% •*> ,A W p> c^ x ; ''v o^ \° ©* c : V -r j •* '"^. V ^ •^ A. .^ BOOKS BY FELIX ARNOLD, PD. D., PH. D. Member of the American Anthropological Association, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Humane Association, Ameri- can Psychological Association, American Sociological Society, New York Academy of Sciences, Royal So- ciety of A rts, Etc. Principal Public School, New York City Attention and Interest, Cloth, 12mo., viii -f- 272 pages The MacMillan Co., - - $1.00 The Psychology of Association, Paper, 8 vo., iv + 80 pages The Science Press, - - 50c Text-Book of School and Class Management, Volume I— Supervision and Class Management Cloth, 12mo., xxii + 409 pages The MacMillan Co., - - $1.25 Volume II — Administration and Hygiene Cloth, 12mo., xii+288 pages The MacMillan Co., - - $1.00 IN PREPARATION General Method of Instruction, Between 300 and 400 pages A handbook of devices and methods for the classroom Mental and Physical Retardation of Children, Between 200 and 300 pages An intensive analysis of conditions and causes of retardation based upon experiments and tests with school children BAY PRESS 824 ST. NICHOLAS AVE., NEW YORK Outline History of Education BY FELIX ARNOLD, Ph. D. NEW YORK THE BAY PRESS 1911 ^ copyright, 1911, By Felix Aenold. Published June, 1911. #V ^> ©CI. A 2920 9 7 Contents I. Modern 7 II. Ancient ---'-- 58 III. Medieval - 74 IV. Contemporary - 84 V. Elementary Education - - 89 VI. Universities - 98 Biographical Notes - - - - 105 (The above divisions are only approximate) Preface An outline history of education or of any other sub- ject should always be used in conjunction with original works or with a more discursive book on the same sub- ject. No outline can take the place of a more extended treatise or of original works. The present outline is no exception to this rule. The student should read some books by Herbart, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Rabelais, or other writers. He should also read some good history of education of which there are now quite a few. Among others, the following suggestions might be of aid : I. Try to apply in the classroom as much of the educational theory and practice as possible. Much of what is given by Herbart, Froebel, Pestalozzi, Com- enius, and others is still of great practical value. II. Organise the different suggestions given by any author and try to discover stages of development, in- terconnection, and interdependence. For example, show how the different topics treated under Herbart and the Herbartians develop naturally out of the Her- bartian scheme of consciousness and ideas. III. Compare a series of educational works and show relationships. Find resemblances and differences. Take any topic and work it through a number of edu- cational theories and practices. Compare, for example, the ideas of self-activity or of doing as presented by Froebel, Comenius, and Herbart. Compare the dif- ferent aims of education of writers or teachers of the same period, or of different periods. Show what one 5 PREFACE author has taken from another and incorporated in his own work, or what changes he has made. IV. In general try to keep the following general topics in mind: 1. Aim of education. 2. Theory of education, as, general principles, di- rections, etc. 3. Means of education Course of study. Methods of instruction. Methods of discipline. Material or personnel. 4. Books written. 5. Practical work done in schools or institutions. 6. Conditioning environment. It will be found that work done by the different edu- cational reformers will include one or more of the fields enumerated. FELIX ARNOLD. New York City. I. HERB ART'S MECHANIK OF IDEAS Consciousness is a field for the interplay of ideas, i. e. } their opposition, reinforcement, etc. An idea which is in the field of consciousness is above the 'threshold;' one not in consciousness is below the 'threshold.' In any series of ideas, a, b, c, d etc., as a is followed by b it is closer to b than c ; a is there- fore forced into consciousness by b, b by c, and so on. In the following diagram, a is above the threshold of consciousness, is reinforced by b and tends to drag b with it into consciousness. \ \ b \ c \ d In the following diagram, when d is in the field of consciousness, the other ideas are in the order indicated. d / / c / b / a In the interaction of ideas feeling is created. This feeling may give rise to desire, and so to willed action. Systems of ideas properly organised give bases of ap- perception and so of interest. (The six-fold interests, or better, interest-producing systems of apperception). 7 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION II. APPERCEPTION ''Apperception may be denned as that interaction be- tween two similar ideas or thought-complexes, in the course of which the weaker, unorganised, isolated idea or thought-complex is incorporated into the richer, bet- ter digested and more firmly compacted one." "Apperception is that psychical activity by which in- dividual perceptions, Ideas, or idea-complexes are brought into relation to our previous intellectual and emotional life, assimilated with it, and thus raised to greater clearness, activity and significance." "Apperception is more than accumulation of knowl- edge. It is mind awakening, mind activity, mind de- fining, mind enlargement by assimilating of new knowl- edge with corresponding mind content, to form a great- er content." Apperception Dynamic. Emphasises old knowl- edge, and what is known. Relates the old with the new. Modifies the old with the new, and the new with the old. Association Static. Emphasises new knowl- edge. Connects without relating. New is simply received and connected with the old. Kinds of Apperception 1. Identifying. The impression corresponds to a picture in the memory. 2. Subsuming. There is present a classifying, ar- ranging, proving, inferring, esthetic, or ethical judg- ment, which receives the new impression. 3. Harmonising. A proper relation is found between coordinate ideas. 4. Creative or Formative. There is first created the apperceiving factor, as in poetry, art, induction, or de- duction. HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 9 Rules of Practice 1. Appeal to the experience of the child. Cnoose such materials of knowledge as lie close to the child's experiences in general. 2. Arrange the materials of instruction so that each step prepares for the next. Each topic should form a strong aid for the apperception of the following topic. 3. The various parallel subjficts of the curriculum should be arranged in such a manner, that in each grade as many allied topics as possible may be asso- ciated, so that what is related in experience and in fact may be related in the consciousness of the child. (Law of concentration and correlation of studies). 4. Proceed gradually, so as to allow of proper as- similation. Value of Apperception. 1. Former knowledge is made use of. 2. The use of an acquired stock of ideas involves a constant working over of the old ideas, and so fixes them by repetition. 3. Experience is unified and organised by the forma- tion of mental systems and series. 4. The child gradually acquires a stock of ideas upon which the teacher can draw. 5. The general plan of lesson is based upon the notion of acquiring knowledge by the assistance of accumulated funds. 6. There is a consciousness of power due to the ability to make use of knowledge. 7. The apperceptive process works towards the de- velopment of general notions. 8. The teacher is able to supervise and guide ap- perception. III. INTEREST. Interest is a feeling of value. 1. Consciousness of value 2. Memory of value 3. Judgment of value 10 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Kinds of Interest 1. Indirect interest Leads us to pursue some course, not for its own sake, but in order to gain some advantage, prize, scholarship, etc. Leads to one-sidedness, if not to egotism. Leads to a consideration of everything in its relation to the narrow circle in which one lives. 2. Direct interest Works from pure motives. Brings pleasure due to devotion to a subject for its own sake. Is manifold, well balanced, all-embracing. Is closely connected with other interests and mental systems. Interest should be (1) far reaching, (2) direct and immediate, and (3) manifold. Interest and Willed Action 1. Ideas, quickened by interest, develop into willed action. 2. Willed action depends upon ideas. But all ideas do not produce willed action. 3. Ideas become vitalised through interest. 4. Ideas are 'pictures of the will' to guide action. Classification of Interests I. Due to experience with things 1. Empirical. The result of knowledge gained by experience and observation. 2. Speculative. The result of the investigation of the causes of things. 3. Esthetic. The result of the contemplation of the true, the beautiful and the good. II. Due to intercourse with men 1. Sympathetic. The result of participation in the sorrows or joys of others, especially in the family. HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 11 2. Social. The feeling of sympathy extended beyond the family. 3. Religious. Sympathy extended beyond the world. Duties and responsibilities of life in- cluded. III. One-sidedness of interest. 1. Empirical. When one kind of objects is seized upon to the neglect of the rest, as in botany, mineralogy, zoology, etc., as in study of special languages, travel in special coun- tries, and the like. 2. Speculative. Confinement to some theoreti- cal pursuit, as logic, mathematics, a system of metaphysics, etc. 3. Esthetic. Concentration on painting, sculpture, lyric or dramatic poetry, music, etc. 4. Sympathetic. Restriction of one's company to social peers, fellow countrymen, family members, etc., with a lack of fellow feeling for others. 5. Social. Bias towards a political party, na- tional policy, etc. 6. Religious. Emphasis on some creed or sect. Scorn of any one who holds to a different creed or religion. Five Moral Relationships or Ideas 1. Inner Freedom. Satisfaction arising from an inner harmony of ideas. 2. Efficiency of Will. Consistency, as in a will concentrated on some well planned action. 3. Good Will. Social efficiency, kindness, be- nevolence, charity, etc. 4. Justice. Prevention of moral strife. 5. Equity. Requital. Basis of rewards, insti- tutions, etc. 12 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IV. CONCENTRATION. Circle of Thought Experience Intercourse Things of the Environ- Men of the Environment merit Nature Life Knowledge Sympathy Broadening of Experi- Broadening of Inter- ence course Natural science Historical branches Eealistic direction Humanistic direction Value of Concentration 1. Ethical. Strong action and consistent action de- pend on unity of mind. Consistent action requires prompt and resolute decisions. This depends upon connection between ideas. Ideas control conduct and facilitate moral judg- ment. 2. Psychological. Any special interest of the child can be used as a basis on which to build others. Concentrated motives are possible through mental unity. New matter can be received and made clear by acquired ideas. 3. Practical. Enrichment of the course of study is possible. Systematic and planned instruction is possible. (Geography is the connecting link between the historic-humanistic branches and the branches of natural science). Concentration, Coordination and Correlation Concentration is the subordination of the material of instruction about a central core, (Ziller, history-liter- ature), or (Parker, it is the departure of instruction from the child as the center of activity). Coordination allows each important subject or group of subjects to have its own principle of development. HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 13 Each group has natural and easy associations in the lower grades. Coordination does not attempt to give a philosophic grasp of the highest unity of knowledge until the pupil is sufficiently mature to comprehend this phase of thought. De Garmo. Three groups 1. The humanities. 2. The scientific studies. 3. Economic studies. Harris. Five groups (Five windows of the soul). 1. Mathematics. Time, space and mechanical relations. 2. Organic nature. Geography. 3. Literature and art. Human nature as feel- ings, convictions, aspirations. 4. Grammar, logic, philosophy. The intellectual structure. 5. History. The doings of the greater social self as reaction. "Correlation is such a connection between the parts of each study and such a spinning of relations and con- necting links between different subjects, that unity may spring out of the variety of knowledge. As com- monly used correlation expresses the idea of inter- connection between studies." Kinds of Correlation 1. Serial connection of ideas in a single study. Logical order of topics and branches. Each topic should be a preparation for the following. (Apper- ception) 2. Relation of the different subjects to each other. Symmetrical whole of studies in the world of human learning. 3. Relations between school studies and home life. Correlation of the pupil's course of study with the world in which he lives. Correlation between the school and the pupils' spiritual and natural environ- ment. 14 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 4. Psychological symmetry. Organisation and uni- fication of knowledge so as to procure mental unity and organisation, and facile use of knowledge. 5. Observation and fixation of the relations as well as the facts learned. V. CULTURE EPOCH THEORY Ontogenetic and phylogenetic development run par- allel. The child in its development follows in general the development of the race. The individual in his mental development repeats the evolution of all mankind from earliest times. Objections to the Culture Epoch Theory 1. We must allow for the present environment in which the child lives. 2. There is great difficulty in interpreting properly and in presenting the past history of the race. 3. It is inadvisable to present all the stages of primitive development. 4. The highest forms of moral life should not be withheld till the child is old, but should be presented as soon as possible. 5. The child has to a great extent absorbed modern views and advanced notions and so will not respond to more primitive appeals. VI. FORMAL STEPS Herbart and Zilier 1. 2. 3. 4. Clearness Analysis (by the teacher). Synthesis (by the child). Association System. Method (function). HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 15 Rein 1. Preparation (of the child's mind). Statement of aim. 2. Presentation. , 3. Association. 4. Condensation. 5. Application. C. A. McMurry 1. Presentation Preparation. Presentation. 2. Elaboration Association and comparison. Generalisation or abstraction. Application. Formal Steps in Outline Preparation. Statement of the aim Reasons for preparation It prevents misunderstanding. It rouses sympathy with the lesson and pre- vents indifference. It affords opportunity for review. Reasons for stating the aim It clears the mind of irrelevant ideas. It encourages the rise of kindred thoughts. It excites expectation. It gives the mind a strong incentive for ex- ercising the will. Kinds of statement of aim 1. A sentence which simply sets forth the work of the new method whole. 2. A question to which no answer is ex- pected and which serves to give a tendency to the pupil's thoughts. 3. A problem or example which introduces some new mathematical or scientific method- whole (i. e., logical division of the subject mat- ter to be presented) containing a general 16 HISTORY OF EDUCATION truth at which the child is to arrive by apper- ception and abstraction. II. Presentation 1. Narrative. 2. Developing. III. Association. Comparison and abstraction. IV. Condensation. Generalisation and classification. 1. Separation of the notional from the con- crete. 2. Formulation of the notional in language. 3. Classification of the conceptions formed. 4. Repetition and fastening of the concept. V. Application To give stability and mobility of knowledge. To exercise knowledge upon practical ques- tions. To increase the content of the general by de- scent to particulars. Objections to the Formal Steps 1. The mind does not form concepts in the manner indicated. As soon as new matter is presented, a crude general notion is formed. 2. Application is placed at the end of the series. Application, however, should be used in each of the steps. It should operate all along the line. 3. The formal steps are not really method. They do not tell the teacher definitely what to do. They are basic principles of method, rather than method. 4. The teacher is placed in the foreground and the child is kept passive, waiting to be 'prepared' and in- structed. 5. The steps ignore the sensorimotor aspect of child life, the play instinct, and all the activities em- phasized by Froebel. VII. DISCIPLINE Government Government aims at producing no result in mental development. It seeks only to create a spirit of order. It deals with the present. HERBART AND THE HERBARTIANS 17 The means of government are : 1. Threats, in case of need, enforced by com- pulsion. 2. Supervision. 3. Authority. 4. Love. Training The direct action on the mind with a view to form habits of action is discipline. It deals with the future, and aims to produce habituation to a fixed order of things. Rules There must be a cultivation of systematic self- activity. The school must be an ethical community. The personality of the teacher should operate in forming- character. Training in general should (1) restrain, (2) exert a determinative influence, and (3) regulate. 18 HISTORY OF EDUCATION FROEBEL Aim of Education. "Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, and to unity with God. Hence it should lift him to a knowledge of himself and of mankind, to a knowledge of God and of nature, and to the pure and holy life to which such knowledge leads." "Education consists in leading man, as a thinking, intelligent being, growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious and free representation of the inner law of Divine Unity, and in teaching him ways and means thereto. ' ' General Principles Self -activity 1. Songs With pictures and imitative movements. Sensorimotor instruction. Aid of rhythm, harmony, movement and pleasure. 2. Games and play Self-control through dramatic impulse. Self- expression of the inner child in a natural manner. 3. Kindergarten Gifts Occupations. Solids, modeling, sloyd, etc. Surfaces, draw- ing, coloring, weaving, plaiting. Lines and points, threading of beads, connecting sticks with wax or cork, etc. Difference between gifts and occupations Gifts Occupations Child takes in or Child gives out or assimilates. expresses. Discovery Invention. Acquisition of Acquisition of ideas. power 4. General value All-sided activity of the whole being called into play. FROEBEL 19 Receptive, reflective and expressive powers are called into play. Instruction aims at formation rather than at information. The inner child is revealed. The dramatic impulse leads to voluntary control. It is originative and creative rather than imitative. There is freedom and natural interest. The love of inventiveness and the love of discovery are cultivated. II. Unity and inner connection. All-sided connect- edness and unbroken unity. 1. Inner connection between Man and God Man and the race Man and the environment. Childhood and youth, youth and manhood. Receptive, reflective and expressive powers. 2. The individual and particular is made gen- eral, and the general is made individual and particular. The external is made internal, and the internal, external. Both are unified. III. The sentiment of personality is cultivated. Each child has his own chair in the kinder- garten. Plays and games encourage initiative. Observation and invention are stimulated by the gifts and occupations. IV. Education in accordance with nature. Development is progressive. Each stage has its special condition and may be assisted by suit- able means. Education must be based upon a study of child nature. V. Education in instruction and training should be passive. Education should guide and protect the child. It should not prescribe, dictate nor interfere. 20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION VI. Love and sympathy for the child. VII. Direct experience with things. Immediate ob- servation and use of the objects in nature. VIII. Association with others. Companionship and social intercourse. IX. Basic principles. 1. Self-activity. 2. Unity. 3. Development. Gifts 1. Colored woolen balls. 3 primary colors (red, blue yellow), 3 secondary (green, purple, orange). Uses Training for the hand and eye. Direction taught — up, down, forward, etc. Qualities, roundness, softness, etc. Exercise of the limbs. 2. Sphere, cube, cylinder (made of wood). Use. Instruction in form, qualities, relation- ship, etc. 3. Large cube cut into 8 small cubes. (First build- ing box.) Form and number. Whole and part. Fractions, addition, subtraction, construction, as real processes. 4. Cube cut into 8 oblong blocks. (Bricks. Second building box.) Number, form, comparison of forms, new series of building exercises, etc. 5. Large cube cut into 27 small cubes. (Third building box.) Form and number. Figure and design. 6. Large cube cut into 27 oblong blocks. (Fourth building box.) More varied exercises. Originality fostered. 7. Surfaces. Squares, half squares, triangles. Mosaic work. Artistic desisrn. FBOEBEL 21 8. Lines, straight (splints), and circular (metal or paper rings). 9. Points. Beans, lentils, peas, leaves, pebbles, pieces of cardboard, paper, etc. 10. Reconstruction. By analysis, the system has passed from the solid to the point. By synthesis, surfaces and solids are now built up. (Softened peas, or wax pellets, sharpened sticks, straws, etc.) Occupations 1. Solids Plastic clay. Cardboard work. "Wood carving, etc. 2. Surfaces Paper folding. Paper cutting. Parquetry. Painting, etc. 3. Lines Interlacing. Intertwining. Weaving. Thread games. Drawing, etc. 4. Points Stringing beads, but- tons, etc. Threading perfora- tions, etc. Control and Spontaneity. Freedom through law and in accord with law. Stimulation and restric- tion. Self direction Means In mat weaving, a definite design in fol- lowed. In color work the col- ors are limited. In paper folding, the forms are restricted. In paper cutting, a logical sequence is necessary. In design there is cre- ative work under limi- tations of material and subject matter. Mother Play I. General scheme 1. The child and nature The seasons Preparation for winter The forces of nature and their relation to man Renewal of plant and animal life in spring 22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 2. The child and the home The mother The family 3. The child and the school 4. The child and the state The farmer The baker The blacksmith 5. The child and his ideals II. Special lesson plan or series of plans. The family 1. Central thought, 'Mother love.' 2. Picture. Mother rocking cradle, or lulling baby to sleep. 3. Story, 'Go to sleep and wake up.' ('In the Child's World') 4. Nature talks. Birds going away. Leaves falling from the trees. 5. Games and Songs. Nursing the baby. (Play with dolls). Finger play and games. Dancing and sleep- ing games. Lullaby songs. 6. General. Plant bulbs. Cocoons. Seeds. 7. Handwork. Clay modeling. Dolly's tea things. Dolls made out of paper, wool, etc. Folding and coloring. The Kindergarten Instincts recognised by the kindergarten 1. Instinct of observation. 2. Instinct of activity. 3. Instinct of construction. 4. Sentiment of personality. Principles of the Kindergarten 1. Exercise of self-activity. 2. Exercise of creative intellect. 3. Organised play is founded on imitative in- stincts (social imitation). 4. Happy and harmonious surroundings are nec- essary in instruction. FROEBEL 23 History First kindergarten was established at Blanken- burg, near Keilhau, in 1837. In 1839 the name 'kindergarten' was given. In 1868-1872, the kindergarten, schools for kin- dergartners, and kindergarten societies were established in America, by Miss Elizabeth Pea- body of Boston, Miss Susan E. Blow, of St. Louis, and Miss Marie Boelte (Mrs. John Kraus) of New York. In 1872 an association was formed at Manchester, England, who founded an institution for the training of kindergartners. The kindergarten spread in France, Italy, and other countries at about the same time as in England and America. 24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PESTALOZZI Aim of Education ' ' The aim of education is to qualify the human being for the free and full use of all the faculties implanted by the Creator, and to direct all those faculties towards the perfection of the whole being of man, that he may be enabled to act in his peculiar station as an instru- ment of that All-wise and almighty Power that has called him to life." Periods of Pestalozzi's Life 1. Childhood and youth, 1746-1771. 2. Neuhof, 1771-1798. 3. Stanz, 1798-1799. 4. Burgdorf and Muenchenbuechsee, 1799-1805. 5. Yverdon, 1805-1825. 6. Neuhof, 1825-1827. Elements of Method 1. Number How many things? How many kinds? Objects and units separate from the rest. Dis- crimination. 2. Form Size and proportion of objects. Representation. Description. 3. Language Sounds. In speaking. In singing. Words. Names of objects (Nouns). Names of characteristics of objects (Adjec- tives). Names of impressions made by objects (Verbs). Words in intimate connection as in speaking. PESTALOZZI 25 General Principles 1. Instruction must be based on ' Anschauung .' It must be based on the learner's direct, first hand experi- ence. 2. Instruction must begin with the simplest elements, and must be carried on step by step. It must follow the development of the child. 3. The chief aim of instruction is not information or skill, but complete development. 4. The individuality of the pupil must be kept sacred. 5. Methods must be gentle. Government must be by love. 6. What the learner gains through his own observa- tion must be connected by language. 7. Child nature must be studied. 8. Basic principles 'Anschauung.' Education for all (Sociological). Complete development of the child. 'Anschauung,' or intuition, is the spontaneous action of the human intelligence by which the mind seizes a reality without effort, hesita- tion, or go-between. It is a direct appercep- tion, made, as it were, at a glance. There may be intuition. (1) of the senses, or sensuous, (2) of the intellect, or intellectual, (3) of the feelings, or moral. Contributions in Arithmetic 1. Arithmetic is taught in the lowest class, by means of perception, and without rules. 2. A knowledge of number is taught before a knowl- edge of figures in the number space from 1 to 10. 3. There is a knowledge of elementary operations before Hindu (Arabic) numerals are given. 4. Hindu numerals follow this training in pure num- ber. 5. Fractions are taught in the same way. 6. Arithmetic is made the most prominent study in the curriculum. 26 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 7. Oral arithmetic is emphasised. 8. Number rather than figures are taught. Mechan- ism is abandoned. Two influences prominent to-day are : (1) Perception as the foundation of number work. (Grube method, number pictures and arrangement of dots). (2) Formal culture as the aim. Herbart's Criticism of Pestalozzi 1. The subjects were chosen without regard to the children's interests. 2. The sentences and subjects were disconnected. The names were solitary and alone. 3. Too much was learned by heart. 4. The children were always learning. There were no stories, conversations, or jokes. Spencer's Criticism of Pestalozzi 1. Pestalozzi gained his principles by flashes of in- sight. He had no formulated theory, and hence his practice was crude. 2. Spelling. Pestalozzi taught spelling in an arbi- trary manner, combining sounds and impressing them by constant repetition. Spencer would have the child proceed from the simple to the complex. The simple to the child is a sound called forth by familiar objects. Moreover, impressions should be markedly contrasted as these are first distinguished. 3. Geography. Pestalozzi divided Germany into a number of mechanical divisions and had the child memorise the names of sections, etc. 4. Nursery method. Pestalozzi taught the child the names of the parts of the body, then the positions of the parts, then the connections, numbers and prop- erties, and finally the uses of the limbs and body. Spencer holds that this is not in the order of evolution. Only markedly contrasted impressions are first dis- tinguished. PESTALOZZI 27 5. Formal exercises in the meanings of words and the construction of sentences as given by Pestalozzi are useless. 6. Spencer wishes to illustrate the principle, 'From the simple to the complex.' According to Spencer, the simplest impressions are those which are most vivid, most contrasting, as, loud sounds, bright lights, re- sisting bodies, etc. We should then pass the impres- sions which are closely allied to the vivid impressions. Pestalozzi 's arrangements are very arbitrary and mechanical. His simple, logical arrangements are not simple for the immature child. What Pestalozzi Left for Herbart to Do 1. The development of a scientific psychology as a scientific basis for education. 2. A scientific application of this psychology to education. 3. The revelation of the possibility of making all the activities of the school room, including especially in- struction, bear directly upon the development of moral character. 4. The completion of perception with apperception. 28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION COMPARISONS Pestalozzi 1. Method is instinctive, emotional, inspira- tional. 2. Emphasis on observa- tion and . imitation. Reproduction. 3. Expression of the child. 4. Productive activity. 5. No connection. 6. Do good for the child. Froebel. Froebel. 1. Method is symbolic and transcendental. 2. Emphasis on observa- tion and invention. Creation. 3. Self-expression. 4. Creative self-activity. 5. Inner connection. 6. Do good through the child. Herbart. Both agree on child study as a basis for a sound pedagogical system. Moral character is the aim of education. Culture__jep_och theory (Herbartian school and FroebelT." 1. Child study to aid the child to work out its own self-development. 2. The work of the child magnified. 3. Self-activity of the child emphasised. 4. Action results from will. 5. The child must make a creative use of mind content. Instruction-creation. 6. Freedom and harmony. 7. Soul is the germ of di- vinity, a creative syn- thesis of external relations. 1. Child study to see what best can be done for the child. 2. The work of the teach- er magnified. 3. Instruction emphasised. 4. Will results from ac- tion. 5. Instruction forms the circle of thought. In- terest, desire, action, will, is the order. 6. Control and guidance. 7. Apperception is intel- lectual enlargement by development. SPENCER I. WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS OF MOST WORTH Test of Knowledge 'Of what use is it?' In savage life idea of ornament precedes idea of dress. Same is true of the school. 'Men dress their children's minds as they do their bodies, in the pre- vailing fashion.' Decorative elements predominate, e. g., Latin, Greek, dancing, singing, drawing, history dates, death of kings, etc. 'How to live? This is the essential question for us.' Questions to Be Considered 1. In what way to treat the body. 2. In what way to treat the mind. 3. In what way to manage our affairs. 4. In what way to bring up a family. 5. In what way to behave as a citizen. "To prepare us for complete living is the function "education has to discharge." Leading Activities of Life 1. Those which minister directly to self-preservation. These are instinctive and are taken care of by nature, e. g., reacting to impressions, movements, etc. 2. Those which by securing the necessities of life indirectly minister to self-preservation, e. g., means of making a livelihood, industrial activities, etc. 3. Those which have for their end the rearing and discipline of children. Duties of the family, which come before those of the state. 4. Those which are involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations, e. g., duties of a citizen. 5. Those miscellaenous activities which make up the leisure part of life devoted to the gratification of the tastes and feelings, e. g., music, poetry, painting, etc. Kinds of Knowledge 1. Knowledge of intrinsic value, as science, which bears immediately on human action. 29 30 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 2. Knowledge of quasi-intrinsic value, as Latin or Greek, which will last only as long as the language lasts. 3. Knowledge of conventional value, as history, a mere tissue of names and dates and dead, unmeaning events. Value of Science 1. Physiology. Knowledge of physiology will aid nature in preserving health. Knowledge of functions of organs and muscles necessary. 2. Mathematics. Deals with space and number. Necessary in carpentry, surveying, building, railway- making, designing, astronomy, etc. Mechanics. Deals with force. Of use in production and distribution of food, clothing, etc., in working of machinery, etc. Physics. Steam-engine, fuel, ventilation, microscope, electricity, magnetism, etc. Chemistry. Printing, sugar-refining, gas-making, soap-boiling, glass manufacture, distilling, agriculture, etc. Biology. Dietetics, food, agriculture. Science of society. Necessary for all who deal in human affairs. ' ' The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown to what we are and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge that has got itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead for- mulas. ' ' 3. Knowledge of physiology necessary for the rear- ing of children. Only general principles. 4. History as taught deals only with dates, kings, court intrigues, battles, etc. What constitutes a great part of history, and what is omitted in the school, are accounts of social progress, governments, social observ- ances, customs, industrial systems, arts, degree of cul- ture, of education, of esthetics, and daily life of the people and their morality as indicated in laws, prov- erbs, deeds, etc. Biology and psychology. Knowledge of the individ- SPENCER 31 ual is also necessary to understand human nature, and to study history. 5. Science is also necessary in the case of the fine arts, belles-lettres, etc. Sculpture. Based upon laws of physics and me- chanics. Painting. Depends upon laws of perspective, etc. Music. Based upon emotion. Poetry. Based upon laws of expression and nervous action. The artist must understand the laws of the phenom- ena which he represents. Appreciation of art depends similarly upon a knowl- edge of the laws of the phenomena, which are repre- sented. Additional pleasure is given by such knowl- edge. Science itself is poetic. Poetry in a drop of water, if properly appreciated and understood. Educated mind sees more and appreciates more. (In all of the five leading activities, science is the most important study. Fine arts, belles-letters, etc., occupy the leisure part of life, and so should occupy the leisure part of education.) Guidance and Discipline Education for guidance is also the best for dis- cipline. Memory is exercised by the facts of science. Con- nections in science are causal, and not arbitrary as in language. Judgment is cultivated by science. Knowledge of phenomena and of the way in which they depend upon one another leads to good judgment. Moral discipline. Grammatical rules and dictionary meanings result in dogmatic teaching and suppression of individual judgment. Science appeals to individual reason. It requires patient industry and study of facts. Science is religious since it creates a respect for and a faith in the uniform laws which underlie all things. 32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION II. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION Old Practices 1. Learning by rote, e. g., mechanical ways of teach- ing, memorising of tables, dates, etc., repetition with- out meaning, and the like. 2. Teaching by rules. Giving the net product of in- quiry without the inquiry that leads to it. Giving gen- erals without particulars, and before them. 3. Teaching of grammar. Grammar should come after language and not before it. New Practices 1. Culture of the power of observation. Education of the senses. 2. Presentation of things in the concrete. Actual yard, pound, gallon, etc., in arithmetic, models in geog- raphy, etc. 3. Pleasurable acquisition of knowledge. Value of play, nursery rhymes, fairy tales, excursions, variety, etc. "Education must conform to the natural process of evolution. There is a certain sequence in which the faculties spontaneously develop, and a certain kind of knowledge which each requires during its develop- ment. It is for us to ascertain this sequence and supply this knowledge." General Principles 1. Proceed from the simple to the complex. Begin with few subjects at once and successively adding to these finally carry on all subjects abreast. 2. Proceed from the concrete to the abstract. 3. Education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement with the education of man considered historically. Inquiry into the history of civilisation will be necessary. 4. Proceed from the empirical to the rational. Everything should have a purely experimental intro- duction. Reasoning should follow after an ample fund of observations has been accumulated. SPENCER 33 5. Self-development should be encouraged to the fullest extent. Children should be led to make their own observations and to draw their own conclusions. They should be told as little as possible and induced to discover as much as possible. 6. As a final test by which to judge any plan of cul- ture should come the question: Does it create a pleas- urable excitement in the pupils? Healthful action is always pleasurable. 7. Education should begin from the cradle. General Method 1. Culture of the senses. Begin with vivid impres- sions, due to resistance, sound and light. Supply ob- jects which present different degrees and kinds of resistance, different qualities of light, and a sufficiency of sounds. 2. Object lessons. Show sympathy with the efforts of the child to discover, explore, name, express him- self, etc. Object lessons should include the contents of the home, the fields and hedges, the quarry and the seashore. They should continue through childhood and youth. 3. Drawing. Spontaneous efforts made by the child to represent men, houses, trees, and animals should be respected. Things which are large and attractive should be drawn first. Color used in the beginning. No formal lessons at first, no copies, or drawings of straight, curved, or compound lines. Perspective taught by observation through a vertical plate glass. Trace lines of the object as seen through the glass 4. Geometry. Cutting of cardboard for card houses, drawing designs for color work, use of cubes in arith- metic, etc., give elementary conceptions in geometry. Give interesting and concrete problems, as, bisecting of a line, erecting a perpendicular, describing a square, bisecting an angle, etc. 34 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Two Basic Principles 1. Process should be one of self -development. This secures vividness and permanence of impressions. What the pupil has acquired himself yields excitement consequent upon success and a basis for further ac- quisition, and gives him a feeling of confidence in him- self. 2. The mental action induced should be intrinsically grateful. Pleasurable acquisition results in retention, concentration, interest, and desire to study further. III. MORAL EDUCATION Discipline of Consequences Laws of nature 1. Misconduct is followed by pain. 2. Reaction is inevitable. 3. Reactions are proportionate to the degree in which the organic laws have been transgressed, e. g., a slight accident, a slight pain. 4. Natural reactions are constant, direct, unhes- itating, and not to be escaped. No threats, but a silent, rigorous performance. If a child runs a pin into its finger, pain follows. 5. Natural reactions hold in social and industrial life. An avaricious tradesman loses his customers, a careless doctor his patients. Illustrations Child who makes a litter is made to collect things and clean up. If he refuses he is not allowed to use them again, is deprived of the toys he left on the floor, etc. Child who is not ready for a walk is left behind. Child who breaks a toy or loses a penknife is forced to go without it. Results 1. Right conception of cause and effect are formed. 2. Pure justice is applied. 3. No personal anger or ruffled feelings. 4. Parental and filial relations are apt to be more friendly. SPENCER 35 Grave oii'ences. Forcible prevention is called for if the consequence is too dangerous, as in risk of broken limbs, playing with open razor, etc. (N. 13. Rousseau. not Spencer, applies discipline of consequences to ex- treme). Practical rules 1. Do not expect from the child any great amount of moral goodness. 2. Do not set up high standards for juvenile good conduct. 3. Be content with moderate measures and mod- erate results. 4. Leave the children, wherever you can, to the discipline of consequences. 5. Do not, however, behave as an utterly passion- less instrument, as your approbation and disappro- bation is also a natural consequence. 6. Be sparing of commands. 7. Remember that your aim is to produce a self- governing being, not a being to be governed by others. 8. Do not regret the exhibition of considerable self-will on the part of your children. 9. Remember that to educate rightly is not a sim- ple and easy thing, but a complex and extremely dif- ficult thing. IV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION General Directions 1. Do not limit the quantity of food. Follow the ap- petite of the children. 2. Diet of children should be far more nutritious than that of adults. The child grows fast, exercises a great deal, and loses heat rapidly. 3. Give mixture of foods, as bread, meat, vegetables, etc. Allow of variety. 4. Clothe children properly. Hardening of children is a fallacy. "Children are not infrequently hardened out of the world." Protect the body from an abiding sense of cold. 5 : Allow exercise. Break the morning and afternoon lessons by a few minutes' open air exercise and recrea- tion. This applies to girls as well as to boys. 6. Avoid excessive study as this hinders growth. 36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION ROUSSEAU Periods of Education 1. Infancy. General principles Nature is good. Education is derived from nature, man and things. Natural man is complete in himself. Education begins at birth. 'To live is the trade I wish to teach him.' 'The only habit which the child is to form is to contract no habits whatever.' There should be no swaddling clothes. The mother should be the nurse. There should be a hardening process. Bathe the child frequently, in winter and summer. Crying spells due to obstinacy or habit are not to be heeded. Distinct articulation should be insisted on in the nurse. The child should have a tutor. The tutor should be young and wise. The poor need no education. 2. Childhood, 5 to 12. Physical education. Instruc- tion through experience, by means of senses. (Child — one who can speak). Physical education Hardening process No head dress should be worn. Scanty dresses worn in cold weather. The child should run barefoot. He should be allowed full freedom. Discipline of consequences If he bumps himself let him suffer. If the window is open, let him catch cold. If he oversleeps himself, let him stay at home and miss his trip. Exercise Play and games. Climbing trees. Scaling rocks. Leaping over brooks. Running, with cakes as prizes. ROUSSEAU 37 Experience with things. Observation The child has no reason and hence can not con- ceive moral duties. There should be no real memory work, no verbal repetition, no books, no learning by heart. Reading because of interest. (Note and letter device). Geometry and drawing empirical. Speech, simple clear, distinct. Education at first negative. It should not teach virtue and truth, but should shield the heart from vice and the mind from error. 3. Boyhood, 12 to 15. Intellectual education. Pass- age from sensations to ideas. Geography The home surroundings should be explained first, and then the surrounding neighborhood. Rising of the sun, etc., should be shown. In the Montmorency episode, Emile was taught direc- tion, by having to find his way out of the woods. Simple maps. Science Actual observation and experiment. The child should make simple instruments himself. Beading Robinson Crusoe (a model of a man in nature and away from civilisation). Trade Child should learn a trade. Connect ideas with manual work. Cabinet making and carpentry. Make the child a thinking and an active being. Interest Interest should be the motive of instruction. ' What is this good for ? ' should be the criterion. 4. Youth, 15 to 20. Moral and religious education. The previous education was with things. The present is with men. Sympathy and pity Show Emile the misery in the world and let him know it may be his own. 38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION History This should introduce him to a study of men. Show him goodness and justice in the concrete. Time for fables. Let him discover the moral himself. 'At the age of fifteen he did not know that he had a soul.' Travel Finish his education with travel. Interest and observation. Meaning of Nature 1. Return to simplicity. Encourage desire to study, and interest in the study. Do away with useless devices in instruction, as maps, charts, books, etc. 2. Return to reality. Present things before symbols. 3. Personal experience is to be emphasised rather than authority. Individualism. 4. Original nature versus ideal nature. Original nature is what is given in all its crudity. Ideal nature is the result of education, training, culture, etc. The one is only a basis on which the other is to be con- sidered. Original nature in itself can result only in illiteracy, ignorance and a low state of morality. Objections to Rousseau 1. Moral. The use of brute force as the sole means of education is dehumanising. Use of self-interest as a motive is immoral. Reason and conscience are denied the child. Discipline is a system of espionage. Discipline of consequences is prudential and not moral. A moral act requires intention. It implies right action under a sense of duty. This is im- possible because of dependence on the tutor. Social influences are necessary to develop the ideas of right and wrong. The child is to feel only present pleasure. Morality can not be put off till the fifteenth vear. ROUSSEAU 39 2. Nature as conceived by Rousseau is an abstraction. Culture is not incompatible with virtue. Robinson Crusoe really had all the results of civilisation to help him on his desert isle. 3. Exclusiveness. The poor are not cared for. 4. Impracticability . Sufficient tutors are not avail- able. Nor are there enough desert isles to go round. Some Results of Rousseau's Emile 1. Natural interests and instincts are recognised as the basis for instruction. 2. Education is conceived as a process, the process of living, which is to continue from birth through man- hood. 3. The educational machinery is simplified. Artificial features are cut away. Sense experience is appealed to. Geography is taught in the woods and fields and at home. 4. The child is a positive factor in education. Sym- pathy is the basis of discipline. 5. A new interpretation of nature and natural de- velopment. (1) Native instincts, power and capacities are developed. (2) Facts and phenomena of nature, and na- ture's laws are studied. (3) Individualism and individual development are recognised. Manual work and trade should be taught. Education is emotional and moral rather than intellectual. Formalism is opposed. Three Demands Responded To. 1. Freedom of movement from the time of birth. 2. Direct experience as the basis of instruction. No verbal learning. 3. Use of the hands in the production of useful arti- cles. Manual work. 40 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Characteristics of the Illumination 1. Observation of form and ceremony. 2. Atheistic and sceptical. Supreme faith in reason and in the individual. 3. Freedom of thought, liberty of conscience, suf- ficiency of reason for the conduct of life. (Locke, Vol- taire). 4. Rebellion against the absolutism of the Church and the conventions of society. Opposition to the authority of institutions. Predecessors to Rousseau 'Rabelais, Montaigne, Locke, Rousseau form a suc- cession.' Points of agreement between these educational writers. 1. Care for a single child and consequent neglect of the education of the people. 2. The degrading of learning from the first place and placing main stress on virtue and the formation of character. 3. Importance of physical education. 4. Condemnation of harshness, and the demand that the child should be made happy in his work. 5. Condemnation of large schools. 6. Employment of a governor or tutor who is to be wise rather than learned. 7. Condemnation of instruction which inculcates, not, how to think, but, what to think, or simply, what to remember. 8. Teaching at first hand, i. e., by the senses or by direct experience. 9. Travel should be made a part of education. 10. Games should be used for educational purposes. 11. Some handicraft should be taught. EOUSSEAU 41 BASEDOW AND THE PHILANTHROPINUM The Philanthropinum The philanthropinum was an institute founded at Dessau, 1774. Aim was to apply the principles of Rousseau. Principles. Everything according to nature. Treat children like children. Use the senses of the child. Verbal memory is to be reduced. Method. Language. French and Latin taught by familiar conversation about some objects presented. Word-of -command game. At direction, in Latin, by the teacher, boys begin to sew like tailors, shut their eyes, look about, etc., thus acting out the command. Hiding game. Some one writes the name of a part of a plant, animal, metal, etc., and the children try to guess it. The successful one gets an apple or a piece of cake. Imitation by the children of noises of different ani- mals, at the command of the teacher. Arithmetic. Viva Voce method. Drawing. Pupils guide the teacher as he draws some animal, and correct him as he pretends to go wrong. Defects. Exercises are only kindergarten exercises. They should be restricted to children of the kindergar- ten age. It was carried on beyond the proper age and grade, and failed to keep pace with the child's develop- ment. 42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION RABELAIS Educational Satire Grandgousicr appoints Tubal Holofernes the tutor of Gargantua. He wastes his time teaching him A, B, C, writing, and empty scholastic writers. Then Gargantua was placed under Jobelin Bride, who continued along the same lines. Grandgousier found that his son was becoming 'a sot, a dolt, a fool, and a blackguard.' He complains to Philip of Marays. Philip brings in his page Eudemon, who is well conducted, well man- nered, and of proper speech. Ponocrates, the tutor of Eudemon, is given charge of Gargantua. Reforms of Ponocrates Ponocrates finds that Gargantua does little studying, and eats, sleeps and drinks too much. He proceeds slowly in his reforms, because 'Nature can not endure a sudden change without great violence.' He spends the day with Gargantua as follows : Daybreak He woke Gargantua at 'four, read Scriptures to him, and expounded the most difficult points. The lessons of the day were repeated to him, while he was being dressed, combed, etc. Then lectures for three hours were given. After this exercise was taken in the field at tennis or ball. Dinner During dinner they read history, and discussed the viands, etc., referring to appropriate sentences in the classics, and talked over the lessons finished in the morning, and finished with a hymn of thanks. After dinner they played with cards to learn tricks grounded on arithmetic. Geometry, astronomy, and arithmetic were learned by making pretty instruments, geometrical designs, etc. Gargantua then studied three hours, repeated the morning lecture, and practised writing, draAving, antique and Roman letters. Outdoor exercise followed: riding, fencing, hunting, wrestling, skipping ditches, springing hedges, jumping walks, etc. Supper followed. RABELAIS 43 Supper The supper was large. (The dinner was just large enough to satisfy hunger). At supper they discoursed learnedly and profitably, and finished by giving thanks. Supper was followed by music, or sports with cards or dice. The fields were visited to observe the sky, stars, comets, etc., during which time they recapitu- lated the work done during the day. They ended with prayer and went to bed. Rainy days On rainy days the forenoon was spent in the same manner as usual. In the afternoon Gargantua was ex- ercised by bottling hay, cleaving and sawing wood, threshing sheaves of corn, etc. Then he studied the art of painting or carving. They went to see the draw- ing of metals, goldsmiths at work, alchemists, uphol- sterers, weavers, framers, etc., 'to learn and consider the industry and invention of the trades.' They went also to public lectures, lawyers' pleadings, sermons, etc., to fencing halls, shows, etc. Learning, at first difficult, 'became, a little after, so sweet, easy, and so delightful, that it seemed rather the recreation of a king, than the study of a scholar.' Advice of Gargantua to His Son Pantagruel by Letter Proceed from good to better. Become 'completely well-bred and accomplished, as well in virtue, honesty and valor, as in all liberal knowledge and civility.' Learn the languages, first Greek, then Latin, then Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic; also the liberal arts, history, civil law, and philosophy. Learn the works of nature, the seas, rivers, trees, fish, fowls, metals, etc. Study the Holy Scriptures. 'Let me see thee an abyss and bottomless pit of knowledge. ' Practice exercise, chivalry, and warfare. Haunt the company of learned men. 'Be service- able to thy neighbors.' 'Reverence thy preceptors, shun the conversation of those whom thou desirest not to resemble. 44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Principles to Be Derived 1. Physical exercise and gymnastics should be taken. 2. Virtue, breeding and character should be cared for. 3. Learning should be made sweet, easy and delight- ful. 4. There should be nature study and "experiments with objects. 5. A wise tutor should be chosen. 6. Games, etc., should be used in instruction. 7. The pupil should learn a trade. 8. Verbal disputation and memory and scholastic dis- cussion are useless. 9. Good company should be sought. MONTAIGNE Aim of Educatidh* * * r * -**•'**» To breed a complete gentleman. ' 'Tis not the soul, 'tis not a body we are training, but a man, and we ought not to divide him.' 'He is not a gentleman, sir, he is a grammarian, and I am a logician.' Education 1. Physical. The boy is to be inured to t toil and vehement exercise, labor, etc. He should exercise in running, wrestling, music, dancing, hunting, riding. 2. Moral. Virtue and good manners should be taught. Practical philosophy, cheerfulness and tranquil wis- dom should be emphasised. In company the pupil should show modesty, silence, no vanity, and no interruption. He should submit to the truth. He should carefully observe others. There should be emulation of the good and contempt for the bad. 3. Instruction. Teaching should be based on direct experience with things. Words are to be understood. There should be no bookish learning. Conscience and virtue are to be taught. Reason should be used as a guide. LOCKE 45 History. Study great characters, manners, cus- toms, and try to understand reasons. Language. Mother tongue should be taught and then allied modern languages. Latin and Greek are purely ornamental. Latin should be taught by speak- ing it. Travel. Study the humors, manners, customs and laws of men. Method. 'Severe sweetness.' 'Away with this violence, away with this compulsion.' Discourse and reading with the pupil. Conscience and understand- ing rather than memory. 4. Tutor. He should be an accomplished cavalier and fine gentleman, rather than learned. He should have manners and judgment before wide reading. He should correct the pupil if wrong, and allow him to ex- perience things for himself. LOCKE Aim of Education A sound mind in a sound body. Physical Education 1. Harden children to heat and cold. Wash the body and feet in cold water. Let the child learn swimming and lead an open-air life. 2. Diet. Give the child little meat, spice or sugar, but much brown bread. Let the meals be irregular. Let the drink be small beer but no strong liquor. Ripe fruit is good. 3. Sleep. Eight hours sleep is necessary. The child should be waked gently. There should be little or no physic. Habits (Formation of Character) 1. Keep children to practice by kind words, gentle admonitions, etc., rather than by harsh rebukes. 2. Endeavor not to settle too many habits at once, lest by variety you confound. "The foundation of all virtue and worth is placed in this: That a man is able to deny himself his own de- 46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION sires, cross his own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as best, though the appetite lean the other way. ' ' (Physical habits should be formed as above sug- gested). Four Requisites of a Gentleman 1. Virtue. 3. Breeding. 2. Wisdom. 4. Learning. Virtue 1. Possess the proper religious ideas. 2. Preserve the mind from notions of spirits, goblins, fearful apprehensions in the dark, etc. 3. Form the habit of exactly speaking the truth. 4. Develop good nature. Injustice generally springs from too great love of ourselves and too little of others. Wisdom Wisdom is a man's managing his business ably and with foresight in the world and is the product of a natural good temper, application of mind, and experi- ence. It is thefore above children. Preparation for wisdom is possible by (1) Prevention of cunning, tricks, and circum- vention. (2) Truth and sincerity. (3) Submission to reason and reflection on one's own actions. Breeding The opposites to good breeding are roughness, con- tempt or want of respect, censoriousness or fault-find- ing, raillery, contradiction, captiousness, excess of cere- mony, interruption, and dispute. Good company influences breeding. LOCKE . 47 Learning 1. Beading. The alphabet is to be learned through play. Use of an ivory ball with letters pasted on. Child should play with this as with dice. 2. Writing. First, hold the pen properly. In black ink, go over letters printed in red ink. The letters should be large at first, and then smaller. 3. Drawing should emphasise perspective and skill. 4. Language. English should be taught first, then French, then Latin. Latin should be taught like Eng- lish, by speech and without grammar. Translate by writing the English version over the Latin. There should be no themes on abstract subjects, no construing, no versifying, and not much learning by heart. 5. Geography. Use the globe. 6. Other subjects to be taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, chronology, history, ethics, civil law, law, rhetoric, logic, style, natural philosophy, dancing, fenc- ing, riding and music. No Greek is to be given. 7. Travel. Education should end with travel. 8. Trade. Pupil should learn a trade. Gardening or husbandry, carpentry; also varnishing, graving, work- ing in iron, brass, silver, polishing precious stones, etc.; merchants' accounts. Tutor 1. Qualifications. He should be well bred, as breed- ing is acquired only in good company. He should know the ways of the world and should inform the pupil gradually of the vices and of the evil ways of men. He should teach prudence. The tutor should possess sobriety, temperance, ten- derness, diligence and discretion. He should be discreet, sober wise. 2. Duties. He should fashion the carriage and form the mind of his pupil. He should settle good habits and the principles of virtue and wisdom. He should instil the love of what is excellent and praiseworthy. He should develop vigor, activity and industry. 48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION The studies which are to be set are merely exercises of the faculties and employments of time to keep the pupil from sauntering and idleness. They are to teach him application and painstaking, and to give him a taste of what his own industry must perfect. Discipline 1. To be avoided Punishments, beating, chiding, rewards (nattering of the appetite), and tasks. 2. To be followed Esteem and disgrace, few rules, 'Repeated practice, and the same action done over and over again, under the eye and direction of the tutor till they have got the habit of doing it well.' Good company and example. COMENIUS Aim and Scope of Education Life is a preparation for eternity. The three steps in this preparation are : 1. Knowledge. Man should know all things. 2. Virtue. He should have power over all things and over himself. 3. Piety. He should refer himself and all things to God, the Source of all. Nature gives the seeds of knowledge, virtue and piety, but education must develop them. Education must begin when the mind is tender and soft. There should be schools in all parts of the empire and for all the youth of all sexes alike. There should be popular education. The school is a place where 1. Minds are instructed in wisdom to penetrate all things. 2. Souls and their affections are guided to a uni- versal harmony of the virtues. COMENIUS 49 3. Hearts are allured to divine love. The means are 1. Lengthening of life by the best use of life and care of health. 2. Shortening of methods. 3. Seizing of opportunities so as to learn surely. 4. Enlarging the powers of perception to learn easily. 5. Laying a sure and immovable foundation to learn solidly. Art of Education — Method Applied to Education One teacher for a class of 100 means 1. Class divided into sections, each section of 10 under an inspector. 2. Whole class taught at once and together. Attention is secured 1. By presenting matter agreeable and profitable. 2. By preparing pupils' minds by questions, etc. 3. By standing in an elevated position, and re- quiring all eyes fixed upon the teacher. 4. By presenting things to the senses. 5. By throwing out frequent questions. 6. By passing on a question without repeating it, if it is missed. 7. By putting the question to the class and prais- ing him who first answers. 8. By allowing pupils to ask questions when the lesson is finished. The same book is used in a class. The book is in the form of dialogue. The pupils do the same thing at the same time. The teacher should arrange a proper schedule and program. There should be uniformity in method. Teach fundamental things. Properly word all rules. Few words should be used. Teach two or three things in connection and at the same time, e. g., words with things, reading with writ- ing, etc. 50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Proceed step by step. Remove the causes of retardation by a wise neglect of unnecessary knowledge, of unnecessary things alien to a pupil's nature, and by not going too much into detail. Method of Teaching Basic principles 1. Follow nature. 2. Uniformity in all things 3. Continuity, sequence, and serial order 4. Practice (expression), and sense impression 5. Popular and complete education. Pansophy. Encyclopedic training. General method 1. Learn to do by doing. 2. Present to as many senses as possible. 3. Things before words 4. One thing at a time and in proper sequence 5. Understanding before memory Science 1. Present things before words. 2. Things of use around us the basis of instruction. 3. The whole and then its parts taught success- ively. 4. Present to as many senses as possible. 5. Give the causes of the thing. Arts 1. Things to be done learned by doing them. 2. Examples, forms, norms to be presented. 3. Imitation at first to be as close to the model as possible. Later more freedom to be allowed. 4. Errors to be corrected on the spot. Rules and directions should be given. 5. Exercise and practice are to be continued till the habit of art has been obtained. Language 1. First the vernacular; then the neighboring tongues; then Latin COMENIUS 51 2. Language is learned rather by practice than by precept 3. Precept is to aid and strengthen practice. 4. Uniformity of method is to be followed in all tongues. 5. The first exercises in a new tongue should be about known subjects. Morality 1. All the virtues are to be implanted in youth. 2. Virtues are to be learned by doing them. 3. Bad companions are to be avoided. 4. Example and precept as of parents, teacher, school fellows, etc. 5. The means of discipline should be reproof and punishment. Piety 1. Begin in infancy. 2. Devotion is to be expressed by the proper at- titude. 3. There should be practice in the doing of virtues. 4. There should be meditation, prayer, self-exam- ination. 5. The pagan authors should be used with caution. School Management and Discipline There should be properly graded classes. The class should be under a single teacher. Studies should be properly graded with a solid foundation. There should be uniformity in school books, methods, etc., and continuity in instruction, programs, sched- ules, etc. The desire for learning should be stirred up in pupils : 1. Parents must praise learning and learned men. 2. The teacher must be kind and fatherly. He must praise, reward, and present pleasurable objects in his instruction. 3. The school building must be light, airy, and pleasant. 52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 4. Subjects must be pleasant and adapted to the learner. 5. Method must be natural. There should be ex- aminations and rewards. Discipline should be severe only where morals are concerned. Discipline 1. End of discipline is not the punishment of transgressors, but the prevention of a recur- rence of the fault. 2. Matter of discipline. Only morals, and not studies are concerned. 3. Method of discipline (1) Example of the teacher (2) Words of instruction, exhortation and re- proof (3) Where gentler methods fail, extreme meth- ods are to be used. Practical Hints for the Teacher 1. Let the teacher not teach as much as he is able to, but as much as the pupil is able to learn. 2. Whatever the teacher wishes the pupils to do, let him himself point out the way by himself doing it. 3. Let not the pupils be overburdened by a mass of things. 4. Teach things together. Objects and words, read- ing, writing and speaking, should be taught together. 5. Never dismiss any subject which has been begun till it is thoroughly finished. Things should be accurate and firmly fixed. A solid foundation should be laid. School System 1. School of infancy. There should be a mother's school in every house. The elements of all the arts and sciences should be taught through the external senses, by play, constructions, etc. Bodily health should be a prime object. 2. Vernacular school. There should be a vernacular school in every parish. The inner senses, imagination, RATICH 53 and memory should be cultivated. The subjects should be, reading, writing, drawing, singing, counting, meas- uring, weighing, and learning by heart, geography and Scripture. There should be six classes (six-year course) and four hours daily. In the morning the lessons should exercise the memory and the understanding. In the afternoon the voice and hand should be exercised. Nothing new is to be attempted in the afternoon. 3. Latin school or gymnasium in every large town. The understanding and the judgment are to be de- veloped. The subjects are to be the seven liberal arts, physics, geography, chronology, history, ethics, and the- ology. The school is for boys who are to be trained for positions higher than artisans. 4. University in every country or large province. De- velopment of the will and the reduction of the mind to harmony are to be aimed at. The subjects are to be the- ology, mental philosophy, medicine, and jurisprudence. Authors of every kind are to be studied. Each school is to have a six years' course. RATKE OR RATICH Method in Language Vernacidar Genesis read by the teacher twice to the class, the children following with eye and finger. (After they know their letters). Teacher read about four lines, the children read- ing after, and so on through the book. Children then read the book without assistance. Grammar finally taken up after these readings. Latin A play of Terence used Substance of the play gotten either by reading a translation, or by the teacher's explanation Translation by the teacher, word for word, twice Boys begin to translate, aided by the teacher. 54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION At the fourth translation, the boys use grammar before them. Further analysis of the author. Aims 1. Easy learning of Hebrew, Greek, Latin and other languages 2. Establishment of schools in which the arts and sciences may be taught and propagated. 3. Introduction and preservation of a uniform language, a uniform government, and a uni- form religion throughout the whole empire. General principles 1. Everything according to nature 2. One thing at a time 3. In language one author thoroughly studied; from him language should be taught 4. One thing often repeated 5. Everything first in the mother tongue 6. Everything without compulsion No whipping Love and reverence for the teacher 7. Nothing learned by heart. Understanding to be used. 8. Unity in all things, in method, in books used, precepts given, etc. Parallel grammars in German, Hebrew, Greek, etc. 9. First the thing itself, and then the way of the thing. Material before rules 10. Everything by experience and investigation of parts. Induction and experiment. MILTON Tractate on Education "The end of learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge, to love him, to imitate him, to be like him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up the highest perfection.' MILTON 55 "I call, therefore, a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war." The Academy 150 pupils, 20 attendants, 1 head. School and uni- versity combined Studies (12 to 21 years of the pupil's life). Latin and Latin classics. Later, Greek morals in Plutarch, Quintillian. Agriculture in Cato, Yarro Geography by globes and maps. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy Fortification, architecture, navigation Natural philosophy, minerals, plants, animals Poetry, Orpheus, Hesiod, Theocritus, Virgil Economics, tragedy, politics Law, Moses, Lycurgus, Solon. Justinian, Saxon and common law Theology, Scriptures. Hebrew Orations, Cicero, Demosthenes Logic, rhetoric, Plato, Aristotle Exercise Fencing, wrestling, war exercises in marching and on horse Explorations of the surrounding country Travel at 23 or 24 Diet Plain, healthful, moderate General Learning based on things of the sense No themes, verses or orations No verbal study. Words based on 'the solid things in them.' (See Johnson's criticism of the course of study, in his essay on Milton) 56 HISTORY OF EDUCATION ASCHAM The Schoolmaster General purpose 1. A method of learning Latin 2. A protest against harsh methods First Book. The Bringing up of youth First steps in Latin. Construe and parse lesson over and over again. Translate the lesson into English. Retranslate the English back into Latin in a second book. Much writing is to aid speaking General method and discipline. 'Love is better than fear, gentleness than beating, to bring up a child rightly in learning.' Use praise and gentleness in teaching. Nature is punished when slow wits are punished. Learning is to be a pastime. It is disliked because of the beatings, etc., in school. Young years are the aptest in learning. Good company and council. Domestic dis- cipline. Keep the child from what is ill, rather than teach what is good. Good ex- ample important Second Book. The ready way to the Latin tongue Translation. Cicero, Terence, Caesar, Livy Teacher translates the lesson into English and give to pupils to render in Latin. Compare with the original. Also write a letter and give pupil to translate into Latin. Method criticised Translation Paraphrase, not good. Models are spoiled. Metaphrase same as paraphrase, save that it is from prose to verse, or verse to prose. Not good Epitome not to be used, except where the original is too full. JACOTOT 57 Imitation. All language is gotten only by imitation. Best models to be used in poetry, history, philosophy, oratory. JACOTOT Paradoxes 1. 'All human beings are equally capable of learn- ing. ' When there is a will there is a way. 2. 'Everyone can teach; and, moreover, can teach that which he does not know himself.' The pupil must help himself to learn. All he needs are the materials. The teacher, however, must direct, and hence must know his subject. 3. 'All is in all.' The pupil must learn one thing thoroughly, and must refer everything to that. Jacotot made his pupils learn six books of Fenelon's Telemaque by heart. The text was recited on twice a week, and exercises of all sorts constructed on it. Steps in Jacotot 's Method 1. Learn some characteristic thing thoroughly. 2. Repeat that something incessantly so that it will never be forgotten. 3. Reflect over what has been learned. Let it be appreciated and understood so well that other parts may be referred to it. 4. Verify by comparison with what you have learned, any rules, expressions, etc., across which you may come. II GBEEK EDUCATION Old Greek Education Aim. To train the individual for the city, state. Valor (Sparta) Wisdom (Athens) 'A speaker of words and a doer of deeds.' Virtues cultivated Modesty Reverence Purity Hardihood Strength Sociability Patriotism Spartan Education. Aim. Strength, physical endurance, complete sub- ordination to the state. Self-sacrifice, justice, honor, patriotism. Means in general. Rigorous gymnastics, music, dancing, military drill. Childhood, 1 to 7 Exposure of weak children. Home education by games, play, myths. Boyhood, 7 to 18 Gymnastics, music, choric dancing (larceny). Barracks, companies, etc., in public, and under state supervision. Youth, 18 to 30 (Ephebe or cadet) Light arms for 2 years. Later, heavy arms. Shooting, riding, swimming, brutal conflicts. Manhood, 30 (Citizen) War, hunting, guardianship, marriage. Athenian Education. Spartan education is public, Athenian is private. Sparta educates for war, Athens for peace. Childhood, 1 to 7 (Family education) Play, myths, stories. Care of the mother. 58 GREEK EDUCATION 59 Boyhood, 7 to 14 (School) Promenade to school under the care of a peda- gogue. Music Poetry, Homer, Hesiod. Writing of verses from dictation. Reading, intonation, articulation. Music proper. Doric airs accompanied by the lyre or cithara. Gymnastics Leaping, running, discus throwing, javelin throwing, wrestling. Dancing, combines music and gymnastic pan- tomimes, and choric dances. Youth, 14 to 16 (College). Ephebe at 13 Greater freedom. Public instruction. Gym- nastics more violent. Training for cit- izenship by discourse with older men. 18. Ephebe or cadet. First year, drill m arms. Second year, frontier duty Citizens, 20 (University) Public service and military duty New Greek Education Individualism and philosophy prominent Causes 1. Increase in commerce t 2. Increasing influence of the commercial classes. Rights of citizenship granted to the com- mercial classes 3. Influx of foreign men, ideas, and habits and of foreign gods, which broke up conservatism 4. Teaching of the Sophists: 'Man is the measure of all things.' Results 1. Increased attention to literature on its formal side 60 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 2. New writers substituted for the old epic and lyric poets 3. New and complicated kinds of music 4. Relaxation of moral and physical discipline Aim 1. Individual happiness 2. Moral sanction in the individual and not in the state Socrates 1. 'Know thyself.' 2. Socratic questioning (1) Mental midwifery and (2) Socratic irony 3. Virtue is knowledge Xenophon Attempt to return to Spartan civic training A freeman's square, in four parts, one for boys, one for youths (ephebes), one for mature men, and one for men beyond the military age. Boyhood. Learn justice, obedience, and self discip- line in eating and drinking. Cadet. Hunting, contests, guard duty. Manhood. Public service and military duty. Elders. Judges. Choose officials. Note. The scheme is purly political. There is no education for women. Nothing is said of intellectual training. Empha- sis is on conduct. Plato— The Republic Evils to be removed are 1. Defective education of children. 2. Neglect of women. 3. Disorganisation of the state through excessive individualism. GREEK EDUCATION 61 State is the individual writ large Faculties Intellect Spirit Reason in Head I Philosophers I Prudence Virtues Courage in Heart Desire Appetite in Abdomen Warriors Money-making class Courage Temperance 1. Prudence. Reason rules the whole man. 2. Fortitude. Spirit takes its directions from the reason in its attitude towards pleasure and pain. 3. Temperance. Spirit and appetite come to agreement with reason as to when each shall act. 4. Justice. Each confines itself to its proper sphere. Education is nurture Demands 1. A noble nature 2. Training through habit 3. Instruction Means of securing these 1. Selection of parents 2. Music and gymnastics 3. Philosophy Periods of instruction State control at birth 3. Story telling 7. Gymnastics 10. Letters and music 16. Mathematics 18. Military drill 20. Selection for the soldier class 62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 20-30. Novices in the ruling class. Study of science, including arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. 30-35. Dialectic and rise to pure ideas. 35-50. Higher public officers. Attainment of supreme good. General Homer is proscribed. Only manly music, as Dorian and Phrygian is permitted. Lydian and Ionian airs are prohibited. No effeminate poetry is allowed. The Republic and the Laws Compared Republic Laws Moral sanction in the pure Moral sanction in the pop- intellect of the philoso- ular consciousness, its laws, its gods, ethical notions and traditions as pher. No family. embodied in institutions. Family regulated by the No strangers nor poets. state Philosophical training for Strangers and poets _ sub- ject to state supervision, rulers. Practical insight for rulers. Philosophers, warriors, and Freemen and slaves, workers. Home training till the sev- enth year. No home training. No dialectic. Aristotle Man has soul and reason. The highest object is perfect happiness or virtue, the activity of reason, a life of contemplation. Order of education 1. Bodily. 2. Moral. 3. Scientific. Periods of education . Childhood, 1 to 7 Family training. Proper moral conversation and examples. Play. GREEK EDUCATION 63 Boyhood, 7 to puberty Physical training, dancing and deportment. Gymnastics. Running, leaping, javelin cast- ing, discus throwing. (Physical training and gymnastics form the practical part of education) . Creative. Music and drawing. Theoretic. Grammar, dialetic and rhetoric. (Creative and theoretic form the theoretic). Youth. Puberty to 21 Gymnastics. Wrestling, shooting, marching, drilling, riding. Theoretic. Arithmetic, geometry and as- tronomy. Manhood. After 21 Civic duties 1. Active, practical or executive 2. Deliberative, theoretical or legislative. 3. Cidtured leisure 1. Active. Civil, military, practical eth- ics and politics. 2. Deliberative. Posts which require less practice and more insight. 3. Contemplation of divine things. Aristotle and Plato Compared Plato Aristotle Theory and practice not Theory and practice unit- united, ed in virtue or happi- ness. Method philosophical or Method objective and sci- introspective. entitle. Ideas exist as form only. Ideas concretely embodied in action. Defects in Greek Education 1. Views on women were oriental. 2. Nine out of ten were denied the privileges of the freeman. The masses were neglected. 64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 3. The sense of honor, loyalty and honesty was weak. 4. Prudential rather than moral control was em- phasised. 5. Sense of compassion was wanting. 6. Infants were exposed. 7. Versatility and insincerity were results. Music The Greek music included several things. 1. Music and letters. 2. Pythagoras. Letters, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and philosophy. 3. Aristotle. Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, arith- metic, geometry and astronomy. Seven Liberal Arts 1. Trivium. Grammar. Dialectic. Rhetoric. 2. Quadrivium Arithmetic Music. Geometry. Astronomv. Dialectic 1. Philosophical. Process of forming concepts or categories, as, 'Appearance and reality,' 'Form and change,' etc. 2. Educational. Method of dialogue tending to reach the formation of a general truth relating to conduct or life. 3. Psychological. Formation of concepts from per- cepts. GREEK EDUCATION 65 4. Logical. Resolution of a species into a genus, or the reverse. 5. Scientific. Induction of general principles from a multiplicity of phenomena. 6. Platonic. Reflection on experience, acts and phe- nomena of everyday life. Finding of the permanent in passing experience. \ > 66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION ROMAN EDUCATION First Period, to 300 B. C. Legendary and early historic. Aim. Honesty and prudence 1. Careful home training by the mother. Influ- ence of the mother. Obedience to the father and fear of the gods. 2. Laws of the Twelve Tables of Lycurgus. Aim. To define the laws so as to prevent abuses by the patricians and to place patri- cians and plebeians on an equality. 3. Actual practice on the field and in the forum. 4. General. History, biography, study of Roman law, actual practice. No schools. Education largely moral, social, military. Second Period, from 300 to 146 B. C. Schools founded. Beginning of the following di- visions : 7-12. Grammatistes or literator in charge Reading by the syllabic method. Writing on a waxen tablet. Poets. Passages memorised. Calculation. Use of the fingers. (Game of 'mora.') 12-16. Grammaticus or literatus in charge Study of Greek begun. Poets, Virgil, Livius Andronicus, Homer. Prose, Cicero, Aesop. Tradition and history. Grammar. 16. Age of manhood. {Toga virilis) (Rhetor in charge ) Occupation chosen: Agriculture, army, sen- ate, forum. Rhetoric, Greek music, assumed increasing im- portance in Roman life. Philosophy was studied. ROMAN EDUCATION 67 Third Period, 146 B. C. to 100 A. D. (Approximate) Hellenised Roman education. Greek became a Roman province. Schools and rhetoric became better organised. Predominance of rhetoric. Travel in Greece as a finishing touch. Method of instruction was chiefly imitation. Instruc- tion was moral and practical. Hence the importance of imitation through the parent, biography, and rhetoric. Decadence of Roman Education With change to empire there was no incentive for oratory. Rhetoric became formal and scholastic. Greater luxury and laxer morals. Education was more intellectual. Multiplication of schools, writings, libraries and scholastic ideals. Early (To 146 B. C.) and Later (After 146 B. C.) Compared Early Later Education a home process. Education Hellenised. Aim. Full Roman citizen- Schools. ship. Military, civic, Aim. Rhetorical, formal economic, rhetorical. and literary. Method. Apprentice sys- Method. School supplants tern. Observation and the home and the for- direct imitation of the urn. Training gives master in the army, place to formal instruc- farm, court, or forum. tion in rhetoric. Survival of old forms. Home training. Tutors un- der the supervision of the parents. Morality emphasised. (Marcus Aurelius) Observation of the householder, soldier and public administrator. Rights of the Roman Citizen 1. Right of the father over the children. 2. Right of the master over slaves. 3. Right of the husband over the wife. 68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 4. Right of one freeman over another, if given by- law through contract or forfeiture. 5. Right over property. Greek Education and Roman Education Compared Greek Roman Esthetic Practical. Speculative, intellectual. Active, volitional. Idealistic. Pragmatic. Philosophical. Rhetorical, political. Self-culture. Self-sacrifice. Epicurean. Stoic. Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory Infancy. 1-7 Youth is teachable. Defective education the cause of failure. Good nurse, with moral character and cultivated speech. Greek before Latin. Latin soon after. Reading. Ivory letters Syllables, words, sentences. Writing. Following of letters cut in grooves on a board. Wax will allow of mistakes and should not be used. Memorising of selections for future use. No haste in teaching reading. Pedagogue. Man of acknowledged learning. He should correct the pronunciation of the nurse. Public School Reasons for public instruction Home morals may be bad. Emulation is possible. Friendships may be formed. Profit from the advances and the errors of others. Incitement to the study of eloquence. Imitation of those more advanced. Greater incentive to the teacher. ROMAN EDUCATION 69 Duties of the teacher He should ascertain the dispositions and abilities of his pupils. Precociousness is not desirable. He should offer special stimulants for spe- cific natures, as praise, honor, fear, labor, etc. Relaxation and play should be allowed. No corporal punishment. 1. It is servile and degrading. 2. It generally loses its effect. 3. No necessity for it if the master does his work. Duties of the grammaticus Speak correctly. Give illustrations of the poets. Teach art of writing. Give critical judgment in reading. Teach meter, rhythm, astronomy, philosophy. (For poetry and its allusions ) General directions Let the pupil understand what he reads. Let moral authors be read. Boys can endure much study. Rhetorician Should be moral. Let him be as a parent. Should have equable temper. Should be diligent in exacting tasks. Ready of reply to questions. Should give commendation of exercises. Should get love and reverence of his pupils. Should use living voice as an example in read- ing and for imitation. General Boys should not sit mixed with young men. The best teachers are best in small things as well as in great. Aim of education is oratory A bad man cannot be a perfect orator. 70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION ORIENTAL EDUCATION China National characteristics Domestic ideas of Chinese life 1. Idea of order as based upon a supreme prin- ciple. 2. Reverence for the past Superstitious regard for all past thought. Reverence for ancestors. Ancestor worship. 3. Family life as the center of all social order and civic union. Emperor is the head. 4. Prudential virtue usurps the place of the ideal and the spiritual. 5. A love of formalism. Ritual ceremonies and formal ediquette General character 1. Childlike, gentle, kindly. 2. Cunning, superstitious, tricky 3. Culture exists in the memory of the classics, and the power of uniting elegant verses and good caligraphy. Literature and religion Sacred hooks Five Classics 1. Book of Changes. Nature, system, and ob- scure image. 2. Book of History. 3. Book of Odes. 4. Book of Rites. 5. Spring and Autumn Annals Four Books (Exposition and commentary) 1. The Great Learning. 2. The doctrine of the Mean. 3. Confucian Analecta, or sayings of the master. 4. Works of Mencius. ORIENTAL EDUCATION 71 Five relationships and Five virtues 1. Sovereign-subject 1. Benevolence 2. Parent-child 2. Justice 3. Husband-wife 3. Order 4. Brother-brother 4. Prudence 5. Friend-friend 5. Fidelity Religion. Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism. Educational practice Elementary Reading of the symbols. Pupils repeat after the teacher, line by line. Repetition and memory. Books used are the Trimetrical Classic (Three symbols form one sentence), Century of Sur- names (about 400 family or clan names), Millenary Classic. Writing. Copies of simple symbols are at first traced and later copied. (Symbols depend for their meaning on position and accent). Higher Making verses and writing themes. Lectures on the Five Classics and the Four Books. Learning essays by heart. No originality in thought or style. Examinations 1. Preliminary. 2. Examination for the degree of the 'flowering talent' (Bachelor). 3. Examination for the degree of licentiate mas- ter or 'promoted man.' 4. Examination for the degree of 'entered scholar' (Doctor). Results of the system 1. Composition of elegant prose. 2. Memorising of the classics. 72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 3. Ability to compose epigrams and epigrammatic couplets and quatrains. 4. Knowledge of the family law and the five relations. 5. Knowledge of China's rulers, sagas, scholars, states and poets. 6. Acquisition of a code of manners and ritual. Egypt General characteristics Religion Sun and the Nile worshipped. Natural objects and animals looked upon as the embodiments of spirits. Social divisions Priests and warriors the ruling classes. Agriculture, trade and the handicrafts. Scribe and the architect of great account. Education Elementary. Reading, writing, arithmetic Higher. Mathematics, geometry, astronomy, reli- gious ritual, etc. India General characteristics Caste system Brahmas, or holy teachers. Kshatriyas, or soldiers and princes. Vaisyas, or farmers and tradesmen. Sudras or servants. Religion Mysticism, annihilation of the self. Contempla- tion. All existence to be swallowed up in being. ORIENTAL EDUCATION 73 Hebrew General characteristics Religion. Idea of Jehovah and holiness. Individuality fostered. Priests, prophets, and scribes. Patriarchical system Ill MIDDLE AGES Period from 500 to 1500 Dismemberment of the Roman Empire, and the form- ative period of nations. Elements Aiding Growth Greek. Theoretical Concepts and ideas Framework of our thoughts Speculative and intellectual comprehension Logic and syllogistic reasoning Roman. Practical Value and reality of law and government Principle of authority and subordination Organisation Christian. Human Intrinsic worth of the individual Leveling influence on all classes Kingdom of heaven Formal aspects derived from Greek and Roman Teutonic. Social Relation of spiritual and physical to man's needs Material on which Christian and Pagan forces could work Individuality and love of freedom Chivalry Ideals. Reverence for superiors. Consideration for inferiors. Gentleness towards the weak and defenceless. Courtesy toward all women. Service and obedience as ideals held up before a rude and lawless people. (Ideals held for upper classes. People as such were not considered). 74 RENAISSANCE 75 Education of the castle Page. Attendance on the ladies. Waiting at table. Squire. Personal attendant of the lord in battle and tournament. Rudiments of love, law and religion, courtesy, kindliness, generosity, formalities of con- duct, ability to rhyme, etc. Knight. Religious aspects emphasised. RENAISSANCE From 800. First Period Charlemagne, king of the Franks, 771-814. Palace school, for court and nobles. Alcuin at the head, 735-804. Method of question and answer. Questions from the pupils (king and nobles) answered by Alcuin. Alcuin was at York till 782, at the palace school till 796. Monastery and cathedral schools Reading, writing, reckoning. Grammar, dialectic, rhetoric. Holy Scripture. Discipline severer in monastic schools. Village or parochial school Rudiments, Lord 's prayer, and parts of the Psalter. From 1300. Second Period Humanism. (See page 77). Dante, 1265-1321. Petrarch, 1304-1374. Boccaccio, 1313-1375. Vittorino da Feltre, 1379-1446. Religion. Mysticism. (See page 80). Brethren of the Common Life founded by Gerard Groot, 1340, for poor scholars. Reading, writing, Bible, later the classics. Scholasticism. (See page 79). John Scotus Eriugena, 810-880. 76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Anselm, 1033-1109, founder of realism. Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274, exponent of Aristotle. Abelard, 1079-1142, founder of concept ualism. Forerunner of the universities. Duns Scotus, 1265-1308. William of Occam, 1270-1347, return to nominalism, and opening for science. From 1500. Third Period Causes 1. Growth of commerce and towns. Feeling of power 2. Discovery of the new world 3. Scientific discoveries Copernicus Napier, Logarithms Galileo, Telescope Kepler, Laws Harvey, Circulation of blood Gunpowder used in 1118 Printing, Gutenberg, 1453 4. Fall of Constantinople, 1453 5 Church reform. Luther 6. Crusades Revival of learning. Humanism. (See page 77). Scattering of Greek scholars over Europe after 1453. Erasmus, 1465-1536. (See page 78). John Sturm, 1507-1589. (See page 78). Reformation. (See page 80). Martin Luther, 1483-1546 Melanchthon, 1497-1560. Counter-Reformation Jesuits. Society of Jesus founded 1534 Confirmed by the Pope, 1540. (See page 81). Loyola, 1491-1556 Three main currents 1. Scientific and philosophical 2. Humanistic 3. Theological HUMANISM 77 Three tendencies 1. Life of the past. Study of Greek and Roman classics 2. Life of the emotions. Participation in the activi- ties and interests of life. Self-culture and im- provement 3. World of nature Educational changes Platonic theory of contemplation substituted for the Heaven of monastic rules A purer Aristotle studied. Emphasis on his Physics rather than on his Metaphysics and Commen- taries Individual and concrete Latin literature as opposed to abstract scholastic conceptions HUMANISM Characteristics 1. Reaction against the barren verbalism of scholasti- cism and the ascetism of the mystics. 2. Return to nature and direct experience with things. 3. Those closest in touch with nature were the an- cients. Hence humanism came to mean a study of the classics. Arguments at First Given Practical. Necessary for complete citizenship. Aristotle's Politics for statecraft. Caesar for the art of war. Virgil for agriculture. Cicero, Plutarch for running a household. Literature is the one source of practical wisdom. Necessary for personal distinction. Natural gifts must be enforced by learning. Fame possible only through a distinguished edu- cation. Morality trained. Precepts of Terence, etc., driven home. 78 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 4. Social life is marked by the power of observation and culture. Emphasis gradually placed on polish and rhetorical finish. Modern Humanism (Life of Man) Herbartian scheme 1. Instruction for training the disposition History, literature 2. Art instruction Drawing, modeling, singing 3. Language instruction Mother tongue, foreign languages Laurie (with changes) 1. Real-humanistic Vernacular language, literature, composition. Foreign language as literature. History, moral instruction, etc. Art, as music, painting, drawing, modeling, etc. 2. Formal- or abstract-humanistic Discipline of the mind. Grammar, rhetoric, logic, etc. Two Humanists, Erasmus and Sturm Erasmus Influence through his writings, translations, diction- aries, original works, etc. History, geography, natural history, agriculture, to be taught, not for themselves, but for the light they throw upon the classics. Discipline to be mild. John Sturm, of Strasburg, 1507-1589 Gymnasium. 9 year course 7 years for the mastery of pure, idiomatic Latin. 2 years for the acquisition of an elegant style. College. 5 years course Pupil to be fashioned into a consummate speaker. SCHOLASTICISM 79 Aim to reproduce the best periods of Greece and Rome. Latin authors, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Terence, Plautus, Sallust. Greek authors, Homer, Demosthenes, Thucydides, Aristophanes, Euripedes, Sophocles. Influence on the Jesuit system of education, and the classical curriculum at Eton, Winchester, Westminster. SCHOLASTICISM. Characteristics. Church possessed of all truth by infallible revelation. Dogmatic. No search for truth necessary. Attempt to show that the doctrinal content, whose truth was taken for granted on authority, was also con- sistent and rational. Emphasis on dialectic. Emphasis on realism, as opposed to nominalism and conceptualism Realism. Each concept has an existence and a real- ity corresponding to it. Plato's world of ideas. Effect would be to make the human race as such a reality, also the one holy Catholic Church, all dogma, etc., real and existential. Nominalism. Concept is simply a name and has no existence outside of the individuals which form the class. Effect would be to emphasise the importance of the individual, and make secular and scientific interests take the place of religious and ecclesi- astical. Conceptualism. Concept is simply an abstraction of the qualities of individual things. Empha- sises a similarity or identity of qualities. Effect would be to make, for example, the three persons of the Trinity to be three attributes of God, power, wisdom, and goodness. Emphasis on reason instead of dogma. 80 HISTORY OF EDUCATION REFORMATION. Causes Church. Clergy the mediators between God and man. Accumulation of doctrines formulated by various Church Councils and the Pope. Absolute submission of the laity to the clergy. Decay of the Church. Organisation tyrannous. Clergy corrupt and sensual. Individualism. Expansion of man and society. Individual growing in importance. Growth of the modern man and the Renaissance. Martin Luther, 1483-1546 1517, the ninety-five theses against Indulgences nailed to the castle door at Wittenberg. 1521, called before the Diet of Worms. Principles 1. Man is justified by faith alone. 2. The Scriptures are the only rule of religious faith and practice. 3. All believers become kings and priests before God. Martin Luther, 1483-1546 Education necessary for all. Reason and knowledge as an aid to faith. Education necessary for effective service in Church and State. Family discipline important. Compulsory education and the public school. Discipline mild. Freedom allowed. Studies. Religion, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, mathe- matics, logic, gymnastics, music. Philip Melanchthon, 1497-1560, Praeceptor Oermaniae Great influence, as a lecturer and as a writer of text-books. Influence in reviving higher education. Mysticism Soul is immortal Lowest or animal part is bound with the body. Logical or reasoning part is essentially human. Spiritual or superhuman part is divine. JESUITS 81 Higher stages are reached by withdrawing from the world of sense and action into the world of thought. God and transcendent reality are to be approached by contemplation. Stages of education Purification or purgation. Asceticism, elimination of worldly and material interests. Illumination of life. Struggle with the inner life. Devotions and religious thought. Unitive or contemplative life. The goal of the mys- tic. Approximation of the life of God. JESUITS Educational System Society of Jesus founded 1534, consecrated 1540. Original Constitutions of Ignatius Loyala. Ratio Studiorum by a committee under Aquaviva. Aim was to defend and extend the Kingdom of God and the Society of Jesus. Classes 1. Infhna: rudiments. 2. Media: grammar. 3. Suprema: syntax. (First three, grammatical.) 4. Humanistas: poetry. 5. Rhetorica: rhetoric (2 years). Studies. Chiefly Latin. Aim, to converse in Latin. Formation of a Latin style in speaking and writing. No vernacular. Religion. Neglect of arithmetic, history, geography, elements of algebra and geometry (Called 'erudition'). Methods. Memory chiefly cultivated. Constant repetition and review. Reviews at the close of each week, month and term. Repetition at the beginning and at the close of each lesson. 82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Thoroughness. Short lessons and periods 'Little by little.' 'Little at a time.' Easy and graded work. Emulation the spur of industry Boys paired and also groups paired. Contests between 'Romans and Carthaginians,' 'Greeks and Romans/ etc. Concertation, or Boys' challenging others' mis- takes. Incentives, as titles, prizes, decorations, public exhibitions, dramatic representations, etc. Moral suasion, sympathy and love of the teacher. Mild discipline. No home influence. Suppression of the individual for the good of the Society. JANSENISTS Little Schools of Port Royal Jansenist Society was founded by Saint Cyran. The Little Schools were founded in 1643. Principal teachers were : Arnauld, Lancelot, Nicole. General method 1. Emulation was suppressed. 2. Asceticism and moral pessimism emphasised. 'Child is born wicked.' Gravity and dignity pushed to the extreme. 'Speak little, endure much, pray still more.' 3. Small classes. Five or six to a teacher. 4. Vernacular taught first, and Greek through the French. 5. Meaning in literature rather than style and verbal memory. 6. Spelling and reading. Sounds of vowels and diphthongs taught first. Consonants pro- nounced in combination. 7. Aid given to the pupil and learning made pleasant. 8. Physical education looked after. BACON 83 FRANCIS BACON Method Method is a necessity. Induction, experiment, and empirical study of the facts. Idols 1. Of the theatre. Trust in authority and tradition, instead of individual judgment. 2. Of the forum. Confusion of words. Removal from things. 3. Of the cave. Individual prepossessions due to bodily structure, habits, education, or accident. 4. Of the tribe. Present in every one, as, anthropo- morphism, personal equation, tendency to- wards teleology, etc. Pansophy or encyclopedism Correlation of the sciences in a unity. Outline is sketched in the New Atlantis. General Revolt against Scholasticism and the logic of Aris- totle. Reaction against words, phrases, and vain dialect- ical subtilities. Plan Proposed 1. A survey of human knowledge. (Advancement of Learning). 2. A method for the investigation of phenomena (Novum Organum). 3. A collection of the results of natural experiences (Sylva Sylvarum. Incomplete). 4. An outline plan of natural pholosophy based on material gathered from 2 and 3. 5-6. An edifice resulting from materials gathered and formulated in a true philosophy of nature. IV HORACE MANN Horace Mann, in 1837, as president of the Massachu- setts Senate, signed a bill relating to the common schools. It provided for a Board of Education of eight members, plus the governor and lieutenant governor, ex officiis. Needs 1. Public was apathetic and had to be roused. 2. Public schools had to be made democratic. 3. Education had to be expanded so as to reach all. Schools were poor and badly equipped, and needed to be improved. 4. School administration was to be harmonised with the new social conditions. 5. Increase in school funds. 6. Quantity and quality of instruction to be bet- tered and brought to date. Plan of Operations 1. Circulars sent out. 2. Circuit of towns made and lectures and addresses given to teachers, committees, and those inter- ested in education. First tour in 1837. 'The Means and Objects of Common School Educa- tion.' Second tour, 1838, 'Special Preparation a Prerequisite for Teaching.' 3. Common School Journal begun (Ran for ten years). 4. District school libraries urged, 1838-1839. 5. Normal schools recommended. 6. Twelve school reports, 1837-1848. 7. Teachers' Institutes begun. Reforms urged and established 1. Education made democratic. All classes to go to public school. 84 MANN— BARNARD 85 2. Reading. Word method instead of the A-B-C method. Mental content instead of mechani- cal expression. Complete selections. No trashy books. 3. Science to be taught. (Pestalozzi.) Practical studies to have a place. Emphasis on physi- ology and utilitarian subjects. 4. Objective, illustrative, and oral teachings (Pes- talozzi. ) 5. Gentle methods advocated. (Result of Mann's European tour.) 6. Non-sectarianism in the schools. Bible to be read without note or comment. 7. District school libraries. Love of reading to be fostered in all children. 8. Normal schools. First one in 1839. 9. Teachers' Institutes. ' ' The interests of a client are small compared with the interests of the next generation. Let the next genera- tion, then, be my client." HENRY BARNARD 1838 Connecticut passed an act creating a board of common school commissioners with a secretary as chief executive officer. Henry Barnard became the first sec- retary of the State Board. Conventions were held, information collected, reports made, and the teachers' Institute established. The Con- necticut Common School Journal was begun. 1842 the legislature repealed the act of 1838. 1843 Rhode Island passed an act creating the office of commissioner of common schools. Barnard was chosen commissioner. He spent five years organising public in- struction in the state. He then resigned and returned to Connecticut. 1849 Connecticut passed a new act founding a State Normal School, of which the principal was to be State Superintendant of Schools. Barnard was chosen and continued as superintendent till 1855. 86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION THOMAS AND MATTHEW ARNOLD Thomas Arnold, Rugby, 1828-1842 Discipline. Conditions at Rugby were bad. Drunken- ness, swearing, defiance, scorn of authority, lack of religion, servile cringing to school opinion. Reforms were introduced slowly at first. Arnold won the confidence of the Sixth form and asked them for their help. 'One way of making a gentleman is by treating him as one.' A moral basis is needed for school work. He resolutely expelled any boy whose influence tended to degrade the morals of the school. He became the chaplain of the school and gave sermons. He emphasised the formation of character and placed it above learning. Discipline and guidance are more necessary than instruction. The motives appealed to were : Admiration for valor, sense of duty to others, scorn for what is untruthful, mean or base. Language. Arnold was a modern humanist. Latin and Greek contain the experience of the race and also develop power. He tried to improve the old mechanical methods by making themes and verses interesting. Literary transla- tion was demanded. Questioning rather than lecture. History. 'History is past politics, and politics is pres- ent history.' Freeman. Comparisons were continu- ally made between ancient and modern history. Causal relations were traced. Memorising of dates was minimised. Biography was used. Geography is necessary to explain historical facts. The Teacher. 'What I want is a man who is a Chris- tian and a gentleman, an active man, and one who has sense and understands boys.' The teacher should have activity of mind and should show interest in his work. Travel and outside interests are necessary to prevent pedantry and narrowness. LANCASTER— BELL 87 Matthew Arnold, Inspector of Schools, 1851-1886 Influence. Arnold raised the aims and tone of the teachers by his gracious and kindly manner and by his generous recognition of any new form of excellence which he observed. Mother tongue. He insisted on the necessity of the right use of the mother tongue. Better reading books were advocated. Complete selections, good poetry, and formative subjects were emphasised. Character forming subjects more important than the sciences. Grammar is important because it is analytic, and leads to reflection and reason. Rudiments of Latin or French should be given. Naturhunde. Facts and laws of nature, physiology, physiography, botany, etc., to be given. Duty of the inspector is to report the state of affairs simply, and faithfully. The teacher should continue to work for self-improve- ment when beginning to teach. He should not consider his work done when he gets his diploma. There should be schools for all. Breadth of view is gained by commingling the different classes of society. LANCASTER— BELL Andrew Bell introduced his system into England in 1797. It was first tried in London. 'Madras or mono- torial system.' Five officers: tutor, assistant, teacher, sub-usher, usher. Tutor had one child to assist in the preparation of his lessons. All children of one class became tutors of the class below. Assistant had charge of one class. He supervised the tutors and examined them. Teacher had charge or 2 or 3 classes. Took each class in turn, examining and stimulating. Usher had charge of the order, general arrangements and supply of books and slates. Acted as general super- intendent and took names of all disorderly children re- ported by the sub-ushers. 88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Later the tutors disappear, and to each class was ap- pointed a teacher and an assistant, the latter simply keeping order. Classes were based on reading only, and were formed in hollow squares. Teacher stood on a platform. Reading was taught by having the children first write letters, words and sentences. Joseph Lancaster opened a school in the Borough Road, Southwork, 1798. Length of the room was twice the width. Area was filled with parallel desks, with a space of six feet at the sides for draft teaching. Opposite each draft was a blackboard at which a monitor operated and explained. Head monitor had charge of the order, changes and general arrangements. He was assisted by monitors of order who had charge of the class lists, looked after absentees, and distributed class supplies. Superior monitor tested the work of the monitors of drafts and superintended the work of the desks. Inspectors examined the classes periodically and pro- moted pupils when fit. Teaching in general was rote teaching. Mechanical reading, writing and arithmetic were the result. For discipline, Lancaster used emulation, and badges of merit for the heads of the class. Bell used place tak- ing as an incentive. V ELEMENTARY EDUCATION UNITED STATES Massachusetts 1635 Boston established a Latin School. 1639 Dorchester levied a tax on land to support a free school. 1647 Seven schools existed on the shores of Massachusetts Bay. 1642 The General Court enacted laws for compulsory- education, and in 1647 enacted a general school law which provided : (1) That every township of 50 householders shall appoint some one to teach children how to read and write; (2) That every town of 100 families or household- ers shall set up a grammar school to fit children for the university ; (3) That money for education may be raised by taxation. 1683 The General Court enacted that every town of more than 500 families or householders shall set up and maintain two grammar schools and two writing schools. The schools were town schools and the Town- ship Unit System prevailed. Selectmen, assisted by the ministers were the school supervisors. The 'traveling school' was a school kept in one part of the town, and then in some other part of the town, till all the families were reached. Districts were developed within the town. The traveling school gave name to the process of 'squadroning out of schools.' 1780 The Constitution of Massachusetts was framed and included a state system of education. 89 90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 1789 The school laws were revised. A six months' school took place of the earlier school. 200 families instead of 100 were necessary to support a Latin school. Books used in general were : Noah Webster's Spelling Book, Webster's Selections, Morse's Geography, Youth's Preceptor, Bible (as groundwork of reading). 1817 The districts became corporations. 1827 The districts chose teachers through the commit- teemen. 1882 District system abolished. Connecticut 1639 Schools were established at Hartford and New Haven. 1650 A Code was enacted which provided for schools in a manner similar to the Massachusetts Act of 1647. 1662 Organisation of the schools into a single school system. 1776 Towns and Societies were authorised to divide themselves into proper and necessary school dis- tricts. 1798 The 'School Society' took the place of the town in school matters. Other States New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont followed in gen- eral the system of Massachusetts. Reading, writing and arithmetic were taught in the towns. The children were required to read with ease and propriety, to write a plain and legible hand, and to be acquainted with the rules of arithmetic. The school was a town or district school. The schoolmaster was chosen by committeemen or, selectmen. Funds were raised by taxation. In Connecticut a fund of $1,200,000 was obtained from the proceeds of the sale of the Western lands which belonged to the state. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 91 The southern and middle states followed more slowly and haltingly. In Virginia private bequests were made, and by 1690 four schools were started. New York In 1633 the first school was established by the Dutch at New Amsterdam. Adam Roelandsen was the first teacher. In 1658 a Latin school was established. In 1787 Governor George Clinton urged the estab- lishment of common schools throughout the state. $50,000 was appropriated annually for five years for this purpose. In 1813 a state superintendent of common schools was appointed. Contemporary Administration State State Superintendent or Commisisioner of Educa- tion. State Boards of Education. County County Superintendent of Schools Town Committeemen or Selectmen. City Board of Education. Board of Superintendents. City Superintendent of Schools. Schools Kindergarten, to age of six. Elementary school, eight years' course. High School, four years' course Academic. Commercial. Manual Training. Trade or Industrial. Training or Normal (for teachers). College. University. Professional College 92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Law. Medicine. Theology. Education. Technology. Etc. NEW YORK CITY Beginnings 1. Dutch beginnings in Manhattan, Brooklyn and Queens. 2. English beginnings in Bronx. 3. Huguenots in Richmond. Before 1800 Colonial. The Dutch sent over several schoolmasters to teach reading, writing, and accounts. The English neglected popular education, but the Church looked after it. After the Revolution. Charity schools were founded on voluntary contributions of church members. Course for boys. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and merchants ' accounts. Course for girls. Reading, writing, arithmetic and needlework. Clothing, fuel, books, paper, etc., were furnished free. After 1800 Free School Society. This was founded in 1805. Object was to establish a single school for the benefit of children not provided for by the vari- ous church schools. Incorporated by act of Legislature and appealed to the people for funds. Lancastrian or monitorial system was adopted. The single school soon grew to three more, and in 1818 a teacher was imported from England to teach according to the Lancastrian system. Lancaster himself arrived in the same year, 1818. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 93 Society was named the Public School Society in 1826. A small sum was now charged for those who could pay, but this resulted in decreased attendance. Pay was soon dropped. Grammar, history, geography, bookkeeping, men- suration and astronomy were added to the three R's. Punishment became less severe. Moral suasion was advocated. Free evening schools were established in 1833. Board of Education was established by act of Legisla- ture in 1842, while the Public School Society con- tinued side by side with the Board. The Board did not use the Lancastrian system. Public School Society was dissolved in 1853. Free Academy, 1849. College City of New York, 1866. Free Lectures, 1888. Ward trustee system abolished, 1896. Supervisors of special branches appointed. Brooklyn. Before 1843, all schools were separate dis- tricts schools. In 1843 all schools were brought under one governing body, the Brooklyn Board of Education. GERMANY 1524. The city of Magdeburg established its schools on the plan advised by Luther, i. e., a day school for two hours and work at home for the rest of the time. 1528. The Elector of Saxony adopted a plan for Latin schools upon recommendations of Melanchthon. Accord- ing to this plan, (1) Latin chiefly was taught, (2) fewer studies were taken up and (3) pupils were divided into classes. (Basis of the present Gymnasien). 1559. The Duke of Wuertemberg adopted a plan of providing schools for all the people. It was not ap- proved by the state till 1565. In this system elementary vernacular schools were to be provided in every village. Reading, writing, religion and sacred music were to be taught. The Latin schools in every town were expanded into six classes instead of three, as provided for by 94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Melanchthon's plan. Above these were the cloisteral or higher Latin schools. Finally came the university. (Tuebingen.) 1580. The Saxony plan was revised so as to incorpo- rate the vernacular schools of the Wuertemberg system. In 1724 it provided for girls. 1773. Compulsory education was provided for chil- dren from 5 to 14 years. Other German states, Weimar, Hessen-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, Holstein, etc., followed the Saxony and Wuertemberg plans. Weimar had the first compulsory education for children from 6 to 12 years, in 1619. The Prussian school system was founded in 1648. It soon took the lead. Contemporary Administration Each state has its own administration. Royal Minister of Education. Ministerial Councilors. Local Administration. City School Boards. Rural School Boards. Inspectors or Superintendents. Schools Kindergarten. Common School (Volksschule, Mittelschule, Vor- schule.) Special Schools. Industrial. Trade. Commercial. Agricultural. High Schools. Classical ( Gymnasium ) . Naturalistic (Realschule) . Girls' Gymnasium. Normal School. College. University. Professional college. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 95 ENGLAND To 1700 education was carried on in ancient endowed grammar schools and dame schools. A large proportion of the working classes received no education at all. 1780. Eobert Raikes consolidated the Sunday School System. 1811. The British and Foreign School Society was formed to carry out the ideas of Lancaster. 1811. The National Society, consisting of churchmen, was formed to carry out the ideas of Bell. 1820. Brougham brought forward a scheme of na- tional education, but because of religious differences it came to nothing. In 1833 £20,000 was granted to aid school building, and distributed among the National Society, the British and Foreign School Society, and in Scotland, among the ministers. In 1802, 1819 and 1833 factory acts were passed. By these acts, children were not allowed to work before 9 years of age; night work for children was prohibited; young persons between 9 and 13 years of age were al- lowed to work only 12 hours a day; children in fac- tories were to receive instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic. 1833. An Education Department was created. It established a system of inspection of all schools which received government grants. 1861. Payment by results. Grants were distributed according to the number of pupils who passed satisfac- tory examinations. 1870. Elementary Education Act. Any district could elect a school board, which was to levy a rate and spend it to aid schools or to build and manage schools of its own. In these school boards no catechism nor dogmatic formulas were allowed. 1890. A new Education Code was issued abolishing payment by results. In 1891 a bill was passed which created free education in elementary schools. Compulsory education to 10 years in 1880; to 12 in 1889 ; to 14 in 1900. 96 HISTORY OF EDUCATION SCOTLAND 1696 Landholders of each parish were required to provide a schoolhouse and to support a schoolmaster. There was no uniformity. Control of the teacher and the supervision of the schools was in the hands of the Church. Secondary schools sent boys directly to the university. Later, in 1800, the selection of teachers was made by the taxpayers. Contemporary Administration Central Board of Education Apportionment of grants for education. Inspection of schools. Local County Councils and Borough Councils Distribution of the government grants. Levying of taxes for support of the schools. Appointment of an education committee to control academic affairs. Schools Public or Board Schools Infant, 3 to 7. Elementary, over 7. Denominational and private schools. Public Schools Eton, Rugby, Harrow, Winchester. Technical and training schools. University. FRANCE 1684. Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools was founded by Jean Baptiste de la Salle. In 1719 the Institute numbered 27 houses and 274 brothers, by 1800 it numbered 122 houses and 800 brothers. The subjects of instruction were reading, writing, arithmetic and religion. Silence was the rule for teach- ers and pupils. Written work was emphasized. Cor- poral punishment was used freely. 1795. The National Normal School and secondary schools were established. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 97 Public education dates from 1833. Guizot, Minister of Public Instruction, carried out a law which established elementary schools, primary and grammar, in every com- mune. These schools were free to the poor. 1881. Primary education was made free and com- pulsory in 1882. 1886. The present sj^stem of schools, controlled by the state, was established. 1901. All religious congregations were required to obtain from the state legal recognition in order to carry on their work. 1903. All religious schools practically closed. Contemporary Administration Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts Advisory Boards General Departmental Primary. Secondary. Higher. Divisions of France 17 Academies. 90 Departments. Schools Maternal schools (Ecoles maternelles) . 2 to 6 years. Infant schools (Ecoles infantines). 4 to 7 years. Primary schools Lower, 6 to 13 years. Higher. (Five-years high school course.) Normal schools. State universities. VI RISE OF UNIVERSITIES Roman-Hellenic Schools At Alexandria, about 200 B. C. Studies. Trivium and quadrivium. Medicine, mathraeties, grammar. Neo-Platonism and mysticism. At Rome, about 100 A. D. Studies. Rhetoric and grammar. Trivium and quadrivium. Philosophy and law. Christian Schools Opposed to humanities and Hellenism ('Writings of the heathen'). Salvation of the soul, the end of education. Founders Pantaenus headed catechetical schools at Alex- andria in 181. He was followed by Clement and Origen. Cassian taught at Marseilles in 404, and St. Bene- dict taught near Naples in 428. Subjects Theological discussion. Scriptures, devotional exercises, severe bodily labor. Eeading, only to understand the Bible and the services. Instruction Primary. Alphabet, reading of the Latin psalter, writing (on parchment), singing, Latin Secondary. Trivium and quadrivium, Latin grammar (Donatus and Priscian), tables, maxims and proverbs. 98 UNIVERSITIES 99 Higher. Logic or dialectic, advanced mathematics (arithmetic to calculate Easter and festival days), astronomy (names and courses of the constellations), geometry and mensuration. (General aim was the proper understanding of the Scriptures.) Old Types of Schools 1. Catechetical, monastic and cathedral schools. Under Church control ('Christian schools'), Religious training. Opposed to humanities and Hellenism. 2. Guild and burgh schools Controlled by secular bodies. More practical studies. Modern studies introduced. 3. Private schools and tutors 4. Endowed grammar schools. Latin and classical curriculum. Great Public Schools New Type of School Influenced by the Renaissance. Humanistic training. Founded by private or royal grants. Independent of the Church and State. Aristocratic. 1. Winchester. Founded by William of Wykeham, 1393. 2. Eton. Founded by Henry VI., 1440. 3. St. Paul's. Founded by John Colet, 1510. Erasmus, Linacre and Colet wrote books for the pupils. Lily was master, 1511. 4. Shrewsbury, 1551. 5. Westminster, 1560. 100 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 6. Merchant Tailors', 1561. 7. Rugby, 1567. 8. Harrow, 1571. 9. Charter House, 1609. Universities Beginnings and causes 1. Work of the cathedral and cloister schools. 2. Growth of learning and the demand for specialisation. 3. Growth of a lay or antimonastic feeling in con- nection with the work of the physician, lawyer, etc. 4. Actual specialisation in studies Medicine at Salernum. Law at Bologna. Philosophy and theology at Paris. (Specialised schools as opposed to the schools of arts, and open to all). Salernum. 1065. Constantine taught medicine at Salernum, Italy. Naples. 1224. Frederick II. constituted the University of Naples. The subjects were: Arts (tn- vium) and law, medicine and theology. There was an organised body of teachers with titles, privileges and immunities. Bologna. 1100. Irnerius taught law at Bologna. (Roman law, Code of Justinian.) Frederick recognised the university and issued let- ters of privilege in 1158. Paris. 1100. 1113. Oxford. Between 1117 and 1121 Thibaut d'Estampes, a learned Norman, taught letters at Oxford to from 60 to 100 scholars. William of Champeaux taught theology. Abelard became head of the Paris school. UNIVERSITIES 101 1133. Robert Pullein gave lectures on the Holy Scriptures. 1149. Vacarius gave lectures on civil law. 1264. Walter de Merton obtained a charter, and in 1274 settled a small body of Fellows and Scholars at Oxford. No 'religious person,' i. e., no monk or friar was al- lowed to be a member. 1282. Balliol was founded. 1314. Exeter was founded. 1326. Oriel was founded. 1340. Queen's was founded. Cambridge. 1280. Peterhouse copied the statutes of Merton College, Oxford. The college dates back to 1200. Prague, 1347. Heidelberg, 1385. Halle, 1694. First modern university. Beginnings of Lehrfreiheit. Harvard 1636-1637. The General Court of Massachusetts founded the College. 1638. John Harvard bequeathed to the college half of his estate, and his library of 300 books. College was named after him. Yale. 1700. Two ministers contributed a number of books. 1701. Formally founded at Saybrook, and later removed to New Haven. Pennsylvania, 1745. Princeton, 1746. Columbia, 1754. "William and Mary College. 1693. Second oldest college in the United States. Before the Revolution, one of the most important colleges. 102 HISTORY OF EDUCATION College of the City of New York. Free to all. No charges for instruction, books or equipment. 1847. Free Academy founded. 1866. Name changed to 'College of the City of New York.' Constitution of Universities University or Studium Generale. 1. Specialised school for men only. 2. Free teaching and free learning. 3. Free autonomous organisation of teachers and scholars. Expression studium generale was used in the thir- teenth century, and meant the place where one or more of the liberal arts might be prosecuted. It was open to all and was free from monastic control. Expression universitas was originally applied to towns or commtmia as organised bodies. As applied to studium it meant a community, and later a learned community. (1300) Constitutions were granted to trade-guilds in the eleventh century. In the universities, the nations elected their own rulers and judges. They were like the guilds and sought freedom from civil and ecclesiastical inter- ference. Privileges 1. Fixed salaries paid by the state. 2. Were exempt from imperial taxes, service in war and from discharge of municipal duties. 3. Had the right of internal jurisdiction. Benefit of clergy, i. e., right of judgment by university body. Faculties Medicine and law were originally classed under the liberal arts. UNIVERSITIES 103 Theological faculty? was the first to be incorporated as a separate body at the University of Paris in 1260. Other faculties were then incorporated separately. Rise of the faculties broke up the organisation of the nations, i. e., the bodies of students organised on the basis of nationality. The three higher faculties were first de- veloped at Paris, theology in 1260, medicine in 1265 and law in 1271. Graduation Guild corporations had 1 apprentices, 2 assistants, 3 masters. An assistant became a master when he had performed some special work. Universities No specific titles at first used. Later, formal examinations were held. Teachers were called sometimes magistri, sometimes doctores. Titles were applied to students who qualified by taking examinations. Later the term magister was assigned to the faculty of arts, and doctor to the facul- ties of law, theology or medicine. Applicant for the degree of 'master' had to hold a public disputation against all comers. Bachelor was used to mark the com- pletion of the 'trivial' course. Degrees were in use about 1200. Studies Grammars of Donatus and Priscian were dictated, ex- plained and learned by heart. Dialectic and rhetoric was taught from epitomes. Cicero, Virgil, etc., were read to illustrate rules of grammar and rhetoric. Humanistic studies were overshadowed by dialectical disputations on definitions, the nature of ideas, etc. The regent met students three times a day, at sunrise, at noon and towards evening. At one meeting defining and disputation occupied the time. 104 HISTORY OF EDUCATION For the degree of bachelor, the student defined or de- termined logical terms and propositions in the presence of his master. For the degree of master, he attended lectures and maintained a thesis or disputation in public. General Value 1. Stimulation of free inquiry. 2. Training of the youth for public duties. 3. Example of democratic organisation. 4. Intellectual interests organised, preserved and prosecuted. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Abelakd, Peter, B. at Pallet (Pallais), near Nantes, 1079 ; d. 1142. Pupil of Roseellin of Cornpiegne and of William of Champeaux; lectured at Melun, Corbeil and Paris. Alcuin, Ealhwine, B. at York, England, 735; d. at Tours, 804. Educated at York; came to France under Charlemagne; was Master of the Palace School, and served as general superintendent of Charlemagne's scheme of educational reform. Aristotle, B. at Stagira in Chaldice, 384 B. C. ; d. at Chalcis in Euboea, 322, B. C. Pupil of Plato ; instructor of Alexander, 343; founded Peripatetic school of phil- osophy, 335. Organon; Nichomachean Ethics; Politics; Poetics. Arnold, Matthew, B. at Laleham, 1822; d. at Liver- pool, 1888. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Bal- liol College, Oxford; made inspector of schools, 1851; appointed professor of poetry in Oxford, 1857. Reports on Elementary Schools, 1852-1882; Higher Schools and Universities in Germany, 1882; Culture and Anarchy, 1869. Arnold, Thomas, B. at Cowes, Isle of Wight, 1795; d. at Rugby, 1842. Educated at Winchester and Corpus Christi College, Oxford; head master of Rugby, 1828- 1842 ; appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, 1841. History of Rome, 1838-1843. Ascham, Roger, B. at Kirby Wiske, Yorkshire, 1515 ; d. at London, 1568. Educated at St. John's College, Cambridge; became university orator and master of languages to Lady (Queen) Elizabeth; appointed Latin Secretary to Edward VI., and Queens Mary and Eliza- beth. Toxophilus, 1545; The Schoolmaster, 1570. Bacon, Francis, B. at London, 1561; d. at London, 1626. Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; entered Gray's Inn and joined the embassy to France; called to the bar in 1582; entered the House of Commons, 1584; made a Queen's counsel, 1596; prosecuted his benefac- tor, Earl of Essex, 1601; appointed solicitor general, 105 106 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 1607, to clerkship of the Star Chamber, 1609, attorney general, 1613, lord keeper, 1618, lord chancellor, and Baron Verulam, 1619, and Viscount St. Albans, 1621; charged with corruption, 1621. Advancement of Learn- ing, 1605; Novum Organum, 1620; Essays (58), 1625. Barnard, Henry, B. at Hartford, Conn., 1811; d. 1900. Educated at Yale College; teacher in Pennsyl- vania ; admitted to the bar, 1835 ; secretary of the Con- necticut Board of Education, 1838 ; Commissioner of the Common School of Rhode Island, 1843 ; Principal of the State Normal School, Connecticut, 1849. Basedow, Johann Berend, B. at Hamburg, 1723; d. at Magdeburg, 1790. Teacher in Denmark; founded the model school at Dessau (Philanthropin) , 1774. Elementarwerk, 1774. Bell, Andrew, B. at St. Andrew's, Scotland, 1753; d. at Cheltenham, England, 1832. Clergyman of the Church of England ; superintendent of the Madras Male Orphan Asylum, India, 1787-1796 ; introduced his sys- tem of teaching in England, 1797. Comenius, John Amos, B. at Nivnitz, Moravia, 1592; d. at Amsterdam, 1671. Studied at the University of Nassau, 1611-1613; pastor at Fulneck, 1616; exiled 1624; master of a school at Lissa, Poland; invited to England, 1641 ; invited to Sweden, 1642 ; elected Bishop of the Moravian Church at Lissa, 1648 ; invited to Hun- gary, 1650 ; at Lissa. 1654-1657 ; retired to Amsterdam. Didactica Magna, 1628-1632; Janua Linguarum Reser- ata, 1642 ; Orbis sensualium Pictus, 1659. Erasmus, Desiderius, B. at Rotterdam, 1465; d. at at Basel, Switzerland, 1536. Dutch, classical and theo- logical scholar ; edited the New Testament in Greek with a Latin translation; edited the classics. Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August, B. at Ober- weissbach, 1782; d. at Marienthal, 1852. Studied at Jena, 1801 ; teacher, 1805 ; visited Yverdun, 1805 ; studied at Goettingen and Berlin, 1811-1812; soldier, 1813-1814; assistant in mineralogy at Berlin, 1814 ; opened the Uni- versal Educational Institute at Greisheim, 1816; moved to Keilhau, 1817; government inspection of the Insti- BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 107 tute, 1824-1825; opened an orphanage at Burgdorf, 1835 ; opened a school for children at Blankenburg, near Keilhau, 1837; name 'Kindergarten' given, 1839; opened training school at Liebenstein, 1850; retired to Marienthal, 1851. Education of Man, 1826 ; Mutter und Kose Lieder, 1843; Letters on the Kindergarten, 1838- 1852. Herbart, Johann Friedrich, B. at Oldenburg, 1770; d. at Goettingen, 1841. Educated at the Oldenburg gym- nasium and the University of Jena; private tutor at Berne, Switzerland, 1797 ; visited Pestalozzi at Burg- dorf, 1799 ; returned to Germany 1800 and settled at Goettingen ; appointed professor of philosophy and ped- agogy at Koenigsburg, 1809 ; called to Goettingen, 1833. Pestalozzi's Idea of the A, B. C of Observation Scientifi- cally Considered, 1804; Esthetic Revelation of the World, 1804 ; Science of Education, 1806 ; Application of Psychology to Education, 1831 ; Text-Book in Psy- chology, 1834 ; Lectures and Letters on Education, 1835 ; Outline of Educational Doctrine, 1841. Lancaster, Joseph, B. at London, 1778; d. at New York, 1838. Son of a soldier; seaman in the navy; teacher under his father's roof; founded a private school in the Borough Road, Southwark, London, 1798; came to the United States, 1818, and taught in Phila- delphia and New York. Locke, John, B. at Wrington, Somerset, 1632; d. at Oates, Essex, 1704. Educated at Westminster School and Oxford; became lecturer in Greek, 1660, and rhet- oric, 1662; went as secretary to an embassy to Branden- burg, 1664; resided with Lord Ashley (Earl of Shaftes- bury), 1667; held public office, 1698-1700. Essay Con- cerning Human Understanding, 1690; Thoughts on Education, 1693 ; On the Conduct of the Understanding, Post. Loyola, Ignatius de, B. at Guipuzcoa, Spain. 1491 ; d. at Rome, 1556. Educated as page in the court of Ferd- inand, the Catholic; converted at the siege of Pamplona by the French, 1521 ; entered the University of Paris, 1528; projected a religious order {Society of Jesus), 1534. 108 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Mann, Horace, B. at Franklin, Mass, 1796 ; d. at Yel- low Springs, Ohio, 1859. Admitted to the bar, 1823 ; sec- retary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, 1837- 1848; Whig member of Congress, 1848-1853; president of Antioch College, 1852-1859. Melanchthon, Philip, B. at Bretten, Baden, 1497; d. at Wittenberg, Germany, 1560. Educated at Tuebin- gen; professor of Green at Wittenberg, 1518; author of Greek, Latin and Hebrew grammars. Milton, John, B. at London, 1608; d. at London, 1674. Educated at St. Paul's School and Christ's Col- lege, Cambridge; lived at Horton, 1632-1638; traveled in France and Italy, 1638 ; appointed Latin secretary, 1649 ; in hiding at the Restoration of 1658 ; blind, 1663. Tractate on Education, 1644. Montaigne, Michel, Eyquem de, B. at Dordogne, France, 1533; d. 1592. Educated at Bordeaux; at the court of Francis II, 1559 ; with Henry III, 1571 ; trav- eled in France, Switzerland and Italy, 1580; mayor of Bordeaux, 1581. Essays, 1580. Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, B. at Zurich, 1746; d. at Neuhof, 1827. Agricultural experiment with pau- per children at Neuhof, 1771-1798; experiment in edu- cating destitute children at Stanz, 1798 ; teacher in the schools at Burgdorf, 1799-1805; manager of the Insti- tute at Yverdun, 1805-1825 ; at Neuhof again. Evening Hours of a Hermit, 1780; Leonard and Gertrude, 1781; How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, 1801 ; Book for Mothers, 1803 ; My Swan Song, 1826. Plato, B. at Aegina, 429 B. C. ; d. at Athens, 347 B. C. In youth, a gymnast, soldier and poet; disciple of Soc- rates; traveled in Egypt, Cyrene, Sicily and Magna Graecia; founded the Academy about 300. Republic; Laws. Rabelais, Francois, B. at Chinon, Touraine, 1495; d. at Paris, 1553. Studied at a convent and became a monk, 1509; studied medicine at Montpellier, 1530; traveled in France and Italy; in charge of the parish at Mendon, 1550. Pantagruel, 1533; Gargantua, 1535. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 109 Ratke, Wolfgang, B. at Wilster, Holstein, 1571 ; d. 1635. Student of Hebrew, Arabic and mathematics; presented his system of teaching languages before the Diet at Frankfort, 1612; tried his method in Anhalt- Koethen. Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, B. at Geneva, 1712; d. at Ermenonville, near Paris, 1778. Apprenticed to an engraver, 1724-1728; vagabond, 1728-1732; in Paris, 1741 ; Dijon Academy prize, 1749 ; exiled because of his Emile, 1762; in Switzerland and England, 1762-1766; in France, 1767 ; in Paris, 1770. New Holoise, 1761 ; Social Contract, 1762 ; Emile, 1762. Socrates, B. at Athens, 470 B. C. ; d. at Athens, 399. In youth a sculptor; later a student of philosophy; sol- dier at Potidea, 431, at Delium, 424, and at Amphipolis, 422 ; president of the Prytanes, 406, and opposed to the Thirty Tyrants; accused of impiety and of corrupting the youth, 399. Spencer, Herbert, B. at Derby, 1820; d. 1903. Edu- cated by his father; articled to a civil engineer, 1837- 1845; assistant editor of the Economist, 1848-1853; issued the prospectus of philosophy, 1860. Education, Intellectual, Moral and Physical, 1861. 65? * - 419*3 • ■ J L BRARY OF CONGRESS 019 879 690 ff •