not used.) Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. (Not used.) IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Not used.) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. il dechoit iJs dechoient. il dechut ils dechurent. Present. Imperfect. que je dechoie que nous decho- yions que je dechusse que nous dechus- sions que tu dechoies qu'il dechoie que vous dechoy- qu'ils dechoient. iez que tu dechusses qu'il dechut que vous dechus- qu'ils dechussent, siez FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 619 This verb is conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir, or etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. 1940. Echoirj to expire, to be due, to fall, to fall due. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. echoir. eeheant. echu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. il echoit, echet ils echoient. Imperfect. (Not used.) Preterite Definite. il echut ils echurent. Future Present. il echerra ils echerront CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. il echerrait ils echerraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Not used.) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. qu'il echoie qu'ils echoient. Imperfect. qu'il echiit qu'ils echussent. The compound tenses are only used in the third persons singular and plural, and take avoir, or etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. 1941. Falloir, to be necessary. (Impersonal. Corresponding to the English verb must.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. falloir. fallant. fallu. 620 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. Imperfect. Preterite Definite. Future Absolute. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. il faut. il fallait. il fallut. il faudra. CONDITIONAL MOOD. il faudrait. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il faille, qu'il fallut. Present. Imperfect. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, and in the third person singular only, the verb being impersonal. 1942. The English expression, I must, he must, the Jcing must, &c, are rendered by II faut que je, which means literally It must that I, II faut que il, " " " It must that he, II faut que le roi, " " " It must that the king, — that is to say, by il faut que, followed by the nominative of the English verb must ; and the verb following is used in the subjunctive mood, in a tense corresponding to that of the verb falloir in the principal proposition. 1943. Mouvoir, to move. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle mouvoir. mouvant. INDICATIVE MOOD. mu Present. je meus tu meus nous mouvons vous mouvez il meut ils meuvent. Imperfect. je mouvais tu mouvais nous mouvions vous mouviez il mouvait ils mouvaient Preterite Definite je mus tu mus nous mumes vous mutes il mut ils murent. PLEUVOIR, TO RAIN. 621 Future Absolute, je mouvrai nous mouvrons tu mouvras vous mouvrez il mouvra ils mouvront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je mouvrais nous mouvrions tu raouvrais vous mouvriez il mouvrait ils mouvraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. mouvons meus mouvez qu'il meuve qu'ils meuvent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je meuve que tu meuves qu'il meuve que nous mou- que vous mouviez qu'ils meuvent. vions que je musse que nous mus- sions que tu musses qu'il mut que vous mussiez qu'ils mussent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner. Emouvoir, Promouvoir, S'emouvoir, to move. to promote. to be concerned. 1944. The verb promouvoir is only used in the present of the infinitive, the past participle, and the compound tenses ; it takes avoir, to have. ^emouvoir, being reflective, is conjugated, like all reflec- tive verbs, with etre, to be. 1945. Pleuvoir, to rain. (Impersonal.) Present. pleuvoir. Present. Imperfect. Preterite Definite. Future Absolute. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. pleuvant. INDICATIVE MOOD. il pleut. il pleuvait. il plut. il pleuvra. Past Participle. plu. 622 FRENCH GRAMMAR. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present il pleuvrait. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present qu'il pleuve. Imperfect qu'il plut. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have, and only in the third person singular. 1946. Pourvoir, to provide. Present pourvoir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. pourvoyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. pourvu. Present je pourvois tu pourvois il pourvoit nous pourvoyons vous pourvoyez ils pourvoient. Imperfect je pourvoyais tu pourvoyais il pourvoyait nous pourvoyions vous pourvoyiez ils pourvoyaient. Preterite Definite, je pourvus tu pourvus il pourvut nous pourvumes vous pourvutes ils pourvurent. Future Absolute, je pourvoirai tu pourvoiras il pourvoira nous pourvoirons vous pourvoirez ils pourvoiront. Present CONDITIONAL MOOD. je pourvoirais tu pourvoirais nouspourvoinons vous pourvoiriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. pourvoyons pourvois pourvoyez il pourvoirait ils pourvoiraient. qu'il pourvoie qu'ils pourvoient Present. Imperfect SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je pourvoie que tu pourvoies qu'il pourvoie que nous pour- que vous pour- qu'ils pourvoient. voyions voyiez que je pourvusse que tu pourvusses qu'il pourvut que nous pour- que vous pour- qu'ils pourvussent. vussions vussiez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. SAVOIR, TO KNOW. 623 1947. Pouvoir, to be able. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. pouvoir. pouvant- INDICATIVE MOOD. pu. Present je peux, or puis nous pouvons tu peux vous pouvez il peut ils peuvent. Imperfect. je pouvais nous pouvions tu pouvais vous pouviez il pouvait ils pouvaient. Preterite Definite je pus ^ nous pumes tu pus vous putes il put ils purent. Future Absolute. je pourrai nous pourrons tu pourras vous pourrez il pourra ils pourront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je pourrais nou3 pourrions tu pourrais vous pourriez il pourrait ils pourraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je puisse qus nous puis- sions que tu puisses que vous puis- siez qu'il puisse qu'ils puissent. Imperfect. que je pusse que nous pus- que tu pusses que vous pus- qu'il put qu'ils pussent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir , to have. 1948. Savoir, to know. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. savoir. sachant. Past Participle, su. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present je sais tu sais nous savons vous savez il sait ils savent. Imperfect. je savais tu savais nous savions vous saviez il savait. ils savaient. Preterite Definite, je sus tu sua nous sumes vous sutes il sut ils surent. Future Absolute, je saurai tu sauras nous saurons vous saurez il saura ils sauront. 624 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. Present. Imperfect. je saurais nous saurions CONDITIONAL MOOD. tu saurais vous sauriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. sache sachons sachez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. il saurait ils sauraient. qu'il sache qu'ils sachent. que je sache que tu saches qu'il sache que nous sa- que vous sachiez qu'ils sachent. chions que je susse que tu susses qu'il sut que nous sussions que vous sussiez qu'ils sussent, The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1949. Seoir, to fit, to become, to fit well. (Defective. Present. Present. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. seoir. seyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. sis. ^resent. il sied ils sieent. hnperfect. il seyait ils seyaient. Future Absolute. il siera ils sieront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. il sierait ils sidraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il siee que'ils sient. This verb has only the above tenses and persons, and has no compound tenses. 1950. Surseoir, to reprieve, to put off. This verb is only used in the present of the infinitive, the past participle, sursis, and the compound tenses taken passively and impersonally ; as, The sentence has been put off. II a ete sursis au jugement. VALOIR, TO BE WORTH, 625 1951. Valoir, to be worth. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present valoir. Present Participle. valant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. valu. Present. je vaux tu vaux nous valons vous valez il vaut ils valent. Imperfect. je valais tu valais nous valions vous valiez il valait ils valaient. Preterite Definite je valus tu valus nous valumes vous valutes il valut ils valurent. Future Absolute. je vaudrai tu vaudras nous vaudrons vous vaudrez CONDITIONAL MOOD. il vaudra ils vaudront. Present. je vaudrais tu vaudrais nous vaudrions vous vaudriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. il vaudrait ils vaudraient. vaux valons valez qu'il vaille qu'ils vaillent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je vaille que tu vailles qu'il vaille que nous valions que vous valiez qu'ils vaillent. que je valusse que tu valusses qu'il valut que nous valus- que vous valus- qu'ils valussent. 1952. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as the following : Revaloir, to return like for like. Equivaloir, to be equivalent. Prevaloir, to prevail. This last verb makes its present of the subjunctive as fol- lows : queje prevale que nous prevalions que tu prevales que nous prevaliez qu'il prevale qu'ils prevalent. 53 626 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1953. Voir, to see. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. voir. Present Participle. voyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. vu. Present. je vois tu vois nous voyons nous voyez il voit ils voient. Imperfect. je voyais tu voyais nous voyions vous voyiez il voyait ils voyaient. Preterite Definite je vis tu vis nous vimes vous vites il vit ils virent. Future Absolute. je verrai tu verras nous verrons vous verrez CONDITIONAL MOOD. il verra ils verront. Present. je verrais tu verrais nous verrions vous verriez IMPERATIVE MOOD. il verrait ils verraient. vois voyons voyez qu'il voie qu'ils voient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je voie que tu voies qu r il voie que nous voyions que vous voyiez qu'ils voient. Imperfect. que je visse que tu visses qu'il vit que nous vissions que vous vissiez qu'ils vissent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Revoir, Entrevoir, Prevoir, to see again. to have a glimpse of. to foresee. 1954. This last verb makes its future and conditional as fol- lows : Future Absolute, je prevoirai tu prevoiras il prevoira nous prevoirons vous prevoirez ils prevoiront Conditional je prevoirais tu prevoirais il pre*voirait Present. nous prevoirions vous prevoiriez ils prevoiraient Present. vouloir. 1955. Vouloir, to be willing. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. Past Participle. voulant. voulu. BATTRE, TO BEAT. 627 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je veux tu veux nous voulons vous voulez Imperfect. je voulais tu voulais nous voulions vous vouliez Preterite Definite, je voulus tu voulus nous voulumes vous voulutes Future Absolute, je voudrai tu voudras nous voudrons vous voudrez il veut ils veulent. il voulait ils voulaient. il voulut ils voulurent. il voudra ils voudront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je voudrais nous voudrions tu voudrais vous voudriez il voudra it ils voudraient. veuillons MPERATIVE MOOD. veuille veuillez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je veu; e qu< tu veu les que nous voulions que v< us vouliez Imperfect. que je voulusse que tu voulusses que nous voulus- que vous voulus- sions siez qu'il veuille qu'ils veuillent. qu'il veuille qu'ils veuillent. qu'il voulut qu'ils voulussent. The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to have. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS, OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 1956. Battre, to beat. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. battre. Present Participle. battant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle battu. Present. je bats nous battons tu bats vous battez il bat ils battent. Imperfect. je battais nous battions tu battais vous battiez il battait ils battaient. Preterite Definite . je battis nous battimes tu battis vous battites il battit ils battirent. Future Absolute. je battrai nous battrons tu battras vous battrez il battra ils battront. 628 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je battrais nous battrions tu battrais vous battriez il battrait ils battraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. battons bats battez qu'il batte qu'ils battent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je batte que tu battes qu'il batte que nous battions que vous battiez qu'ils battent. Imperfect. que je battisse que tu battisses qu'il battit que nous battissi- que vous battis- qu'ils battissent. ons siez The compound tenses of battre are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Abattre, Combattre, Debattre, Rabattre, Rebattre, to pull or cut down. to fight. to debate. to pull down again, to abate. to beat. The two following, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, to be. S'ebattre, Se debattre, to make, or to be, merry, to struggle. 1957. Boire, to drink. Present. boire. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. buvant. Past Participle. bu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. je bois nous buvons je buvais nous buvions] Preterite Definite, je bus nous bumes Future Absolute, je boirai nous boirons tu bois vous buvez tu buvais vous buviez tu bus vous butes tu boiras vous boirez il boit ils boivent. il buvait ils buvaient. ilbut ils burent. il boira ils boiront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je boirais nous boirions tu boirais vous boiriez il boirait ils boiraient. CLORE, TO CLOSE. C29 bavons IMPERATIVE MOOD. bois buvez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il boive qu'ils boivent. Present. que je boive que tu boives qu'il boive que nousbuvions que vous buviez qu'ils boivent. Imperfect. que je busse que tu busses qu'il but que nous bussions que vous bussiez qu'ils bussent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of reboire, to drink again.. 1958. Clore, to close. (Defective.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. clore. closant. clos. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je clos nous closons tu clos vous closez il clot ils clos j t. Imperfect. tu closais nous closions tu closais vous closiez il closait ils closaient. Future Absolute, je clorai nous clorons tu cloras vous clorez il clora ils cloront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je clorais nous clorions tu clorais vous cloriez il clorait ils cloraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. closons clos closez qu'il close qu'ils closent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je close que tu closes qu'il close que nous closions que vous closiez qu'ils closent. This verb, in its compound tenses, is conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as eclore, to hatch, and enclore, to enclose. 53 630 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1959. Conclure, to conclude. Present. conclure. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. concluant. Past Participle. conclu. Present. Imperfect. je cone] us nous concluons je concluais nous concluions INDICATIVE MOOD. tu conclus vous concluez tu concluais vous concluiez Preterite Definite, je conclus tu conclus nous conclumes vous conclutes Future Absolute, je conclurai tu concluras nous conclurons vous conclurez il conclut ils concluent. il concluait ils concluaient. il conclut ils conclurent. il conclura ils concluront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je conclurais nous conclurions tu conclurais vous concluriez il conclurait ils concluraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. concluons conclus concluez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je conclue que nous conclui- ons que tu conclues que vous conclui- ez qu'il conclue 1 qu'ils concluent. qu'il conclue qu'ils concluent. que je conclusse que tu conclusses qu'il conclut que nous conclus- que vous conclus- qu'ils conclussent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of exclure, to exclude. 1960. Confire, to pickle. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. con fire. confisant. INDICATIVE MOOD. confit. Present. je confis tu confis nous confisons vous confisez il confit ils confisent. Imperfect. je confisais tu confisais nous confisions vous confisiez il confisait ils confisaient COUDRE , TO SEW. 1 Preterite Definite. je confis nous confimes tu confis vous confites il confit ils confirent. Future Absohte. je confirai nous confirons tu confiras vous confirez il confira ils confiront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je confirais nous confirions tu confirais vous confiriez il confirait ils confiraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. confisons confis confisez qu'il confise qu'ils confisent 631 Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je confise que tu confises qu'il confise que nous confisi- que vousconfisiez qu'ils confisent. ons que je confisse que tu confisses qu'il confit que nous confis- que vous confis- qu'ils confissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Suffire, Circoncire, to suffice, to circumcise. 1961. Coudre, to sew. Present. coudre. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. cousant. Past Participle. cousu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. '' Imperfect. je couds nous cousons je cousais nous cousions Preterite Definite, je cousis nous cousimes Future Absolute, je coudrai nouscoudrons tu couds vous cousez tu cousais vous cousiez tu cousis vous cousites tu coudras vous coudrez il coud ils cousent. il cousait ils cousaient. il cousit ils cousirent. il coudra ils coudront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je coudrais nous coudrions tu coudrais vous coudriez il coudrait ils coudraient. 632 FRENCH GRAMMAR. cousons IMPERATIVE MOOD. couds cousez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il couse qu'ils cousent Present. que je couse que tu couses qu'il couse que nous cousi- que vous cousiez qu'ils cousent. ons Imperfect. que je cousisse que tu cousisses qu'il cousit que nous cousis- que vous cousis- qu'ils cousissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. Conjugate, in the same manner : Decoudre, Recoudre, to rip. to sew again. 1962. Croire, to believe. INFII IITIVE MOOD. Presen I. Present Participle. Past Participle. croire croyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. cru. Present. je crois nous croyons tu crois vous croyez il croit ils croient. Imperfect. Preterite Definite. je croyais nous croyions je crus nous crumes tu croyais vous croyiez tu crus vous crutes il croyait ils croyaient. il crut ils crurent. Future Absolute. je croirai nous croirons tu croiras vous croirez il croira ils croiront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je croirais nous croirions tu croirais vous croiriez il croirait ils croiraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. croyons crois croyez qu'il croie qu'ils croient. Present. Im i erfeci. SUtJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je croie que tu croies qu'il croie que nous croyions que vous croyiez qu'ils croient. quejecrusse quetucrusses qu'il crut que nous crus- que vous crussiez qu'ils crussent. sions CR01TRE, TO GROW. 633 The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of accroire, to make one be- lieve, which is only used in the infinitive present with the verb faire, to make ; as, To make one believe, Faire accroire. 1963. Croitre, to grow. Present. croitre. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. croissant. Past Participle cru. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. je crois nous croissons je crossais nous croissions Preterite Definite, je crus nous crumes Future Absolute. je croitrai nous croitrons tu crois vouscroissez tu croissais vous croissiez tu crus vous crutes tu croitras vous croitrez il crolt ils croissent. il croissait ilscroissaient. il crut ils crurent. il croitra ils croitront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je croitrais nous croitrions tu croitrais vous croitriez il croitrait ils croitraient. croissons IMPERATIVE MOOD. crois croissez qu'il croisse qu'ils croissent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. que je croisse que nous croissi- ons que je crusse que nous crussi- ons que tu croisses qu'il croisse que vous croissiez qu'ils croissent. que tu crusses qu'il crut que vous crussi- qu'ils crussent. ez This verb is conjugated with avoir or etre, according as its signification is active or passive. Conjugate in the same manner : Accroitre, Decroitre, to increase, to decrease. 634 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1964. Dire, to say. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. dire. disant. dit. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je dis nous disons tu dis vous dites il dit ils disent. Imperfect. je disais nous disions tu disais vous disiez il disait ils disaient. Preterite Definite je dis nous dimes tu dis vous dites il dit ils dirent. Future absolute. je dirai nous dirons tu diras vous direz il dira ils diront. CONDITIONAL, MOOD. Present. je dirais nous dirions tu dirais vous diriez il dirait ils diraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. disons dis dites qu'il dise qu'ils disent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect, que je dise que tu dises qu'il dise que nous disions que vous disiez qu'ils disent. que je disse que tu disses qu'il dit que nous dissions que vous dissiez qu'ils dissent. The verb dire is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Redire, to say again. 1965. The following verbs, Contredire, Dedire, Interdire, Maudire, Medire, Predire, Se dedire, to contradict, to disown, to interdict, to curse, to slander, to foretell, to recant, are conjugated also like dire, with the exception, that their ECRIRE, TO WRITE. 635 second person plural of the present of the indicative makes contredisez, medisez, predisez dedisez, maudissez, dedisez. interdisez, JHaudire, to curse, takes ss in maudissant, in the three persons plural of the present of the indicative, maudissons, maudissez, maudissent, in all the persons of the imperfect, in the third person singular and the three persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, quHl maudisse, que nous maudis- sions, &c. ; the other tenses are conjugated like dire. 1966. Ecrire. to write. Present. ecrire. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. ecrivant. Past Participle. ecnt. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. j ecris nous ecrivons j'ecrivais nous ecrivions Preterite Definite, j 'ecrivis nous ecrivimes Future Absolute, j'ecrirai nous ecrirons tu ecris vous ecrivez tu ecrivais vous ecriviez tu ecrivis vous ecrivites tu ecriras vous ecrirez il ecrit ils ecrivent. il ecrivait iJs ecrivaient. il ecrivit ils ecrivirent. il ecrira ils ecriront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. j ecnrais nous ecririons tu ecnrais vous ecririez il ecrirait ils ecriraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. ecris ecrivez qu'il ecrive qu'ils ecrivent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que j'ecrive que tu ecrives qu'il ecrive que nous ecri- que vous ecriviez qu'ils ecrivent. vions Imperfect. que j'ecrivisse que tu ecrivisses qu'il ecrivit que nous ecrivis- que vous ecrivis- qu'ils ecrivissent. sions siez 636 FRENCH GRAMMAR, The verb ecrire is conjugated with avoir, to have. 1967. Conjugate in the same manner, Circonscrire, Decrire, Inscrire, Prescrire, Proscrire, Recrire, Souscrire, Transcrire, to circumscribe, to describe, to inscribe, to prescribe, to proscribe, to write again, to subscribe, to transcribe. 1968. Etre, to be. This verb has been conjugated in all its forms, page 530. 1969. Faire, to make, to do, to cause. Present. faire. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. faisant. Past Participle. fait. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je fais, nous faisons je faisais nous faisions Imperfect. Preterite Definite, je fis nous fimes Future Absolute, je ferai nous ferons Present. tu fais vous faites tu faisais vous faisiez tu fis .vous fites tu feras vous ferez CONDITIONAL MOOD. je ferais nous ferions tu ferais vous feriez il fait ils font. il faisait ils faisaient. il fit ils firent. il fera ils feront. il ferait ils feraient. faisons IMPERATIVE MOOD. fais faites qu'il fasse qu'ils fassent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je fasse que tu fasses qu'il fasse que nous fassions que vous fassiez qu'ils fassent. Imperfect. que je fisse que tu fisses qu'il fit que nous fissions que vous fissiez qu'ils fissent. FRIRE, TO FRY. 637 1970. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Contrefaire, Defaire, Redefaire, Refaire, Satisfaire, Surfaire, to counterfeit. to undo. to undo again. to do again. to satisfy. to ask too much. Some writers have adopted a different orthography for several of the tenses of this verb ; as nous fesons, and all the tenses derived from the present participle, fesant ; but the Academy has not yet sanctioned it. 1971. Frire, to fry. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past Participle. frire. frit. INDICATIVE MOOD. \ je fris tn fris il frit. Absolute, je frirai tu friras nous frirons vous frirez il frira ils friront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je frirais tu frirais nous fririons vous fririez il frirait ils friraient IMPERATIVE MOOD. fris. This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in all the compound tenses, which are formed with avoir, to have. In order to supply the tenses and persons which are want- ing, we use the verb faire, to make, in those tenses and per- sons, with the verb frire in the infinitive ; as, We fry. You fry. Nous faisons frire. Vous faites frire, &c. 54 638 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 1972. Joindre, to join. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. join d re. joignant. INDICATIVE MOOD. joint. Present. je joins vous joignons tu joins vous joignez il joint ils joignent. Imperfect. je joignais nous joignions tu joignais vous joigniez il joignait ils joignaient. Preterite Definite . je joignis ^ nous joignimes tu joignis vous joignites il joignit ils joignirent Future Absolute. je joindrai vous joindrons tu joindras vous joindrez il joindra ils joindront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je joindrais nous joindrions tu joindrais vous joindriez il joindrait ils joindraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. joignons joins joignez qu'il joigne qu'ils joignent Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je joigne que tu joignes qu'il joigne que nous joignions que vous joigniez qu'ils joignent. que je joignisse que tu joignisses qu'il joignit que nous joignis- que vous joignis- qu'ils joignissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1973. Conjugate in the same manner all the verbs ending in aindre, eindre, oindre, in the present of the infinitive ; as Craindre, Peindre, Poindre, Also, Astreindre, Atteindre, Ceindre, Contraindre, Enfreindre, Eteindre, to fear. to paint, to dawn. to subject, to compel. to reach, to overtake. to gird. to constrain. to infringe. to put out, to extinguish- LIRE, TO READ. 639 Feindre, Plaindre, Restreindre, Teindre, to feign, to pretend, to pity, to restrain, to dye. 1974. Lire, to read. Present. lire. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. lisant. Past Participle lu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Imperfect. je lis nous lisons je lisais nous lisions Preterite Definite, je lus nous lumes Future Absolute. je lirai nous lirons tu lis vous lisez tu lisais vous lisiez tu lus vous lutes tu liras vous lirez il lit ils lisent. il lisait ils lisaient. il lut ils lurent. il lira ils liront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je lirais nous lirions tu lirais vous liriez il lirait ils liraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. lis lisons lisez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il lise qu'ils lisent. Present. que je lise que tu lises qu'il lise que nous lisions que vous lisiez qu'ils lisent. Imperfect. que je lusse que tu lusses qu'il lut que nous lussions que vous lussiez qu'ils lussent. This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Elire, Relire, to elect. to read again. 640 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1975. Mettre, to put. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. mettre. mettant. INDICATIVE MOOD. mis. Present, je mets nous mettons tu mets vous mettez il met ils mettent. Imperfect. je mettais nous mettions tu mettais vous mettiez il mettait iis mettaient. Preterite Definite je mis nous mimes tu mis vous mites il mit ils mirent. Future Absolute. je mettrai nous mettrons tu mettras vous mettrez il mettra ils mettront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je mettrais nous mettrions tu mettrais vous mettriez il mettrait ils mettraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. mettons mets mettez qu'il mette qu'ils mettent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je mette que nous met- tions que tu mettes qu'il mette que vous mettiez qu'ils mettent. Imperfect. que je misse que nous mis- sions. que tu misses que vous mis- sions qu'il mit qu'ils missent. This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Admettre, to admit. Commettre, to commit. Compromettre, to compromise. Demettre, to disjoint, to put out. Omettre, to omit. Permettre, to permit. Promettre, to promise. Remettre, to put again, to set again, to re- place. Soumettre, to submit. Transmettre, to transmit. Se demettre, to resign. S'entremettre, to interpose. The last two verbs, being reflective, take the auxiliary, etre, to be. NAITRE, TO BE BORN. 1976. Moudre, to grind. 641 Present. moudre. Present. Imperfect. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. moulant. INDICATIVE MOOD. je mouds nous moulons je moulais nous moulions Preterite Definite, je moulus nous moulumes Future Absolute, je moudrai nous raoudrons tu mouds vous moulez tu moulais vous mouliez tu moulus vous moulutes tu moudras vous moudrez Past Participle. moulu. il moud ils moulent. il moulait ils moulaient. il raoulut ils moulurent. il moudra ils moudront. Present. Present. Imperfect. il moudrait ils moudraient. qu'il moule qu'ils moulent. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je moudrais tu moudrais nous moudrions vous moudriez IMPERATIVE. mouds moulons moulez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je moule que tu moules qu'il moule que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils moulent. lions liez que je moulusse que tu moulusses qu'il moulut que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils moulussent. lussions lussiez This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Emoudre, Remoudre, to grind, to whet, to grind again. 1977. Naitre, to be born. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. naitre. naissant. INDICATIVE MOOD. ne. je nais tu nais il nait nous naissons vous naissez ils naissent. 54* 642 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Imperfect. je naisais nous naissions tu naissais vous naissiez il naissait ils naissaient. Preterite Pejinile je naquis nous naquimes tu naquis vous naquites il naquit ils naquirent. Future Absolute. je naitrai nous naitrons tu naitras vous naitrez il naitra ils naitront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je naitrais nous naitrions tu naitrais vous naitriez il naitrait ils naitraienl. IMPERATIVE MOOD. naissons nais naissez qu'il naisse qu'ils naissent Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je naisse que tu naisses qu'il naisse que nous nais- que vous nais- qu'ils naissent. sions siez que je naquisse que tu naquisses qu'il naquit que nous naquis- que vous naquis- qu'ils naquissenc. sions siez This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. Conjugate in the same manner : Renaitre, to revive. 1978. Paitre, to graze. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. paitre. paissant. INDICATIVE MOOD. pu. Present. je pais nous paissons tu pais vous paissez il pait ils paissent. Imperfect. je paissais nous paissions tu paissais vous paissiez il paissait ils paissaient. Future Absolute. je paitrai nous paitrons tu paitras vous paitrez il paitra ils paitront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je paitrais nous paitrions tu paitrais vous paitriez il paitrait ils paitraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. paissons pais paissez qu'il paisse qu'ils paissent, PARAITRE, TO APPEAR. 643 This verb, which is very little used, has no compound tens- es, no preterite definite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive. 1979. Conjugate in the same manner : Repaitre, Se repaitre, to feed. to feed one's self. These two verbs have a preterite definite and imperfect of the subjunctive ; as, il reput ils repurent qu'il reput qu'ils repussent. je repus nous repumes que je repusse que nous repussions tu repus vous reputes qui tu repusses que vous repussiez The compound tenses of repaitre, are conjugated with avoir, and those of se repaitre with etre, to be. 1980. Paraitre, to appear. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. paraitre. Present Participle- Past Participle. paraissant. paru. INDICAT 1VE MOOD. Present. je parais nous paraissons tu parais vous paraissez il parait ils paraissent. Imperfect. je paraissais nous paraissions tu paraissais vous paraissiez il paraissait ils paraissaient. ♦ Preterite Definite . je parus nous parumes tu parus vous parutes il parut ils parureut. Future Absolute. je paraitrai nous paraitrons tu paraitras vous paraitrez il paraitra ils paraitront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je paraitrais nous paraitrions tu paraitrais vous paraitriez il paraitrait ils paraitraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. paraissons parais paraissez qu'il paraisse qu'ils paraissent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. • Present. que je paraisse que nous parais- sions que tu paraisses que vous parais- siez qu'il paraisse qu'ils paraissent. Imperfect. que je parusse que nous parus- sions que tu parusses que vous parus- siez qu'il parut qu'ils parussent. 644 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Apparaitre, Comparaitre, Connaitre, Disparaitre, Me*connaitre, Reconnaitre, Reparaitre, Se meconnaitre, to appear. to know. to disappear. to mistake, to forget. ta recognize. to appear again. to forget one's self. The compound tenses of the last verb are conjugated with etre, to be. 19S1. Flake, to please. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. plaire. Pi aisant. plu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present je plais nous plaisons tu plais vous plaisez il plait ils plaisent. Imperfect. je plaisais nous plaisions tu plaisais vous plaisiez il plaisait ils plaisaient. Preterite Definite . je plus nous plumes tu plus vous plutes il plut ils plurent. Future Absolute. je plairai nous plairons tu plairas vous plairez il plaira ils plairont. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je plairais nous plairions tu plairais vous plairiez il plairait ils plairaient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. plaisons plais plaisez qu'il plaise qu'ils plaisent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pressnt. que je plaise que tu plaises qu'il plaise que nous plai- que vous plai- qu'ils plaisent. sions siez Imperfect. que je plusse que tu plusses qu'il plut que nous plus- que vous plus- qu'ils plussent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. PRENDRE, TO TAKE 645 Conjugate in the same manner : Complaire, to please. Deplaire, to displease. Taire, to conceal. Se Taire, to be silent. This last verb, being reflective, is conjugated with etre, to be. Present. 1982. Poindre, to shoot forth, to dawn. INFINITIVE MOOD. poindre. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. il point. Future Absolute, il poind ra. This verb is defective, and the above tenses and persons are the only ones in use. 1983. Prendre, to take. Present. prendre. Present Participle. prenant. Past Participle. pris. INDICAT IVE MOOD. Present. je prends nous prenons tu prends vous prenez il prend ils prennent. Imperfect. je prenais nous prenions tu prenais vous preniez il prenait ils prenaient. Preterite Definite . je pris nous primes tu pris vous prites il prit ils prirent Future Absolute. je prendrai nous prendrons tu prendras vous prendrez il prendra ils prendront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je prendrai s nous prendrions tu prendrais vous prendriez il prendrait ils prendraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. prenons prends prenez qu'il prenne qu'ils prennent 646 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je prenne que tu prennes qu'il prenne que nous pre- que vous pre- qu'ils prennent. nions niez que je pnsse que nous pris- sions que tu prisses que vous pris- qu'il prit qu'ils prissent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Apprendre, Comprendre, Deprendre, Desapprendre, Entreprendre, Rapprendre, Reprendre, Surprendre, Se meprendre, Se prendre, to learn, to understand, to loosen, to unlearn, to undertake, to learn again, to take again, to surprise, to mistake, to be smitten. The two last verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with Mre, to be. 1984. Reduire, to reduce INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. reduire. reduisant. INDICATIVE MOOD. reduit. Present. je reduis nous reduisons tu reduis vous reduisez il reduit ils reduisent. Imperfect. je reduisais nous reduisions tu reduisais vous reduisiez il reduisait ils reduisaient. Preterite Definite . je reduisis nous reduisimes tu reduisis vous reduisites il reduisit ils reduisirent. Future Absolute. je reduirai nous reduirons tu reduiras vous reduirez il reduira ils reduiront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je reduirais nous reduirions tu reduirais vous reduiriez il reduirait ils reduiraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. reduisons reduis reduisez qu'il reduise qu'ils reduisent RESOUDRE, TO RESOLVE. 647 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je reduisse que tu reduisses qu'il reduisse que nous redui- que vous redui- qu'ils reduissent.. sions siez Imperfect. que je reduisisse que tu reduisisses qu'il reduisit que nous redui- que vous redui- qu'ils reduisissent. sissions sissiez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with nr, to have. 1985. Conjugate in the same manner, Conduire, Construire, Cuire, Deduire, Detruire, Econduire, Enduire, Entreluire, Induire, Instruire, Introduire. to conduct, to construct, to bake, to deduct, to destroy, to discard in a polite manner, to plaster, to shine a little, to induce, to instruct, to introduce. Luire, Nuire, Produire, Reconduire, Reconstruire, Recuire, Reluire, Renduire, Reproduire, Seduire, Traduire, to shine, to glow. to hurt, to produce, to reconduct, to construct again, to bake again, to shine, to glow, to plaster again, to reproduce, to seduce, to translate. 1986. Resoudre, to resolve, to dissolve. Present. resoudre. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. resolvant. Past Participle. resolu, resous. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je resous nous resolvons Imperfect. je resolvais nous resolvions Preterite Definite, je re sol us nous resolumes Future Absolute, je resoudrai nous resoudrons tu resous vous resolvez tu resolvais vous resolviez tu resolus vous resolutes tu resoudras vous resoudrez il resout ils resolvent. il resolvait ils resolvaient. il resolut ils resolurent. il resoudra ils resoudront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je resoudrais tu resoudrais il resoudrait nous resoudrions vous resoudriez ils resoudraient. resolvons IMPERATIVE MOOD. resous resolvez qu'il resolve qu'ils resolvent. 648 FRENCH GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je resolve que tu resolves qu'il resolve que nous resol- que vous resol- qu'ils resolvent, vions viez Imperfect. que je resolusse que tu resolusses qu'il resolut que nous resolus- que vous resolus- qu'ils resolussent, sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir ', to have. This verb has two past participles. Resous is used when resoudre signifies to dissolve ; it has no feminine. 1987. Conjugate in the same manner, but with etre, to be, Se resoudre, to resolve, to take a resolution. The two verbs, absoudre, to absolve, dissoudre, to dissolve, are conjugated like resoudre, but they have no preterite defi- nite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive ; their past participles are absous, dissous, feminine, absoute, dissoute ; they take avoir, to have, in their compound tenses. 1988. Rire, to laugh, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Particip rire. riant. ri. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je ris _ tu ris il rit nous rions vous riez ils rient. Imperfect. je riais nous riions tu riais vous riiez il riait ils riaient. Preterite Definite • je ris ^ nous rimes tu ris vous rites il rit ils rirent. Future Absolute. je rirai tu riras il rira nous rirons vous rirez ils riront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je rirais nous ririons tu rirais vous ririez il rirait ils riraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. rions ris riez qu'il rie qu'ils rient. ROMPRE, TO BREAK. 649 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je rie que tu ries qu'il rie. que nous riions que vous riiez qu'ils rient. Imperfect. que je risse que tu risses qu'il rit que nous rissions que vous rissiez qu'ils rissent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Sourire, Se rire de. to smile, to laugh at. The compound tenses of se rire de are conjugated with etre, to be. 1989. Rompre, to break. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. rompre. rompant. INDICATIVE MOOD. rompu. Present. je romps nous rompons tu romps vous rompez il rompt ils rompent. Imperfect. je rompais nous rompions tu rompais vous rompiez il rompait ils rompaient. Preterite Definite . je rompis nous rompimes tu rompis vous rompites il rompit ils rompirent. Future Absolute. je romprai nous romprons tu rompras vous romprez il rompra ils rompront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je romprais nous romprions tu romprais vous rempriez il romprait ils rompraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. rompons romps rompez qu'il rompe qu'ils rompent. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je rompe que tu rompes qu'il rompe que nous rom- que vous rompiez qu'ils rompent. pions 55 650 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Imperfect. que je rompisse que tu rompisses qu'il rorapit que nous rompis- que vous rompis- qu'ils rompissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Corrompre, Interrompre, to corrupt, to interrupt. 1990. Suivre, to follow. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. suivre. suivant. suivi. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je suis nous suivons tu suis vous suivez il suit ils suivent. Imperfect. je suivais nous suivions tu suivais vous suiviez il suivait ils suivaient. Preterite Definite . je suivis nous suivimes tu suivis vous suivites il suivit ils suivirent. Future Absolute. je suivrai nous suivrons tu suivras vous suivrez il suivra ils suivront. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je suivrais nous suivrions tu suivrais vous suivriez il suivrait ils suivraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. suivons suis suivez qu'il suive qu'ils suivent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je suive que tu suives qu'il suive que nous suivions que vous suiviez qu'ils suivent. Imperfect. que je suivisse que tu suivisses qu'il suivit que nous suivis- que vous suivis- qu'ils suivissent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Poursuivre, S'en suivre, to pursue, to prosecute, to follow, to result. TRAIRE, TO MILK, 651 This last verb, being reflective, is conjugated with etre. to be. 1991. Traire, to milk. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past participle. traire. trayant. INDICATIVE. trait. Present. je trais tu trais nous trayons vous trayez il trait ils traient. Imperfect. je trayais tu trayais nous trayions vous trayiez il trayait ils trayaient. Future Absolute. je trairai tu trairas nous trairons vous trairez CONDITIONAL MOOD. il traira ils trairont. Present. je trairais tu trairais nous trairions vous trairiez IMPERATIVE MOOD. il trairait ils trairaient. trais trayons trayez qu'il traie qu'ils traient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je traie que tu traies qu'il traie que nous trayions que vous trayiez qu'ils traient. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Abstraire, Attraire, Distraire, Extraire, Rentraire, Retraire, Soustraire, Se soustraire, to abstract. to attract. (Not used.) to divert. to extract. to fine-draw. (Not used). to redeem an estate. (Not used.) to subtract, to hide, &c. to avoid, to escape, &c. Se soustraire, being reflective, is conjugated with etre, to be. 652 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1992. Vaincre 7 to conquer, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. vaincre. vainquant. INDICATIVE MOOD. vaincu. Present. je vaines nous vainquons tu vaines vous vainquez il vaine ils vainquent. Imperfect. je vainquais nous vainquions tu vainquais vous vainquiez il vainquait ils vainquaient. Preterite Definite je vainquis nous vainquimes ta vainquis vous vainqurtes il vain quit ils vainquirent. Future Absolute. je vainerai vous vaincrons lu vaincras vous vaincrez il vainera ils vaincroat. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je vaincrais nous vaincrions tu vaincrais vous vainciiez il vainerait ils vaincraient> IMPERATIVE MOOD. vainquons vaines vainquez. qu'il vainque qu'ils vainquent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je vainque que tu vainques qu'il vainque que nous vain- que vous vain- qu'ils vainquent. quions quiez Imperfect. que je vainquisse que tu vainquisses qu'il vainquit que nous vain- que vous vain- qu'ils vainquis- quissions quissiez sent. The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner> Convaincre^ to convince. 1993. Vivre, to live. Present. vivre. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. vivant. Past Participle. vecu. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. je vis nous vivons tu vis vous vivez il vit ils viveM* VIVRE, TO LIVE. Imperfect. je vivais nous vivions tu vivais vous viviez il vivait ils vivaient. Preterite Definite, ; je vecus nous vecumes tu vecus vous vecutes il vecut ils vecurent. Future Absolute. je vivrai nous vivrons tu vivras vous vivrez il vivra ils vivront. CONDITIONAL, MOOD. Present. je vivrais tu vivrais il vivrait nous vivrions vous vivriez ils vivraient. IMPERATIVE MOOD. vivons vis vivez qu'il vive qu'ils vivent. 653 Present. Imperfect. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je vive que tu vives qu'il vive que nous vivions que vous viviez qu'ils vivent. que je vecusse que tu vecusses qu'il vecut que nous vecus- que vous vecus- qu'ils vecussent. sions siez The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Revivre, Survivre, to revive, to survive. 1994. We have already spoken of the neuter verbs which are conjugated with the verb to be, and sometimes with both to have and to be, according to their signification. We will now, in order to facilitate the use of these verbs, give a list of them, showing those which take both auxiliaries, and those which only admit of to be. The verbs marked with the two letters a and e, take to have and to be : to have, when they express an action ; to be, when they express a situation. Those marked with an e alone are conjugated only with to be. Aborder, a, e, to land. Accroitre, «, e, to increase Accoucher, a, e, to bring forth. Aller, e, to go. Accourir, a, e, to run to. Apparaitre, a, e, to appear. 55* 654 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Arriver, e, Avenir (not used), e, Cesser, a, e, Changer, a, e, Choir, e, Convenir, a, e, Croitre, «, e, Decamper, a, e, Deceder, e, Dechoir, a, e, Decroitre, a, e, Demeurer, a, e, Descendre, a, e, Devenir, e, Disconvenir, e, Disparaitre, a, e, Echapper, a, e, Echoir, e, Echouer, a, e, Eclore, e, Embellir, a, e, Empirer, a, e, Entrer, a, «, Expirer, a, e, Intervenir, e, to arrive, to hap- pen. to chance, to hap- pen. to cease, to leave off. to change. to fall. to agree, to suit, to become. to grow. to decamp, to run away. to die, to decease. to decay. to decrease. to remain, to stay. to come down, to descend. to become. to deny, to dis- own. to disappear. to escape. to fall due, &c. to run aground, to miscarry. to be hatched, to blossom. to embellish. to make worse, to grow worse. to enter, to go in, &c. to expire. to intervene. Mesavenir (not used), c, Monter, a, e, Mourir, e, Naitre, e, Partir, e, Parvenir, e, Passer, a, e, Perir, a, e, Provenir, e, Rajeunir, a, c, Redescendre,a,e Redevenir, «, Rentrer, a 7 e 7 Repartir, e, Repasser, a, e, Ressortir, a, e } Rester, a, e, Resulter, a } e } Retomber, e, Retourner, «, Revenir, e, Sortir, a, e t Survenir, e, Vieillir, a, e, Tomber, e, Venir, e, to succeed ill. to ascend, to go up, &c. to die. to be born. to set off, &c. to attain, to reach. to pass. to perish. to proceed, &c. to grow young. to come down again, &c. to become again. to ascend again, &c. to reenter, to go in again. to set off again, &c. to pass again, &c. to go out again. to remain, to stay. to result, to fol- low. to fall again. to return, &c. to come again, &e. to go out, to take out. to befall, to hap- pen. to grow old. to fall. to* come. We refer, for the proper use of most of these verbs, to what we have already said of each of them. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 655 1995. A LIST OF ADJECTIVES MOST GENERALLY USED, WITH THEIR REGIMEN PREPO- SITION, «, TO. Accessible, accessible, is said of places and persons, and is often used without a preposition ; as, This citadel is not accessible. Cette citadelle n'est pas accessible. But we say, most generally : Cette citadelle est inaccessible (inaccessible). With the preposition to, we say : He was accessible to all the Janissa- II etait accessible a touts les Janis- ries. saires. Accoutume, accustomed, is employed without a preposition ; as, He returns to his customary habits. II revient a ses manieres accoutu- me 1 es. And with the preposition to ; as, Fed in abundance, accustomed to Nourri dans l'abondance, au luxe luxury. accoutume" . Adherent, adherent, is used only with the preposition to ; as, A tree is adherent to the stump. Un arbre est adherent au tronc. Adonne, addicted, is followed by a, to ; as, Addicted to women, to study, to Adonne" aux femmes, a l'etude, au gaming. jeu. Agreable, agreeable, is used with a, to, en, in, and avec, with ; as, Offerings were agreeable to the Les offrandes etaient agredbles aux gods. dieux. This man is pleasing in society. Cet homme est agreable en societe. This man is pleasing with his Cet homme est agriable avec ses friends. amis. We say, equally well : This man is pleasing by or for his Cet homme est agreable far or pour qualities. ses qualites. 656 FRENCH GRAMMAR. AntSrieur. prior, is used with a, to, and de, of ; as, This epoch is prior to that you speak Cette epoque est 'anttrieure h, celle of. dont vous parlez. This event precedes your birthday Ce evenement est anterieur d'une one year. annee a votre naissance. Ardent, ardent, is used with d, to ; as, He is ardent to his work. II est ardent a son travail. Attend/, attentive, is used with a, to ; as, We are attentive to his words. Nous sommes attentifs a sa voix. Cher, dear, is followed by a, to ; as, This man is dear to his country. Cet homme est cher a sa patrie. Conforme, conformed, is used with a, to ; as, To live according to one's fortune. Vivre d'une maniere conforme a sa fortune. Contraire, contrary, is followed by a, to ; as, I am opposed to your wishes. Je suis contraire a vos desirs. Enclin, disposed, is followed by a, to ; as, He is disposed to blame everybody. II est enclin d blamer tout le monde. Exact, punctual, is followed by a, to, and dans, in ; as, You are not punctual to your duty. Vous n'6tes pas exact a vos devoirs. He is punctual in his payments. II est exact dans ses paiements. Favorable, favorable, is used without an object, and with the preposition a, to, and pour, for ; as, The mind of the king is in a favora- L'esprit du roi est dans une condi- ble condition. tion favorable. The minister is in favor of our Le ministre est favorable a nos vues. views. This place is proper to land. Ce lieu est favorable pour aborder. Funeste, fatal, is followed by «, to ; as, There is nothing more fatal to piety II n'y a rien de iplus funeste a la pi- than social life. ete que le commerce du monde. Importun, troublesome : You are troublesome to everybody. Vous etes importun a tout le monde. The Academy also gives these examples : tt • ui u u- .• S II est importun par ses questions. He is troublesome by his questions. J g ^ ^^ £ force £ questi()ns# Inaccessible, inaccessible, is followed by a, to, and is some- times used without an object (see Accessible) ; as, REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 657 To be inaccessible to temptations. Etre inaccessible aux tentations. We use it also with de, of ; as, This place is inaccessible by this Cette place est inaccessible de ce cote, side. Invisible, invisible : God is invisible to the eyes of man. Dieu est invisible aux yeux de l'homme. This star is invisible for us. Cet astre est invisible pour nous. Insensible, insensible : Insensible to life and death. Insensible a la vie, a la mort. Invulnerable, invulnerable : To be invulnerable to the attacks of Etre invulnerable aux traits de la slander. medisance. Nuisible, hurtful : His conduct is hurtful to his health. Sa conduite est nuisible a sa sante. Odieux, odious : This man is odious to me. Cet homme ra'est odieux (to me). It is odious for a man to plead against C'est une chose odieuse de plaider his conscience. contre sa conscience. Preferable, preferable : Virtue is preferable to vice. La vertu est preferable au vice. Propice, propitious : Retirement is propitious for inno- La retraite est propice a l'innocence. cence. We wait for a propitious opportu- Nous attendons une occasion pro- nity. pice. Rebelle, rebellious : To be rebellious to his king. Etre rebelle a son roi. Redoutable, redoubtable : St. Louis was formidable to vice for St. Louis etait redoutable au vice par his justice. sa justice. Semblable, similar : Kings are similar to God by their Les rois sont semblables a Dieu par clemency. leur clemence. Sensible. See Insensible. Sujet, subject : This man is subject to repentance. Cet homme est sujet au repentir. 658 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1996. ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITION de, OF. Yous etes amoureux de vous meme. Amoureux, enamoured : Your are enamoured of yourself. Capable, capable : Of what crime may this child be De quel crime cet enfant peut-il etre capable ? capable ? Complice, accomplice : You are an accomplice of his crimes. Yous etes complice de ses crimes. Content, contented : To be contented with little is the Etre content de peu, c'est le secret secret of happiness. du bonheur. Desireux, desirous : Napoleon was desirous of glory. Different, different : My nature is different from yours. Digne, worthy : You are worthy of my regard. Envieux, envious : I am envious of your fate. Esclave, slave : Man is the slave of his passions. Napoleon etait desireux de gloire. Mon caractere est different du votre. Yous etes digne de mon affection. Je suis envieux de votre sort. L'homme est Vesclave de ses passions. The Academy and usage authorize these expressions : To be a slave to one's master. Etre esclave aupres de son maitre. One is a slave in that office. On est esclave dans cet emploi. Exempt, exempt : You ! whose great names are ex- Oh ! vous dont les grands noms sont exempts de la mort. II est Jier de sa naissance. empt from death. Fier, proud. He is proud of his birth. Fou, crazy : A miser is crazy for his money. To be crazy enough to be tied. A man would be crazy not to see, II faut etre fou pour ne pas voir, &c. &c Un avare est fou de son argent. Etre fou a lier. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES- 659 Furieux, furious : He has become furious on account II est devenu furieux de cette re- of that resistance. sistance. Glorieux, glorious, proud : Who would not be proud to marry Qui ne serait glorieux de vous epou you? ser ? Honteux, ashamed. I am ashamed of loving one who Je suis honteux Maimer une per- does not love me. sonne qui ne m'aime pas. That is a shame for him. C'est honteux a lui or pour lui. Children are ashamed before their Les enfants sont honteux devant parents. leurs parents. You made him ashamed by your Vous l'avez rendu honteux par reproofs. vos reproches. What is shameful in his conduct Ce qu'il y a dehonteux dans sa con- is, &c. duite, &c. Incapable, incapable. (See Capable.) Indigne, unworthy. (See Digne.) Ivre, intoxicated : Intoxicated with wine, blood, glo- Ivre de vin, de sang, de gloire. ry. Las, tired : God is never tired of forgiving. Dieu n'est jamais las de pardonner. Mecontent, discontented, (see Content.) Plein, full : His head is full of nonsense. II a la tete pleine de sottises. Soigneux, careful : You are not careful of your repu- Vous n'etes pas soigneux de votre tation. Sur, sure, certain : reputation. I am certain of defeating my ene- Je suis sur de vaincre mes enne- mies. mis. Tributaire, tributary : Athens is tributary to my power. Vide, void : A discourse void of sense. Athenes est tributaire de mon pou- voir. Un discours vide de sens. 660 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1997. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH CHANGE THEIR OBJECT WHEN EMPLOYED BEFORE A NOUN OR A VERB, AND THEIR USE IN REGARD TO PERSONS OR THINGS. Absent, absent, is used without a regimen ; as, I fly from you when present, I Presente, je vous fuis, absente, je think of you when absent. vous trouve. It is used also with the preposition de, of, 1st, when speaking of places and things ; as, He his absent from court. II est absent de la cour. He is absent from the country. II est absent du pays. 2d, when speaking of persons ; as, Far from you, I see you, I hear Absent de vous, je vous vois, je vous you. entends. I was far from you, anxious and des- J'etais absent de vous, inquiet et olate. desole. (Used in poetry.) We say also : He is absent with leave. II est absent par conge. Absolu, absolute. He is a man despotic in his will. C'est un homme absolu dans sa vo- lonte. Absurde, absurd, is most generally used without a regimen ; as, An absurd argument, an absurd ac- Un argument absurde, une proposi- tion, tion absurde. Think of what may be the most Imaginez ce que vous pourrez de monstrous, the most absurd, and plus monstreux, de plus absurde, you will find it in Shakspeare. et vous le trouverez dans Shaks- peare. It may be used with d, to ; as, This dogma is absurd to believe. Ce dogme est absurde a croire. We say also : He is absurd in his opinions. II est absurde dans ses opinions. Adore^ worshipped, referring to persons, requires de, of ; as, God requires to be worshipped by Dieu veut etre adore de ses crea- his creatures ; tures ; or it is used without a regimen ; as, Diana adored by all Asia. Diane adoree dans toute l'Asie. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 661 Referring to things, adore requires no regimen ; as, Audacity triumphs and crime is L'audace triomphe et le crime est worshipped. adore. Adroit, skilful, requires «, to ; as, Skilful in directing the mind. Adroit a diriger l'e^prit. Skilful in fencing, shooting, &c. Adroit a faire des annes,a tirer,&e. Affable, affable, is employed alone, or with the prepositions d, to, envers, towards ; as, He is affable and without pride. II est affable et sans orgueil. Affable to or towards everybody. Affable a ou envtrs tout le monde. Alarmant, alarming, is used without a regimen, and with pour, for ; as, You are in an alarming state. ; Vous etes dans un etat alarmant. What we see every day is alarm- Ce qui se passe chaque jour est ing for the morality of the peo- alarmant pour la moralite du pie. people. Apre, greedy. Apre, meaning greedy, requires a, to ; as, Greedy of gain, of spoils. Apre au gain, a la curee. Assidu, assiduous, before nouns signifying persons, requires aupres, near; as, Assiduous to the prince. Assidu aupres du prince. Before other nouns and verbs, d, to ; as, Assiduous to study, to duty. Assidu a l'etude, a son devoir. Assiduous to prayers. Assidu a prier. Aucun, any, none, no, before nouns and pronouns, requires de, of ; as, None of you may complain of me. Aucun de vous ne peut se plaindre de moi. Fenelon employs this word instead of no, or not any, with de, of, before an adjective ; as, He had not in all his life a moment II n'a eii dans sa vie aucun moment of security. d'assure. This expression is blamed by some grammarians ; de, they say, is proper when the pronoun en (of it) is joined to aucun. Thus, in speaking of paintings or books, we say : There are none of them bound, II n'y en a aucun de relie, il n'y en none of them are framed ; a aucun d^encadrt; 56 662 FRENCH GRAMMAR. but without en (of them) de must not come before the adjec- tive ; we must say, then : II n'a aucun livre relit. II n'a aucun de ces tableaux encadri. Audacieux, audacious, requires dans, in ; as, He is audacious in his attempts. II est audac.ie.ux dans ses tentatives. Jlveugle, blind, taken in its natural meaning, is used with- out a regimen ; as, Hazard, a blind and wild divinity, Le hasard, aveugle et farouche di- presides over the table of gam- vinite preside a la table des jou- blers. eurs. Taken figuratively, it is also used without a regimen; as, Nothing was more blind than pa- Rien n'etait plus aveugle que le pa- ganism, ganisme. Sometimes it is employed with sur, dans, and en ; as, We are blind to our faults. Nous sommes aveugle sur nos de- fauts. Hatred is blind in its own cause. La haine est aveugle dans sa pro- pre cause. En is used for dans in poetry. We say equally well : We must be blind not to see, &c. II faut etre aveugle pour nepas voir, &c. Avide, greedy, in its natural meanings, is employed without a preposition ; we do not say, Greedy of bread, of meat, Avide de pain, de viande, as we say, Greedy of other people's money, of Avide du bien d'autrui, de gloire, glory, &c. &c. when used figuratively. Celebre, celebrated, when used with a regimen, requires the prepositions par, by, pour, for, en, in : Celebrated by his virtues, by his Cetebre par ses vertus, par ses crimes. crimes. Celebrated for his virtues and piety. CeUbre pour sa vertu et sa piete. This part of the sea is celebrated Cette mer est cilibre en naufrages. for wrecks. Civil, polite, is followed by envers, towards, a regard : We must be civil to everybody. II faut etre civil envers tout le monde ? or a Vegard de tout le monde. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 663 Commun, common, is used without a regimen : as, The air, the sun, the elements, are L'air, le soleil, les elements, sont in common ; communs ; and with a regimen, and the prepositions a, to, avec, with : The name of animal is common to Le nom d'animal est commun a man and beasts. l'homme et aux betes. Love has that in common with L'amour a cela de commun avec les scruples, that it sours by reflec- sorupules, qu'il s'aigrit par la tion. reflexion. This adjective does not always keep the same meaning, when used with and without a regimen ; des disgraces com- munes, are ordinary, unimportant disgraces ; but des disgraces communes a tous les hommes, are disgraces which any man may experience, and which may be extraordinary, or of great im- portance. We also say in French : All is in common between us. Tout est commun entre nous. Comparable, to be compared, requires the preposition a, to : Turenne is comparable to the great- Turenne est comparable aux plus est generals of antiquity. grand generaux de l'antiquite. This adjective requires also the preposition avec, with, when we speak of things altogether different, and then it is only used negatively. The mind is not to be compared to L'esprit n'est pas comparable avec la matter. matiere. Compatible, compatible, in the singular, requires the prep- osition avec, with : The observance of the rules of the L'accotnplissement des regies de gospel is not always compatible 1'evangile n'est pas toujours com- with the principles of government. patible avec les maximes des gou- vernements. In the plural it is used without a regimen : Love and reason are not compatible. L'amour et la raison ne sont pas compatibles. Competent, competent. You are not competent for that. Vous n'etes pas competent pour cela. Complaisant, agreeable. In prose this adjective has no regimen, according to some grammarians, but Racine and 664 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Moliere employ it with a regimen in poetry. We think that it is used very properly with pour, for, envers, towards : To be agreeable for everybody. Etre complaisant pour tout le monde. To be agreeable towards everybody. Etre complaisant envers tout le monde. Confident, confident, represented by some as an adjective, is, in fact, a substantive. Connu, Inconnu, known, unknown, are used with the prep- ositions a, to, and de, of : Ennui is unknown to those who L'ennui est inconnu a ceux qui know how to employ their time. savent employer leur temps. The unknown ways of providence. Les voies inconnues de la providence. Consolant, consoling, is used with pour, for, dans, in, de, of : It is consoling to know that we II est consolant de savoir que l'on a have done oar duty. fait son devoir. The promises of providence are con- Les promesses de la providence sont soling for the afflicted. consolantes pour les malheureux. It is consoling in your misfortune, II est consolant dans vos malheurs, that you did not cause it by your que vous ne les ayez pas causes fault. par voire faute. Constant, constant, requires dans or en, in : He is constant in love. II est constant en amour. The Romans were constant in their Les Remains etaient constants dans principles. leurs principes. Coupable, culpable, is used in its natural meaning for per- sons, and in its figurative sense for things ; it is employed either without a regimen, or with the prepositions de, of, devant, before, envers, towards : Man was culpable before he was L'homme fut coupable avant d'etre born. ne. You are culpable for my misfortune. Vous etes coupable de mes malheurs. He is culpable for his crimes before II est coupable devant son Dieu des his God. crimes qu'il a commis. This young man is culpable towards Ce jeune homme est culpable envers his father. son pere. Cruel, cruel, is used with or without the prepositions a, to, and envers, towards : Valerius was cruel only to Chris- Valerien ne fut cruel qu'«wa? Chre- tians. tiens. You have been very cruel towards Vous avez ete bien cruel envers moi, me. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 665 Curieux, curious, is used alone, and with en, in, before nouns : This lady is curious in clothes and Cette femrae est curieuse en habits jewels. et en bijoux. (Academy.) Dangereux, dangerous. With the verb to be, and followed by an infinitive, when used impersonally, this adjective governs the preposition de, of : It is dangerous to say to the people II est dangereux de dire aux peuples that the laws are not just. que les lois ne sont pas justes. When followed by an infinitive in other cases it governs a, to : This book is dangerous to read. Ce livre est dangereux a lire. Before nouns it governs pour, for, a, to: Worldly pleasures are dangerous to Les plaisirs du monde sont dange- young people. reux pour les jeunes gens. The power of the Jews was dan- Le pouvoir des Juifs etait dangereux gerous to the empire. a l'empire. Dedaigneux, disdainful. When a regimen is given to this word, de, of, is used before it : Why are you disdainful of instruc- Pourquoi etes vous didaigneux de tion ? vous instruire ? Difficile, difficult. When used with to be, impersonally, it governs de, of : It is always difficult to become wise. II est toujours difficile de devenir sage. When used with to be, not impersonally, then it governs a, to : You are easy to manage. Vous etes difficile a conduire. Docile, docile, when followed by a regimen, takes the prep- osition a, to : Docile to the lessons of the master. Docile aux lecons du maitre. This adjective is not used before nouns of persons ; thus we do not say, Children ought to be docile to their Lf s enfants doivent etre dociles aux fathers; but, to the lessons of their legons de leurs peres ; and not, a fathers ; leurs peres. Indocile, indocile. (See Docile.) 56 * 666 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Dur and facheux, hard, joined to the verb to be, govern de, of, when the verb is used impersonally ; as, It is hard to be- overcome by a fool. I] est dur on facheux de se voir sup- plante par un sot. When dur means cruel, inhuman, it governs a, to ; as, To be hard to one's self, to one's Etre dur a soi-meme, a ses debi- debtors. teurs. Effroyable, dreadful. In prose, this adjective has no regi- men ; as, He swears dreadfully. II fait des serments effroyables. But in poetry it is sometimes followed by a, to ; as, I see him as a monster dreadful to look at. Je le vois comme un monstre effroyable a mes yeux. Endurci, hardened, governs the preposition a, to, contre, against, or dans, in ; as, To be hardened to the blows of for- Etre endurci aux coups de la for- tune, to praises, against adversity, tune, aux louanges, contre l'ad- in crime, to crime. versite, dans le crime, au crime. Etranger, foreign, is followed by the prepositions en and dans, in, or a, to ; as, He does not know medicine. II est dtranger en medecine. He is a foreigner in this country. II est Stranger dans ce pays. He is unacquainted with intrigues. II est Stranger aux intrigues. Expert, expert, requires the preposition en or dans, in ; as, This man is expert in surgery. Cet homme is expert en chirurgie, or dans l'art de la chirurgie. Facile, easy, requires the preposition a, to, and, when used impersonally, de, of ; as, He is easily deceived. II est facile a tromper. It is easy to deceive you. II est facile de vous tromper. Fameux, famous. This adjective governs the preposition par, by, or dans or en, in (this last requires the plural) ; as, Napoleon, celebrated by his wars. Napoleon, fameux par ses guerres. Louis the Fourteenth was famous in Louis XIV. etait fameux dans la peace and in war. va,ix,dans la guerre. This part of the sea so famous by Cette mer si fameuse en naufrages. the wrecks which it has wit- nessed. Fecond, fertile. This adjective is most generally used REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 667 without a regimen, but when it takes one, it is with the prepo- sition en, in ; as, A fertile imagination, a copious sub- Une imagination ftconde, un sujet ject. fdcond. Our age is prolific in great men. Notre siecle est ficond en grands hommes. It is most generally applied to things, but we may say, without impropriety : Un ecrivain ftcond, un auteur f6- cond. A fertile writer, a fertile author. Fertile, fertile, governs the preposition en, in, and is often used without any regimen ; as, You have a mind fertile in discove- Votre esprit est fertile en inventions. ries. This land appears to be fertile. Cette terre parait/er^7e. Fidele, faithful, requires the preposition a, to, or en or dans, in ; as, Faithful to God and to the king. Faithful in his promises. Fiddle a Dieu et au roi. Fiddle en ses promesses, or dans ses promesses. Formidable, formidable, requires the preposition a, to, par, by, or pour, for ; as, The power of Xerxes was formida- Le pouvoir de Xerces 6ta.it formida- ble to Greece. ble a la Grece. He has rendered himself formidable II s'est rendu formidable par la ra- by the rapidity of his conquests. pidite de ses conquetes. Napoleon was too formidable for Napoleon etait trop formidable pour Austria. l'Autriche. Fort, skilful, strengthened. When meaning skilful, it gov- erns the preposition sur, upon, or a, at ; as, Expert in history, in the laws of Fort sur Thistoire, sur le droit ca- the church. non. Expert at all games. Fort a tout les jeux. But, to express the cause which produces strength, the prep- osition de, of, is used ; as, This child is strong from the good Cet enfant est fort du bon lait qu'il milk which he sucked. a suce. He is strong with such a support. II est fort d\\n tel appui. Furieux, mad with anger, is most generally used without a regimen, but sometimes with de, of; as, He is mad with love and passion. II estfurieux d'amour et de colere. 663 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Gros, taken figuratively for full, is used very well with de, of; as, The present is full of the future. Le present est gros de l'avenir. The eyes full of tears. Les yeux gros de larmes. Habile, skilful, adept, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, or dans or en, in ; as, Skilful in the art of drawing. Habile dans l'art du dessin. Skilful in using the pencil. Habile a manier le crayon. Skilful in mathematics. Habile en mathematiques. Heureux, happy, lucky, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, en or dans, in, or de, of, before nouns, and de, of, before verbs ; as, Happy in war. Heureux a la guerre. Lucky at gaming. Heureux au jeu. Happy in other people's happiness. Heureux du bonheur des autres. Happy to be in an honest state of Heureux detre dans un honnete etat indigence. d'indigence. Happy in love. Heureux en amour. Idolatre, idolatrous, doting, is used without a regimen, and, in figurative style, takes the preposition de, of; as, The Indians are an idolatrous peop e. Les Indienssont une peuple idolatre. To be doting upon one's child. Etre idolatre de son enfant. Ignorant, ignorant, is used without a regimen, and also takes the regimen en, in, sur, upon, or de, of; as, He is very ignorant in geography. II est tres ignorant en geographic You are ignorant of those matters. Yous etes ignorant sur ces matieres. Man is ignorant of his own wants. L'homme est ignorant de ses pro- pres besoins. The Academy says, that ignorant is used only in speaking of persons, but many good authors have employed it in speaking of things ; as, Their ignorant and unjust decisions. Leurs ignorantes et injustes decis- ions. Impenetrable, impenetrable, is most generally used without a regimen, but when it has one, it takes the preposition a, to, or dans, in ; This armour is shot-proof. Cette armure est impenetrable aux coups de mousquet. This grove is impenetrable to the Ce bosquet est impenetrable aux ra- rays of the sun. yons du soleil. This man is impenetrable in his Cet homme est impenetrable dans ses views. desseins. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 669 Inabordable, inaccessible. (See Inconcevuble.) Incertain, uncertain, is followed by de, of, before the pro- noun ce, and sometimes before verbs, but is most generally used without a regimen ; as, I am uncertain of what will happen. Je suis incertain de ce que arrivera. Napoleon never doubted he should Napoleon ne fut jamais incertain de reign. regner. Your mind is vacillating. Votre esprit est incertain. Incommode, troublesome, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to ; as, This man is a troublesome neigh- Cet homrae est un voisin incommode. hour. This man is troublesome to his Cet homme est incommode a ses voi- neighbours. sins. Incompatible, inconciliable, incompatible, are never used with- out a regimen in the singular, on account of their expressing a relation ; as, Piety is not incompatible with La piete n'est pas incompatible avec arms. les armes. These abuses were irreconcilable Ces abus etaient inconciliahhs avec with the constitution. la constitution. They are things which are incom- Ce sont des choses incompatibles, patible, &c. in conciliates, &c. lnconcevablc, inabordable, inaccessible, inconceivable, un- approachable, inaccessible, are generally used without a re- gimen, but sometimes take the preposition a, to ; as, The power of God is inconceivable. Le pouvoir de Dieu est inconceiv- able. Since he is in office, he is inac- Depuis qu'il est en place il est in- cessible. abordable, inaccessible. Study has charms inconceivable for L'etude a des cb armes inconcevables those who do not like it. a or four ceux que ne l'aiment pas. The coast of Barbary is inaccessi- La cote de Barbarie est inaborda- ble to Christians. ble aux Chretiens. My heart is inaccessible to flattery. Mon cceur est inaccessible a la fla- tterie. Inconnu, unknown, connu, known, are used without an ob- ject, and also with the prepositions a, to, de, of, dans, in ; as, Ennui is unknown to those who L'ennui est inconnu a ceux qui love occupation. aiment a s'occupsr. The unknown ways of Providence. Les voies inconnues de la Provi- dence. This man is much known in the Cet homme est tres connu dans le world. monde. 670 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Inconsolable, inconsolable, is used without a regimen, and also with de, of ; as, The mother of this child is incon- La mere de cet enfant est inconsol- solable. able The world is inconsolable for his Le monde est inconsolable de sa loss. perte. Incurable, incurable, is used without a regimen ; as, Love is rarely an incurable dis- L'amour est rarement un mal in- ease. curable. Indulgent, indulgent, is used without a regimen, or with the preposition pour, for, envers, towards ; as, You are too indulgent to your chil- Vous etes trop indulgent, pour or dren. envers vos enfants. Inebranlable, immovable, is used without a regimen, and also with dans, in, a, to, contre, against ; as, I am immovable in my disposi- Je suis inebranlable dans mes dis- tions. positions. This rock is immoveable to the im- Ce rocher est inebranlable a l'im- petuosity of the waves. petuosite or contre l'impetuosite des vagues. Napoleon's character was immov- Le caractere de Napoleon etait tri- able, bbranlable. Inexorable, inexorable, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to ; as, St. Louis was inexorable to the St. Louis fut inexorable au repen- repentance of the blasphemer. tir du blasphemateur. Your nature is inexorable. Vous avez un caractere inexorable. Inexplicable, inexplicable, is used both with persons and things, without a regimen, and also with the preposition a, to ; as, They are an enigma inexplicable lis sont une enigme inexplicable a to themselves. eux memes. It is an event which cannot be ex- C'est un evenement inexplicable. plained. Women cannot be understood. Les femmes sont inexplicables. Infatigable, indefatigable, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, before verbs and nouns ; as, This horse is indefatigable. C'est un cheval infatigable. He is indefatigable in the chase. II est infatigable a la chasse. To be indefatigable in teaching. Etre infatigable a instruire. Inferieur, inferior, is used without a regimen, and also with «, to, with persons, and en, in, with things : REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 671 These goods are of an inferior Ces marchandises sont d'une qual- quality. ite infb'ieure. Napoleon was inferior to Alexan- Napoleon etait inferieur a Alexan- der, dre. The enemy were inferior in num- Les ennemis etaient inferieurs en ber. nombre. Infidele, unfaithful. (See Fidele.) Infini, infinite, is used without a regimen, and also takes the preposition a, to, when meaning extreme, and de, of, when meaning considerable ; as, This work cost me a great deal of Ce travail m'a coute un temps in- time, ftni. We had a great deal of trouble to Nous eumes une peine infinie a les overtake them. rejoindre. There was an immense number of II y eut un nombre inji.ni de per- people at the races. sonnes aux courses. Ingenieux, ingenious, is used without a regimen, and also with the prepositions pour, for, and a, to ; as, You have an ingenious mind. Vou avez l'esprit ingenieux. Delicate minds are ingenious for Les esprits delicats sont ing6- the happiness of others. nieux pour le bonheur d'autrui. Vice knows how to disguise itself. Le vice est ingenieux a se deguiser. Ingrat, ungrateful, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, referring to things, and envers, towards, referring to per- sons ; as, God punishes ungrateful children. Dieu punit les enfants ingrats. This land does not pay for cultiva- Cette terre est ingrate a la culture, tion. A child must never be ungrateful Un enfant ne doit jaimas etre in- to his parents. grat envers ses parents. lnjurieux, injurious, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, pour, for ; as, You use insulting language. Vous vous servez de propos inju- rieux. This memorial is insulting to the Ce memoire est injurieux aux ma- magistrates, gistrats. His conduct is injurious to him, his Sa conduite est injurieuse pour lui, friends, and his house. pour ses amis, et pour sa maison. Inquiet, unquiet, is used without a regimen, and also with 51*?*, upon, and de, of; as, Your wife has an unquiet nature. Votre femme est d'un caractere in- quiet. With de, of, unquiet expresses the cause of inquietude; as, 672 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I am unquiet about this sad event. Je suis inquiet de ce triste evene- ment. With sur, upon, it expresses the object of inquietude ; as, I am anxious about his fate. Je suis inquiet sur son sort. This adjective must not be mistaken for the past participle inquiete ; inquiet expresses only a state of the soul, without reference to the cause which produced it ; while inquiete in- cludes in the idea of that situation, the cause also by which it was produced ; thus inquiete must always be followed by a regimen. We cannot say, etre inquiete, to. be troubled, with expressing by what or by whom. Insatiable, insatiable, is used without a regimen, but also with de, of ; as, You have an appetite which cannot Vous avez un appetit insatiable. be satisfied. To be insatiable of glory, wealth, Etre insatiable de gloire, de ri- praises, &c. chesses, de louanges, &c. Inseparable, inseparable ; when referring to persons, this adjective is used without a regimen ; as, These two friends are inseparable. Ces deux amis sont inseparables. But when relating to things, it may either have a regimen or not, and the preposition c?e, of, is used ; as, Remorse is inseparable from crime. Le remords est inseparable du crime. Heat and fire are inseparable. Le chaleur et le feu sont insepara- bles. Insolent, insolent, is used without a regimen, and also with dans, en, in, and avec, with ; as, You are insolent in prosperity. Vous etes insolent dans la prospe- rity. He is insolent with his masters. II est insolent avec ses maitres. Your language is insolent. Vous avez la parole insolente. This servant is an insolent fellow. Ce domestique est insolent. Invisible, invisible, is used without a regimen, or with a, to, and pour, for ; as, There are stars invisible to the II y a des etoiles invisibles ti l'ceil eye. nu. The inhabitants of the moon are Les habitants de la lune sont invi- invisible to us. sibles pour nous. He is an invisible man. Cet un homme invisible. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 673 Invincible, invincible, is used without a regimen, and with a, to, and en, in. Napoleon was not invincible for Napoleon n'a pas toujours ete in- ever. vincible. To be invincible in war. Etre invincible a la guerre. To be invincible in love. Etre invincible en amour. Invulnerable, invulnerable, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to : Achilles was not invulnerable. Achille n'etait pas invulnerable. He is invulnerable to slander. II est invulnerable aux traits de la calomnie. Jaloux, jealous, is used without a regimen, and also with de, of, en, in, sur, on : Love is a jealous god. L'amour est un dieu jaloux. You are jealous of your wife. Vous etes jaloux de votre femme. This woman is jealous in love mat- Cette femme est jalouse en amour. ters. He was jealous of keeping victory II etait jaloux de garder la victoire on his side. de son cote. Men are as jealous on the score of Les hommes sont aussi jaloux sur wit as women are on the score of le chapitre de l'esprit que les beauty. femmes sur celui de la beaute. Jaloux, used as a noun, has no regimen. We do not say, Those who are jealous of his glory, Les jaloux de sa gloire ; but we say, He is jealous. C'est un jaloux. Lent, slow, is used without a regimen, and takes dans, in, with nouns, and d, to, with verbs : This man is slow by nature. Cet homme est lent naturellement. You are slow in what you do. Vous etes lent dans ce que vous faites. The king is slow in punishing. Le roi est lent a punir. Libre, free, is used without a regimen, and with de, of,. dans, in, avec, with : Man is born free. L'homme est ne litre. I am free from cares and sorrows. Je suis libre de soins et de chagrins. You seem very free in this house. Vous semblez bien libre dans cette maison. This man is very free with ladies. Cet homme est tres libre avec les femmes. 57 674 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Licencieux, licentious, is used without a regimen, and also with en, in : He is a licentious man. C'est un homme licencieux. You are licentious in your expres- Vou etes licencieux en paroles. sions. JVJenager, sparing, is always used without a regimen : as, A sparing man, woman. Un homme mcnager, une femme me'nag&re. It is often used as a noun : as, She understands how to keep house. C'est une bonne menaghre. Misiricordieux, merciful, is used without a regimen, when applied to God, providence, and similar words : as, Merciful God, Saviour, &c. Dieu, Sauveur, misdricordieux. But we do not say, Un homme misericordieux. une femme misiricordieuse. We must say, A man merciful to others. Un homme misericordieux envers les autres. Mourant, dying, is used without a regimen, and also with de, of : He looks like a dying man. II a l'air mourant. She is dying for love, for grief. Elle est mourante tf'amour, de cha- grin. Necessaire, necessary, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, en, in, pour, for : Hunger is a necessary evil. La faim est un mal nicessaire. Laws are necessary for society. Les loissont necessaires a, la societe. This drug is necessary in medicine. Cette drogue est nicessaire en me- decine. Faith is necessary for our salvation. La foi est nicessaire pour notre salut. Officieux, officious, is used without a regimen, and also with envers, towards : He is an officious man. C'est un homme officieux. He is officious towards those who II est officieux envers ceux qui sont are below him. au dessous de lui. Orgueilleux, proud, is used without a regimen, and some- times with de, of, envers, towards : REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 675 You have nothing to be proud of. Vous n'avez rien dont vous deviez etre orgueilleux. Rome was proud of the glory of her Rome etait orgneilleuse de la gloire consuls. de ses consuls. He is proud with his friends. II est orgueilleux avec or envers ses amis. Paresseux, lazy, is used without a regimen ; also with a, to, when the action is the end to be gained, and with de, of, when meaning a determination of the mind : as, You are a lazy fellow. Vous etes un garcon paresseux. He is lazy in fulfilling his duty. II est paresseux a remplir ses de- voirs. I know you are lazy to write. Je sais que vous etes paresseux cTecrire. Penible, painful, is used without a regimen ; but when pre- ceded by to be, impersonally, it takes de, of, and a, to, when the verb to be is not impersonal : Have you heard of this painful Avez-vous entendu parler de ce event ? ptnible evenement ? This is painful to see, to hear, to C'est pfnible a. voir, a entendre, a follow. suivre. It is painful to see, to follow, this II est penible de voir, de suivre, cet man. homme. Plausible, plausible. This adjective is always used without a regimen. Precieux, precious, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, before nouns and verbs : This stone is precious. Cette pierre est prrcieuse. He is precious to his family and his II est pricieux a sa famille, a ses friends. amis. This book is precious to keep. Ce livre est prtcieux a conserver. Preliminaire, preliminary, is used without a regimen. Prodigue, prodigal, is used without a regimen, and also with en, in, de, of, envers, towards: Prodigal people act as if they had Les personnes prodigues se condui- but a little time to live. sent comme si elles n'avaient que peu de temps a vivre. Ministers are very prodigal in prom- Les ministres sont tres prodigues en ises. promesses. Those who love praise are prodigal Ceux qui aiment la louange sont of their money. prodigues de leur argent. Providence is prodigal of its gifts La providence est prodigue de ses towards man. dons envers l'homme. Prompt, prompt, is used without a regimen ; but, before an infinitive, it takes a, to, and before a noun, dans, in : 676 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I love a man prompt and skilful. J'aime un homme prompt et adroit. Your mind is prompt to take of- Votre esprit est prompt a s'offenser. fence. Youth is prompt to blaze* La jeunesse est promptt a s'enflam- mer. He is prompt in all he does. II est prompt dans tout ce qu'il fait. Reconnaissent, grateful, is used without a regimen, and also with envers, towards, referring to persons, and de, of, referring to things : The nature of this child is grateful. Le caractere de cet enfant est re- connaissant. Children never can be too grateful Les enfants ne peuvent jamais etre towards their parents. trop reconnaissants envers leurs parents. I am grateful for your kindness. Je suis reconnaissant de vos bontes. Redevable, indebted. This adjective is never used without a regimen, because it expresses a relation. It takes the prep- osition a, to, before a noun signifying a person, or thing per- sonified, and de, of, before a noun signifying a thing : Men thought they were indebted to Les hommes croyaient qu'ils etaient their gods for the serenity of ihe redevables a leurs dieux de la se- air, for a happy navigation, &c. renite de 1'air, d'une heureuse navigation, &c. Redoutable, redoubtable, is used without a regimen, and also with a, to, dans, in, or par, by ; as, You are a redoubtable man. Vous etes un homme redoutable. He is redoubtable to his enemies. II est redoutable a ses ennemis. Napoleon was redoubtable in war. Napoleon etait redoutable dans la guerre. He is redoubtable by his hypocrisy. II est redoutable par son hypocrisie. Respectable, respectable, is used without a regimen, and also with par, by, dans, in, or a, to : This woman appears respectable. Cette femme a l'air respectable. This old man is respectable by his Ce vieillard est respectable par son age and virtues. , age, et par ses vertus. Louis Philippe is respectable in his Louis Philippe est respectable dans sa private life. vie privee. He has made himself respectable to II s'est rendu respectable a ses enne- his enemies. mis. Responsable, responsible, is used without a regimen, and also with de, of, a, to, envers, towards, or pour, for ; as, He is a responsible man. C'est un homme responsable. You are responsible to God for your Vous etes responsable a, or envers, bad conduct. Dieu, de or pour votre mauvaise conduite. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 677 A father is responsible (account- Un pere est responsable pour ses en- able) for his children and wife. fants et pour sa femme. Riche, rich, is used without a regimen, and also with en, in, or de, of ; as, He is a rich man, and well thought C'est un homme riche et estime. of. This country is rich in wheat, cat- Ce pays est riche en ble, en besti- tle, &c. aux, &c. A farmer is rich with his forests, Un fermier est riche de ses forets,cfe lands, prairies, &c. ses terres, de ses prairies, &c. La Bruyere has used, with this adjective, the prepositions par, by, and de, of, in the same sentence : Our ancestors were richer by their Nos ancetres etaient plus riches par economy and their modesty than leur economie et par leur modes- we are by our revenues and do- tie que nous ne le sommes de nos mains. revenus et de nos domaines. Severe, severe, is used without a regimen, and also with pour, for, envers, towards, or a Vegard ; as, This man is honest and severe. Cet homme est honnete et severe. A magistrate ought to be severe Un magistrat doit etre severe contre against the disturbers of the pub- les perturbateurs de la paix pub- lic peace. lique. This man is severe to his children. Cet homme est sivere pour ses en- fants, or a. regard de sesenfants, or envers ses en fants. Sourd, deaf, is used without a preposition, and also with a, to ; but, in this latter case, only when applied to things which may be heard ; as, This man is blind and deaf. Cet homme est aveugle et sourd. You are deaf to cries, to pity, to Vous etes sourd aux cris, a la pitie, threats. aux menaces. Not deaf to somebody, but to the voice of somebody ; be- cause a person cannot be heard but through the voice. Supportable, tolerable, insupportable, intolerable, are used without a regimen, and also with a, to ; as, Egotism is intolerable. L'ego'isme est insupportable, or n'est pas supportable. We ought to employ our riches to Nous devons employer nos riches- render life tolerable to those who ses a rendre la vie supportable a are destitute. ceux qui sont pauvres. Victorieux, victorious, is used without a regimen, or with de, of ; with sur, upon, it is no longer used : 57* 678 FRENCH GRAMMAR. America came out of the fight vie- L'Amerique sortit victorieuse de la torious. lutte. Victorious over hundreds of proud Victorieux de cent peuples altiers. people. Vifi quick, is used without a regimen, and takes also the prepositions dans, in, or comme, as, before nouns, and d, to, before verbs ; as, He is of a quick and violent temper. Son caractere est vifet violent. He is quick in what he does. II est vif dans ce qu'il fait. He is as quick as gunpowder. II est vifcomme la poudre. He is quick in perceiving other peo- II est vif a sentir les fautes d'au- ple's faults. trui. Voisin, neighbour, is used without a regimen, and also with c?e, of ; as, Our houses are close to each other. Nos habitations sont voisines. This land is too close to the road. Ces terres sont trop voisines de la route. 1998. ILLUSTRATIONS OF VERBS, WHICH GOVERN, WITHOUT A PREPOSITION, THE INFIN- ITIVE THAT FOLLOWS THEM. Aimer mieux, to like better. Quoiqu'a peine a mes maux je puisse resister, Vaime mieux les souffrir que de les meriter. (Corneille.) II n'y a rien que les hommns aiment mieux conserver et qu'ils menagent moins que leur propre vie. (La Bruytre.) Aller, to go. Aller, before an infinitive, means, to put one's self in motion to do a thing, or is applied to things which may happen. Venez, mes amis, allons nous mettre a table. Je ne condamne plus un courraux legitime, Et Ton vous va, seigneur, livrer votre victime. (Racine.) Compter, to intend. II compte partir demain avec sa famille. (Academy.) REGIMEN OP VERBS. 679 Croire, to believe. H a cru bien /aire. Je croyois ne pouvoir, prendre pour regie, que l'ecriture et sa tradition. (Pascal. ) Elle croyait servir l'etat, elle croyait assurer au roi des serviteurs, en con- servant aDieu des fideles. (Bossuet.) Daigner, to deign. Calliope, jamais, ne daigna leur parler. (Boileau.) Devoir, to owe. Si la bonne foi etait exilee de la terre elle devrait se retrouver dans le cour des rois. TJn seul jour perdu devrait nous dormer des regrets. Entendre, to hear. Ventends deja partout les charrettes courir, Les macrons travailler, les boutiques s'owvnr. (Boileau.) The verb entendre governs the infinitive which follows it, only in the active form : it would be wrong, then, to say : Us furent entendus prononcer les saints noms de Jesus et Marie. We must say : On les entendit prononcer, &c. Esperer, to hope. This verb, employed in any other tense than the present of the infinitive, requires no preposition before the following in- finitive : as, J'espdrais y rigner sans effroi ; Moines, abbes, prieurs, tout s'arme contre moi. (Boileau.) II esplre revivre en sa posterite. (Racine.) But if the verb esperer is itself in the infinitive, the next verb must be preceded by the preposition de, of : Peut on esperer de vous revoir aujourd'hui. (Academy.) Faire, to make, to cause, to do. Calchas Fera taire nos pleurs, /era parler les dieux. (Racine.) 680 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Falloir, to be necessary. This verb is always used impersonally, and never takes a preposition before the infinitive following : Ilfaut Hre utile aux hommes pour etre grand a leurs yeux. (Massillon.) Laisser, to permit. This verb, when used for permetire, to permit, takes no preposition : Ou laissez raoi perir, ou laissez moi rdgner. {Corneille.) Oser, to dare. II est beau d'oser s'exposer a Findignation du prince plutot que de raan- quer a ses devoirs. (Massillon.) Penser, to believe. Un discours trop sincere, aisement nous outrage, Chacun dans ce miroir, pense voir son image. (Balkan.) (Meaning, espdrer, to hope, se flatter, to flatter one's self.) II pense voir en pleurs dissiper cet orage. (.Racine.) Pouvoir, to be able. Et qui peut immoler sa haine a sa patrie Lui pourrait bien aussi sacrifitr sa vie. (Racine.) Pretendre, to intend. Je pritends vous trailer comme mon propre fils. (Id.) J. B. Rousseau gives to this verb the preposition de, of : C'est par une humble foi, c'est par un amour tendre, Que Thomme peat pretendre D'honorer ses autels. (/. B. Rousseau.) But this is not correct, and the Academy does not approve of it. Savoir, to have the skill, power, cunning, ability, and the means of doing a thing. II n'appartient qu'aux heros et aux genies sublimes de savoir etre simples et humains. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 681 Sembler, to seem. Plus on s'eleve, plus la felicite semble s'eloigner de nous. (Id.) Sentir, to feel, to be touched. La piete charmee, Sent renaiire la joie en son ame calmee. (Boileau.) SHmaginer, to figure to one's self. II sHmagine itre un grand homme. (Academy.) Souhaiter, to wish. Je souhaiterais pouvoir vous obliger. (Id.) Valoir mieux, to be better. II y a beaucoup d'occasions ou il vaut mieux se taire queparler. (Id.) Venir, to come. Quand viendrez-\ous nous voir? (Id.) Voir, to see. Nous avons vu le regne le plus glorieux./Enir par des revers. (Massillon.) Vouloir, to be willing. FowZez-vous du public miriter les amours? Sans cesse en ecrivant, variez vos discours. (Boileau.) 1999. OF VERBS GOVERNING THE INFINITIVE AFTER THEM WITH THE PREPOSITION «, tO. S'Abaisser, to demean. Et fait comme je suis, au siecle d'aujourd'hui, Qui voudra s'abaisser a me servir d'appui ? (Boileau.) Aboutir, to end. Cette vie si penible, si sordide, aboutit a gpossir par de miserables epargnes un bien injuste. (Massillon.) 682 FRENCH GRAMMAR. #' 'Abuser, to be mistaken. This verb, when used impersonally, has no preposition after it. But Pascal has said : II n'est pas possible de s'a&wser a prendre un homme pour un ressussite. (Pascal.) S'Accorder, to agree, lis s'accordent tous a demander l'expulsion de Mazarin. ( Voltaire.) S'Acharner, to be enraged, lis sacharnent fort a diffamer cette harangue. (La Bruyere.) S'Aguerrir, to inure one's self. II s'est aguerri a mepriser tout ce que les sens offrent de plus cher. (Massillon.) Aider, to help. Aidez lui (a lui) a soulever son fardeau. (Academy.) Aimer, to love, to take pleasure. L'homme riaime point a s'occuper de son neant et de sa bassesse. (Massillon.) Animer, to induce, to excite. Votre rigueur les condamne a. eherir Ceux que vous animez a les faire perir. (Corneille.) We would not advise to imitate this example, which was very good in the time of Corneille, but is out of use now. S'Animer, to get excited. H s'anime a parler. H s'anime en parlant is more generally used now. S^Appliquer, to apply one's self. II s applique a discerner la cause du juste d'avec celle du pecheur. (Flechier.) Apprendre, to learn. Qu'en vous aimant, vos fils apprennent a vous craindre. Appreter, to prepare, lis apprUent a manger. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 683 WAppreter, to prepare one's self. A suivre ce grand chef Tun et l'autre s'appretent. _ (Boileau.) Aspirer, to aspire. Et monte sur le faite, il aspire h, descendre. Assigner, to summon. On l'a assigne a comparaitre a la premiere audience. .S'Assujetir, to subject one's self. S'assujetir a gouverner un peuple. (FUchier.) S'Attacher, to apply one's self. Je me suis attache" a rechercher la veritable cause de ce fait. (Pascal.) (Meaning, to take pleasure in.) Le sort dont la rigueur a m'accabler s' attache. ( Voltaire.) S'Attendre, to expect. Les mourants qui parlent dans leurs testaments peuvent s'attendre a etre ecoutes comme des oracles. (La Bruytre.) WAugmenter, to increase. L'allegresse du cceur s'augmente a la r&pandre. (Molie*re.) Autoriser, to authorize. A ne vous rien cacher son amour m'awfome. S'Avilir, to vilify. La vertu s'avilit a se justifier. ( Voltaire.) Et sans jamais s'avilir a repondre Laisse au mepris le soin de les confondre. (Gresset.) Avoir, to have. This verb signifies the state of mind, the disposition, the will, which we experience when we intend to perform that which is expressed by the verb in the infinitive : Vous avez h combattre et les dieux et les hommes. (Racine.) Balancer, to hesitate. Tandis qu'a me repondre ici vous balancez. (Racine.) 684 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Borner, to limit. La religion n'a pas, comme la philosophie, bornS toute sa gloire a essayer de former un sage dans chaque siecle ; elle en a peuple les villes. (Massillon.) Se BorneVj to be satisfied. L'homme de bien est celui qui n'est ni un saint ni un tievot, et qui s'est borne a tfavoir que de la vertu. (La Bruyere.) Chercher, to attempt, to try. L'homme du meilleur esprit parle peu, n'ecrit point, il ne cherche point a imaginer ni a plaire. (La Bruyere.) Se Complaire, to please one's self. Dieu se complait, ma fille, a, voir du haut des cieux Ces grands combats d'un cceur sensible et vertueux. (Voltaire.) Concourir, to concur. Toutes ces choses concourent a etablir les livres divins. (Bossuet.) Condamner, to condemn. Est ce qu'a /aire peur on veut vous condamner. {Boileau.) Se Condamner^ to condemn one's self. Que serait la puissance des rois s'ils se condamnassenl a en jouir touts seuls. (Massillon.) Consentir, to consent. La crainte des supplices ou d'une mort prochaine, ne peut le faire con- sentir a payer de rancon pour lui. Consister, to consist. La liberalite consiste moins d, donner beaucoup qu'ti donner a propos. (La Bruyere.) The verb consister, to consist, before a noun, takes the preposition en, in, without the article, or dans with the article. Some writers, even the Academy itself, give to the verb consister the prepositions to and of before an infinitive. This is a matter of taste, the ear must be consulted ; but, as a guide to the student, we shall say that to is most generally used. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 685 Conspirer, to conspire, to contribute. Tout m'afflige et me nuit et conspire a me nuire. (Racine.) Se Consumer, to wear out, to ruin. Ce peu,que mes vieux ans m'ont laisse de vigueur, Se consume sans fruit a chercher ce vainqueur. (Corneille.) Contribuer, to cooperate. II y a dans certains hommes une certaine mediocrite d'esprit qui con- tribue a les rendre sages. (La Bruyere.) Convier, to invite. Puisque mon roi lui meme a parler me convie. (Racine.) Couter, to cost. II n'y a rien qui coute davantage a approuver et a louer que ce qui est le plus digne d'approbation et de louanges. (La Bruyere.) Determiner, to induce. Malgre leurs peines et leurs soins, ses amis ne purent jamais le deter- miner a rester au milieu d'eux. (BartheUmy.) Se Determiner, to resolve. Dion s^ttait enfin determine a delivrer sa patrie du joug sous lequel elle gemissait. (Id.) Disposer, to dispose, to induce. II y a dans le cceur de celui qui prie, un fond de bonne volonte qui le dispose a embrasser et a sentir la verite. (Flechier.) Se Disposer, to get ready, to resolve. A marcher sur mes pas, Bajazet se dispose. (Racine.) Etre Dispose, to be ready. Je vois qu'ft m'obeir vous etes disposee. (Id.) Se Divertir, to please one's self. II se divertit beaucoup a faire ajuster sa maison et y depense bien de 1'argent. Je me suis extremement divertie a mediter sur les caprices de l'amour. (Madame de SfoignL) 58 686 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Donner, to give. Je te donne a combattre un homme redoutable. {Corneille.) Employer, to employ. Employez mon amour a venger cette mort. (Id.) Encourager, to encourage. Je cours a vous servir encourager son ame. (Voltaire.) Engager, to induce. L'interet qui fait tout, les pourrait engager A vous donner retraite et meme a vous venger. (Id.) Enhardir, to embolden. Un premier succes cnhardit a en tenter de nouveaux. Enseigner, to teach. Mechant, c'est bien a vous d'oser ainsi nommer Un Dieu que votre bouche enseigne a blasphemer. (Racine.) S'Entendre, to understand. II s'entend parfaitement a mener une intrigue. S'Etudier, to try. Je m'&tudit a chercher les causes secretes. (Bossuet.) S'Evertuer, to strive. La rime est une esclave, Lorsqu'a la bien chercher d'abord on s'evertue. (Boileau.) Exceller, to excel. II excelle a conduire un char dans sa carrihre. (Racine.) Exciter, to urge. Ma gloire, mon repos, tout m 1 excite a partir. S J Exciter, to urge one's self. On s'excite a la penitence afin de s* exciter a glorifier le Pere celeste. (FUchier. REGIMEN OP VERBS. (587 Exhorter, to exhort. Je vous exhorte non pas a pleurer une reine, mais a writer une bienfai- trice. (Flechier.) S' Expos er,. to expose one's self. Je unexpose a me perdre et cherche a vous servir. ( Voltaire.) Se Fatiguer, to tire one's self. Je me fatiguerais ate tracer le cours, Des outrages cruels qu'il me fait touts les jours. (Boileau.) S'Habituer, to accustom one's self. (La rime,) L'esprit a la trouver aise merit s'habitue. (Id.) Hair, to hate. Tel qui hait a se voir peint en de faux portraits, Sans chagrin voit tracer ses veritables traits. (Id.) Se Hasarder, to risk. Je se hasarda a passer les Alpes. ( Voltaire.) Hesiter, to hesitate. II n'he'site pas a favoriser son evasion. (J. J. Rosseau.) Instruire, to train. Vous me donnez des noms qui doivent me surprendre, Madame ; on ne m'a pas instruite a les entendre. (Racine.) Slnteresser, to take an interest. Je m'inte'resse a vous faire obtenir cette place. Inviter, to invite, to engage. On nous invite a diner chez le roi. (Corneille.) Se Lasser, to tire one's self. L'auteur enfin se lassant t), polir une rime. (Boileau.) This verb takes equally well the preposition de, of, before an infinitive ; as, 688 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Auguste s'est lasse d'etre si vigoureux. Mettre, to put. Admirateur zele de ces maitres fameux, Je mets toute ma gloire d, marcher apres eux. (Racine.) Se Mettre, to set one's self. Touts mes sots a la fois ravis de l'ecouter, Detonnant de concert, se mettent a chanter. (Boileau.) Montrer, to teach. Get homme m'a montri a lire et a ecrire. S'Obstiner, to persist* L'Academie, en corps a beau le censurer, Le public revolte s'obstine a V admirer. {Boileau.} S'Offrir, to offer one's self. Je rrCoffre a. servir son courroux. ( Voltaire.) This verb takes also the preposition de, of; as, II offre de prendre ma maison. (Academy.) Avoir peine, to be hard. On a peine d, hair ce qu'on a bien aime. (Corneille.) Pencher, to incline. Je penche d'autant plus ti lui vouloir du bien, Q,ue s'en voyant indigne, il ne demande rien. (id.) Penser, to think, to intend. Avez-vous j'amais pense tl offrir a. Dieu touts ces souffrances II pense a me trainer a la mort. (Massillon.) Perseverer, to persevere, to persist. II perstv&re & soutenir ce qu'il a dit. (Academy.) Persister, to persist. II persiste a- demeurer Chretien. (Corneille.) REGIMEN OF VERBS. 689 Se Plaire, to please one's self. Le ciel dans une nuit profonde Se plait a nous cacher ses lois. (J. B.Rousseau.) Prendre plaisir, to take pleasure. Prennent-ils done plaisir a faire des coupables, Arm d'en faire apres d'illustres miserables. (Racine.) Se Plier, to submit. Aflechir sa fierte son amant se pliait. ( Voltaire.) Se Preparer, to prepare one's self. La terre compte peu de ces rois bienfaisants, Le ciel a les former se pripare longtems. (Boileau.) PrStendre, to pretend. (Neuter verb.) Caton dans touts les temps gardant son caractere, Mourut pour les Romains sans pritendre d, leur plaire. ( Voltaire.) When active, as already remarked, this verb is followed by an infinitive, without a preposition ; as, II pretend marcher en avant, II pretend donner des lois a tout le monde. Provoquer, to provoke. II me provoque a boire et ujouer. (Academy.) Reduire, to reduce, to compel. Le sort vous a rtduit a courier a la fois, Les durs Sydoniens et vos jaloux Cretois. ( Voltaire.) Se Reduire, to end. Tout ce discourse se reduit tt prouver que vous avez tort. (Academy.) Renoncer, to renounce. Desormais, je renonce ii vous plaire. Repugner, to repugn. Je repugne souverainement a faire cela. (Academy.) 58* 690 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This verb, used impersonally, takes the preposition de, of; as, II me repugne de vous entretenir d'un pareil sujet. (Academy.) Se Resigner, to submit. On se rhigne aisement d, souffrir un mal que les autres endurent. (Stneque.) Se Resoudre, to resolve. Je me risolus a demander et a attendre. (Academy.) Reussir, to succeed. Quoique tu fasses, tu ne peux reussir h t'en /aire un complice. (Voltaire.) Risquer, to risk. Songez qu'on risque tout & me le refuser. (Corneille.) This verb takes the preposition a, to, after a direct object, as above. When neuter, in its signification, it takes de, of; as, Vous risquez de beaucoup perdre pour peu gagner. Vous risquez de tomber. (Academy.) Servir, to be useful, proper, good, for some purpose. La moderation sert a cacher les mouvements de la vanite. L'exemple des grands sert tipropager la vertu. (Bossuet.) Songer, to think of. Je songe it rtgler mes desirs, it previnir l'orage, A sauver, s'il se peut, ma raison du naufrage. (Boileau.) Suffire, to suffice. This verb governs a, to, or pour, for ; as, Souvent la raison suffit a- nous conduire. L'esperance suffit pour rendre heureux. ( Voltaire.) When used impersonally, it takes sometimes a, to, and some- times de, of ; as, II suffit d'etre malheureux pour etre injuste. II suffit a mon ambition que vous soyez tombe. Tarder, to defer. Si le sens de vos vers tarde a- sefaire entendre, Mon esprit aussitot commence a se detendre. (Boileau.) t\x\ REGIMEN OF VERBS. 691 Used impersonally, this verb takes the preposition de, of ; as, II me tarde de partir. Tendre, to have a tendency. Les tendresses inexprimables de Marie Therese tendaient toutes it inspi- re? a son fils la foi, la piete, la crainte de Dieu. (Bossuet.) Tenir, to pretend. II tient iijinir lui meme cet ouvrage. (Academy.) Travailler, to work. II travaillait a purifier son cceur, non pas d, polir son esprit. (Massillon.) Trembler, to tremble. The Academy says : Trembler de froid. Trembler comme la feuille. Je tremble d'avouer. Je tremble pour vous. Je tremble a l'idee de vous deplaire. Toute la terre tremblait devant lui. Viser, to aim at. II vise d, vous remplacer. (Academy.) 2000. OF VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION de, OF, BEFORE AN INFINITIVE. S'Abstenir, to refrain. Abstenez-xous de nuire a votre ennemi. (Massillon.) Accuser, to accuse. Les courtisans de Darius accusaient Daniel d'avoir viole la loi des Perses. (Massillon.) Etre Accuse, to be charged with. Socarte/w£ accuse' de nier les dieux que le peuple adorait. (Bossuet.) S' Accuser, to accuse one's self. II s'est accuse d'avoir rompu le jeune. (Pascal.) I 692 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Achever, to achieve. Verite que j'implore, acheve de descend™. (Racine.) Affecter, to affect, to pretend. Pour eblouir les yeux, la fortune arrogante Affecta d^italer une pompe insolente. (Boileau.) Nous affectons souvent de louer avec exageration des hommes asses medi- ocres. (La Bruyere.) Etre AjJUge, to be sorry. Je suis sensiblement affiige de voir que votre colique ne vous quitte point. (Voltaire.) S'Affliger, to grieve at. On ne s'est peut etre jamais avise de s'affliger de n ) avoir pas trois yeux, mais on est inconsolable de n'en avoir qu'un. (Pascal.) Agir, to be questioned of. This verb, used impersonally, means to be questioned of, and then it governs c?e, of, before the infinitive ; as, II ne sait plus parler quand il s'agit de demander. (FUchier.) Etre Men Jlise, to be glad. On est toujours Men aise d'avoir des gens de bien pour defenseurs et pour juges. (Massillon.) Ambitionner, to be ambitious. La Duchesse de Mazarin a. qui l'on ambitionne deplaire. ( Voltaire.) Jlppartenir, to belong. Used impersonally, this verb governs de, of, before an in- finitive ; as, II n'appartient qu'a la religion d'instruire et de corriger les hommes. II n' appartient qu'aux femmes de /aire lire dans un seul mot tout un sen- timent. (La Bruyere.) S'Applaudir, to praise one's self. Je m'applaudissais de retrouver en vous, Ainsi que les vertus, les traits de mon epoux. ( Voltaire.) REGIMEN OF VERBS. 693 Apprehender, to apprehend. Elle apprehendait d J abuser des mise'ricordes de Dieu. (Flechier.) Avertir, to warn. Souffrez quelques froideurs sans les faire eclater, Et n" 1 avertissez point la cour de vous quitter. {Racine.) S>Jlviser, to think. Notre esprit est si bizarre qu'il s'avise de louer morts des gens qu'il de- nigrait vivants. {La Bruytre.) Bldmer, to blame. Je ne puis te bldmer d'avoirfui l'infamie. {Corneille.) Briguer, to seek with eagerness. J'ai brigue, pour mon sang, pour le heros que j'aime, L'honneur de commander dans ce peril extreme. ( Voltaire.) Bruler, to long, to be anxious. Voici cet etranger Que nos tristes soupcons brulaient d'interroger. { Voltaire.) Cesser, to cease. Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cesse d'Scrire. {Boileau) Charger, to beg. Elle nous a charges de vous temoigner toute son impatience. {FUchier.) Se Charger, to take upon one's self. II se charge de les dbfendre. {Massillon.) Choisir, to choose. Choisis de leur donner ton sang ou de l'encens. {Corneille.) Commander, to order. II commande au soleil d'animer la nature. Conjurer, to adjure. II conjurait ce Dieu de veiller sur vos jours. {Racine.) Conseiller, to advise. Je lui conseillerais de s'assurer d'un autre. {Corneille.) 694 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Se Contenter, to content one's self. Ceux que vous outragez se contentent d'offrir a Dieu leurs gemissements. {Pascal) Convenir, to be convenient. J'ai commande qu'on porte a votre pere. Les faibles dons qu'il convient de vous faire. ( Voltaire.) Avoir Coutume. (See Accoutumer.) Craindre, to fear. Sans cesse on prend le masque et quittant la nature, On craint de se montrer sous sa propre figure. Dedaigner, to disdain. Ce cceur, c'est trop vous le celer, N'a point d'un chaste amour dedaignt de bruler. (Racine.) Defendre, to forbid. Ce desole vieillard, qui hait la raillerie, Lui difend deparler, sort du lit en furie. (Boileau.) Se Desaccoutumer, to leave off. II se disaccoutume un peu de jurer. (Academy.) Desesjferery to despair. Salomon disespdrd de trouver cette femme forte. (FUchier.) Desirer, to desire. II y a longtems que je desirais de vous rencontrer. (Academy.) This verb sometimes is followed by an infinitive without any preposition, but it is only when the desire expressed is sure to be accomplished immediately ; in any other case, it takes de, of; as, Je desire le voir, V entendre, lui parler. (Academy.) Detester, to detest. This verb is used either with or without the preposition c/e, of, before an infinitive. The Academy does not decide as to the propriety of employing the preposition, but custom has, in some way, settled that it should not be used. Thus we shall say, Je de" teste rester (and not de rester) longtems a table. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 695 Se Devoir, to owe to one's self. Je me dois dewous montrer le bien que vous avez perdu. (Academy.) Differer, to defer, to delay. Biff brer d'etre heureux apres son inconstance, C'est montrer, &c. (Corneille.) Dire, to tell. Bites au roi, seigneur, de vous Yabandonner. (Racine.) Disconvenir, to disagree. Vous ne sauriez disconvenir de m'avoir dit. (Academy.) Discontinuer, to discontinue. II ne discontinue pas de parler. (Academy.) Dispenser, to dispense. II demande qu'on le dispense de condamner un innocent. (Massillon.) Se Dispenser, to excuse one's self. Nous ne pouvons nous dispenser dHmiter ses vertus. (Id.) Se Disculper, to exonerate one's self. II s'est disculpe d 'avoir fait son discours trop long. (La Bruybre.) Dissuader, to dissuade. On l'a dissuade de commettre cette faute. Douter, to doubt. lis n'osent plus douter de nous avoir surpris. (Corneille.) Empecher, to prevent. La crainte de faire des ingrats ne l'a jamais empichi de /aire le bien. (Flbchier.) S' 'Empecher. (See Empecher.) Entreprendre, to undertake. lis entreprirent en vain de rbgler les mceurs et de corriger les hommes par la force seule de la raison. (Massillon.) 696 FRENCH GRAMMAR. S'Etonner, to wonder. L'univers s'itonne de trouver toutes les vertus en un seal homme. {Bossuet.) Etre Etonne. (See S'Etonner.) Enrager, to enrage. II enrage de voir son ennemi dans ce poste brillant. {Academy.) Eviter, to avoid. Un vers etait trop faible et vous le rendez dur ; Vivite d'etre long et je deviens obscur. (Boileau. ) Excuser, to excuse. Je Vai excuse aupres du roi, d 'avoir ose parler ainsi. {Academy.) S'Excuser, to apologize. Et vous vous excusez de m'avoir fait heureux. {Racine.) Feindre, to feign. II feignait de maimer, je l'aimais en effet. {Corneille.) Feliciter, to congratulate. Je vous filicite d 'avoir fait un aussi bon mariage. {Academy.) Se Feliciter, to congratulate one's self. Je me filicite d? avoir fait un si bon choix. (Academy?) Se Flatterer, to boast. II s'est Jiattt de plaire et n'a pas reussi. {Academy.) Fremir, to tremble. Et deja tout confus, tenant midi sonne, En soi meme frimit de ri 'avoir point dine. {Boileau.) Avoir Garde, not to be willing. II n'a garde de tromper, il est trop homme de bien. {Academy.) II n'a garde d'aller avouer cela, ce serait faire tort a son pere. Prendre Garde, to take care. Prenez garde de tomber. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 697 If the infinitive be accompanied by a negation, to is used instead of of : Prenez garde a ne pas trop vous engager dans cette affaire. (Lavaux.) Se Garder, take care not to. Gardez vous d'imiter ce rimeur furieux. (Boilcau.) Gemir, to lament. II gimit en secret de perdre ce qu'il aime. ( Voltaire.) Se Glorifier, to be proud of. Tant qn'Alexandre eut en tete un si grand capitaine, il put se glorifier d' 'avoir vaincu un ennemi digne de lui. (Bossuet.) Rendre Grace, to give thanks. Je rends graces aux dieux de n'etre pas Romain. ( Corneille.) Hasarder, to risk. II vaut mieux hasarder de sauver un coupable que de condamner un inno cent. (Voltaire.) We say equally well : Je me hasarderai a /aire cette proposition. (Academy.) Se Hater, to hasten. Hatons nous de purifier notre cceur. (Bossuet.) Avoir Honte, to be ashamed. J'ai honte de montrer tant de melancolie. But we say with the article : H y a de la honte a se conduire ainsi. Imputer, to impute. This verb, followed by a noun and an infinitive, takes the preposition de, of : as, Endurer que l'Espagne impute a ma memoir d'avoir mal soutenu l'honneur de ma maison. (Corneille.) S'lndigner, to feel indignant. Tous ces rois, dont le sang dans nos veines transmis, S'indigna si longtems de nous voir ennemis. ( Voltaire.) 59 698 FRENCH GRAMMAR. S'Ingerer, to meddle with. Tenez, dites a votre maitre Qu'il ne s'ingere pas d'oser ecrire encore. (Moliere.) Inspirerj to inspire. Dieu se plait a recompenser ceux a qui il inspire de le servir. • Jurer, to swear. Oui, nous jurons ici, pour nous, pour tous nos freres, De ritablir Joas au trone de ses peres. {Racine.) Mediter, to intend. II y a longtemps que je mddite de vous icrire. ( Voltaire. ) Se Meier de, to pretend. Un gros fermier qui fait le petit maitre, fait l'inconstant, se mile d'etre un fat. (Id.) Menacer, to threaten. On me menace, Si je ne sors d'ici, de me battler cent coups. (Moliere.) La discorde en ces lieux menace de s'accroitre. (Boileau.) Meriter to deserve. Cette ressemblance oii son courage aspire, Mirite mieux que toi de gouverner l'empire. Negliger, to neglect. Un auteur n'est jamais parfait quand il niglige d'Stre aimable. (Bernis.) Nier, to deny. This verb takes de before an infinitive, when this infinitive relates to the nominative of the verb nier : as, II nie d'avoir dit cela. When it does not, then it takes que and the subjunctive : Je ne nie pas que vous ayez dit cela. Ordonner, to order. Mon pere, avec les Grecs, mordonne departir. (Racine.) REGIMEN OF VERBS. 699 Pardonner, to pardon. Je lui pardonne De priferer les beautes De Ceres et de Pomone Au tumulte des cites. {Rousseau.) Parler, to speak. J'ai su que ce traitre d'amant, Parle de mobtenir par un enlevement. (Moliere.) Permettre, to tolerate. Dieu permit aux vents et a la mer de gronder. (Flechier.) Persuader, to persuade. On lui a persuade de se marier. (Academy.) Avoir Peur, to fear. As tu peur de mourir. ( Corneille.) Se Piquer, to boast. Je ne me pique point du scrupule insense De binir mon trepas quand ils l'ont annonce. (Racine.) Plaindre, to pity. Je te plains de tomber dans ses mains redoutables. (Id.) Sefaire un Plaisir, to take delight. Je me suis fait \mplaisir necessaire De la voir chaque jour, de Yaimer, de lui plaire. Prescrire, to prescribe. Tu m'tfs prescrit tantot de choisir des victimes. ( Corneille.) Presser, to urge. Je ne te presse plus, ingrat, d'y consentir. (Racine.) Se Presser, to make haste. On obeit, on se presse d'tcrire. (Boileau.) Presumer, to presume. Cessez de presumer, Mes vers, de voir en foule, a vos rimes glacees, Courir, l'argent en main, les lecteurs empresses. (Boileau.) 700 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Prier, to beg. Je le prie, en mourant, d'epargner mes douleurs. When prier signifies to invite, it takes the preposition a, to ; as, On la prtt a diner ; and sometimes the preposition pour, for ; as, II s'est fait frier pour chanter. [Academy.) Promettre, to promise. Je promets d'observer ce que la loi m'ordonne. (Racine.) Se Promettre, to hope. Q,ui peut se promettre oVeviter dans la societe des hommes la rencontre de certains esprits facheux ? Proposer, to propose. L'Angleterre propose au Sultan de lui cider le Nil. Se Proposer, to intend. II se propose de vivre desormais dans sa retraite. (Academy.) Protester, to protest. II lui protesta de ne Vabandonner jamais. The same observation is applicable here, which we have made with respect to the verb nier. Punir, to punish. Le ciel me punit d'avoir trop ecoute, D'un oracle imposteur la fausse obscurite. ( Voltaire.) . Etre Rassasie, to be satiated. Nous nous lassons de tout, nos plaisirs ont leur fin et l'homme n'est jamais rassasii de vivre. (J. Racine.) Etre Ravi, to be enraptured. Je sais ta passion, et suis ravi de voir Que touts tes mouvements cedent a ton devoir. The same observation as upon the verb nier. Recommander, to exhort. Recommendez a vos enfants de fair le vice et oV aimer la vertu. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 701 Refuser , to refuse. Pegase pour eux, refuse de voter. (Boileau.) In these expressions, refuser a boire, a manger, d coucher, the verb in the infinitive stands instead of a noun, which is le boire, le manger , le coucher, or what is necessary to drink, to eat, &c. Regretter, to regret. Les peuples regretteront d'avoir chasse leur Roi. Avoir Regret, to regret. J'ai regret de vous voir dans l'erreur. Se Rejouir, to rejoice. Je me rejouis de lui apprendre cette bonne nouvelle. Se Repentir, to repent. Trop tard, dans le naufrage, On se repent d'avoir brave l'orage. [Boileau.) Se Reprocher, to reproach. Je ne me reproche point de Vavoir trompe. Resoudre, to resolve. When this verb is used actively, and in the sense of to de- cide, it takes de before an infinitive ; as, Madame la Dauphine vit toutes les dimensions de sa croix et resolut de s'y laisser attacker sans se plaindre. When employed passively, it takes either de or a; as, Apres tant de malheurs, le ciel enfin proprice, Est resolu, ma fille, & nous rendre justice. [Corneille.) Vous etes risolu rf'abandonner Byzance. When pronominal or reflective, this verb takes a, to ; as, Resous toi, pauvre epoux, ti vivre de couleuvres. Quelque fois & ceder ma fierte se resout. Rire, to laugh. Je riais de le voir avec se mine etique, Son rabbat jadis blanc et sa perruque antique. (Boileau.) 59* 702 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Rougir, to blush. Je rougissais dans Fame De me voir oblige d'accuser ce grand ccetir. ( Voltaire,) Seoir, to fit. This verb, now used only impersonally, takes de before an infinitive ; as, 11 te sied bien d'avoir en de si jeunes mains Charge* d'ans et d'honneurs, eonfie ses desseins. (Racine.) This sentence is ironical, but the following is not : C'est a toi, Lamoignon, QuHl sied bien d'y veiller pour le maintien des lois. Avoir Soin, to take care. Elle eut soin de peindre et d'orner son visage. , Prendre Soin, to have care. 11 prit soin de n'etre pas vu quand il commit le crime. Sommer, to summon. On a somme" le gouverneur de se rendre. Souffrir, to permit. Je souffre encore D'etre deshonore par celle que j'adore. (Corneille.) Souhaiter, to wish. Qui vous a dit que malgre mon devoir, Je n'ai pas quelque fois souhaiU de vous voir. ( Corneille.) This verb is sometimes elegantly used without a preposition before an infinitive. Soupponner, to suspect. II est soupponne 1 , or on le soupponne d' 'avoir commis ce crime. Se Souvenir, to remember. Souvenez-vous surtout de ripondre delui. (Voltaire.) Suffire, to suffice. The Academy recognizes several modes of using this verb with an infinitive, as follows : REGIMES OF VERBS. 703 II suffit de vous dire. II suffit que je vous dise. Je ne puis suffire d, servir tant de monde. La plus legere contrariete suffit pour l'arreter. Suggerer, to suggest. C'est la religion qui lui a suggere de /aire cette belle ceuvre. [Massilloyi.) Supplier j to supplicate. Je vous supplie de m^expliquer, Ce que vous pensez de l'amitie. (Boileau.) Etre Surpris, to be astonished. II fut surpris de se voir meprise ; but when it signifies to be caught, the preposition a, to, must be preferred ; as, Je Vai surpris ^ me derober de Pargent. (Academy.) Prendre a Tache, to assume the task. AveZ'Vous pris d, tache de me contredire sur tout? (Id.) Tenter, to attempt. Mon nom deviendra cher aux siecles avenir, Pour avoir seulement tente" de vous punir. ( Voltaire.) Etre Tente, to be tempted. Jefus Men tente de lui ripondre. (Academy.) Trembler, to fear, to apprehend. II faut que je tremble de revoir Nelson. (Mormontel.) Se Trouver, to be satisfied. Vous vous trouverez bien de les avoir suivis. (Corntille.) Se Vanter, to boast. Le monde se vante defaire des heureux. (Massillon.) 704 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 2001. Of verbs which change their signification in consequence of being followed by a or de be- fore an infinitive. The verbs which change their signification in consequence of being followed by either of the prepositions de, of, or a, to, before an infinitive, are the following : Accoutumer, to accustom Commencer, to begin. Continuer, to continue. Defier, to defy. S'efforcer, to attempt. Etre, to be. Laisser, to leave. S'occuper, to think. Manquer, to want. Obliger, to oblige. Oublier, to forget. Risquer, to risk. Tacher, to try. Essayer, to try. Venir, to come. Accoutumer, to accustom. This verb, used actively, and followed by an infinitive, takes the preposition a, to ; as, II ne faut pas accoutumer les peuples a prendre les renes, a murmurer. When used impersonally, it takes also the preposition a, to ; as, II est bon de s' 'accoutumer d, profiter du mal, d, supporter les outrages de la fortune, & souffrir la verite. But when used as a neuter verb, and signifying to be in the habit, it is followed by de, of; as, Elle joignait a I'ambition assez ordinaire de son sexe, un courage qu'on rCa pas accoutume oVy trouver. ( Bossuet.) This phraseology, however, is not much used now, and it would be better to say : Qu'on n'a pas coutume d'y trouver. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 705 When conjugated with etre, to be, this verb takes the prep- osition a, to ; as, Les rois sont accoutume's a avoir des gens charges de penser pour eux. Commencer, to commence. Commence?*, expressing an action which will progress towards an end,. is followed by the preposition de, of; as, Cet avocat commenqa deparhrk six heures et finit a neuf. The action of the verb, in this example, commences at six o'clock to continue until nine. But when this verb expresses only the beginning of an action, without the idea of its end being presented to the mind, then it takes the preposition a, to ; as, Cet enfant commence a parler, a marcher. Ma fille commence a, chanter assez bien. Continuer, to continue. Continuer may signify that an action is continued with or without interruption : if continued without interruption, the verb takes the preposition a, to ; if with interruption, to be continued from time to time, it takes de, of; as, Pensez-vous que votre pere continue a me garder rancune ? Ma femme continue a se mal porter. Quoique j'aie a me plaindre de votre sceur, je continue de la voir (from time to time). Je continuerai de vous ecrire par la suite (same observation). Defier, to defy. When defier signifies to set at defiance, it takes the preposi- tion de, of; as, Je vous de/ie de m'oublier jamais. Je dtftais ses yeux de me troubler jamais. The first sentence means : Attempt to forget me, if you dare, you will never succeed. The second : Although her eyes were beautiful, I could gaze on them without danger. But when the verb defier means to provoke, to excite, it takes the preposition a, to ; as, Je l'ai dejie'ilboire, a la paume, aux echecs, &c. 706 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Defter means here : I provoked him to drink, to know who would drink the most ; I provoked him to play, to know who would play the best. S'Efforcer, to attempt. This verb signifies to use all one's might to do a thing, and takes the preposition a, to, or de, of; as, Ne vous efforcez pas d, parler. L'on s'efforcerait en vain de mefermer la bouche. Etre, to be. When etre is joined to the pronoun ce, it may represent two different ideas : an idea of turn, and an idea of duty or right. In the first instance, it takes a, to ; in the second, de, of. C'est d vous a parler means, It is your turn to speak. C'est a vous de parler means, It is your duty to speak, you have the right of speaking. Thus we say : C'est a, vous a donner (playing cards, means, It is your turn to deal). C'est a, vous de jouer (Why don't you play, you ought to play, it is your duty, your right to play). Laisser, to leave. When laisser is used figuratively, and means to transmit, it takes the preposition a, to ; as, Va, ne me laisse pas un heros a venger. This sentence signifies : Do not transmit to me the duty of revenge. (Voltaire.) When this verb means to cease, to abstain, to continue, and is used with a negation, it takes de, of, before the infinitive ; as, Lorsqu'il semblait ceder, il ne laissait pas de se faire craindre. This sentence signifies, that, Although he seemed to yield, they still feared him. Manquer, to want. When manquer means to fail in your duty towards somebody or something, it takes a, to, before an infinitive ; as, On mesestime celui qui manque u remplir ses devoirs. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 707 When it means to omit, to forget to do a thing, this verb takes de, of ; as, Qui cherche Dieu de bonne foi, ne manque jamais de le trouver. It also takes de, of, when it signifies to be on the point of, although the sense is affirmative ; as, II a manque" de se noyer, de tomber. S'Occuper, to occupy one's self with. This verb, when expressing an action which is materially performed, takes a, to ; but when signifying only an occupation of the mind, it takes de, of.; as, Je m'occupe atravailler a mon jardin, means, I really do work in my garden. Je m'occupe de dStruire mon jardin, means, I am thinking about destroying my garden. Obliger, to oblige. When obliger signifies to compel, to impose the obligation of doing or saying something, it takes the preposition a, to ; as, La loi naturelle nous oblige a honorer pere et mere. Some grammarians admit the use of de, of, in similar cases, but a is far better. When this verb means to assist, to do a favor, de ought to follow it without exception ; as, Vous m'obligerez beaucoup de me recommander a mes juges. When used with etre, de, of, should only be used after it ; as, Nous sommes obliges de vivre selon nos moyens, Si nous voulons meriter l'estime des honnetes gens. When obliger expresses only a moral duty, it is applied to persons, and not to things ; as, On est oblige" oVobeir aux lois divines et humaines. On est oblige" de riprimer ses passions. We cannot say, La jeunesse est obligfa d'avoir du respect pour les personnes agees, 708 FRENCH GRAMMAR. but, La jeunesse doit avoir du respect, &c, or, Unjeune homrne est oblige, &c. We cannot say, La critique est obligee d'etre severe contre les livres immoraux, but, La critique doit 6tre severe, &c. Risquer, to risk. The verb risquer, used as a neuter verb, meaning to hazard, to endanger, is followed by de, of, before an infinitive ; as, lis risquent de tout perdre pour sauver un homme. Vous risquez de tomber. Sometimes it is used with que and the subjunctive ; as, Vous risquez qu 1 on vous vole votre argent. When this verb means to run the risk of, it is then an active verb, and takes the preposition a, to, before its indirect object ; as, Vous risquez tout a prendre ce parti. Tdcher, to try, to attempt. When the verb tdcher means to aim at, or when the sense of the sentence in which it is employed relates rather to the end to be reached than to the efforts made to gain it, it takes the preposition de, of ; as, L'un tdche de Vemouvoir par le recit de sa misere, l'autre par celui de ses souffrances morales. Elle tdche de le gagner par ses douces paroles. A, to, was formerly used in this case, and is still employed by some writers, but we prefer de. However, we do not pre- tend to be absolute on this point ; but when the verb tdcher ex- presses the efforts which are made in order to succeed, more precisely than it regards the end to be gained, then de, of, is always used ; as, Je tdcherai de le satisfaire. Je tdcherai d'oublier cette injure. (Academy.) Essayer, to try, to aim at. When this verb signifies to aim at, or to make all possible REGIMEN OF VERBS. 709 efforts to succeed in any thing, it takes the preposition d, to ; as, Ce musicien essaie ajouer les morceaux les plus difficiles. {Academy.) Cet enfant essaie a marcher. Id. Essayez a \efaire parler. Son bras s'essaie afrapper ses victimes. Because in these sentences the mind is more impressed with the end to be gained, than with the efforts to be made to gain it ; but if, on the contrary, we think of the efforts more than of the end to be gained, then de, of, is used : as, Cet homme faible et malade a essaye de se lever, de marcher, mais il est retombd sur son lit, sur sa chaise. On essaie de secouer le joug de la loi. Venir, to come. When venir relates to the place we arrive at, it takes no preposition before an infinitive, as we have already stated : as, Oui, je viens dans ton temple adorer l'Eternel. But when it means to have just done a thing, it takes the preposition de, of : as, II vient de partir pour la campagne. Je viens de vendre mon cheval et ma voiture. Venir, preceded by the preposition en, and meaning to arrive at, requires a, to, before an infinitive, as well as before a noun : as, lis en vinrent enfin a discuter la grande question, lis en vinrent aux reproches. 2002. OF VERBS REQUIRING DIFFERENT PREPOSITIONS BEFORE AN INFINITIVE, ACCORDING TO EUPHONY. Contraindre, to constrain, to force. Deux horribles naufrages contraignirent les Romains d'abandonner l'em* pire des mers aux Carthaginois. In this example the verb abandonner, beginning with the letter a, requires the preposition of before it, instead of to, to avoid the repetition of the same sound. 60 710 FRENCH GRAMMAR. II a fallu une loi pour regler l'exterieur de l'avocat, et le contraindre ainsi a Ure grave et plus respecte. A may be used here, because the verb which follows begins with a different vowel. Elle fut contrainte d demander le divorce, not de demander, the verb demander beginning with de ; but a demander, to avoid the repetition of the same syllable de. It seems, then, that the meaning of the sentence is not al- ways affected by the choice of the preposition, and so says the Academy ; but there are cases in which it makes a difference ; thus, we would not say, La ville fut contrainte a, but de, se rendre, de implying a stronger idea of necessity than a. Demander, to ask, to beg. The same consideration rules the use of to or of, with this verb ; thus, we say, Je demandai au ciel de jetter sur moi un regard de misericorde. Les larmes aux yeux, elle demandait a me voir. Je vous demande de m'e'couter. II demande a vous parler. S'Empresser, to be eager, in earnest. Tout le monde s'empresse a luifaire la cour. Pourquoi s'empresser a condamner sans preuves ? Vos genereuses mains s ' empressent d'effacer Les larmes que le ciel me condamne a verser. The satisfaction of the ear is the only reason of the change in these examples ; the sound of a before effacer being rather hard. The preposition of, with this verb, must be used when the action, expressed by the verb in the infinitive, relates to the nominative ; but to ought to be employed, if the same action is extended to a different object : as, Je m'empresse de marcher. Je m'empresse de dire que je suis satisfait. It is /who am in earnest, and it is /who walk ; it is /who am in earnest, and / who say. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 711 Je m'empresse a vous consoler, a vous secourir. Because it is / who am in earnest, it is you who are con- soled. But the most useful and general indication to be followed, in these nice difficulties of the language, is this : Never use a before a verb beginning with the same letter, or when the sound produced by this preposition and the first syllable of the next word would be hard. Never use de when the next word begins with the same syllable, at least with the verbs which admit of the use of either of these prepositions. 2003. A TABLE OF THE VERBS WHICH GOVERN PREPOSI- TIONS BEFORE THE NOUNS USED AS THEIR OBJECT. A. To abate of, rabattre de. He has much abated his pride. II a beaucoup rabattu de sa fierte. He will not abate a cent of his II ne vent pas rabattre un sol de son price. prix. To abide with, rester avec, demeurer chez. fElle est reside avec moi pendant des She has abode with me for years. < ^ nne 5 s * . , . , . , J i Jlille a demeurd chez moi pendant des ^ annees. To abound in, or with, abonder en. This river abounds in fish of the Cette riviere dbonde en poissons du finest quality. meilleur gout. The works of this author abound in Les ouvrages de cet auteur abondent beauties of the first order. en beautes du premier ordre. To abstain from, s'abstenir de. We must abstain from all sorts of On doit s'abstenir de toute espece excesses. d'exces. To accede to, acceder a. I was unwilling to accede to his Je ne voulais pas acceder d, sa re- request, quete. To accommodate with, accommoder de. He has accommodated me with II m'a accommodd e?'un credit de six credit for six months. mois. 712 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To accommodate to, accommoder a. He accommodates himself to the II s'accommode au caractere des au- dispositions of others. tres. To accommodate with, assister de. He has accommodated us with a II nous a assistes d'un habit, rf'une coat, a pair of boots, &c. paire de bottes, &c. To accommodate to, proportionner a. We must accommodate our expenses On doit proportionner ses depenses to our means. a sa fortune. To accord with, s'accorder avec. I accord with you in that respect. Je rn'accorde avec vous sous ce rap- port. To accuse of, accuser de. You accuse me wrongfully of the Vous m'accusez faussement du vol robbery committed at your house. commis chez vous. To accustom to, accoutumer a. 1 have accustomed my children to J'ai accoutumi mes enfants au tra- work. vail. To acquaint with, instruire de. Why have you not acquainted me Pourquoi ne m'avez vous pas in- with your misfortune? struit de votre malheur ? To acquiesce in, acquiescer a. Your father has acquiesced in my Votre pere a acquiesc6 a ma de- request, mande. To acquit one's self of, s'acquitter de . . . envers. He acquits himself of his duty to the II sacquitte de ses devoirs envers les poor. pauvres. To act from, agir d'apres. We must not always act from im- II ne faut pas toujours agir d'apres pulse. ses inspirations. To act up to, agir conformement a. A good officer always acts up to Un bon officier agit toujours con- the orders of his commanders. formiment aux ordres de ses chefs. To adapt to, adapter d. We ought to know how to adapt On doit adapter ses gouts aux cir- our nature to circumstances. Constances. To addict one's self to, s'adonner a. He addicts himself to drinking and II s'adonne a la boisson et au jeu. gambling. REGIMEN OP VERBS. 713 To adhere to, adherer a. I adhere to the opinion of your T adhere aux opinions de votre pere. father. In opening his body, they found En ouvrant son corps, on trouvaque that his lungs adhered to the ribs. les poumons adheraient aux cotes. To admire, s'etonner de. I admire your courage and presence Je m'etonne de votre courage et de of mind. votre presence d'esprit. To admonish of, avertir de. I admonish him of his faults, but Je Yavertis de ses fautes, mais il ne he does not care much about it. s'en soucie gueres. To adorn with, orner de. My room is adorned with handsome Ma chambre est ornte de superbes pictures. tableaux. I have adorned my gallery with J'ai orne" ma galerie de tableaux magnificent paintings. magnifiques. To adorn with, orner avec. Your parlour is adorned with taste, Votre salon est orne avec gout, avec with splendor. splendeur. To advert to, faire allusion a. Why did you advert to me in your Pourquoi avez-vous fait allusion a discourse ? moi dans votre discours ? To advise, conseiller a. I advised your brother not to go out Je conseillai a votre frere de ne pas in such weather. sortir par un tel temps. To advise with, se conseiller avec. We advised with your lawyer about Nous nous sommes consulUs avec your case. votre avocat sur votre affaire. To agree to, convenir de. We have agreed to the terms of the Nous sommes convenus des termes bargain. du marche. To aim at, viser a. He aims at being called a witty II vise au titre d'homme d'esprit. man. To alienate from, aliener de. You have alienated your family from Vous avez alitni votre famille de me. moi. (Not used.) To alight from, descendre de. We alighted from our carriage at Nous descendimes de notre voiture a the door of the church. la porte de l'eglise. 60* 714 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To alight on, descendre sur. We alighted on the road, in going Nous descendimes sur la route, en to your house. allant chez vous. To animadvert on, faire des observations sur. Where is the necessity of animad- Ou\ est la necessite de faire des ob- verting on every thing ? servations sur tout ? To annoy with, nuirepar. He annoys me with his continual II me nuit par ses observations re- remarks on my character. petees sur mon caractere. To appeal from, to, appeler, a . . . de. I shall appeal from this sentence to J'appellerai au roi de cette sentence, the king. To appear to, paraitre a. It appears to me that you are II me (a moi) parait que vous avez wrong. tort. To appear with, paraitre avec. We appeared with extraordinary Nous parumes avec une splendeur splendor. extraordinaire. To appear at, paraitre a. He appeared at the window when II parut a la fenetre quand nous we came. vinmes. To appear to be, paraitre de. You appear to be in a very bad hu- Vous paraisses de bien mauvaise hu- mor, meur. To appertain to, apparienir a. It appertains to a rich man to be II appartienta un hommeriche d'etre generous. genereux. To appoint to, nommer a. The king has appointed me to the Le roi m ? a nommi a la dignite de office of first chamberlain. grand chambellan. To apprehend from, craindre de. A blow in the dark is all I appre- Tout ce que je crains delui, c'est un hend from him. coup dans l'ombre. To apprize of, informer de. The newspapers have apprized me Les journaux m'ont informe de vo- of your misfortune. tre malheur. To apprize of, prevenir de. Your father has apprized me of your Votre pere m'a privenu de votre departure. depart. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 715 To apprize of, avertir de. A constable has apprized me of the Un constable m'a averti du danger danger I am exposed to. que je cours. To argue from, raisonner aVapres. I argue from positive facts. Je raisonne d'aprbs des faits cer- tains. To arrive at, arriver a. We arrived at a conclusion this Nous sommes arrives ce matin a une morning. conclusion. To ask of, demander a. I asked of the king the pardon of J'ai demandi au roi le pardon demon my friend. ami. To ask of, demander de. All I ask of you is to go and hear Tout ce que je demande de vous, our minister. c'est d'aller entendre notre minis- tre. To ask after, demander des nouvelles de. I asked this morning after you and J'ai demandf ce matin des nouvelles your sister. de vous et de votre soeur. To assent to, consentir a. He has assented to our propositions. II a consenti a nos propositions. To assimilate to, rendre semblable a. His conduct has assimilated him to Sa conduite l'a rendu semblable a a brute. une brute. To assist with, assister de, or aider de. I have assisted that man with my J'ai assist^, on. aide", cet homme de money and advice. mon argent et de mes avis. To associate with, s'associer avec. To associate with honest people is a S'associer avec les honnetes gens est sure way of saving one's reputa- un sur moyen de conserver sa re- tion. putation. To associate with, s'associer a. I have associated with him in this Je me suis associi a lui dans cette good work. bonne ceuvre. To atone for, expier. (No preposition.) He has atoned for his faults. II a expie ses fautes. To attend to, faire attention a. Be so kind as to attend to my af- Ayez la bonte de faire attention eb fairs during my absence. mes affaires pendant mon absence. 716 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To attend to, Scouter. (No preposition.) I shall attend to the sermon on Sun- J'irai ecouter le sermon Dimanche. day. To avail one's self of, profiter de. I shall avail myself of the first oppor- Je profiterai de la premiere occasion tunity to go and see you. pour aller vous voir. To avenge one's self on, se venger sur . . . de. This man avenges himself on socie- Cet homme se venge sur la societe ty for the wrongs of fortune. des torts de la fortune. To avenge on or upon, venger sur. I shall avenge on, or upon, you the Je venger -ai sur vous le crime de crime of your family. votre famille. To awe with, tenir en crainte par, or respect par. TJe tiendrai cet homme en crainte par I will awe that man with the idea of) l'idee de 1'echaffaud. the scaffold. j Je tiendrai cet homme en respect par L l'idee de 1'echaffaud. To awe into, forcer a (by fear). I will awe that child into obedience. Jeforcerai cet enfant a l'obeissance. 2004. — B. To bait with, amorcer de, avec. He baits us with sweet words. II nous amorce de, or avec de, douces paroles. To balk of, tromper dans son espoir de. I have balked him of his profits. hmt Je l'ai trompe" dans son espoir de be- nefices. To bargain for, marchander. (No preposition.) Your wife bargained much for these Votre ferame a beaucoup marchandd silks. ces soies. To bargain for, stipuler pour. I have bargained for you, that you J'ai stipule" pour vous que vous n'au- should go without expense riez rien a payer le long de la over the road. route. To bark at, aboyer apres. Why do your dogs bark at me eve- Pourquoi vos chiens aboient-ih ry time I pass your house ? apres moi quand je passe devant chez vous ? REGIMEN OF VERBS. 717 To bathe in, baigner de. Your wife was bathed in tears Votre femme etait baignie de larmes when I came in. quand j'entrai. To bathe with, arroser avec. You must bathe your wound with II faut arroser votre blessure avec de spirits. l'esprit de vin. To bawl at, crier apres. Why do you bawl at me when I Pourquoi criez vous apres moi quand am passing along ? je passe ? To beautify with, embellir de. This garden is beautified with mag- Ce jardin est embelli de fleurs et arrete jamais a une objection when I have a great object to ac- insignifiante, quand j'ai un grand complish. objet en vue. 756 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To peck at, bequeter. How pretty this canary bird looks, Que ce serin est joli quand ilbequete when he peeks at your hand ! votre main ! To peep at, regarder furtivement. Passing by the dining-room, I peep- Passant pres de la salle a, manger, ed at the table, regretting to be je rcgardai furtivement la table, excluded from its joys. regrettant amerement d'etre ex- clus de ses joies. To peep into, regarder dans. I went to the theatre, peeped into Je fus au theatre, je regardai dans the room, but did not see any of la salle, mais je n'y vis aucune de my acquaintances. mes connaissances. To peep in at, regarder a travers. By peeping in at the doors, one may En regardant a travers les portes, often see what he does not like. on voit souvent ce dont on ne se soucie gueres. To pelt with, frapper de. When the laborers saw the troops Quand les travailleurs virent les coming, they pelted them with troupes venir, ils les frapperent de stones and all sorts of missiles. pierres et de toutes sortes de pro- jectiles. To penetrate with, penetrer de. Your disinterested conduct has pen- Votre conduite desinteressee a pini- etrated the country with respect tre le pays de respect et c?'admi- and admiration for your character. ration pour votre caractere. To perplex with, embarrasser de. Why do you perplex your soul with A quoi bon vous embarrasser l'esprit scruples which have no common de scrupules qui n'ont pas le sense in them ? moindre fondement ? To perplex with, embarrasser par. My examiner perplexed me with his Mon examinateur m'embarrassa par questions on animal chemistry, ses questions sur la chimie ani- which I had not sufficiently stud- male, que je n'avais pas suffise- ied. mment etudiee. To persevere in, per severer dans. In spite of all trials, I persevered En depit de touts les efforts, je per- in the faith of my fathers. several dans la foi de mes peres. To persist in, persister dans. When a man persists in his opinions Celui qui persiste dans ses opinions against the evidence of his being malgre l'evidence, est entete mais in error, he is obstinate, but not non pas consistant. consistent. REGIMEN OP VERBS. 757 To pester with, importuner de. Why pester me with your lamenta- Pourquoi m'importuner de vos tions ? I cannot help them. plaintes ? je n'y peux rien. To pester with, importuner par. I tell you candidly that you pester Je vous dis franchement que vous me with your repeated questions mHmportunez tres fort par vos upon a subject which I do not like questions repetees sur un sujet to treat. dont je n'aime pas a m'occuper. To petrify with, petrifier de. You petrify me with awe by the re- Vous me pUrifiez de terreur avec vos cital of your battles. recits de batailles. To pierce with, percer de. I ran to the wild-boar, and pierced Je courus sur le sanglier et le per- him with my hunting-knife. gai de mon couteau de chasse. To pine at, se chagriner de. I pine at your sufferings, because I Je me chagrine de vos peines, par- cannot alleviate them. ceque je ne puis les alleger. To pine after, soupirer apres. A patient pines after health as the Le malade soupire apres la sante Jews after the Messiah. comme les Juifs apres le Messie. To pique one's self on, se piquer de. Our neighbours have piqued them- Nos voisinsse sont piques d'honneur selves on their honor and kept their et ont enfin tenu parole, word at last. To plague with, tourmenter de or par, or importuner de. (See To pester.) To plant with, planter de. The gardens of the king are planted Les jardins du roi sont planUs rf'ar- with trees of the rarest kind. bres les plus rares. To play on, jouer de. This fellow seems to know how to Ce garcon parait savoir jouer de play on all instruments. touts les instruments. To play at, jouer a. To play at cards is a wicked pas- Jouer aux cartes est un passetems time. coupable. To plunder of, depouiller de. Your soldiers have plundered me of Vos soldats m'ont depouilU de mes my horses, cows, &c. chevaux, de mes vaches, &c. 64 758 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To point to, montrer du doigt. It is an impolite practice to point II n'est pas poli de montrer une per- to a person in a parlour. sonne du doigt dans un salon. To point at, montrer au doigt. The conduct of that man is such, La conduite de cet homme est telle that everybody points at him. que tout le monde le montre au doigt. To pray to, prier. I pray to God that your journey Je prie Dieu que votre voyage re- may be successful. ussisse. To preface with, faire preceder de. I intend to preface my grammar J'ai l'intention de faire precider ma with an explanation of my views grammaire rf'un appercu de mes on teaching. vues sur la maniere de montrer. To preserve from, preserve contre, or garantir contre, de. II est sage d'employer touts les moyens possibles pour se preser- ver les pieds contre le froid et la tete contre les ardeurs du soleil. II est sage d'employer touts les moyens possibles pour se garan- tir les pieds contre le froid et la tete contre les ardeurs du soleil. II est sage d'employer touts les moyens possibles pour se garan- tir les pieds du froid et la tete _ des ardeurs du soleil. To preside at, presider a. Eight gentlemen were appointed Huitpersonnesfurentchoisiespour to preside at the arrangements presider aux arrangements ne- for the ceremony. cessaires pour la ceremonie. To preside in, presider. Mr. M * * * presided in the senate Monsieur M * * * prhida le senat, last year with a great deal of l'annee derniere, avec un talent talent. remarquable. To preside over, presider a. Providence presides over all hu- La Providence preside anx actions man actions. des hommes. To presume on, presumer de. The captain presumed too much Le capitaine prisuma trop de la on the strength of his crew, they force de son equipage, ils peri- all perished in the hurricane. " rent touts dans la tempete. It is wise to resort to all possible means to preserve one's feet from cold, and one's head form the burning sun. REGIMEN OF VERBS. 759 To presume from, supposer cPapres. I presumed from your narration Je supposais d'apr&s votre narra- that the inhabitants of the South tion, que les habitants des isles Sea were all cannibals. de la mer du sud etaient touts an- thropophages. To pretend to, pretendre a. To pretend to science does not Prblendre a la science ne prouve prove that one has any. pas que l'on en ait. To prevail upon, engager. If you could prevail upon the Irish Si pouviez engager (decider) les Ir- to give up drinking, you would landais a ne pas boire, vous leur accomplish a great deal in their rendriez un immense service, behalf. To prey upon, miner. This man's mode of living preys Le genre de vie de cet homme upon his constitution. mine sa constitution. To prey upon, ronger. Your ungrateful conduct towards L'ingratitude de votre conduite me me preys upon my heart. rongc le coeur. To prey upon, faire sa proie de. Consumption will soon prey upon La consumption fera bientot sa this poor young girl. proie de cette pauvre jeune fille. To pride one's self on, se piquer de. A man, who prides himself on do- L'homme qui se pique de faire tout ing every thing well, rarely gains bien, jouit rarement de la con- public confidence. fiance publique. To prize at, evaluer a. You prize your own merit at too Vous dvaluez votre meritea unprix high a rate to inspire confidence. trop eleve pour inspirer la con- fiance. To profane by, or with, proj aner par. He vvho profanes the place of wor- Celui qui profane les lieux saints ship by (or with) indecent Ian- par un langage indecent merite guage deserves the general con- le mepris general de la societe. tempt of the community. To profane with, profaner de. Voltaire did not hesitate to profane Voltaire ne recula pas devant the church with his impure l'idee de profaner l'eglise de son presence. impure presence. 760 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To profit from, profiter de. I have profited very much from J'ai bien prqfite de l'instruction qui the instruction which I have re- j'ai recue de mon maitre. ceived from my teacher. To provide with, pourvoir de. If you go to sea you must be pro- Si vous vous embarquez, pourvoyez- vided with good clothes and suit- vous de bons vetements et de able provisions. provisions convenables. To provide for, pourvoir a. A good captain ought to provide Unbon capitaine doit pourvoir avec carefully for the wants of his soin ii touts les besoins de son crew and passengers. equipage et de ses passagers. To provoke to, provoquer • / i