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 KENNETH SYLVAN. OUTHRI^; 
 
Class 
 Book. 
 
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 ,,.-^^-%. 
 
 Copyright N°. 
 
 CDFJOUCHT DEPOSm 
 
TEACHERS' PROBLEMS 
 
 And How to Solve Them 
 
 A Hand-book of 
 
 Educational History and Practice, 
 
 or, Comparative Pedagogy, 
 
 With an Appendix on the 
 
 Mission and Limits 
 
 OF THE History of Education 
 
 by 
 Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, 
 
 Professor in Extension, University of the South, Sewanee. 
 
 A.M., Sewanee and Harvard; Ph.D., Tulane and Columbia; 
 
 M.D.. Medico-Chirurgical College, Philadelphia. 
 
 COMPARATIVE LITERATURE PRESS 
 P. O. Box 75, Grantwood, N.J. 
 

 if* 
 
 COPTEIGHT, 1917 
 BY 
 
 KENNETH SYLVAN GUTHRIE 
 All Rights, inclttdinff that of Translation, Reserved 
 
 / 
 
 OCT 24 1917 
 
 ©GU477192 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This unpretentious handbook is not called a "History 
 of Education" for reasons detailed in my pamphlet, 
 entitled "Limits and Mission of History of Education." 
 It aims at being a pioneer of the science of Comparative 
 Pedagogy, the object of which is to develop current 
 educational thought by comparative study. As the 
 school has adopted as its centre the child, so must its 
 science adopt as its centre not the various and some- 
 times fanciful theories of frequently unfit popular 
 idols, but the problems of the teacher. A subsequent 
 volume will take up the problems of the supervisor in 
 a similar comparative spirit. 
 
 In the last chapter the teacher will find a number 
 of practical self-helps for the guidance of his teaching 
 method. This volume will be well fitted to serve as 
 source-book for papers and discussions In teachers' 
 conferences. 
 
 In comparative work, excellence depends not on 
 originality, but on faithfulness to authorities. As my 
 own, therefore, I claim nothing but what none others 
 may be willing to claim, and to my opportunities at 
 Teachers' College, and to Mr. MacEvoy, I attribute any 
 merit this work may be found to possess. My only 
 desire has been to serve more completely and efficiently 
 than others. Any failure to give due credit has been 
 unintentional. The last chapter contains considerable 
 original work. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Imitation, the Basis of Primary Education. .. 5 
 
 2. Habit, tlie Basis of Secondary Education. ... 18 
 
 3. Specialization, tlie Basis of Tertiary Education 28 
 
 4. Interest 40 
 
 5. Self-Activity 50 
 
 6. Self-Consciousness 63 
 
 7. Discipline 80 
 
 8. Method 94 
 
 9. The Teacher Himself 123 
 
 10. Conclusion 138 
 
 (a) Interpretations of Education 138 
 
 (b) Definitions of Education 139 
 
 (c) Genetic Catalogue of Character-traits. . 147 
 
 (d) Types of Historic Characters 153 
 
 '(e) Calendar of Famous Men, for Object- 
 teaching 154 
 
 (f) Study-Course in School Ethics 170 
 
 Appendix: Limits and Mission of History of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 BY GREAT THINKERS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Imitation, the Basis of Primary Education. 
 
 Imitation is tlie basic psychological principle of edu- 
 cation, as seen not only in small children, but even in 
 unreasoning animals. It is therefore the content and 
 method of primary education, and it will be interesting 
 to notice its application and development in the various 
 successive pedagogical theories advanced down to the 
 present day. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 In prehistoric education imitation is the simple, un- 
 conscious guiding principle; but there is always some 
 one man whose experience, wit, authority is greatest; 
 who is recognized as exorcist, medicine man, shaman, 
 prophet, priest, or wise man; who prescribes as abso- 
 lutely as he gained that experience from others or 
 iiimself. He is the primordial teacher, who is imitated, 
 
 5 
 
6 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 and who thus sets the form of worship which is to be 
 imitated by others, to teach them how to work. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 In China the elementary schools are strictly limited to 
 the practice of imitation. They are private, and volun- 
 tary, supported by contributions, beginning at six years 
 of age. They are accidental makeshifts, kept in vacant 
 caves, sheds, rooms or temples. The schooling has 
 absolutely no use except as preparation for examina- 
 tion, and the ninety-nine hundredths who fail cannot 
 return to ordinary avocations without loss of prestige. 
 The mastering of the language is the chief object. 
 
 The Hebrew psalms furnish apt, well-known ex- 
 amples, though only rudimentary, of Chinese couplet 
 writing. There must be perfect correspondence of 
 noun, verb, adjective, participle, and besides inflexion 
 of voice — which, as is well known, influences the 
 meaning of words. This is the basis of all poetic es- 
 says, and is as it were the culmination of imitative pro- 
 cedure, glorified even by habitual, and individual ele- 
 ments. 
 
 Such as it is, primary education is widely diffused, 
 more widely than in any other country, says Huc.^ 
 Its importance may be judged by the fact that the six- 
 year-old child, on entering, is given a new name.^ 
 
 Much more even than among the Chinese was edu- 
 cation primary among the Hindus. Being born into a 
 hereditary caste, whose usages are to him the only 
 salvation, his whole effort is perfectly to learn the 
 numerous, insignificant, petty details of daily life. 
 However, the Hindus had one caste entirely untrained 
 — the Sudra, showing a significant limitation to even 
 this primary education. This primary education began 
 at the age of six or seven years.^ 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 7 
 
 Unless our sources be really a Greek romance, we 
 are led to believe that among the Persians a child re- 
 mained at home until seven years of age,^ when 
 he was given a name by an astrologer, and without 
 corporal punishment developed truth, courage and 
 justice by physical training in running, throwing and 
 archery. Primary education made the child a ward 
 of the state from seven to fifteen years of age. To 
 the continuation of physical training were added a 
 moral training by proverbs and prayers; the teachers 
 being men over fifty years old, models of virtue and 
 knowledge. 
 
 In Egypt, the existence of several castes implied the 
 imitative primary education of son by father, and for 
 general subjects, by priests. Outcast mummy-wrap- 
 pers were taught by their parents. 
 
 But the chief significance of imitation lay in this, 
 that the Egyptian soul expected to pass certain gates 
 in the next world, after death, if not by memorized 
 prayers, then by the possession of certain amulets or 
 magical copies of parts of the Book of the Dead. The 
 care in the imitation of these might therefore make all 
 the difference between salvation and damnation. 
 
 Among the Hebrews, primary education was, in 
 earlier times especially, carried on in the home, boys 
 being taught reading and writing, while the girls were 
 at least taught the chief elements of their Scripture. 
 The biographical methods of imitation of patriotic 
 heroes was prominent, and was particularly important 
 in the case of women, perhaps because of their dif- 
 ficult social position. 
 
 The Mahometans have schools in every village, 
 their method of learning is rote memorization of the 
 Koran; written by their one prophet, Mahomet. So 
 exclusive is their imitation of this, that they allow no 
 drawing, and in many cases no other books; until lately 
 photographic cameras were not permitted in Constar\- 
 
8 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 tinople. The Koran, with reading and writing, is the 
 main study. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 The education of the Homeric period consisted less 
 of instruction, than of imitation; though it extended to 
 music, heaHng and rhetoric, as in the case of Achilles. 
 The humbler needs of life, connected with food, cloth- 
 ing and shelter, were thus taught in the home, while 
 the higher duties of public service were received in 
 councils, wars, and marauding expeditions.^ The 
 direct association of the youth with an adult — the ped- 
 agogue first, and the "inspirer" next — produced moral 
 education by imitation in practical ways. Great 
 results were thus attained. The pedagogue, though 
 despised, exerted careful control; the voluntary sym- 
 pathy of the inspirer awakened the best impulses of 
 youth. While Oriental education therefore consisted 
 of imitation of fixed form or dead custom, Greek edu- 
 cation became that of a definite living model. ^ The 
 primary education of Spartans began at six or seven 
 yea'i of age, and lasted until twelve years of age, 
 when the pupil assumed the man's toga. 
 
 In Athens, the elementary period lasted from seven 
 to sixteen years of age; the curriculum was gymnastics 
 and music, with the boy in charge of a pedagogue. 
 
 In the newer Greek education the elementary school 
 period was divided between the palaestra or school for 
 gymnastics, and a didaskaleon, or school for music. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The principle of imitation was used by the Rornans 
 with more purpose than perhaps by many another 
 nation, in imitation of the parents, and familiarity 
 with the biographies of heroes, as was indeed later 
 realized in Plutarch's "Lives." The long continuance 
 of their popularity shows how practical a source of 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 9 
 
 inspiration were these ideals which later were continued 
 by the Lives of the Saints and Biblical heroes. This 
 imitation was the chief educational Roman principle, 
 whereby the youth was to become pious, grave, rever- 
 ential, courageous, manly, prudent and honest. This 
 came not from imitation from the Orient, but from the 
 sanctification of civic ideals. 
 
 The School of the Literator (or Ludimagister) at- 
 tempted no more than the merest rudiment of the arts 
 of reading, writing and calculation. Their teachers 
 were mostly slave pedagogues. 
 
 Plutarch wrote the first book on the Training of 
 Children. Quintilian strongly believed in object-les- 
 sons in the form of concrete methods, giving the 
 forms and names of letters with objects. Seneca put 
 this in the form of a precept: "The result is gained 
 sooner by example than by precept." 
 
 The home was the center of education in Rome; 
 schools can have been but late. The father's power 
 of life and death made the family the social unit, as 
 also legally, and morally; the father was personally 
 responsible for the child's education. However, the 
 mother had some independence, being her hus- 
 band's companion and partner, and managerial assist- 
 ant: she was nurse and governess, until the boy was 
 turned over to the father's training. Later, of course, 
 for the richer boys, in Horace's day, there were local 
 paid private schools; but these were not strictly Roman 
 in dignity. 
 
 This process of organization continued until in 
 Quintilian's day it was argued that public school educa- 
 tion was far superior to the private tutorial variety. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 If the Romans clearly grasped the value of imita- 
 tion, and applied it by biographical example, continued 
 
10 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 by Plutarch in his "Lives," then Christianity supplied 
 the biography of its founder, for the submerged masses 
 to imitate. Christian life then became an imitation 
 primary schooling, and Monroe says^: "It is the 
 unanimous testimony of historians that for the first 
 two centuries, and for a large part of the third, the 
 life upheld by the Christian Church furnished one of 
 the most remarkable phenomena in history: and that 
 this purity of life was largely responsible for the rapidity 
 and thoroughness of its conquest of the Roman world." 
 
 The more definite primary Christian schooling was 
 the training given to those who expressed a desire to 
 become members of the Church; the secondary in- 
 struction began with their reception as catechumens: 
 they had been attracted by imitation. 
 
 During Charlemagne's lifetime he founded a school 
 in each monastery, and in the bishopric of Orleans, one 
 in each parish. 
 
 The primary education of chivalry was page-hood, 
 extending from the seventh to the fourteenth year. 
 Imitation was here wonderfully brought into play, the 
 pages' continual personal attendance on the noble 
 ladies giving not only beautiful example, in concrete 
 form, but the length of the daily attendance intensified 
 this imitation by habitual contact. 
 
 A later form of primary education occurred when in 
 its last organized readjustment in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury against the Pre-Renaissance, the Roman Church 
 developed a primary extension in the form of the 
 Franciscans, whose imitation of St. Francis appealed 
 with peculiar force to the common people, as biography 
 ever does. 
 
 At the universities, as with the trades, there was a 
 primary imitative stage. The youth of thirteen or 
 thereabouts registered with some master, who was re- 
 sponsible for him unitl he was able to "define" and 
 "determine." 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 11 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The method of imitation was suggested only by 
 Erasmus in teaching on the function of the mother, and 
 the importance of play and exercise, and the necessity 
 of keeping education vitally in touch with the life of 
 the times. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The Reformation, or the Jesuit order, did little or 
 nothing for primary education, unless the "continua- 
 tion" two-hour schools combined with a trade, sug- 
 gested by Luther, be so regarded. The tendency of 
 the reformers to exalt trades, may very well have 
 directed attention and interest to imitation of handi- 
 work. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Although Humanistic Realism said little if anything 
 about elementary education, Erasmus, in his "System 
 of Studies" goes to the root of the problem in basing 
 knowledge of Words on that of Things, as the more 
 important.^ If the pupil be furnished with things, 
 the words will follow.^ Here lay the superiority of 
 education at Sparta in things, over the words of 
 Athens.io 
 
 The best, from the best masters, is to be learnt at 
 once, and the Greek language is to be learnt only to 
 introduce their expression of the knowledge of the 
 things supremely worth while, the only introduction 
 needed to this is the ability to speak that language 
 correctly. 
 
 Montaigne held that if philosophy teaches to live, 
 why is it not given to children early? Why teach men 
 to live only when they have done living^^? 
 
12 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 The imitation of childhood should be taken advan- 
 tage of for the teaching of foreign languages; these 
 should be learned early from nurses, as happened to 
 Montaigne himself, who read Ovid's stories in the 
 nursery,^^ ^nd took part in Latin plays, thus employing 
 his mimetic instinct. 
 
 Nevertheless, Montaigne believed in vernacular 
 schools coming first. ^^ 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 Mulcaster's psychological analysis began with "Art 
 to conceive by,^^ and this no doubt well represents 
 imitation, that by which the mind grows. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius insists^ ^ that "a man can most easily be 
 formed in early youth, and cannot be formed properly 
 except at this age." His psychological analysis of the 
 child's mentality is knowing oneself and all things. 
 
 Comenius's Mother-School with its educational 
 games, plays and occupations was really the origin of 
 Froebel's kindergarten. Here are to be enforced^^: 
 temperance, cleanliness, reverence, obedience, truth, 
 justice, charity, industry, absolute silence, patience, 
 politeness, courtesy, religion and piety, together with 
 rudimentary notions of all the sciences. The Vernac- 
 ular School took up all the same subjects, only in a 
 more advanced manner, developing in mornmg in- 
 tellect and memory and explanation, and in the after- 
 noon repetition, with exercise of hand and voice. 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Locke has much to say of imitation. He empha- 
 sizes^'^ the maxim "pueris reverentia." Nothing 
 should occur before him which should not by him be 
 imitated — seeing that it will inevitably be reproduced 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 13 
 
 on his mind's sensitized plate; thus both home and 
 surroundings are fateful. Hence the crucial importance 
 of securing a proper examplar as tutor. ^^ 
 
 However, Locke cares little for the "performance of 
 a single act," but that "children should be used to 
 submit their desires and go without their Longings, 
 even from their very Cradles." The first thing they 
 should learn to know should be that they were not to 
 have anything because it pleased them, but because 
 it was thought fit for them. Evidently Locke was not a 
 mother, who would be more like to realize the length 
 of the period during which the child no more than 
 imitates its surroundings. Yet, he says^^: "Children 
 may be taught anything which falls under their senses, 
 especially, their sight, as far as their memories only 
 are exercised." The development from such simple 
 bases to the most complex forms of knowledge is by 
 observance of the inductive method. Self-denial must 
 be taught early. ^o 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 We must consider both of Rousseau's earliest 
 periods: from 1-5, physical; from 5-12, training of 
 members and organs. From 12 to 15, therefore, 
 curiosity is to guide the child. By Robinson Crusoe 
 methods he will imitate and lay by useful information 
 and training.21 Evidently Rousseau's primary educa- 
 tion is much belated in the child's life, which indeed has 
 no room for the university tertiary education. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Pestalozzi at Burgdorf worked out the importance 
 of the object lesson, not merely to gain a knowledge 
 of the word or thing, as Comenius had done, but as 
 
14 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 a means of mental development.^^ gy ^ continuous 
 chain of graded exercises, a basis for the entire mental 
 development of the child by observation is given. 
 
 Mental arithmetic was developed to a great extent^^; 
 drawing was changed from imitative to "intuitive" or 
 vitalized; language changed from the spelling to 
 phonetic and syllabic methods; geography was to be 
 begun from the home yard; singing was secularized, 
 and used for influence on moral feelings and training. 
 
 As indeed appears from Pestalozzi's life-experiences, 
 his work was chiefly confined to elementary schools, 
 and Herbart points this out definitely, considering it as 
 a foundation for his own additions.^* 
 
 This teaching by observation^^ is analyzed into num- 
 ber, form and language. We are to observe, 1, how 
 many and what kind of objects; 2, their appearance, 
 form and language; and 3, their names. On a man 
 the result of this process is the 1, power of recognizing 
 unlike objects; 2, stating their number, and 3, repre- 
 senting objects, number and form by language, un- 
 forgetably. Therefore the immutable law of the art of 
 education is to start from, and work within this three- 
 fold principle. 1, We should teach to look on every 
 object as separated from its environment; 2, to teach 
 its form, size and proportion; and 3, to teach the words 
 and names descriptive of objects known to them. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 While Comenius, in his "Mother-School," had 
 planned the organization of child's play, it was Froebel 
 who, at Blankenburg, in 183 7, actualized it in his kin- 
 dergarten. It was a new field and hence offered least 
 resistance. Its fundamental thought^^ was to aid the 
 child to express himself, and thus produce develop- 
 ment. The acquisitive and assimilative processes, here 
 usually dominant, are now subordinated to develop- 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 15 
 
 iiient. They are only stages in the expression of the 
 constructive process. This self-expression is triple, 
 through gesture, song and language. The told story 
 was to be mimetically re-expressed in gesture, song or 
 creative reproduction. This process of creative repro- 
 duction is at bottom imitative, and hence well carries 
 out the fundamental principle of all primary education. 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 Montessori employs imitation to the extent of in- 
 sisting on great ' accuracy of the teacher, without 
 naming or specially stressing it as the basic principle of 
 learning.27 It is not to be disturbed by fault-finding 
 of the teacher, and errors are to be brought out by 
 silence and repetition. Imitation is implied as the 
 method by which spontaneous activity works. 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The elementary schools of Germany are of various 
 kinds, for various social strata. There is the Volks- 
 schule (after the kindergarten), without admission fee, 
 for the poorest. Then there are the Mittel-schulen, 
 which charge a little. Then there are the Pro-gym- 
 masia, or classes preparatory to the gymnasia, and 
 other kindred institutions. On the whole the primary 
 school is a very efficient institution, attempting to give 
 the foundations in the mother-tongue. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 Primary education in France is as elaborately sys- 
 tematized as its continuing secondary course; there are 
 also primary "mother's schools," which correspond to 
 kindergartens. Thursday afternoon walks^^ are 
 utilized for object-teaching. The nature-work is par- 
 ticularly strong; in the beginning class, acquaintance 
 
16 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 with the simple facts of common knowledge, direction, 
 time, seasons, distinctions of animals, mineral, and 
 vegetable kingdoms; in the preparatory classes, the 
 occupations and products which touch their daily life — 
 the farmer, the miller, the baker, the vinegrower, cloth- 
 ing, fuel, metals, means of locomotion; in the seventh 
 form, domestic and wild animals, birds, fish, insects, 
 the forest, the field, the garden; in the eighth form 
 materials employed in construction, whence obtained, 
 and hpw used, the winds, the different forms of water, 
 volcanoes and fossils. Applied Science is perhaps a 
 French specialty, and is well exemplified by Figuier's 
 works. 
 
 F^nelon particularly emphasized the educative value 
 of imitation by his doctrine of indirect instruction, 
 deriving it from observation of interesting stories 
 and fables, so that everything outside the direct aim 
 of the lesson may be indirect instruction. Applying 
 this he wrote for the Dauphin the Homeric story of 
 Telemachus, Dialogues of the Dead, and minor fables. 
 
 Not far removed from this was the Jansenist's and 
 Rollin's insistence on both formulation and application 
 of objective methods. 
 
 Another reform in elementary education was the 
 attempt of Lasalle and the "Christian Brothers" to do 
 for elementary education and the working people what 
 had been done for secondary education and the higher 
 class people by the Jesuits. They effected a lasting 
 improvement in French primary education. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The American primary school system — the kinder- 
 garten — has spread with remarkable speed, and no 
 child in any of the larger centres need lack its psycho- 
 logical training. The elementary school system may 
 
IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 17 
 
 not hold, but certainly receives practically all the 
 children outside of those going to private schools. Its 
 organization is one of the largest and costliest in the 
 history of society, in any place and time. The power 
 of imitation is well understood and used in the kinder- 
 garten and in the object-method in the higher grades. 
 Edward A. Sheldon,^^ at the Oswego Normal School, 
 promoted object* lessons on the Pestalozzian plan.^^ 
 
 1 Compayre, 13. 2 MacEvoy, 
 6. 3 Painter, 18. ■♦ MacEvoy, 
 16. 5 Monroe, 63. 6 ib., 98. 
 7 lb., 231. 8 lb., 445. » Mon- 
 taigne, Education Essay, 201. 
 10 Monroe, 457. n Mon- 
 taigne, Education, 194, 5. ^^ 15^ 
 209. 13 Monroe, 458. 14 jb., 
 466. 1^ Great Didactic, 7. 
 16 1b., 28. 17 Locke, Theory 
 of Education, 70, 71. is lb., 
 
 75. 19 Monroe, 521. 20 Locke, 
 Ed. Th. 32-35. 21 Monroe, 
 562. 22 lb., 607. 2 3 lb., 619. 
 2 4 lb., 623. 25 Pestalozzi, How 
 Gertrude Instructs, 87, 88. 
 26 Monroe, 665. 27 Montes- 
 sori, Method, p. 225. 2 8 Far- 
 ringdon, p. 263. 29 1823-1897, 
 in New York. 30 Por Ameri- 
 can Schools, see Brown, E., 
 Making of our Middle Schools. 
 
18 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Habit, the Basis of Secondary Education. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 Spencer saye: "The least developed people are the 
 most averse to change," which would result from in- 
 dividual initiative, or specialization, the psychological 
 basis of tertiary education. They remain therefore in 
 the domain of secondary education, which is based on 
 the formation of habits, and the acceptation of cus- 
 toms. These appear as doctrines, secrets or rituals of 
 initiation, in which the neophyte has nothing to do but 
 exercise imitation of the incantation, or oracular divina- 
 tion of the leader, teacher, shaman or priest. 
 
 The philosophical fiction of a "Social Contract" 
 (of J. J. Rousseau, Hobbs, and Locke), by which 
 certain individuals were supposed to unite to live to- 
 gether in a society, is seen to be a "flareback," a mis- 
 taken anachronism. The animals travel in schools, 
 flocks and herds, and the primitive man existed in 
 tribes, or clans, long before he came to self-conscious- 
 ness, let alone before he could have made a "social 
 contract," which could not be verified as ever having 
 existed anywhere; and by which, all the rest of the 
 human race was ever after bound. The rules of inter- 
 national law are not yet universally observed, even in 
 our own day. Individuality could not appear before 
 self-consciousness; and must not be mistaken for un- 
 tutored impulse, and the mechanism of habit. 
 
HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 19 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Habit, recapitulation, is the chief characteristic of 
 Chinese education: "What Heaven has conferred is 
 called nature; an accordance with nature is called the 
 path of duty; the regulation of this path is called in- 
 struction." In those countries life's occupations and 
 relationships have not varied for centuries. 
 
 Memory, though based on imitation, draws its per- 
 manence from habit. The memorizing and retention 
 of the classics, the foundation of Chinese composition 
 of essays, is peculiarly a secondary school activity. 
 "The object of the teacher is to compel his pupils, 
 first, to remember; secondly, to remember; thirdly, 
 and evermore, to remember." The pupil "backs his 
 book," to insure thoroughness, and then "the atten- 
 tion of the scholar is fixed exclusively upon two 
 things — the repetition of the characters in the same 
 order as they occur in the book (imitation), and the 
 repetition of them at the highest attainable rate of 
 speed" (habit). 
 
 In India^ secondary education admits the three high- 
 est castes; but the warriors and merchants make use of 
 this secondary education as "finishing courses," to fit 
 them for the wants of practical life, and official civil 
 position. 
 
 In Persia, secondary education seems to have some- 
 times been limited^ to military training, from fifteen to 
 twenty-five years of age. 
 
 In Egypt, secondary education consisted of writing 
 and mathematics for the third caste, while the upper 
 two added sciences, language and music. But the chief 
 significance of the memnonical education for the 
 Egyptian was that, by accurate reciting of certain 
 memorized prayers, passage through certain gates in 
 the next world was to be attained. Among the Hebrews 
 
20 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 secondary education was probably combined with the 
 primary at the synagogal schools, and memory-work, 
 of the Scriptures and rabbinical writings the chief 
 subject. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 The formation of habit, the athletics of the soul, was 
 among the Greeks produced by music — which included 
 all forms of art presided over by the nine muses: 
 poetry, drama, history, oratory, the sciences, and 
 music proper,^ particularly singing, and the musical 
 recital of the Homeric poems.^ It was this that pro- 
 duced personal worth or nobility, by which the free 
 man was as superior to the slave, as the Athenian 
 citizen was to the citizen of other cities. This har- 
 mony was to reduce the soul to agreement with itself. 
 The importance of this phase of education appears in 
 Plato's attempt, in his "Republic," to limit the poetry 
 and music learnt by the children^ to what might not 
 conflict with their moralization. 
 
 Thus Greek education^ was a formation of habits by 
 doing, rather than learning; it was the shaping of con- 
 duct. When the habit is once formed by exercise, 
 training must be followed by instruction in order to 
 rationalize it, replacing arbitrary authority by reason 
 as basis of virtuous conduct. 
 
 Aristotle taught that what nature has done for the 
 character of the individual is beyond man's control; 
 all that can be done is to train the individual through 
 the formation of habit, '^ the subject matter of ethics, 
 on which he wrote the first great treatise. 
 
 Spartan secondary education occurred between 
 twelve and eighteen years of age, when the pupil 
 entered into the class of ephebes or cadets, where he 
 received strict military training. 
 
 Athenian secondary education consisted of gymr 
 
HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 
 
 nasia, from sixteen to eighteen years of age, with 
 training by conversation with elders, attending law- 
 courts, banquets and theatres. 
 
 Public education being limited to the free, it con- 
 tained no manual training; the slaves and artisans 
 learned their trades by apprenticeship, or by actually 
 doing the work. Perhaps the Spartan ephebic train- 
 ing from eighteen to twenty might be considered a 
 kind of definite manual training. However, in newer 
 Greek education, the poorer boys at fourteen or fifteen 
 were set to learning a trade, so that Socrates was not 
 ashamed of being a sculptor. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The secondary process of Roman education was 
 without a doubt habitualizing the imitated virtues. 
 Their education was one of "doing" rather than 
 "learning." Certain activities were undertaken to 
 form certain approved habits. Rationalizing instruc- 
 tions were never added thereto, except as an im- 
 ported, engrafted process. 
 
 The Roman secondary school was that of the 
 "grammaticus," an organized institution with elab- 
 orate method and fixed curriculum, which received 
 public support. It taught grammar and literature, 
 systematized as the seven liberal arts: grammar, 
 rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music and 
 astronomy — medicine and architecture being some- 
 times added. Gymnastics was taught only in connec- 
 tion with military service; dancing was learned at 
 home. Quintilian as well as Cicero advises that the 
 memory be trained by using choice selections. 
 
 In Rome, man was perhaps most perfectly social- 
 ized; inasmuch as "justice" was maintained among 
 men by the state's enforcement of the balance be- 
 
22 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 tween rights and duties. The elaboration of life 
 in these terms were the Romans' great task and great- 
 est contribution to civilization. They have left con- 
 crete meaning to the following standard terms: 
 1, piety, consisting of reverence and filiality; 2, mod- 
 esty, with reverence; 3, manliness (or firmness, char- 
 acter, "constantia") embraced fortitude; 4, prudence, 
 honesty, and earnestness ("gravitas," graveness, 
 sedateness, sobriety and dignity). These exercised 
 individually constituted duty; but if exercised towards 
 the state they formed justice. The word virtue 
 ("virtus") among the Romans meant, and continued 
 to mean, manliness. "Life in terms of virtue is the 
 idealistic formulation of life; life in terms of duty is 
 the moral conception of life as formulated by the 
 practical man."^ 
 
 Quintilian thought the public school preferable to 
 the private tutor. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The Christian secondary education, the formation of 
 habits, was the training given to catechumens, in 
 which they proved worthy of admission into full mem- 
 bership by baptism. 
 
 Later, in chivalry, the secondary education consisted 
 of squirehood, extending frequently from the fourteenth 
 to the twenty-first year. While each noble held his 
 own court, the social benefits of schools were gained 
 by sending their sons to serve in other courts, which 
 custom may have arisen from, or coalesced with, that 
 of taking hostages, to insure peace and co-operation. 
 
 A later form of secondary education — a sort of 
 "extension movement" — occurred when, in its last 
 organized readjustment in the thirteenth century 
 against the Pre- Renaissance, the Roman Church de- 
 
HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 
 
 veloped a secondary organization called the order of 
 the Dominicans, whose intellectual discipline appealed 
 to most educated middle-class people, and taught them 
 habits of thought and reasoning. 
 
 At the universities, as with the trades, there was a 
 secondary stage of education, that of the "journey- 
 man." The student studied with several masters, and 
 taught younger boys. 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 In Vittorino da Feltre's Mantuan school, 'The 
 Pleasant House," he taught the seven liberal arts. 
 Erasmus was not unmindful of the formation of habit 
 by repetition; of more general "procedure" through 
 the mastery of small portions of work. All such de- 
 tails were not beneath his careful consideration. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The secondary German gymmasien, and the lower 
 Jesuit colleges may very well have given field for the 
 formation of habits of study. Nevertheless, there was 
 as yet no direct psychological analysis of the mental 
 processes underlying secondary education. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC EDUCATION, 
 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne's insistence on getting at the "things and 
 objects," and making use of childhood's imitativeness 
 to learn languages practically, unites secondary with 
 primary education, sending the child into tertiary or 
 finishing education at the time he would usually be^in 
 
24 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 the secondary. This indeed occurred with Montaigne 
 himself, who entered college at thirteen years of age. 
 Under the heading of habit, we may perhaps men- 
 tion Montaigne's great aversion for mere memoriza- 
 tion. "A boy should not so much memorize his lesson, 
 as practice it. Let him repeat it in his actions."^ 
 'To know by heart only is not to know at all; it is 
 simply to keep what one has committed to his mem- 
 ory. What a man knows directly, that he will dispose 
 of without turning to his book, or looking to his 
 pattern." This then is here considered the measure 
 and basis of efficiency. 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 Mulcaster's^^ second psychological step of "memory 
 to retain" represents fairly well the habit-formation of 
 secondary education. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius's analysis of the psychological basis of 
 the second stage of education is ''ruling one's self" — 
 evidently the creation of habits. 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Nobody more than Locke has emphasized the value 
 of habit. To him it was the one means by which the 
 impressionable sensitive plate of the mind developed 
 "powers" and "faculties." "It is not that the perform- 
 ance of a single act is in itself to be deprecated per- 
 haps; but the formation of habit is all-important." 
 "Habits work more constantly and with greater facility 
 than reason, which, when we have most need of it, 
 is seldom fairly consulted, and more rarely obeyed. "^^ 
 Practice and habits are everything. We are born with 
 faculties, but the$e are not exercise. Genius is no 
 
HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 
 
 more than exercise; many a poetic nature lies hid in 
 avocations of trade. The difference between men is 
 not due to their natural faculties, but to their acquired 
 habits. Hearing and memorizing of rules are worth- 
 less: it is practice that forms the habit of action with- 
 out reflection. Faults arise chiefy from want of right 
 use of mind.^2 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Between the ages of fifteen to twenty the selfish 
 child begins to become aware of others; his heart is 
 to be trained in social relationships.^^ Adolescence 
 here "begins" education, instead of ending It: a com- 
 mon sense interpretation is that Emile's education is 
 belated. What before was mere habitual association 
 now becomes based on unity, on sympathy and on 
 emotional experience; through contact with men, the 
 example of his tutor, and the study of history, his 
 conscience is wakened by love and hate that point out 
 good and evil. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Pestalozzi^^ emphasizes the value of the repetitional 
 habit in the memorizing of verses and the continuous 
 repetition of lessons. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 While Froebel limited himself to the kindergarten, 
 hence not touching the secondary school, he fully 
 recognized the crucial importance of its underlying" 
 principle of habit formation. 
 
26 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 HERBART. 
 
 Herbart suggested as means of the psychological de- 
 velopment the use of pure mathematics, classical 
 languages, literature and history. These of course 
 drill the mind by habits of study. 
 
 MONTESSORL 
 
 The Montessori method does not primarily apply to 
 secondary education, as it does not concern itself as 
 much with the formation of habits as with the employ- 
 ment of imitation, the basis of primary education. It 
 is expected that if each step is the result of pleasur- 
 able activity, there will be no need of habit. So 
 corsets, braces, and orthopedic benches^^ are dis- 
 carded in favor of change of form of work; avoiding 
 mechanism, in favor of a conquest of liberty. How- 
 ever, the senses are educated by repeated exercise to 
 produce refinement of discrimination.^*^ It is called 
 "sensory culture." The teacher at least must practice 
 long and patient observation. ^'^ 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The German secondary school system was estab- 
 lished in its present position after the Napoleonic wars 
 as an engine of national regeneration and revenge, 
 under the leadership of such men as Schelling. It has 
 fulfilled its mission, as the Franco-Prussian war demon- 
 strated. Lately it has undergone a number of modi- 
 fications by adding to the old classical course the 
 Latin-scientific real gymmasium, the commercial 
 realschule, and girls' gymnasium. It fits for the one 
 year volunteer service in the army and the university. 
 Its severe drill is an admirable means for formation of 
 habits of study and self-discipline; but hardly of self- 
 
HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 27 
 
 control, for which the implicit obedience demanded 
 precludes the student. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 In France the secondary school system is elaborately 
 systematized, and forms the foundation for admission 
 to the professions and government employ, extending 
 from the tenth to the seventeenth year. Its close 
 articulation with the almost innumerable government 
 positions, with its postal, telegraphic and railroad sys- 
 tems, lends it much of the Greek semi-political char- 
 acter. Ramus's precept, "Few precepts and much 
 practice," suggests the proper basis of French second- 
 ary education. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The secondary school system of the United States is 
 not yet unified, or everywhere developed; but the 
 immense strides of secondary school attendance shows 
 that its'facilities are being more and more appreciated 
 all over our country. One state alone yet insists on 
 the standard that every child shall at any rate go 
 through the high school — Massachusetts; but this 
 standard has set the pace for the whole country, and 
 the whole world, for the matter of that. 
 
 1 Painter, 20. 2 McEvoy, 16. 12 Conduct of Understanding; 
 
 3 Monroe, 90. 4 Monroe, 92. 4. ^3, Monroe, S63-5. 14 Leon- 
 
 E Monroe, 93. 6 Monroe, 99. ard and Gertrude, 25. is Mon- 
 
 ■^ Monroe, 152. ^ Monroe, tessori, 19. i^Montessori, 173. 
 
 154. 9 Monroe, 461. lo Mon- 17 Montessori, 11. 
 roe, 466. n Monroe, 516. 
 
28 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Spedallzation, the Basis of Tertiary Education. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 Absence of the second or habit-step of education, 
 limiting man to mere imitation, might be called 
 savagery. Man then becomes primitive by passing 
 through an initiation of some sort into a customary or 
 habitual condition. Civilization may be said to be 
 reached when arises effort, inventiveness, specializa- 
 tion, expertness, will — the third, combining or "finish- 
 ing" process of an education. 
 
 It may indeed not appear self-consciously in prim- 
 itive times, yet it must ever have been present, how- 
 ever implicitly, in any distinctively human activity. 
 
 It will be noticed that the first development of 
 primitive education. Oriental education, is character- 
 ized by entire repression of the individuality; primitive 
 education must therefore have been a socializing edu- 
 cation of the impulses before individuality even ap- 
 peared on the scene. Moreover, the character and 
 content of the training was directed to producing a 
 useful member of the tribe, rather than an international 
 personality; the learning was tribal, and taught with 
 tribal formalities. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 If China is the best possible example of the applica- 
 tion of the principle of secondary education, habit, we 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 29 
 
 must not be misled into supposing that the principle of 
 tertiary education — individuality, would be entirely 
 absent. Man is incurably human; and, even at his first 
 appearance, showed some trace, however slight, of 
 all his powers. We saw that even in primitive educa- 
 tion, the medicine men must have used some little 
 individuality; and the Chinese also certainly used a 
 great deal more of it: the adoption of so morally 
 exalted a standard as Confucius originated; the inven- 
 tions of so complicated a hieroglyphic system; print- 
 ing; spectacles; and many other inventions antedating 
 our own by milleniums. Chinese education, therefore, 
 is civilization, though stunted. 
 
 Again, recently, in 1 898, there were great changes. 
 The examinations were temporarily abolished, and 
 western colleges substituted. In 1901 literary style 
 essays were abolished, and modern training introduced. 
 No doubt these changes will bear fruit, and demonstrate 
 that further improvements will not be impossible. So 
 also the introduction and abolishment of the queue. 
 
 The examination system was established in 61 7 A.D., 
 under the T'ang dynasty, so that there were changes 
 even then. Only these changes were looked on as 
 "natural" or personal actions, and were not realized as 
 conflicting with custom. 
 
 Besides, the composition of odes and essays, though 
 cast in inflexible form of imitative couplet-writing, does 
 imply creative ability, and "finishing" activity. But 
 this may be exercised only within the limits of couplet 
 or essay-style. Evidently individuality has not yet en- 
 tirely emerged in literary, as well as in moral relations. 
 
 This rudimentary abortion of individuality has left 
 the whole nation materialistic and sordid; nothing to 
 inspire the individual, no "breath of idealism"; even 
 the rare principles of ethical character are based 
 wholly on arbitrary authority or irrational tradition.^ 
 It has resulted^ in a lack of power of initiative, of in- 
 
30 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 ventiveness, of adaptability, and all creative function- 
 ing. 
 
 The most striking indication of this is the Hindu 
 formulation of it in the doctrine that the goal of per- 
 sonal development is absorption in Nirvana, the an- 
 nihilation of the individual. 
 
 Let it not be thought that this absence of individu- 
 ality was due to any psychological defect: the human 
 being was born, the same as he is now, ages ago; and 
 the proof of it is, among the Chinese, that this social 
 choking of it resulted in the unreliability of slave- 
 morality; one cannot violate a man's nature, without 
 suffering compensations that are sinister. 
 
 In India, only Brahmin pupils continue on to tertiary 
 education,^ and thus complete since their primary days 
 twelve years of study. Indeed, through this long 
 course the Hindus achieved very great proficiency in 
 mathematics, originating much of algebra, thus placing 
 the rest of mankind under lasting obligation.^ Rhe- 
 toric and logic also were cultivated.^ 
 
 In Persia, the tertiary period from twenty-five to 
 fifty years of age consisted of military service as a 
 soldier, but added reading and writing. Competent 
 retired soldiers, after fifty years of age, may have 
 become Magi, who practised astronomy, astrology, 
 alchemy, priestcraft, and the study of the Zend-Avesta. 
 
 In Egypt the highest education in sciences and philo- 
 sophy was of course limited to the priests, whose 
 reputation was such that Plato was drawn to them, and 
 from them received much — as, for instance, his legend 
 of Atlantis. 
 
 Among the Hebrews (of the first century A.D), 
 there were rabbinical schools of theology, law and 
 medicine at Alexandria, Babylon and Jerusalem. In 
 earlier periods, the "schools of the prophets" for sons 
 of prophets, priests, and other leaders, taught philos- 
 ophy, poetry, music, medicine, history and law.^ 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 31 
 
 The Saracens preserved and transmitted the philos- 
 ophy of Aristotle, and at their university seats of 
 Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova and Seville, translated the 
 works of Euclid, remodeled the algebra of the Greeks 
 and Hindus into modern form; founded a new trigo- 
 nometry, and gave a new numerical notation; dis- 
 covered alcohol, nitric and sulphuric acids; applied 
 the pendulum to time, measured the earth, and made 
 a star catalogue, added much to knowledge of medi- 
 cine, surgery, pharmacy, astronomy, physiology and 
 physics, besides improving navigation and commerce; 
 and introducing the use of rice, sugar, cotton, and 
 the cultivation of silk. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 Aristotle taught that only when good habits had 
 been formed'^ and a good nature had been discovered, 
 this work of instruction could be completed by the 
 work of instruction in theory. Hence ethics culmin- 
 ated in politics, its practical application, its chief ob- 
 ject being^ to produce in the citizens a certain char- 
 acter, enabling them to do great deeds. 
 
 The human being, consisting of three parts, body 
 and soul, irrational and rational, needs an education 
 consisting first, of gymnastics; then education of the 
 desires, passions and appetites — music, and literature, 
 or the moral education; and the education of the 
 rational part of the soul implied science and philos- 
 ophy — the life of reason, the crown — which was the 
 element lacking to Spartan education. Spartans sub- 
 stituted for this actual experience in war from twenty 
 to thirty years of age, when occurred marriage, as- 
 suming of citizenship, and performing actual public 
 service. 
 
 In Athens the tertiary education was the ephebic 
 period, when, as a citizen enrolled under oath (from 
 
32 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 eighteen to twenty years of age), the youth lived in 
 barracks or camp one year, and became a regular 
 soldier the second. Athenian education was therefore 
 developed one step further than the Spartan by the 
 presence of a genuine secondary education of social 
 culture. Lacking this, the Spartan's finishing educa- 
 tion became the secondary education in point of time. 
 Besides, this military education of Spartan and Athen- 
 ian showed different results. Among the Spartans, 
 what was committed to the direction of habit, and 
 therefore grew permanent, was war. Even in a great 
 national urgency they would not go to Marathon, be- 
 cause of their habit of waiting for the new moon; and 
 to the very end of their existence they remained war- 
 like. Not so with the Athenian. Habitually, incurably 
 cultured, his warlikeness was never more than fitful; 
 the walls of the Parthenon were built at an exigency 
 out of ill-assorted material; their generals were not 
 professionals, but elected civilians. 
 
 Of the Spartans, Plutarch said, "As for learning, 
 they had just what was absolutely necessary." Ac- 
 cording to Lycurgus, their chief object was "exercise 
 of virtue," and "concord of the inhabitants."^ Hence 
 their education was prevailingly physical and moral. It 
 was the Sophists who first attempted to impart definite 
 information, so that the so-called reforms of Socrates 
 and Plato were really in the nature of a retrogression; 
 they cared but little for dissemination of informa- 
 tion.^^ Their method was inadequate for mathe- 
 matics, science, history, language, or literature. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Upon their education of habit, the Romans, in later 
 years, superimposed rationalizing instructions of formal 
 kind; but this ever remained a Greek importation. 
 Their tertiary or finishing course was the actual ap- 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 33 
 
 prenticeship to the thing to be done. They manifested 
 no appreciation whatever of the training and instruc- 
 tion in certain selected activities that possess cultural 
 value because they plant in the very nature of the 
 child germs of a much fuller development in manhood 
 — activities such as characterized the liberal education 
 of the Greeks. 
 
 The "school of the rhetor" was a "finishing" course, 
 patronized only by those who were preparing for 
 public life — especially for oratory. It consisted chiefly 
 of declamation and debate about legal and moral de- 
 batable questions; it also taught music, arithmetic, 
 geometry, astronomy and philosophy. In time these 
 finishing schools culminated into a Roman university, 
 begun by a library founded by Vespasian (69-79 A.D) 
 in the Temple of Peace, and which under Hadrian 
 (117-138) came to be called the "Athenaeum." How- 
 ever, it attended more to law and medicine than to 
 philosophy. 
 
 That the Roman's physical prowess remained so 
 permanent shows that their secondary period of habit- 
 formation was taken up with warlike training. Here 
 was the difference between Sparta, Athens and Rome. 
 Sparta, with warlikeness as secondary training, and 
 no tertiary education, had a warlike people, but no 
 good generals. In Athens, postponement of warlikeness 
 to the tertiary stage produced a few brilliant generals 
 over an unwarlike people. Rome, with warlike 
 secondary education, gave her whole people warlike 
 stability; but the addition of an intelligent tertiary edu- 
 cation of culture added brilliant generals. 
 
 While these schools all began in a private manner, 
 they soon spread over the whole empire; but there was 
 no governmental oversight, compulsion, or uniformity. 
 Gradually, however, the government, both imperial 
 and municipal, came to the aid of these schools, and 
 thereby gave them a certain official standing, and the 
 
34 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 semblance of a system. The paying of the salaries by 
 Vespasian developed the University of Rome; and 
 Antoninus Pius (138-161 A.D.) first admitted the 
 grammarians, rhetoricians and philosophers to quasi- 
 senatorial rank and privileges. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The Christian finishing or university education was 
 in the earliest period the cathechetical school, ^^ so 
 called from the use of the cathechism, and its method 
 of instruction. For some centuries Alexandria was 
 the centre of this theological intellectual activity, be- 
 ginning with the Stoic convert Pantaenus in 179 A.D., 
 with Clement and Origen (231 A.D.), who continued 
 such instruction in Syria and Cesarea, followed by 
 Jerome at Bethlehem. Calixtus founded such a school 
 at Rome which, through libraries, assumed university 
 proportions. 
 
 The germ of specialization appeared in the Cis- 
 tercian monasteries, through the admission of lay- 
 brothers devoted to the rough work. This allowed 
 the more intellectual monks more time for study and 
 literature. 
 
 Tertiary or finishing education was represented in 
 chivalry by the last stage of the training of the squire; 
 the "squire of the body." He was the immediate per- 
 sonal attendant upon his lord in battle and in tourna- 
 ment, and thus had the opportunities, as well as right, 
 of promotion to knighthood. 
 
 A later form of finishing education occurred when, 
 in its last organized readjustment in the thirteenth 
 century, against the Pre-Renaissance, the Roman 
 Church developed a tertiary extension in the form of 
 the Inquisition, a sort of graduation in conversion, 
 which was effectually prepared for life or death, as 
 the case might be; at any rate, it well showed the 
 power of will-directed, rationally efficient methods. 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 35 
 
 In another direction, tertiary interests developed — 
 at Paris, under William of Champeaux, and Abelard, 
 in 1121. The local cathedral and monastery schools 
 merged into an university, because of the numbers of 
 students who flocked there, and the prominence of 
 these (it is said twenty cardinals and fifty bishops rose 
 from among them). The different universities grew 
 up from special schools — theology at Paris, law at 
 Bologna, medicine at Salerno. Later, these developed 
 full symmetric curricula. As Abelard created Paris, 
 so Irnerius, and the discovery of the Pandect of Jus- 
 tinian at the sack of Amalfi in 1135, created Bologna. 
 Especially the importation of Arabic by returning 
 crusaders, and the recovery of the true Aristotle made 
 readjustment of tertiary education inevitable. 
 
 At the universities, as with the trade guilds, the third 
 period of education, the executive, was entered by an 
 examination, a ''master-piece," a "disputation," a 
 "thesis," which, if sustained, was rewarded with the 
 license to teach or "incept," to engage in active oc- 
 cupation — so that this constituted a finishing educa- 
 tion. 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Vittorino da Feltre, in his Mantuan School, "The 
 Pleasant House," added to the seven liberal arts such 
 finishing courses as to prepare directly for a useful and 
 balanced life in leadership, a citizenship based on a 
 knowledge of, and sympathy with, the best in the life 
 of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Luther was very bitter against the traditional pagan 
 humanistic university course, considering it a lingering 
 form of the Greek ephebic organization. Indeed, the 
 
36 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Reformation caused the chief universities, such as 
 Wittemberg, Marburg, Koenigsberg, Jena, Helmstadt, 
 Dorpat, Strasburg, and Altdorf, to secede from the 
 papacy, and to devote themselves to the interest of 
 whatever reigning house supported them. The Roman 
 Cathohcs meanwhile founded new universities within 
 the Teuton sphere. The Jesuit universities presented a 
 high degree of efficiency; but gradually all of them 
 sank into lifeless formalism. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne points out how specialized Greek edu- 
 cation was, inasmuch as the Greeks went to Sparta for 
 legislators, magistrates and generals; to Athens for 
 speakers, and elsewhere for rhetoricians, painters and 
 musicians. So his own educational scheme for a gen- 
 tleman's education seems admirably fitted for his pur- 
 pose. There was more time for this, because of starting 
 to college at so early an age; and it included travel and 
 association with princes. 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 Mulcaster's threefold psychological scheme of "Dis- 
 cretion to discern by,^- may represent that specializing 
 expertness required in a finishing course. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius's psychological analysis of the third stage 
 of education is "directing oneself towards God"; i.e., in 
 lay language, specialization and effectiveness, 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Locke holds "that when good habits have done their 
 work, then may instruction or learning"^^ come in 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 37 
 
 second place, as subservient, casually in the bargain, 
 a very easy rate, by methods that may be thought on. 
 Even in regard to "finishing," Locke never loses sight 
 of his principle of character; he prefers mathematics 
 "not so much as to make them mathematicians, as to 
 make them reasonable creatures." The "finishing" 
 accomplishments of dancing, drawing, music, fencing, 
 riding, travel and painting^^ are taken up only late. 
 However, we must remember Locke was stretching the 
 education not of a scholar, or tradesman, or profes- 
 sional, but of a "gentleman." 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The more advanced tertiary or university education 
 is ignored in Emile's education. It does not come 
 within Rousseau's vision, perhaps for the reason he 
 himself did not possess it. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 Froebel, of course, never definitely attacked the 
 problem of tertiary or finishing education, although we 
 may imagine that he would have applied to it his 
 "perfect social balance." 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 Montessori improved on Froebel's general training 
 of the senses^^ by reducing it to scientific methods, 
 applying Seguin's apparatus for their formal gymnastic, 
 and for sensory discrimination, training each sense 
 separately and repeatedly, and developing power of 
 comparison. Each sense has its own methods: tactile, 
 thermic stereognostic senses, taste, smell and vision, 
 hearing and music. Beyond the senses we come to 
 ideas, intellectual education, which is promoted by 
 
38 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 games. The steps are association, test, motor activity 
 and generalization.^^ Then we have observation, 
 analysis and voluntary effort,^''' by which knowledge 
 becomes the magic key of nature. ^^ Children, how- 
 ever, are not alike, but show profound individual dif- 
 ferences, so that they call for very different kinds of 
 help from the teacher, ^'-^ and uniform class-work is 
 practically impossible. ^*^ Montessori is thus applying 
 the specialization of secondary education in the primary 
 field. She criticizes usual schools as repressing spon- 
 taneous expression of personality till children are 
 almost like dead beings. 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The German tertiary school, the university, presents 
 a strange contrast to the secondary school. If here 
 habits of study and discipline were enforced, there is 
 practiced the utmost license, through which is de- 
 veloped, in those who survive it, individuality and 
 self-reliance. The intellectual liberty of teaching, the 
 "Lehrfreiheit," is often misunderstood and misapplied. 
 Nevertheless, the getting of the degree, or preparation 
 for the professional state-examination soon recall the 
 erring prodigal to a sense of his responsibility, and he 
 begins to work for himself. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 Nowhere has specialization made more strides than 
 in France. On the lycee's baccalaureate, which is 
 perhaps lower than the American college's degree, is 
 built the free university examination-system, open to 
 everybody who cares to try the tests — which, indeed, 
 are often taken repeatedly until old age, the pupil 
 starting his career earlier than in America; but his 
 choice of any other profession is more and more im- 
 
SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 39 
 
 possible as he advances to expertness, which is invited 
 by many lucrative and permanent positions. Except 
 in the normal schools, and some other professional 
 schools such as the Polytechnic, St. Cyr or Brest, there 
 is less "college life," such as is seen at the Oxford 
 "colleges," but, at the same time, the liberty is greater. 
 At any rate, expertness is more and more emphasized, 
 rewarded, and achieved. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Tertiary education, or individualization, is, l3y the 
 United States Commission of Education, considered 
 the goal of the education of every American child; 
 and this has been effected in a wonderful way in Cin- 
 cinnati, where the university has so affiliated with the 
 factories as to allow of self-support by students, and 
 of study by laborers. 
 
 The principle of individualism has perhaps even 
 been carried too far; not only is it practised in the 
 secondary school, where the entering pupils choose 
 between courses; but even in the upper years of the 
 elementary school. A N. E. A. Committee of Fifteen, 
 however, suggests that this specialization be not begun 
 earlier than the second half of the high school course, 
 the first half of which should give so wide a review 
 that the momentous choice of specialization may be 
 made as intelligently as possible. 
 
 1 Monroe, 22. 2 Monroe, 42. 518, 519. 14 Theory of Educa- 
 
 s Painter 1, Compayre. ^ Pain- tion, 196-203. ^^ Montessori, 
 
 ter. 5 Compayre, 6. 6 Mc- xxi. ^^Ih., 225. i"^ lb., 236. 
 
 Evoy, 22. 7 Monroe, 152. « lb., is lb., 239. 19 lb., 231. 20 ib., 
 
 154. 9 lb., 75. 10 lb., 10. 14. xxi. 
 11 lb., 233. 12 lb., 466. is lb,. 
 
40 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Interest has been defined as the recognition of some- 
 thing old in the new, and of something new in the old. 
 It is therefore the joy of analysis, association, and 
 progress that is interesting. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 The individual's interest exists in the earlier tribe- 
 member's desires to survive with his fellows. Until 
 the self-conscious individuality is born, it is vain to 
 speak of interest as an educational method; an animal 
 can be baited, a child can be coaxed, but only a human 
 self-consciousness can be interested. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Interest, of course, where individuality is not fully 
 born, can exist only to the extent to which no human 
 being can do anything well and thoroughly, without 
 taking an interest in it. As here discipline is so 
 ferocious, it is immaterial whether the individual takes 
 or loses interest. Indeed, the classics recognize these 
 duties will be irksome,^ for after an interminable list 
 of family duties are added the words, "All this do 
 with the appearance of pleasure." Interest, therefore, 
 is absent as a motive among the Chinese.^ 
 
INTEREST 41 
 
 In India also interest is lacking, the training demand- 
 ing mild discipline. 
 
 Persia was the first country (if we may accept 
 Xenophon's Cyropedia as history), where interest was 
 developed positively. While other states enforced 
 prohibitions by punishment, the Persian laws^ "take 
 the initiative, and exercise a care that the citizens, from 
 the beginning on have no inclination to a wicked or 
 shameful deed." 
 
 Plato relates that even the Egyptians, in teaching 
 mathematics (numbers), used games, so as to arouse 
 the interest of the pupil.'* 
 
 The element of interest, among the Hebrews, seems 
 to have been represented by music and the Psalms, 
 which gave expression to the loftiest religious senti- 
 ments. 
 
 Scientific interest, however, first appeared among 
 the Saracens, although the droning of the Koran still 
 continued unhindered. 
 
 On the whole, then, among the Oriental systems 
 of education, interest was enforced only as a side issue, 
 the individual being ever subordinated to methods, 
 purposes and interest of the state itself. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 The doctrine of interest was not entirely unknown 
 among the Greeks. Plato distinctly affirmed that 
 learning should be made pleasant, in order that it 
 might be of profit. "Education^ is a very skillful 
 discipline which, by way of amusement, leads the mind 
 of the child to solve that which is to make it finished." 
 "A free mind ought to learn nothing as a slave. The 
 lesson that is made to enter the mind by force, will not 
 remain there. Then use no violence towards the 
 children, the rather cause them to learn while playing." 
 
42 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 The Spartans also^ gave children warlike toys to 
 attract them to weapons, by interest. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The doctrine of interest was not unknown even 
 among the Romans, for Quintilian argues for the ab- 
 rogation of the discipline of force in favor of making 
 the school pleasant and attractive. Cicero said that 
 play should be refining and educative. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The principle of interest was well recognized in 
 Jerome's letters to Eustochium about the education of 
 Paula: "Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or 
 in ivory, and teach her the names of them. She will 
 thus learn while playing."^ 
 
 Nor was the discipline of emulation and bribing un- 
 known. Jerome, writing about the education of Paula 
 said: "Induce her to construct words by offering her a 
 prize, or by giving her as a reward, what ordinarily 
 pleases children of her age. Let her have companions, 
 so that the commendations she may receive may 
 excite in her the feeling of emulation. Do not chide 
 her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On 
 the contrary, encourage her by commendation, and 
 proceed in such a way that she will be equally sensible 
 to the pleasure of having done well, and to the pain 
 of not having been successful. . . . Especially take 
 care that she do not conceive a dislike for study that 
 might follow her into a more advanced age." 
 
 There was a great revival of learning under Charle- 
 magne (A.D. 771-814), with the assistance of 
 Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, and Joannes Scotus Erigena. 
 This indeed was due to the initiative and political in- 
 
INTEREST 43 
 
 terests of the king; but he found willing help from 
 the more intelligent churchmen. 
 
 Next to the treatment of a human faculty when 
 recognized, is that of one unrecognized, though per- 
 haps just as active. So we have unconscious interest 
 creating the university — drawing men to Irnerius 
 at Bologna, and Abelard at Paris. Of course, interest 
 drew the flower of chivalry to its destruction in Pales- 
 tine, and interest in truth was finally triumphant over 
 the "white" and "black" "dogs" of Dominicans and 
 Franciscans, and the Inquisition. 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The doctrine of interest is practically foreshadowed 
 in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of the beauties 
 of Ciceronian literature. So Petrarch'^ is the first 
 "modern man," breaking loose from the mediaeval 
 curricula, and attempting to reproduce the beauties of 
 Ciceronianism in living letters. So, for instance, 
 games are to be indulged in'-^: "Such relations should 
 form an integral part of each day's occupation, if 
 learning is not to be made an object of disgust." 
 
 Vittorino de Feltre, the first modern schoolmaster, 
 called his school at Mantua "The Pleasant House." 
 He made the life of his pupils as pleasant and as active 
 as possible; sports and games were joined with study, 
 and aesthetic appreciation was cultivated. 
 
 Wimpfeling, in his "Guide to German Youth," 
 wished all "study to be for the quickening of inde- 
 pendent thought." Asham, too, taught the "cheerful" 
 expounding of the lesson, and the quickening value 
 of praise. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The doctrine of interest is strongly taught by the 
 Reformers. Luther himself had suffered enough per- 
 
44 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 sonally at the hands of teachers and monks for him 
 to desire a cheerfuller method of instruction. The 
 children, says he, are not to be repressed, but to be 
 encouraged, to enjoy their worlc, especially the sing- 
 ing, which formed so large a part in Luther's curri- 
 culum of the "continuation schools." 
 
 The Jesuit system had made scientific use of interest 
 as bait to the most rigorous discipline ever known in 
 the world, and thus had been enabled to dispense with 
 corporal punishment. Evidently in this case, interest 
 was not an independent end, but a means. When the 
 Jansenists attempted to make interest the end, they 
 failed, and were compelled to reintroduce corporal 
 punishment. Evidently this is a demonstration of the 
 inefficiency of interest alone as an end. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne was no practical educator, which perhaps 
 accounts for his innovation in the matter of discipline. 
 Studies^*' were to be made pleasant; games and sports 
 were to be used for this purpose as well as for their 
 usefulness in the physical development of the child, 
 and for their practical bearing on his duties later in 
 life; attractive, rather than compulsory means were 
 favored. 
 
 Curiosity should be employed by visits to places 
 where one may study history; also by biography, and 
 conversation with men. For the world is a mirror in 
 which we see ourselves.^^ The most magnificent sign 
 of wisdom is a continual cheerfulness.^^ We should 
 make learning attractive, and help the pupil digest the 
 new lesson that the height and value of true virtue 
 consists in the facility, utility, and pleasure of its ex- 
 ercise.i3 xhe strict government of a college is dis- 
 
INTEREST 45 
 
 pleasing — a house of correction of imprisoned youtli. 
 This is no way to produce love. Paint a school with 
 joy and gladness; where there is profit, there is 
 pleasure too.^^ 
 
 Montaigne believed in the absorption of foreign 
 languages by children in the nursery, and by mimetic 
 reproduction. Thus^^ the theatres should become 
 public benefactors, making learning alluring; not 
 making asses laden with books, and driven with the 
 lash; so that learning will not merely lodge with the 
 children, but that they shall espouse it. 
 
 Montaigne no doubt owed this emphasis on alluring 
 interest to Rabelais.^^ 
 
 MILTON. 
 
 Milton too, in his Tractate, wished children to be 
 attracted to learning, and not to be mortified by un- 
 necessary discipline. 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 Mulcaster was as strong as any of the Realists in 
 his demand that education should be made pleasurable 
 to the child.i^ 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Closely connected with self-activity is, of course, 
 interest. So Locke^*^ would not have any lessons that 
 are tasks; only such should be given as are liked. 
 Locke insists that it is a matter of common knowledge 
 that human beings have seasons of aptitude and in- 
 clination, when the minds are in tune and well-dis- 
 posed; lessons should be done only when the mind is 
 apt. 
 
 Reading,^^ for instance, is not to be made a task, 
 but a privilege. Learning should become a sport; 
 
46 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 children should have nothing like work, or serious 
 matters laid on them. The pupil should have play- 
 things apt to teach him^O; he should be "played into" 
 spelling20; \jy letters pasted on dice^^j he should be 
 cheated into learning, which is not a business^^; indeed, 
 children are to teach each other.^^ Fables, pictures 
 are to be used^^; religious matters should only be 
 read to him.^^ 
 
 This principle of interest is to continue all the way 
 until he exchanges his tutor for his mistress, a girl,^^ 
 who by his love's interest thus becomes his future life- 
 long teacher. 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The doctrine of interest is bound up with that of 
 self-activity. Emile must form no habits, nor do any- 
 thing in which he takes no pleasure. Hence the whole 
 of his education is in reality a drifting on the tides of 
 curiosity and interest. 
 
 The limitations of this view need not be pointed 
 ont; it is evident that one cannot, except from chance 
 or fancy, take an interest in anything one may not 
 understand; hence there could be but little progress, as 
 indeed was the case with Emile. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 The doctrine of interest is made use of by Froebel in 
 organizing intellectually, socially and morally the in- 
 evitable play of childhood. Monroe, however,^'^ points 
 out that "through a misinterpretation of, and an over- 
 emphasis upon this doctrine of interest, much that is 
 detrimental has crept into many a modern school. 
 There has grown a tendency to interpret the idea that 
 
INTEREST 47 
 
 play is educative into the pernicious fallacy that edu- 
 cation is play. Thus again is revealed the tendency 
 previously noted, to exalt a means intended as a start- 
 ing-point into an end in itself." 
 
 HERBART. 
 
 Instruction, according to Herbart, is made educa- 
 tive by many sided interest; which is the purpose 
 medial to virtue. Interest, many sided, is the kind of 
 mental activity which it is the business of instruction to 
 incite, so that the pupil will reach out for more in- 
 formation^S; it is a mental activity or condition accom- 
 panying the process of appreciation of an idea." 
 
 Interest must encourage ideas, on which depend 
 volitions; and to affect character, they must be abiding. 
 The teacher is to increase the quantity of interests 
 without changing the outlines, proportion or form of 
 this many sidedness, blending with it individuality, 
 which is unconscious, character being conscious. 
 
 To produce this "many sidedness of interest" the 
 teacher must: 1, select proper materials, furnishing 
 proper presentations both of experience and inter- 
 course, and 2, use the method of instruction proper to 
 arranging these presentations in an order harmonious 
 with the psychological development of the child. 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 Interest is of course the bait of self-activity. The 
 child is to do about as he pleases, so long as he does not 
 do any harm.^^ Exercises done not for sake of reward, 
 but for their own sake have a peculiar simple but ab- 
 sorbing interest. 2** Interest is aroused by the work 
 being done not so much for the mechanism, but by 
 the spirit thereof. This interest must first be in the 
 teacher, not only for natural phenomena, but for the 
 human equation. ^^ He must show a mixture of respect 
 
48 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 and love, of sacred curiosity, and of a desire to achieve 
 this spiritual greatness, and be inspired by self-sacri- 
 fice.32 The joy of creation is the real spur of prog- 
 ress.33 This again is chiefly applied to the teacher. 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The remarkaby high rate of suicide among German 
 school-boys shows how little interest is employed edu- 
 catively in the land of Herbart. Nevertheless, those 
 that survive this discipline and become intelligent 
 enough to desire social survival, develop a very real 
 interest of thoroughness in their work, and manifest 
 results two and three years ahead of those of Ameri- 
 can school-boys to whose chance interest progress is 
 often abandoned. The legal and social compulsion of 
 the German system thus uses the interest of self- 
 defense and survival as a lever so strong as to render 
 police compulsion unnecessary; but it would seem that 
 this was an unnatural use of human interest; it is a 
 violation of personality, a degrading humiliation. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION, 
 
 Interest is, edivently, the chief lever of a discipline, 
 such as the Jesuit and French, which depends on 
 emulation and rewards or demerits. Compared gen- 
 erally with the stimulation of physical punishment, it 
 would seem evident that there was hardly any hesita- 
 tion about the superiority of interest. Indeed, until 
 interest is so employed, it can lead to little but dis- 
 tracting amusements, personalities, or lack of thorough- 
 ness in work. It can however be employed by making 
 use of natural curiosity to draw out instructive answers 
 from the teacher. Moreover, Fenelon would make use 
 of it by the imitative primary methods of history and 
 fables. 
 
INTEREST 49 
 
 So also the Jansenists tried to attain whatever dis- 
 ciphne of moral training they needed through inter- 
 esting literature rather than through dry grammar; 
 likewise, they did not wish the disciplinary sanction to 
 be the Jesuit emulation, but the love of the pupil, 
 aroused by the affection and religious zeal of the 
 teacher. But the results were often indifferent. 
 
 Jacotot based his paradox that all can teach on the 
 fact that all can arouse self-activity, after which in- 
 terest will insure completion of the process. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 In the earliest American schools emulation was 
 freely employed to secure advancement.^^ Indeed, 
 the irrepressible self-activity of the American child 
 needs the skilful guidance of interest to be kept in 
 paths of self-improvement. It is indeed the only hold 
 in a land where no other disciplinary sanction is pos- 
 sible or allowed. 
 
 1 Monroe, 44. 2 McEvoy, 6. 19 lb., 148. 20 ib., 151. 21 ib., 
 
 3 Painter, 23. 4 Compayre. 153. 22 Jb., 155. 23 lb., 152. 
 
 5 Compayre, 33. 6 McEvoy, 30. 24 Jb., 156. 25 Jb., 157. 26 Jb., 
 
 ■7 Compayre, 67. § Monroe, 358. 216. 27 Monroe, 662. 28 Mon- 
 
 9 Monroe, 368. 10 Monroe, 457. roe, 633. 29 Montessori, xxi. 
 
 11 Montaigne, Education, 187. so jb., xxxix, p. 42. 3i jb., 9. 
 
 12 lb., 192. 13 lb., 193. 14 lb., 32 lb., 13. 33ib„24. 43 Brown. 
 199. 15 lb., 214. 16 McEvoy, Making of our Middle Schools, 
 136. 17 Monroe, 467. is The- 139. 
 
 ory of Education, 72, 73. 
 
50 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Self-Activity. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 While the member of the prehistoric tribe was 
 allowed no self-activity, it is evident that its germ 
 must have awakened in the teacher, as we may call 
 him, either by seeing others do things well, or by his 
 own fancy. The member of the tribe ceased being a 
 savage, and became a primitive man on initiation into 
 a custom; when he entered the third step of will, effort, 
 combination, originality or self-activity, then he entered 
 into the sphere of civilization. We might, in this 
 sense, therefore say that not until Froebel's day had a 
 pedagogy of civilization been fully developed. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 In Asia, Primitive education changed into Oriental 
 education with the arising of nationalities. Oriental 
 education was little more than a recapitulation of the 
 past, for the purpose of preserving custom unchanged. 
 Hence its general characteristics were: 
 
 1, Suppression of individuality; 2, control of ex- 
 ternal authority in the practical and thought-life; 3, the 
 static character of society, and educational ideals; 
 4, the dominance of a priest-craft, or of religion, over 
 education; 5, the importance of linguistics and of re- 
 ligious literature. 
 
SELF-ACTIVITY 5l 
 
 A. The essential features of the Chinese system, 
 for instance, are: 
 
 1, A conception of education as a recapitulation of 
 the past through the dominance of a religious and 
 ethical literature whose authority is exercised by the 
 ruling learned class; 2, the dominance of influences 
 which have prevented progress; 3, the close relation- 
 ship between social life and education; 4, the religious 
 and ethical basis of education as found in Confucian- 
 ism; 5, The duration of the system for 2,000 years 
 with but few essential changes, and its extent over vast 
 territory and population; 6, a content of linguistic and 
 religious material, its highly developed organization 
 of a hierarchical system of examinations, and its 
 method of servile imitation. 
 
 Its results were: 1, Social stability, without progress; 
 2, the disparagement of important social interests, and 
 the entire elimination of intellectual interests, except 
 the literary; 3, the perpetuation of formalism in life; 
 4, on the part of the individual, the development of 
 great intellectual abilities of certain restricted type, 
 but with slight power of initiative. 
 
 Self-activity, responsibility of the individual, in- 
 dividuality, is therefore not yet distinct in China: the 
 son is punished for the father's misdeeds, whole families 
 are exterminated for crimes of any of its members. 
 
 B. The essentials of Hindu education are: 1, the 
 dominance of a caste system of society and of educa- 
 tion based upon religion, with a prominent philosophi- 
 cal element, and a literature of great merit; 2, an 
 educational system that is adapted to each caste, but 
 affords literary and formal education only to the upper 
 and priestly caste; 3, the perpetuation of formalism" 
 in life; 4, on the part of the individual the develop- 
 ment of great intellectual abilities of a certain restricted 
 type, but with slight power of initiative. 
 
 So in India, the highest religious aspiration is to be 
 
52 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 absorbed into the great unconscious world-spirit; their 
 de-individualizing heaven is called Nirvana. 
 
 C. Turning to the essential features of the ancient 
 Hebrew education: 1, the formal education of the 
 people through the ceremonial law, constituting a large 
 part of their religious literature; 2, hence, the same 
 subjection of the individual to external authority; 
 3, the provision for individuality through the emphasis 
 on moral personality in this religious literature was 
 expressed by the "prophets," and became prominent 
 only with the decline of nationality; 4, the very tardy 
 development of any formal literary education for any 
 except the priesthood; no system of schools developed 
 until near the opening of the Christian era; 5, the 
 practical education of the child through the family, 
 and his moral education through the priesthood and 
 ceremonial law. 
 
 So among the Hebrews, the Rabbis, limited in 
 amount of scientific material, exercised a great in- 
 genuity in dealing with it; but nevertheless, iri the last 
 analysis authority was the deciding factor. 
 
 D. Turning to the essential features of Egyptian 
 education, probably the most ancient as well as one 
 of the most enduring of all ancient systems, were: 
 1, the controling influence of caste in social life and 
 education; 2, The control of the education of all lower 
 castes through a system of family training, and caste- 
 apprenticeship; 3, the control of society by a politico- 
 religious priestcraft, to which belonged the keeping of 
 the religious literature, upon which their society and 
 their education was based; 4, the prominence of 
 mathematical, scientific and philosophical elements in 
 this literature, in the education of this priesthood, and 
 in their investigations; 5, the mediating character of 
 their education as contrasted with the Oriental educa- 
 tion on one hand, and the education of the Greeks on 
 the other. 
 
SELF- ACTIVITY 53 
 
 So in Egypt, the dominance of the priestly class 
 opposed any self-activity, salvation being attained by 
 memorization of the saving texts. 
 
 E. We cannot leave Oriental education without 
 touching upon Persian methods; but it is significant 
 enough that they are preserved to us in Greek descrip- 
 tions. Xenephon describes the education of the 
 Persian noble, and it certainly affords a measure of 
 application of Greek ideals. The victorious career of 
 the Persian cause was no doubt due to this peculiarly 
 individualistic training in physical valor and dexterity; 
 in truth-telling, and other virtues, and only secondarily 
 in traditional information. But the ephemeralism 
 of the Persian Empire shows how unstable was the 
 social organization produced by these individualistic 
 warriors. On the other hand, the Magi who mon- 
 opolized learning were so permanent as to endow civil- 
 ization with their names — as "magicians." But as 
 they were in political control, their stability was not 
 able to infiltrate and immortalize the body politic, 
 which, however, might have endured longer but for 
 the irruption of Alexander and his Greek cohorts. 
 
 Still, in Persia, the conception of life as a struggle 
 in which good prevails was a distinct prelude to self' 
 activity, on the physical and moral sides, at least. 
 
 While, by the same ingenuity, the Saracens made 
 many discoveries, nevertheless the fatal resignation of 
 Islam and orthodox loyalty to their founder did not 
 allow them really to develop self-activity. 
 
 Summing up Oriental education, therefore, we see 
 an entire lack of initiative. Evidently, systems which 
 provided no change, alteration or progress, could 
 not allow for individual renovation of teachings, cus- 
 toms, or views. The whole political establishment 
 condemned the individual in advance. Even physical 
 prowess was uncultivated, and those great civilizations 
 lasted only so long as no irruptive force proved itself 
 
54 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 superior to the natural physical resources of defence. 
 Of itself, the Chinese state was powerless, except for 
 the Great Wall; every army that crossed the Hima- 
 layas afresh conquered India, as did Alexander, and 
 the Mahometans; Egypt, ever sensitive to the southern 
 tribes, was spoiled by Greek, Medo-Persian, Roman and 
 Mahometan in turn. With no great physical prowess 
 as part of its ideals, the permanence of the state de- 
 pended on unconditional conformity of the individuals; 
 except in individual cases, originality was out of the 
 question. 
 
 In all Oriental education, therefore, the individuality 
 has not yet emerged from fossilized ancestral tradition 
 (China) ; the state (Persia) ; caste (India) or theo- 
 cracy (the Jews). 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 The beginnings of self-activity in education appear 
 in the dawn of Greek civilization where "some ex- 
 pression of individuality is thought compatible with, 
 even desirable for, social stability and welfare,"^ which 
 included progress. It was^ the modern conception: 
 "the formulation of principles of conduct into which 
 the volition of the individual entered, and through 
 which he rose to moral freedom by a recognition of 
 his own moral responsibility." 
 
 This self-activitys was worked out on the thought 
 side by love of knowledge for its own sake; by inquiries 
 into nature, man, the supernatural, reality divorced 
 from awe, reverence or priestly privilege; curiosity, 
 intellectual bravery, and imagination drove Plato to 
 say, "Let us follow the argument wherever it leads." 
 
 We must not, however, shrink from noticing the 
 extreme to which this led: their versatility, became 
 insincerity and dishonesty; light heartedness, became 
 
SELF-ACTIVITY 55 
 
 frivolity, licentiousness; keenness of thought, became 
 hair-spplitting sophistry; appreciation of form, became 
 talkativeness and rhetorical show> They lost sight 
 of honor, honesty, loyalty, compassion and reverence 
 for age.^ 
 
 Another form of clearly individualistic teaching was 
 Socrates's "maieutics," or art of giving birth to ideas, 
 which proposed to impart the virtue of knowledge by 
 developing in each the power of thought.® The 
 method of imparting this was by endless dialogues, 
 and was evidently fitted for no more than individual 
 instruction. The individual was left free, both pupil 
 and teacher'^ in the new Greek education. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Self-activity was not entirely unknown among the 
 Romans: Quintilian points out the proper attitude of 
 the teacher to the pupil, and emphasizes the fact that 
 different natures demand different treatment; activity 
 of the mind is natural. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Of self-activity there evidently was but little during 
 the monastic periods, when obedience was a virtue; 
 nevertheless, even this rule could not always restrain 
 periods of revival of interests, as under Charlemagne. 
 Finally the collapse of chivalry, under the crusades, 
 and the entrance of Arabic learning and the true 
 Aristotle, with sociologic heresies among the common 
 people, together with mysticism, and converts, as a 
 legacy of the hysteria of the crusades, formed a Pre- 
 Renaissance, which was controlled by Franciscans, 
 Dominicans and the Inquisition. But the intellectual 
 readjustment also forced by these causes, formed 
 
56 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 scholasticism; whose nominalistic results (William of 
 Occam) opened the way for the Renaissance itself. 
 But it was the universities that developed the principles 
 of liberty. For good causes, they became thoroughly 
 socialized, and attained such power as to be repre- 
 sented in parliaments; and with the aid of the king 
 caused one pope to recant, and another to be deposed. 
 The University of Paris became the representative in- 
 stitution of France, as the Holy Roman Empire was of 
 Germany, No doubt this was the ultimate cause of 
 the revolution, and the self-activity preached by Mon- 
 taigne. This spirit of self-activity was kept alive in 
 the universities, and produced such men as Roger 
 Bacon, Dante, Petrarch, Wycliffe, Huss, Copernicus, 
 the men who introduced the modern spirit. 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The principle of self-activity was practically fore- 
 shadowed at the Renaissance by the reawakening of 
 interest in the psychological world of emotions whence 
 springs poetry, history, and the sciences. So Petrarch® 
 emphasized the values of the opportunitites of this life 
 for self-development through the greatest variety of 
 experiences and efforts wholly forbidden by the asceti- 
 cism and self-abnegation of the mediaeval spirit. The 
 Renaissance remained true to the development and 
 culture of the individual, having little interest in the 
 improvement of society in general, in Italy. The 
 life of the ancients^ portrayed both the intellectual 
 and emotional sides of the development of the free 
 moral personality. Vittorino de Feltre, in his school, 
 "The House of Pleasure," made his pupils' life as 
 active as possible, using the natural activities of the 
 children as a basis for much of the work, and he laid 
 strong emphasis upon activities and upon the construc- 
 tive side of the work as furnishing an immediate in- 
 
SELF-ACTIVITY 57 
 
 troduction into a useful life. Erasmus also^^ insisted 
 on utilizing the activity of the child. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 As we have seen, individuality was hardly desired on 
 either side of the Reformation struggle, and the only 
 self-activity which existed lay in the leaders of the 
 various movements — such as Luther, Loyola, Aqua- 
 viva, Calvin, and Melanchthon. True, Luther said 
 that children should not be checked in everything; but 
 stern discipline still existed. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne diagnosed the cause of pedantry as know- 
 ing the disease, but not the patient; literature should 
 not be known for its own sake, but should be filtered 
 through the individuality. The teacher^ ^ should not 
 pour into the pupil, but let the pupil taste and speak 
 first. The pupil should accept no authority — no, not 
 even Aristotle's — and should not learn by rote. We 
 may^2 q^\\ pollen from everywhere, but must be at 
 liberty to make our own honey. 
 
 The teacher should therefore be very careful not 
 to fail to recognize the supreme authority of the 
 pupil's recognition of truth; the teacher should ac- 
 quiesce in truth, reason carefully, and gladly acknowl- 
 edge an error.^^ So may one learn something even 
 from a peasant, bricklayer or other humble worker^'*: 
 this is the reward of open-mindedness and self-activity. 
 We should learn what to know, what makes us free; 
 learning first our own sphere, and being wise and 
 good; later acquiring physics, geometry, rhetoric, and 
 science. 
 
58 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 Though not using the term "self-activity," Mul- 
 caster^^ insisted that "the end of education and train- 
 ing is to help nature to her perfection," not to force, 
 repress the child, and deprive it of its natural tenden- 
 cies and activities. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 Comenius's analysis of the three stages of education 
 are psychologically, 1, to know oneself (and with one- 
 self all things) ; 2, to rule oneself; 3, to direct oneself 
 towards God — roughly corresponding to imitation, 
 habit and volition. Moreover,^*^ he formally enunciates 
 that the basis of the efficiency of administration is the 
 exact order borrowed from nature. 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Locke, as a thorough-going naturalist, made full 
 allowance for the self-activity of the child's curiosity, 
 of which due advantage should be taken. On the 
 whole, he was, in this, following and developing 
 Montaigne. 
 
 The principle of self-activity being established, there 
 appeared the very natural problem of how to conduct 
 regular and organized work. The answer is, that the 
 problem of education is to get the pupil to ask what 
 he should learn; and besides, the pupil's mind must 
 gain such self-mastery, as that he shall be spontane- 
 ously in tune at the right time, and in the right way. 
 For there is a danger^'^ that waiting for seasons of the 
 mind's being "in tune" might, by habitual neglect, in- 
 duce idleness. 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Rousseau's "negative education" is the typical form 
 of self-activity. The child was to be left free to de- 
 
SELF-ACTIVITY 59 
 
 velop unaided by outside influences or instruction. 
 Physical welfare, the training of organs and members, 
 curiosity, and socializing morality and religion in suc- 
 cessive stages caused the unfoldment of his being. But 
 it is to be noticed that the result of this was delayed 
 and partial accomplishment; on Rousseau's own show- 
 ing, self-activity would be but an inefficient spring of 
 complete education. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 Self-activity is pre-eminently a Froebelian idea; and 
 its assertion resulted in the modern changes of cur- 
 riculum and socialization. Though Froebel applied 
 his principle only to the kindergarten, its influence has 
 spread everywhere, and appears wherever emphasis 
 is laid more on the activity of the child than on the 
 technique of the process of instruction; and whenever 
 development of character and personality is sought, 
 rather than the impartation of information and train- 
 ing of intellectual abilities. ^^ 
 
 In 1829 Froebel expressed the realization that chil- 
 dren^^ are creative rather than receptive creatures, and 
 that all educational work should be based on this in- 
 herent tendency of children to express themselves in 
 action; of this instruction, the first law was self- 
 activity. 
 
 Nature revealed God to the child^''; hence natural 
 phenomena were used symbolically in his successive 
 "gifts," arranged in an order of development whose 
 method was self-activity, the secret of evolution, ac- 
 cording to Lamarck (A.D. 1802-9). 
 
 The self-activity of Froebel was different from that 
 of Pestalozzi, in that the latter was learning facts, 
 while the former was seeking unity with others in the 
 
60 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 whole being, and never progressed beyond the primary 
 stage. 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 Developing the methods of Froebel and Pestalozzi, 
 Montessori stresses self-activity, limiting it^^ only by 
 the possible wearying, in an undue effort of auto- 
 education, where the teacher's guidance steps in. Edu- 
 cation is to guide activity, not repress it. The child 
 has a right to be active, to explore his environment 
 and develop his own inner resources through every 
 form of investigation and creative effort^^ The school 
 must permit the free, natural manifestations of the 
 child. 22 The school needs not the mechanism of a 
 bench, but the conquest of liberty.^^ This traditional 
 slavery has applied not only to the body, but the 
 spirit.2^ The history of civilization is that of libera- 
 tion. ^6 The teacher must restrain himself, and watch, 
 in order to bring about the spontaneous progress of 
 the child. ^'^ Auto-education is assured by the arousal 
 of sense activity.^^ We must also seek spontaneous 
 psychic activity, to complete the spontaneous develop- 
 ment of the mental, spiritual and physical personality.^^ 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Kant taught liberty for the child by negative educa- 
 tion; they should be allowed to learn for themselves.^^ 
 He was much more concerned for the culture of the 
 human faculties than for the acquisition of knowl- 
 edge.3* 
 
 The servility of the German school-boy shows how 
 little self-activity he is expected to have, or is allowed. 
 The result of this is that when, at the university, ex- 
 ternal restraints are removed, the student mistakes 
 fancy and license for self-active responsibility, with 
 the result that many sink into intemperance, never to 
 rise. 
 
SELF-ACTIVITY 61 
 
 What self-activity the German boy possesses is 
 translated into the permissible form of musical ac- 
 tivities — hence also their predominance in a field little 
 occupied by his French or American cousins, who can 
 employ their activities in emulation or in sports, re- 
 spectively. 
 
 Russell^o asks whether the German pupil becomes 
 an independent thinker? "Granting good teachers, my 
 answers are: No; so far as the poorest one concerned; 
 very doubtful for the average; but emphatically yes, 
 for the best in the class." 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 The Christian Brothers made an attempt to arouse 
 the child's self-active comprehension by using cate- 
 chetical, quiz, questioning methods in instruction. 
 
 As noticed above, Jacotot based his paradox that all 
 can teach on the fact that all can arouse self-activity, 
 after which interest will ensure completion of the 
 process. 
 
 Condillac^^ places far above the education which we 
 receive the education that we give ourselves; on 
 saying farewell to his princely pupil, the grandson of 
 Louis XV, he said, *'It is only the education I gave you 
 which ceases. You are to begin anew." 
 
 Ramus had long since insisted on the Socratic 
 method of "maieutics." He had renovated logic, and 
 emphasized the vernacular. 
 
 It must be granted that in the French secondary 
 lyec6 the child's self-activity is lessened. His life is 
 lived by schedule; after his choice of study-groups, 
 there is no further hesitation. However, where self- 
 activity has been most experimented with, in the 
 "natural method" of teaching modern languages, the 
 results have been least thorough, and have raised 
 
62 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 fundamental questions as to the learning foreign 
 languages at all, or substitution for English of Spanish 
 or Italian. 35 The question therefore arises whether 
 self-activity and scholarship do not vary in inverse 
 ratio; which possibility is supported by the observation 
 that the ideal self-active child, Rousseau's Emile, post- 
 poned his secondary education to the time usually 
 allotted to the tertiary, and lacked the latter entirely. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 In dealing with the American child, the problem, 
 obviously, is not a development of self-activity, but its 
 proper, effective and educative disposal. The spoiled 
 American child, indulged in candy and flirting, bribed 
 by parents to habits of self-respect and industry, needs 
 management and skilful repression rather than ad- 
 ditional excitement of self-activity. Nevertheless, the 
 right kind of self-active creativeness and acquisition 
 of knowledge may need to be awakened and directed 
 in an expert manner. 
 
 It is instructive, however, to notice that the need of 
 awakening self-activity is most talked about in America, 
 where such awakening is really least needed. 
 
 1 Monroe, p. 54. 2 ib., 55. 642. I9 1b., 644. 20 Jb., 649. 
 
 3 lb., 55. 4 lb., 60. 5 lb., 61. 21 Montessori, 224. 22ib., xxi. 
 
 6 lb., 126. 7McEvoy, 38. 23 ib., 15. 24 ib., 19. 25 ib., 
 
 8 Monroe, 359. » lb., 364. 21. 26 ib., 22. 27 ib., 228. 
 
 1 McEvoy, 124. n Montaigne, 28 ib., 229. 29 ib., 230. so Rus- 
 
 Education, 175. 12 jb., 177. sell, French and German 
 
 13 lb., 182. 13 lb., 183. 15 Mon- Schools, 327. 3i Compayre, 
 
 roe, 467. le Comenius, Great 334. 32 ib., 335. 33ib.„ 318. 
 
 Didactic, 14. i^ Locke, Theory 34 ib., 335. 35 Parringdon, 235. 
 ©f Education, 75. 1 ^ Monroe, 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 63 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Self -Consciousness. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 Primitive people interpret their environment in 
 terms of themselves; every phenomenal reality reveals 
 a "double," which controls it, explains it, makes it 
 oppose man. This "animism" is no result of reflec- 
 tion; just like a child the primitive man has not yet 
 differentiated psychologically between himself and his 
 environment. His own spirit or "double" has moved 
 around in dreams; it abandons him temporarily; in 
 trance or swoon; death is only its permanent removal, 
 which might occur in any person, animal, or thing. 
 Insanity, idiocy or epilepsy may be the result of ob- 
 session by some "double" that is hostile, or divine. 
 When he dies, his domestic animals are killed that they 
 may follow him; cooking utensils are put in the grave, 
 for their "doubles" to serve him; and to his spirit 
 offerings of food are made. The world of "doubles" 
 is an immaterial counterpart of this; circumstances are 
 good or bad as they are guided by good or bad spirits; 
 who can be mollified by gifts; they may, like the Zulu's 
 "unkulunkulu," be their great-grandfather. Animism 
 is the primitive man, religion, science, philosophy, all 
 in one. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 "What Heaven has conferred is called nature; an 
 accordance with nature is called the path of duty." 
 
64 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 If, then, "return to nature" is a doctrine, the Chinese 
 hold it. But the further question is, what is this 
 nature? If modern writers cannot agree on a psychol- 
 ogy, we should not exact agreement from the Chinese; 
 and their fearless insistence on three things — imitation, 
 habit and virtue — are indeed, as far as they go, as 
 perfectly correct, as were Pestalozzi's observations, 
 though he did not proceed as far as Herbart. So, as 
 to virtue, "man inclines to virtue, as water does to 
 flow downward, or as the wild beast does to seek the 
 forest." 
 
 "Ethics and education are no more than to preserve 
 nature, and direct man in its ways." That is the char- 
 acteristic contribution of Mencius. 
 
 But, of course, a doctrine of a "return to nature" 
 implies that nature is good, perfect, and ideal. The 
 first line the Chinese child learns is: 
 
 "Men at their birth are, by nature, radically good." 
 On this presumption, that nature is a revelation of 
 God, is based the whole principle of a "return to 
 nature." So we use the word "natural," as a word 
 of commendation, in modern times — often in spite of 
 our dogmas. 
 
 Confucius said: "I teach you nothing but what you 
 might learn yourselves — the observance of the funda- 
 mental laws of relation between sovereign and subject, 
 father and child, and husband and wife — and the five 
 cardinal virtues — universal charity, impartial justice, 
 conformity to established ceremonies and usages, 
 rectitude of heart and mind, and pure sincerity." 
 Confucius's revelation was therefore merely a re- 
 formulation of natural rules. 
 
 In India, this "nature" was very little developed; 
 on the contrary, the ultimate object was self-annihila- 
 tion. In Persia, for the first time, we have the virtues 
 of truthfulness, justice and courage developed by the 
 genuinely natural process of physical training. 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 65 
 
 Persian education was too military to care much for 
 psychology; however, its beginnings of physical train- 
 mg constituted a very definite return to nature. 
 
 The Egyptian educational training for survival in 
 another existence made the existence of the soul a 
 cardinal principle, even though it was imagined in 
 materialistic terms; it led to a detailed psychology, 
 which underlay their methods of salvation by imitative 
 and memnonical education. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 It was the Greeks who first considered progress in- 
 dividual and social as desirable, and hence, encouraged 
 liberty of initiative and judgment.^ 
 
 But their efforts stopped short of the moral life: 
 they were unable to formulate adequate sanctions for 
 moral principles. For the few philosophers, the moral 
 elevation of Socrates and Plato may have been effec- 
 tive; but not for the people, as is shown by the writings 
 of the tragedians. For the multitude, the Hebrews 
 were to supply religious sentiment, and thus complete 
 the unfinished Greek structure.^ The Greek mind 
 remained chiefly secular.^ 
 
 Nevertheless, they had one gift, in whose domain 
 they achieved results quite distinctive: the aesthetic 
 ability to express a general truth in concrete embodi- 
 ment.^ They depended for interpretation on the 
 imagination rather than on reason, creating in 
 sculpture, painting, music, poetry, forms of expressions, 
 under the patronages of the Muses, called the beautiful. 
 They thus generalized and abstracted, conceiving of 
 law as an art. 
 
 The Athenian method of training youths by conver- 
 sation, by attendance at banquets, theatres and law- 
 courts, was practically an object-lesson demonstration, 
 a close contact with nature. 
 
66 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Aristotle taught that pedagogy should be based on 
 a knowledge of the individual.^ Plato also founded his 
 whole system of education on psychology. According 
 to him, the soul consists of three parts: the appetite, 
 which is tamable; the spirit, the element of courage, 
 which can be enlisted on the side of either good or 
 evil; the philosophic element — the source of wisdom, 
 culture and love. 'The duty of education is to con- 
 trol the appetite, and so to balance the other elements 
 of the soul that each may tend to the perfection of the 
 other."® The cardinal virtues which corresponded to 
 these psychological elements were courage, truthful- 
 ness, self-control, honor to parents, and love for one's 
 fellow-citizens. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 We must never forget that it was Juvenal who 
 formulated the ever memorable principle of education: 
 "Maxima debetur pueris reverentia"; it was the be- 
 ginning of the assertion of nature, of the paedocentric 
 idea of education. Quintilian proceeds further along 
 this line and urges the study of the dispositions of the 
 pupils by the teachers. Seneca considers that the 
 aim of education is to overcome the evil tendencies 
 within the individual; it is a life-long task, thought 
 Cicero. Here we see the beginning of the idea that 
 the nature of man is evil. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The rude education of the monastic period demanded 
 no underlying psychology; but after Charlemagne's 
 revival of learning, the education of the mystics was 
 based on that of Plotinos and his Neoplatonism, and 
 of Dionysius the Areopagite. Monroe^ says: "The 
 soul is immaterial and immortal because it belongs to 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS dl 
 
 the world of reality — of ideas or spirits. Its nature is 
 threefold: the lowest or animal part is bound up with 
 the body; the logical or reasoning part of the soul is 
 its peculiarly human part; third, the superhuman or 
 spiritual part is that by which or in which man is 
 identified with the highest intelligence — that is, the 
 divine. Hence there are three excellencies of the 
 soul, three stages of experience." So said Hugo of St. 
 Victor: "The way to God is to descend in one's self." 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The Renaissance lays the foundations of modern 
 education through interest in psychology, making the 
 child the centre of study, a return to nature, and a 
 combination of these. So Petrarch^ shows the first 
 sign of that attitude of self-analysis that becomes a 
 characteristic note in modern literature and thought. 
 Erasmus also taught objective methods,^*^ "things 
 rather than words." 
 
 The aim of all study, according to Aeneas Sylvius, ^^ 
 is character, our only sure possession. The moral 
 element is asserted from a secular standpoint, and is 
 accompanied by a non-ascetic object. 
 
 Evidently the Renaissance was a sort of declaration 
 of independence by the human reason against the 
 bondage of intrusion by the social and spiritual ele- 
 ments. It is not an isolated phenomenon: it is a 
 symptom of a tendency, which had already manifested 
 under Charlemagne, and in the thirteenth century 
 under the lead of the Franciscans, Dominicans, the 
 Saracen learning, the Wandering Scholar, and the 
 poets, notably Dante. But none of these half-way 
 measures succeeded: all failed except direct rejection 
 of mediaeval Christianity, and the reintroduction of 
 Greco-Roman culture. 
 
68 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The Reformation has often been described as the 
 birth or emancipation of individuahty; but the burning 
 of Servetus by Calvin testifies to its being merely a 
 substitute of one authority for another, except for the 
 fortunate leaders who were able to impose their views 
 on the countries reformed by decree of their sover- 
 eigns. On the other hand, the Jesuit educational sys- 
 tem was just as bitterly opposed to individuality. The 
 threefold Jesuit object is witness to this; they accepted 
 no novices who were not docile, or who were fond of 
 innovations. Their efficient discipline of emulation was 
 based on espionage, joined to adroitly introduced re- 
 ligious motives. As to the members of the order, their 
 oath to be "perinde ac cadaver" in the hands of their 
 superiors, joined to their continual espionage on each 
 other, destroyed utterly any leanings towards indi- 
 viduality. Of course they, as well as the Reformers, 
 juggled with the word "reason," but really it meant 
 nothing, but a convenient cloak for their preferences. 
 As Macaulay observes, "the Jesuits seemed to have 
 found the point up to which intellectual development 
 could be carried, without reaching intellectual inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne's object in education was to produce a 
 gentleman — not a logician or rhetorician. ^^ He began 
 this progress early, and thus developed a broad culture 
 at an effective age. The individuality was always 
 held as the end of the learning, through which the 
 latter was only to filter. The education was not that 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 69 
 
 of a body or soul, but of a man. With this continual 
 
 insistence on the character (the teaching of philosophy 
 
 from early adolescence to late senescence), and the 
 
 early teaching of how to live, of goodness and virtue, 
 
 the individuality could not well fail to develop. So 
 
 said Cicero: "The best of all arts — that of living well — 
 
 they followed in their lives, rather than in their learn- 
 ing. ^^ 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 Mulcaster's^^ psychological grouping of "art to con- 
 ceive by, memory to retain, discretion to discern by," 
 is a conception of education according to nature in 
 much saner a form than, for instance, Rousseau's. 
 
 RATKE. 
 
 Ratke's chief principle^^ was that everything should 
 be done in natural order, in the course of nature. "Since 
 nature uses a particular method, proper to herself, 
 with which the understanding of man is in a certain 
 connection, regard must be had to it also in the art of 
 teaching; for all unnatural, violent, or forcible teach- 
 ing and learning is harmful, and weakens nature." 
 This "natural method" was bequeathed to his pupil 
 Comenius. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Hitherto^^ education had, 1, eradicated natural de- 
 sires, instincts and emotions; and 2, by furnishing a 
 mental and moral discipline towards that end. Comen- 
 ius, on the other hand, sought his religious end, 1, 
 through self-control based on, 2, knowledge of one- 
 self and all things; whereby emerged, knowledge, 
 virtue and piety, 
 
70 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 In discussing the psychology and individuality of the 
 child, it is not out of place to study also the ultimate 
 end or purpose of the individual. Although when off 
 his dogmatic guard, Comenius assigned as the indi- 
 vidual's end prolongation of the life,^'' yet he begins 
 by an inherited statement that it lies beyond this world 
 in eternity, ^^ which indeed is true in a spiritual sense. 
 
 RABELAIS. 
 
 Rabelais had already insisted on things rather than 
 words.^^ 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 When the Reformed world had burst the straight- 
 jacket of the Latin languages, the scholastic teaching 
 Latin survived. The natural conservation of the school 
 systems there attempted to justify it on the ground 
 that in education the important part was not the thing, 
 but its process, or training. This was supported by 
 religious conservative needs both of the language, and 
 of eradication of the evil elements of our nature. It 
 was also supported by the old Aristotelian "faculty"- 
 psychology which demanded a training of the various 
 faculties of the mind by appropriate disciplines formu- 
 lated into school procedures. While Locke rejected 
 the "innate ideas," and considered the mind a "tabula 
 rasa," he attributed the development of mental virtues, 
 powers and facilities, entirely to habitual experience, 
 whose disciplinary training thereby became the most 
 important element of growth. This is the reason why 
 he is pedagogically classed as a disciplinarian. This 
 disciplinary conception then holds, ^^ i, that a selected 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 71 
 
 habitual experience produces a power or ability of the 
 mind which, 2, can be transferred as available to other 
 situations and problems; 3, few subjects well studied 
 were worth more than a smattering of many. 
 
 No consideration was given to the special demands 
 of the various avocations, nor to the special aptitudes 
 of the pupil; pupils unable to meet the demands of 
 such a training were thereby confessedly incapable of 
 greater opportunities. 
 
 This conception of development of "powers" or 
 "faculties" of mind through appropriate discipline 
 still persists, and is held in practice even by those 
 whose theoretical psychology (like Herbart's), denies 
 the existence of "powers" or "faculties." No doubt 
 there is some truth underlying it, truth which survives 
 the bandying about of the human soul by various 
 schools of psychologists. 
 
 Locke's "ruling passion" was love for truth, whose 
 guide was reason, but which could be followed by the 
 mind only when educated to this end by rigid dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 Locke^^ found in education three aspects — the 
 fundamental basis of the physical; moral (virtue, 
 breeding, wisdom), and knowledge, or learning. 
 
 Locke was a thorough naturalist, and thus cleared 
 the way for Rousseau, who used Locke's negative 
 foundation; but substituted for Locke's psychological 
 disciplinarianism his own fancies, such as the social 
 contract, the incompatibility of nature with society, 
 the denial of habit, the learning by experience, and so 
 forth. Locke's reasonable authority is thus discovered 
 to be no more than his own psychological opinion, 
 which might as easily be supplanted by any other 
 theories. Both Locke and Rousseau needed the sani- 
 fying arbitrament of experimental psychology. 
 
72 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 As to the progress of the individual, exemplified by 
 Rousseau's Emile, we must define our terms. Of 
 progress there is some, if we understand the natural un- 
 aided "negatively" educated child acting as he pleases; 
 and that is retarded several years, without the finishinig 
 university stage; of the individuality, there is some, if 
 thereby you mean selfishness; the late development of 
 altruism from fifteen to twenty years of age seems 
 quite unconnected with preliminary stages, and very 
 doubtful — unlikely to occur in reality. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 PESTALOZZL 
 
 Psychological education is the development by in- 
 terest, of genius implanted in our nature, from three 
 sources of knowledge: experimental experience, meta- 
 physics and mathematics, denying the existence of any 
 faculties. Pestalozzi's great aim was to base educa- 
 tion on experience, and to "psychologize" it.^^ Edu- 
 cation is little more than the organic development of 
 the individual — mental, moral and physical — the 
 natural, progressive, harmonious development of all 
 the powers and faculties of the human being. 
 
 Sense impressions^* are Pestalozzi's chief psycho- 
 logic basis: the sources of psychological instruction 
 are: 1, Nature: the mind rises from sense impressions 
 to clear ideas. All phenomena are sense impressions, 
 which may be related. Mere vigor of impressions may 
 lead either to truth or error, onesided bias may con- 
 fuse; yet complex sense impressions rest on simple 
 elements, while the accuracy of knowledge is increased 
 with the number of the senses employed; 2, power of 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 73 
 
 sense impressions interwoven witli emotions; 3, rela- 
 tion of outer conditions to one's own power of learn- 
 ing. 
 
 All knowledge^ flows from three sources: 1, the 
 power of making sounds — the origin of language; 
 
 2, from indefinite simple sensuous power of forming 
 images, out of which arise consciousness of form; and 
 
 3, from definite, no longer mere sensuous, power of 
 imagination, from which flow consciousness of unity 
 and calculation. Sense-impressions^^ are the absolute 
 foundation of knowledge. 
 
 HERBART. 
 
 Herbart^'^ saw clearly that Pestalozzian pedagogy 
 was limited to elementary education because, 1, Pes- 
 talozzi actually limited himself practically to that 
 field; and 2, his observational sense-impression method 
 referred principally thereto. Hence it is no more than 
 an introduction; a basis, or foundation for the higher 
 work of mental growth and assimilation, developing 
 into moral character. ' 
 
 Herbart therefore added these sense perceptions by 
 appreciative process; they were converted into ideas 
 which, through the process of instruction, bear on the 
 moral character, whose moral and aesthetic presenta- 
 tion of the universe is the chief end of education, made 
 up not only of experience, but of human converse and 
 instruction. 
 
 While Pestalozzi wished to "psychologize educa- 
 tion," he constructed only a basis, on which Herbart 
 built his superstructure, logically and philosophically, 
 establishing educational work on the basis of a unified 
 mental life and development of the child, whom he 
 made the centre of study. Monroe thus states this 
 development^^: 'This then is Herbart's great con- 
 tribution to education. The movement which Locke 
 
74 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 began in making tlie cliild the centre of educational 
 endeavor and pedagogical tlieory; whicli Rousseau es- 
 tablished in general form through his brilliant critical 
 and destructive work in the form of investigative 
 literature; which Pestalozzi brought down to the 
 schoolroom and made concrete in the hands of every 
 teacher, that movement Herbart made permanent by 
 giving it an actual scientific basis in place of the 
 imaginative one of Rousseau, and the empirical one 
 of Pestalozzi." 
 
 Herbart's psychological foundation was not a very 
 great advance on Locke's: the soul is an unity, devoid 
 of intuitive or inborn faculties, at birth a blank, pos- 
 sessing but one power — that of entering into relation 
 with its environment through the nervous system,^^ 
 and receiving thereby its primary "presentations" of 
 sense-perception, whose interactions lead through 
 generalizations to concepts, the interaction of which 
 leads to judgments and reasonings. These interactions 
 are assimiliations of ideas by means of ideas already 
 acquired, and result in "apperception-masses." These 
 originate from two sources, experience, or contact 
 with nature; and intercourse, or contact with society. 
 These are the material of the teacher, and by expan- 
 sion of the one original power the teacher has to de- 
 velop from experience knowledge, and from inter- 
 course sympathy. 
 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Sensation, with Pestalozzi, was formed by the ele- 
 ments of number, form and language; to these Herbart 
 adds taste, and obligation, the "aesthetic presentations" 
 — the fitting, the beautiful, moral, the just: in one 
 word, that which in its perfect state pleases after per- 
 fect contemplation. 
 
 There is no independent function of will; only a 
 ''motivation" consisting of desires and good will spring- 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 75 
 
 ing into action from presentation. The making of the 
 will is discovered by the pupil himself when choosing 
 the good and rejecting the bad; thus is the true self- 
 developed. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 From Froebel's training^^ emerged two great re- 
 sults: a profound love for nature and a conviction that 
 throughout nature was revealed that unity of idea and 
 realization that was preached in the philosophy of 
 Schlegel, at the university, but nowhere found in edu- 
 cational work. 
 
 In the life of the individuals^ there is the same unity 
 — of the stages of infancy, childhood, youth, and man- 
 hood, which must be unified in one complete educa- 
 tion. 
 
 So Froebel insisted on the unity of knowing, feeling 
 and willing activities of the mind — a psychology prob- 
 ably truer than Herbart's.^*' 
 
 Froebel first applied to education the evolutionary 
 theory of development, of continuous self-determina- 
 tion. 
 
 This education seeks neither to eliminate nature, nor 
 to let it severely alone, but to help nature — to guide 
 it to ends higher than those it would reach unaided, or 
 at least to secure these ends by readier and more direct 
 means.s^ 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 The object of the Montessori method is to awake the 
 children, 32 encouraging them to educate themselves. 
 This of course, is the result of self-activity and interest, 
 which this system specially stresses. 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Kant's chief interest in education lay in character- 
 development, a practical education combining the con- 
 
16 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 duct and the training of the wilL He, too, had evolved 
 a sort of culture-epoch theory by seeing that the child 
 passed through three stages, in each of which he needed 
 a different treatment. As infant, he needed nursing, 
 as child, he needed discipline; and as scholar, he re- 
 quired teaching^^; while the education must be "not 
 for the present, but for a possibly improved condition 
 of man in the future." 
 
 During the secondary school-period, the German 
 student has, if possible, less individuality than in 
 France. This is shown by the prodigious thoroughness 
 of the gymnasium work; the life-long social disgrace 
 for self and family, of failure; and the alarming rate of 
 suicide of German school-boys. Nevertheless, during 
 his earlier university days, suggested by the "Lehrfrei- 
 heit" of the professors, the German youth is left to 
 sink or swim as he enjoys the license of individual 
 fancy, while his French cousin is still driven year by 
 year to examinations more exacting the further he 
 advances. If the German survives, he develops con- 
 siderable self-control, and the thoroughness of his re- 
 searches is proverbial. In a very peculiar sense, there- 
 fore, is the German university the representative field 
 for the exercise of individuality; before this the child 
 had been considered more an object, than a subject. 
 What appeal to nature there is, is applied to walking- 
 trips in the forest and mountains, for which the German 
 is famous. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 Jacotot, however, fearlessly appealed to nature — 
 that all can learn and teach; learning by correlating the 
 three basic principles of the successive education 
 stages; and teach, by arousing interest through self- 
 activity. 
 
 Condillac'5 thought that the first thing to be done is 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 11 
 
 to make the child acquainted with the faculties of his 
 soul, and to make him feel the need of making use of 
 them. His chief effort was to make of his prince-pupil 
 a reasoning being — as Locke had said, "We must 
 reason with our children." 
 
 Diderot was sure that instruction was morally effica- 
 cious, that the progress of dress symbolized purity of 
 morals.^^ 
 
 Helvitius had^'^ insisted that the senses were all 
 there was of man. 
 
 Condorcet, on the contrary,^* was a fanatic on the 
 subject of progress, its conditions and laws; and its 
 most potent means being instruction, he did all in his 
 power to promote it. 
 
 In France the individuality of the child is powerfully 
 promoted by the sanctions of emulation and rewards 
 and punishments. The system of specialization pro- 
 motes individualistic expertness; yet, as M. Demolins 
 has well noticed, this communistic formation uses this 
 indfvidualization with inexorable exclusion for national 
 advancement; the individual is a means, not an end. 
 
 This attitude might well be criticized from the 
 Froebelian standpoint of the child himself; but it might 
 be replied there was a difference between the child's 
 destiny and his fancies. The over-emphasizing of 
 Froebelian kindergarten-play-habit has already been 
 censured, so that the expression the "child himself" 
 should not be limited to the child's fancies, but be 
 considered socially from the standpoint of his inevitable 
 function and career. Here expertness becomes the 
 child's interest; even though Froebel well added that 
 this individualisement should never become merely 
 a means, but be a factor co-ordinate with the social 
 needs. 
 
 It is evident that the individuality thus is not entirely 
 considered the supreme good. This may be a survival 
 from the ideas of the Jansenists, that the child's nature 
 
7^ TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 was wholly evil, and that education must eradicate this, 
 and replace it with the religious spirit. St. Ceyran^^ 
 had said that the devil already possesses the soul of 
 even the unborn child. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION, 
 ENGLISH PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Probably the most recent and important appeal to 
 nature of modern times, Herbert Spencer's, resulted in 
 a tentative psychological scheme: 1, direct self-preser- 
 vation; 2, indirect self-preservation by acquisition of 
 necessaries of life; 3, the rearing of children; 4, social 
 demands and citizenship; 5, literature, art and aesthetics 
 for the leisure part of life. 
 
 It was Thomas Arnold (1795-1842; of Rugby and 
 Winchester) who made Christian character an educa- 
 tional idea. This implicit trust in students was an 
 incentive self-control. 
 
 Next to him was Alexander Bain of Aberdeen (born 
 1818) who applied physiological psychology to "edu- 
 cation and science." He taught conservation and cor- 
 relation of forces, of mental and physical relations; 
 resulting in study of fatigue, nervous disorder, and 
 defective children. 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 
 
 There is not much need of a return to nature in 
 Americn schools, because all the school organizations 
 are yet in a formative condition; but there is need of 
 a molding of institutions to the child's nature. The 
 American man has a knack or instinctive tact which 
 allows him to do this; and when he perfects himself in 
 the Ziller psychological disposal of the material, should 
 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 
 
 79 
 
 become the best teacher, not even barring the German 
 militarized pedagogical student, who has to deal only 
 with terrified youngsters. The traditions of a school 
 consisting of Mark Hopkins and his log show that the 
 teacher, in order to deal with the unterrified American 
 pupil should, after education, be given a free hand 
 to develop his powers of individuality; indeed, with the 
 American child, the problem is not so much a return to 
 nature, as a keeping up with it. 
 
 1 Monroe. 54. 2 ib., 55. 
 3 lb., S3. 4 lb., 57. 5 MacEvoy, 
 52. 6 Painter, 61. ^ Sat. xiv. 
 8 Monroe, 282. » lb., 359. 
 10 MacEvoy, 124. n Monroe, 
 367. 12 Montaigne, Education, 
 201. 13 Monroe, 461. i-* Mon- 
 roe, 466. 467. 15 lb., 479. 
 16 lb., 482. 17 Great Didactic, 
 15. 18 lb., 2, 3. 19 MacEvoy, 
 
 136. 20 Monroe, 506. 21 ib., 
 518, 519. 22 lb., 514. 23 Tb.. 
 600-607. 24 How Gertrude 
 Educates, 80-83. 28 jb., 89. 
 2 6 lb., 139. 27 Monroe, 623. 
 2sib., 626. 29 lb., 643. so ib., 
 650. 31 lb., 661. 3 Montessori, 
 7n. 33 Monroe. 595. 34 Com- 
 payre, 159. 35 lb.. 314. 36 Jb., 
 320. 3 7 lb., 328. 38 lb., 381. 
 
80 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Discipline. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 The discipline of primitive education was sometimes: 
 very brutal physically, including rites of self-mutilation, 
 and useless suffering, merely to show the candidates' 
 ability to survive it mentally and morally; or in obedi- 
 ence to some prescribed rite. This attitude is still in 
 existence in Germany, where it is advanced as justifi- 
 cation of the unfortunate results of student's duels. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The characteristic doctrine of Chinese life is "The 
 path of the golden mean"; a perfect equilibrium of 
 emotions and passion, between both extremes or vices, 
 is virtue. "How is the path of the mean untrodden!" 
 cries Confucius. 
 
 From the western standpoint, such expressions would 
 suggest a desirable balance between asceticism and 
 luxury; but here again, words mislead. It means, 
 thoroughgoing, effective and almost ferocious dis- 
 cipline of any and all emotions. Witness the nameless 
 torture of untold millions of women, deforming their 
 feet — all of it not only useless, but crippling; also the 
 deforming of the skulls of children. Discipline has 
 been talked about considerably more by certain western 
 writers, but no land, country or age ever enforced it 
 more uselessly, ruthlessly, effectually and universally. 
 
DISCIPLINE 81 
 
 Their Scripture says: "To educate without rigor shows 
 a teacher's indolence." 
 
 The Jesuit system, of substituting emulation and 
 rewards for physical punishment, seems to have been 
 anticipated in China, where the whole nation, includ- 
 ing tlie office holders, is disciplined by examinations 
 for higher offices. The whole of political advance- 
 ment is devoted to prizes for examinational dexterity; 
 the punishments are disgrace. 
 
 Indeed, Chinese discipline is severe. The teacher^ 
 keeps his rattan or bamboo hanging in a conspicuous 
 place, and he uses scolding, castigation, starving, and 
 imprisonment to incite diligence. For disobedience to 
 parents even death is allowable. ^ 
 
 Hindu discipline^ on the whole is mild; only after 
 the failure of admonition is resort made to corporal 
 punishment, either by the rod, by uncomfortable pos- 
 ture, or by the pouring on the culprit of cold water.* 
 In Persian education there may have been little, if no, 
 corporal punishment^ for children, but Xenophon re- 
 counts .that even judges were beaten severely if they 
 erred. ^ 
 
 The Persian's^ are said to have practiced no corporal 
 punishment; but this seems due to their conception of 
 life as a struggle, and to the whole of their education 
 which, with the exception of some moral maxims and 
 hymns, seems to have consisted of physical exercise 
 and military service, that in itself would not have en- 
 tailed any severe discipline. There was really nothing 
 in this to drive a child to study. 
 
 The Hebrews enforced, at times, a severe discipline.* 
 Children could be made to fast, or be struck with a 
 strap; but it seems to have been limited to the years 
 after eleven.^ 
 
 Indeed, the Talmud says, "load him like an ox"; 
 however, it is also advised to treat the young, accord- 
 ing to their strength.^** 
 
82 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Like the Hindu, the Hebrew was hemmed in by a 
 burdensome, ceremonial ritual and detailed regulations 
 for eating and social intercourse.^^ This was really 
 a severe discipline. 
 
 Management developed, however, and it is said in 
 the Talmud that children shall be punished with one 
 hand, and caressed with two.^^ 
 
 Among the Orientals, therefore, discipline was as 
 severe, as interest was only casual; the justification, 
 therefore, no doubt, lying in the self-preservation of a 
 race in that of its law, especially in times when it had 
 to be safeguarded by force of arms. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 Of course physical punishment was common in 
 Sparta; even an Iren, if he did not properly tutor the 
 boys in his charge, was punished, sometimes by the 
 biting of his thumb.^^ The boys were trained to stoic- 
 ism. The story of the boy who did not wince, when 
 the fox he carried under his robe bit his vitals, is well- 
 known. The pancratium was practiced, chiefly for 
 disciplinary purposes. It was even customary upon 
 frequent occasions to beat both the boys and the youths 
 before the altar of Artemis, with such severity that 
 death not infrequently ensued. 
 
 No doubt this disciplinary severity was considerably 
 relaxed in Athens; yet is it safe to say, that at no time 
 were the Greeks likely to err by over-sentimentality, 
 considering their treatment of slaves, women, and 
 new-born babes; the poets furnish instances of even 
 beating aged parents. The individual, therefore, was 
 disciplined unmistakably. 
 
 Plato himself advised the exposing of children.^* 
 Besides,^^ he protests against the weakness of those 
 parents, who seek to spare their children every trouble 
 
DISCIPLINE 83 
 
 and even pain. "I am persuaded," says he, "that the 
 inclination to humor the likings of children, is the 
 surest of all ways to spoil them. We should not make 
 too much haste in our search after what is pleasurable, 
 especially as we shall never be wholly exempt from 
 what is painful." Their education is "a very skilful 
 discipline which, by way of amusement, leads the mind 
 of the child to love that which is to make it finished." 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Discipline was no doubt strict in the Roman schools; 
 but we find Quintilian, Seneca and Cicero arguing- for 
 the abandonment of force therein. What was sub- 
 stituted therefor? The concept of duty which was 
 thoroughly Roman, applied to ethics: "The wise man 
 will not sin, though both gods and men should over- 
 look the deed; for it is not through the fear of punish- 
 ment or of shame that he abstains from sin. It is from 
 the desire and obligation of what is just and good." 
 This is stoicism, originated by Epictetus, a Greek slave, 
 in Roman territory; and Romanized by Marcus Aure- 
 lius, and emperor, and Seneca, a statesman. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The mediaeval discipline of asceticism will be dis- 
 cussed elsewhere. Chastity, poverty and obedience 
 completed its moral significance; and by self-denial it 
 achieved freedom from family, society and state. 
 This was supplemented by the monastic rules — prom- 
 inent among which were the Benedictine and the Cis- 
 tercian; the latter being the severest, to all the restric- 
 tions adding silence. 
 
 In the secular world, life was no less a discipline; 
 the career of chivalry was to be entered also by pes- 
 
84 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 sonal fitness realized by solemn vows, taken after a 
 vigil in the Church. 
 
 Last came the discipline of the Franciscans and 
 Dominicans, and the more gruesome cruelty of the 
 Inquisition. But notice, that all these, including the 
 merii-slavery of the Jesuits, were counted worth while 
 for the sake of the spiritual gain. It only goes to show 
 the slight value of anything physical compared with 
 the spirituaL 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 While, as we have seen, in the broader days of the 
 Renaissance, physical exercise furnished the interest of 
 study, when Humanism narrowed down its social 
 activities, corporal punishment^^ furnished the incen- 
 tive to study as well as to moral conduct. For this, 
 however, Vittorino da Feltre, in his "Pleasant House," 
 substituted self-government by the boys of the schooV'^ 
 and a dependence on the natural interests of the pupil. 
 Erasmus, too, deprecated the barbarous methods of 
 discipline, advising the method of interest. ^^ 
 
 This resulted in an obedience to, and respect for 
 absolute authority which acted almost as elimination 
 of individuality. 
 
 However, what pictures we possess of^^ German 
 secondary schools — and the British secondary tra- 
 ditions, keep the rod in the most prominent position. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 In the matter of discipline, there was no hesitation 
 in Reformation-times. So Luther^^ says, "So that you 
 hold them under discipline, and teach them self-re- 
 spect ... he must be honorably trained to adhere to 
 the principles of integrity, and to virtue, and to shun 
 
DISCIPLINE 85 
 
 the contamination of vice." Nevertheless, Luther did 
 not think that children should be checked in every- 
 thing. "Our schools are no longer a hell and purga- 
 tory where children are tortured, for with flogging, 
 trembling, anguish and wretchedness, children learn 
 nothing." The Jesuits must have understood this 
 point, for they went the whole way, and did away with 
 physical punishment, except in the most flagrant cases. 
 They substituted for it a system of prize-giving, rivalry, 
 or emulation; which succeeded very well. The Jan- 
 senists, however, went back to the use of the rod. 
 This spirit of rivalry, however, demanded the closest 
 system of supervision and espionage. The pupils were 
 divided into groups under monitors, while every pupil 
 had his "rival," each acting as a check and incentive 
 to the other. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne^o thought it was not well for the child 
 to be brought up on its mother's lap; it should^^ be 
 inured to exercise and pain. The authority^^ of the 
 teacher should be sovereign, and not be hindered by 
 parents. Young bodies should be bent while supple.^^ 
 It is easy to get children, but hard to train them — the 
 most important difficulty of science. 
 
 RABELAIS. 
 
 Yet even Rabelais^^ had insisted on comparative 
 mildness of discipline. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius devotes to school discipline the xxvith 
 chapter of his Great Didactic, showing his comprehen- 
 
86 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 sion of the practical school-room problems. Besides, 
 Comenius makes the epoch-making improvement on 
 the Chinese "loud schools" — he demanded from the 
 very mother-school, absolute silence. ^^ 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 It will be seen^"^ that Locke's idea of discipline was 
 a great all-inclusive idea, and by no means meant 
 austerity and mortification. It was consistent with 
 much self-activity and interest. Great severity, es- 
 pecially in corporal punishment, is to be avoided; the 
 severity and arbitrariness, with which authority was 
 customarily exercised, was deprecated. Lockers would 
 not think pain the greatest of evils, nor think it the 
 most terrible alternative. It constitutes a great ad- 
 vance towards virtue, as it was understood in Sparta. 
 Gentle inuring to unshrinking suffering of light degrees 
 of pain is worth while to gain firmness of mind, and 
 to result in courage and resolution for the rest of life. 
 Locke^^ objected to "spoiling children" and its harmful 
 results.^^ There is another reason for modesty and 
 submission, ^^ namely, that it fits the child for in- 
 struction. 
 
 But moral discipline was to be enforced by the au- 
 thority of parent or master, the latter preferably a 
 tutor, who should discreetly know the secret of con- 
 trolling natural desires and instincts by thwarting them, 
 and forming the habit of their control; instead of 
 following them, as Rousseau advised. "Form habits," 
 insists he. 
 
 The need of such a liberal view of actual discipline 
 may be better understood from a consideration of 
 then contemporaneous circumstances, in the words of 
 Monroe,^^ about "The very extensive use of corporal 
 punismment for the slightest offense or deficencies; 
 
DISCIPLINE 87 
 
 the important influence exerted by the fagging 
 system, in which the younger boys served as the per- 
 sonal attendants and servants of the older boys, per- 
 forming all menial services; such as keeping their 
 rooms, preparing their breakfasts; building fires, run- 
 ning errands, etc. The custom of governing the school 
 and inflicting punishment in all save the most serious 
 offenses by these same "sixth form" boys; all these 
 indicate how completely, in respect to "virtue and 
 breeding," education in the dominant English view 
 had become and continued to be a discipline." 
 
 Locke, however, approved of the rod, as the "in- 
 strument" of education, 32 which should be administered 
 only judiciously. Children should have a governor 
 from the very time that they first talk^^; so Locke 
 makes a strong point, that children should be taught 
 to hold a pen correctly^^; and obstinacy should be 
 coerced. 25 
 
 This discipline of authority is justified also episte- 
 mologically: for learners must at first be believers, 
 mind-faculties being improved by practice.^^ 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Of discipline, Emile is guiltless The "Negative 
 Education" keeps from him all instruction; his nature, 
 trained in the second period, in the third manifests hi/ 
 instincts. He who till now indulged to the full his 
 selfish love for self-perfection and development, sud- 
 denly', at adolescence, feeling the awakening of his 
 pleasures and pains, and hence his conscience, in his 
 first intelligent relations to his fellow-beings, becomej 
 moral and religious. He becomes so by nature, by 
 his emotions, and late instruction of precept and his- 
 tory; by experiment in evil, by Spencer called "moral 
 training by natural consequences"; but it might in the 
 meanwhile soil and ruin the child. 
 
88 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Now experience shows that children do not sud- 
 denly become altruistic anud religious; that children, 
 left to grow up like weeds, do not learn high morality 
 by the logic of sudden suffering; the child does not 
 reason; it ignores the welfare and experience of others; 
 usually the suffering of crime is the lot of the innocent 
 victim, not the criminal; it is the victim who gets the 
 training. This system might, indeed, develop pru- 
 dence; but not morality and spirituality; and usually 
 criminals, who turn from crime when their life is 
 ruined, turn to the most superstitious, dogmatic forms 
 of religion, that promise pardon without restitution or 
 genuine penance. 
 
 Experience, therefore, decides against the likelihood 
 of Emile's career being an historical statement of 
 human experience. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 With Pestalozzi the only relation between teacher 
 ^nd pupil is based on love. Hence he was called 
 "Father Pestalozzi. "^^ The children were not to be 
 driven, but led^^; and as a result his school was a 
 bedlam. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 Discipline hardly appears in Froebel's school. The 
 principle of love, and of development, of creative 
 activity leaves no time for opposition of self to the 
 social unity. Nor does the individual know the 
 struggle of self-denial in the harmonious self-active 
 development of his whole nature. It is possible, that, 
 if the actual kindergarten teachers were consulted, 
 a very different story might appear. In any case 
 
DISCIPLINE 89 
 
 this system seems to have limited itself to pre-primary 
 education. 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 The teacher is not to interfere, prescribe, or restrict, 
 but only to nourish and assist. Children are not taught 
 in groups, but each member of the group must join 
 in the exercise.^^ They must subordinate individual 
 caprice to the demands of the common good,"*^ they 
 must not quarrel or interfere with each other; they have 
 duties to perform at stated times; otherwise each is a 
 free citizen in the community."^^ All teaching must be 
 limited by any strain it may entail.'*^ Prizes and 
 punishments are slavery of the spirit, which do not 
 lessen, but provoke deformities. They are useless in 
 our modern civilization; to use them is to cause retro- 
 gression thereof."*^ The "inner force" is the only 
 cause of victory and progress.^"* The only external 
 prize is the joy of approval; repression is evil.^^ Evil 
 is self-avenged by moral degradation. The desk is 
 as degrading as other prizes and punishments.'^^ Dis- 
 cipline of free children must be active. ^^ Useless, 
 dangerous acts must of course be suppressed or de- 
 stroyed,^** and Dr. Montessori took good care to eject 
 all children who were dirty, incorrigible and disre- 
 spectful to her.^^ The child must learn the difference 
 between good and evil, but the teacher must not lead 
 to confusion of goodness with immovability, or bad- 
 ness with activity.^*^ 
 
 Seating in order comes later, as the starting place 
 of collective education. ^^ Independence is an essential 
 of liberty, and being served is a limitation thereof. It 
 is wrong to serve children unnecessarily.^^ Education 
 consists in the care and culture of human life.^^ As 
 deterrents are advised isolation and special care.^* 
 
90 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The discipline, which Kant had advised, ^^ was not 
 breaking of the will; but training it to yield to natural 
 obstacles. Breaking means slavery; natural opposition 
 brings tractableness. Punishment should^^ not be 
 given with anger: there are physical and moral; natural 
 and artificial; negative and positive. 
 
 In Germany, the discipline of a teacher is severe; he 
 is under constant criticism; and may be reprimanded in 
 faculty meeting, or be reported to the provincial 
 school-board, and be fined, suspended temporarily, or 
 be dismissed. But, however severe the laws be, never- 
 theless the natural social coherence of the teacher's 
 caste allows the carrying of much dead wood. 
 
 Children are educated to obey; and strict discipline, 
 even to the rod, obtains in the school-room. An 
 amiable teacher is scorned as effeminate. The pupils 
 expect to serve in the army, and the fact that many 
 teachers are reserve-officers, introduces army discipline 
 into the schools. Besides the social prestige of being a 
 one-year volunteer, even at his own expense, is a 
 potent incentive, and the honor of the whole family 
 is so wrapt up in it, that frequent are the suicides of 
 delinquents. Besides, the favor of the professor counts 
 for much in passing the all-important final examina- 
 tion, and this of itself produces a servile obedience. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 The Jansenists had attempted to replace the dis- 
 ciplinary emulation of the Jesuits by the pupils' love 
 in response to the affection and religious zeal of the 
 teacher; but it was a practical failure. 
 
 In France, markedly similar to the Jesuit schools, 
 
DISCIPLINE 91 
 
 the chief system of discipline is emulation and rewards: 
 and, indeed, markedly different from the German 
 opposition to these. The marking system is carried 
 to its greatest extremes; and as all marks given in the 
 schools are every day transmitted to the principal, 
 parents can immediately be notified if a pupil falls 
 back in his work. Poor work may have to be re- 
 peated; extra work may be assigned; or he may have 
 to return to school Thursday or Sunday. Internes 
 may even be deprived of their Thursday or Sunday 
 walks. Pupils may be excluded from the room, or 
 sent to the censor, with a note; there is also temporary 
 or permanent exclusion from the school, usually pre- 
 ceded by a warning. There is a disciplinary council 
 composed of principal, five professors, surveillant, and 
 two ushers, which not only inflicts punishments, but 
 calls up students to congratulate them on good work. 
 There is a public trimestrial roll of honor, and an 
 elaborate system of annual prizes, which are so numer- 
 ous as to act as a social means of interest; there are 
 also many scholarships. 
 
 The teachers themselves are subjected to a corres- 
 ponding discipline of emulation and rewards. Three- 
 fourths of the faculties are distinguished by the decora- 
 tion of "Officer of Public Instruction," which is given 
 only to "Officers of the Academy," of five years' 
 standing. On the other hand, teachers may suffer 
 suspension with partial or total loss of salary, re- 
 moval, revocation, or permanent disbarment. These 
 means relieve certainty of tenure of the danger of 
 fossilization. 
 
 The abolition of physical punishment in France, con- 
 trasted with its long lingering in Germany, shows the 
 influence of democracy. 
 
 No inconsiderable element of the discipline is the 
 payment of fees by the parents, who thus take an 
 immediate practical interest in their children's progress. 
 
92 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Again, the pupil is under continual surveillance, 
 especially in the dormitory at night; private difficulties 
 have, therefore, less opportunity to arise. This per- 
 sonal influence of the teacher's continual presence, 
 seems to have been originally due to the Jansenists. 
 Moreover, the blue uniform of the "interne" outside 
 the school is an appreciable inspiration, protection, 
 and restraint. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The early discipline of the American school was, 
 without doubt, that of the rod.^^ The master was to 
 be dismissed, if found too lenient^^; as well as if he 
 were too severe. Emulation was, however, not 
 neglected^*^ as disciplinary motive. Another system 
 of discipline was fining. At Nazareth Hall there had 
 been, "a farthing for talking at meals, Yz d. for 
 falling on the floor; 1 d. for tearing a leaf out of a 
 book; 2 d. for a lie; and 3 d. for an oath*^" — this was 
 also in vogue at Phillips Andover. 
 
 In modern times, however, all forms of disciplining 
 have been practically abandoned, for political reasons. 
 Physical punishment has in most places been done 
 away with, although it is sometimes threatened as a 
 means of last resort; in some cities it is allowed under 
 severe restrictions. Keeping pupils after school hours, 
 is not allowed beyond very narrow limits; and so the 
 teacher, forced to pass all except a very few pupils, 
 has practically no hold left but his own personality; 
 which, however, cannot survive if ground down by an 
 oppressive system above him. 
 
 1 Painter, 13. 2 MacEvoy, 6. « Proverbs, 13. 24, 23.13, 14; 
 
 3 Painter, 18. 4 Compayre, 6 ; 19.18. 9 MacEvoy, 22. lo Com- 
 
 Painter, 18. 5 MacEvoy, 16. payre, 10. n Painter, 29. 
 
 6 Painter, 25. "^ MacEvoy, 16. ^ 2 Compayre, 10. 1 3 Monroe, 
 
DISCIPLINE 
 
 93 
 
 78. i4Compayre, 29. isjb., 
 33. 16 Monroe, 375. 17 ib., 
 377. iSMacEvoy, 124. 19 Mon- 
 roe, 434. 20 Montaigne, Edu- 
 cation, 179. 21 lb., 180. 22 lb., 
 181. 23 lb., 200. 24 MacEvoy, 
 136. 25 Monroe, 411. 26 Great 
 Didactic, 28. 27 !„ the chapter 
 on Pedagogy. 28 Monroe, 517. 
 
 29 Theory of Education, 35, 36. 
 
 30 lb., 75. 31 Monroe. 524. 
 
 32 Theory of Education. 88. 
 
 33 lb., 90. 34 lb., 160. 35 lb, 
 
 167. 36 Conduct of Under- 
 
 standing, 28. 27 Monroe, 622. 
 ^^ How Gertrude Educates, 
 553. 39 Montessori, xxi. 40 jb., 
 87. 41 lb., XXX. 42 lb., 
 
 xxxviii. 43 lb., 21, 22 44 lb , 
 24. 45 lb., 25. 46 lb., 26. 
 47 Tb., 86. 48 lb., 88. 93. 
 49 lb., 71. 50 lb., 93. 51 lb., 
 93. 52 lb., 97. 53 lb., 106. 
 54 lb., 103. 55 MacEvoy, 192. 
 56 Compayre, 336. 57 Brown, 
 Making of our Middle Schools, 
 136. 5 8 lb., 135. 59 lb., 139. 
 60 lb., 265. 
 
94 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Method. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 Primitive education is peculiarly important and in- 
 teresting in that is reveals basic principles without 
 complicated superstructure. The first definite educa- 
 tional process is the "initiation" into the ways of 
 society through the acquisition of its cultural posses- 
 sions. It sought to create receptivity by demanding 
 obedience or enforcing it, and was often prepared for 
 in silence and solitude. A promise of secrecy and 
 faithfulness often preceded the instruction or revela- 
 tion, and was often followed by festivities or reception 
 into public fellowship. So practical is this form of 
 education that it has survived to our own days, when 
 it has become entirely voluntary. 
 
 PREHISTORIC EDUCATION. 
 
 The practical education of primitive people is gained 
 1, through direct training in the family group, 2, 
 through the primitive division of labor, and 3, in the 
 rudimentary beginnings of the class or caste system. 
 
 Their theoretical training and the attempts at inter- 
 pretation of experience are given through the shamans, 
 exorcists or medicine men, and later through the priest- 
 hood. 
 
METHOD 95 
 
 The method is that of initiation, either indirect, or 
 direct, as seen in the highest stage in an apprenticeship 
 caste system. 
 
 Transition to the early stages of civilization is 
 marked by a formation of, 1, a teaching class; 2, of a 
 traditional subject-matter for study, usually religious 
 in character; and, 3, the elaboration of a formal 
 method. 
 
 This Primitive education is really too ancient to be 
 of any importance other than illustrative of the un- 
 conscious, irrepressible tendency to education of 
 human nature. Among the animals a proportionately 
 large amount is seen, for instance, among the birds, 
 who give their young training in flying both individ- 
 ually, and in or by the flock. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The Chinese examination-system conspicuously pro- 
 claimed its indifference to method, basing all on 
 efficiency. The result was that their methods of 
 memorizing have remained as rudimentary as ever. 
 They have procedures so ancient as to be instinctive, 
 based on imitation, and processes based on habitual 
 traits; but nothing intelligent enough to deserve the 
 word "method," which is based on individuality. All 
 the learning is done by rote^ ; yet while it begins by 
 merely fluent pronunciation of the characters, it pro- 
 ceeds to teach the meaning, and impressing the moral 
 lessons of the book. 
 
 On the whole, says Dittes,^ Chinese method consists, 
 not in developing, but in communicating. 
 
 Probably the most distinctively Chinese method of 
 learning is by asking questions; of moral instruction, 
 by proverbs or apothegms — maxims of morality. 
 
 Stages of learning^ are: memorizing, translation and 
 essay-composition. These of course take place only 
 
96 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 by individual recitation in a "loud school"; while the 
 object of learning remained rapid repetition. Tracing 
 was used in primary writing-study. 
 
 Among the Hindus learning was also by rote.* 
 
 The Persian method of physical training evidently 
 led to a decided dualism of friends and enemies, and 
 a conception of the average person being put on pro- 
 bation. 
 
 Hindu methods are simple and various. However, 
 it is said, that teachers are aided not only by^ regular 
 assistants, but also by the more mature pupils. This 
 was the origin of Bell's monitorial mutual system.^ 
 The lessons are learned aloud by the whole body of 
 pupils at once. A. D. Rowe, in his "Every-day Life in 
 India," states that "an hour before closing the school 
 the pupils are all made to stand up in a line, and with 
 their hands applied to their hearts, they repeat the 
 multiplication-table, the alphabet, and the sacred 
 verses, at the end of each of which their hands are 
 raised to their foreheads, and their bodies bowed in 
 reverence to the god in whose honor it was said. The 
 master then instructs them in a long and tedious cata- 
 logue of frivolous duties to be discharged in their 
 houses; to which they all assent with a loud 'Yes, yes.' 
 After this they prostrate themselves before the teacher, 
 and are dismissed to their respective homes." 
 
 Religious exercises were held thrice daily. '^ First, ex- 
 ercises are written in sand with a stick; next on palm- 
 leaves with an iron style; and last on the dry leaves 
 of the plane-tree with ink.^ 
 
 The Persian method of teaching seems to have been 
 that of object-lessons; Cyrus at twelve years of age, 
 relates to his mother an experience of being beaten 
 for having given an erring decision in a trial judgment, 
 held to develop the sense of justice. 
 
 To the Egyptians are really due concrete methods 
 in arithmetic and writing;, ^ approved of b^ Plato. 
 
METHOD 91 
 
 In the Hebrew*^ we have a fairly good description 
 of teaching methods, including imitation (phylacteries, 
 or, writing on slips, bound on wrist or forehead, and 
 inscriptions on door-posts of house and gate) ; and 
 memorization ("lay up" the words in "heart and 
 soul"), as well as in self-activity (speaking of them as 
 "sitting" in the house; "walking" out of doors, "lying 
 down" and "rising up"). 
 
 The later Hebrew methods of teaching consisted 
 first of memorizing of teachings, and then of questions 
 to and answers of the Rabbis, somewhat on the order 
 of the Chinese classics; however, such advanced liberals 
 as Hillel insisted on the pupils' understanding what 
 they learned, the explanation being repeated four hun- 
 dred times, if necessary^ ^; the teacher to be mild, 
 patient, and unselfish. 
 
 At best. Oriental teaching methods are fragmentary, 
 and, on the whole, consists chiefly of memorizing of 
 the Scriptures. 
 
 Among the Mahometans, memorization still holds 
 sway. However, during the early Middle Ages 
 Mahometan scholars went as far as experimentation 
 and research. The fall of the Moors in Spain ended 
 this, and so the Mahometan mind was thrown back on 
 interpretation, which, however, assumed an alluring 
 mystical form in Persia, at the hands of the Sufis. 
 
 Oriental education had therefore developed the 
 great elements of modern schools: China, a state ex- 
 amination system; India, the monitorial system; Persia, 
 state education and physical training; the Hebrews, the 
 biographical method; the Phoenicians, manual train- 
 ing and the alphabet; Egypt, geometry and the inven- 
 tion of paper; the Mahometans, much of modern 
 mathematics and chemistry, a heritage more glorious 
 than the use to which it was put in mediaeval times. 
 
,98 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 Greek education began in a severe dogmatic method, 
 that of Pythagoras, whose authority enforced the 
 maxim, "ipse dixit," "he himself said it." 
 
 This was broken up by the Socratic method, which 
 may be summed up under the two conceptions of 
 "irony" and "maieutics." Irony consisted in drawing 
 out your opponent to confuse himself; maieutics is the 
 start of self-activity, the help by which a mind gives 
 birth to new opinions, ideas, and ideals. 
 
 Plato sums up^^ j^oth these processes as "continual 
 discourse with oneself." Whole thoughts are to be 
 reached by the method of dialectics, for this is the 
 basis of the mind's forming conceptions through the 
 discrimination of qualities and attributes. This vision 
 of eternal truth was, to Plato, the function of a special, 
 or sixth sense, a "sense for ideas." 
 
 Neither of these philosophers, however, did more 
 than admit into the realm of speculation the national 
 passion for conversation, which, at banquets, theatres 
 and law-courts was the recognized method of tertiary 
 instruction. Aristotle carried this one step further by 
 even teaching while walking around; and this was so 
 noticeable a feature of his work that his students were 
 called peripatetics. His order for education was, 1, 
 physical; 2, moral, and 3, scientific. In moral educa- 
 tion correct habits were to precede theoretic teaching; 
 still Aristotle was the first to write a systematic work 
 on the subject. 
 
 Monroe thus discriminates between Plato and 
 Aristotle: 
 
 Plato had an ideal scheme; Aristotle taught prin- 
 ciples for attaining it. 
 
 Plato desired" the possession of ideas in an indi- 
 vidual; Aristotle taught that ideas have concrete value 
 for the race. 
 
METHOD 99 
 
 Plato exalted the intellect; Aristotle exalted the will. 
 He united intellect and will; knowledge passed into 
 action, resulting in happiness. 
 
 Plato's method was philosophic or introspective. 
 Aristotle's method was objective and scientific. 
 
 Plato sought truth for formal value. Aristotle 
 sought truth in experience of the race, and developed 
 an inductive process. He applied it both objectively 
 and subjectively, while the Socratic method used only 
 the latter. He used both inductive and deductive 
 methods of procedure. 
 
 ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The earliest Roman schools seem to have been 
 extant during the early Roman period, and have been 
 called ludi, or sports, and were in some private home 
 or temple porch. From one of these was Virginia 
 seized; it must have been elementary, and have formed 
 some. sort of supplementary instruction. Soon arose 
 the regular elementary schools of the literatore«, or 
 "grammatists." There Livius Andronicus (284-204 
 B.C.) translated the Odyssey into Latin. SpuriuS 
 Caurilius (260 B.C.) is by Plutarch said to have been 
 the first to open a typical school at Rome — probably 
 the first grammar school. Suetonius mentions Crates 
 of Mallos, a Greek ambassador to Rome (157 B.C.) 
 as the first Greek teacher. The rhetorical continua- 
 tion or finishing schools (92 B.C.) then arose. During 
 the third or imperial period these schools became es- 
 tablished as parts of a general system of education. 
 Seneca would have had all schools form a pure and 
 elevating environment. 
 
 It does not, however, appear that there was any 
 grading in the school; the work was either individual, 
 or common, but not distinguished into grades, nor 
 
400 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 had any definite times of graduation; each pupil 
 stayed as long as he needed or could afford to, and 
 then left. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the Christian 
 method of the sermon is only an adaptation of the 
 Greek philosophical disquisition. The catechetical 
 method, however, was a newer development founded 
 on Greek formulation of Semitic oracular and para- 
 bolic utterances. In later years it has been adapted to 
 scientific college examination preparation as the 
 "quiz" method. 
 
 Christianity had needed a method of dealing with its 
 intellectual Greco-Roman foes. With its establish- 
 ment, began a period (325-1300 A.D.), a whole mil- 
 lenium almost, when self-satisfaction took place of 
 any earlier culture, and Christian institutions stood for, 
 and were accepted as the final revelations of truth. 
 The world might no doubt have so continued in- 
 definitely had not this security engendered over-con- 
 fidence; and when the failure of the crusades both 
 destroyed chivalry and let in the gates to Saracen 
 learning and "heresy," Christianity found itself forced 
 to make a readjustment, which indeed was successful, 
 and postponed the day of the awakening of human 
 reason for two more centuries, till the Renaissance and 
 its more sinister sequel, the Reformation. 
 
 This readjustment was two-fold: practical, and in- 
 tellectual. The practical consisted of a three-fold 
 social effort: the Italian Franciscans, to missionarize 
 among the common folk; the Dominicans, to reach the 
 more educated; and the Inquisition, to stamp out 
 heresy root and branch wherever possible. The Fran- 
 ciscans represented cajolery, and corresponded to imi- 
 tation, or primary education; the Dominicans repre- 
 
METHOD 101 
 
 sented argument, and corresponded to the habitual 
 element of secondary education; the Inquisition repre- 
 sented the effective, executive finishing methods of 
 tertiary education. 
 
 So much for the readjustment of the Church; but 
 the intellectual people found themselves under the 
 necessity of fusing their religion with their philosophy; 
 they felt the need of supporting faith by reason; of 
 developing a logical system, and of giving ready access 
 to these results. This was done by Scholasticism, or 
 logical analysis. Two methods were used: the "tree" 
 or "branching" method of Thomas Aquinas, and the 
 "chain" method of Abelard; they used the methods of 
 Aristotelian formal, final, material or efficient causes, 
 or the literal, allegorical, mystic and moral meanings. 
 
 This developed the famous controversy between the 
 Nominalists and Realists. Nominalism was Aristotel- 
 ian; ideas are only names, reality inhering in the ob- 
 ject. Realism was Platonic; ideas were the realities, 
 of which objects were only copies. William of Cham- 
 peaux and Abelard, and Aristotle really, took a middle 
 position; but that was not the day for mediation; and 
 Platonism fell under the ban of heresy. An idea of 
 the good reason for a divergence between Aristotel- 
 ianism and the Real Aristotle is gained from Renan's 
 description of Averroes's Aristotelian versian: "a Latin 
 translation, of a Hebraic translation of the commentary 
 on an Arabic translation of a Syrian translation of a 
 Greek text of Aristotle." 
 
 The debt of modernism to scholasticism, besides the 
 numberless words of method it produced, such as 
 "syllogism," "analysis," "synthesis"; is best under- 
 stood by remembering that it was the last great doctor, 
 the "invincible" William of Occam who supplied 
 Locke, Pestalozzi and Herbart with the statement: 
 "There is nothing in the understanding that was not 
 previously in the senses." 
 
102 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 From the standpoint of realism, scholasticism was 
 the attempt to support authority by the intellect, to 
 supplement faith by reason; but from the Nominalist 
 standpoint it was the conflict of reason with authority, 
 the attempt to broaden out religion by philosophy and 
 intelligence. This was the foundation of the Renais- 
 sance. 
 
 The distinctive pedagogical method was the "dis- 
 tinction" and "definition," followed by the "disputa- 
 tion," a public argument. While the modern debating 
 society still fulfils that office, the most picturesque 
 case of it is when Luther nailed to the Wittemberg 
 door the ninety-five theses he was ready to defend in 
 public disputation. 
 
 The one man who best summates the mediaeval 
 period is the poet Dante. In his Commedia he 
 enumerates the mediaeval universe; in his "Convito" 
 he gives an exposition of the ideas, intellectual life and 
 meaning of mediaeval education; not merely by re- 
 peating Thomas Aquinas's encyclopedia, but by reveal- 
 ing its gist in the classic four methods of interpretation. 
 
 "In a literal sense, the Commedia is a presentation 
 of the rewards and punishments, and the destiny of 
 man in the hereafter^*^; allegorically it is a presenta- 
 tion of the virtues and vices of the human soul as 
 illustrated in concrete examples and in the details of 
 the plan; morally, it has as its social, political, and 
 ethical purposes, the making of worthier citizens, 
 better neighbors, nobler men ; mystically, it typifies the 
 struggle of the human soul to become free, its growth 
 through sin to holiness, its progress from the finite to 
 the divine." 
 
 In the "Convito" he organizes mediaeval education 
 by assigning each of the sciences to one of his heavens, 
 thus prefiguring a universe of education and truth. 
 
METHOD 103 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 ERASMUS. 
 
 Of works of method none would represent the Re- 
 naissance better than Erasmus's "Colloquies," which 
 offered Latin conversation in assimilable form. He 
 also published quotations and idioms from the classics, 
 which were used for several centuries. Again, he 
 wrote a Latin grammar in the vernacular, affording a 
 reasonable access to literature. Asham's humanistic 
 method consisted in an exposition and reproduction 
 of the text, deducing the rules therefrom as a way 
 pleasanter than the dead deduction of grammar com- 
 monly practised. (Harper's inductive text books repre- 
 sent this method in our own days.) Johnson went 
 so far to say that this book "contains perhaps the best 
 advice that was ever given for the study of languages." 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 It cannot be said that the Reformers had yet any 
 distinct pedagogic method; but the Jesuits had one; 
 and they were the first to require of their teachers a 
 definite training. 
 
 In spite of excellent text-books, their method was 
 chiefly an oral one; which brought the teacher into 
 intimate contact with the boys, molding them, and 
 allowing for thoroughness of results. Added to this 
 were the systematic reviews, ending with "teaching" 
 of the subject. ^^ 
 
 The formal conduct of the Jesuit recitation was a 
 modified lecture form, called the "prelection," in 
 which were distinguished the following steps: 1, Gen- 
 eral meaning of entire passage. 2, Meaning and con- 
 
104 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 struction of each clause. 3, Erudition: information 
 historical, geographical archeological. 5, Rhetorical 
 and poetical significance. 6, Drawing of moral lessons. 
 This was chiefly a systematization of the Reforma- 
 tion's "double translation" method adapted to the de- 
 tails of the earlier Roman rhetorical method of study. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne, physician, cure and man of letters, would 
 not naturally have been likely to break loose from the 
 use of boolcs as means of education; but even with 
 him this was to be so only through the mastery of 
 their contents for practical service in life^^; if he did 
 not teach the object method, books with him were not 
 ends, but means. 
 
 Learning itself was good, but made trouble only 
 when in unskilful hands — taught therefore with poor 
 method. Indeed^^ the education of children is the 
 most important difficulty of science: it is easy to get 
 them, but hard to train them. It unites interest and 
 discipline in "a severe sweetness."^^ 
 
 The method of education is the efficiency of mem- 
 ory habitualized into spontaneity. 
 
 Montaigne was alive^^ to the benefit of grading boys 
 in the same class, although his whole efforts are 
 directed towards individual instruction; and what grad- 
 ing occurs would be that of fellow actors in Latin 
 plays, and friends of travel. 
 
 Montaigne was not quite sure that is was either 
 advisable or necessary to attend a school or institution, 
 some of which, in his day, turned out "animals." To 
 young gentlemen^ ^ every place is a study, and every 
 person he meets — even bricklayers and peasant§^" — a 
 
METHOD lOS 
 
 teacher. Nevertheless he sanctions the use of books, 
 as Rabelais and Milton did. 2*^ 
 
 MILTON. 
 
 Milton, however, had a definite plan for a school. ^^ 
 The house and grounds were to be spacious, and to 
 contain both school and university, so as to provide 
 for perfect articulation between them. 
 
 Milton's idea of grading of his pupils was not carried 
 out into detail; indeed so crowded a curriculum as his 
 could not well admit of detailed application; whole 
 languages, like the Italian, were left to the acquisition 
 of "any odd hour." But nevertheless he had a very 
 definite conception of an ephebic period of service 
 of study, and hence enforced all the essentials of a 
 classification of grading. 
 
 BACON. 
 
 If we were to inquire what Bacon meant by his 
 "Solomon's house" in his New Atlantis, we might 
 guess worse than consider it his ideal of a school. It 
 was no more to be a formulation of knowledge, but 
 a method of investigation, experiment and research, 
 on the inductive plan. 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius may, in a certain sense, be considered the 
 father of educational method, as an individual subject. 
 Although in the study of the universe he rejected 
 Bacon's inductive method in favor of a natural ana- 
 logic one, in education he evidently inductively pro- 
 duced his nine principles of method^^ (in his "Method 
 of the Sciences") : 
 
 1, Object teaching. 2, Practical application, and 
 utility. 3, Direct, uncomplicated teaching. 4, Causal 
 
106 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 teaching, by origins or true nature. 5, General prin- 
 ciples must precede detail. 6, Order, position and 
 interconnection in teaching of any object. 7, Only 
 one thing at a time, proper succession. 8, Subject to 
 be exhausted before abandonment. 9, Distinctions 
 clarify qualities. 
 
 These principles applied with peculiar efficiency to 
 language and scientific teaching. 
 
 After all, Comenius was the discoverer and pro- 
 mulgator of pedagogical method: and so we are not 
 surprised that his Great Didactic is devoted to peda- 
 gogical facility,^^ thoroughness,^* conciseness and 
 rapidity.^^ There are various methods specially suited 
 to different studies^^: the sciences,^'!' the arts,^^ the 
 languages,29 morals,^^ and piety.^^ 
 
 The ten principles "of Facility in Teaching and 
 Learning" of Comenius^^ ^re: 1, Begin early, before 
 the mind is corrupted. 2, Prepare the mind duly. 
 
 3, Proceed from general to particular. 4, From easy 
 to more difficult. 5, Not too many subjects. 
 6, Progress slow. 7, Intellect forced to nothing. 
 8, Everything must be taught through the medium 
 of the senses. 9, Keep in view continually the use 
 of everything. 10, Teach everything by use of one 
 method. 
 
 Five obstacles to education are^^: 
 
 1, Shortness of life: hence we must prolong life all 
 we can. 2, Confusing crowd of objects: hence we 
 must make judicious selection. 3, Lack of opportuni- 
 ties: hence we must learn to recognize and seize them. 
 
 4, Weakness of intellect and judgment: hence we must 
 be open-minded. 5, Errors are universal in the most 
 conscientious work: hence we must build a good 
 foundation. 
 
 We must not faiP* to mention Comenius's great 
 text books, the "Janua Linguarum^^ which dominated 
 the work of the Renaissance for the class-room. It 
 
METHOD 107 
 
 was composed of the Vestibulum, the Atrium, and the 
 Palace, or Thesaurus. The Janua was later carried out 
 objectively in "Orbis Pictus," in 1657, These repre- 
 sented the organization of his planned "Pansophic" 
 Latin school. ^^ First comes the Mother-School; then 
 the Vernacular School. The gymnasium itself was 
 divided into the following classes, with their appro- 
 priate mottoes: 
 
 1, Vestibular: Let no one enter who cannot read. 
 2, Janual: Let no one enter who is ignorant of mathe- 
 matics. 3, Atrial: Let no one enter who cannot speak. 
 4, Philosophical: Let no one ignorant of history enter 
 here. 5, Logical: Let no one who is ignorant of 
 natural philosophy enter here. 6, Political: Let no 
 one enter who cannot reason. 7, Theological: Let no 
 one enter who is irreligious. 
 
 The Mother-School was to teach a simple history, 
 geography and metaphysics, and training in games, 
 sports and manners (locality, time, and causal relation 
 of events^i). The Vernacular School lasted from the 
 sixth to the twelfth year, as a simpler substitute for 
 the gymnasium. For these two Comenius wrote Czech 
 texts that have not survived. ^^ 
 
 Above the gymnasium was to come the university, 
 followed by traveling students later gathered into a 
 "College of Light" — a Baconian "Solomon's House," 
 or "Academy." 
 
 Comenius very properly wished the text-books of 
 schools cleared of all pagan references'^; we have gone 
 further still and cleared text-books even of the Christian 
 dogmas that Comenius admitted; and we have thus 
 made science and education unsectarian. 
 
 Grading was the very essence of Comenius's work; 
 it was not only inclusive, but also definitely exclusive, 
 as is shown by the mottoes over the doors of the 
 rooms devoted to the different years of his Latin 
 school. Thus each grade could have the maximum 
 
108 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 of specialized efficiency. Besides his whole school 
 scheme was classified into an all-embracing grading 
 method. 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 On the whole, Locke held to object teaching, by 
 things that fell within the domain of the senses,'* 
 which were, by induction, to be organized into the 
 most complicated forms of knowledge. 
 
 Again, he held to, 1, selection of one object at a 
 time and, 2, proceeding to the next adjoining thing.*® 
 Also, 3, to approach an object gradually by what is 
 known, and hence to the more obscure, 4, in regular 
 order to some interesting unknown thing. Though 
 such advances seem slow, their results are by far the 
 swiftest. 
 
 Locke resolutely advanced self-activity and interest, 
 which demanded that the teacher lead the pupil to ask 
 him that which he should teach him,^^ and should 
 induce him to have his mind "in tune" at the right 
 time for the right thing, by self-control. ^^ So the art 
 of teaching is the skill of getting and keeping atten- 
 tion, and avoiding inadvertency, forgetfulness, un- 
 steadiness, and wandering of thought.^^ 
 
 Locke would have Latin first spoken** before being 
 written, the writing only later. He disapproves of 
 themes which however should be done in English*^ at 
 the same time as speaking and memorizing.*^ 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The method of Emile's tutor is clearly defined: that 
 of directing the natural self-activity of the pupil. In 
 the period between twelve and fifteen years of age, 
 
METHOD 109 
 
 the child's natural curiosity, outrunning his natural 
 needs, is to be directed to the purpose of learning, in 
 those fields only in which his instinct leads the way. 
 In his earlier period "negative education" carefully 
 barred out any foreign influences. This "education 
 according to nature" had three meanings'*^: "The 
 good is the natural; man is to be made for him- 
 self and not as a citizen; and only last is he an object 
 of teaching." On these three lines the tutor must work. 
 But at fifteen years of age the method suddenly 
 changes. Now personal example, book knowledge, 
 and contact with men swiftly transforms the in- 
 dividual into a peace-loving, religious philanthropist. 
 It is the personal influence of the tutor that here 
 counts. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 Pestalozzi taught that the highest attainment in 
 education can be reached only by means of a finished 
 art of teaching, and a most perfect psychology. ^"^ He 
 1, emphasized the new psychological purpose of edur 
 cation; 2, clarified it; 3, formulated a new method of 
 experimentation in Stoic tradition; 4, and gave an 
 entirely new spirit to the class-room. 
 
 There is a natural order in the development^^ of 
 the child's mind, and all educational activity should 
 be based upon or guided by the knowledge of that 
 growth. Pestalozzi is to be honored for having in- 
 sisted on the necessity of this knowledge as the basis 
 of instruction; it was a school-room application of 
 Lamarck's theories. 
 
 At any stage the result should be symmetrical.^'' 
 Morf thus summarized Pestalozzi's methods^^: 1, Ob- 
 servation or sense-perception is the basis of instruction. 
 
110 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 2, Language should always be linked with observation 
 of an object.^2 3^ jiiq ^j^ie for learning is not time 
 for judgment and criticism. 4, Begin with the easiest 
 and proceed in psychologically connected order. 
 5, Each point to be given sufficient time for thorough- 
 ness. 6, Teaching should aim at development, not 
 dogmatic exposition. 7, The teacher should respect 
 the individuality of the pupil. 8, Education is not to 
 impart knowledge or talent, but to develop and in- 
 crease the powers of his intelligence, 9, Power must 
 be linked to knowledge, and skill to learning. 10, Dis- 
 cipline should be based upon, and ruled by love. 11, In- 
 struction shoulcf be subordinate to the higher aim of 
 education. 
 
 It is the teacher's duty to assign tasks to warn and 
 to chastise^^; one favorite Pestalozzian method was 
 to "Socratize," or, catechizing for cultivation of in- 
 tellect and spiritual exercise. A well arranged nomen- 
 clature indelibly impressed produces progress in all 
 branches.^^ 
 
 The fact that Pestalozzian methods have been so 
 variously elaborated demonstrate how fluid they 
 were: indeed he advises^^ to disregard routine, classi- 
 fication of subjects, to reject all that is confused and 
 involved, to hold on to words when needed, and let 
 means of instruction, like creation, spring out from 
 human nature. 
 
 Pestalozzi wanted to find a common origin of all 
 methods and arts of instruction, and with it a form by 
 which the development of our race might be decided 
 through the essence of our own very nature. 
 
 In another place^^ he advises to: 1, Classify ob- 
 servations, complete the simple before the complex, 
 in graduated steps of knowledge. 2, Reproduce the 
 relation things bear to each other, and limit the em- 
 phasis of art. 3, For yourself emphasize important 
 observations by the art of proximity, opinions, con- 
 
METHOD m 
 
 duct, duties, virtue. 4, Respect natural law, 5, Whose 
 charm makes it seem freedom and independence. 
 
 All teaching should be analyzed into that of sound, 
 word and language. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 Froebel's chief work is his "Education of Man," 
 and in it he expresses with great insistence the law of 
 unity, or inner connectedness as the basis of education 
 — the philosophy of Kant, Schelling, Hegel, and Fichte. 
 It explained reality and life in the fundamental unity 
 of spirit of nature and man; the absolute unity is self- 
 conscious spirit — the inner connectedness. Hence, to 
 Froebel, education's definition is to realize this unity, 
 to develop the inter-connection, to expound this in- 
 terior germ of the universal, to develop the divine 
 essence till one partakes of its fulness. Every nature 
 can reveal God, and that is its object. 
 
 While this mysticism has apparently no connection 
 with practical life, Froebel attempts to demonstrate it 
 in the following propositions^^ from his "Education 
 by development": 
 
 1, Thereby we understand the nature of the child. 
 2, The individual child is thereby recognized as the 
 central point of all relations. 3, It reveals education's 
 purpose, means and methods. 4, Such education is 
 practical as it demands immediate accomplishment and 
 application. 5, Such education is suited to our prac- 
 tical age which demands realization in life of highest 
 ideals of experience. 6, It adapts itself to every age 
 and stage of the child's development. 7, Such education 
 of unification is needed in our age of isolation, con- 
 trareity and individualism. 8, It would make clear the 
 
112 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 highest philosophical and ethical thought. 9, It would 
 check growing proletarianism, and mechanical effect 
 of industrialism. 
 
 Everywhere Froebel finds a unity between thought 
 and life which must be developed by education. 
 
 Moreover, Froebel enunciated the ancient mystical 
 principles that^^: 
 
 1, What lies in the whole, lies in its smallest part. 
 2, All that is found in humanity is found in the child 
 even if slumbering in him as an essential germ, and 
 reveals itself in his smallest action. 
 
 Creation proceeds therefore not by ingrafting or 
 inoculating, but by development; and education is its 
 realization, the method whose process is self-activity. 
 
 HERBART. 
 
 I. From Herbart's psychology are adduced two 
 corollaries. 1, The chief characteristic of the mind is 
 its power of assimilation, its appreceptive power; and 
 2, education, which determines which presentation the 
 mind shall receive, and also the manner in which they 
 are combined into higher mental processes, is the chief 
 determining force in shaping the mind and character. 
 
 De Garmo^^ thus states the teacher's problem: 
 1, Know child's knowledge and interests so as to utilize 
 them. 2, Select materials of instruction for purposes 
 and pupil's powers. 3, Arrange subject-matter to 
 pupil's experience and future career. 4, Adapt teach- 
 ing processes to secure quickest apprehension and 
 longest retention. 
 
 II. The work of education then is: 1, To furnish 
 the mind with presentations or experiences. 2, On 
 the basis of these presentations to "complete the circle 
 of thought" through ideas and motivation to action. 
 Motivation is 1, desire, and 2, good will springing 
 from presentations. 
 
METHOD 
 
 U3 
 
 III. Formation of character is dependent on the 
 shaping of the will, and is determined by educative in- 
 struction, which determines all our volition and 
 shapes character, because: 1, Presentations are modi- 
 fiable through the apperceptive process. 2, These 
 presentations determine conduct, and hence character. 
 
 Now the educative instruction is effected by interest, 
 according to a general method for the presentation of 
 any subject or portion thereof — or a recitation. 
 
 The general method consists of a logical recognition 
 of the steps through which the concept interest of the 
 mind expands into many-sidedness of character: ob- 
 servation, expectation, demand and action; which 
 point out, connect, teach and philosophize; and which 
 in matters appertaining to sympathy are observing, 
 continuous, elevating, and active in the sphere of 
 reality. The stages of instruction are clearness, asso- 
 ciation, system and method. Ziller divided the first 
 step into two: preparation and presentation. So we 
 have: 
 
 n 
 
 <u 
 
 a 
 tin 
 
 Ziller's 
 (Elementary 
 Education). 
 
 Herbart's 
 
 Steps pi 
 
 Expansion. 
 
 Function Is. 
 
 Sympathetic 
 Aspect. 
 
 Stapes of 
 Instruction. 
 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 S 
 
 Preparation. 
 Presentation. 
 Association. 
 Svstem. 
 
 Method of Ap- 
 plication. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 .(Pestalozzi) 
 Expectation. 
 Demand. 
 Action. 
 
 To point out. 
 
 To connect. 
 To teach. 
 To philoso- 
 phize. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Continuousness 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Activity. 
 
 Clearness. 
 
 Association. 
 
 Svstem. 
 
 Method. 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 HERBART. 
 
 Herbart's summary of his pedagogic work is^^: 
 "Instruction will form the circle of thought, and edu- 
 cation the character. The last is nothing without the 
 first." "Virtue expresses the whole purpose of edu- 
 
114 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 cation"; it is "the idea of inner freedom which has 
 developed into an abiding actuality in an individual" 
 — an evolutionary product of cumulative proofless 
 "aesthetic" judgments. The chief aim of education is 
 to develop this attitude of preference for that which 
 constitutes "inner freedom" into an "abiding actuality 
 in the individual"; this process is called the "aesthetic 
 presentation of the universe" through "experience, 
 human converse, and instruction." 
 
 Moral character is analysed into five moral relation- 
 ships or ideas, each corresponding to a social one. 
 1, Inner freedom — ideal society; 2, efficiency, or per- 
 fection, balance, or harmony — system of culture; 
 
 3, benevolence or good will — system of government; 
 
 4, justice — system of law; 5, equity or retribution — 
 system of rewards or wages. The work of education 
 then is to form character, "which in the battle of life 
 shall stand unmoved, not through the strength of its 
 external action, but on the firm and enduring founda- 
 dations of its moral insight and enlightened will." 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 
 Applying Pestalozzi's sense-education to modern con- 
 ditions, Montessori was led to specialize and apply the 
 methods and apparatus of the psycho physical labora- 
 tory; she devised apparatus for the purely physical 
 development of the children; the social training she 
 carried out by extensions of existing social activities, 
 and afforded direct preparation for the school arts.^'' 
 She applied the laboratory apparatus, following Bac- 
 celli, Hard, Seguln, and Talamo.^^ She carefully 
 noted the physical development of the child^^; simpli- 
 fied school-room furnishings.^* There is a daily 
 schedule,^^ emphasizing cleanliness, order, poise and 
 conversation. ^'^ There are well systematized physical 
 exercises®^ and apparatus of ten frames.^* For sense- 
 
METHOD lis 
 
 education there is a "didactic system."^^ Each sense 
 has its particular list of objects. The sense of hearing 
 is also trained in a lesson of silence ^^ There is also 
 "didactic material" for intellectual education'^^ teach- 
 ing reading and writing««; and the deyelopnient of 
 language in childhood. The biographical chart of 
 Sergi69 is advised as basis of the knowledge of the 
 
 child. u 1 • 85 
 
 Montessori teaches how lessons should be given. 
 Individual lessons must be concise, simple and objec- 
 tive founded on observation, and arousing spontane- 
 ous 'activity. The teacher must not insist by repeating 
 the lesson, or make the child feel he has made a mis- 
 take The first task of the educator is to stimulate 
 life This art must accompany the scientific method. 
 S6guin8« suggests three periods of the lesson: associa- 
 tion of sensory perception with the name; recognition 
 of the object corresponding to the name; remembering 
 the name corresponding to thD object. This is pre- 
 ceded normally by sense-training through auto-educa- 
 tion By three years'S'^ novitiate in the Childrens 
 House, the pupils are prepared for common schools 
 with the sentiment on the part of the parents that 
 through their own conduct and virtue they must merit 
 the possession of an educated son. Montessori wrote 
 a book on Pedagogical Anthropology, in which she 
 classed pedagogy along with criminological and medi- 
 cal anthropology, led as they are in Italy by Lombroso, 
 De Giovanni and Sergi.«« Progress of the school de- 
 mands fusion of modern tendencies in hygiene, ex- 
 perimental psychology, and pedagogical anthropology. 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 Germany is the land of methods; Herbart and the 
 Jena schools have perfected the presentation of sub- 
 jects There candidates for teaching positions, during 
 
116 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 their probationary period, must ever prepare outlines 
 of class-direction before undertaking the actual work; 
 some of these outlines are even put in printed form, 
 and criticised in the conferences of the seminar. In 
 modern languages, the "direct method" has been 
 adopted, with necessary practical modifications. While 
 scientific laboratories exist, these are however dis- 
 tinctly inferior to American experimental teaching. 
 There is a tendency to do away with the written ex- 
 amination, in many schools; but it seems hard to break 
 with tradition. 
 
 The efficiency'^^ of German teaching is much de- 
 pendent on the fact that the teacher is a trained 
 specialist; that the courses are all unified, that em- 
 phasis is laid on mental operations, and that the su- 
 preme eiKl is always logical thinking. 
 
 The success of the "direct" language method in 
 Germany seems to be due to the very early beginning; 
 and to the rigid thoroughness of the discipline which 
 the teacher does not hesitate to enforce. 
 
 Home work has been considerably limited; accord- 
 ing to the Prussian "Lehrplan"; it should consist prin- 
 cipally in rearranging and rewriting notes taken in 
 class; memorizing material indispensable in class-work, 
 and reviewing and fixing in the mind what has already 
 been learned in class. 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 The Oratorians contended for intellectual freedom, 
 and advised the use of literature, history and science. 
 Lamy would begin study with logic, combining it 
 with mathematics; thus promoting practical compari- 
 son, which, in the language field, took shape as inter- 
 linear translation. 
 
 It is indeed fitting that French schools employ the 
 "direct method" in teaching languages, for ever since 
 
METHOD 117 
 
 the Jansenists and "Christian Brothers," and Rollin, 
 French schools have been haunted by their suggestion 
 that schools should begin with the mother-tongue, and 
 only through it learn the Latin. For another principle 
 of the Jansenists had been that children should be 
 taught only what they could understand — content, 
 rather than form. This also may have been the secret 
 of their attempt to teach spelling by the phonic 
 method. 
 
 The "Christian Brothers" paid much attention to 
 writing, and have thus left to themselves a monument 
 in the chirography of the nation. 
 
 The Oratorians had introduced interlinears; the 
 "Christian Brothers," Jansenists and Rollin had in- 
 sisted on the foundation of the mother-tongue. From 
 there it was only a step to Jacotot's comparative 
 method of text and translation on opposite pages. 
 
 Jacotot really was the greatest French method- 
 ologist, and probably might be called the French Her- 
 bart. At any rate, he made the most masterly corre- 
 lation of appeal to nature, interest and self-activity, 
 and' of elementary with investigative methods. 
 
 1. Appeal to Nature: "All human beings are 
 equally capable of learning"; "every one can teach; 
 and, moreover, can teach what he does not know him- 
 self" — by stimulating self-activity. 
 
 2. Correlation: "All is in all" by learning, re- 
 peating, and comparative verification — the three basic 
 principles of the successive stages of education. 
 
 3. Method: Something (as, e.g., Fenelon's Tele- 
 maque) thoroughly mastered; correlation with this 
 of other facts; which self-activity arouses interest. 
 
 Condillac'2 thought that the child must do over 
 again all that the race has done. 
 
 Diderot^^ thought that history should be taught in 
 an inverted order, beginning from recent times, and 
 going backwards towards antiquity. 
 
H8 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Condorcet, in his scheme of a system of educa- 
 tion, allows to the teachers an independent Fourth 
 Estate within the body politic, but he fails to allow 
 for them normal schools. But nothing is sublimer than 
 his analysis of the identity of instruction and morality. 
 First, politically; "Instruction alone can give the assur- 
 ance that the principle of justice which the equality of 
 rights ordains, shall not be in contradiction with this 
 other principle, which prescribes that only those rights 
 shall be accorded to men which they can exercise with- 
 out danger to society." Second, psychologically 
 "These vices come from the need of escaping from 
 'ennui' in moments of leisure, and in escaping from it 
 through sensations and not through ideas." 
 
 It is in the subject of modern languages that, in the 
 secondary schools of France, the method of teaching 
 has been the most prominent. Minister Leygues, on 
 November 15, 1901, issued an edict that, after a cer- 
 tain date, all instruction should be given in the foreign 
 language. This was, however, impossible; and the 
 "direct" method was broadened out by the judicious 
 admixture of the vernacular. Since then, the "direct 
 method" has been on trial, and has shown both its 
 favorable and unfavorable aspects and tendencies. 
 
 The pupils, on one hand, attain fluency and self- 
 confidence, by the aid of excellent material, such as 
 pictures, advertisements, postal cards, and newspapers. 
 Foreign pupil-correspondents are favored, and the best 
 results come when each takes the trouble to correct 
 the others' writing. Besides, certain advanced grad- 
 uate students act as "Foreign Assistants," being ex- 
 changed, for periods varying from six months to a 
 year, with some foreign school. There are also mod- 
 ern language clubs, subscribing to periodicals, and dis- 
 cussing them. 
 
 There are, however, '^^ certain drawbacks to this 
 method. First, the lack of homogeneity in the classes. 
 
METHOD 119 
 
 This is due not only to the oral nature of the instruc- 
 tion, as a fundamental failure to treat modern language 
 instruction as seriously as that of other curriculum 
 subjects. Rigorous promotion examinations and sup- 
 plementary classes for weak pupils, having been found 
 doubtful expedients, it is proposed to abolish modern 
 language instruction in the lower forms, or to extend 
 it into the primary schools. This is a confession that 
 the "direct method" cannot be applied with sufficient 
 system or uniformity to a whole class. 
 
 Second, is the strain on the teacher, about which, of 
 course, the administrative classes are less concerned. 
 
 Third, weakness on the grammatical side; it is attrib- 
 uted to a misunderstanding of directions; yet where 
 the test falls exclusively on ability to write and speak 
 correctly, such weakness becomes more prominent 
 than it otherwise would. 
 
 Fourth, neglect of the cultural aspect in the higher 
 classes of course could not be avoided in view of the 
 administrative prescription'^^ that "the literary culture, 
 properly speaking, will always be subordinate to the 
 spoken or written use of the language, which remains 
 the principal object of all its instruction." The result 
 is, that the reading remains restricted; and the chief 
 interest to the student is the practical. Yet, if this is 
 felt as a weakness in France, with its great prominence 
 of conversational values with foreigners, how much, 
 greater would it be in America, where the student's 
 opportunity for use of conversation will be ever so 
 much more restricted. 
 
 There has therefore been a serious change of heart 
 among the general inspectors, since the December, 
 1907, meeting of the Association of Modern Language 
 Teachers. 
 
 The method in the teaching of ancient lan- 
 guages^^ is a survival of the Jesuit "prelection," and 
 consists yet in various processes successively applied to 
 
120 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 the same text, characterized by a survival of Lamy's 
 "word for word" interlinear (mot a mot) which is 
 destined to speedy extinction both from the stand- 
 points of "direct method," and of style. The tra- 
 ditional vernacular and translation method still sur- 
 vives; but it is supplemented by essay-writing and 
 daily text-memory work which is of great help to exact 
 knowledge. 
 
 In science-teaching, the experimental methods are 
 more honored by breach than by the observance; yet 
 French progress in science is obvious, and due to their 
 careful elementary training in nature study, and their 
 distinctive genius for applied industrial science. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 On the whole, American schools never have been 
 noted for details of method; the American gift for 
 holding to the essentials has always emphasized the 
 necessary manliness. Lincoln said that Mark Hopkins 
 and a log were all that was necessary to constitute a 
 school. Latterly, however, a very real attempt has 
 been made to adjust instruction to the needs of the 
 individual student — just as Dr. Waddel^^ was cele- 
 brated for his regard for individual differences among 
 his pupils, attracting to him many of fine natural 
 ability. This insistence on method was a natural de- 
 velopment of the influence of normal schools, and the 
 gradual development among the teachers of profes- 
 sional dignity and spirit. 
 
 Much imported pedagogy was superficial; much 
 misunderstood and misapplied. Yet underneath it all 
 was an attempt to rationalize effort and criticism. 
 Again, pedagogy has been studied very thoroughly by 
 college presidents; and, by the influence of the normal 
 schools, it is penetrating both secondary and college 
 
METHOD 121 
 
 faculties; indeed, the normal college has been de- 
 veloped in order to deal more particularly with second- 
 ary school problems. 
 
 The method at first was psychological and Herbart- 
 ian; then "adolescence" came to be a fad; all of which 
 denoted an encouraging development of consideration 
 of the child himself by adopting secondary education to 
 his creeds and abilities. 
 
 Lately the practical laboratory method of re-dis- 
 covery has been universally adopted,"^^ a fine blending 
 of discovery, verification, and correction. This method 
 has been extended even to language and history sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Dr. Burnham^^ suggests six ways to do this. 
 
 1, By understanding the greatness of the opportunity 
 — the period of functional acquisition and readjust- 
 ment, when children are open to new impressions with 
 almost hypnotic susceptibility. 2, It is the best time 
 for many-sided interest and self-revelation; for self- 
 assertion, and increasing self-direction. 3, It is a time 
 for rnuch activity, bodily and mental, which the school 
 should turn into legitimate channels. 4, There are 
 great individual variations at this stage of develop- 
 ment; hence the schools should demand an educated 
 teacher, and give him freedom. 5, The secondary 
 teacher needs as much training as the elementary. 
 6, The ordinary college entrance examination is too 
 narrow a test of the manifoldness of adolescent char- 
 acter. 
 
 Lately the practical laboratory method of re-dis- 
 covery has been universally adopted, ^^ constituted by 
 a fine blending of discovery, verification and correc- 
 tion. This method has been extended even to lan- 
 guage subjects and history. 
 
 It will not be out of place to notice Herbert Spencer's 
 plea for scientific education. His chief significance has 
 lain in pointing out the value for education of scientific 
 
122 
 
 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 material and method. For the development of the 
 psychological nature of man, he advises natural 
 sciences (first three elements), social (for the fourth) 
 and culture subjects (for the fifth). The complete- 
 ness of this living can be effected only by a little 
 knowledge of each — sciences of nature, society, the 
 mind, mathematics and history, excluding philology. 
 
 Joseph Payne (1807-1876) followed in the steps of 
 Mulcaster in writing pl?in, practical homely truths 
 about education. 
 
 James Hoare (of New York and California), prin- 
 cipal of the Cortlandt Normal School, was, besides, a 
 promoter of Pestalozzian object-lessons, a noted lec- 
 turer, organizer and disciplinarian, on the order of 
 Thomas Arnold. 
 
 1 Painter, 12. 2 Histoire de 
 rEducation et de I'lnstruction, 
 transl. by Resolfi, 32; Com- 
 payre, 13. 3 MacEvoy, 8. * lb., 
 10. 5 Painter, 18. ^ Comoayre, 
 6. "^ MacEvoy, 12. ^ Com- 
 payre, 6. ^MacEvoy, 20. lopeu- 
 teronomy, 11.18-20. l* Com- 
 payre, 10. ^2 Monroe, 132. 
 13 lb., 426, 427. i4 ib., 447. 
 
 15 Montaigne, Education, 172. 
 
 16 lb., 198. 17 lb., 175. 18 1b., 
 197. 19 lb., 183. 20 Monroe, 
 457. 21 Tractate, 5. 22 "Metli- 
 od of the Sciences." 23 Great 
 Didactic, 17. 24 lb., 18. 2.5 lb.. 
 19. 26 lb., 20. 27 lb., 20 28 lb., 
 21. 29 lb.. 22. 30 lb., 23. 31 lb.. 
 
 24. 32ib., 17. 33ib., 14. 34Mon- 
 roe, 489-492. 35 Great Didactic, 
 30. 36 lb., 28. 37 lb.. 29. 38 lb.. 
 
 25. 39 Monroe, 521. 40 ib., 522. 
 *i Theory of Education. 7^ 74. 
 
 4 2 Tb.. 75. 43 lb.. 167. 44 lb., 
 166,168. 4 5 lb., 169. 173. 46 ib., 
 175. 47 Monroe. 535. 48 lb.. 600. 
 49 lb.. 613. 50 lb., 617. 51 lb., 
 620. 52 How Gertrude T.C., 441, 
 445. 53 lb., 551. 54 lb., ii. 58. 
 
 5 5 lb., iii. 66. 5 6 Monroe, 627- 
 628. 5 7 Montessori, XXV. 5 8 Jb., 
 28-47. 5 9 lb., 73. 60ib„80. 
 
 61 lb., 119. 62 lb., 121. 63 lb., 
 
 147. 64 lb., 145. 65 lb., 169. 
 66 lb., 212. 67 lb., 233. 68 lb., 
 246. 6 9 lb., 3. etc. "^0 Russell, 
 327. "71 lb.. 161. 7 2 Compayre, 
 313. 73 lb., 326. 74 Farringdon, 
 234. 75 lb., 225. 7 6 lb., 204. 
 
 7 7 Brown, Making of our 
 Middle Schools. 227. 7 8 Jb., 420. 
 79Ib.,411. soMonroe,342. silb., 
 649 . 8 2 lb., 652. 8 3 lb., 627-8. 
 84 lb., 639. 85 Montessori. 107- 
 118. 86 lb., 177. 87 lb.. 64. 
 
 8 8 lb.. 55. 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 123 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Teacher Himself. 
 
 PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 When the first anthropoid baby cried, and the first. 
 mother hushed him, there had emerged into the world ^ 
 the first teacher. Next to her came the father, or 
 father's successor, or male friend. Next came the 
 shaman, exorcist, medicine man, wizard, or familiar — 
 in short, the group leader, who assumed to teach work 
 and worship. Later, when the clans organized into a 
 tribe, there was a subordinate leader; and later yet the 
 father assumed priestly functions, while the tribe's 
 oldest leader became active only periodically, like the 
 prophets of Israel. 
 
 When these leaders organized and met, then 
 emerged the teaching profession: well called the 
 "school of the prophets"; rather, there emerged a 
 curriculum, an administration and a pedagogy; or, 
 what to study, a teaching class, and a body of teach- 
 ings. 
 
 ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 In China the office of the teacher is distinguished 
 from the individual. The profession is theoretically 
 highly honored, while personally it is the worst re- 
 munerated, being dependent on voluntary contribu- 
 tions, and the most burdensome; in having no holidays. 
 
i 24 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 or amusement. The teacher is scorned, being recruited 
 from unsuccessful candidates for the degrees, or from 
 those recipients of the lower degrees who have been 
 unfortunate enough to receive no office. 
 
 The Hindu teacher was always a Brahmin, of the 
 highest caste, and never was scorned, in this holding a 
 better position than that of the Chinese. The Brahmin^ 
 would consider it disgraceful to receive a stipulated 
 remuneration, but he is nevertheless very keen about 
 voluntary gifts from the pupil, which may be only 
 trifles or considerable — Hindu literature mentioning 
 even gifts "of the whole world"; — but, on the whole, 
 the amounts are inconsiderable. He is held in high 
 honor, and demands, and receives, more adulation 
 than even parents. 
 
 Among the Persians, the teachers were honored next 
 to the father; and they deserved this by being models of 
 virtue and knowledge. 
 
 Among the Persians, competent soldiers who had 
 retired at the age of fifty, became magi or teachers of 
 the young; their astrology and alchemy, with studies 
 of the Zend Avesta, lent them sacerdotal dignity and 
 function. 
 
 The magi were important,^ as both priests and 
 philosophers, under whom even the king had to study 
 principles of governing, and right ways to worship the 
 deity; even after the close of this period, he dared 
 undertake nothing important without their advice. 
 Their fame spread abroad, and was known to the 
 Hebrews, and attracted Pythagoras, the Greek philos- 
 opher. 
 
 In Egypt, after the parents had done their part, the 
 teacher's office was assumed by the priests. These 
 formed a learned hereditary nobility, so wealthy, that 
 one-third of Egypt belonged to them. They formed, 
 guided and ruled^ the people, by establishing civil 
 regulations, performing sacred services, and imparting 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 125 
 
 religious instruction, to all but the outcast, who, strange 
 to relate, really performed for the dead the chief re- 
 ligious rites in suitably disposing of the mummy. 
 
 In the earlier Hebrew periods, however, the father 
 himself was the teacher, and was responsible for the 
 religious education of his own children.^ Later, in the 
 first century, the teacher was called the "true guardian 
 of the city."^ The master was to be married; mature, 
 liice old wine; and was to be considered more than the 
 parent: "help your teacher before your father, for the 
 latter has given you only the life of this world, while 
 the former has secured for you the life of the world 
 to come." 
 
 Among the Mahometans, also, the teacher enjoys 
 great consideration; indeed, the sultan is compelled to 
 listen to the advice of the Ulema, or supreme council of 
 doctors, in matters of faith. 
 
 Everywhere, therefore, in the Oriental world, the 
 teacher enjoys high consideration; in China, India and 
 among the Hebrews, even above the parent; but this 
 stands .in inverse ratio to the self-activity of the pupil, 
 which is nowhere yet fully aroused. 
 
 GREEK EDUCATION. 
 
 The dawn of professionalism among teachers must 
 be sought for among the Greeks. Among savage races, 
 the shaman or wise man had united priestly, educative 
 and medical functions. In the Oriental world the cura- 
 tive office had somewhat become differentiated, leaving 
 the teaching in the hands of priest or prophet, who 
 indeed specialized their instructions for the perpetua- 
 tion of their class. But among the Greeks there was 
 no special priestly class. Priestly functions were 
 elective; and the first great triumphs of secular educa- 
 tion was to throw education on a class of men specially 
 
126 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 devoted to it. This, however, occurred only gradually: 
 first, the poets; then the sophists, philosopher, wise 
 man, and lover of wisdom; as well as the slave peda- 
 gogue. « 
 
 Indeed, the first legal recognition of the teaching 
 profession was at Athens, where one of the laws of 
 Solon (no doubt rarely carried out) forbade, on pain 
 of death, intrusion into the school-room by any but 
 officials, pedagogues, and the family of the school- 
 master.'' 
 
 THE PARENTS. 
 
 There was one advantage in the absence of a clearly 
 defined teaching-class; that the parents, slaves and 
 friends were more acutely conscious of their unescap- 
 able responsibilities. Plato^ actually represents parents 
 and tutor quarrelling over the child's education from 
 the earliest times of the child's self-consciousness. In 
 Sparta, the mother^ was trained and educated for this 
 one only purpose in view; her career was her children's 
 education; her affection for them was limited to this, 
 so that, in times of war, she would not hesitate to bid 
 them return with their shield or upon it. In Sparta, 
 education of children being carried entirely in public, 
 it was everybody's duty to rebuke and instruct every 
 child. 
 
 This feeling of responsibility was much weaker 
 in Athens, where the pedagogue nurse or slave became 
 the chief caretaker instead of the mother. 
 
 THE INSPIRER. 
 
 One of the most characteristic of Greek customs, 
 which with them took the place of our romantic attach- 
 ments of sentiment and affection, was the relation be- 
 tween "the inspirer" and the "hearer" or "favorite." 
 Each was indeed legally liable for the other's behavior; 
 while a competition of affection caused no misunder- 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 127 
 
 standing, but rather a mutual friendship among "in- 
 spirers."^*^ This gave room for the "hero-worship" 
 instinct, that still manifests in our days both among 
 boys and girls. It is true that, in later days, it fre- 
 quently led to abuses, and to forms of immorality 
 peculiarly characteristic of the late days of the empire 
 (as, indeed, Socrates was accused of this very charge 
 of misleading youths). Nevertheless, it represented 
 to the Greek the beauty of friendship, and hence oc^ 
 cupied a very normal place in his life. 
 
 THE PEDAGOGUE. 
 
 From the time that he grew out of the care of the 
 nurse, the Greek boy was in charge of a pedagogue — 
 a slave or servant — who was intrusted with the moral 
 oversight and general care of his charge. Too often 
 one was chosen for this who from age, injury, or other 
 disqualification was unfit for any other remunerative 
 service in the household. It is evident that they were 
 frequently ignorant and unworthy of respect by their 
 charges, to whom they were but an interference in the 
 pleasures of the street and of companionship.^^ 
 
 THE SOPHIST. 
 
 Grote and Zeller have shown that Socrates and 
 Plato themselves were sophists, or "wise men." They 
 were distinguished from them not so much by their 
 contemporaries as by later students. They were 
 specialists, frequently migatory, who offered youth 
 such preparation for a career of personal aggrandize- 
 ment as the times both invited and demanded. By 
 their travel, these sophists were able to speak of foreign 
 conditions, and to tell how to succeed both at home 
 and abroad, particularly by rhetorical ability. Their 
 three points of opposition to the old Greek education 
 was a claim to the title of sophist, or sage; their im- 
 
4 28 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 parting of definite information, and their demand of 
 money for instruction. Charlatans would inevit- 
 ably arise among them; these became boastful, and 
 their claim to be able to teach persons how to argue 
 on either side of a question appeared insolent and 
 sordid. Also they seemed immoral in discussing 
 problems from a new point of view. Pythagoras's 
 teaching that "man was the measure of all things" 
 probably seemed the destruction of the ancient senti- 
 ment of reverence. 
 
 The sophists were destined (in 393-338 B.C.), 
 under Isocrates, to pass into the rhetorical schools, 
 which were not necessarily formal and superficial, and 
 which produced a pleasing presentation, logical 
 thought, and good grammar — the hall-mark of general 
 culture. This may be taken as the first real universal 
 education, the production of a gentlemanly personality. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHER. 
 
 Socrates and Plato attempted to distinguish them- 
 selves from the sophists by a conservative and lofty 
 morality. Socrates minimized the importance of attain- 
 ments, in contrast with the knowledge of oneself which 
 produces a virtuous life; while Plato, in his "Republic," 
 theorized, and planned a great reform on lines of re- 
 gression to Spartan ideals. This moral element dis- 
 tinguished the philosopher from the sophist; and Aris- 
 totle added to this an unquenchable thirst for knowl- 
 edge, which he, for the first time, organized and syn- 
 thetized into sciences, and analyzed in his logic and 
 metaphysics. Personal dignity therefore was the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristic of the philosopher, as dif- 
 ferentiated from the sophist. Their greatness is best 
 understood by this — -namely, that after them the cos- 
 mopolitan period of Greek education added nothing, 
 and limited itself to quoting them. 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 129 
 
 HISTORICAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 We must not omit to mention the chief "schools" 
 that survived these philosophers. Plato's followers 
 perpetuated the Academy, while Aristotle's thronged 
 the Lyceum, under Theophrastus, 2,000 strong. 
 Zeno's school, under the painted porch of one of the 
 Athenian temples, remained known as the "Stoics"; 
 and Epicurus taught in his private garden. An out- 
 growth of these schools was finally the university of 
 Athens, which continued until suppressed by Justinian 
 in 529 A.D. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The Christian ideal of the teacher was its founder 
 himself, as Clement of Alexandria brings out in his 
 "Pedagogue." Next was the Christian minister, who 
 assumed the pedagogic function by sermons and in the 
 catechumenic and catechetical schools, and the Chris- 
 tian reformed ministers still continue this catechetic 
 teaching. The bishops succeeded to this function by 
 pastoral letters, and later the popes, by encyclicals and 
 "bulls." 
 
 In monastic times, the abbot's appointment formed 
 the chief license. Finally this monoply was removed 
 from them by the university's graduation, which con- 
 sisted in a license to teach, if the graduate could find 
 pupils. 
 
 As in other times, there were born teachers, such as 
 Abelard, who could draw thousands of pupils; and no 
 doubt it was jealousy of this that animated the venom- 
 ous hate of St. Bernard of Clairvaulx. 
 
 With the passing of the university rose the new type 
 of teacher, the scientist, and secondary school 
 paedagog. 
 
136 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The Renaissance leader, Wimpfeling, in his "Guide 
 to the German Youth," discusses among other prob- 
 lems of school life the qualifications of a teacher.^^ 
 Probably, however, no period of education has more 
 depended on the greatness of the personalities of its 
 teachers. Erasmus, Colet, Lilly, Wimpfeling, Sturm, 
 Petrarch, Dante, Barzizza, Vittorino da Feltre, Ver- 
 gerius, Aeneas Sylvius, Reuchlin, Agricola, Hegius; 
 when these men were gone, the movement was at an 
 end. 
 
 REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Luther^ 2 strongly emphasized the value of the 
 teacher's position. 
 
 "Where were your supply of preachers, jurists and 
 physicians if the arts of grammar and rhetoric had no 
 existence? These are the fountain out of which they 
 all flow. I tell you, in a word, that a diligent, devoted 
 school-teacher, preceptor, or any person, no matter 
 what his title, who faithfully trains and teaches boys, 
 can never receive an adequate reward, and no money 
 is sufficient to pay the debt you owe him; so, too, the 
 pagan Aristotle. Yet we treat them with contempt, 
 as if they were of no account whatever, and all the 
 time we profess to be Christians. For my part, if I 
 were compelled to leave off preaching, and to enter 
 some other vocation, I know not one office that would 
 please me better than that of schoolmaster, or teacher 
 of boys. For I am convinced that, next to preaching, 
 this is the most useful, and greatly the best labor in 
 all the world; and, in fact, I am sometimes in doubt 
 which of the positions is the more honorable. For 
 you cannot teach an old dog new tricks, and it is hard 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 131 
 
 to reform old sinners, but this is what by preaching we 
 undertake to do, and our labor is often spent in vain; 
 but it is easy to bend and train young trees, though 
 haply in the process some may be broken. My friend, 
 nowhere on earth can you find a higher virtue than is 
 displayed by the stranger, who takes your children and 
 gives them a faithful training — a labor which parents 
 seldom perform, even for their own offspring." 
 
 While Luther had written much about education, it 
 was Melanchthon who was the "Preceptor of Ger- 
 many," and who from Wittemberg as a center had at 
 the time of his death affected every city in Germany. 
 
 He must have elevated the position of a teacher, for 
 his correspondence with fifty-six cities is still extant; 
 and his pupils were the leaders of the day — Neander, 
 Trotzendorff, and Sturm. He was a great text-book 
 writer, and drew up the Visitation Articles of Saxony, 
 in 1528. 
 
 The Jesuit teacher was supported by all the prestige 
 and authority of his order; which indeed, was so great 
 as to inspire superstitious fear in his opponents; a 
 little further we will, however, mention the ghastly 
 price he paid for this. 
 
 MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 MONTAIGNE. 
 
 Montaigne's essay on pedantry begins by a consider- 
 ation of the reasons why, ever since Plutarch, a teacher 
 has seemed to be despicable, worthy of contempt, 
 ignorant of common life, presumptuous, and insolent. 
 The fault is due to a wrong method of teaching, 
 stuffing the memory at the expense of conscience and 
 understanding. The classical example of a pedant is 
 Hippias, mocked at by Socrates. This is all the more 
 serious as^^ the whole success of education depends 
 on the tutor. 
 
132 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Evidently such education would be possible only 
 for families rich enough to engage a tutor of the 
 better kind. 
 
 MULCASTER. 
 
 To Mulcaster, in the sixteenth century, belongs the 
 credit of foreseeing the training of teachers, which was 
 not to be realized till the nineteenth. Not only did he 
 use arguments to enforce their education, but he held 
 that universities should provide for this as for the pro- 
 fessions of the law, medicine, and the ministry. ^^ 
 
 BACON. 
 
 On the whole, Bacon's chief significance for educa- 
 tion was a theoretical application of Mulcaster's pre- 
 vision: not only that teachers must be trained, but that 
 education as such must be an object of study in itself, 
 as the most important of social processes, the transfer 
 of the intellectual possessions of the race from one 
 generation to another.^® In other words, he erected 
 pedagogy into a science, as Mulcaster had made of 
 teaching a profession; and this was allowed for in 
 Bacon's outline of "Solomon's House."^'^ 
 
 LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Locke thinks that the pupil should respect the tutor, 
 who was chosen amiss if worthy of contempt; for the 
 tutor is the exemplar of the pupil's imitation. ^^ .The 
 children's governor should be discreet, sober, wise, 
 temperate, tender, diligent; a scholar, a gentleman, and 
 an artist in teaching. Such a man cannot, indeed, be 
 had for an ordinary salary; his pay, indeed, should 
 never even be questioned by the father. ^^ He should 
 spare neither cost nor care, regarding no recommenda- 
 tions, seeking the fit, who may indeed oft n be found in 
 a starving condition. The teacher should begin his work 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 133 
 
 from the time the child can first talk,^*' and continue 
 until he can turn the charge over to his mistress, a 
 girl. 2^ 
 
 ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The position of Emile's tutor, from fifth to twentieth 
 year, seems, on the whole, quite meaningless. From 
 five to twelve he directs body-training and childhood 
 games; from twelve to fifteen he keeps off outside 
 influences in "negative education," and helps direct 
 the child's curiosity by object-lessons; from fifteen to 
 twenty, suddenly his influence becomes so important 
 that it is one of the three factors (the other two being 
 contact with men, and history) which shall turn the 
 child from selfishness to altruism, morality, and sym- 
 pathy for the poor. 
 
 On the whole, the task is superhuman, and would 
 demand a great personality whose only interest would 
 be the one child's growth. Only an enslaved pedagog 
 could supply the need; a free man would have to de- 
 mand too high a salary. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
 FROEBEL. 
 
 The teacher is no less important in the Froebelian, 
 than in the Herbartian, system. All the "gifts" and 
 "occupations," however skilfully they may have been 
 planned, are of little value unless their enjoyment 
 is everywhere based on the principle of unity, through 
 the skill and sympathy of the teacher.22 
 
 MONTESSORI. 
 Montessori's teacher is called "directress"; she does 
 no "teaching," but must put forth very skilful and un- 
 
>I34 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 tiring effort. Slie must watch, assist, inspire, suggest, 
 guide, explain, correct, inhibit; she must contribute to 
 the work of upbuilding a new science of pedagogy.^' 
 The teacher must not only be perfect in mechanism, 
 but be imbued by the spirit of self-sacrifice, and display 
 the interest aroused by an expectation of revelations 
 from nature^^ by long and patient observations.^^ 
 The teacher must not scold, punish, nor repress. ^^ 
 Seguin emphasizes her being attractive in person, voice 
 and manner.2'^ She must observe her charges, so as 
 to inhibit without repression. ^^ 
 
 GERMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 Teaching has become a profession since the Napo- 
 leonic wars^^; but it had been advocated by Ratke and 
 Comenius; and Francke began a "seminary," while 
 Frederick the Great appointed examinations; in 1794 
 all schools were subjected to state inspection. In 1779 
 Frederick the Great separated church and school by 
 committing philosophy to the teaching of laymen. In 
 1812 were established the many "gymnasia," and 
 their graduation-examination; in 1834 it was made a 
 prerequisite to entrance to an university. In 1810 
 examination for teacher's license was made separate 
 from the religious examination. 
 
 The necessary education consists in a gymnasial 
 course, university study of three years up; the Ph.D., 
 however, not being necessary; then the state examina- 
 tion which tests his 1, knowledge of pedagogy and 
 philosophy (psychology), logic and ethics; 2, Ger- 
 man language and literature; 3, acquaintance with 
 doctrines of his religion; teaching specialties, of which 
 he must present four. There are three grades of 
 certificate for the lower, for the middle, and for all 
 classes. Of the four specialties, two are majors and 
 two minors; both majors and one minor must be 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF 135 
 
 chosen from one of the general group: language-his- 
 tory, or mathematics-science. Next comes a searching 
 application for examination, which goes into his 
 political views, and whether he is a Jew. 
 
 The examination is both oral and written, the latter 
 being practically a treatise. A re-examination is 
 granted after six months; this is his last opportunity; 
 his license-rank depends on the total of his examination. 
 Then comes the "Probejahr," after a ''Seminar-jahr." 
 Together with the military service, this makes seven- 
 teen years of preparation, during which time the can- 
 didate has to be supported by his parents; and further 
 to this is added a period of waiting for appointment. 
 
 This training, however, has been found too severe, 
 inasmuch as, for several years, there was a shortage 
 of teachers; so that the requirements have been slightly 
 lowered. However, his tenure of office is secure, and 
 after ten years he is entitled to a pension. His salary 
 increases gradually. There are three ranks: oberlehrer, 
 professor, and director; the professor ranking with 
 university professors. The teachers belong to the fifth 
 Prussian state officer-class; the other two dignities to 
 the fourth; some few are honored with the third. 
 
 There is an "ordinarius" put in charge of some one 
 class, whose adviser he is, and to whom the other 
 teachers report; this furnishes the personal touch of 
 the director with every pupil. 
 
 As in France, the teachers are being made reserve- 
 officers, so as to improve their prestige and effective- 
 ness. 
 
 Leave of absence is given only when the absentee 
 pays the substitute; so that, when the meagreness of 
 their incomes is considered, it is no wonder that few 
 of them travel. Their pension runs from one to three- 
 quarters of their salary; at any rate they are able 
 decently to rear a family. 
 
136 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 FRENCH EDUCATION. 
 
 The French "agrege" or teacher is the survival of 
 so many competitive examinations that he is sure of 
 being a refined product,^^ having a knowledge far 
 wider than his immediate subject. His position is safe, 
 and promotion sure, if slow; and it leads to a pension. 
 While his income is small, he is enabled to live like 
 most people of refined taste. He is a specialist,^^ 
 although the graduate in letters teaches French, Latin 
 and Greek; while the graduate in history and geog- 
 raphy teaches these subjects only. Individual prefer- 
 ences are subordinated to the system. Teaching is an 
 honorable profession, not a trade or stepping-stone, 
 and enlists a splendid lot of men. When once a man 
 has become an "agr^ge" he receives a government 
 salary for life, whether teaching or not; moreover, the 
 mere fact that he is an "agreg6" entitles him to an 
 extra salary of five hundred francs. This degree is 
 practically the equivalent of a doctor's, and the can- 
 didate spends his second military year as an officer. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION. 
 
 The position of the teacher in the early colonies was 
 variable and was highest in Massachusetts. We have 
 Ezekiel Cheever,^^ John Lowell,^^ Wm. Tennent,** 
 Jonathan Boucher,^^ and Nathan Hale.^^ 
 
 Later, we have Benjamin Abbott at Phillips Exeter, 
 1788-1872; John Adams at Phillips Andover, 1810- 
 1833, celebrated by Oliver Wendell Holmes in "The 
 School-boy." There he was followed by Samuel Taylor, 
 1837-1871. President Timothy Dwight of Yale was 
 grandson of Jonathan Edwards, and first cousin of 
 Aaron Burr; he had a phenomenal memory; and later 
 founded Greenfield Hill Academy. There was Moses 
 Waddell at Willington, S. C, in 1804, later president 
 
THE TEACHER HIMSELF .137 
 
 of the University of Georgia. Benjamin Apthorp 
 Gould at tlie Boston Latin School carried it on for half 
 a century. 
 
 For the present, school teaching is not yet generally 
 recognized as a profession of ranlc equal to the others. 
 This is due partially to the poor preparation of the 
 candidates, and to the poor and temporary nature of 
 by^ appointments they can hope to achieve. However, 
 for^. E. A. Committee of Fifteen^^ has suggested a ed- 
 ge degree as a preliminary requirement. Then the 
 nrrmation of school-systems of sufficient permanence 
 lio provide a pension are doing their share to lend 
 iignity to the calling; while the growth of normal col- 
 leges to train secondary school teachers is of itself 
 i^^urnishing a standard of exterior respectability. 
 
 A number of modern schoolmasters has achieved 
 reputation: John S. Hart of Philadelphia, ^^ Francis 
 Gardner, Cyrus Knowlton of Cincinnati^^ and many 
 others, such as Horace Mann. 
 
 After all, the question of teachers is more important 
 than that of studies. They should possess^*^ real 
 warmth of loyalty to righteousness; second, a gracious 
 bearing, with morals; third, a living intellect; fourth, |/' 
 a disposition and aptitude of communication; fifth, a 
 readiness to improve and co-operate with others; sixth, 
 a realization that teaching is an art, and not a science. 
 Last, he must be discovered as well as made. 
 
 1 Painter. 18. 2 lb., 25. 3 lb., roe, 652. 23 Montessori. xxxvi. 
 
 34.. 4 Deut. 11.18-20.. 5 Com- 24ib.,9. 25 ib., H. 26ib.,23. 
 
 payre, 9. 6 Monroe, 56. 7 lb.. 81. 27 ib.. 2,7. 28 ib.. 227. 29 Rus- 
 
 8 lb., 87. 9 lb., 82. 10 lb., 78. sell, 352. so ParrinRdon, 384. 
 
 lilb.,84. i2Monroe.378. i3Ib., siib., 377. 3 2 Brown, Making 
 
 414. I'* Montaigne, Education, of our Middle Schools, 110. 
 
 174. IB Monroe, 467. 16 lb., 472. ssjb., 115. 34 ib., i;7. 35 ib., 
 
 17 Bacon, N. A., 175. 18 Locke, 119. 36 ib.. 122. 37ib.,429. 
 
 Th. Ed., 88. 89. i9Ib.,90,91. 38ib..430. 39Ib.,431. 40ib.,444. 
 20 lb., 90. 21 lb.. 216. 22Mon- 
 
138 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED > 
 
 I 
 p 
 
 CHAPTER X. >r B 
 
 r, , . '^^ 
 
 Conclusion. ^i 
 
 1. INTERPRETATION OF EDUCATION. ike 
 
 ■ 31 
 
 Having followed the more important problems of th. 
 teacher down the stream of human endeavor till th 
 present day, it may be of some interest to gather to^" 
 gether the various aspects of education in the defini-" 
 tions supplied by various educational thinkers. 
 
 It may be of interest, however, first to review the' 
 national or racial interpretations of education. Ori-^ 
 ental national ideals might be: 
 
 PASSIVE EDUCATION. 
 China: Family success. 
 India: Social organization. 
 Phoenicia: Commercial supremacy. 
 
 ACTIVE EDUCATION. 
 Persia: Service to the state. 
 Egypt: Preparation for future life. 
 Israel: Rehabilitation of the nation. 
 
 WESTERN IDEALS ARE INDIVIDUAL: 
 Culture: Athens. 
 Efficiency: Rome. 
 
 Discipline: Middle Ages, humanists, Locke. 
 Gentlemanliness: Montaigne, Locke. 
 Knowledge: Comenius, Bacon, and others. 
 Naturalness: Rousseau. 
 Development: Pestalozzi, Froebel. 
 Character: Herbart. 
 Science: Spencer, Huxley. 
 Citizenship: Sociologists. 
 
CONCLUSION 139 
 
 2. DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Next in order are individual definitions of education. 
 
 AgesIIaos: Boys ought to learn what they ought to 
 do when men. 
 
 Aristotle: Education is the achievement of happiness 
 by the energizing of the soul according to virtue in a 
 fortunate life. 
 
 Ascham: Education is to produce culture and virtue, 
 moral purpose and practical efficiency, to be gained by 
 literature. 
 
 Bacon: Education is a cultivation of a just and legit- 
 mate familiarity between mind and things. Education 
 is the highest form of social control over the young, 
 and direction of them; a system for extending to all 
 members of society such of the extant knowledge of 
 the world as may be deemed most important. It is an 
 effort to preserve the continuity and to secure the 
 growth of common tradition. It is the most advanced 
 phase and method of the evolutionary process. It is 
 a "preparation for citizenship, adjustment to society, 
 preparation for life in institutions, and acquisition of 
 racial inheritances. 
 
 Bagley: Education furnishes experiences that make 
 future action more efficient. 
 
 Baldvdn: Education teaches how to make the most 
 of one's self; it is development, by the evolution of 
 every human power. 
 
 Brooks: Education promotes the perfection of the 
 individual. 
 
 Brumbaugh: Education is the effort of society to 
 impress its ideals upon the thought and activity of the 
 young. 
 
 Butler: Education is the gradual adaptation of the 
 individual to the five-fold inheritances of the race: 
 scientific^ literary, aesthetic, institutional and religious. 
 
140 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Comenius: Education is the development of the 
 whole man. 
 
 Compayre: Education is the sum of the reflective 
 efforts by which we aid nature in the development of 
 the physical, intellectual and moral faculties of man, 
 in view of his perfection, his happiness, and his social 
 destination. 
 
 Davidson: Education is conscious evolution. 
 
 Denzel: Education is the harmonious development of 
 the physical, intellectual and moral faculties. 
 
 Dewey: Education is the process of remaking ex- 
 perience, giving it a more socialized value through in- 
 creased individual experience, by giving the individual 
 better control over his own powers. It is the increas- 
 ing participation of the individual in the social life of 
 the race. The school is a form of community life in 
 which the child shares the inherited resources of the 
 race, and uses his own powers for social ends. It is 
 a living, and not a preparation for future living. 
 
 Emerson: Education's end is to train away all im- 
 pediment, and to leave only pure pov/er. 
 
 Fichle: Education's aim is moral culture. 
 
 Froebel: Education is a proportionate development 
 of germs implanted in our natures, so as to fulfil its 
 destiny. It is a work of liberty and spontaneity. It 
 is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and 
 hence holy life. 
 
 Asa Gray: Education is to learn how to observe and 
 distinguish things correctly. 
 
 Greek: Education is the attainment of culture: aes- 
 thetic enjoyment, intellectual power, moral person- 
 ality, political freedom, and social excellence. 
 
 Hamilton: Education is going through a course of 
 exertion in results good, and even agreeable, but im- 
 mediately and in itself irksome. It is the determination 
 of the pupil to self-activity. 
 
CONCLUSION 141 
 
 Harris: Education lifts the individual man to the 
 species, and prepares the individual for reciprocal union 
 with society. 
 
 Herbzurt: Education is the development of moral 
 character by a well-balanced and many-sided interest. 
 
 Hewitt: Education is the leading out and training of 
 all the powers whose germs the child possesses at birth. 
 
 Home: Education consists of the ways in which self- 
 active mind works out its growth. It is the superior 
 adjustment of a physical and mentally developed con- 
 scious human being to his intellectual, emotional, and 
 volitional environment. It is self-development through 
 self-activity for selfhood and social service. 
 
 Huxley: That man has had, I think a liberal educa- 
 tion, who has been so trained in youth that his body 
 is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and 
 pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable 
 of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with 
 all the parts of equal strength, and in smooth working 
 order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any 
 kind of work, and spin the gossamers, as well as forge 
 the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a 
 knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of 
 nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, 
 no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose 
 passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous 
 will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has 
 learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, 
 to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. 
 Such an one, and no other, I conceive has had a liberal 
 education; for he is, as completely as a man can be, 
 in harmony with nature. 
 
 The chief advantage to be gained by an education is 
 the ability to do things when they ought to be done, 
 as they ought to be done, whether you want to do 
 them or not. 
 
142 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 James: Man is the only metaphysical animal. Edu- 
 cation influences man by man, in order to lead him to 
 actualize himself through his own efforts. It is the 
 organization of acquired habits of action such as will 
 fit the individual to his physical and social environ- 
 ment. It is a course of training; and school is a place 
 where the mental fibres are to be exercised, trained, 
 expanded, developed and strengthened. 
 
 Joly: Education is the sum of the efforts, whose pur- 
 pose is to give to man the complete possession and 
 correct use of his different faculties. 
 
 Kant: Education is the development in man of all 
 the perfection which his nature permits. Thus only 
 does he become man; he is only what education makes 
 of him. 
 
 Kant: Education is nurture for infants, discipline for 
 children, teaching for scholars, and culture. Through 
 education man must be disciplined, cultured, made dis- 
 creet, and moral. Through discipline, the unruliness 
 of nature is subjected to reason; through the culture of 
 information and instruction is developed ability; 
 through discretion, one conducts oneself with propriety 
 and refinement; through moral education one is trained 
 to choose only good aims; this is education's highest 
 end. 
 
 Keith: The change in the sequence or the character 
 of one's mental activities. 
 
 Livingston: The use of education is to qualify men 
 for the different employments of life, which it may 
 please God to call them. 'Tis to improve their hearts 
 and understandings, to infuse a public spirit and love 
 of their country; to inspire them with the principles of 
 honor and probity; with a fervent zeal for liberty, and 
 a diffusive benevolence for mankind; and in a word, 
 to make them more extensively serviceable to the 
 commonwealth. 
 
CONCLUSION 143 
 
 Locke: Education is the rigid discipline by which 
 tormation of virtuous and gentlemanly character 
 through the human mind is enabled to follow the 
 g-uidance of reason to the attainment of truth- its in- 
 strument IS the rod, its business language. It is attain- 
 mg a sound mind in a sound body. Education is not 
 an artificial procedure by which one comes into a 
 possession of knowledge, but a natural process of de- 
 velopment or organic growth from within, an unfold- 
 ing of capacities implanted in our nature which can 
 be hindered or helped by the methods in which our 
 natural capacities or activities are treated. 
 
 MacVannel: Education is the progress of self in con- 
 formity with the purpose which is being worked out 
 through the whole nature of things. 
 
 Marion: Education is the sum of the intentional 
 actions by means of which man attempts to raise his 
 fellow-man to perfection. 
 
 Maxwell: Education is character and social effici- 
 ency. 
 
 James Mill: Education's aim is to render the indi- 
 vidual an instrument of happiness to himself, and next 
 to other beings. ' 
 
 John Stuart Mill: Education includes whatever we 
 do for ourselves, and whatever is being done for us 
 by others, for the express purpose of bringing us nearer 
 to the perfection of our nature. 
 
 Milton: A complete and generous education is that 
 which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully and mag- 
 nanimously all the offices both private and public of 
 peace and war. 
 
 Monroe: Education is the harmonization of interest 
 and effort. 
 
 Montaigne: Education is a method of severe sweet- 
 ness in training body and soul. Education is to train 
 not a specialist, but a man. 
 
144 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Mulcaster: Education is to help nature to her per- 
 fection. 
 
 Niemeyer: Education is at once the art and science 
 of guiding the young and putting them in a condition, 
 by the aid of instruction, through the power of emula- 
 tion and good example, to attain the triple end assigned 
 to man by his religious, social and national destination. 
 
 Orcutt: Education is not the storing of knowledge, 
 but the development of power. 
 
 Page: Education is a leading forth or development. 
 It is not merely instruction or memorizing, but growth 
 by healthy assimilation of this wholesome aliment. It 
 is inspiration, discipline and arousing to promote self- 
 activity in observing, remembering, reflecting and com- 
 bining. It is a calling forth of all the faculties into 
 harmonious action. 
 
 Parker: Education's end is the realization of all the 
 possibilities of human growth and development in com- 
 munity life. 
 
 Payne: Education comprehends all the influences 
 which operate on the human being, stimulating his 
 faculties to action, forming his habits, moulding his 
 character, and making him what he is. 
 
 Pestalozzi: Education is the natural, progressive, 
 systematized and harmonious development of all the 
 powers of the individual. It is the organization of ac- 
 quired habits of action, or tendencies of behavior. It is 
 the art by which a human being becomes a man. It 
 must be considered from the standpoint of the develop- 
 ing mind of a child. 
 
 Plato: A good education is that which gives to the 
 body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which 
 they are capable. Education is a very skilful discipline 
 which, by way of amusement, leads the mind of the 
 child to love that which is to make it finished. It is 
 to provide citizens with employments fit for their 
 nature. 
 
CONCLUSION 145 
 
 Raab: Education is a full, perfect discipline of physi- 
 cal, mental and moral powers. 
 
 Roark: Right education is such a preparation of the 
 individual, in physical, intellectual and moral capaci- 
 ties, as will enable him to secure the highest enjoyment 
 from their use, here and hereafter. 
 
 Roman: Education is the sum of preparations for 
 practical duties of life. 
 
 Rosenkranz: Education is the preparation for life 
 in institutions. It is self-estrangement and identifica- 
 tion of self with the foreign ideals of moral, religious 
 and intellectual method, and history of education. It 
 is influencing of man by man, to lead him to actualize 
 himself through his own efforts. It cannot create; it 
 can only develop the hidden life. 
 
 Rousseau: Education is the art of bringing up chil- 
 dren and of forming men. 
 
 Ruskin: Education is advancement in life. 
 
 Salisbury: Education is the gradual unfoldment of 
 all the soul's powers. 
 
 Santayana: Education is the comprehension of the 
 relation of the present to the past. 
 
 Scott: Education is acquiring habits of firm and 
 assiduous application, and gaining the art of controling, 
 directing and concentrating the powers of the mind 
 for earnest investigations. 
 
 Simon: By education one mind forms another mind, 
 and one heart another heart. 
 
 Spencer: Education is the preparation for complete 
 living; first, in acquisition of knowledge that is best 
 adapted for the development of individual and social 
 life; and secondly in the development of the power to 
 use this knowledge. The activities of human life are 
 direct self-preservation, indirect self-preservation, the 
 rearing of children, social demands and citizenship, and 
 miscellaneous activities filling the leisure part of life. 
 
146 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 Stein: Education is the harmonious and equable evo- 
 lution of the human faculties, by a method founded 
 upon the nature of the mind, for developing all the 
 faculties of the soul, for stirring up and nourishing all 
 the principles of life, while shunning all one-sided 
 culture, and taking account of the sentiments on which 
 the strength and worth of men depend. 
 
 Sully: By social stimulus, guidance and control, edu- 
 cation develops the natural powers of the child, so as 
 to render him able and disposed to lead a hearty, happy, 
 and morally worthy life. 
 
 Thiry: Education's end is to develop the mental 
 faculties, to communicate knowledge and to mould 
 character. 
 
 Thorndike: Education effects changes to give health 
 in body and mind, information about the world of 
 nature and men, worthy interests in knowledge and 
 action, a multitude of habits and thought, feeling and 
 behavior, and ideals of efficiency, honor, duty, love and 
 service. 
 
 Tompkins: Education is that power and versatility of 
 thought and emotion which elevate life into truth and 
 emotion. 
 
 Tucker: Education is a process whereby a man learns 
 to find himself, and to make sure of himself by self- 
 knowledge and self-reliance. 
 
 Uncertain: Education is an adjustment of the indi- 
 vidual into a perfect scheme of thought and action in 
 which he loses his individuality; and finds expression 
 only through the institutionalized whole. 
 
 Ward: Education means the universal distribution 
 of extant knowledge. 
 
 White: Education is any process or act which results 
 in knowledge, or power, or skill. 
 
 Woodrow Wilson: Education is not instruction, but 
 comes by the intimate daily contact or meeting of 
 
CONCLUSION 147 
 
 immature minds with minds more mature and experi- 
 enced, whereby men find themselves. 
 
 MacEvoy selects as the most significant definitions 
 of education those of Butler, Dewey, Harris, Home, 
 Maxwell, Monroe, Spencer, and Wilson. The follow- 
 ing definition combines many of their points: 
 
 Education is the unfolding achievement of whole- 
 ness, poise, common sense, sanity, wisdom and creative- 
 ness in a harmoniously happy co-operation of self- 
 active individualism and intelligent socialization. Phy- 
 sically it yields the cheery pleasures of health, some 
 athletic prowess, and the force to achieve mental, 
 moral and spiritual purposes, in the service of social 
 movements. Mentally, it endows with the accumu- 
 lated inheritances of the race, scientific, literary and 
 esthetic, including some hobby; eliminating unregulated 
 impulses, prejudice, and insularity. Morally, it trains by 
 the discipline of self-control and self-denial to fruitful 
 and virtuous habits, accumulating a fund of automatic 
 expertries well used in an adequate and specialized 
 mernber of the body politic. By conscience it develops 
 a character capable of self-defense, honor, chivalry and 
 hero-worship. Aesthetically, it refines, furnishes some 
 expertry in judgment or creation; and invites distinctive 
 niceties and delicacies. Socially, it makes one capable 
 of chumship, friendship, partnership, family relations, 
 loyalty, patriotism, ideals, and self-sacrifice for human- 
 ity's sake. Religiously, it opens communion with the 
 unseen by emotional experiences, conversion, just 
 restitution, zeal, and progressiveness, looking forward 
 to better conditions for the birth of the future. 
 
 3. GENETIC CATALOGUE OF CHARACTER 
 TRAITS. 
 
 The skilful teacher will adapt the method of teaching 
 the subject in hand to the traits predominating at the 
 
148 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 age of his pupil; remembering that the age of puberty 
 begins with girls one year earlier than among boys, 
 and that consequently they will, until majority, remain 
 ahead of their brothers one year, if not two. Pedagog- 
 ical suggestions at the right of each line are of course 
 only general and tentative; but they will serve as illus- 
 trations. A very valuable biographic chart (to which 
 the following lists are partially indebted) is the one 
 treating of Youth and Adolescence, by Edward P. St. 
 John, Pilgrim Press, Boston, costing no more than 
 twenty-five cents. 
 
 KINDERGARTEN CORRELATION OF PSYCHOL- 
 OGY AND EDUCATION. 
 
 As an example of the dependence of intelligent edu- 
 cation on such lists, we find in Dexter and Garlick's 
 Psychology (page 194) a psychological catalogue of 
 a child of kindergarten age. It posesses 1, spontaneous 
 activity; 2, dislike of continued application; 3, delight 
 in handling things; 4, liking for colors rather than 
 form; 5, marked imitative powers; 6, marked imagina- 
 tive powers; 7, some sympathy; 8, strong verbal mem- 
 ory; 9, weak discriminative power; 10, weak powers of 
 judgment and reasoning; 11, weak moral sense. 
 
 From these conditions the following educational de- 
 ductions are drawn: 1, this spontaneous activity must 
 be diverted into educational channels; 2, lessons should 
 be short; 3, the child should handle the "gifts"; 4, the 
 commencement should be made with colored objects; 
 5, the child should imitate the teacher; 6, the imagin- 
 ation should be employed in naming forms made in 
 paper-folding, etc.; 7, sympathy should be cultivated 
 chiefly through pity; 8, the memory may be usefully 
 employed in memorizing songs; 9, the differences pre- 
 sented to the child's notice should be large. 
 
CONCLUSION 149 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL CATALOGUES. 
 
 Psychological education has finally won the day, in 
 principle. But the trouble is that no two psychological 
 authorities use the same terms, or make the same 
 classifications. Further, in applying psychology to 
 education, it has become evident that what is needed 
 is not so much a cross-section of an adult (formal 
 psychology), so to speak, as the development of the 
 child and youth who is to be instructed (genetic 
 psychology). We may also acknowledge that we are 
 to-day only at the threshold of experimental psychol- 
 ogy, and of an adequate psychology of unconscious, 
 or semi-conscious states. Education, therefore, has 
 as yet no solid basis on which to mould its practices, 
 and it is therefore compelled to get along as well as 
 possible with temporary catalogues of psychological 
 elements which appear at certain ages, and to which 
 the facts and methods of education must be adapted. 
 As these are not always easy of access, and as they 
 furnish a very suggestive basis of understanding of 
 educational problems, we shall give some here. It is 
 out of them that the future structure of education will 
 be raised. 
 
 1. EARLY CHILDHOOD; 3-6; KINDERGARTEN; 
 6-8, PRIMARY. 
 
 BASIC TRAITS 
 
 3-6, Impulses Praise the ^ood ones. 
 
 6-8, Imitation Teacher is the exemplar. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Fretfulness, sickness Examine causes. 
 
 Restlessness, activity Short, varied lessons. 
 
 Sense perception Object-teaching. 
 
 Mischievousness Used for experiment. 
 
 Timidity Kindness, and reverence. 
 
 Unconsciousness of sex Coeducation possible. 
 
 Playing instinct Instruction to be acted out. 
 
150 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Imitates parents (3-6), teachers 
 
 (6-8) Who must be good exemplars. 
 
 Curiosity To be used for imparting infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Imagination Use myths and fables ; but criti- 
 cize. 
 
 Vocabulary small Speak simply, explain new words. 
 
 Literalness Be careful of hyperbolic language. 
 
 Lacks time-sense Teach regularity. 
 
 Likes childhood, dolls Develop care of other children. 
 
 Likes action Stories must be alive. 
 
 Likea nature Use for teaching and religion. 
 
 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Selfishness Appeal to affections. 
 
 Lack of conscience Appeal to reason. 
 
 Frankness, faith, trust Careful sincerity. 
 
 Unconsciousness of self Preserve for modestv. 
 
 No sense of ownership Teach practical sharing. 
 
 2. BOYHOOD AND GIRLHOOD; 8-13 (BOYS); 
 8-12 (Girls). 
 
 BASIC TRAITS 
 
 Imitation Applied to desirable traits. 
 
 Habit beginning Cultivate order. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Repulsion to sex Separate education. 
 
 Quieting of body Longer lessons. 
 
 Truancy Increase interest. 
 
 Acquisitiveness, hoarding, collec- 
 tions Teach through stamps, etc. 
 
 Rivalry, emulation, fighting Guide the friendships. 
 
 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Memory receptive Propose valuable subjects. 
 
 Desire for reality Give biographies, nature. 
 
 Better time-sense Group historical events. 
 
 Reading age Give standard novel-series. 
 
 Hero-worship Propose the best exemplars. 
 
 Puzzle and tricks Use for scientific progress. 
 
 Constructiveness Manual training. 
 
 Groups and friends Direct choice. 
 
CONCLUSION 151 
 
 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Conscience awakening Appeal to conscience. 
 
 Justice, "fair play," for self .. ..Apply it against self. 
 
 Shyness Use for reverence. 
 
 Disorderliness Train to, and oraise order. 
 
 Desire for affection Parent must not lose hold. 
 
 3. PUBERTY-AGE; 13-16 (Boys) ; 12-14>^ (Girls). 
 
 BASIC TRAITS 
 
 Imitation (ceasing) Influence for good. 
 
 Habit (growing) Develop system. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Puberty, sex-consciousness Frankness, with high ideals. 
 
 Repulsion to other sex Form good chumships. 
 
 Growth rapid, uneven, awkward. Sympathize, without unjust 
 
 blame or ridicule. 
 
 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Adventure Furnish discovery books. 
 
 Vanity, bullying, over-dressing. .Transform to achievement. 
 
 Crude humor Use for discipline and morality. 
 
 Hero-worship Age for the historical novel. 
 
 Clear self-consciousness, stub- 
 
 borness, reticence Use for self-control. 
 
 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Sex dangers Win and keep confidence. 
 
 Religious conversion Confirmation. 
 
 Chum friendships Choose good ones. 
 
 Secret societies, gangs, cliques, 
 
 sets, clubs Direct wisely. 
 
 4. ADOLESCENCE, 16-19 (Boys); 14H-17>^ 
 (Girls). 
 
 BASIC TRAITS 
 
 Habits (madeV Review them carefully. 
 
 Specialization (growing) Assist in life-choice. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Sex-attraction Teach dancing, and etiquette. 
 
 First love ("beaux," "sweet- 
 hearts") Point out its sacredness. 
 
152 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Cynicism and criticalness Transpose it to self-improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Poetry-age Friendly, helpful criticism. 
 
 "Storm and stress" age; "on 
 
 Fool's hill" Sympathetic control. 
 
 History-interest Insure its thoroughness and 
 
 universality. 
 
 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Day-dreams, castle-building. ..Keep their confidence. 
 Appreciation of beauty, style. . .Wise direction. 
 
 Conscience clear Keep it well informed. 
 
 Choice of life-work Careful study. 
 
 Love for ritual Careful balance. 
 
 5. YOUTH, 19-25 (Boys); 17^-22 (Girls). 
 
 BASIC TRAITS 
 
 Specialization achieved Business utilization of it. 
 
 Personalitjl begun Perfect it; respect it. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Style and fashion Limited, yet perfected. 
 
 Serious love intentions, "engage- 
 ment" Keep their confidence. 
 
 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Aesthetic criticism, Iiterai:ure, 
 
 art Give opportunity at home. 
 
 Age of doubts Sympathetic direction. 
 
 Abstracting Analyze all schools of thought. 
 
 Systematization Organize their attainments. 
 
 Philosophy ,. .Write out their system. 
 
 Social interest Apply religion to them. 
 
 Politics adopted Direct situdy. 
 
 Conceit Encourage merit. 
 
 MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 Organization, fraternity, club, 
 
 saloon group, societies Direct. 
 
 Study of differing religions Sympathetic guidance. 
 
 Deepening after first sins and 
 
 repentance Consolation. 
 
CONCLUSION 153 
 
 4. TYPES OF HISTORIC CHARACTERS. 
 
 The teacher is brought into contact with individual 
 characters, and is compelled to learn how to manage 
 them. All that psychology and pedagogy have so far 
 offered are only the vaguest generalities that have 
 therefore been useless practically, 
 
 Galen had taught four temperaments, sanguine, 
 melancholy, choleric, phlegmatic. These were re- 
 adopted by Wundt, and Hoffding would add to them 
 the bright and the dark; and since then many other 
 "emotive" or "volitional" types have been suggested. 
 But none of this helps the teacher with individual cases. 
 He needs a number of distinctive types of character 
 taken from actual life. Then the teacher may classify 
 his pupils according to these actual temperaments. The 
 selection here made is not fortuitous, and is the result 
 of long study, so that it is proposed tentatively with 
 confidence that it will at least prove useful. 
 
 We have said above, that pedagogy usually gives 
 no detailed directions how to treat individual char- 
 acters. This was of course impossible until psychology 
 had furnished standard types of character. The teacher 
 who studies those here furnished may then draw up 
 rules how to treat each type of character, say, for in- 
 stance, a "Jefferson" boy, or a "Washington" girl. 
 Then he will be able to deal with individual difficult 
 cases, and also suit the general class management to 
 the type of the majority. If this work is received with 
 sufficient favor, definite outlines of such "personal 
 pedagogy" may be furnished. On this system we have 
 at least some definite plan to work on in a hitherto 
 neglected field, although to the teacher it is the most 
 important. He will be the first to acknowledge that 
 no two classes are alike, and that the cause of this is 
 the prevailing type of character of the component indi- 
 viduals. 
 
154 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 TRAITS OF CHARACTER-TYPES. 
 
 1. TRAITS OF JEFFERSON TYPE. 
 
 1, Possessing- intelligence. 2, Intuitive in discernment. 
 3, Disposed to lead. 4, Feeling natural nobility. 5, Friendly. 
 6, Graceful and rhythmic. 7, Loving a sunny spacious home. 
 
 2. TRAITS OF GRANT TYPE. 
 
 1, Enjoying sensation. 2, Feeling intensely and steadily. 
 3, Determined to the death. 4, Possessing wonderful memory. 
 6, Possessing planning ability. 6, Possessing guessing ability. 
 
 3. TRAITS OF PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 1, Possessing a dual disposition. 2, Led by curiosity. 
 3, Progressing unsystematically by rule of thumb. 4, Loqua- 
 cious. 5, Artistic and individual. 6, Kindly. 
 
 4. TRAITS OF CAESAR TYPE. 
 
 1, Home-loving. 2, Travel-loving. 3, Indefatigable, diplo- 
 matic, penny-wise. 4, Changeable, tactless, pound-foolish. 
 5, Brilliantly eloquent and artistic. 
 
 5. TRAITS OF NAPOLEON TYPE. 
 
 1, Amative. 2, Ingenious. 3, Philosophic. 4, Collectivistic. 
 
 5, Fitfully lazy or energetic. 6, Mean, cowardly, self-justifying. 
 
 6. TRAITS OF TAFT TYPE. 
 
 1, Dignified and formal. 2, Critical and artistic. 3, Gener- 
 ous. 4, Resilient, determined. 5, Nature-loving. 6, Dietetic. 
 
 7. TRAITS OF NELSON TYPE. 
 
 1, Just, honorable. 2, Reckless. 3, Melancholy. 4, Unpre- 
 cise, irritable. 5, Dependent, affectionate. 6, Symbolically 
 intuitive. 
 
 8. TRAITS OF CHARLES I. TYPE. 
 
 1, Magnetic and passionate. 2, Fond of the productive- 
 ness of nature. 3, Intuitionally diplomatic. 4, Bureau- 
 cratic, formal. 5, Disposed to socialization and reform. 
 
 6, Disposed to sting. 7, Disloyal. 
 
 9. TRAITS OF BUNYAN TYPE. 
 1, Laborious, muscular. 2, Faithful. 3, Frank. 4. Scold- 
 ing and combative. 5, Rash and prophetic of insight. 
 10. TRAITS OF FRANKLIN TYPE. 
 1, Disposed to wholesale methods. 2, Disposed to organize. 
 3, Able in management. 4, Disposed to rule or ruin. 5, Sin- 
 cere. 6, Religious, original and artistic. 
 
 11. TRAITS OF LINCOLN TYPE. 
 1, Of social disposition. 2, Being a good judge of character. 
 3, Possessing consummate tact. 4, Brilliant. 5, Adaptable. 
 6, Dependent, kindly. 7, Feeling kinship with nature. 
 12. TRAITS OF WASHINGTON TYPE. 
 1, Laborious. 2, Intellectual. 3, Materialistic. 4. Inde- 
 pendent. 5, Chivalric. 6, Restless. 7, Devoted. 8 Religious. 
 
CONCLUSION 155 
 
 1. JEFFERSON'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
 1. Possessing Intelligence. 
 
 He often said that if forced to choose between manage- 
 ment of wealth, and poverty with education, he would choose 
 the latter. At William and Mary he earned the friendship of 
 the professors. When elected to the Legislature, he deter- 
 mined to keep political activities clear of his own financial advantage. He 
 founded the University of Virginia. 
 
 2- Intuitive in Discernment. 
 
 He could see no benefit in horse-racing or card-playing. 
 He had the instinct of research and intuition of his clients' 
 needs. He wrote the "Summary View of the Rights of 
 British America," which first gave the basis of our inde- 
 pendence, and drafted the Declaration of Independence. He 
 foresaw the catastrophe impending over the retention of 
 slavery in Virginia. He sought to end primogeniture; he introduced our 
 monetary system. Love of truth was his ruling passion. He foresaw the 
 coming difficulties with Hamilton. He bought from France, Louisiana. 
 
 3. Disposed to Lead. 
 
 Jefferson's ability for leadership manifested itself early and 
 continuously. As a lawyer he was a skilful diplomatist. 
 Later he became Governor of Virginia; later Ambassador to France, and 
 twice President of the United States. 
 
 4. Feeling Natural Nobility. 
 
 No one who came in contact with him could fail to be 
 impressed with his individuality of character, a certain natural nobility. 
 
 5. Friendly. 
 
 He made strong friendships, with Patrick Henry, Miss 
 Becca Burwell, his sister Jane, and Dabnev Carr. His re- 
 lations to his daughter Martha were very beautiful. He never 
 condescended to disputes. After his political activities his 
 family circle at Monticello was large. Harmony in the married state he 
 practiced and taught. 
 
 6. Graceful and Rhythmic. 
 
 He was a great lover of nature. Music was one of his 
 three passions, and he married a capable musician. He was 
 welcomed in Parisian circles, as fitting them well. The 
 Jefferson temperament was all music and sunshine; harmony and serenity 
 reigned around him. 
 
 7. Loving a Sunny Spacious Home. 
 
 He was so impatient of close confinement at school that 
 he one day knelt in prayer to expedite dismissal. Architec- 
 ture was one of his three passions. He always had serenity. 
 He planned, built and kept up his Monticello home, which 
 
 was the great passion of his life, wh«re he proposod to end bis days, but 
 which in the end almost ruined him. 
 
156 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 2. GRANTS TRAITS. 
 
 (^Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.^ 
 1. Enjoying Sensations. 
 Tt is surely no reflection on Grant to face the facts that his 
 
 native disposition was one to afford him the opportunity of the achievement 
 of self-control. It shows his greatness in that he succeeded in spite of his 
 enjoyment of unwise indulgences; and Lincoln saw this, when he refused 
 to listen to a prohibitionist who wished him to degrade Grant when gen- 
 eral. It is even possible that his end was hastened by over-indulgence of 
 cigars. In his youth his parents allowed him all the natural sports of 
 country-life, in which he took a rational and keen delight. 
 
 2. Feeling Intensely and Steadily. 
 
 As a child he was very impulsive, and followed many dif- 
 ferent forms of sport. His love experience with Julia Dent was most beau- 
 tiful and fervid. His devotion to his wife was steady to the last, in spite 
 of all the struggles of distasteful occupations. "Wherever Grant is, things 
 move," said Lincoln. He could not endure the sight of pain and was con- 
 siderate to the unfortunate, especially to Lee and his army. He was 
 essentially kindly, ancj closed his life-work saying, "Let us have peace." 
 He delighted in compassion. He was gentle, tender and confiding. 
 
 3. Determined to the Death. 
 
 Although regretful at having enlisted in the Mexican war, 
 
 his unflinching gallantry earned his promotion. He displayed the same 
 inflexibility during the Civil War. When asked for armistice by Buckner, 
 he answered there were no terms but unconditional surrender. When 
 asked when he expected to enter Vicksburg, he said he did not know, but 
 that he expected to stay there if it took him thirty years. At the Wilder- 
 ness he proposed "to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." The 
 Civil War was won chiefly because his will was indomitable. He was of 
 iron will and nerve of steel. Lincoln appreciated his "cool persistence of 
 purpose. He is not easily excited, and he has the grip of a bull-dog. When 
 he once gets his teeth in, nothing can shake him off." 
 
 4. Possessing Wonderful Memory. 
 
 To his own surprise he passed the West Point examina- 
 tion, after but very doubtful preparation at home. He rarely read a lesson 
 the second time. After his trip around the world the writing of his Civil 
 War experiences for the "Century" magazine, and of his journey around 
 the world exhibited the wonderful treasures of his mental life. "His 
 memory and imagination were picture-galleries of the world, and libraries 
 of treasured thought." 
 
 5. Possessing Planning Ability. 
 
 Mathematics were very easy to him. He hoped to become 
 assistant professor of mathematics at West Point and would have been so 
 appointed, but for the Mexican war. When surrounded at Belmont he 
 coolly said that his soldiers would have to cut themselves out, as they had 
 cut themselves in. Lincoln acknowledged that Grant's plan for taking 
 Vicksburg was the wisest. Halleck wrote like praise for the battle at 
 Chattanooga. He planned the campaigns against Richmond and Atlanta. 
 He planned his campaigns like chess-games, at which he was good. 
 
 6. Possessing Guessing Ability. 
 
 At West Point he had a presentiment he should some day 
 te in the place of the reviewing officer. General Winfield Scott. At Vicks- 
 burg, when the gun-boat fleet had completed their passage before the bat- 
 teries, he felt relieved as though the victory was won. Hazardous as it 
 was, he moved his army south of the James River, behind Richmond. After 
 writing his memoirs he ventured the prophecy that the country stood on 
 the threshold of an era of harmony and prosperity. His adaptation was 
 not fickleness, but insight. He was the keenest, closest, broadest of ob- 
 servers. He realized that the enemy were as afraid of him. as he of them. 
 
CONCLUSION 157 
 
 3. PETER THE GREAT'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult K. lVaUs::cwski's Biography.) 
 1. Possessing a Dual Disposition. 
 As a boy he enjoyed all kinds of practical grames. When 
 
 threatened with danger he ran away from home and dignity, quite in- 
 capable of taking any personal initiative. One day he was throwing bombs 
 and climbing masts; next, singing in church; the next, carousing. He was 
 weeping at the death bed of his mother, and in three days revelling. He 
 was not a great man, but the most complete, comprehensive and diversified 
 personification of a great people that had ever appeared. Yet he had sud- 
 den shifts of temper; fits of gloomy depression, violence or melancholy, 
 genial but wayward, restless and disturbing. The result of all this was a 
 future crowded with surprises. 
 
 2. Led by Curiosity. 
 
 As a child, Peter was interested in all small details, really 
 
 founded on his instinct to touch whatever was new. His was great 
 curiosity. By curiosity he was attracted to an astrolabe, and to an old boat, 
 though he did not understand their use. He« was ever curious and im- 
 patient to learn. When visiting in Pomerania he commanded a strange 
 lady to halt, so as to be able to investigate her watch. 
 
 3. Progressing Unsystematically by "Rule of Thumb." 
 
 As a child Peter was interested in all small details around 
 
 him, so that he was looked on as a bourgeois, rather than a soldier. His 
 progress in education was not orderly, but chaotic, by "rule of thumb." 
 He was proficient in various trades, such as dentistry and turning, and 
 later ship-building, which he learned in Holland. His victory at Poltava 
 was ultimately the outcome of his drilling his grooms. Though appointing 
 others general or admiral he preferred to remain private and captain, no 
 doubt because he would thus be actually doing something. 
 
 4. Loquacious. 
 
 From his earliest days he was g-iven to carousing- with 
 
 boon companions, and at the casino of the Sloboda there was no end to talk. 
 Forgetting his incognito, at the table of the Duke of Mitau he surprised 
 his entertainers by the unexpectedness of his remarks, and by his jokes 
 on the habits, prejudices and barbarous laws of his own country. At Liban, 
 in the "Weinkeller," with the sailors of the port, he drank and joked. 
 As he was often beside himself, there is no question of the amount of 
 irresponsible language in which he indulged. 
 
 5. Artistic and Individual. 
 
 As a child he displayed much curiosity, and was self-taught. 
 
 His early experiments begun by curiosity developed into real trades, and 
 his navy and war games went the length of a shipyard and a fortress, and 
 even actual bloodshed. He was charmed with Dutch civilization and 
 adopted the colors of the Dutch flag. He was far more interested in all 
 these accomplishments than in the government of the country, which fared 
 ill. His attempt on Azof was in the nature of an apprentice's "master- 
 piece." Peter Mihailof's seal was to be a young carpenter surrounded by 
 shipwright's tools, with the motto, "My rank is that of a scholar, and 1 
 need masters." 
 
 6. Kindly. 
 
 He was a convivial comrade, and heavy drinker: he was 
 
 over-democratic in taste. He was attracted by female society and early he 
 married Eudoxia Lapouhin. To Ivan he showed nothing but kindness, 
 and Catherine found him a passionate lover, a friend, a husband, not ab- 
 solutely without reproach indeed, but trusty, devoted and deeply attachedf 
 if not over-refined, nor impeccably faithful. 
 
158 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVEQ 
 
 4. CAESAR'S TRAITS. 
 
 (^Consult Fowler's Biography.) 
 
 1. Home-Loving. 
 
 He set a high value on his noble descent and divine 
 
 ancestry, as well as on his family's more recent political prominence, and 
 also that of his mother. For the first forty years of his life he lived 
 quietly at home. Refusing, at Sulla's command, to put away his Marian 
 wife Cornelia, he was deprived of his estate and exiled. After return 
 from the east, for eight years, he lived retired at home. He made great 
 efforts to pass an agrarian bill to give homes to veterans. When he 
 acceded to absolute power he used it to reconstruct the machinery of 
 government and to establish a new efficient administration. His social 
 methods were equally reasonable. 
 
 2. Travel-Loving. 
 
 The Gallic nationality of his teacher Gnipho, may Tiave 
 
 initiated his interest in that country. Until Sulla's death, in 81, he 
 traveled in the East. Still longing for travel, in 78, he served against 
 the pirates on the Cilician coast. He became quaestor in Further Spain. 
 His great work in Gaul, 58-56, is known everywhere; it was not rnerely 
 a work of conquest, as his Commentaries show; then he enjoyed visiting 
 Britain. When in Egypt, he even planned an excursion to discover the 
 source of the Nile. He returned through Syria, visiting all the kinglets. 
 Then he visited again Africa and Spain. 
 
 3. Indefatigable, Diplomatic, Penny-wise. 
 
 His education was chiefly due to himself, and his "Com- 
 mentaries" show how studious he was. He carried out his duties as 
 quaestor in Further Spain with tact and industry. He made a practical 
 solution for the economic troubles of Spain, and later in Italy. Every- 
 where he was a wise and capable administrator. 
 
 4. Changeable, Tactless, Pound-foolish. 
 
 In 86, at Mytilene, he received the "civic crown" for sav- 
 ing the life of a fellow-soldier. When captured by pirates he entertained 
 them oratorically and when freed, captured and crucified them. On his 
 own responsibility he gathered an army and beat back Mithridates' general. 
 Before the statue of Alexander the Great, at Gades, he lamented his in- 
 dolence and resigned suddenly. For three years, 65-63, he remained home, 
 plotting and intriguing. He did not hesitate to undertake enormous debts 
 to further his political career. He divorced his wife Pompeia, suddenly, 
 claiming that his wife had to be above suspicion. He did not hesitate to 
 give up his triumph when this stood in the way of his election as consul. 
 When he achieved absolute power he insulted Laberius by commanding him 
 to perform in one of his own plays. He accepted many unheard-of honors, 
 even as far as deification. He accepted the dictatorship for life, though 
 he refused the title of king. 
 
 5. Brilliantly Eloquent or Artistic. 
 
 His education was practically self-made, and he objectified 
 
 it in writing his "Commentaries," which are still used in the class-room 
 for style and information. He studied oratory near Cicero, and later with 
 Molo in Rhodes. His style was pure, his diction lucid, his manner cour- 
 teous. He was considered an orator second only to Cicero. In his ponti- 
 ficate he reformed the calendar, and laid the basis of all exact chrono- 
 logical computations. Not even during his campaigns in Gaul and Britain 
 did his literary efl'orts flag. When he was established in power he organized 
 liis work with scientific intelligence. 
 
CONCLUSION 159, 
 
 5. NAPOLEON'S TRAITS. 
 
 {Consult Thos. E. Watson's Biography.') 
 
 1. Amative. 
 
 At SIX years of age Napoleon, at a dame's school, showed 
 
 Such fondness for one of the little girls, that he was ridiculed. Mme. de 
 Brienne protected the lad at school, and hq always was grateful for it. 
 At Valence he was very social, and was said to have proposed marriagct 
 His many amative passages with well-known women are familiar to all. 
 
 2. Ingenious. 
 At school he was first in mathematics and stood well in 
 
 history and geography. His maturity of thought and quick intelligence 
 arrested and compelled respect. He suggested mimic war as recreation. 
 He studied continuously, and he always made notes of what he read. He 
 had great imagination. It is well-known how ingenious he was at Toulon, 
 and during the rest of his career. Calculation, labor and energy accom- 
 plished everything. 
 
 3. Philosophic. 
 
 He loved to meditate and ponder; and erected little her- 
 mitages both at Millelli and Brienne. He was given to day-dreaming. He 
 commented on all he read. He wrote a paper on the relations of Church 
 and State. To the last he remained half mystic. His mind had an enor- 
 mous range from details to sublimest dreams. Later he wrote novels, one 
 of which was used by Moore in the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan. He 
 wrote a History of Corsica. He competed for the prize for an essay at 
 the Academy of Lyons. During his campaign in Egypt he had a great 
 artistic reproduction of its antiquities published. He codified the laws 
 of France. 
 
 4. Collectivistic. 
 
 From his earliest youth he was inflamed by intense passion 
 
 for his native country, it was as pure as it was great. He associated 
 intimately with the Corsican peasantry, and embraced the principles of 
 the republic. At Valence he founded a political club. His natural instinct 
 was to make improvements, in Paris, Venice, Milan, and Egypt. He made 
 perfect roads in France, Switzerland and other countries he controlled. 
 
 5. Fitfully Lazy or Energetic. 
 
 He was an "imp of a child," according- to his mother. At 
 
 school he was thoughtful and gloomy, proud and defiant. He was moody, 
 even in later life. His inflexible character "was masterful, imperious, head- 
 strong." He often sulked. He was egotistic. In later life this contrast 
 between calm and despair became very evident. 
 
 6. Mean, Cowardly, Self- Justifying, 
 
 He divorced Josephine who really loved him for political 
 
 advancement. He felt not the slightest loyalty to the King, whose estab- 
 lisnment had educated him. In Corsica he had established a reputation 
 for tncKiness and violence; when accused to the war office, he published 
 a vioie.it self-justification, and to be reinstated he had to get even from 
 opponents certificates of good behavior. A royal officer, he felt no inclina- 
 tion to defend the King, a democratic agitator, he took no part in revolu- 
 tioriary movements. Later he burnt the Lyons essay and bought back all 
 copies of his novel. He betrayed Paoli. He presented a false certificate 
 of Salicetti's at Nice. Napoleon's account of his life, given during his Elba 
 imprisonment, seems to have been generally unreliable. Lies were his 
 specialty. When he had made himself sure of the loyalty of his army he 
 betrayed the republican authorities who had put him in command. 
 
160 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 TAFT'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Books by R. Patterson, G. G. Wilson, L. L. Dunn.) 
 
 1. Dignified and Formal. 
 
 Mr. Taft is above all an organizer, and establisher of proper 
 
 dignity, with good feeling. He was thereby enabled to establish a settled 
 form of government in the Philippines, in Panama, and in Cuba. To do 
 this he had to conciliatd the natives, and to introduce a new system of 
 laws, all of which he accomplished so as to earn their respect. As President 
 he never allowed the dignity of his oflSce to be infringed by "riders," to 
 bills sent to him for approval, in which it was sought to limit its pre- 
 rogatives. He would not crawl to get public office. 
 
 2. Critical and Artistic. 
 
 He was above all a discriminating judge, and his continual 
 
 appointment to such positions, as well as his success in them testifies to 
 this characterization. He was judge in Ohio, Solicitor General of the 
 U. S., judge in the Sixth Federal District, and he was thrice offered ap- 
 pointment on the Supreme Bench. 
 
 He is a good critic of art having had the widest opportunities to cul- 
 tivate his taste. During his trip around the world, his personal charm and 
 artistic appreciation made him friends wherever he went. His social 
 accomplishments made him a favorite at banquets, and his style is both 
 polished and artistic. He has winning ways. He remained faithful to 
 this career by accepting the Kent professorship of law at Yale. 
 
 3. Generous. 
 
 While Governor of the Philippines he was thrice ofifered 
 
 appointments to the Supreme Bench, which he desired, but refused in 
 order to finish his service to the Filipinos. He is big of heart and sym- 
 pathetic. He enforced the principle of Canadian reciprocity, with dignity 
 and effect. His unaffected simplicity and kindness, his genial face, the 
 magnanimity and charity of the man, combine to make him exceedingly 
 likable. He was called "our beloved president." If anything he was too 
 tolerant of delay, too long-suffering with insubordination, with lack of 
 discipline and energy. 
 
 4. Resilient or Determined. 
 
 He has always exhibited strong independence and will- 
 power. Wishing to follow his career of lawyer, he resigned the far better 
 paying position of Revenue Collector in Ohio. While judge, he defended 
 the operation of a railroad, while conciliating the employes. Having been 
 put in the Presidency as a foil and locum tenens, he gave those same in- 
 fluences the surprise of their lives in refusing to recognize any such 
 derogatory treatment, and making a brave fight for his position. No less 
 significant of his strong will is his success in dieting, by which he reduced 
 himself successfully by a course of diet extending over several years. His 
 resiliency is indicated by the genial and good nature with which he took 
 his defeat for re-election. 
 
 5. Nature Loving. 
 
 His love of nature is best exemplified by his favorite garne 
 
 of golf, which has enabled him to spend most of his time for recreation 
 out-doors. His sojourns in the Philippines, in Cuba, in Panama; his 
 journey around the world, and his continued travels around the United 
 States have given full field to his enjoyment of nature. 
 
 6. Dietetic. 
 
 Mr. Taft so devoted himself to the duties of his offices, 
 
 and their incidental social obligations, with so little opportunity for neces- 
 sary exercise, that it became necessary for him to undertake intelligent 
 and effective courses of dieting which successfully reduced him to a more 
 normal condition. Since then he has so interested himself in this course 
 of training as to be willing to appear among the directors of a society 
 whose object is to promote scientific and rational dietetic practice. 
 
CONCLUSION 161 
 
 7. NELSON'S TRAIT'S. 
 
 (Consult Biography by A. T. Mahatt.) 
 1. just, Honorable. 
 
 As a child, honor led him to persevere through snow to 
 school, though his brother wished to turn back. No appeal to danger or 
 gain ever swayed him. He chose the West India post for honor, rather 
 than Canada for prize-money. It was the "thing called honor" that 
 beckoned him onward all his life. He almost lost his life on the "Fox" 
 to save the drowning sailors. He had nice sense of honor, feelings of 
 propriety, and love of truth. At Trafalgar he refused the command of a 
 vacant frigate to Blackwood, so as not to deprive the lieutenants of the 
 honor. 
 
 2. Reckless. 
 
 As a child, he hazarded a climb on his teacher's pear-tree, 
 
 merely because the other boys were afraid. He became a fearless pilot. 
 His character might be called indomitable single-mindedness, and persever- 
 ance. He was ever cool in danger. He showed indifference to incidental 
 consequences. This recklessness led to positive insubordination. He had 
 disregarded the Admiral's order both early in his life, under Hughes in 
 the West Indies, and under Keith at Naples. He had even expressed the 
 observation that Keith had lost a fleet by obeying orders. Possibly this 
 fearlessness of responsibility was due to his early semi-detached duties. 
 
 3. Melancholy. 
 
 In strong contrast with his determinateness was his melan- 
 choly. Wellington had observed that his was a double nature, at one time 
 vain and vaporous, at another sensible and profound. Gloomy forebodings 
 were those under which Nelson first went to sea to Patagonia. When 
 agitated, he would pout his lip. When in love, he hinted at suicide if he 
 should not receive sufficient allowance to enable him to marry Miss An- 
 drews. To Mrs. Moutray he wrote "Even the trees drooped;" all was 
 melancholy. His whole life was one succession of enforced rests to recover 
 from uremic poisonings, and unfortunate love affairs. During disfavor he 
 was mortified and dejected. At Malta and later he was in great depression. 
 
 4. Unprecise, Irritable. 
 
 He received but a scanty education, non did he by after 
 
 application remedy the eccentricities of style, and even of grammar which 
 are apt to result froni such early neglect. His letters were unpolished, 
 incorrect, disfigured by awkward expression and bad English. He was 
 often irritable, his health being poor both as child and man. His manner 
 of wearing his clean English dress was negligent. He was always irritable. 
 Fear in him never died out, but was in action mastered by repugnance to 
 disgrace. He was petulant in trifles. 
 
 5. Dependent, Affectionate. 
 
 His early career was shaped by Suckling-, and this later by 
 
 Parker. He formed a lasting attachment to his captain, Locher, with whom 
 he corresponded to the end. It was his inclination always to say the kind- 
 est thing possible. In his whole career he was followed by Collingwood. 
 He easily enlisted the love and esteem of all he approached, possessing 
 great charms of manner. His dependence on womanly sympathy explains 
 his difficulty with his wife, and his various successive attachments, in none 
 of which did he idealize their objects. He allowed Moutray to deprive 
 him of an important ship rather than wound his feelings. He did so also 
 with Calder. Lady Hamilton's appreciation and admiration swayed him. 
 
 6. Symbolically Intuitive. 
 
 As a child he "ever saw a radiant orb suspended which 
 
 beckoned me onward to renown." He was seized by vague premonitions 
 of his end. It is said he ordered his name engraved on the coffin made 
 from the mast of the Orient, as he might need it on- his return. This 
 unusual foreboding is evident in his writings also. On Sept. 18, 1805, he 
 wrote out in his diary the anticipation of his death; on leaving he spoke 
 of the gypsy prophecy that his book of life was closed. Though he had 
 never done it before he now knelt and prayed at the beg innin g Qf ^jjg 
 battle, haviuK a codicil to bis will signed by Blackwood. 
 
162 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 8. CHARLES I.'s TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Samuel R. Gardiner's History.) 
 1. Magnetic and Passionate. 
 
 He was very anxious to marry the Infanta, and not con- 
 tent with seeing her on state occasions, jumped over the garden wall, 
 frightening her so she fainted. He was so angry at the conditions imposed 
 that he resigned her. He collected a forced loan by violence. Soldiers 
 were billeted on civilians. He refused to let the custom house officers to 
 appear before the House of Commons. For eleven years no parliament 
 met in England, and Charles carried on the government single-handed. 
 Charles admired and patronized the drama, and as opposed to Prynne. 
 He carried on both Scottish bishops' wars without help from parliament. 
 
 2. Fond of the Productiveness of Nature. 
 
 As soon as he was established he began a regime of dances, 
 gaieties and pleasures of all kinds. He tried to defend on encroachments 
 on forests by levying fines. He loved nature enough to have_ dramatic 
 performances in the open air, such as Milton's Comus. When in trouble 
 he fled to the Isle of Wight, where at Carisbrooke castle he enjoyed nature's 
 surroundings. 
 
 3. Intuitionally Diplomatic. 
 He was very yielding- to others in matters of detail. He 
 
 imposed a declaration of silence on all parties to religious discord in 1628. 
 In religious matters he followed Laud, who compromised between papacy 
 and protestantism. When in 1642 his blow failed against the five members, 
 he fled from Whitehall. 
 
 4. Bureaucratic, Formal. 
 
 He was more dignified than his father, James III. He 
 
 enforced fines on all owners of military lands who had neglected to be 
 knighted. Laud advised Charles to insist on ritual, and uniformity of 
 worship, even through the metro-political visitation. He reappointed Scot- 
 tish bishops. He was fond of dress, and outward pomp. When captured, 
 he behaved with admirable dignity, and nothing became his life so well 
 as the leaving of it. 
 
 5. Disposed to Socialization and Reform. 
 
 He was obstinate in persisting in lines of conduct he him- 
 self had chosen. He levied fines on those who had encroached on old 
 boundaries of the forests. He raised ship-money, from different towns in 
 England. His controversy with Parliament started with his realization of 
 the necessity of national and international issues, to which the "bour- 
 geoisie" were entirely indifferent. 
 
 6. Disposed to Sting. 
 
 He tried to impeach five members of parliament of treason, 
 and himself led soldiers to take them. Five Knights had been imprisoned 
 in 1627, for refusing forced loans. He refused to give up his power to 
 imprison without trial. He successively called to arms, against each other, 
 the Irish, Scotch and English. He decided to possess himself of a muni- 
 tions magazine at Hull, which led to setting up his standard at Nottingham. 
 
 7. Disloyal. 
 
 Although Strafford had been his great supporter, and had 
 been promised impunity, Charles signed his bill of attainder, and allowed 
 him to be executed. As no one would grant him any benevolence, he took 
 the advice to borrow, though he did not intend to repay, as a forced loan. 
 He was willing to make any promise not to imprison civilians, but would 
 not give up the right to do so. He was ready to grant parliament freedom 
 of counsel, but not of control. When opposed he withdrew the Scottish 
 prayerbook. Charles promised the parliament should not be dissolved with- 
 out his consent. 
 
 He called on the English to cow the Scots, and on the Scots to cow 
 the English. Ireland was continually betrayed. Lunesford was appointed 
 only to be diimistcd. He had planned to import French and Lorraincre. 
 
CONCLUSION " ^163 
 
 9. BUNYAN'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Biography by Jas. A. Froude.) 
 1. Laborious, Muscular. 
 
 He was brought up as a poor tinker. He was bound out 
 as apprentice in that trade. He continued his avocation even 
 while he had become a famous preacher. Even in jail he 
 made tags for boot-laces. Later he became a brazier. His 
 character "Christian*' had also been a worker. 
 
 2. Faithful. 
 
 Poor as they were, the Bunyans prided themselves on 
 their honesty and laboriousness. He was very faithful to his 
 wife, and became regular and respectable. When accused 
 falsely of loose living, he called heaven to witness he was 
 faithful to his wife. Though warned that a warrant was out 
 against him he felt he was bound to face it. He refused to 
 be bailed on promise of not preaching again. He was law- 
 abiding, and where he could not obey law actively, he did so 
 passively. 
 
 3. Frank. 
 
 Bunyan confessed his sins almost more earnestly than was 
 necessary, in "passionate language of self-abhorrence." ac- 
 cusing himself of all manner of sins. Nevertheless he was 
 neither drunk nor unchaste. He revealed his own spiritual 
 career in the Pilgrim's Progress. When offered freedom in 
 return for a general promise not to preach, he refused the 
 evasion. 
 
 4. Scolding and Combative. 
 
 He was a violent, passionate boy, who swore roundly, his 
 tongue was bitter. He was drawn to be a soldier; so martial 
 saints deeply impressed his imagination, he was of fervid 
 temperament, and a "brisk talker." He was convicted and 
 jailed not because the authorities were vindictive, but be- 
 cause he would not give them a chance to let him out; he 
 was continuously struggling to be condemned. 
 
 5. Rash, and Prophetic of Insight. 
 
 His inventive faculty showed itself in childhood even by 
 lying. He had fearful dreams, and dreadful visions, looking 
 forward to the Day of Judgment, and to soul-temptations. 
 In his book, there are many visions in the Interpreter's 
 House, and in the Delectable Mountains. He started to 
 preach, which led to his arrest. 
 
164 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 10. FRANKLIN'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
 1. Disposed to Wholesale Methods. 
 Reared a printer, he did not remain one, showing: that 
 
 manual labor, though honorably performed, was not the limit of his career, 
 which tended to wholesale, rather than to retail activities. _ Working in his 
 father's shop at candle making he hated. At eighteen, working with Keimer 
 the printer, he had visions of becoming a master-printer. Later he started 
 the Pennsylvania Gazette." At forty-two he sold his printing-business to 
 investigate electricity. In 1757 he went to England for the state, to ad- 
 just relations with the royalty, and in 1765 pleaded his country's cause 
 before the House of Commons, being away from home ten years. Finally 
 he became Ambassador to France, and Governor of Pennsylvania. 
 
 2. Disposed to Organize. 
 
 At twenty-one he org-anized a study-club for mechanics, 
 called the Junto, with a subscription lending library. He was always 
 starting new papers, as for instance, the "Pennsylvania Gazette." Then 
 he started poor Richard's Almanac, in December, 1738. His appointment 
 to the deputy postmastership, opened the way to obtaining better police 
 regulations, and the organization of a fire company. At thirty-seven he 
 organized the Academy that was to become the University of Pennsylvania. 
 He aided Whitfield's orphan-house in Georgia. He made a plan of union 
 for the struggling Americans. His was the saying, "We must hang to- 
 gether, or we shall hang separately." At 81 years of age he was delegate 
 to the Constitutional convention, and suggested the bases of representation 
 in Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 3. Ability in Management. 
 
 Writing a few ballads at fifteen years of age, he went on 
 the streets selling printed copies of them. He would wheel his paper-stock 
 on a barrow in a street to find buyers. He was at thirty elected clerk of 
 the General Assembly, a testimony to his abilities. For sixteen years 
 postmaster of Philadelphia he was, with Hunter, appointed postmaster for 
 the colonies, and excellent was his judgment, so conciliatory his manners, 
 that he rarely made enemies, with splendid executive ability and tireless 
 energy. In the continental Congress he was put on ten Committees. He 
 was made Postmaster-general. Later he was sent as ambassador to France. 
 
 4. Disposed to Rule or Ruin. 
 
 He so hated working at his father's shop that he wanted to 
 
 run away to sea. Then he was apprenticed to a cutler, and later, to his 
 brother James as a printer. When disagreements brought him into conflict 
 with this one too, he ran away from Boston, to Philadelphia. 
 
 5. Sincere. 
 Franklin's sincerity and honesty is his most prominent 
 trait. When he was given the loan of two hundred and fifty dollars by 
 two men to enable him to pay for the opportunity of starting in business, 
 on the security of his character, Franklin repaid them, and remembered 
 them kindly until his dying day. The helpful maxims of Poor Richard's 
 Almanac were a testimony both to his taste and ability. His "sincerity 
 and honesty" had won for him "the confidence of his country." At 84 
 years old Washington wrote him a testimonial to his benevolence, patriot- 
 ism, philanthropy and friendship. His chief rule was "To go straight for- 
 ward in doing what appears to me to be right, leaving the consequences 
 to Providence." 
 
 6. Religious, Original and Artistic. 
 
 From the start his mind was religious and artistic. Though 
 
 only an apprentice, he read the best books, beginning with Bunyan's Pil- 
 grim's Progress. At fifteen he wrote a few ballads, and was deterred from 
 poetry as a career only by the pleading of his father. He wrote contribu- 
 tions for the "Courant." At twenty-seven he began French, Spanish and 
 Italian, and learned to play on the harp, guitar, violin and violoncello. 
 His relations to his wife and his son Franky, were of the most sacred. He 
 invented the Franklin stove. In electricity he discovered the identity of 
 tlectricity and lightning. 
 
CONCLUSION 165 
 
 11. LINCOLN'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult E. L. Dana's Makers of America.'^ 
 1. Of Social Disposition. 
 
 Lincoln possessed a charm and power few could resist. 
 
 He had a hearty hand clasp, and a sympathetic voice. He made friends 
 quickly, and drew crowds to the store fire as easily as to his campaiRn 
 speeches. His house life with Mary Todd was, to the end, one of singular 
 beauty. 
 
 2. Being a Good Judeje of Character. 
 
 The reason why he generally won his cases as a lawyer, 
 was that he took none but good ones, and could tell the honesty of the 
 client, giving up a case in the middle of an argument where he saw the 
 wrong. His ability to judge characters stood him in good stead in his de- 
 bate with Douglas whom he forced into the position of making an answer 
 which won him the senatorship, but lost him the presidency. His choice 
 of a cabinet later vindicated itself, though he had to win several members. 
 His choice of generals was the reason of the final success of the war. 
 
 3. Diplomatic in Management. 
 
 Forced into a fight with Jack Armstrong, the bully of 
 New Salem, Lincoln thrashed him, but was so generous he won the liking 
 of the rough gang who elected him captain of volunteers in the Black 
 Hawk war in 1832. Later as pilot, and as clerk — where he won the nick- 
 name "Honest Abe" — as postmaster, as deputy surveyor, as friendly 
 lawyer, he won the liking of all he met. His treatment of Seward and 
 Stanton, who at the beginning scorned and abused him, and were finally 
 brought to respect him, is welL known. Even Douglas, whom he had op- 
 posed, was making campaign speeches for Lincoln, when the latter died. 
 
 4. Brilliant. 
 Even when a child he wrote witty verses, and little poli- 
 tical reflections that were published. He would make impromptu speeches, 
 that drew crowds. He showed a mixture of rough with fine, commonplace 
 and ideal, great strength and tenderness, fun and sadness. His fondness 
 for stories and anecdotes stood him in good stead in his home, in the court- 
 house, on electioneering trips, and in the White House. 
 
 5. Adaptable. 
 
 Lincoln, as child, helped his sister Sarah with the house- 
 work. When he had no paper to write on, he used the shingles in his 
 cabin. He interested himself in all the books in the neighborhood and 
 attended all the trials he could. His trip to Louisiana, in 1828, opened 
 to him a new world, and on a second one he determined to hit slavery 
 hard, if he ever got the chance. He adapted himself easily to all occupa- 
 tions, clerk, captain, postmaster, law, surveyor, official. He was always 
 ready to "lend a hand." He was democratic in his ways, and ever re- 
 mained sympathetic to the "boys in blue," the common soldiers. 
 
 6. Dependent, Kindly. 
 
 Lincoln received from his mother an early religious train- 
 ing, and pious dependence on Providence. "All I am and all I hope to 
 be I owe to my sainted mother." This remained with him all his life. 
 When the family was ready to start for Illinois he was discovered weep- 
 ing on her grave. When in grief at the death of his son Willie, he said 
 to the nurse, "I remember my mother's prayers, they have clung to me 
 all my life." "This is God's fight, and He will win it in good time.' He 
 signed the reprieve of a soldier condemned to death for sleeping on post, 
 on the grounds of the boy's habits on the farm, in this remembering his 
 own experiences. "With malice towards none and charity for all." 
 
 7. Feeling Kinship with Nature. 
 Lincoln's hard work on the farm early acquainted him with 
 nature, and he took every holiday enjoying it further. He could not bear 
 to see suffering, once only did he kill a wild turkey while hunting. While 
 a lawyer he stopped on the road to alleviate the suffering of two young 
 birds, and once of a pig; while President he helped a girl save some birds. 
 
166 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 12. WASHINGTON'S TRAITS. 
 
 (Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
 1. Laborious. 
 During his years of domesticity at Mount Vernon he rose 
 
 before dawn, ancf was most painstaking in his work. His return from the 
 Ohio Valley, and other early military efficiency testifies to his activity in 
 details. He drilled the Cambridge militia for months, and in one night 
 had the Dorchester fortress built. At Valley Forge he likewise kept the 
 Continental army together, and drilled it. 
 
 2. IntellectuaL 
 
 He learned the rudiments of education from a sexton, so 
 
 desirous of them was he. Patrick Henry said of Washington that at the 
 Continental Congress he was supreme in solid information and sound judg- 
 ment. During his second term he resisted those partisans of France who 
 would not have hesitated to plunge the country in a new war with Eng- 
 land, knowing it might be fatal. Jefferson praised his integrity. 
 
 3. Materialistic. 
 
 In all his surveying work his records were neat and exact, 
 
 as indeed was all his correspondence so long as he lived. He never allowed 
 his religion, devotion, chivalry, or even intellectuality to divert his view 
 from a sane appreciation of the material basis on which all events are 
 founded. He was very solicitous for his soldiers' material welfare. 
 
 4. Independent. 
 
 While a boy he was always a leader among the parades 
 
 and shamfights he organized. At nineteen he was made maior in the Vir- 
 ginia militia. He was compelled to undertake command of the Ohio ex- 
 pedition, and was appointedl commander-in-chief of the Virginia militarv. 
 He was one of the Virginia delegates to the Continental Congress. He 
 became Commander-in-chief of the Army and President. 
 
 5. Chivalric. 
 
 At thirteen he wrote "Rules of courtesy and decent be- 
 havior in company and conversation." He spared the life of the traitor 
 Indian who shot at him. He declined command of the Ohio expedition 
 in favor of Fry. His mother he always addressed as "honored madam." 
 When elected member of the Virginia Assembly he was so modest he could 
 not speak. On the field of Isattle he had no leniency toward cowards. 
 
 6. Restless, 
 
 As a child he was fond of military things, organizing 
 
 sham-fiights and parades. At fourteen he wanted to enter the navy and 
 see the world. Next he undertook land surveying. He was an early riser, 
 before dawn. In all his military undertakings his success was largely 
 due to his quick action, and restless forging ahead; as at the unexpected 
 Trenton victory. 
 
 7. Devoted. 
 
 He was devoted to his mother, to her attributing all his 
 
 success in life. At fifteen he had given his heart to a girl. At the 
 Pamunkey he met and fell in love with his future wife, forgetting all his 
 engagements for the day, and wrote her a beautiful engagement letter be- 
 fore going in action. For seventeen years he lived at Mount Vernon in 
 happy domesticity. After success at Yorktown he hastened to hand in his 
 resignation, and return home. He refused the suggestions of those who 
 would have preferred to see him king than president. At the end of his 
 first term he wished to return home; and a third term he refused. 
 
 8. Religious. 
 He acknowledged the protection of Providence at Brad- 
 dock's defeat. Through life he loved and believed the Christian religion. 
 "Agnosticism had no charms for him." He wrote an order to the New York 
 army repressing swearing. At Valley Forge he persisted in his cause, 
 actively relying on the help of Providence. After Yorktown he ordered 
 all divisions of the army to hold divine services. 
 
CONCLUSION 167 
 
 5. CALENDAR OF FAMOUS MEN, FOR OBJECT 
 TEACHING. 
 
 If imitation is the basis of education, then the teacher 
 needs a biographical calendar of famous representative 
 men, one for each day of the year, and arranged by 
 subjects so as to make intelligent selection possible. 
 Until now the only available one has been that of 
 Auguste Comte, the leader of the Positivist school of 
 philosophy, which Frederick Harrison has developed 
 in his "Calendar of Great Men." Unfortunately, this 
 list is obsolete, for many reasons. To begin with, it 
 ignores all the most modern era. Second, it devotes 
 months to topics of little general interest, omitting, or 
 giving scant room to the modern aspects of life. 
 Third, it belongs still to the age that began study with 
 Greece and Rome, neglecting Oriental civilization and 
 primitive conditions. Fourth, its arrangement into 
 thirteen months makes its application puzzling. For 
 practical purposes, therefore, a newer calendar is 
 here proposed. It is advised that it be employed in 
 connection with the story course in ethics mentioned 
 further on. 
 
168 
 
 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 APRIL, the Month of WRITERS and DRAMATISTS. 
 
 Represented by CICERO and SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 1, Cicero, Seneca; 
 
 2, Demosthenes; 
 
 3, Lessing; 
 
 4, Montaigne; 
 
 5, Maeterlinck; 
 
 6, Ruskin; 
 
 7, Emerson. 
 
 8, Cervantes; 
 
 9, Manzoni; 
 
 10, Balzac; 
 
 11, Dickens; 
 13, Heyse; 
 13, Tolstoi; 
 
 15, Kalidasa; 
 
 16, Aeschylus, 
 
 Corneille; 
 
 17, Sophocles, 
 
 Racine; 
 
 18, Euripides, 
 
 Hugo; 
 
 19, Aristophanes, 
 
 Moliere; 
 
 20, Ollanta; 
 
 li,Har't B.Stowe. 21, Dante. 
 II. MAY, the Month of SOLDIERS 
 
 Represented by CAESAR and JOAN of ARC. 
 
 22, Flaubert; 
 
 23, Madach; 
 
 24, Ibsen; 
 
 25, Goldoni; 
 
 26, de Vega, 
 
 Calderon; 
 
 27, Wilbrandt; 
 
 28, Goethe. 
 
 1, Cherdolaomer; 8, Miltiades; 
 
 2, Hyksos; 
 
 3, Rameses; 
 
 4, Sennacherib; 
 
 5, Nebuchadnez- 
 
 zar 
 
 6, Cyrus; 
 
 7, Alexander. 
 
 III. 
 
 9, Leonidas; 
 
 10, Hannibal; 
 
 11, Scipio; 
 
 12, Belisarius; 
 
 15, Theodoric; 23, Richard Coeur 
 
 de Lion; 
 
 16, Genghis Khan; 23, Frederick 
 
 17, Boadicea; Barbarossa; 
 
 18, CharlesMartel; 24, Louis IX; 
 
 19, Gustavus 25, Cortez; 
 Adolphus; 26, PetertheGreat; 
 
 20, Cromwell; 37, R. E. Lee; 
 
 21, Napoleon. 38, Grant. 
 
 13, Attila; 
 
 14, Charlemagne. 
 
 JUNE, the Month of the WEALTHY. 
 
 Represented by CROESUS and MORGAN. 
 
 8, T.A.A.Roehss; 15, Robert Morris; 23, Russell Sage; 
 
 16, Alex. Hamilton; 33, C. W. Field; 
 
 17, T. J. Aster; 24, T. W. Mackay; 
 
 18, Vanderbilt; 25, Jay Gould; 
 
 19, P. T. Barnum; 26, J. J. Hill; 
 
 20, A. T. Stewart; 27, E.H.Harriman; 
 31, IVanamaker. 38, Rockefeller. 
 
 1, Aurungzebe; 
 
 2, Aristobulos; 
 
 3, Divitiacus; 
 
 4, Harpalos; 
 
 5, Alcibiades; 
 
 6, Atticus; 
 
 7, Maecenas. 
 
 IV, 
 
 Represented by COLUMBUS and FRANCES WRIGHT d'ARUSMONT. 
 
 9, Inigo Jones; 
 
 10, Cecil Rhodes; 
 
 11, Fouque; 
 
 12, Madero; 
 
 13, Fugger; 
 
 14, Rothschild. 
 
 JULY, the Month of PIONEERS. 
 
 1, Xenophon; 
 3, Nearchus; 
 
 3, Marco Polo; 
 
 4, VascodeGama; 11, Champollion; 
 
 5, Peter the 12, Livingston; 
 
 Hermit; 
 
 6, FrancisXavier; 13, Magellan; 
 
 8, Sir Walter 15, Pizarro; 33, Adm. Perry; 
 
 Raleigh; 16, Ponce de Leon; 23, Lewis and 
 
 9, Sir Francis 
 
 Drake; 
 10, Du Chaillu; 
 
 17, Hernando de Clark; 
 
 Soto; 34, Peary: 
 
 18, Seigneur 2.5, Shackleton; 
 
 d'Iberville; -26, Booker 
 
 19, HenryHudson; Washington; 
 30, Samuel de 27, Miss Willard; 
 
 Champlain; 
 
 1, Abraham. li, Cook, Tasman. 21, Cortes. 28, Neal Dow. 
 
 V. AUGUST, the Month of PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 Represented by PLATO and HYPATIA. 
 
 8, Thos. Aquinas; 15, Hegel, Green; 32, Condillac; 
 
 1, Pythagoras; 
 
 2, Epicurus; 
 
 3, Zeno; 
 
 4, Plutarch; 
 
 5, M. Aurelius; 
 
 6, Lucretius; 
 
 7, Plotinos. 
 
 VI. 
 
 9<Grotius; 16, Schopenhauer; 23, Comte; 
 
 10, Spinoza; 17, Nietzsche; 24, Bergson; 
 
 11, Descartes; 18, Christ. Krause; 25, Darwin; 
 
 12, Leibnitz; 19, Bostroem; 26, Spencer; 
 
 13, Hume, Mill; 20, Berkeley; 27, Karl Pearson; 
 li. Bacon. 21, Kant. 2S, William James. 
 
 SEPTEMBER, the Month of ART. 
 
 1, Praxiteles; 
 3, Apelles; 
 
 3, Guido Reni; 
 
 4, Correggio; 
 
 5, Titian; 
 
 6, Era Angelico; 
 7, Leonardo da 
 
 Vinci. 
 
 Represented by RAPHAEL and BEETHOVEN. 
 
 8, Rubens; 
 
 9, \^elasquez; 
 
 10, Corot; 
 
 11, Turner; 
 
 12, Muncaksy; 
 
 13, Hoffman; 
 
 14, Hunt, Watts. 
 
 15, Bach; 
 
 16, Mozart; 
 
 17, Mendelssohn; 
 
 18, Schubert; 
 
 19, Chopin; 
 
 20, Brahms; 
 
 21, Wagner. 
 
 32, Verdi; 
 S3, Gounod; 
 
 34, Liszt; 
 
 35, Rubinstein; 
 26, Grieg; 
 
 87, Tchaikowsky; 
 28, Macdowell. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 169 
 
 VIT. OCTOBER, the Month of INVENTORS. 
 
 Represented by ROGER BACON and Mme. CURIE. 
 
 1, Archimedes; 8, Gutenberg; 15, Morse; 22, Edison; 
 
 2, Daedalus; 9, Hatch, Fulton; 16, Reis, Bell; 23, The Lumieres; 
 
 3, Daguerre; 10, Watt; 17, McCormick; 24, Mergenthaler; 
 4,.Tacquard; 11, Palissy; 18, Eads; 25, Holland; 
 
 5, \'aucanson; 12, Whitney; 19, Metchnikoff; 26, Zeppelin; 
 
 6, Montgolfier; 13, Goodyear; 20, Burbank; 27, The Wrights; 
 
 7, Fahrenheit. li.Elias Howe. 21, Horace Wells. Z8, Marconi. 
 
 VIII. NOVEMBER, the Month of PHILANTHROPISTS. 
 
 and TEACHERS. 
 
 Represented by GEORGE MUELLER and SOCRATES. 
 
 1, W.L.Garrison; 8, F. Nightingale; 15, Diogenes; 22, Cotton Mather; 
 
 2, Geo. Peabody; 9, Dorothea Dix; 16, Origen; 23, Tim. Dwight; 
 
 3, T. Oglethorpe: 10, Jane Addams; 17, Jerome; 24, James McCosh; 
 
 4, Montefiore; 11, Harvard; 18, Abelard; 25, Noah Porter; 
 
 5, F. Crittenton; 12, Henry Bergh; 19, Petrarch; 26, Horace Mann; 
 
 6, Mrs. Fry; 13, Peter Cooper; 20, Comenius; 27, Mark Hopkins; 
 
 7, St. Elisabeth, li, Carnegie. 21, ThomasAmold. 28,Chas. IV. Eliot. 
 
 IX. DECEMBER, the Month of EPICS and POETS. 
 
 Represented by HOMER and JELULADIN. 
 
 (15, Vedic Hymns; 22, Compoamor; 
 
 4, TheDionysiaca 
 
 5, The Eddas; 
 
 6, The Kalevala; 
 
 7, Virgil' sAeneid 
 
 16, Pentaur; 
 
 17, Pindar; 
 
 18, Horace; 
 
 1, Ramayana; 8, Lusiad; 
 
 2, Shah Nameh; 9, Roland; 
 
 3, Bidasari; 10, Jerusalem 
 Delivered; 
 
 11, Stagnelius's 
 Blenda; 19, Japanese 
 
 12, Arany's Toldi; Poems 
 
 13, Mistral's 20, Nahuatl 
 Mirfiio: Hymns 
 
 li:,Milton,Vondel. 21, The Psalms. 
 
 X. JANUARY, the Month of STATESMEN 
 
 Represented by MOSES and QUEEN ELIZABETH 
 
 23, Heine; 
 
 24, Hugo; 
 
 25, Tegner; 
 
 26, Carducci; 
 37, Tennyson; 
 
 28, Longfellow. 
 
 1, Confucius; 
 
 2, Manu; 
 
 3, Sargon; 
 
 4, Menes; 
 
 5, Solon; 
 
 6, Lycurgus; 
 
 7, Pericles. 
 
 XI 
 
 8, Haroun al 
 
 Raschid; 
 
 9, Justinian ; 
 
 10, Charles V: 
 
 11, Philip II; 
 
 12, Louis XIV; 
 
 13, Henry VIII; 
 
 14, Innocent III. 
 
 15, Richelieu; 
 
 22, Diaz; 
 
 16, Kossuth; 23, Washington; 
 
 17, Kosciusco; 24, Franklin; 
 
 18, Savanarola; 85, Jefferson; 
 
 19, Francia; 26, JeffersonDavis; 
 
 20, Simon Bolivar; 27, Pres. Wilson: 
 
 21, Garibaldi. 28, Lincoln. 
 
 FEBRUARY, the Month of RELIGIOUS LEADERS. 
 
 Represented by JESUS and PAUL, 
 
 1, Mencius; 
 
 2, Gautama; 
 
 3, Zoroaster; 
 
 4, Mahomet; 
 
 5, Isaiah; 
 
 6, Tamehameha; 
 
 7, Numa. 
 
 8, St. Teresa; 
 
 9, Mme. Guyon; 
 
 10, Fenelon; 
 
 11, Boehme; 
 
 12, Theologia 
 
 Germanica; 
 13,Tauler; 
 
 15, St. Augustine; 22, Swedenborg; 
 
 16, St. Francis 
 
 17, St. Bernard; 
 
 18, Loyola; 
 
 19, Heloise; 
 
 20, Calvin; 
 
 1, Euclid; 
 
 2, Tycho Brake: 
 
 3, Newton; 
 
 4, Herschel; 
 
 5, Laplace; 
 
 6, Kepler; 
 
 7, Galileo. 
 
 li.Thos.A'Kempis. 21, Luther. 
 
 XIL MARCH, the Month of SCIENTISTS 
 Represented by COPERNICUS and HUMBOLDT 
 
 23, Fox, Penn; 
 
 24, Ann Lee; 
 35, Ballington 
 
 Booth: 
 
 26, Mrs. Eddy; 
 
 27, Felix Adier; 
 
 28, Wesley. 
 
 8, Vojta, Ampere: 15, Helmholtz; 22, Huxley; 
 
 9, Cuvier; 16, Asa Gray; 23, Averroes; 
 
 10, Lavoisier; 17, Audubon; 24, Hippocrates; 
 
 1 1 , Harvey ; 18, Lyell ; 25, Jenner ; 
 
 12, Boerhave: 19, Agassiz; 26, Koch; 
 
 27, Coke- 
 
 28, Blackstone. 
 
 INTERCALARY DAYS, of WOMEN. 
 
 1, Aspasia; 2, Cornelia; 3, Monica; 4, Mme de Stael; 5, Harriet Martineau; 
 6, Margaret Fuller Ossoli. 
 
 13, Leeuwenhoeck; 20, Darwin; 
 
 14, Linneus. 21, Oliver Lodge. 
 
170 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
 
 6. STORY COURSE IN ETHICS. 
 
 Objective methods in the kindergarten and primary 
 school has adopted as its centre the child, so must its 
 value of stories in impressing points is unquestioned, 
 and yet the high schools have not made definite pro- 
 vision therefor. Practical class-room ethics, the chief 
 practical interest of the teacher, will be most efficiently 
 subserved if it be not only taught objectively, but also 
 systematically. For this object the writer has issued 
 a book called "Stories for Young Folks,^' adapted; by 
 double index, to rapid consultation at an emergency 
 by parent or teacher, and also presenting a coherent 
 scheme of a twenty weeks' story course in practical 
 pupil-ethics in the class-room, at home, and among 
 companions. It is illustrated, and is followed by an 
 English translation of the two simple classics of an- 
 tiquity in this field, which, strangely enough, are not 
 accessible otherwise; namely, Prodicus' "Choice of 
 Hercules," and Kebes' "Picture." This was evidently 
 the type of moral story Bunyan followed in his famous 
 "Pilgrim's Progress." This "Picture" has the advan- 
 tage, however, of being undenominational in practical 
 religion, and suited to the intellectual quest of the 
 student. The book contains also a careful scheme by 
 which the teacher can conveniently discuss a different 
 topic each day of the term. The illustrations make the 
 book welcome to pupils. 
 
^iiort ^torieg for ^oung jFoIfes^ 
 
 and for tbeir Parents, CcacHers, Triends, and Clerdvmen. 
 
 Oitb tbe Srccb Pilgrtm's Progress, by Kebes, and the Choice of l^ercules, by Prodicus. 
 Handsomely illostfatcd by Kathefine Brauer, and Meta Spreen 
 
 By Kenneth $vi^an Qutbric, 
 
 A.M., Harvard; Ph.D., Tolane; M.D., Medico-Chirurgical, Phila. 
 
 The object of this compilation is not to form a 
 positive course in moral inspiration, but to furn- 
 ish the child, the parent and the teacher with an 
 accessible treasury of apposite, well-selected ob- 
 jective illustrations for the frequent, but unexpected 
 urgencies when a moral point needs to be enforced 
 in a convincing and memorable, and therefore, in 
 an alluring manner. 
 
 The stories have been selected not only from trad- 
 ition, but also from contemporary life. The biogra- 
 phy of Lincoln has fiirnished many unusual lessons. 
 
 Complete indexes by name and by subject enable 
 the teacher or parent to locate the most applicable 
 of th« 125 stories at a glance. 
 
 Being chosen from a practical teacher's stand- 
 point, they cover not only moral common-places, 
 but also the till now neglected definite school-room 
 urgencies, such as biting of nails, caricaturing, hazing, 
 wilful destruction of property, shamming sick, borrowing, 
 not going straight back home, etc. 
 
 For those who desire a Story Course in Social Eth- 
 ics, the matter has been grouped into 80 graded les- 
 sons, or 4 a week for the usual term of 20 weeks. 
 
 It makes a splendid gift for all boys and girls. 
 
 Prof. Max B. Greensteiii, Washington Irving High, N.Y.C, says 
 Your idea is good, and is well carried out. Both as parent and teacher, 
 I feel the book will be an inspiration and help to me. Its basic principle 
 the improvement of character through the story, follows accepted mod! 
 ern practice and theory. 
 
 Attractively printed and bound, post-paid, net, $1.10 
 
 Cbe gotJiparati^je Citerature Press, 
 
 p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J. 
 
Cbe Spiritual m^%%mi of Citerafure, 
 
 A Manual of Comparative Literature, 
 With Outlines for Study, and Lists of Lnportant Books* 
 
 By H^nnctb Sylvian GutDrie, 
 
 A.M., Harvard; Ph.D., Tolane; M.D., Medico-Chifufgical, Phila. 
 
 A fascinating Guide to Reading for every Reader, 
 Suitable for Literary Clubs, Institutes, Schools, Colleges. 
 
 It forms an unusually liberal education in Literature. 
 
 It gives tlie spiritual gist of the world's best lyric poetry. 
 
 It shows where the greatest thinkers agreed or differed. 
 
 It enables you to form mature literary judgments. 
 
 It directs your efforts to the most fruitful fields. 
 
 tbc Racial Contributions to the moria's Tdcals 
 
 are gathered from Hindu, Persian, Muhammadan, Mon- 
 golian, Egyptian, Babylonian, Zoroastrian, Greek, Mex- 
 ican, Malagasy, Slav, and Icelandic Sources. 
 Ci)c Great Ccgcnds of tbc UPorld 
 
 are studied in their elaborations by Aeschylos, Plato, 
 
 Kschemisvara, Dante, Calderon, Goethe, Shelley, Quinet 
 
 Tennyson, Longfellow, Hardy, Moody, and others. 
 
 Cbc Great lUoria-Bramas of Salvation 
 
 by Kebes, Augustine, Spenser, Bunyan, Byron, Ibsen, 
 Hugo, Tolstoi, Krasinsky, Madach, Wilbrandt and 
 Campoamor and others are explained in simple words. 
 
 Recommended by Vice-Chancellor Hall, of Sewanee. 
 
 Dr. Matthew Woods, of Philadelphia, writes of it: 
 
 I have carefully gone over the manuscript of Dr Guthrie's 
 exceedingly interesting book, and have found in it, com- 
 bined with much original thought, the learning of a stud- 
 ious life. It cannot fail to make a profound impression. 
 
 Net price, 350 pages, cloth bound, post-paid, $ l.f . 
 
 Each Copy is inscribed by the Author; to get a copy, write name and address 
 on this sheet, tear it off, and forward it, with the money, to him. 
 
 Cbe €oittparati«)e Dterature Pre$$, 
 
 p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J. 
 
JPerronife tf)e ^imple=f)earteb 
 
 A Breton Legend, after Souvestre, by 
 
 Bennett) ^plban (gutfjrie. 
 
 This legend is, by the experts, considered to be one 
 of the chief bases of the other Holy Grail legends, for 
 the reason that it claims a definite location, the castle of 
 Kerglas, near Vannes. After years of effort. Dr. Guthrie 
 succeeded in locating it, made some sketches, and has 
 reproduced one of them as frontispiece. 
 
 The story is of absorbing interest to all. The more 
 mature minds are charmed and refreshed by its contact 
 with nature, while the interest of the young is held by 
 the skill of the telling of the story. It has never failed to 
 arouse and hold the interest of groups of people. 
 
 It is simply, but attractively printed and bound, and 
 forms a handsome presentation booklet, suitable as gift 
 for birth- days or holiday seasons. The net price is 55 
 cents, postage paid. 
 
 APPREQATIONS 
 
 *It is a most chafming tale related in a fascinating 
 way. The style is so breezy and original that it is calcul- 
 ated to charm both old and young. Every child should 
 be entitled to peruse this beautiful legend.* 
 
 Florence van der Veer- Quick, London. 
 
 *I am very glad to hear that you are to publish the 
 
 story of Perronifc; for due to its action and veiled moral 
 
 it will be enjoyed by both young and old. We need more 
 
 of such charming old legends for readers to-day.' 
 
 Jane Havenf High School Principal 
 Net price, post-paid, 55 cents. 
 
 ®f)e Comparatibe l^iterature ^ress 
 
 p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J, 
 
asi tfje Supreme ^cJjool of ILiit 
 
 or, a tKbeorp of JProsresfgibe i^oralitp. 
 By Raines Saraine Smith. 
 
 It discusses the present-day problems of Love and Mar- 
 riage from the educational stand-point, and is the first 
 complete application of the genetic principle to psychol- 
 ogy, ethics, education, marriage, love, and sociology. 
 I. GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY 
 Psychology as Triune: Consciousness, the total Individ- 
 uality, and Biographic Development. 
 
 IL PROGRESSIVE MORALITY 
 A new genetic solution of the age-long controversy be- 
 tween the rival Theories of Ethics 
 
 HL BIOGRAPHIC EDUCATION 
 
 As Genetic Psychology forces Ethics to become Genetic, so 
 
 this involves Continuous Education, which culminates 
 
 in Marriage, Child-Training and Bereavement* 
 
 IV, EDUCATIONAL MARRIAGE 
 Present Matrimonial Evils. — Elimination of Organized 
 Ignorance. — Elimination of Celibacy. — Educational 
 Divorce. — The Family as a Republic, no longer a Tyr- 
 anny. — Matrimonial Suggestions. 
 
 V. EDUCATIONAL LOVE 
 
 Indissolubility of Educational Marriage. — The Self-Sur- 
 render of Uniting Love. — The Dramatic Roles of Disci- 
 plinary Love. — The Assimilation of Consoling Love. 
 
 A book of ideals for those thinking of contracting marri- 
 age, and of help for the reorganization of existing ones. 
 
 Prof. J^. ?|. J^ovnt of New York University writes 
 
 You seem to have hold of a very constructive idea. 
 
 Net price, cloth bound, post-paid, $1.10 
 
 EMPFIELD BOOK COMPANY, 
 Box 4, Lamott, Pa.