^■i' ■''"V'-^ ^^,^ L ^^ *<, s'^ J - ^// ^^ ..vv'' J° ..<^^ '^y>. -„ "Safe -^ .^^ ^^. . ■ - .^c^^■ <^y>. THE MANUAL OF DATES. ;7 THE MANUAL OF DATES: A DICTIONAEY OF EEFEEENCE I ALL THE HOST IMPOETAls^T EYENTS IN THE HTSTOET OE MANXIND TO BE EOUND IN AUTHENTIC EECOEDS. BY GEOEGE Hf TOWNSJELSD. Lo:NDO]sr: ROUTLEDGE, WAENE, & ROUTLEDGE, FAEEINGDON STEEET; NEW YOEK: 56, WALKEE STEEET. 1862. Ti4- COX AND WYiVIAy,' PEli:TEES, GREAT QUEEN STHEET, LINCOLN's-INN FIEI/DS. 6\ of Tnt. 14 '03 PEEFACE. IT lias been tlie aim of tlie Author to render The Manual of Dates a concise and trustworthy com- pendium of the principal events of Ancient and Modern times. As the value of a Book of General Keference must necessarily depend upon the character of the sources whence information is derived, the Writer has, in all cases, consulted the best authorities ; and their statements have been carefully considered and compared. On dis- puted points, conflicting accounts have been submitted to rigid scrutiny, and the view supported by the most conclusive evidence has been invariably adopted. Biographies, with the exception of short notices of English sovereigns, are not included in the alphabetical arrangement ; but the reader will find that the lives of many great men of every age and country are illustrated in various articles. In so large a collection of facts — the number of Articles in the volume being nearly double that contained in any similar work — certain errors and inaccuracies could not by any possibility be avoided. The critical reader, who understands the labour involved in the extensive researches required for a Book of this kind, can make due allowance for the same. The Author will feel greatly obliged to VI PREFACE. Critics and Correspondents if they will kindly point out inaccuracies, that they may be corrected in a future Edition. The work is furnished with a carefully-prepared Index, and a list of the principal Authorities. The Author deems it only an act of justice to Messrs. Cox & Wyman, to express his warm commendation of the very great care which they have bestowed on the Printing of this Work. London, Se^temher, 1862. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Amongst the numerous Works which have been consulted in this Manual, the following may be mentioned : — Alison's History of Europe, from the Commence- ment of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons iu 1815. 9th edit. 12 vols. 1853-55. Alison's History of JJurope, from the Fall of Napo- leon in 1815 to the Accession of Louis Napoleon in 1853. 8 vols. 1852-59. Almanac de Gotha. 1787 to 1862. 16mo. Anderson's History of Commerce. Annals of England : an Epitome of English History. 3 vols. 1855-57. Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century. By ' Sir E. Cust. 5 vols. 1858-60. Annual Register. Arnold's History of Rome. 3 vols. 1838-43. Asiatic Register. Baker's Chronicle of the Kings of England, with a Continuation by E. Phillips. 1730. Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary. Berry's Dictionary of Heraldry. 4to. Bohn's Antiquarian Library. Various Works. Bohn's Classical Library. Various Works. Bohn's Scientific Library. Various Works. Bohn's Standard Library. Various Works. Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. 3rd edit. 1853. British Almanac and Companion. 1829, &c. Broughton's Historical Dictionary of all Religions, from the Creation of the World to this Present Time. 1756. Folio. Bum's Ecclesiastical Law, by Robert Phillimore. 9th edit. 4 vols. 1842. Calendars of State Papers. Camden's Britaunia. By Richard Gough. 2nd edit. 4 vols. 1806. Carte's History of England. 4 vols. 1747. Cave's Antiquitates Apostolicas. Cave's Antiquitates Ecclesiasticse. Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 7 vols. 1849. Clinton's Fasti Hellenici. 3 vols. 1834-51. Clinton's Fasti Romani. 2 vols. 1845-50. Collier's Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain. Comyn's History of the Western Empire. Cotton's Fasti Ecclesise HiberuiciB. 4 vols. ; supple- ment, 1 vol. 1847-60. Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks. Cunningham's Handbook of London. 1850. Dictionnaire de la Conversation, et Supijl^ment. Disraeli's Amenities of Literature. 2 vols. 18.59. Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature. 3 vols. 1858. Ducange's Glossarium ad Scriptores Medise et Infimse Latinitatis. 6 vols. ; supplement, 4 vols. 1733-36. Dugdale's Monasticum Anglicanum. 6 vols. 1817-30. Dugdale's Origin es Juridiciales. 1666. Ecclesiastical and Civil History. By the Rev. Geo. Townsend, D. D. 2 vols. 1847. Encyclopsedia Britannica. 8th edit. Encyclopedia Metropolitana. 4to edit., and the revised treatises iu 8vo. Encyclopsedia of Antiquities. By the Rev. T. D. Fos- broke. 2 vols. 1843. English Cyclopoedia. By Charles Knight. Fairholt's Costume in England. 1846. Fiulay's Greece under the Romans. 1844. Finlay's History of Greece and Trebizond. 1851. Finlay's Histoiy of the Byzantine Empire. 1853. Foss's Judges of England. 6 vols. 1848-57. Froude's History of England. 6 vols. 1856-60. Gibbon's History of the Fall and Decline of the Ro- man Empire. By W. Smith. 8 vols. 1854-55. Grote's History of Greece. 12 vols. 1846-56. Guizot's History of Civilization. Gwilt's Encyclopsedia of Architecture. 3rd edit. 1854 Hale's New Analysis of Chronology and Geograpliy, History and Prophecy. 2nd edit. 4 vols. 1830. Hallani's England. 9th edit. 3 vols. 1857. Hallam's Middle Ages. 11th edit. 3 vols. 1855. Hallam's Literary History. 5th edit. 4 vols. 1855. Hamilton's East-India Gazetteer. 2 vols. 1828. Herbelot's BibliothSque Orientale. 1697. Historical Notes, 1509—1714. Compiled by F. S. Tho- mas. 3 vols. 1856. Historical Register. Hook's Church Dictionary. 6th edit. Home's, Rev., Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scripture. 10th edit. 4 vols. 1856. Humboldt's Cosmos. Bohn's edit. Hume and Smollett's History of England, continued by the Rev. T. S. Hughes. New edit. 18 vols. 1854-55. Knight's London. 6 vols. 1841-44. Knight's Popular History of England. Vols. I. to VI. Koch and Schoell's Histoire abr^gSe des Traitfis dePaix. 15 vols. 1817-18. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopsedia. Lascelles' Liber Munerum pubUcoram Hibemise. 2 vols. 1724. Layard's Nineveh and its Remains. 5th edit. Layard's Nineveh and Babylon. Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanse. By T. Duffus Hardy. 3 vols. 1854. Lewis's Credibility of Early Roman History. 2 vols. 1855. Liber Albus. Mahon's, Lord, History of England. 2nd edit. 7 vols. 1839-54. Marsden's History of Christian Churches and Sects. 2 vols. 18.56. Martin's Histoire de France. 4th edit. McCulloch's Dictionaiy of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. 1859. Mill's British India. Milman's Histoiy of Latin Christianity. 6 vols. 1854-55. Montfaucon's l'Antiquit6 expliqu6e. 5 vols. ; sup- plement, 5 vols. 1719-24. Moreri's Dictionnaire Historique. Mo^heim's Ecclesiastical History. 4 vols. 1850. Mliller's Historv of the Literature of Ancient Greece. 3 vols. 18.58. Mure's Language and Literature of Ancient Greece. 5 vols. 1850-57. Nares's Glossaiy, edited by James O. Halliwell and Thomas Wright. 2 vols. 1859. National Cyclopoedia and Supplement. Notes and Queries. 1st and 2nd series. Palmer's Origines Liturgicre. 4th edit. 2 vols, 1845. Parry's Parliaments and Councils of England. TUl BOOKS OF EErERENCE. Petrie and Shai-pe's Monumenta Historica Britan- nica. 1848. Pictorial History of England. 8 vols. 1849. Prescott's Charles the Fifth. 2 vols. 18-57. Presoott's Ferdinand and Isabella. 2 vols. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico. 2 vols. 1860. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 vols. Prideaux's Old and New Testament connected. 2 vols. 1845. Public Records and State Papers. Quarterlv Review. Rapia's Histoiy of England. By N. Tindal. 2nd edit. 4 vols. 1732-47. EawUuson's Herodotus. 4 vols. Eees's Encycli^pasdia. Richard et Giraud's BibliothSque Saerfie. 29 vols. 1822-27. Riddle's Ecclesiastical Chronology. 1840. Robertson's History of the Christian Church. Robinson's Theological Dictionary. 4th edit. 1844. Rudiug's Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain. 3rd edit. 3 vols. 1840. Russell's History of Modern Europe. 4 vols. Edit. 1856. Russell's Modern Europe epitomized. Rymer's Fcedera. Folio. Salmon's Chronological Historian. 3rd edit. 2 vols. 1747. Sharon Turner's History of England. Sharpe's History of Egypt. 4th edit. 2 vols. 1859. Sheppard's Fall of Rome. 1861. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biogi-aphy and Mythology. 3 vols. Smith's Dictionaiy of Greek and Roman Geography. 2 vols. Statutes at Large. Statutes of the Realm. Stephens's New Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- land. 4th edit. 4 vols. 18.58. Stevens's History of the Ancient Abbeys, Monasteries, Hospitals, Cathedral and Collegiate Churches. 2 vols. 1722-23. Stowe's Survey of London and Westminster. 2nd edit. 2 vols. 1720. Tanner's Notitia Monastica. By James Nasmith. 1787. Thulwall's History of Gree'^e. 8 vols. 1845-52. Thornton's Gazetteer of the TeiTitories imder the Government of the East-India Company. 181 Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of England. FoUo. 1840. Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of "Wales. Folio. 1841. Tonilin's Law Dictionary. 4th edit. 2 vols. 1835. Towusend's Historical and Chronological Ai-range- nient of the Bible. Turner's Histoiy of England. 6th edit. 12 vols. 1836-39. Tytler's Histoiy of Scotland. 3rd edit. 7 vols. 1845. Ure's Dictionai-y of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. By Robert Hunt. 5th edit. 1860. Wade's British Histoiy. 5th edit. 1847. Wharton's Law Lexicon. White's History of England. 1860. Wilkinson's Dalmatia and Montenegro. 2 vols. . Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians. Wright's History of Ii-eiand. 3 vols. A NEW MANUAL OF DATES Aarsatt, or Aegovia (Switzerland), which for some time formed part of Berne, was made an iadependent canton by the Act of Mediation, published Feb. 19, 1803, Part of the Frickthal, which Austria, by the sixth se- cret article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, in 1797, had relinquished, was incorporated with it, in consequence of which a treaty between Argovia and Baden was signed at Aarau, Sept. 17, 1808. By the new constitution, finaUy settled ia 1815, Aargau ranks amongst the twenty -two Swiss cantons. A diet assem- bled at its chief town, Aarau, on the invasion of Switzerland by the French iu 1798, was the last summoned under the old confedera- tion. An insurrection occurred in Aargau, Jan. 10, 11, and 12, 1841 ; and in 1844 the people demanded the expulsion of the Je- suits. The castle of Habsburg, the seat of the ancestors of the imperial family of Aus- tria, is situated in this canton, Abacot. — Mention of the cap of state worn by some of our kings occurs in the Chronicle of Fabyan, who includes amongst the spoils that fell into the hands of Ed- ward rV., after the battle of Hexham (1463), ' Henry the Sixth's " bycoket, gamysshed with ii. crownes of golde, and fret with perle and ryche stone." This account is repeated by later authors. Grafton uses the term " abococket," and Camden says : " In that fatal battle fought here, 1463, on the plains called the Levels, was taken the cap of state called Ahacot, adorned with two rich crowns." Abakcat (Battle) . — At this place, in Peru, Almagro, during the civil war amongst its Spanish conquerors, gaiaed a complete vic- tory over Alvarado, July 12, 1537. Abattoib.— By 4 & 5 Hen. VII, c. 3 (1490), butchers were made subject to a fine for slaughtering beasts within the walls of the j city of London. The act extended to all j towns of England except Berwick and Car- 1 lisle. The butchers having constructed drains to carry off the filth, &c., petitioned i to be relieved from its operation, and this was done by 24 Hen. Vm. c. 16(1533), Stow j (Survey, b. v. ch. 12) relates that on the visitation of the plague in the reign of Eliza- beth, an ingenious Italian gentleman and physician assigned one great cause of it to be the killing of cattle within the city, and proposed that slaughter-houses should be erected in the suburbs of Loudon and other cities. By a decree of Napoleon, dated Feb. 9, 1810, it was ordered that five abattoirs, or public slaughter-houses, should be erected in the vicinity of Paris. They were opened in 1818. Eoule and ViUejuif each contained 32 slaughter-houses ; Grenelle 48 ; and Menil- montant and Montmartre each 64 ; making in aU 240 slaughter-houses. Similar estab- lishments have been erected in the precincts of aU large towns in France. The abattoir erected in Edinburgh in 1851 was the first introduced into the United Kingdom. Peti- tions for the removal of Smithfield, and the substitution of these useful estabhshments, were presented to Parhament April 23, 1833 ; and abattoirs form part of the new Cattle-market in Copenhagen-fields, opened June 13, 1855, Abbacomites. — Lay-abbots, who, during the Middle Ages, obtained from the sove- reign certain monasteries in the way of bene- fices, became very nimierous in France, and several decrees on the subject are found in the records of the jperiod. Fosbroke (British Monachism, c. vii. p. 83) states that " there were anciently lay-abbots, which, it seems, was owing to the laity seizing the church lands, and leaving only the altar and tithes to the clergy. Lay-abbots were also called Abbacomites, and Abbates milites, — 'noble abbots,' and 'knightly abbots.' They were great persons, under whose protection the monasteries voluntarily placed themselves; but these protectors became their oppres- sors. They had another title, that of ' Com- mendatory Abbots,' and often filled the first offices in the court and army." Bernard, the J'^oungest of Charles Martel's six sons, was ay-abbot of the monastery of Sithin, or St. Quentin, in the middle of the 8th century ; and Prince Eugene, when he made his first campaign (1683), was commendatory abbot of two ancient monasteries. Abbassabad. — ^This Persian fortress was captured by the Eussians July 31, 1827, a battle having been fought here June 20 ; and another, called the battle of Djevan-Boulak, July 18. The Eussians were victorious in each encounter, Abbassides. — This race wrested the scep- tre of the Saracens from the house of the Om- miades, and occupied the caliphate for more than five centuries. They were descendants of Abbas-Ben- Abul-MotaUeb, tmcle of the Prophet. Gibbon remarks : " In the visible separation of parties, the green was conse- ABB crated to the Fatimites ; the Ommiades were distinguislied by the white ; and the black, as the most adverse, was nattirally adopted by the Abbassides. Their turbans and garments were stained with that gloomy colour : two black standards, on pikestaves nine cubits long, were borne aloft in the van of Abu Moslem ; and their allegorical names of the night and the shadow obscurely represented the indissoluble union and perpetual succes- sion of the line of Hashem." They rebelled against the Ommiades, 746, and gained seve- ral victories. Merwan 11., the fourteenth and last cahph of the Ommiades, having suf- fered a terrible defeat on the banks of the Zab, fled into Egypt, and was slain in a mosque at Busir, on the banks of the !Nile (Feb. 10, 750). Abul Abbas, or Al Saffah (the Sanguinary), became the first caliph of the Abbassides ; and their empire lasted until Feb. 20, 1258, when the Mongol leader, Ho- lagou Kian, stormed Bagdad, and put Mos- tasem, the last of the race, to death. The Abbassides removed the seat of empire from Damascus to Bagdad, in 762. The following is a complete hst of these caliphs, with the date of their elevation to power : — Abnl Abbas 750 Al Mansur 754 AlMahdi 775 Al Hadi 785 Haroun Al Kashid . . 786 Al Amin 809 Al Mamiin 813 Al Motassem 833 AlWathek 841 Al Motawakkel .... 847 Al Mostanser 861 AlMostain 862 AlMotaz 866 AlMohtadi 869 Al Motamed 870 AlMotatlhed 892 AlMoktafi 902 AiMoktader 908 Al Kaher 932 A.D. AlEadM 934 Al Motaki 940 AlMostakfl 944 AlMoti 945 AlTai 974 Al Kader 991 AlKaim 1031 AlMoktadi 1075 AlMortader 1094 AlMostarshed 1118 AlEashid 1135 AlMoktafi 1136 Al Mostanjed 1160 AlMostadM 1170 AlNaser 1180 AlZaher 1225 Al Mostanser 1226 Al Mostasem 1240 Abbaye (Prison of) . — ^Among the fearful scenes enacted under the rule of Danton, Eo- bespierre, and their associates, may be men- tioned the terrible massacres at the prisons of Paris in the year 1792. The prison of the Abbaye, in which many of the Swiss sol- diers, and members of the aristocracy, were immured, was the first assailed. The attack commenced at 3 o'clock in the morning of the 3rd of September, when many of the wretched inmates were put to death, under circumstances of unparalleled atrocity. A mock tribunal was formed for the trial of the unfortunate captives. Abbess, the lady superior of a religious house of females. Martene says that the abbesses, in early times, exercised some of the spiritual functions belonging to the priesthood, and even confessed their nuns. This practice having led to various incon- veniences, was suppressed. Bingham (Antiq. b. vii. 0. 3, s. 13), referring to the statement in the Saxon Chronicle, that abbesses were present at the council held at Becancelde, in Kent, in 691, remarks : ♦' It is justly noted 2 ABB by learned men as a new thing, to find ab- besses, as well as abbots, subscribing in the council of Becancelde, in Kent, anno 694, and that before both presbyters and tem- poral lords, as the author of the Saxon Chro- nicle reports it. For this is the first time we meet with any such thing in the records of the ancient church." Abbeville (Treaties), — Wolsey met Francis I. here, and, on the part of Henry VIII., concluded three treaties with the French king, Aug. 1, 1527 ; they were rati- fied at Amiens, Aug. 18. Aebet, a religious house, presided over by an abbot or abbess, into which persons retired, dwelling in seclusion fi"om the world. In times of persecution, the primitive Chris- tians took refuge in mountains, caves, and desert places, and were afterwards collected together and formed into rehgious commu- nities. The practice arose during the De- cian persecution, in the middle of the 3rd century. St. Antony, one of the fathers of Christian hermits, formed his ceU at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, between the Eed Sea and the Nile, in 305. Hilarion, about the same pe- riod, according to Mosheim, introduced the system into Syria and Palestine. St. Pacho- mius was the first to introduce regular mo- nasteries. He built several in the Thebais, in Egypt, during the 4th century. Bing- ham says (Antiq. b. vii. c. 1, s. 4), " Till the year 250 there were no monks, but only ascetics, in the Church : from that time to the age of Constantino monachism was confined to the anchorets hving in private cells in the wilderness : but when Pachomius had erected monasteries in Egypt, other coun- tries presently followed the example, and so the monastic life came to its fuU maturity in the Church." By some decrees of the council of Saragossa, in Spain, 381, prohibiting clerks from leaving their ministry to take monastic vows, and also specifying the age at which virgins might take the veil, it is evident that in this part of Europe monastic institutiona were established at an early period. St. Martin, bishop of Tours, built a monastery at Poitiers in the 4th century. Cassian founded two, one for moiiks and the other for nuns, at Marseilles, about 409. Twelve- religious houses were estabhshed in Italy, within 40 miles of Eome, by St. Benedict, in 529, that of Monte Cassino, erected on the site of an ancient temple of Apollo, in Campania, being the chief. St. Benedict was the first to institute monastic vows and rules. One founded in the isle of Bardsey at the end of the 5th, and another at Bangor-Iscoed in the beginning of the 6th century, are sup- posed to have been the first monasteries in England. An estabhshment of the kind was founded at Benchor, in Ireland, about 520. St. Columba foimded one in the isle of Huy, or lona, in 565 ; and the abbey of Old Mel- rose was founded before the end of that century. By 27 Henry Vni. c. 28 (1536), all monasteries and rehgious houses not pos- sessing more than £200 per annum were suppressed 3 and by 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. ABB (1539), all institutions of the kind were abo- Hshed. They amounted to 186 greater and 374 lesser monasteries, besides 48 houses of the Knights Templars; making a total of 608. The income was estimated at £137,000 per annum. A:bbot, or Abb at. — The term is derived from the Syriac abha and the Hebrew ab, the Greek form being abbas, a father. When hermits, or holy men, formed themselves into rehgious societies, one of their number was chosen as a chief. The monks must not, however, be confounded with ascetics, for, as Bingham states, "there were always ascetics in the Church, but not always monks retir- ing to the deserts and mountaius, or Hving in monasteries and cells, as in after-ages." The practice of dwelling together in com- munities, and under a chief, arose with St, Pachomius, in the reign of Constantine. They were first styled j&chimandrites, and the use of the term "abbot" commenced in 472. The custom for an abbot to be in orders originated in the 6th century. Ab- bots gradually grew important, were called to councils, and aspired to an ascendancy over bishops. In order to check this ten- dency, the coimcilof Chalcedon (451) enacted that " aU monks, whether in city or country, shall be subject to the bishop, and concern themselves in no business, sacred or civil, out of their own monastery, except they iave his Mcense and permission upon urgent occasion so to do." In spite of this, and other stringent laws, the abbots managed to engross power. Hence arose mitred abbots, who wore a mitre, and had absolute authority. They were exempt from diocesan jurisdiction, having episcopal authority within their precincts. In England, they had a seat in parhament, and were called abbots sovereign, or general, to distinguish them from other abbots. At the Eeforma- tion, according to some authorities, there were 26 and two priors. Fuller mentions 27 parhamentary abbots and two priors. There were also crosiered abbots, from the crosier or pastoral staff, which they bore in the right hand, and not as the bishops, in the left. Abbots ruling over establishments having several branches, were styled cardi- nal abbots, and, on the continent, the titles of prince-abbots, field-abbots, and abbot- counts were used. In olden times, instead of the benediction since employed at what is called the consecration, the abbot was invested with the cowl, the pastoral staff was placed in his hand, and the shoes on his feet. Abbot op Fools, or MiSRiri;!;, called in Scotland, the " Abbot of Unreason," was a master appointed during the Middle Ages, to preside over the Christmas festivities. This mock prince was frequently crovmed, and attended with aU the paraphernalia of royalty. A similar custom prevailed in many- parts of France, and is evidently derived, aa Prynne declares, from the ancient Siatur- nalia. The Abbot of Unreason was sup- pressed by the Scotch legislature in 1555. ABD The allowance granted to an abbot of Mis- rule by a nobleman early in the 16th cen- tury, according to an entry in the Earl of Northumberland's Household Book, was one pound. The "Abbot of Misrule" was changed into " Lord of Misrule," at the Ee- formation. Abbot of Htjt, or Iona, also Icohnkill, an island on the west coast of Scotland. This island, Bede (b. iii. c. 4), writing at the commencement of the 8th century, ssys, " was always governed by a presbyter- abbot, under whose power the whole pro- vince, and the bishops also, were subjected, after an unusual manner, pursuant to the example of the first foimder, who was not a bishop, but only a presbyter and a monk." This statement gave rise to a controversy ©n church government, in the 17th century. Bingham (b. vii. c. 3, s. 14), referring to Bishop Lloyd on Church Government, con- tends that Bede speaks of " only one small part of Scotland ; " and this subjection was not in spirituals. Indeed it seems to have been " an acknowledgment of some civil jurisdiction over the bishops, which may veiy well consist with their superiority in spiri- tuals." {See Abbey.) Abbotsfoed (Scotland) stands near the abbot's ford on the river Tweed, between two and three miles from Melrose, and 30 from Edinburgh. Scott purchased the pro- perty in 1811, and the present residence was completed in 1824. Abdication. — The most remarkable in- stances of the abdication by rulers, of su- preme power, are those which have occurred under no pressure of poMtical exigencies, but from the promptings of purely personal motives. The act of abdication committed by James II. of England was not formal, but constructive : he had deserted the throne, and parhament declared it vacant. The abdications of Napoleon I., of Louis Philippe, and of many other rulers, were compulsory ; and it is only by a perversion of the meaning of the word, that it can be applied to such transactions. B.C. 79. Sylla, the dictator. A.D. 305, Mayl. The emperor Diocletian, called by Gibbon " the first example." Maximiuian abdicatedat the same time, but re-assnmed the pxirple in 306. 747. Carloman, eldest son of Charles Martel, abdi- cated and became a monk. 1294. Peter Morone, the hermit pope, elevated to the papal chair as Celestine V., July 5, abdicated Dec. 13, and retired to his old mountain hermitage, above the pleasant valley of Sulmona, in the Abruzzi. 1555, Oct. 25. Charles V. resigned the imperial dignity. He abdicated the Spanish throne in 1556. 1654, June 16. Queen Christina of Sweden abdi- cates. 1730. Victor-Amadjeus II., Sardinia. 1809, March 29. Gustavus IV., Sweden. 1814, April 6. Napoleon I., France. 1830, Aug. 2. Charles X., France. 1848, Feb. 24. Louis Philippe, France. 1848, March 21. Louis Charles, Bavaria. 1848, Dec. 2. Ferdinand I., Austria. 1849, March 26. Charles Albert, Sardinia. 3 ABE Abecedaeiaks. — This branch of the sect of Anabaptists -was founded, in the 16th century, by Stork, a disciple of Luther. He maintained that all Imowledge only prevented men from attending to the divine instruction invrardly communicated, and refused to learn anything, even the alphabet : hence their peculiar designa- tion. Abelites, sometimes called Abelians, a sect of heretics that sprung up at Hippo, in Africa, during the 4th century. They mar- ried, but abstained from inatrimonial inter- course, following, as they pretended, the example of Abel, because no mention is made in Scripture of his children. Wlien a man and a woman entered this society, they adopted a boy and a girl. The heresy was not of long duration. It is generally sup- posed to have commenced just before the final separation of the Eastern and Western empires, under Arcadius (393), and to have terminated during the reign of Theodosius the Younger (414^-450). Abencereages and Zegeis, two Moorish famUies, whose quarrels are said, by some writers, to have deluged Granada with blood (1478—1490). Abensbeeg (Battle), April 20, 1809, be- tween the Austrians and the French. " The Austrians," says Alison, "were not routed at any point, and no artillery was taken; nevertheless, they had to lament the loss of 8,000 men; the archduke Charles's commu- nications with Landshut were thrown open to the enemy ; they had been deprived of the advantages of the initiative ; and, what is of incalculable importance, had been unsuc- cessful in the first considerable action of the campaign." The results were, that Land- shut fell on the 21st, the battle of Eckmiihl was fought on the 22nd, and Eatisbon cap- tured on the 23rd of April. Abeedeek (Scotland) is supposed to have formed the seat of a settlement during the 3rd century. The episcopal see was trans- ferred hither from MortUch, Banffshire, by David I., in 1137; and George Haliburton, promoted in 1682, was the last bishop. Old Aberdeen was made a free royal burgh in 1154. In 1296, Edward I. passed through this city, after defeating and deposing John BaUiol. The castle was taken, and the for- tifications were levelled, in 1308 ; and the city was burned by the English in 1336. Ifew Aberdeen was then erected, and be- came an important seat of commerce during the Middle Ages, but suffered greatly from the wars between England and Scotland. King's College, Aberdeen, was chartered by papal bull in 1494, and completed in 1500. It is an extensive biulding, containing a chapel, library, and museum. Marischal Col- lege, in the new town, was founded in 1593 by George Keith, fifth Earl Marischal. The two colleges were united by a deed of union in the reign of Charles I. It was repealed in 1661. Abkedbbn ADHiiasTEATiON', known as the " Coalition Ministry," was formed soon ABI after the resignation of Lord Derby's first administration, Dec. 17, 1852, and presided over by the fourth earl of Aberdeen. The feeble prosecution of the war against Eussia by this cabinet rendered it unpopular, and its resignation followed the motion for inquiry into the state of the army be- fore Sevastopol, carried in the House of Commons on Jan. 29, 1855, by a ma- jority of 157. The cabinet was thus con- stituted : — Treasury Earl of Aberdeen, Lord Chancellor Lord Cranworth. President of the Council . .Earl Granville. PrivySeal Duke of Argyll. Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Gladstone. Home Secretary Lord Palmerston. Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell. Colonial Secretaiy Duke of Newcastle. Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bai-t. Boai-d of Control Sir C. Wood, Bart. Secretary at War Mr. Sidney Herbert. Public Works Sir W. Molesworth, Bart. Without Office Marquis of Lansdowne. The following changes occurred : — the earl of Clarendon became Foreign Sec. Feb. 21, 1853, in place of Lord John EusseU, who retained a seat in the cabinet, without office, and became President of the Council in the place of Earl Granville, who was made Chan- cellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, June 9, 1854. The War department was separated from the Colo- nies, June 8, 1854. The duke of Newcastle retained the former, and Sir George Grey acceded to the Colonial secretaryship. Lord John Eussell resigned office Jan. 23, 1855 ; but as the ministry retired on the 1st Feb., | the vacancy was not filled up. {See Palmer- ston' s First Administration.) Abhoerees.— The elections of 1679 having proved unfavourable to the court party, Charles 11., by repeated prorogations, pre- vented the assembling of the new parliament. Petitions praying for the immediate com- mencement of the session poured in from various parts of the kingdom. The church and court party encountered these demon- strations by addresses to the king, abound- ing in loyal expressions, supporting the pre- rogative, and declaring the deepest abhor- rence of those who sought to interfere with the same by dictating to him with respect to the meeting of parhament (1680) . Hence the rival parties were called "Addressers, or Petitioners," and /'Abhorrers." These appellations soon gave place to the well- known terms Whig and Tory, that have come down to the present day. ABiifGDOif Law. — On the capture of this town by the earl of Essex (May 25, 1644) , a garrison was placed in it by the parliamenta- rians. During the various attempts made by the royalists to regain this important place, a singular custom is said to have pre- vailed ; and from this the term "Abingdon Law" arose. The cruel practice of the gar- rison was to hang aU the Irish prisoners without trial; and many Englishmen suf- fered, either by design or from accident, ■dnder this barbarous custom. ABJ Abjubation Oath.— The last act (13 Will. III. c. 6) to which the royal assent was given by William III. on his deathbed, March 2, 1702, required all persons in office, members of the universities above 18, mem- bers of the legal profession and schoolmas- ters, peers and members of parliament, to take the oath abjuring the claims of the Stuarts. The oath was altered in the reign of Queen Anne and put into a new form by 6 Geo. III. c. 53 (1766). It was changed for Eoman Catholics hj 31 Geo. III. c. 32 (1791), and in 1829 by the Eoman CathoMc Eehef Act. By the statute 21 & 22 Vict. c. 4S (July 23, 1858) , one oath was substi- tuted for the three oaths of Abjuration,Alle- giance, and Supremacy. ABJUEATioif OF THE Eeaim, was an en- gagement, on oath, to quit the realm, and never return to it without the king's license. The ancient common law of England allowed a person who had committed any felony, except treason and sacrilege, to make such an oath before the coroner within forty days after taking sanctuary, ujider the penalty of death by hanging if he broke it, unless he was a clerk ; in which case he was allowed benefit of clergy. Abjuration underwent several modifications in the reign of Henry VIII., and was abolished as a privilege, together with that of sanctuary, in 1624 (21 James I. c. 28, s. 7). By 35 Eliz. c. 1, Eoman Cathohcs and Protestant dissenters convicted of having refused to attend the service of the Church of England, might be required to abjure the realm. Erom this act, which was passed in 1593, Protestant dissenters were exempted in 1689 (see TotE- EATiON Act), but Popish recusants not until 1791. Abo (Finland) . — This city was bmlt by Eric IX., king of Sweden, 1157. It was taken from the Swedes by the Eussians in 1713 and 1808 ; and was, with the whole of Fin- land, to the Toruea, finally ceded to Eussia by the treaty of Frederieksham, Sept. 17, 1809. A fire occurred here Aug. 22, 1775, by which above 200 houses and fifteen mills were consumed, and some lives lost; and another, Sept. 4, 1827, destroyed 780 build- ings, with the university, founded in 1640. Abo was made an archbishopric July 20, 1817. Abo (Treaty of), between Eussia and Swe- den, August 18 (O.S. 7), 1743, terminated the war commenced in 1741. Sweden ceded to Eussia, Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, together with the eastern portion of Finland, making the river Kymmene the boundary between the two states ; whilst Eussia relin- quished to Sweden the remainder of her conquests in Finland. ABOEiaiNEs, or Abekeigines. — Some writers consider the term to represent a colony of Greeks, who settled in Italy long before the Trojan war. Niebuhr states that the name means the inhabitants of the country from the beginning, answering to the Greek autochthones; and Sir G. C. Lewis declares the obvious Latin etymology of | ABE aborigines to be the true one, adding, " The name was applied to a primitive Italian race, at a comparatively early date ; but there is no ground for adopting the view of Diony- sius, which makes it a national appeUation, and identifies it with the people having an historical existence." Hence the later appli- cation of the term to the primitive inhabit- ants of any country. Aboxtkik (Egypt).— The Turks were de- feated here by the French, under Napo- leon I., July 25, 1799. On the 8th of March, 1801, an English army, under Abercrombie, effected a landing near this place, and com- pelled the French to retreat. (See Wile.) Abraham (^ra of), so called from the patriarch Abram, commenced, according to the best authorities, Oct. 1, 2016 b.c. AsEAHAM-MEif, beggars, who roamed about the country, on the dissolution of the religious houses in the 16th century. They were also called "Tom of Bedlam's Men." The term " to sham Abraham " is supposed to have been derived from the tricks of these vagrants. Abbahamites, Abeahamians, or Ibeahi- MIAH. — A sect of heretics, the followers of one Abraham of Antioch, called by the Arabs, Ibrahim, who attempted to revive, towards the close of the 8th centiuy, the errors of the Pauhcians. Several Syrians were seduced; but Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch, vigorously opposed the new heresy, and it was extingviished in the commence- ment of the 9th century. Abbahamites. — An order of monks were thus named. They rose in the 9th century, and were exterminated, on account of their idolatry, by the emperor Theophilus (circ. 835) .-rA modern sect of Abrahamites was discovered in Bohemia in 1782. They pro- fessed the rehgion of Abraham before his circumcision, and held various peculiar opi- nions : some were Jews by birth, others Protestants, and a few Eoman Catholics. They are said to have been called Abra- hamites from their doctrine, and Adamites from their real or supposed practices. Joseph II., in 1783, banished a large number of these sectaries to Transylvania and Te- meswar, on account of their obstinate refusal to incorporate themselves with one of the rehgions tolerated by law. These Abraham- ites are sometimes called Deists, or Nihihsts. Abeantbs (Treaty). — Disgusted at the provisions of the treaty of Badajos, con- cluded between Portugal and Spain, June 6, and ratified June 16, 1801, IS'apoleon overran the former kingdom. The war was brought to a close by the treaty of Abrantes, signed Sept. 29, 1801, by which Portugal agreed to shut its ports against England, rehnquished one half of Guiana to France, makiiig the river Carapanatuba the boundary between the possessions of the two states in that part of the world. The commerce of France was to be placed on the same footing as that of the most favoured nations; and, by a secret article, Portugal agreed to jpay £800,000 for the inxmediate evacuation of 6 ABS the country by the French troops. This treaty having been ratified at Madrid, is sometimes named after that city. Absentee Tax.— Parry (ParUaments, &c, of England, p. 142) notices a petition on Irish absenteeism presented to parUament ia 1380, during the reign of Kichard II. Com- plaints were frequently made on this sub- ject ; and, in the reign of Henry VIII., the estates of several non-resident landlords were seized. In 1715, a tax of 4, 1776. The Congress removed to Baltimore toward the end of 1776. The first Congress of the United States met at New York in 1789. Its sittings were transferred to Philadelphia in 1790, and were removed to Washington, where they have since been held, in 1800. Ameeican Stamp Act. — This measure (5 Geo. III. c. 12), imposing on the American colonists the same stamp duties as those paid in England, was introduced early in the session, and received the royal assent March 22, 1765. The taxation thus levied was less than £100,000 per annum. The act came into operation Nov. 1 ; but meeting with resistance, was repealed by 6 Geo. III. c. 11, passed March 18, 1766. Its operations ceased from May 1 in that year, and a biU of in- demnity for those who had incurred penalties was passed June 6. The revolt of the colon- ists commenced in 1773. Amethyst. — This stone was the ninth in order on the breastplate of the Jewish high- priests, and was consequently known as early as B.C. 1491. Amid, or Amida (Asia). — This city was wrested from the Eomans by the Persians, under Sapor, after a memorable siege that lasted from July 27 to Oct. 7, 359 a.d. The Persians captured it again, after a long siege, A.D . 502 ; but the Eomans soon regained Amiens (Treaties) . — The first, sometimes called the Peace of Picquigny, between Louis XI. of Prance and Edward IV. of England, was concluded here, in four acts, August 29, 1475. King Edward agreed to retire with his a,rmj, on the payment, by the king of France, of 75,000 crowns. A truce of seven years was agreed to by the two kings. They were to assist each other in case of need. King Edward agreed to give his daughter EHzabeth in marriage to Prince Charles, son of Louis XI., who also engaged to pay 50,000 crowns annually during Ed- ward's lifetime. The kings met at the castle of Picquigny, about twelve miles from Amiens. Philip of Commines remarks: "And certainly, as I have said before, the EngHsh do not manage their treaties and capitula- tions with so much cunning and policy as the French do, let people say what they will, but proceed more ingenuously, and with greater straightforwardness in their aiFairs ; yet a man must be cautious, and have a care not to affront them, for it is dan- gerous meddling with them." The pre- liminaries of the more celebrated treaty of Amiens were signed in London, Oct. 1, 1801 J the ratification was brought from AMO Paris to London in eleven days ; and the de- finitive treaty, containing twenty -two articles, was concluded at Amiens on the 25th of March, 1802, a supplementary article Ijeing added on the 27th. It was ratified in the following month, and peace was proclaimed in the cities of London and Westminster, on the 29th of April. The contracting parties were France, Holland, and Spain, on the one hand, and Great Britain on the other. England gave up to their former owners all the conquests made during the war, except Trinidad, wrested from Spain, and a por- tion of Ceylon, taken from the Dutch. It was stipulated that within three months after the exchange of the ratifications, the Enghsh troops should evacuate Malta, Gozo, and Comino, which were to be restored to the Knights of St. John ; and the independence of these islands was guaranteed by France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, and Prussia. The French agreed to evacuate Naples, and all the ports and islands which they; occupied in the Mediterranean or the Adriatic. Egypt was restored to Turkey. This treaty terminated a war of ten years* duration ; but peace scarcely lasted thirteen months. Napoleon's interference in Hol- land, Italy, and Switzerland, and his extra- ordinary annexations, induced the Enghsh govermnent to maintain their garrison at Malta, and the war was renewed May 17, 1803. Ammokites. — Descendants of Ammon, the son of Lot (Gen. xix. 38), about B.C. 1897. They occupied territory at one time in the possession of the Zamzummims, " a people great, and many, and tall as the Anakims." (Deut. ii, 19—21.) Although the Israehtes were commanded not to molest them, several wars ensued between the two nations, with varying success. They oppressed the Israel- ites B.C. 1206 (Hales, B.C. 1263 ; and Clinton, B.C. 1256) ; but were defeated by Jephthah with great slaughter (Judges, xi. 32, 33), b.c. 1188 (Hales, 1245 ; andChnton, 1238), and by Saul (1 Sam. xi.), b.c. 1094 (Hales, B.C. 1110). Davidsubduedthem B.C. 1038. Judas Maccabaeus fought many battles with them, and they leagued against Judsea B.C. 164. They gradually merged in the tribes of Arabia. Amnestt, or public act of pardon or obhvion for pohtical and other offences, was conmion amongst the Greeks and Romans. Amnesties were granted in England after the Great EebeUion and the Jacobite insur- rections : the latest act of parhament of the kind, passed in 1747, being 20 Geo. II. s. 52, entitled " An Act for the Icing's most gracious general and free pardon." In France fre- quent revolutions have rendered such acts of grace necessary during the present century. On the 3rd of May, 1856, the Queen granted a free pardon to several pohtical offenders who were concerned in the Chartist outbreaks and the insurrection in Ireland. Amoeites. — These descendants of Canaan (Gen. X. 16) became a powerful people, and I by this designation all the Canaanite tribes 41 AMO were at one time described. They took part in the struggle narrated in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis, about B.C. 1912. They were engaged in sereral contests with the Israehtes, who were instructed to utterly destroy their cities (Deut. xx. 16, 17) . AiroxJE, or Amtte. — This river of Chinese Tartary first became known to the Kussians in 1639. After a struggle of fifty years, with the view of annexing the territory through which it flows, they coacluded a treaty with the Chinese, in 1689, by virtue of which the Eussians remained wholly ex- cluded from the river. In 1847 its navigation was again opened to them by treaty ; and they have recently succeeded in their primary design of making the Amour a Eussian river. Amot (China). — ^Europeans were allowed to trade from 1675 to 1681. The fort of Amoy was destroyed by the British July 3, 1S4DJ and the town itself was taken Aug. 26, 1841. It was one of the five Chinese ports opened to the British by the treaty of Aug. 26, 1842. This town was taken by the Chinese insurgents May 29, 1853, and recaptured by the imperial forces ISox. 11, 1853. Amphicttoxic Cotjkcil was one of the earliest institutions in Greece. Grote says : •' The belief of ^schines (perhaps also the general belief in his time) was, that it commenced simultaneously Avith the first foundation of the Delphian temple, an event of which we have no historical knowledge." Twelve tribes sent sacred deputies, called Amphictyons, to this association, which held two meetings every year, one at the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, in the spring, and the other at the temple of Ceres, at Thermopylae, in the autumn. The interference of the Amphicytons led to the first sacred war, B.C. .595 — B.C. 586. At the instigation of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians were ex- pelled from the council B.C. 346 ; but they were re-admitted, for their valour in expeUing the Gauls under Brennus, B.C. 279. This council underwent various changes and vicis- situdes, although it survived tine independence of the country ; and so late as the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, it retained enough of its ancient dignity to induce Augustus to claim a place in it for his new city of Kicopohs. Pausanias states that it existed in the second century of our sera. Amphioit Peigate.— Destroyed at Ports- mouth by an accidental explosion, Sept. 22, 1796. Captain Pellew, and fifteen others on shore at the time, were the only persons that escaped out of a crew of 220 men. Amphitheatee. — The Eomans delighted in exhibitions of the hunting of wQd animals, of combats between gladiators and wild beasts, and other cruel spectacles ; and these, which at first took place in the forum and the circus, were afterwards performed in buildings devoted to such displays, and called Amphitheatres. The first was constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, consul B.C. 76. The next, and probably the fii'st called an amphi- AN"A theatre, was constructed by Julius Caesar, B.C. 46. This was of wood; and a more durable one, in stone, was erected in the Campus Martins, by Statihus Taurus, during- the reign of Augustus. It was destroyed by fir e in the time of Ilfero . Several amphitheatres- were afterwards built. The most remarkable, . known as the Colosseum, of which the ruins exist, was commenced by Yespasian in the- year 70 a.b., and completed in the year 80 by Titus, who opened it with magnificent spec- tacles. The ruins of several buildings of the- kind are stiU found in Italy and Prance. {See COLOSSETTM.) Amphiteite. — ^This ship, having on board 103 female convicts, 12 children, and a crew of 16 men, was wrecked off Boulogne, Aug. 81, 1833, when all perished excepting- three of the crew. Amsteedait, or AiisxELDAir (Holland) . — This great commercial emporium, on the river Amstel, founded in 1203, remained a small fishing-vfilage until the middle of the 13th century, when it was made a tovm. William III., count of Holland, took it in 1296 ; and WDliam IV. gave it municipal > institutions in 1340. It was waUed in 1482 ; ij joined the confederation of the Netherlands-- \ Feb. 8, 1578, and received additional privileges- ' from the prince of HoUand in 1581. Prom that time its prosperity increased rapidly, and it received an additional impulse from the closing of the Scheldt in 1648. It was captured by the Preuch, Jan. 20, 1795, and remained under their rule until 1813. Its townhall, erected on piles, commenced in 1648, was completed in 1655 : it narrowly escaped destruction by fire in 1762 and 1806, and was made a royal palace in 1808. The celebrated Bank of Amsterdam was founded 1609, and ceased in 1796, The Bank of the Netherlands, on the model of the Bank of England, was established here in 1841. Amsteedam Island (Indian Ocean). — Discovered by Yan Ylaming, a Dutchman, in 1696. Aurtri-ET. — Amulets of various kinds were in use among the Jews (Gen. xxxv. 4, and Hosea, ii. 13). The Persians and the Egyp- tians used them; the Greeks and Eomans made them of gems of various kinds. Homer mentions them as charms. Pericles, who died B.C. 429, wore an amulet. The em- peror CaracaUa, about a.d. 216, prohibited the use of them. Amulets made of the wood of the Cross, or of riband with texts of scripture upon them, as preservatives against diseases and other calamities, were adopted by Christians in the 4th century. The coimcil of Laodicea, in 366, condemned the practice. Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis (367), Chrysostom (400), and St. BasU, patriarch of Constantinople (970), and many others, censured this superstition. The 'ancient Druids used them, and both necklaces and beads, intended as charms, are frequently found in their barrows. ANABAPTISTS.— The term was first apphed to the followers of Mirnzer and Storck, who began to preach in Saxony in 1521. Owing r ANA to their inflammatory harangues, a rebellion broke out in Suabia, Thurin^ia, Pranconia, Saxony, and other parts ot Germany, in 1525. These sectaries were routed and their leaders put to death the same year. Their doctrines, howeyer, had not been extirpated, and another rising of the Anabaptists oc- curred in Westphalia in 1533. John Bock- hold, a tailor of Leyden, afterwards called John of Leyden, was made king. They captured Munster, which was to be their Nevr Jerusalem, in 1533, and the city was not retaken until June 24, 1536, when John of Leyden and many of his associates were put to death. About this time severe laws were enacted against the Anabaptists by different European governments. Their doctrines found supporters in England. Fourteen were burnt in London and in other towns. May 25, 1535, and four Dutch Anabaptists suffered the same punishment in 1538. Three were burnt at Southwark, April 29, 1540 ; and EHzabeth by proclama- tion ordered them to quit the kingdom within one-and-twenty days, in 1560. Some enthusiasts of this kind attempted to effect a rising in London, April 9, 1657, but were suppressed. Thomas Venner, an Anabaptist preacher, with about eighty of his followers, appeared in arms in London, Jan. 6, 1661. They fought desperately with the troops, but were at last overcome, and Venner and sixteen of his associates perished on the scaffold, Jan. 19 and 21. Anachoeets, or Akchoeets, arose in Egypt and Syi-ia in the 3rd century. Paul the Hermit, who retired into the deserts of Egypt to avoid the Decian persecution, a.d. 250, and St. Antony, born 251, are consi- dered the first anchorets. Bingham (Antiq. b. vii. c. ii. s. 2) says, the first sort of monks "were commonly Icnown by the name of An- chorets, from their retiring from society, and living in private cells in the wilderness. Such were Paid and Antony, and Hilarion, the first founders of the monastic life in Egypt and Palestine ; from whom other monks took their model." Eosbroke points out the dis- tinction between anchorets and hermits, the former never qtdtting their cells, whilst the latter roamed at large. The Church assumed jurisdiction over these voluntary exiles from the world in the 7th century, and enacted rules and regulations for their direction. Towards the end of the 9th century the custom arose of erecting their cells at the porches of churches and even the gates of towns. The ceremony of consecration was performed by the bishop. St. Dunstan's cell at Glastonbury (950) was so small that he could neither stand erect in it nor stretch his hmbs to their full length. In 1325 an anchoress resided upon a piece of ground ia St. Peter's, ComhiU ; and in the "Privy Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York," entries are made of gifts to an anchoress at Gloucester, 'Not. 25, 1502, and to another near St. Alban's, March, 1503. AiN'AGKAM. — Camden says, "Good ana- grams yield a delightful comfort and plea- AIs^A sant motion in honest minds," and refers their origin to the time of Moses. They were classed by the Hebrews among the cabalistic sciences. The Greeks took the practice, and Lycophron, about B.C. 380, has left some on record. They were very common on the continent in the 16th and 17th centuries ; and in the latter Louis XIII, appointed Thomas BUlen, royal anagramist, with a salary of 12,000 livres. Calvin, in his "Institutions," published at Strasburg in 1539, styles himself Alcuinus, which, in addi- tion to being the name of an old writer, is the anagram of Calvinus. They prevailed in England at a somewhat later ]3eriod. Akam, or AifNAM (Asia). — This extensive tract of country, comprising Cochin-China, and Tonquin, Camboja, or Cambodia, and some small islands, is said to have been colo- nized by the Chinese b.c. 234. The inhabit- ants appear to have regained their independ- ence, though they continued nominally sub- ject to China, a.d. 263. In 1406, the Chinese once more captured the country, which they retained until 1428. (See CocHiir CniifA, TOJN^QTIIN-, &c.) Anapa (Circassia). — Founded by the Turks in 1784 and captitred by the Eussians in 1791. It was restored to Turkey, but again captured by Eussia in 1807 and 1809, and again restored in 1812. The Eussians finally took possession, June 23, 1828 ; but abandoned it to the French and English forces, June 5, 1855. It reverted to the Eus- sians on the conclusion of peace in 1856. Anastatic Pkintim-g. — This process for producing copies of manuscripts, or printed documents, or engravings, that can with difficulty be detected from the originals, was invented by M. Baldermus. The fact of the discovery was communicated to a select few in London in 1841. It was soon after made public, and Faraday explained the process at the Eoyal Institution, April 25, 1845. It has since transpired that a similar process had been employed in England some time before M. Baldermus's invention was made known. Anathema "is a word," says Bingham (Antiq. b. xvi. ch. ii. s. 16), "that occurs frequently in the ancient canons, and the condemnation of aU heretics." It is found in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, and in Gal. i. 8 ; and upon its use in the latter text the authorities of the early Church grounded their justification of its employment ia ecclesiastical censures. The council of Gangra, a.d. 365 or 375, closes every one of its canons thus, — "Let him be anathema, or accursed ! " In ecclesiastical language it is generally understood as the sentence of major excommunication from the Church, pronounced with execration and malediction by a pope, bishop, or council. During the disorders occasioned by the violence of ban- ditti in France in the 9th and 10th cen- turies, when the ecclesiastical jurisdiction was appealed to in aid of the civil, anathemas were decreed against robbers by councils, in presence of holy relies brought in for the 43 ANA occasion. One of these, issued in 988, affords a very curious specimen of style and diction. {See Excommunication-.) Anatoxia. — ^Tlie Lydians dispute vritli the Phrygians the honour of being the first settlers. It was the seat of empire of the wealthy Croesus, who was defeated and his capital taken by Cyrus, B.C. 548; and it re- mained under the Persian yoke until con- quered by Alexander the Great, B.C. 333. At his death it was divided into several small states. They gradually fell before the Eoman legions, and the whole country was reduced to the form of a Eoman province, B.C. 50. Christianity flourished, and several councils were held in diiFerent parts. Here were the seven churches of Asia, to which St. John wrote his Eevelation (ch. i. 4 and 11), A.D. 96 or 97. The Persians under Chosroes II. overran the country in 616, and were defeated by HeracHus in 627. The Turks obtained possession 1074 — 1084. The Mongols committed great devastations 1242 — 1272. In 1300 AnatoUa was divided amongst the Turkish emirs. Another Mon- gol invasion spread ruin and destruction in 1402, but the Turks regained possession, and Anatoha has suice remained under theu' sway. The Byzantines apphed the term Anatolia to the country to the east of Con- stantinople, and it received the name of Asia Minor ia the 4th century. Anatoha or Anadol, in a more restricted sense, is now appHed to only a portion of Asia Minor. Anatojiy. — Some authorities pretend that this_ science was practised at a very early period, and that the Jews and other ancient nations from their sacrifices, and the Egyp- tians from their process of embahmng, obtaiaed a certain amount of knowledge on the subject. A writer in the Encyclopaedia Britannica remarks, — "Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history of anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be admitted with certainty. The first is, that previous to the time of Aristotle there was no acciirate knowledge of anatomy ; and the second, that aU that was known was derived from the dissection of the lower animals only." Aristotle (b.c. 334 — 327) laid the basis of the science, but it was not tmtil the 3rd century that the human body was dissected at Alexandria by Erasistratus, who obtained the bodies of criminals. Pliny states that the study was encouraged by the Ptolemies. Celsus, at the commencement of the Christian aera, gave some account of the progress of anatomy ; and Galen in the 2nd century collected all that was kno-\vn, and made great advances in the science. It flourished in Sicily in the 13th century, when Frederick II. enacted that no person who had not acquired a knowledge of ana- tomy should be allowed to practise surgery. Pope Boniface YIII. prohibited it in Bologna in 1297. Mundinus, between 1315-18, pub- licly dissected three human bodies at Bo- logna, and wrote a work on the subject that became a text-book in the Itahan universi- ANC ties. The greatest anatomist of the Middle Ages was Vesahus, who operated extensively on human subjects. He became professor at Pavia in 1540; and pubhshed his great work on anatomy, the first containing ana- tomical plates, at Basel, in 1543. Michael Angelo, Kaphael, and Lionardo da Vinci, had, previous to that time, been peiinitted by Juhus II. and Leo X. to study the muscles in the hmnan body for purposes of paiating and sculpture. Thomas Ticary, in 1548, was the first Enghshman who ■wrote upon the subject : he has been followed by Harvey, the two Hunters, and a number of eminent men, who, both by their researches and their writings, have brought this science to a state of great perfection. Anatomy Laws. — By 32 Hen. VIII, c. 43, s. ii. (1540), the barbers and surgeons of London were authorized to take, yearly, the bodies of four malefactors, executed for felony, for purposes of dissection. Several enactinents have appeared in the statute- book since that time. Great difficulty having been experienced in obtaining subjects for dissection, and bad practices having arisen, the "Act for Regulating Schools of Ana- tomy" (2 & 3 WiU. n^.^c. 75) was passed Aug. 1, 1832. It authorized the granting of hcenses to practise anatomy, and gave facfiities for procuring the necessary sub- jects ; whilst the sixteenth section repealed 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 4 (June 27, 1828), by which the body of a person executed for murder was ordered to be dissected. Ancenis (Treaty). — Concluded between Louis XI. and the dukes of Britanny and Normandy. It was ratified by the king and the duke of Britanny Sept. iS, and by the duke of Normandy June 21, 1470. Philip of Commiues says (book ii. ch, 5), — "The dukes renounced all their aUiances, and par- ticularly his (duke of Burgundy) ; and that, in satisfaction of all his demands, the duke of Normandy was to receive a pension of 60,000 hvres per annum, for which he was to rehnquish the interest which had been lately conferred upon him in Normandy." Ancients (Council of) . — The "Convention in 1795 divided the legislative power in France between two coimcils, that of the Ancients and that of the Five Hundred. To the former was intrusted the power of passing or rejecting the laws that originated in the latter branch of the legislatui-e. Their sit- tings were transferred to St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, and a new constitution soon after sup- pressed the council altogether. Ancona (Italy) . — The capital of a delega- tion of the same name, is said by Strabo to have been founded by a colony of Syra- cusans in the time of Dionysius, about B.C. 380. Juvenal calls it a Doric colonj'. The Eomans occupied it b.c. 178, and eventually made it one of their chief naval stations on the Adriatic. Trajan improved the town and constructed the mole a.d. 107; and a triumphal arch in white marble was erected in honoirr of him A.n. 112. The Lombards occupied it in 592, and the Saracens took it in ANC 839. The town adhered to the Greek emperors, and was besieged by Frederick I. in 1167; and again by the Germans and Venetians in 1174. Innocent III. expelled the Germans in 1198. Pius II. collected an army here for a crusade against the Turks in 1464, but died before he could embark in the expedition. The March of Ancona remained for a long period under the protection of the popes, though at intervals the connection was severed, until the papal general Gonzaga seized it, and placed it under the absolute dominion of Clement VII. in 1532. Ancona was declared a free port in 1732. The French captured it Feb. 9, 1797; surrendered it 'NoY. 13, 1799 ; regained it by the armistice of Treviso, Jan. 16, 1801; and restored it to the pope in 1802. A French expedition landed at Ancona and took possession of the citadel Feb. 23, 1832. They ^eld it until Dec. 4, 1838, when, upon the withdrawal of the Austrians from the papal dominions, they marched out. The Austrians captured it June 14, 1849; and the Sardinians in Sept, 1860, when General Lamoriciere, who had re-organized the papal army, was made prisoner. An episcopal see was established at Ancona at an early period. Aif CTEA (Asia Minor) . — An important town in Galatia, on the route from Byzan- tium to Armenia and Syria. It originally belonged to Phrygia. According to Strabo, it became the chief town of the Tectosages, a Gallic tribe, about B.C. 277. It was taken by the Romans B.C. 189; was formally an- nexed to Eome B.C. 25 ; and soon after took the name of Sebaste, and was sometimes called MetroxDohs. A Christian church was established here in the time of the apostles ; and it was made an episcopal see. Councils were held at Ancyra a.d. 314, 358, and 375 ; Chosroes II. captured the city in 616 ; the Saracens took it in 1085 ; and it was carried by assault, by the Crusaders, in 1102. (See Angoea.) Andalucia (Spain), anciently Vaistda- LTJCIA, a large province, that at one time formed part of the Eoman colony of Baetica. The Vandals conquered it early in the 5th century, and on their passing over to Africa, A.D. 429, the Visigoths obtained possession. They were expelled, in 711, by the Moors, who, in spite of various reverses, did not finally relax their hold until 1492, when their last possessions in Andalucia reverted to the Spaniards. An independent race of cahphs governed Andalucia from -756 to 1036. An- aalucia was divided into two departments, containing eight provinces, by a royal decree, Il^ov. 30, 1833. Andaman- Islands (Bay of Bengal). — The English attempted to form a settlement on one of the four in 1791. It was removed to Port CornwaUis in 1793, and abandoned, on account of the bad cKmate, in 1796. The British expedition _ against the Burmese touched here in 182*4, and another visit was made in 1825, on both of which occasions the inhabitants evinced great hostility. Andebnach (Prussia) . — The ancient ANE Antunacum, near which Caesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine, B.C. 55, for the passage of his army into Germany. Charles the Bald was defeated here Oct. 8, 876, by his nephew, Louis II. of Saxony. It was made an imperial city during the Middle Ages, but was reduced to the rank of a municipal town by the elector of Cologne in 1496. Andoeea. — This republic, in the Pyrenees, consists of neutral territory between France and Spain. It was formed by Charlemagne, during his wars against the Moors, and has preserved the same frontiers and mode of tovernment which it then received. By two iplomas, issued under the authority of Charlemagne, in 778 and 801, Andorra was constituted an independent state. The counts of Foisc were nominated protectors ; but a dispute having arisen in 860, on this point, a contest ensued, which lasted until 1278, when a co-protectorate was vested in the bishops of Urgel and the counts of Foix. The rights of the latter merged in the house of Bourbon, and, in consequence, the joint protectorate is now exercised by the emperor of the French and the Spanish bishop of Urgel. Andorra is the oldest free republic in existence. Andeew, St. (Order of), generally called Knights of the Thistle, was instituted, ac- cormng to some authorities, in memory of a battle won by the Scotch over the Enghsh, by the aid of St. Andrew. Others ascribe it to Achaius, king of Scotland, a.d, 787 or 812 ; others to the sera of Charles VII. of France. It was, however, estabhshed by James V. in 1540, revived by James II., of England, in 1687, and restored by Queen Anne, Dec. 31, 1703. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. Andrews, St. (Scotland). — This town was made a royal burgh by David I., in 1140. Its university was founded in 1411, by Bishop Wardlaw, and confirmed by a papal bull in the following year. It con- sisted of three colleges, namely, those of St. Salvator, founded in 1458 ; St. Leonard, in 1512 ; and New, or St. Mary's College, in 1552. The two former were united in 1747, and the buildings of St. Leonard pulled do-ivn. St. Mary's was remodelled in 1579. The cathedral of St. Andrews, founded in 1159, and completed in 1318, was nearly destroyed by a mob, excited by the preaching of John Knox, in June, 1559. St. Andrews was made an episcopal see in the 9th century, and an archbishopric in 1474. It was sup- pressed in 1689. The name of the see of Fife was changed to that of St. Andrews, Sept. 5, 1844. Andeos (Archipelago) , one of the Cyclades, colonized by lonians. Xerxes compelled the Andrians to join his fleet in the invasion of Greece, B.C. 480. The island became subject to the Athenians, afterwards to the Macedonians, and was taken by the Romans B.C. 200. It was captured by the Venetians A.D. 1124. Anemometer. — The earUest instrument 45 Ajsa of this kind was discovered by Croune, ia j 1667. It was improved by Wolfius, in the beginning of the 18th centmy. Angel. — This gold coin was introduced from France into England, by Edward IV., in 1465. Stow speaks of angelets at 6s. 8d. ; half-angels at 5s., and at 3s. 4d. On the 6th of September, 1526, the value of the angel was raised, by proclamation, to 7s. M. ; on the oth of November, ia the same year, to 7s. 6^. ; and in 1544 it was raised to 8s. Mary iiied it at 10s. Charles I. was the last king in whose reign angels were coined. Angees (France), the ancient Julio- magus, afterwards called Andegavia. — This town has been frequently assailed. Odoacer wrested it from the Eomans a.d. 464 ; Charles Martel captured it in 724 ; and the Danes, after having pillaged it several times, fortified it in 860. It was formerly the capital of Anjou. King John burnt it ia Sept. 1206 ; and the Vendeans were driven from it in 1793. In 1585, Huguenots seized the cele- brated castle biult by St. Louis. It was made the seat of a bishopric iu the 4th century, and a university was founded here in 1246. Councils were held at Angers in 433, 529, 1055 or 1062, 1157, 1161, 1269, 1279, 1365, 1448, and 15S3. ANGEBSxEiif G-ALLEEY. — This Collection, which formed the commencement of the National Gallery, consisted of thirty-eight pictures. It was purchased by the English government for £57,000, March 26, 1824. Akgleset, or Anglesea, anciently Mo- NA. — This island was in early times the chief seat of the Druids in Wales. Suetonius Paulinus captm-ed the island, after a despe- rate resistance, a.d. 61. He cut down the sacred groves, and butchered the priests and their people, though its subjugation was not completed until the year 78. Anglesey was •captured by the Normans in 1090. The in- haBitants haviug regained possession 1094, were again conquered in 1096. Magnus III., king of Norway, assailed it, committing great ravages, in 1098. After several contests, it was subjugated, with the rest of Wales, by Edward I., and it was annexed to England by 12 Edw. I., March 19, 1284. The Mona and Farys mines were discovered in 1768 ; the Menai Suspension Bridge, connecting the island with the mainland, was constructed between 1818 and 1825, and the Britannia Tubular EaUway Bridge was opened Mar. 6, 1850. Angling. — This art is of very ancient origin, and is even said to have been in- vented by Seth, about B.C. 3800. It is fre- quently mentioned in the Old Testament, and allusions to it occur in Job, one of the most ancient books of the Bible. The Greeks and Eomans practised it. Izaak Walton's delightftd work, entitled "The Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative Man's Eecreation ; being a Discourse of Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the perusal of most Anglers," appeared in 1653. There is a text of Scripture on the title-page (John, xxi. 3). It was not, however, the tirst Eng- 4£ ANH i lishbook on the subject. This honour be- i longs to " The Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle," by Dame Juhana Barnes, Bernes, or Berners, pubhshed by Wynkyn de Wordo in 1496. Anglo-Saxons. — ^A name given to several tribes, most of which were of Scandinavian origin. The Northmen having settled in Germany, from time to time invaded and possessed themselves of portions of ancient Britain. The date of their first invasion is uncertain, some authorities placing it a.d. 368, and others a.d. 449. They established them- selves in the southern part of the island, and gradually extended their settlements in other directions. Angola (Africa). — This territory, on the west coast of Africa, called Dongo by the natives, was discovered by Diego Cam, a Portuguese, in 1484. Settlements were soon formed, though it was not imtil 1578 that Loando, its capital, was commenced. The Dutch captured Loando in 1640, but the Portuguese regained possession in 1648. Angoea, anciently Ancyea (Asia Minor). — In a battle fought here, July 28, 1402, Timour, or Tamerlane, utterly routed the Turks, and took Sultan Bajazet prisoner. The story of Bajazet's confine- ment in an iron cage is denoimced by many writers as a fable. Gibbon, who weighed the evidence of the story carefully, beheves it to be too well attested to be without foundation. His conclusion is, that Timour intended to lead " his royal captive in triumph to Samarcand. An attempt to facilitate his escape, by digging a mine under the tent, provoked the Mogul em- peror to impose a harsher restraint; and in his perpetual marches an iron cage on a waggon might be invented, not as a wanton insult, but as a rigorous precaution." The Turks recovered Angora in 1415, and it has since remained in their possession. Angouleme (France), the ancient Icu- LiSMA, was the chief town of Angoiunois. It was made the seat of a bishopric a.d. 260, conquered by the Visigoths in 451; regained by Clovis in 507 ; taken by the Saracens in 731, and plundered by the Danes in 856. Afterwards it remained indej)endent under a succession of counts \mtil annexed to France in 1303. It was made a duchy in 1515 and reunited to France in 1710. Its cathedral, bunt in 1120, was destroyed by the Hugue- nots, and rebuilt in 1628. Anguilla, or Snake Island (West In- dies), came into the possession of the Eng- lish about 1632, and was colonized by them in 1666. The French having ravaged the island in 1796, re-embarked on the approach of a British frigate. Anhalt. — The house of Anhalt is one of the most ancient in Germany. It ranks amongst its members a long succession of princes and dukes, one of the former, Bern- hard, having rejected the imperial sceptre offered to him in 1198. The family enjoyed the greatest prosperity in the Middle Ages, when they ruled over a large portion of ANH Northern Germany. In 1252, Anhalt was divided into three parts ; again reunited in 1570, and once more divided amongst the four sons of Ernest Joachim I., in 1586, — Dessau, Bernburg, Coethen, and Zerbst. The latter branch died out in 1793, and their possessions were divided amongst the other three. The Coethen hue became extinct in 1847, and that duchy, according to the family •compact of June 22, 1665, is now rxiled by the duke of Anhalt-Dessau. The pi'inces of Anhalt took the title of dukes in the Con- federation of the Ehine, in 1809. Many of them greatly distinguished themselves by their defence of the Protestant cause. Anholt (Baltic Sea). — This small Danish island, in the Cattegat, was taken by the British, May 18, 1809. The Danes were defeated in an attempt to recapture it, March 27, 1811. Anjae (Hindostan). — This fortified town, not far from Cutch, was captured by the Eughsh in 1815. The town and district, ceded to England in 1816, were restored to the native government in 1822. It suffered from an earthquake in 1819. Anjou.— Charles the Bald, about the year 870, is said to have bestowed this part of France upon one of his followers, from whom the first line of the counts of Anjou was descended. In 1127, Geoffrey, afterwards Geoffrey V., son of Fulke, count of Anjou, married Maud or Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., and daughter as well as heiress of Henry I., of England. Their son, Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets, succeeded to the Enghsh throne in 1154, and in 1156 he deprived Ms brother, Geoffrey VI. of Anjou. It was soon after annexed to England, and the first hue of its counts ceased. Phihp Augustus obtained possession of Anjou in 1204, and his successor, Louis VIII., bestowed it upon his fourth son, Charles, who founded the second Hne. By his marriage with the daughter of Berenger, the last count of Provence, that important fief was annexed to Anjou. Charles moimted the throne of Sicily in 1266, and his pos- terity ceased to be connected vrith Anjou. The possession of Anjou became a frequent cause of strife between France and England ; and Edward III., who had conquered it, by the 9th article of the treaty of Bretigny (May 8, 1360), relinquished his claim. In that year, the French king, John, raised it into a duchy, and bestowed it upon his son Loms, who became the foimder of the third hue, and the first duke. This prince and his successors made several unsuccessful efforts to obtain the crown of Naples. His grand- son Eegnier, called the "good king Kene," gave his daughter Matilda in marriage to Henry VI. of England, April 22, 1445 ; and in 1448 he received Anjou, which had been seized by the Enghsh. Ken^ was dispossessed by Louis XI. in 1474, and Anjou was united to France. The title has been revived since that time, and the duchy, for a short interval, passed under the sway of its own dukes. Francis, duke of Alen9on, afterwards duke ANN of Anjou, entered into a convention with the people of the Netherlands, Aug. 20, 1578, by which he was to aid them against the Spaniards, the States conferring upon him the title of "Defender of the Liberty of the Netherlands against the Spaniards and their adherents." He ^asited England in 1581, and made proposals to Queen EHzabeth. His suit, in spite of an exchange of rings between the lovers, was rejected. He re* turned to the Netherlands early in 1582, and was formally installed sovereign of the States, Feb. 17 in the same year. He was expelled in 1583, and died in 1584, being the last dulie of Anjou that played a prominent part in history. Anjoxj (Battle), fought at Bauge, near Anjou, between the French and the Enghsh, on Easter eve, Saturday, March 22, 1421. The former were Aictorious, and the duke of Clarence was slain. It is sometimes called the battle of Baiige. AiTN'AN (Scotland). — Edward BaHol was surprised at night, when encamped at this place, by the earl of Moray, Dec. 25, 1332. The attack was so sudden, that httle re- sistance was made , and his brother Henry and others having been slain, Baliol fled, and escaped Avith difiiculty to England. Annan was created a royal burgh in 1538. Annates, or Fiest-fkuits, were the first year's whole profits, first of a bishopric and afterwards of any benefice, claimed by the pope. The tax was introduced in the see of Norwich by Pandulph, the pope's legate, in the reigns of king John and Hen. III. Clement V. and John XXII. endeavoured to make these payments universal in their ap- phcation, at the commencement of the 14th century. The claims met with much re- sistance ; and in 1404 an act (6 Hen. IV. c. 1) was passed for their regulation. The council of Basel condemned them, June 9, 1435. By 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1534), annates were granted to the king. This was repealed by2&3Phil. & Mary, c.4 (1555), but revived by 1 Ehz. c. 4 (1559). By letters patent Nov. 3,1703, Queen Anne restored first-fruits and tenths to the Church. {See Queen" Anne's Bounty.) Anne, Queen of England, the second daughter of James II. by his first wife, Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon, was born at Twickenham, Feb. 6, 1665, She was married to Prince George of Denmark July 28, 1683, and ascended the Enghsh throne March 8, 1702. Her husband, Prince George, died Oct. 28, 1708, and Anne herself, Aug. 1, 1714. They had four daughters and one son, who died in infancy, and another son, Wfiham, born July 24, 1689, and created duke of Gloucester by WHham III. He died July 30, 1700; and on his death a new settlement of the crown was made. Anneau (Battle),— Henry of Navarre's German aUies were defeated here by the duke of Guise, Nov. 24, 1587. Anno Domini, or the year of our Lord, commenced January 1, in the middle of the 47 ANN fourtli year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd from the building of Eome, and in the 4ri4th of the Julian period. Dionysius, sumamed " Exiguus," also known as " De- nys le Petit," a monk of Scythia and a Eoman abbot, iirst used it, about 527. It ■was introduced into Italy in the 6th cen- tury ; into France in the 7th, though it was not generally estabhshed there until the 8th century ; into Spain in the 11th, and it was uniformly used there in the 14th ; into Portu- gal in 1415, and into the Eastern empire and Greece in the 15th century. The first recorded instance of its employment in England is in the year 680, and it was generally adopted in the 8th century. The council of Chelsea, July 27, 816, decreed that aU bishops shovdd date their acts from the year of the incarna- tion of the Saviour. The actual date of the birth of Christ is Eriday, April 5, B.C. 4, or the fourth year of the 193rd Olympiad, the 4709th of the Julian period, or the 749th from the building of Eome. Annobost, or AifNABOirA (Gulf of Guinea), an island discovered by the Portuguese in 1471, ceded to Spain by a treaty concluded March 24, 1778. AifNUAL Eegister. — The first volimie of this work appeared in June, 1759. It was projected by Eobert Dodslev and Edmund Burke, and the latter was for many years editor and principal contributor. ANifUWCiAiiA (Order of), known ori- glnally as the " Order of the Necklace or ollar," was instituted in 1355, by Amadeus VI., duke of Savoy. It was intended to commemorate the exploits of his valiant predecessor, Amadeus V., who had dis- tinguished himself by his victory over the ■ Turks at the siege of Ehodes, in 1310. Vic- ! tor Amadeus, in 1720, raised it to the first ; order of the kingdom of Sardinia, the long j being grand master. Annunciation. — This festival, in com- j memoration of the tidings brought by the ' Angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary (Luke, i. ! 26 — 37), is of very ancient date. Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople, who died a.d. 447, and Basil of Seleueia, who died in 445, left discourses on the festival. It is cele- brated March 25th, which day, before the alteration of the calendar in 1752, was the commencement of the Legal year. Anointing-. — This ceremony, employed at the coronation of kings and the institu- tion of bishops and other dignitaries, is of very ancient date. Moses anointed Aaron and his sons (Lev. viii.), B.C. 1496 ; Samuel anointed Saul (1 Sam. x. 1), B.C. 1095, and David (1 Sam. ivi.l— 13),b.c. 1063. Anoint- ing was also practised amongst our early kings. Leo IV. anointed Alfred in 871; and this, Eapin says, was probably the first time the ceremony of crowning and anoint- ing was used by an Enghsh king. The cus- tom was kept up, and Eichard III. and his queen Anne were anointed at their corona- tion, July 6, 1483. Taylor (Glory of Eegahty, p. 347) states that one of the principal changes which our ceremonial has under- 48 ANT gone is the omission of the practice of anointing with chrism, after the imction of the consecrated oil. TiE the time of EUza- beth, or perhaps of James I., it was usual for the king to be anointed on the palms j of his hands, on his breast, between his I shoulders, on his elbows, and on his head, ! vrith the holy oil, in forma crueis, and after- I wards with the chrism, in the same form, j upon his forehead. Anointing, in early theological vnitings, has reference to bap- tism and confirmation. It was practised in exorcism and baptism by the Gnostics in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, in the Alexandrian church. The Marcosians, a branch of the Gnostics and the Ophites, anointed their dead. The anointing in Extreme Unction, practised by the Church of Eome, is a late invention. Anonymous Letteks. — By 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), called the Black Act, the sending a letter without a name, or with a fictitious name, demanding " money, venison, or other valuable thing," was made felony, the de- linquent to suffer death without benefit of clergy. Later enactments refer to threaten- ing letters -without being anonymous. Antalcidas (Peace of) was forced upon the states of Greece by Artaxerxes, king of Persia, b.c. 387. The terms were, that the Greek cities in Asia, and the islands of Cla- zomense and Cyprus, shotdd be subject to Artaxerxes, and that aU the other Greek cities should be left independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Seyros, which were to remain subject to Athens. Antaectic Eegions.— The adventurous Captain Cook, iu 1773, endeavoured to com- plete the circle round the South Pole, in ahigh latitude ; but his progi-ess was arrested by the ice. He was the pioneer of modern dis- covery in these regions. On the evening of Dec. 6, Captain Cook and his comrades cal- culated that they were at the antipodes of London, being the first Europeans who had gone so far. On the 30th of Januaiy, 1774, they reached the highest southern latitude that had then been attained by any dis- coverer. It was not until Eeb. 20, 1822, that Captain Weddel penetrated further. Captain Biscoe discovered land in this direction, Feb. 27, 1831 ; and went on shore on Graham's Land, Eeb. 21, 1832. Messrs. BaUeny and Ereeman discovered the Balleny Isles, Eeb. 9, 1839; D'UrviUe, Adelie Land, in 1840 ; and Sir James Eoss, in 1841, discovered a continent which he named Victoria Land. Anti-Cokn-Law League was formed at Manchester, at a public dinner, Sept. 18, 1838. Deputies assembled in London, Feb. 8, 1842, and from that time its operations were carried on with activity until Sir Eobert Peel passed a biH for repeal of the Corn Laws (June 26, 1846). The League was dissolved July 2, 1846. Antigua (West Indies), the largest of the Leeward Islands, was discovered by Columbus in 1493. It was, with other islands, granted to James, earl of Carlisle, f ANT July 2, 1627, to be colonized under the name of Carlisle Province. The first settlement appears to have been made in 1632. The French invaded the island in 1666, and com- mitted much havoc. An earthquake destroyed a large number of the churches, sugar -mills, and principal buildings on the island, Feb. 8, 1843 ; and great^ destruction of property was caused by hurricanes Aug. 12 and 13, 1835, and in 1848. It vi'as made the seat of a colonial bishopric in 1842; and a cathedral was erected at its chief town, St. John's, in 1847. Antilles, or Caribbee Islands. — The term Antilles is erroneously apphed to all the West-India islands, which some au- thorities divide into the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The French gave the name to the Caribbee or Windward Islands. {See Ca- EiBBEE Islands.) Antimony. — This term was formerly apphed to an ore in which antimony was combined vpith sulphur. Tersulphuret of antimony is found in great quantities at Sarawak, in Borneo. This preparation was used by the Jewish women for dyeing the eyelashes black. Jezebel used it (2 Kings ix. 30), about b.c. 884. The Greek and the Turkish ladies employ it in this manner. Preparations of antimony were only intro- duced into medical practice in the 15th century. Its virtues in this respect were first discovered by Basil Valentine, a Benedictine monk of Erfurt, born in 1394. Antinomians. — This is not the designation of a separate sect, but ofmembers of various sects who hold that Christians are free from the restr.aints both of the ceremonial and the moral law of Moses. They often, however, dhfered greatly in their views on this ques- tion. The theory existed in the time of St. Paul, for he alludes to it in Eomans, iii. 28 ; but the name was first apphed to the fol- lowers of John Agricola, of Eisleben, who had a controversy with Luther between the years 1538 and 1540. These modern Anti- nomians held, moreover, that the law should be whoUy excluded from the Church. The Antinomians became a strong pohtical party in England, equally troublesome to Charles I., the parliament, and Cromwell. In 1643 the Assembly of Divines condemned several writings which appeared to them Antino- mian ; and in 1648 the parliament enacted that any one convicted of maintaining that doc- trine should be imprisoned until he found sureties that he would not offend again. Hallam (Hist, of Lit. vol. i. pt. 1, ch. 4) says that Antinomianism prevails in the early writings of Luther. Antioch (Syria), now Antakieh, was founded by Seleucus Nicator b.c. 300, who named it after his father ; and it remained the capital of the dynasty till Syria was con- quered by Pompey, and was made a Eoman province b.c. 64. Christianity was planted in Antioch by Paul and Barnabas, and here the disciples were first called Christians, a.d. 42 (Acts, li. 26). This city, long known as •' the Queen of the East," was captured by the 49 ANT Persian kingNushirvan, or Chosroes, a.d. 540 ; and Chosroes II. wrested it from the em- pire in 611. Heraclius expelled the Persians, but it fell into the power of the Saracens in 638 (according to Clinton, Tuesday, Jiily 21) ; and they degraded it to the rank of a pro- vincial tovni. Nicephorus Phocas recovered it in 966, but it was betrayed to the Turks in 1084. The crusaders laid siege to it in 1097, and captured it Thursday, June 3, 1098,* The citadel held out, but the Saracens, who mado an effort to regain the prize, were defeated in a great battle under the walls of Antioch, Monday, June 28th, 1098 ; and Antioch be- came the capital of a Christian priiicipahty. Bibars, sultan of Egypt, captured it, de- stroyed its churches, and completely ruined it, June 12th, 1268. It was annexed to the Otto- man empire in 1516. Ibrahim Pasha seized it Aug. 1, 1832, but it was afterwards restored to the Porte. Antioch has frequently suf- fered from earthquakes ; the most disastrous occurred a.d. 115, 340, 394, 396, 458, 526, and 588. St. Jerome says that St. Peter was its first bishop, and that he was translated thence to Eome. Antioch was a patriarchate, and according to the council of Nice, the third after Rome and Alexandria. The council of Constantinople, A.D. 382, gives Constantinople the next place after Eome, and makes Antioch the fourth. This was confirmed by the council of Chalcedon in 451. Thirty-one councils were held at Antioch, the first in 252, and the last in 1141. Antioch (^ras of). — The Csesarean era of Antioch was instituted at that city in consequence of Caesar's victory at Pharsaha, Aug. 9, B.C. 48. The Syrians computed it from Oct. 1, B.C. 43 ; and the Greeks from Sept. B.C. 49. By the mundane sera of Antioch, the creation of the world was assigned to B.C. 5492, or ten years later than by the mundane sera of Alexandria. Ten years were, however, subtracted from the latter a.d. 285, and from that time the two seras coincided. Anti-popes, or rival popes, were, at different periods in the history of the Church of Eome, elected by contending parties. Even before Eome claimed supremacy over other churches, Novatian appeared, as a rival bishop of Eome, to Cornehus, in 251. The principal anti-popes are as follows : — Felix II. in 35.^. Ursinus in 367. Eulalius in 418. Laurentitis, or St. Law- rence, in 498. Dioscorus in 530. Peter and Theodorus in 68G. Theodorus and Paschal in 687. Theophilactus in 757. Constautine in 767. Philip in 768. Zizimiis in 824. Anastasius in 855. Sergius in 891. Boniface in 896. Leo VIII. in 955 & 963 Boniface VII. in 974. John XVI. in 997. Gregoiy in 1012. Sylve»tei- III. in 1044. Benedict IX. Sylvester III. in 1046. * Odericns Vitalis mentions Wednesday, and the editor of Bohn's edition (iii. 125) coiTects what he calls a mistake, by inserting Tuesday. There is , how- ever, some error ; for the 3rd of June, 1098, feU upon a Thursday. AUT Benedict X., afterwards I Anacletiis II. in 1130. >'icolas II. , in 1058. Victor III. in 1133. Honorius II. in 1061. Victor IV. in 1159. Clement II. in 1080. | Paschal HI. m 1164. Gregory VIII. in 1118. I Calixtus III. in 1108. Caelestine II. in 1124. | Innocent III. in 1178. The great schism of the West, when rival popes struggled to att.-iin the supremacy, eommenced in 1378, and lasted thirty-eight years. A demand was made for the election of a Eoman pontiff, and, although the French interest was in the ascendant in the conclave. Urban YI., an Itahan, was elected, April 9, 1378. On the 9th of August the cardinals at Anagni declared the election void ; and element VII., who soon after repaired to Avignon, was elected in his place, Sept. 20. Then commenced the schism, and the follow- ing were the anti-popes : — Oement VII. elected in I Gregory XII. in 1405. 1378 Uement VIII. in 1424. Benedict Xin. in 1394. | Felix V. in 1439. The last-mentioned abdicated in April, 1449, and thus terminated the great schism of the West. He was the last of what are termed the Anti-popes. Antiquaeies.— A Society of Antiquaries was formed in London in 1572, under the auspices of Archbishop Parker and Sir Robert Cotton, and was dissolved by James I. about 1604. It was revived in 1707, was reconstituted in 1717, and its minutes date from January 1st, 1718. It was incorporated by royal charter, ]S"ov. 2, 1751, and received the name of " Society of Antiquaries of London;" and in 1780 George III. granted to the members the use of apartments in Somerset House, where it continues to hold its meetings. The Society of Anti- quaries of Scotland was instituted at Edin- bui'gh in 1780. Asti-Sabbatakiah" Coi^^teoveest arose in the 16th century. Dr. Boimd, a Puritan, put forth the peculiar views of his party, in a publication entitled, " Treatise of the Sabbath," in 1595. This gave rise to the controversy, which was carried on with considerable animosity between the High Churclrmen and the Puritans. Anti-Saceedotalists. — A sect which ori- ginated in Flanders about 1115, according to . Mosheitn, and in 1122 according to Mibnan. Tanchelin, or Tanquelin, a layman of Ant- werp, was their founder. MUman says (Lat. Chris, iv, book ix. ch. 8), "He rejected pope, archbishops, bishops, the whole priesthood. His sect was the one true Church. The Sacraments (he denied transubstantiation) depended for their va- Edity on the hohness of him that admiuis- tered them. He declared war against tithes and the possessions of the Church. He was encircled by a body-guard of three thousand armed men, he was worshipped by the peo- ple as an angel, or something higher : they drank the water in which he had bathed. He is accused of the grossest hcense." He went from Utrecht to Rome, Bruges, and 50 AN'T Antwerp, where he ruled with " the power and state of a Mng." He was killed by a priest in 1124 or 1125 ; but his followers adhered to his opinions till the schism was extinguished by St. K'orbert, founder of the Praemonstratentians. Other Sacerdotalists appeared in France at a later date. Anti-Teibonians. — The name given to the opponents of the celebrated Tribonian, the minister of Justinian, and the chief compiler of the Justinian Code, the Pan- dects, andlnstitutes. HeflourishedfromA.D. 527 to 546. Gibbon says, " His genius, like that of Bacon, embraced, as his own, all the business and knowledge of the age." He was regarded as an opponent of Chris- tianity, and to this must his unpopularity be attributed. ANTi-TEiifiTAEiAifs. — Opposition to the doctrines of the Trinity conunenced in the ApostoHc period, with the rise of the Juda- izing Christians (Gal. i.). The Ebionites A.D. 66, the IS'azarenes about the same time, Ceruithus and his followers a.d. 96, held pe- culiar notions respecting the nature of Christ. Sect after sect foUovred in quick succession, until Arianism arose a.d. 318. The doctrines of Arius spread over Europe and parts of Africa, creating a great war of opinions, which began to decline in the 7th century. By an ordinance passed May 2, 1648, denial of the Trinity was made felony in England. Erasmus was accused of Arianism in 1536. Many of the German neologists of the pre- sent day are anti-Trinitarians. Antium (Italy). — This ancient Latian city was rendered subject to Rome by the treaty with Carthage, B.C. 509. The Yolscians afterwards obtained possession, but were expelled, B.C. 468, by the Romans, who planted a colony. It revolted B.C. 4-59, and remained independent for more than a cen- tury. The people of Antium were at war witn Rome B.C. 406; and another contest followed, that lasted from B.C. 336 to B.C. 374, when peace was concluded. It joined in the Latin war, which commenced b.c- 340, and was compelled to admit a Roman colony, B.C. 338. Coriolanus retired to AntitunB.c. 488. Its site is now occupied by Porto d'Anzo. A>"toik-e, St. (Battle). — This struggle, in which Conde, dui-ing the war of the Fronde, defeated Turenne, July 2, 1652, took place in the faubourg of St. Antoine, at Paris. ANTOifiNus, Wall of. (See Ageicoi-a.) Aktont, St. (Order of). — Albert, duke of Bavaria, instituted this military order in 1332. AifTEi5i (Battle). — A victory was gained at this place by the royal forces over the United Irishmen, June 7, 1798. Antweep (Belgium) . — The capital of apro- vince of the same name ; in the 11th century a small repubUc, became in the 16th the rich- est commercial city in Eiu-ope. The citadel was commenced by the duke of Alva in 1567, completed in 1568, and extended in 1701, Antwerp has been frequently besieged. It was pillaged and burnt by the Spaniards ANT S'ov. 4, 1576. This massacre, one of the most monstrous ever known, was called the Spanish Fury. The duke of Anjou attempted to cairy the city by a surpi-ise, Jan. 17 (O.S. 7), 1583. The whole of his force was either lolled or taken captive in less than an hour. This affair was called the French Fury. The duke of Parma besieged it in 1584, and it capitulated after a siege of fourteen months, Aug. 17, 1585. Its commerce suffered greatly from the closing of the Scheldt by the treaty of Westphaha in 1648. Marlborough ob- tained possession of Antwerp June 6, 1706 ; and Marshal Saxe May 9, 1746. The French repubHcans captured it Nov. 29, 1792. They retired in 1793, but regained possession July 23, 1794. It was relinquished by the French iu 1814, and formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands imtil 1830. The king of Holland having refused to give up the cita- del, the French began to bombard it on the 4th of December, 1832 ; and it surrendered Dec. 23. Antwerp was made the seat of a bishopric in 1559. The town-hall was rebuilt in 1581 ; and the exchange, founded in 1531, was destroyed by fire Aug. 2, 1858. Antwerp (Truce of), for twelve years, concluded between Spain and the United Provinces, March 29, 1609. AosTA (Piedmont). — Augustus, after the •subjugation of the Salassi, its ancient inhabi- tants, by Varro, B.C. 25, established a Eoman colony at this place, then called Augusta Praetoria. Aosta is now the chief town of the province of the same name. The gospel is said to have been preached at Aosta by the disciples of St. Barnabas, and its bishop- ric was established at an early period. Apocalypse, or The Eevelation op St. .John the Divine, was w ritten in the island of Patmos A.D. 96 or 97. The Alogi in the 2nd century rejected it, attributing the authorship to Cerinthus. Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria (a.d. 248 — 265), states that it was rejected by many persons of good character. Jerome, writing early in the 4th century, says that the Oriental church did not admit it into the canon, and it is not included in the list of books declared canonical by the council of Laodicea, a.d. 366. The council of Toledo, Dec. 9, 633, exconmiunicated those ■who refused to acknowledge its inspiration. Justin Martyr (130 — 160) and Iren sens, about 200, give important evidence in its favour. Erasmus and Luther doubted its authen- ^ticity. It is included in the canon, and accepted as the work of St. John. Several counterfeit books of the kind appeared in the early ages of the Church, as the Apoca- lypse of St. Peter, mentioned by Eusebius, .and the Apocalypse of St. Paul, said to have been found in a stone chest at Tarsus. Apollinabi AN Games, in h onour of Apollo, ■were instituted by the Eomans after their de- feat at Cannae, B.C. 212, to propitiate the god .andsecure his assistance against the Garthagi- ■.nians. The period of celebration was at first movable, but it was afterwards fixed for the '6th of July. Apollinaeians, or Apollinabists.— The 51 APO followers of ApoUinarius, bishop of Laodicea, A.D. 366, who denied the perfect humanity of Christ. They held other peculiar doctrines, which were condemned by the council of Constantinople, being the second general council, in 381, and by that of Eome in 374. Apollo Belvedeke.— This statue of Apollo was so called from the Belvedere of the Vatican, at Eome, on which it was placed by Pope Julius II. (1503-13) . It was found in the ruins of the ancient Antium in 1503. The French carried it off in 1797, but it was restored to the Vatican at the peace of 1815. Apostates. — Many of the African bishops refused to administer the communion to apostates in the beginning of the 3rd cen- tury. The Novatians about the same time advocated the most rigorous treatment to- wards them, and questioned the right of the Church to grant them reconcOiation. They were denied the privilege of Eoman subjects by the Theodosian code (381). The council of Aries, in 452, established penance for them. The Nestorians in the 11th century passed canons declaring that the guilt of apostates could only be washed out by their blood. Apostles' Creed.— Bingham (Antiq. b. x. ch. 3, s. 5) says, " Some have thought that the twelve apostles, in a fuU meeting, composed the Creed in the veiy same form of words as now it is used in the Church; and others have gone so far as to pretend to tell what a,rticle was composed by every particular apostle." This view the learned author shows to be erroneous. Euffinus first mentioned it A.D. 390, when it was known as the Eoman Creed. It may be considered as an exposi- tion of the apostoHcal faith; and different parts were probably comjiosed at different times. Irenaeus, a.d. 177, made use of a form in some respects similar. Apostolians, Apostolici, or Apotactici. — They arose in the 3rd century, and called themselves Apostolici, says Bingham, "from a vain pretence of being the only men who lead their lives according to the example of the Apostles; and Apotactici, from a show of renoimcing the ivorld more than other men." Another sect arose in the 12th century, and a third was founded by Gerhard SagareUi, who was burnt ahve at Parma in 1300. It was continued by Dulcinus, who suffered iu 1307. Their followers in France and Ger- many were not finally extirpated until the time of Boniface IX. (1389—1404). They wandered about in white garments, re- nounced all kinds of property, and denounced the corruptions of Eome. Apothecaet. — The keeper of any ware- house or magazine was formerly termed an apothecary; and during the 13th and 14th centuries a person who, at courts, or in the houses of the nobfiity, preijared preserves and confectionery, was also kno'svn by this name. Apothecaries, as preparers of medi- cines, were first legally established in Italy, by the well-known medical edict issued for the kingdom of Naples by Frederick II. in the 13th century. Edward III., in 1345, E 2 APP conferred a pension of sixpence a day upon Coursus de Gangeland, an apothecary of London, in recognition of his care in attend- ing upon him during his iUness in Scotland ; and this is the first notice of an apothecary with which we meet in our annals. A patent was granted for the estabhshment of an apothecary's shop in Stuttgard in 1457. Apothecaries are first mentioned in France as receiving their statutes from Charles YIII. in August, 1484. It was not until 1511 (3 Hen. A'lII. c. 2) that any attempt was made in this country to distinguish between the different branches of the profession of physic, and to define their position by law. By 32 Hen. Till. c. 40 (1540), four physi- cians were ordered to be chosen yearly to search and examine ah "wares, drugs, and stuffs" sold by the apothecaries, and to destroy auy they found corrupted or de- fectire. The apothecaries of London were incorporated by James I., i\pril 9, 1606, being united with the grocers, from whom they were separated by a new charter from James I., Dec. 6, 1617. The character of the society has been considerably changed by many subsequent statutes. Their authority was confined to London and its immediate neigh- bourhood until 1815, when, by the tmrd section of 55 Geo. III. c. 194, it was extended to England and Wales. Appeals. — During the occupation of Great Britain by the Eomans, the final appeal was made to the emperor. In Anglo-Saxon times, the county court, and, lastly, the witenagemot, or the king in council, were courts of appeal. After the Norman con- quest in 1066, there were two supreme courts, — the Exchequer court, a Norman institution, and the supreme court of justice for greater causes. The court of Exchequer was first constituted a court of appeal by 31 Ec\,w. III. c. 12, in 1357. A second court of Exchequer, in which appeals from the King's Bench were tried, was instituted by 27 EHz. c. 8 (1585). These are superseded by 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 1830). Criminal appeals are ruled by 11 & 12 Yict. c. 78 (Aug. 31, 1848). Appeals from the colonial courts are regulated by the judicial committee of the privy councU, constituted by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 1833) ; and reorganized by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 7, 1S51). Appeals to Bome. — Ecclesiastical matters were at first regulated by the bishop, in his court, from which an appeal was made to the metropolitan, who might refer to the pro- Tincial synod. The appeal was then carried to the patriarch, and thence to a general council. There were no appeals to Borne during the first three centuries. The African church resisted this pretension, and the council of Milevis, in Mauritania (416), decreed that if any presumed to "appeal beyond seas (meaning Bome), he should be excluded from aU conununion in the African chiu'ches." The earliest case of such an ap- peal on record is that of Apiarius, a rebel- Uou9 priest of Sicca, whom Pope Zozimus 52 APP restored to communion after he had been deposed by an African council. The French synods did not allow any appeals from their decrees to Bome for 800 years. In England the first attempt to introduce the system was made by Wilfrid, about 694 ; but the claim was zealously resisted. The practice was, however, introduced into this country, together with the civil and canon law, by the papal legate, Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, in 1151. The inconvenience of the practice soon became apparent, and the eighth article of the Constitutions of Claren- don, passed during the reign of Henry II., Jan. 25, 1164, declared that aU appeals in ecclesiastical causes shoiild be from the arch- deacon to the diocesan ; from the diocesan to the archbishop, and from the archbishop to the king ; and that they were to go no further without the king's consent. Appeals to Bome were, however, made, and were finally abohshed bv 24 Hen. Till. c. 12 (1533), and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534). The penalty incurred for infraction of the law was a prDemunire. These acts, repealed by 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 8 (1554), were revived by lEhz. c. 1 (1559). Appella>'ts. (See AccEPTA^'TS.) Appenzel became a Swiss canton in 1513, and was the last of the original confederation consisting of thirteen. The abbey of St. Gall acquired jurisdiction over the adjoining districts in the 8th century, and this was confirmed by the emperor Adolphus of iSTassau in 1292. The people rebehed against their spiritual rulers in 1411, and after a long struggle achieved their independence. It separated into two di^-isions, the one occu- pied by Protestants and the other by Eoman Catholics, in 1597. Appeaisees. — By the Statute of Mer- chants, or of Acton Burnel (11 Edw. I. s. 13), Sept. 30, 1283, appraisers valuing goods at too high a rate were compelled to take them at their o-mi valuation. The cost of the annual license for appraisers fixed by 55 Geo. III. c. 184 (July 11, 1815), at ten shilhugs, was by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 76, s. 1 (Aug. 4, 1845), raised to £2. Appeentices (Tumults of). — Stow re- marks, " The apprentices of London are so considerable a body, that they have some- times made themselves formidable by insur- rections and mutinies in the city, getting^ some thousands of them together, and pulling down houses, breaking open the gates of Newgate and other prisons, and setting the prisoners free." Their resent- ment was generally directed against foreign merchants and artisans for supposed inter- ference with their trade. A general insur- rection occurred on the 1st of May, 1517, and the day received the name of " Evil May-da3\" Much damage was done, and many hves lost, when Henry VIII. sent some troops, who quelled the riot and took 300 prisoners. Several were executedon gibbets set up in different parts of the city. A simi- lar outbreak against the French and Dutch, in September, 1586, was crushed by the APP vigilance of the authorities. Another oc- curred June 29, 1595; for participation in which, five apprentices were executed as traitors on Tower Hill, July 24. The appren- tices also took part in the disputes between King Charles I. and the Long Parliament. One of the last tumultuous assemblages occurred April 4, 1668, when they puUed down several disorderly houses. Four of the ringleaders ■were afterwards executed. Appkenticeship. — Adam Smith says that " apprenticeships were altogether unknown to the ancients. The reciprocal duties of master and apprentice make a considerable article in every modern code." The sj^stem originated with the guilds and companies of tradesmen formed in the 12th century. In an account given in the "Liber Albus," of the ancient usages, proclaimed throughout London every year, in the reign of Edward I., the following article occurs; "That no apprentices shall be received for a less term than seven years, according to the ancient and estabhshed usage." Apprenticeship is first incidentally noticed in our statute book in 12 Eich. II. c. 5 (1388). It was enacted by 7 Hen. IV. c. 17 (1406), that no person should bind his son or daughter apprentice, unless he had either in land or rent twenty shillings per annimi. This was repealed by 8 Hen. VI, c. 11 (1426), in which act the custom of putting and taking apprentices is said to have existed in London "time out of mind." By 5 Ehz. c. 4, s. 27 (1563), the parent of an apprentice was required to possess a forty-shilling freehold. Our sta- tute book contains many laws upon the subject. Apprentices wore blue cloaks in the summer, and blue gowns in the winter, in the time of Mary and Ehzabeth; but during the latter reign they indulged in such extravagance of dress that a proclama- tion was issued, May 21, 1582, laying down stringent regulations with respect to their apparel, and prohibiting the use of jewellery and weapons. The term of apprenticeship required by 5 Ehz. c. 4, s. 26 (1563), was seven years at the least, and this clause was repealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 96 (July 18, 1814). For apprentices in the hemp and flax manufactures in Ireland the term re- quired was five years by 8 Anne, c. 12 (1709). It was reduced to four by 10 Geo. I. c. 2, ss. 7 & 8 (1723); and for Scotland the ordi- nary term is three years. A duty was first laid upon the indentures of apprentices by 8 Anne, c. 9 (1709), and it was made per- petual by 9 Anne, c. 21, s. 7 (1710). An act (14 Vict. e. 11) was passed May 20, 1851, for the better protection of apprentices, &c. AppEOPEiATioiir Clause. — This clause in the Irish Tithe BiU occasioned several re- markable political contests. The House of Commons ha\-ing, April 3, 1835, resolved itself into a committee on the church estab- lishment of Ireland, Lord John EusseU pro- posed that any surplus revenue, not required for the spiritual care of its members, should be apphed to the education of aU classes of the people. The resolution was carried AQU April 6. On the bringing up of the report, April 7, Lord John KusseU moved another resolution affirming the principle. This was also carried, and the Peel and WeUingtou cabinet resigned office on the 8th. Here- upon Lord John Kussell and his party ac- ceded to power, and having failed in their efforts to iaduce parhament to sanction the principle for which they contended, aban- doned it altogether, in their measure for the settlement of the question, in 1838. Appeopeiatioks. — The exact period of the introduction of this system into the Church cannot be fixed with precision, though it was doubtless about the time of the Norman conquest. The early Horman kings, for the purpose of enriching the mon- asteries, conferred upon them not only ma- nors, but advowsons, glebes, and titles of parishes ; so that in the space of 300 years above a third of the benefices in England were appropriated. At the dissolution of the ahen priories in 1414, and of the monas- teries and rehgious houses in 1536 and 1539, appropriations and revenues were vested in the crown. Many of the former passed by degrees to subjects, who thus became ap- propriators, or, as they were more fre- quently termed, lay-appropriators. Previous to the reign of Henry VIII. no right or precedent existed for a layman to be an mipropriator. Apeicot.— A Persian or Armenian fruit, introduced into Italy by the Komans. Au- thorities differ respecting the date of its introduction into England, some attributing it to the time of the Eoman occupation, others to the year 1524; others to 1562; and others to 1578. AQUAEiAifS, or EnrcEATiTES, Christians in the early Church, who used water instead of wine in the Eucharist. They appeared in various places, and under different designa- tions, Bingham speaks of some Aquarians who would not take wine in their morning assemblies, lest the smeU should discover them to the heathen. They are first men- tioned in the 2nd century. Aquavivaeium, or Aqtiaeixjm. — The invention of the aquavivarium for collections of plants and animals in water is of recent date. In June, 1849, Mr. Ward stated at the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, that he had suc- ceeded in growing sea-weeds in sea-water both natural and artificially made. Mr. E, Warington read a paper before the Chemical Society, in March, 1850, giving an account of the manner in which he had grown plants and kept living animals in jars. Several persons pursued experiments of the kind about the same period. A small collection of zoophytes and annelides, brought to London in the autumn of 1852 by Mr. Gosse, was soon afterwards transferred to one of the tanks in the fish-house at the Zoological Gardens, Efegent's Park, It was opened m. the spring of 1853, and was the first public aquavivarium in London. It is also called aquarium. Water-aviary, and water-show, AQU have been suggested as names more adapted to the analogy of our language. Aquatiitta Engeaving was invented by a Gei-man artist, named Le Prince, bom at Metz, in 1723. Aqtjedtjcts. — These structures for the purpose of conveying water to large cities, were erected at a very early date. Pocock mentions an aqueduct from the pools of Bethlehem to Jerusalem, built by King Solomon, about B.C. 1000 ; and Herodotus speaks of another erected at Samos. The Eomans constructed them on an extended scale. The first at Eome is said to have been erected by Appius Claudius, b.c. 312. Others were biult by Dentatus, B.C. 273 ; by Agrip- pa, B.C. 31! ; by Cahgua, and completed by Claudius, a.d. 51 ; besides several of less note, and many in the provinces. Sixtus Y. im- mortalized his name by the colossal aque- ducts which he caused to be erected. Prescott and Humboldt notice the Peru- vian aqueducts. The popes erected aque- ducts in the Sliddle Ages. The Maintenon aqueduct, near Versailles, constructed by Louis XIV. in 1684, is one of the most magnificent in Em-ope. The aqueducts erected in India by the British; the Cro- ton aqueduct at New York, completed in 18^ ; and the works at Edinburgh, are the most remarkable constructed of late years. Aqcileia (Italy) . — This town was founded by the Eomans B.C. ISl. At a very early period it was made a bishopric. It became a metropohtan see in the 4th century, and a patriarchate in the 6th. Maxunin besieged Aqruleia a.d. 238, during his contest with the senate, and xinder its walls he was, mth his son, assassinated by his own soldiers. In 452 it was stormed and destroyed by the Huns under Attila. Its ruins could scarcely be discovered, yet it remained the residence of a bishop until the invasion of the Lom- bards under ALboin (568 — 570), when the patriarch removed to Grado, denominated from this circumstance ISTew Aqiuleia. Eich- ard I. was shipwrecked near AquHeia, in 1192. The authority of the patriarchs lasted until 1758, M-hen the patriarchate was aboHshed by the pope, and the diocese divided into two sees, — those of Udiue and Gorizia. Seve- ral councils were held here. Aquitaine (France), the ancient Aqui- tania, one of the four provinces into which Augustus divided Gavd, B.C. 27. It was not completely subjected to the Eomans until B.C. 28. The Alsigoths, under WaUia, con- quered it in the year 419. It submitted to Clovis and was united to his kingdom in 508. (537. Aquitaine made an hereditary duchy. 718. Invaded by the Sai-acens. 725. They subdue a large portion. 732. Charles Martel repels the Saracens. 735. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, dies, and is suc- ceeded by Hunald. 743. Hunald abdicates in favour of his son Waifar. 768. Waifar defeated and slain by Pepin, who re- unites Aiuitaine to France. 54 AEA 76i). Eunald, who endeavoured to regain the duchy on the death of his son Waifar, is defeated, and made prisoner, by Chaxle- mague. 781. Louis, son of Charlemagne, crowned king of Aquitaine, by Pope Adrian I. 817. Louis I. bestows Aquitaine upon his son. Pepin. 838. Pepin dies, and the empress Judith claims Aquitaine for her son Charles. &13. Treaty of Verdun, by which the rights of Pepin's sons are sacrificed. 846—849. Danish invasions. 867. Aquitaine reunited to France by Louis the Stammerer. 880. Kainulfe II. attempts to re-erect Aquitaine into akingdom.but is prevented by Eude;, king of France. 955. Given by Lothaire to Hueh, count of Paris. 1137. Death of 'William X., duke of Aquitaine, when his duchy passes to his daughter Eleanor, afterwards queen of Louis VII. of France. 1151. Henry of Anjou, afterwards Henry II. of England, obtains Aquitaine by his man-iage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. 1169. Aquitaine devolves upon Eiehard, eldest son of Henry II. of England. 1204. Philip Augustus reunites Aquitaine to France, which caxises a long war with England. 1259. Aquitaine restored to the English under Henry III. , since which pgriod it has been called "Guienne." {See GvmsjUK.) Ababia (Asia). — The south-western penin- sula of Asia, has, both in ancient and modem tunes, been known under this de- signation, though the term is sometimes apphed to aU the countries frequented by the tribes of wandering Arabs. The name Arabia does not, however, appear to have been used by the Hebrews until after the time of Solomon. Ptolemy is said to have been the first to institute the three divisions of Arabia Petraea, Fehx, and Deserta, i. e., the Eocky, the Happy or Fruitful, and the Desert or Sandy. The Arabs believed them- selves to be descended from Joktan, the son of Eber (Gen. x. 26—30), and from Ishmael, the son of Abraham by his bondwoman Hagar, born B.C. 1910 (Gen. xvi. 15, 16); the posterity of the former, by way of dis- tinction, caUing themselves pure Arabs. The direct, as well as the indirect, testimony of Scripture proves the Arabs to be descended from Ishmael. In the time of Moses, about B.C. 1530, the Arabians had grown up into "twelve princes according to their nations," and "they dwelt from Ifavilah imto Shur, that is before Egypt, as tliou goest toward Assyria" (Gen. xxv. 16, 18, &c.). Though assailed by the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Medes and Persians, and other ancient nations, the Arabians were never subdued. Herodotus, the first, after the inspired writers, who notices Arabia, states (iii. 88) that it was never subjected to the Persian empire. Little is known of the general history of Arabia previous to the time of Mohammed, the accounts given by the Arabian writers being altogether unworthy of credit. 24. Augustus sends an expedition into Arabia Felix. It is unsuccessful. AKA 105. A portion i. Al Mansur introduces learning into Arabia. 786. Haroun al Kashid's caliphate commences. 1-504. The king of Portugal assumes the title, but does not gain the power, of " Lord of the Navigation, Conquest, and Commerce of Arabia. " 1518. Conquered by the Ottoman, Selim I. 1538. Soliman II. completes the conquest. Ahabians, or Arabici. — This sect arose in Arabia a.d. 207. They held that the soul dies with the body, with which it will rise again at the resurrection. Eusebius states that at a council, called the "council of Arabia," held in 24.7 or 248, to discuss the question, Origen argued so eloquently that he induced these heretics to renounce their errors. Aeabic WrirEEALS. — According to some authorities, Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylves- ter II., learned the decimal system of notation from the Moors in Spain, and introduced it iutoFrance about the end of the 10th century. Another account is, that Leonard Fibonnacci of Pisa introduced it in 1220, in a work en- titled " Liber Abb aci," &c. ; and some have supposed that the Alfonsine Tables, con- structed chiefly by Moors at the court of Alfonso, must have been the first docu- ment in which the system appeared. It is certain that before the 12th century, and most probably as early as the 9th, tins sys- tem had been in the hands of the Persians and Arabs, who ascribe it to the Hindoos, and call it by a name which signifies ' Hindoo science.' The Hindoos themselves have long used it, and it is easy to trace the manner in which our numerical symbols have been de- 1 ived from those of the Sanscrit. The steps by which the new notation made its way through Europe cannot be very clearly defined. Montfaucon found it in an Italian manuscript which was finished in 1317 ; and it has been traced in many manuscripts of the works of authors a century older; it was, however, usual to substitute the new figures for the old in recopying. In the library of Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge, is a catalogue of ecHpses from 1300 to 1348, to which Arabic numerals are sub- joined. Inscriptions with graven dates in these numerals have been given by WaUis and others as old as 1330 ; but, upon examin- ation, reason has been found to suspect that 5 has been mistaken for 3. There does not seem to be evidence of any general use of the Arabic numerals before the inven- tion of printing; and even the works of Caxton do not contain them, except in a woodcut. Merchants continued down to AEA the 16th century to keep their accounts in Koman figures. AEAGOif (Spain) passed in the 16th cen- tury before Christ, under the rule of the Carthaginians, who rebuilt Gades, now Cadiz, about B.C. 350. The Eomans expelled the Carthaginians between the years e.g. 210 200, and in the redistribution of the penin- sula into three provinces, made by Augustus, B.C. 27, Aragon formed part of Tarraconen- sis. It was overrun by the Visigoths at the commencement of the 5th century. They estabUshed their power, and were in turn overwhelmed by the Saracens, who landed in the peninsida a.d. 711, and had subdued the greater portion by 713. Fierce struggles followed between the infidel invaders and the Christian inhabitants. The latter suc- ceeded in maintaining small but independent states, and at the death of Sancho III., the sovereign of Christian Spain, in 1035, his dominions were divided amongst his four sons, and Aragon was formed into a king- dom, Eamiro I., Sancho's youngest son, being its fii-st king. A.D. 1096. Battle of Alcoraz, which destroys the Moham- medan power between the Ebro, the Cinca, and the Pyrenees. 1134. Alfonso I. seeks to reduce the Moorish town of Fi-aga, but is defeated, and, according to many authorities, slain. 1137. Hamiro II. abdicates the throne in favour of his daughter Petronilla, and retires to a monastery. 1203. Pedro II. engages that Ai-agon shall for ever remain a fief of the Holy See. 1213. Accession of James I. 1246. The Fucros, or old laws of Aragon, are digested into a code by Vital, bishop of Huesca, aud confirmed by James I. 1283. Pope Martin IV. excommunicates the Arago- nese, and endeavours to transfer the king- dom from Pedro III. to Charles of Valois. 1291. Withdrawal of the pa];al ban, and renuncia- tion by Charles of Valois of aU claim te Aragon. 1347. Confederation against Pedro IV. to insm-e the adoption of the Salic law and confir- mation of privileges. 1359. Pope Innocent VI. seeks to restore peace between Castile and Ai-agon. 1412. Ferdinand I. is elected king of Aragon. 1458. Death of Alfonso V. , sumamed the Wise. 1463. The Aragonese nobles invite Pedro, infante of Portugal, to take the throne from John II. 1479. United to CastUe under Ferdinand and Isabella. SOTEEEIGNS OP AEAGOIT. A.D. 1035. Bamiro I. 1067. Sanoho I. 1094. Pedro I. (Peter). 1104. Alfonso I. 1134. Ramiro II. 1137. Petronilla and Raymond. 1162. Alfonso II. 1196. Pedi-o II. (Peter). 1213. Jayme I. (James). 1276. Pedro III. (Peter). 1285. Alfonso III. A.D. 12;)1. Jayme II, (James), 1327. Alfonso IV. 1336. Pedro IV. (Peter). 1387. Juan I. (John). 1395. Martin I. ..iiteiTegnum, 1 year. 1412. Fernando I. (Fer- dinand). 1416. Alfonso V. 1458. Juan II. (John). 1479. Fernando II. United to Castile. Aeagtta (Battle). — During the revolu- tionary war in South America, a sanguinary battle Avas fought in the valley of Aragua, AEA June IS, 1814, when tlie royalists obtained a complete victory, and entered the city of Caracas, on the 7th of July. This is erro- neously styled the Battle of Arazua. AEAsaE, or Aknee (Battle), between the French and Indians, and the Enghsh led by Chre, was fought Dec. 3, 1751. The latter were victorious. A'eanjuez (Spain), — the ancient Ara Jovis, is celebrated for its palace com- menced by Philip II. A treaty of alliance was concluded at Aranjuez, May 1, 1745, between Genoa, France, Spain, and K'aples, for the prosecution of the war against Sar- dinia and the Germans. Another treaty be- tween Maria Theresa and the kings of Spain and Sardinia, for the maintenance of the peace of Italy, was concluded at Aranjuez June 14, 1752, the preliminaries having been signed at Madrid on the 14th of April. By a treaty signed here April 12, 1772, France and Spain agreed to unite in opposing the English in America. A convention between Great Britain and Spain was signed at Aran- juez May 25, 1793, by which the former agreed not to make peace with France tiU the Spaniards had obtained fuU restitution for aU places and territories captured by the French from the conunencement of the revolutionary war. An insurrection oc- curred here" March IS, 1808, which led to the abdication of Charles lY. in favour of his son Ferdinand, on the 19th. Aeealist, or Ceoss-bow, said by some writers to be of Sicilian, and by others of Cretan invention. The Crusaders are sup- posed to have introduced the cross-bow into France, where it was used in the commence- ment of the reign of Louis YI. (1108—1142) . Some historians aUege that the arbalist was used in "^'iHiam the Conqueror's army at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. Gib- bon speaks of it as employed at the battle of ..Dorylgeum, Jxxly 4, 1097. The French had arbalists at Cressy, Aug. 25, 1346. Their use was prohibited by the second council of Lateran, or the tenth General Council, in 1139. Richard I. introduced them into the English army, and he was slain by an arrow from a weapon of this kind, March 26, 1199. Cross-bows mounted on wheels, and called spin-gardas, which shot not only darts or quarrels, but also stones and lighted combustibles, were used at the battle of Mons-en-PueUa in 1304 ; and simi- lar engines formed part of the armory of Dover Castle in 1344. The use of the cross- bow in the Enghsh army ceased in 1515, but it continued to be employed as a weapon of the chase for many years. Aebela (Battle). — Near this town, now called Arbn, Alexander the Great gained a decisive victorv over Darius, October 1, B.C. 331. The latter was slain and the Persian empire subverted. The actual contest oc- curred near the vUlage of Gaugamela, about 30 miles from Arbela, where the pursuit terminated. Akbitratiox. — Courts of arbitration or conciliation, estabhshed in Denmark in 1795, 56 AEC rapidly increased in numbers, and were soon after introduced into Iforway. Xapoleon I. in 1806, issued a decree, by which numerous Conseils de Prud'hommes were estabhshed in the various departments of France, though they were not adopted in Paris until 1844. Arbitration was recognized by the law oi England, by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 15 (169S), which introduced some important regulations on this subject, making corrupt awards nuU and void. The power of arbi- trators was greatly extended by 3 & 4 WiU. lY. c. 42, ss. 39, 40, 41 (Aug. 14, 1833), the award being made a rixle of court. By the Common Law Procedure Act, 17 & 18 Yiet. i c. 125, s. 3 (Aug. 12, 1854), the judges of the I superior courts have power, iu certain cases, j to order compulsory arbitration. The House j of Commons appointed a select committee j (Feb. 19, 1856) to inquu-e into the expe- diency of estabhshing Arbitration Courts I on a more extended basis, and a report in favour of the principle was issued. Aecadia (Peloponnesus), designated from ; its mountainous character, "the Switzerland ; of Greece." The Arcadians claimed to be I the earhest inhabitants of Greece, calhng i themselves Proseleni, i.e. "before the moon." Pan was their tutelary deity, and they delighted in music. "They were scarcely," says a writer in the " Encyclopsedia Metropohtana," "an Hellenic race; hence, we are not surprised that they retained their pastoral habits and rugged manners." He- rodotus (viii. 73) admits that they were in- digenous, and Pausanias gives a long hst of their early kings, descendants of Areas, from whom, accor£ng to some accounts, the country received its name. Homer mentions Agapenor, who repaired to the siege of Troy with his Arcadians. They are said to have sent colonies to Italy "before that time. Clinton says the Arcadians were an abori- ginal tribe of the Pelasgic race. The first well-estabhshed fact with respect to the Arcadians, is that they maintained their independence when the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, B.C. 1104. The following is a summary of the events, legendary and authentic, given by historians : — 1710. A colony of Arcadians led into Italy by CEnotrus. 1.521. Pelasgus king of Arcadia. 1514. Areas king, from whom the country takes its name. 1193. Agapenor leads the Arcadians to the Trojan war. 1174. Ephitus king. 1102. The Arcadian women defeat the Lacediemo- nians who had iuvMed their coimtry. 848. War between Sparta and Arcadia. 71-5. Aristocrates I., of Arcadia, is put to death for ha^-ing offered violence to the priestess of Diana. 681. Aristocrates II. stoned to death for treason, and Arcadia becomes a republic. 370. AgesUaus invades Ai-c.-ulia. 367. The Arcadians and their allies defeated by Sparta. 365. War between Arcadia and Elis. 364. Arcadia invaded by Archidamus. The Arca- dians seize the Olympian treasirry. AEC After the death of Alexander the Great, several of the Arcadian cities join the Achaean League, and the country ultimately falls under the Eoman yoke. Aech. — Layard discovered at Nimroud a vaulted chamber, a proof that the ancient Assyrians were acquainted with the prin- ciple of the arch. Many authorities have asserted, with great confidence, that neither the ancient Assyrians nor the ancient Egyp- tians employed the arch. WUkinson shows that the arch in brick and stone was known to the ancient Egyptians, remains of the former, bearing date b.c. 1540, and of the latter b.c. 600, having been discovered at Memphis and Thebes. The Chinese are said to have constructed arches on a very exten- sive scale, at an early period. They were employed by the Assyrians, but the Greeks did not use them. The Cloaca Maxima, the most ancient Eoman arch, was built in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, about B.C. 600. The semicircular arch was one of the cha- racteristics of the architecture of the early Britons. The pointed arch formed part of a mosque at Jerusalem, rebmlt a.d. 780 ; of the kilometer at Cairo, erected in 848 ; and existed in other Saracenic buildings of the 10th century. In Christian edifices it ap- pears in the 12th century. Aechangel (Eussia). — Founded in 1584, and named after the convent of St. Michael the Archangel. The passage by sea was discovered by Eichard Chancellor, in 1553. Archangel was for many years the only port in Eussia. An extensive fire occurred here on Oct. 17, 1762, and another June 26, 1793, which destroyed the cathedral and about three thousand buildings. Archangel was blockaded by the Enghsh fleet in 1854. Aechbishop. — Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, vol. i. 194) says, "The title of archbishop was one of honour, but brought with it no authority, and was at first very rarely be- stowed, and only on the most distinguished bishops. The name is not to be met vrith during the first three centuries. It occurs for the first time in the 4th century, and St. Athanasius appears to have been among the earliest who were distinguished by this title (326—373) . In the 5th century it was conferred on the bishops of Eome, An- tioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Jerusa- lem, Ephesus, and Thessalonica." It gradu- ally grew more common, and was bestowed upon all metropohtans. The ancient Britons had at least one archiepiscopal see, that of Caerleon, before Augustine arrived. He was made archbishop of Canterbury by Ethelbert in 598, and he fixed his seat there in 602. Paulinus, appointed by Gre- gory about 622, was the first archbishop of York. The archbishop of Canterbury was primate of Ireland, as well as of England, until 1152, and York had metropolitan juris- diction over all bishops of Scotland until 1466. Abchdeacoit. — Towards the end of the 3rd century, one of the deacons, whose duty it was to attend on the bishop in church AEC affairs, was selected from the rest and made an archdeacon. Frankish dioceses are said to have been divided into archdeaconries in the 8th century. Wilfred is the lirs^ Eng- lish archdeacon whose name is found m any document, and he became archbishop of Canterbury in 806. In the early times arch- deacons had no jurisdiction in this country. It was not until after the Norman conquest that the Enghsh dioceses were divided into archdeaconries. From the "Valor Eccle- siasticus" of Henry VIII. it appears the number of Enghsh archdeacons amounted to fifty-four, but by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, passed Aug. 13, 1836, and subsequent acts, the number has been increased. Archeet. — Bows and arrows were used by the Israelites (Gen. xxi. 20, 1 Sam. xxxi. 3, and 2 Sam. i. 18), and from the represen- tations of battles on the walls of Medinet- Abon, at Thebes, it is evident that tne ancient Egyptians employed these weapons. Procopius states that they were in high repute amongst the ancient Persians; and Homer not only speaks of skUful archers, but describes the attempts made by the suitors of Penelope to bend the bow of the absent Ulysses. Archers composed a por- tion of the hght-armed troops amongst the Greeks and Eomans. Pyrrhus employed 2,000 archers at the battle of Pandosia, near Heracleia, B.C. 280. The Eomans frequently retained the Cretan bowmen as mercenaries. Bows and arrows were used by the early in- habitants of Britain, and Asser relates that Alfred was preparing such instruments when he offended the cowherd's wife, by allowing her cakes to burn, A. D. 878. The cross-bow is said to have been used by the Kormans at the battle of Hastings, was common in the armies of Henry III., and the long-bow was in general use in England in the time of Edward II. The skill of the Enghsh archers is a favourite theme with the old chroniclers, and Enghsh bows and arrows were in great request. In 1363, Edward III. enjoined the practice of archery on Sundays and festivals, and the same was done by Eichard II. In 1405, a statute was passed against persons using bad materials in the manufacture of bows and arrows. At Cressy (1346) the Enghsh archers proved more expert than the Genoese crossbow-men. Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) were won by this weapon. Edward IV., by statutes passed in 1478 and 1483, encouraged archery in Ireland. The archers of the king's guard, raised by Edward III. in 1356, consisted of 120 men selected from the mounted corps of archers. Hemy VII., in 1485, instituted the yeomen of the guard, who were then all archers. James I., in 1610, appointed a commission to stop the inclosure of the ground used for archery practice. Charles II. reviewed the Finsbury archers in 1682 ; and so late as 1753, targets for archery practice were set up in Finsbury Fields. Aeches (Court of).— The court of appeal for aU. the inferior ecclesiastical courts with- in the province of Canterbury. It received AEC this name from having been held formerly in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus) . It was removed thence (1567)to the Common Hall of Doctors' Com- mons, where it is stUl held. The appeal from this court to the Court of Delegates, or the king in Chancery, as constituted by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534), was transferred by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 9 (1832), to the long in cormcn. Akchitectttee. — This science, as dis- tinguished from the art of building to satisfy man's personal wants, was known to the Egyptians and to the Jews at a very early age". Sesostris, about B.C. 1489, caused temples to be erected : some of the stones employed were of immense size. The pyra^- mids were built B.C. 1500. Solomon's tem- ple was commenced B.C. 1014. The science, which was cultivated by the Assyrians, Phoe- nicians, and Persians, is supposed to have passed from the Egyptians to the Greeks, amongst whom it liourished B.C. 552 — 442, and fr&m them to modern nations. AECHOifS.— On the abohtion of kingly government in Athens, at the death of Codrus, B.C. 1069 or B. c.1045, the chief au- thority was vested ia officers styled archons, appointed for hfe. Twelve, called the Me- dontidse, of the family of Codrus, succeeded, when (B.C. 752) the tenure of office was limited to ten years. Seven archons were appointed for this term, and (b.c. 684) the office was made elective and to be held for one year only. AECis-srE-AuBE (Battle) .— Eought March 21, 1S14, between the alhes and the Erench army commanded by IS'apoleon I. The latter, after a severe struggle, retreated to Titry. Aecot,a (Battle).— At this village, fifteen miles from Verona, on the Alpone, an affluent of the Adige, Bonaparte, in his fourth Italian campaign, defeated the Aus- trians under Alvinzi in a battle extending ever three days, the 15th, 16th, and 17th of November, 1796. Aecot (Hindostan), the capital of the northern district of Arcot, in the presidency of Madras, was founded in 1716. Chve cap- tured it Aug. 31, 1751. He was assailed by a strong native and Erench force Sept. 23, 1751 ; from which day tiU the 14th of No- vember, when the final assault was de- hvered and repulsed, he defended the place with extraordinary heroism. Having fallen into the hands of the French, Oct. 4, 1758, it was retaken by Coote, Eeb. 10, 1760. Hyder Ali stormed it Oct. 31, 1780, but did not hold it long. Arcot came into the possession of the East-India Company in 1801. Aectic CiECiE.— Numerous attempts, with widely dilferent objects, have been made by the mariners of various countries to penetrate the regions of frost and snow around the North Pole. The Scandinavians in the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries, and the Venetian, Spanish, and Portuguese naviga- tors at a later period, prosecuted their researches in this direction. 68 AEC 860. Iceland discovered by the Scandinavians. 874. The Scandinavians colonize Iceland. 982. Eric the Eed discoTers Greenland. 986. Eric forms a settlement at Greenland, and: Bjarni is cast away on the American coast. 1001. The Scandiuavians extend their discoveries in Amei-ica, where they afterwards form settlements. 1498. Sebastian Cabot reaches the Arctic regions. 1517. His second voyage in the same dii-ection. 1527. Robert Thome, a merchant of Bristol, writes to Heniy VIII. to induce him to sanction a polar exijedition ; and two ships, the Sampson and the Mart/ of Guildford, are sent out. 1553. Sii- HughWilloughby discovers NovaZembla. He retni-ns, and sails to Lapland, where he- and his crew perished from hunger, in January, 1534. 1576. Frobisher starts on his first voyage, June 7th. 1580. Pet and Jackman sail in search of a north- eastern passage, but are compelled by the ice to return. 1585. John Davis leaves Dartmouth on his first voyage, Jiuie 7th, and after making several discoveries on the north-eastern coast of America, retiu-ns to England Sept. 30, 1586. 1585. Davis's second voyage. 1587. Davis's third voyage. 1594. The Dutch send an expedition to seek a northern passage, under William. Barentsz. 1595. Barentsz's second voyage. 1595. Barentsz's third voyage. 1602. George Waymouth sails in a fruitless search of the north-west passage. 1607. Hudson starts on his first voyage. May 1st. 1608. Hudson's second voyage. 1609. Hudson's third voyage. 1610. Hudson starts on his fourth voyage, which ends in the mutiny of his crew, who leave him to perish of cold and hunger. 1615. Bylot's voyage, in which Bafiin acted as- mate. 1616. Bylot and Baffin discover Baffin's Bay. 1681. James's disastrous voyage. 1676. Captain Wood sails in search of a north-east passage. 1728. Beliring leaves Kamtschatka on his first voyage, dui-ing which he explores BL-lu-ing's Straits. 1729. Behring's second voyage. 1741. Behring's third voyage, and death. 1743. The English government offer a reward of £20,000 to any person discovering a north- west passage by Hudson's Strait. 1773. Phipps and Lutwidge sail. Young Horatio Nelson accompanies the expedition. 1776. Cook and Gierke's voyage. The following list of the Arctic expeditions sent out during the present century is ex- tracted from Simmonds's " Arctic Eegions : " A.D. 1818. John Ross, Isabella and Alexander. 1818. Buchan and Fi-ankUn, Dorothea and Trent. 1819-21. Franklin, first land expeditio;:. 1819-20. Pariy, Becla and GHper. 1821-23. Pany, Fury and Hecla. 1824. Lyon, Griper. 1824-25. Parry, Hecla and Fury. 1825-27. Franklin, second land expedition. 1826-28. Buchan, Blossom. 1829-33. John Ross, Victory. 1833-35. Back, land expedition. 1836-37. Back, Terror. 1836-39. Dean and Simpson, boat expedition. 1846-47. Rae, boat expedition. 1845-46. Franklin, Erebus and Terror. 1848-49. James Ross, Enterprise p.nd Investigator. 1848-49. Richardson, boat expedition. 1848-52. iloore. Plover. 1849-51. Pullen, boat expedition. 1S49-50, Hooper, boat expedition. AED 1849-50. Saunders, Kortli Star. 1850. ¥ovsyt)i. Prince Albert. 1850-55. Collinson, Enterprise. 1850-54. M'Olure, Investigator. 1830-51. Austin, Resolute, Assistance, Intrepid, and Pioneer. 1850-51. Jolin Eoss, Felix. 1850-51. Penny, Lady Franl-lin and Sophia. 1850-51. De Haven and Kane, Advance and licscue. 1851-52. Kennedy (Bellot), Prince Albert. 1851-54. Eae, land expedition. 1852-54. Maguire, Plover. 1852-54. Belcher, Assistance and Pioneer. 1852-54. Kellett, Resolute and Intrepid. 1852-54. Pullen, North Star. 1853-55. Kane, A dvance. 1857-59. M'Clintock, Fox, Akdagh. — This see, one of the earliest established in Ireland, is said to have been founded by St. Patrick, who appointed his nephew, St. Mell or Mael, first bishop in 454. St. Men is described as abbot and bishop. He died in 488. Ardagh was united to Kilmore Feb. 24, 1660, but was separated from it for a short time Sept. 8, 1692. In 1742 it was severed from Kilmore and united to Tuam. Bv the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), other arrangements were made by which the bishopric of Ardagh was, in 1839, separated from Tuam and joined to Kilmore. In 1841 Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh formed one bishopric. Ardee (Ireland). — This town was sacked by Edward Bruce in 1315. It surrendered to the rebels during the insurrection of October, 1641, when it was dehvered up to pillage. Aedfeet. — This Irish bishopric, called in ancient records the bishopric of Kerry, was founded in the 5th century. Edward Synge, bishop of Limerick in 1660, held the sees of Ardfert and Aghadoe in commendam ; and they were both united to Limerick in 1663. Aeboch (Battle).— Fought between the Eomans, led by Agricola, and the Caledo- nians under Galgacus, on a moor, at the foot of the Grampians, a.d. 84 or 85. The latter were routed with great slaughter. Aedees (France). — The interview between Henry VIII., of England, and Francis I., of France, in the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," took place near this town, June 7, 1520. The treaty for the meeting had been concluded Oct. 14, 1518. Ardres was captured by the Spaniards in 1596. Aeeopagus (Court of).— This institution is attributed to Cecrops, the founder of Athens, B.C. 1556. It is known to have existed before the time of Solon, b.c. 594. He extended its jurisdiction. The guardian- ship of the laws and the power of enforcing them was intrusted by Solon to this court. Kehgion and the education of youth were placed imder its control. Its constitution was preserved inviolate until Pericles, B.C. 461, caused himself to be elected without having previously received the appointment of archon. St. Paul was brought before this court A.D. 51 (Acts, xvii. 19, &c.). AEG Aegaum (Battle). — Wellington defeated the Mahratta chiefs at this village, in Hyder- abad, Nov. 29, 1803. Aeoehttaeia (Battle). — Argentaria, now Colmar, in Alsace, was the scene of Gratian's signal victory over the Alemanni, in May, A.D. 378. Gibbon says, " It secured the peace of Gaul and asserted the honour of the Eoman arms." Aegenteus Codex, or Silvee Book. — This ancient illuminated copy of the gospels, written on vellum, and called Argenteus- from its silver letters, is supposed to be a fragment of the Moeso-Gothic translation of the Bible, made about a.d. 360, by Ulphilas, whom Gibbon terms the bishop and apostle of the Goths. Afraid of exciting the fierce and warlike passions of his people, he sup- pressed the four books of Kings. The first fragment was discovered in 1587, in the library of the Benedictine abbey of Werden, in Westphalia, whence it was removed to Prague ; and on the capture of that city in 1648, was sent as a present to Queen Chris- tina, of Sweden. Other portions of tha Moeso-Gothic Bible were found in the library at WoLfenbiittel, in that of Mai, at Eome,, and in other places ; and a complete edition- was pubhshed at Leipsic in 1836-47. The manuscript was idtimately presented to the imiversity of Upsal. Aegei^tine Coneedeeatiok or Eepublic (S. America). — These provinces threw ofi" the yoke of Spain in 1810, remaining in a very unsettled state until 1816, when a repubhc was first estabhshed. The basis of the Argentine Confederation was, however, laid in 1834, Buenos Ayres and three other states forming a confederacy, which was afterwards joined by other states to the number of thirteen : — Buenos Ayres. Salta. Catamarca. San Juan. Cordova. San Luis. Santa Fe. Entre Rios. Santiago. La Eioja. Tucunian Meudoza. Buenos Ayres separated from the confe- deracy in 1853, and other secessions have since occurred. {See La Plata.) AEGiNtrsiE (Sea Fight).— The Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan armament under Callicratidas, among the islands of Arginusss, near Lesbos, B.C. 406. Aegonatttic Expedition. — This voyage, the fii'st naval expedition on record, was, according to the traditional account, con- ducted by Jason, son of ^son, king of Thessaly, "to bring back the golden fleece of the ram, which had carried away Phryxus and HeUa." The celebrated Argo was built, which after various adventures reached Ma,, the capital of Colchis, B.C. 1263, or according to Newton, B.C. 937. .^etes, king of Colchis, promised Jason the fleece on certain condi- tions difficiilt of aecomphshment. These, by the magical aid of Medea, were performed, and the enterprise ultimately achieved. AEG Grote (vol. i. 333) remarks on this fable : — "ISot only are we unable to assign the date, or identify the crew, or decipher the log- book of the Argo, but vre have no means of setthng even the preliminary question, whether the voyage be matter of fact badly reported, or legend from the beginning." ARGONAUTS OF St. Nicholas, a military order of knights established by Charles III. of ISTaples, in 1382. From their collar of shells, inclosed in a silver crescent, with the motto " Xon credo tempori," they were called knights of the shell. Aegos (Pelopomiesus). — The origin of this, the earhest Grecian state, is involved in obscurity. Various vaiters represent it as having been founded by Inachus, by his son Phoroneus, and by his grandson Argus. The AchEeans, having expelled the original inha- bitants, gave place in turn to the Dorians. It was a powerfvd state, and became the head of a league of Doric cities, until Sparta obtained the ascendancy, B.C. 495. The fol- lo\ving are the cliief points, legendary and authentic, in its history : — 1856. Founded by Inachus. 1753. Phoroneus founds it, according to other authorities. 1711. Calied Argos, after a king of that name, the fourth of the InachidK. Danaus, an Egyptian, enters Argos. Danaus deposes and succeeds Gelanor, king of Argos. Perseus of Argos founds Mycene. Agamemnon king of Argos during the Trojan ■war. The Heraclidse overrun. Argos. Pheidon of Argos endeavours to take Corinth. Pheidon establishes the supremacy of Argos, and celebrates the 8th Olympic games. Conflict -with Sparta. The Argives defeat the Spartans near Hysise. The Argives endeavour to regain Thyi-ea from the Spartans, but are defeated. 514 Argos fines Sicyon and jEgina 500 talents each for having furnished Sparta with sliips to operate against her territory. 496. War with Spai-ta. 495. Spartans %'ictorious. 471. Themistocles, banished from Athens, retires to Argos. 468. The Argives destroy Mycense. 421. Argos forms a league against Sparta. 420. Makes a treaty with Athens. 418. Defeat of the confederates at Mantineia. 417. Argos concludes peace with Sparta. 395. Argos joins Athens, Corinth, and Thebes against Sparta. 229. Argos joins the Achaean League. Aegtle (Scotland). — This bishopric was founded by Innocent III., who separated it from the see of Dunkeld about the year 1200, when Evaldus became first bishop. Lis- more was made the residence of the bishops ; hence they were sometimes called bishops of Lismore. Alexander II. made several grants to the new see, the last of them bearing date July 8, 1249. It was suppressed in 1688, but in 1847 it was restored under the title of Argyle and the Isles. Aeiaijism:. — The denial of the divinity of Christ, the distinctive feature of Arianism, first appeared in the heresies of the Ebion- ites, of Artemon, and of Theodotus. Eobert- 60 1500. 1475. 1417. 1192. 1104. 783. 748. 747. 669. 547. AEK son considers that although Alexandria was the birthplace of Arianism, its origin may be traced to the other great churches of the East. Arius, a pres yter of Alexandria, from whom the heresj^ "is named, appears to have first boldly maintained the opinion about 319. His views were condemned by Alexander, and he was, with his followers, excommunicated in 321. Constantine took up the matter, and smnmoned a general council at Mcaea, to settle the controversy. The emperor presided, and the council sat from June 19 to August 25, 325, when Ariug was excommunicated and banished into II- lyria, and his heresy was condemned. Arius, however, managed to obtain the favour of Constantine, who gave him a rescript com- manding his readmission into the Church. On the eve of the day on which it was to take place, Arius, who was parading the streets with his adherents, was compelled to with- draw for a few moments, and he was after- wards found dead (336) . Arianism did not long remain a single sect. There were the Anomseans or pure Arians, the Semi-Arians, and the Acaeians, during the bfetime of Constantine ; and these soon separated into other parties. Theodosius issued edicts against the Arians (381 — 395). When extir- pated at Constantinople and the civilized portions of the empire, the heresy spread amongst the Goths and other barbarian nations. Aeikeea, or Abkaet (Battle).— Lord Cornwallis completely routed Tippoo's army at this place, about nine nules from Seringapatam, May 14, 1791. Aeiiii:n-ium ( Italy) .— Conquered by the Eomans, and made" a Eoman colony, B.C. 268. It became important as a military post. The Via Flaminia, from this city to Eome, was opened b.c. 221 ; and the Tia Emilia, to Placenta, B.C. 187. Caesar took A rimininm B.C. 48. (See Eimini.) AEiTHiiETic. — Computation by means of counters, the earhest form of this science, was practised by the Egyptians. The Chinese made use of the schwan-pau, or abacus, at a very early period. Certain letters of the alphabet, divided and arranged according to a particular method, preceded the use of nmnerals. (See Akabic JfuJiEEALS.) Deci- mal notation arose from the facility of counting on the fingers, and was introduced into Europe in the 13th century. Pococke's treatise on arithmetic in the ' ' Encyclopaedia Metropolitana " affords the fullest informa- tion on the subject. Aekaksas (U. States), was colonized by the French in 1685. It was ceded to Spain by France by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, and restored to France by Spain in 1800. The United States government purchased it from France in 1803. It was erected into a separate territory in 1819, having previously formed part of Louisiana, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Aeklow (Battle).— a small body of the royal troops defeated the Irish rebels, 27,000 in number, led by a priest named Michael ARL Murphy, near Arldow Bridge, on the 10th of June, 1798. Akles (France), Arelate, or Aeelas, fell under the Roman yoke B.C. 123, and became a Roman colony in the time of Augustus. It M-as pillaged a.d. 270, and re- stored and enlarged by Constantine ; hence it was sometimes called Constantia. His son, after-^vards Constantine II., was born here. Constantine presided at the celebrated council held at Aries against the Donatists in 314. Three English bishops took part in the proceedings ; which fact proTCS the im- portant position occupied by the Enghsh church in the beginning of the 4th century. In 418, Aries was appointed as the place for the annual meeting of tlie assembly of the seven provinces of G-aul. It was besieged by the Yisigoths in 425, 429, 452, and 457 ; and cap- tured by Euric in 466. The Saracens de- feated Eudes, duke of Aqiiitaiae, near Aries, in 731 ; but he joined his forces with those of Charles Martel and expelled the Saracens in 732. Aries was plundered by the Saracens in 850, and was frequently invaded. The repubhcan form of government was adopted in Aries in 1240. After various changes, it was annexed to France in 1486. Aries was an archiepiscopal see. It was suppressed by the concordat of ISOl; re-established and united to Aix in 1817. In addition to the celebrated council in 314, others occurred in 353, 442, 452, 455, 463, 475, 524, 554, 813, 1059, 1205, 1211, 1234, 1260 or 1261, and 1275. Aeles (Kingdom of). — Count Boso, ex- pelled from Lombardy, was elected king of Provence, by the synod of MantaiUe, in Oct. 879A.D. He died about 887; and his son Louis was acknowledged king by the council of Valence in 890. Loviis, who claimed the croAvn of Italy, was blinded, and died about 928. In 888 Roclolph or Raoul, the Guelph, erected the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy, consist- ing of territory that nearly corresponds to Switzerland, with some neighbouring dis- tricts. Rodolph I. died in 911, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Rodolph II. ; who, on the death of Loxiis, in 928, united Provence to Transjurane Burgundy, making Aries his capital ; and, by a treaty with Hugh, king of Italy, he was, in 933, confirmed in the pos- session. This constituted what is known in history as the kingdom of Aries. Rodolph III., who died in 1032, bequeathed it to the em- peror Conrad II. ; and subsequent attempts made to revive the kingdom of Aries did not prove successful. Raymond, count of Bar- celona, seized Provence in 1146, and Alfonso II., of Aragon, in 1167. Aries became a repubhc in 1240; afterwards fell imder the rule of the Angevin family; and was perma- nently annexed to France by letters patent of Charles Till, in 1486. KIITGS OI? ARLES. A.D. 933. Rodolph II., of Ti-ansjurane Burgundy. 937. Conrad the Pacific. 993. Rodolph III. 1032. Conrad II., the emreroi', receives it on the death of Rodolph 111. ARM Aemada. — This formidable naval expedi- tion, collected from aU parts of Europe by Philip II., for the purpose of invading Eng- land, and called the Invincible Armada, sailed from the Tagus May 28, 29, and 30, 1588, ]Sr.S. It consisted of 130 ships of war, rangingfrom 300 to 1,200 tons each, and alarge fleet of transports, carrying aboiit 11,000 sailors, including galley slaves ; 20,000 sol- diers, besidesTolunteers and priests ; and3,165 pieces of cannon. The armada having been damaged in a storm off" Cape Finisterre, took refuge in various ports, and assembled again at the Groyne (Corunna), whence they sailed July 22 (O.S. 12) ; sighted the English coast Friday, July 29 (O.S. 19) ; and en- faged for the first time -with the Enghsh eet, July 31 (0.8. 21), when the latter were victorious. Several of the Spanish ships were taken, and others destroyed. Another con- test, ^\"ith a smilar result, occurred Tuesday, Aug. 2 (O.S. July 23). The armada an- chored in Calais roads on Saturday after- noon, Aug. 6 (O.S. July 27). Fire-ships were launched amongst them during the next (Sunday) night, at which the Spaniards were so much alarmed that they cut their cables and -put to sea again, losing several ships. Those that escaped were closely followed by the Enghsh squadrons, and a general engagement ensued off' G-ravelines, on Monday (Aug. 8), when Drake and his colleagues, without the loss of a single vessel, and not a hundred men, dispersed the mighty armament. Sixteen Spanish ships were de- stroyed, about 5,000 of their men Idlled, and most of the vessels that escaped destruction were riddled with shot. Their commanders, bent upon returning to Spain, felt so much dread of their antagonists, that they resolved upon saihng through the North Sea, and round Scotland, sooner than risk another encounter. Drake, Frobisher, Howard, and. the gallant seamen of that age, pressed boldly in pursuit. "There was never anything," wrote Drake to AValsingham, Aug. 10, "that pleased me better than seeing the enemy flying with a southerly vrind to the north- ward." The armada suffered from a suc- cession of storms ; and in one that occirrred Sept. 2, forty ships were driven on the Irish coast, and nearly every soul on board these vessels perished. Of this ex- pedition, fifty -three vessels, in a shattered and worthless condition, and little more than a third of the army sent for the conquest of England, returned to Spain. Ehzabeth raised three armies to repel the invaders, but the skill and heroism of her sailors, aided by th© fury of the elements, rendered even an at- tempt at landing impossible. Aemagh (Ireland), formerly the metro- pohs, enjoyed considerable reputation as a. seat of learning from the 5th to the 9th cen- turies. The bishopric is said to have been founded by St. Patrick a.d. 445. Gelasius, bishop in 1136, became its first archbishop, and took the title of "primate of all Ire- land" in 1152. Armagh was frequently ravaged by the Danes, who were ultimately 61 AEM expelled in 1004. Its cathedral, founded by St. Patrick in 450, was destroj^ed in 1564, rebuilt in 1616, again destroyed in 1642, and rebuilt in 1675. The town itself was burnt by Shane O'Neal in 1564. Aemagsacs. — Soon after the murder of the duke of Orleans, in 1407, France became a prey to two rival factions, the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. The latter received this name from then- leader, Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law to the duke of Orleans. The Armagnacs, in May, 1412, entered into negotiations with Henry IV. of England. Their leader was massacred by the Burgundians and the citizens of Paris, with four thousand of his adherents, June 12th, 1418. Louis XI., before he came to the French throne, put himself at the head of a body of ruffians, called Armagnacs, the dis- banded mercenaries of the Enghsh Avar, and invaded Switzerland, where he was defeated in 1444. The Armagnacs were abnost exter- minated by Louis XL, in 1473. Akmed ITeuteaI/ITT. — Eussia, Sweden, and Denmark, instigated by France, and beheving England to be hard pressed by the fleets of France and Spain, at the close of the American war, leagued together to establish a, new code of maritime laws. This con- federacy, known as the Armed I^eutrahty, was formed in 1780, and on the 26th of February in that year, Catherine II. put forth a declaration, announcing that free ships make free goods, that the flag covers the merchandise, and that a port is under- stood to be blockaded only when such a force is stationed at its entrance as to render it dangerous to approach. These principles she professed her intention of maintaining by force of arms. Denmark signed the con- vention, July 30th ; Sweden, Aug. 1, in the same year ; and Holland, Jan. 16, 1781. Prussia followed, May 8, and the emperor of Grermany, Oct. 9, 1781. England de- clared war against the Dutch ; but the ces- sation of hostilities soon after, caused the dissolution of the confederacy. It was, however, revived in 1800, and on the 16th of December, Russia, Denmark, and Swe- den signed another treaty, to which Prussia, on the 19th, acceded. England, after remon- strating, replied by a proclamation laying an embargo on all Russian, Swedish, and Daiaish vessels (Jan. 14, 1801). IS'elson was speedily sent to Copenhagen, which he captured to- gether with the Danish fleet, April 2, 1801. He then set sail for Cronstadt. Peace was concluded with Russia, June 17, 1801. Swe- den and Denmark abandoned their preten- sions, Prussia followed their example, and the Armed Neutrality was dissolved. Armenia (Asia), according to Armenian tradition, was settled by Haik, son of Togar- mah, and grandson of Japhet (Gen. x. 3) ; and it is noticed in Scripture under the names Togarmah and Ararat. The country, afterwards divided into Lesser and G-reater Armenia, was frequently invaded by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes and Persians, and for" many years remained ARM in subjection to one or other of these empires. The accounts given by the Greek and Roman writers are in many points at variance with those of the Armenian his- torians. M. St. Martin has investigated the subject with great dUigence, and upon his valuable work the following chronolo- gical table is based : — B.C. 2107. Haik, fleeing from the tyranny of Belus, king of Assyria, settles in Armenia, and becomes its first ruler. 1827. Accession of Aram to the chief power. He carries his arms into Asia Minor, and founds Mazaca, afterwards known as Csesareia of Cappadocia. 1725. Armenia becomes subject to Assyria. 743. Baroir renders Armenia independent of Assyi-ia. 565. Accession of Tigranes, who restores Armeniiv to its ancient po.sition. 323. On the death of Alexander, Armenia falls under the sway of Greek governors. 317. The Armenians, under Ardoates, throw off the Grecian yoke. 149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag L, founds the djmasty of the Arsacid.-e. 34. Antony leads the Armenian sovereign captive to Alexandria. 30. On the death of Antony, Artaxes expels the Komans, and is crowned king. A.D. 16. Vonones, king of the Parthians, seeks shelter with the Ai-menians, and is made king. 18. Germanicus makes Zeno king of Armenia, under the name of Artaxias. 62. Tiridates king, by order of Nero. 115. Invaded and conquered by the emperor Trajan. 232. Armenia is subjected by Ai-dashir, king of Persia. 276. Tiridates is converted to Cairistianity by St. Gregory. 387. The kingdom of Armenia is divided between the Romans and the Persians. 428. End of the kingdom of the Arsacidoe, 442. Armenia invaded by the Persians, who seek to abolish Christianity, and substitute the rites of Zoroaster. 515. Pourzan rules Armenia, which is ravaged by the Huns during his administration. 637. Invaded by the Arab Abd-err.ahim, who seeks to establish Jlohammedaiiism. 830. Invaded by TheophUus, emperor of the East. 856. Sempad the Confessor, king of Armenia, sutlers martyrdom at Bagdad for his ad- herence to Chiistianity. 859. Aschod I., son of Sempad, receives the title of Prince of Princes from the Caliph. 914. Death of Sempad I., after which Armenia is ravaged by the Arabs. 1045. Constantine XII., emperor of the East, g.^ins important possessions in Armeni.a. 1079. Extinction of the dynasty of the Pagratldes, and entire submission of Armenia to the Seljukian sidtans. 1124. David II. recovei-s great part of Armenia from the Turks. 1234. The Mongols encamp on the confines of Armenia, which they overrun for several years. 1375. Leon VI., king of Armenia, is made prisoner by the infidels, and carried to Egypt. 1393. Leon VI. dies at Paris, and with him the kingdom of Armenia becomes extinct. 1583. Armenia is overrun by the Turks. 1604. The Persians, under Shah Abbas, invade Armenia, and reduce it to complete sub- jection. 1828. The Russians, in their operations against Turkey, overrun Armenia. 1829. Ei-zeroum surrendered to the Russians. AKM SOVEBEIGNS OF AeMEITIA, According to St. Martin, Elder Branch of the Arsacidae in Greater Armenia. B.C. 149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag I., 'brother of Mithridates I., king of Pai-thia. 127. Arsaces, or Arshag I. 114 Artaxes, or Ardashes I. 89. Tigranes, or Dikran 1. 35. His son, Artavasdes, reigns with him. 36. Artavasdes, or Artawatz I. 34. Antony seizes the king, and canies him off prisoner to Alexandria, and the Bomans hold the country. 50. Artaxes II. 20. Tigranes II. — Tigi-anes III. dethroned by the Romans. 6. Artavasdes II. 5. Tigranes III. re-established. 2. Queen Erato, widow of Tigranes III. She is forced to abdicate. -A.D. 2. Ariobarzanes, a Parthian, placed on the throne by the Romans. 4. Artavasdes lU. 5. Queen Erato re-established.— Interregnum. 16. Vonones. 17. Interregnum. 18. Zeno of Pontus, called Artaxias. — Tigranes IV. 35. Arsaces II. — Mithridates of Iberia. 51. Rhadamistus. 52. Tuidates I. 60. Tigranes V. 62. Tiridates I. re-established on the tlirone. Younger Branch of the Arsacidse rules at first at Edessa. ;B.C. 38. Arsham, or Ardsham. 10. Manu. 5. Abgarus, said to have written a letter to our Saviour. A.D. 32. Anane, or Ananus. 36. Sanadrug, or Sanatmces. 58. Erowant, an Arsacid by the female line, usurps the throne, and conquers the whole o Armenia. 78. Ardashes, or Artaxes III. reigns over the whole of Armenia. 120. Artawatz, or Artavasdes IV. 121. Diran, or Ttranus I. 142. Dikrau, or Tigi-anes VI. 178. Wagharsh, or Vologeses. 198. Chosroes, or Khosrew I., surnamed Medz, or the Great. ^32. Ardashir, or Artaxerxes, the first Sassanid of Persia. 259. Dertad, or Tuidates II., established by the Bomans. 314. Interregnum. Sanadrugtakes northem,and Pagur southern, Armeuia. 316. Chosroes, or Khosrew II. •325. Diran, or Tiranus II. 341. Arsaces, or Arshag III. .370. Bab, or Para. 377. Waraztad. .382. Arsaces IV. and Valarsaces, or "Wagharshag II. 383. Arsaces IV. alone. 387. Ai-menia divided between the Romans and Persians. 389. Arsaces IV. dies. Cazavon rules, followed by Chosroes, or Khosrew III. 392. Bahram Shapur (Sapor). 414. Chosroes III. re-established. 415. Shapur, or Sapor. 419. Interregnum. 422. Ardashes, or Artaxes IV. 428. End of the kingdom of the Arsacides AEM Aksiekiam" JEvla. commenced Tuesday, July 9, 552, vrhen the council of Tiben, or of the Armenians, confirmed the condemnation passed on the council of Chalcedon in 536. The Armenians were reconciled to the Latin church about 1330, and they then adopted the form of the Juhan year. AEiTEifiAir Church is said to have been founded by Bartholomew or Thaddeus, one of the seyenty. The Gospel does not, how- ever, appear to have flourished, and it was not until the beginning of the 4th century that it was embraced by king, nobles, and people. Armenia thus became the first country in which Christianity was adopted as the national religion. The Persians, who had subdued Armenia by 369, having failed in their endeavours to force the Magian reh- gion upon the people, permitted them to follow the faith of their fathers. They adopted the Monophysite doctrine in the 6th century. At a council held at Tiben, in Armenia, in 552, the Armenian bishops con- denmed the general council of Chalcedon (451) which had proscribed the Eutychian heresy, and they separated from the Ortho- dox church. Akmeu^ian Veesion-. — This translation of the Scriptures, of which the Old Testament is based upon the Septuagint, was com- menced, A.D. 410, by Miesrob, who invented for the purpose the Armenian alphabet, con- sisting of thirty-six letters. TMs alphabet, with two additional letters, is the one stiU in use. Some authorities are of opinion that this version, completed about 431, was inter- polated in the 6th century from the Syriae Peschito, and in the 13th from the Vulgate. It was first printed at Amsterdam, in 1666. Aeshkians, the followers of James Armi- nius, or Harmensen, a Dutch divine, born at Oudewater, in 1560. He was made pastor at Amsterdam in 1588, and soon after opposed what is termed the Supralapsarian doctrine of Calvin. In 1604 he obtained the divinity chair at Leyden, and died Oct. 19, 1609. His followers were also called Eemonstrants, from the petition or remonstrance, contain- ing their doctrines, set forth in five articles presented to the States of Holland, ia 1610. Their opposition to the Calvinists, or Goma- rists, as they were then called, referred xDrin- cipally to their views respecting original sin, free wiU, and predestination. The synod of Dort, assembled Nov. 13, 1618, and. closed May 9, 1619, condemned the " five articles," and 200 of the Armenian preachers were afterwards deprived. Many pastors and their followers went into exile, until the proclamation of religious liberty in Holland, in 1625. HaUam (Lit. Hist. vol. ii. pt. 3, ch. ii.) remarks, " The Arminian doc- trine spread, as is well known, in despite of obloquy and persecution, over much of the Protestant region of Europe." The Armi- nians still exist in Holland, and their tenets in a modified form are held by several Christian sects. Aemosiai Beaeings. — "There is no doubt that emblems somewhat similar have," 63 AEM AEN ArjIS. — The club, the sling, bow and arrows, were the most ancient weapons. Esau, at the command of Isaac, took his quiver and bow, and went to procure veni- son, about B.C. 1760 (Gen. xxvii. 3). Spears of various kinds, javehns, swords, daggers, the battle-axe and mace, followed. The cross-bow and the long-bow were the chief oiFensive weapons previous to the invention of gunpowder in the 13th century. Aemt. — The numerical force of armies in ancient times, as may be seen from Josh. xi. 4, B.C. IMo; 1 Sam. xiii. 5, about B.C. 1093; and 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, B.C. 1017, was very great. Diodorus Siculus describes the armv of iN'inus as amounting to 1,700,000 foot" and 200,000 horse. Xerxes, B.C. 480, assembled 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse for the invasion of Greece. Gibbon cal- culates that the peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors amounted to 375,000 men, and this number was doi\bled under the successors of Constantiue. With reference to more modern times, Hallam (Middle Ages, i. ch. ii. pt. 2) says, " In public national history, I am aware of no instance of what may be called a regular army more ancient than the body-guards, or huscai'les, of Canute the Great. These select troops amounted to 6,000 men, on whom he probably reUed to ensure the subjection of England." Charles VII. of Erance, advised by the estates at Orleans in 1439, established the first standing army in Europe, levying a poU-tax, in 1441, to defray the expenditure. During the Great Eebel- lion, large armies were raised ; and an army was mamtained whUst the Commonwealth lasted. In 1662, a force of 5,000 men excited alarm ; and the levy by Charles II., in 1678, of 25,000 or 30,000 troops, created dissatis- faction. By the fourth clause of the De- claration of Eights (1689), James II. was accused of having raised and maintained a standing army in time of peace without the consent of parhament. William III. showed great reluctance in obeying the orders of parhament with reference to disbanding the troops, and from his reign a standing army has been regularly maintained in this country. According to the budget of 1859-60, the English army consisted of 229,557 men. Men and officers. Cavalry in Europe 12,071 Infantry „ 160,584 Cavalry in India 9,046 Infantry „ 82,851 Depats of Indian regiments stationed in ") i ^ An- Great Britain / ^^'^O-* Total 229,557 Aenheiit (Holland), the capital of Guelderland, is noticed in a charter of Otho, in 996. The counts and dukes of Guelder- land resided here. The Spaniards took it in 1585 ; the French in 1672. It was fortified in 1702, and having again fallen into the power of the Erench, was retaken in 1S13. says Hallam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. ii. pt. 2), " been immemoriaUy used both in war and peace. The shields of ancient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear no distant resemblance to modern blazonry. But the general introduction of such bearings, as hereditary distinctions, has been sometimes attributed to tournaments, wherein the champions were distinguished by fanciful devices; sometimes to the Crusades, where a multitude of all nations and languages stood in need of some visible token to de- note the banners of theu- respective chiefs. In fact, the pecuhar symbols of heraldry point to both these sources, and have been borrowed in part from each. Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by private families before the beginning of the 13th century. From that time, however, they became very general, and have contributed to elucidate that branch of history which regards the descent of illustrious families." At the end of the 12th century, warriors bore escutcheons, suspended from the belt, decorated with their arms. William I. introduced into England the arms of For- mandy, having two lions on his shield, to which another lion was added, as is generally supposed, for Aquitaine, by Henry II. The earhest display of ai-ms on a seal is of the date 1187. Aemokica (Gaul). — This seat of the Yeneti, a Celtic tribe, was conquered by Cffisar B.C. 56. It threw off the Eoman yoke A.D. 409, and its independence was recog- nized by Honorius. Clovis annexed it to his empire A.D. 497. Many of the early Britons, assailed on every side, took refuge in the western part of Armorica, called after them Cornwall and the Lesser Britain. The first immigration is believed to have occurred in the 4th century. The term Armorica was at one tune applied to nearly all the maritime districts between the Seine and the Loire, occupied by Celtic tribes. It was afterwards limited to Britanny, which designation, even in its restricted apphcation, had quite s-aper- seded that of Armorica by the time of Charlemagne. [See Bkitastnt.) AEMorH. — The use of helmets, shields, breastplates, and greaves for the legs, is mentioned in the wars recorded in the Bible. The giant Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 5 and 6), about B.C. 1063, was armed at all points. Armour was used by most ancient nations. The helmet was not common amongst the Teutonic tribes, though it was occasionally worn by the Franks in the 7th, and had become general amongst them in the 8th century. Shields were borne by the Northmen about this time. Those used by the Anglo-Saxons were made of leather with iron rims. Breastplates were much worn in the 12th century. In the 13th century armour of chain mail was worn by knights. Metal greaves appeared at the end of the same century. Chain mail was replaced by armour of plate early in the 15th cen- tury, and black armour was often used for mourning. 64 ARP Aepad Dtkastt was founded in Hungary AD. 899, by Arpad the Magyar. He died in 907, and the line ended with Andrew III. ia 1301. Arquebus, or Haequebuss. — The hand- gun, with the addition of a trigger, received this appellation. The invention is assigned to about the year 1470, a corps of har- quebusiers having existed as early as 1476. Philip of Commines speaks of it as a weapon used at the battle of Morat, in 1476 ; and half of the English yeomen of the guard were armed with it in 1485. Mounted har- quebusiers are mentioned in 1495. The arquebus, considerably improved in con- struction, became the ordinary weapon in the 16th century. In 1580, John the Almain recommended to the favourable notice of Walsiagham one of his countrymen, who had invented " anharquebuse, that shaU con- tain ten balls or peUetes of lead, aU the which shall goe off one after another, haveing once given fire, so that with one harquebuse one may Trill ten theeves, or other enemies, with- out recharging." Thus was the modern revolver anticipated. AsQUES (Battle). — Henry IV. of France defeated the army of the League, under the duke of Mayenne, at this place, near Dieppe, Sept. 21, 1589. Aeeacan (India). — According to native traditions, this country was ruled by inde- Eendent princes from about a.d. 700. It was •equently overrun by the inhabitants of neighbouring states. The Portuguese formed an establislunent ia Arracan in the 17th century. The province was conquered in 1783 by the Burmese, who ceded it to the Enghsh by the third article of the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. Aeeaignment. — ^This is the form of cri- minal law of calling a prisoner to the bar of the court, to plead to an indictment. By ancient law and usage he was entitled to appear without irons or other bonds. For- merly, if the prisoner remained mute, instead of pleading, in cases of treason, his silence was held equivalent to conviction. In other cases of felony he was subjected to the barbajrous punishment of peine forte et dure. By 12 Geo. III. c. 20 (1772), standing mute in cases of felony was held equivalent to conviction; but the third section of 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, passed June 21, 1827, allowed the court, if it thought fit, to order the proper officer to enter a plea of " not guilty" on behalf of the accused. Aeeas (France). — Supposed to be the ancient Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, where Cassar wintered, B.C. 60. It afterwards took the name of Atrebates, from the peo- ple of the province of which it was the chief town. The Vandals captured it a.d. 407, and the Northmen ia 880. Louis XI. took Arras May 4, 1477. It came iato the possession of Ma x imilian in 1493. Louis XIII. captured it in 1640. Arras was finally secured to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Kov. 7, 1659. Lebon committed great atro- 65 AES cities here in 1794. Arras was made abishopric about 500. Arras (Treaties). — A congress was opened at this town, Aug. 20, 1435, at which envoys from England, Prance, and Burgundy at- tended. A treaty was concluded between the two latter powers, Sept. 21, 1435 ; the English commissioners, disgusted with the terms proposed, having retired, Sept. 6. This treaty was, with others, confirmed at Crotoy, Oct. 3, 1472. Another treaty be- tween Maximilian, then duke of Austria, and Louis XI., was concluded at Arras Dec. 23, 1482. Magaret, infant daughter of Maximilian, was affianced to the dauphin, and was to receive as her dowry, Burgundy, Artois, and other territories, whilst Louis XI. engaged to restore some places he had captured in Luxemburg, &c. Aerat (Commissions of). — Hallam (Eng, ii. ch. ix.) says, "In seasons of pubUc danger, threatening invasion from the side of Scot- land or France, it became customary to issue commissions of array, empowering those to whom they were addressed to muster and traia aU men capable of bearing arms in the counties to which their commis- sion extended, and hold them in readiness to defend the kingdom. The earliest of these commissions that I find in Rymer is of 1324, and the latest of 1557." Charles I. attempted to revive this practice in 1642 ; but the exercise of this ancient prerogative, from long disuse, was received as an innova- tion. A very early precedent is that of the 16th Edward II. (1323), in which year a commission issued out of the exchequer to Geoffrey de St. Quyntyn and John de Has- thorp, to the effect that they were to raise, ia the Wapentake of Dykryng, all the defensible men between the ages of sixteen and sixty, and to lead them properly armed to the king at York, to act against the Scots. Aeeetittm (Italy), also called Aretinits. — This very ancient city is said, vrith four other Etruscan cities, to have joined the Latins and Sabines against Rome, B.C. 616. It concluded a peace of thirty years with Rome, B.C. 308. Arretium ultimately be- came subject to Rome, and a Roman army under MeteUus, that advanced to defend it against the Senones, was defeated here B.C. 285. Julius Caesar occupied the city B.C. 49. It has been stated that the modem Arezzo occupies the site of the ancient city: this, however, is a mistake, as Arretium was about three nailes to the S.E. It was one of the earhest Italian cities to receive the Christian faith, and for many years its bishops were feudal counts. In the 11th century Arezzo became a repubhc. It was taken in 1384 by De Coney, who sold it to Florence. Having revolted, it was retaken in 1502, and made part of Tuscany in 1531. The French took it Oct. 19, 1800. Aesewiak Schism. — Arsenius was made patriarch of Constantinople by Theo- dore Lascaris II. in 1255. The emperor Lascaris died in 1259, having first committed AES his son to tlie care of tlie patriarch. His successor, Michael Palseologus, deposed Ar- senius, but recalled him iii 1260, and was himself crowned joint emperor with the young John Lascaris. Michael put out the young prince's eyes in 1261 ; whereupon Arsenius excommunicated the emperor, and resolutely refused to grant him penance or absolution. A synod was summoned at Constantinople in May, 1264, and Arsenius, having been thrice cited and refusing to appear, was deposed. A powerful party supported the cause of Arsenius; they re- ceived the name of Arsenites, and G-ibbon declares that they persevered above 48 years in what was termed the Arsenian Schism. Aesok. — The punishment of death was awarded for this offence by the ancient Saxon laws, and the same penalty was attached to it in the reign of Edward I. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 6 (1430), the burning of houses under particular circumstances was made high treason. The perpetrators of the crime were denied benefit of clergy by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1532), which was repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1547). The crime was made felony by the general acts of Edward VI. and Mary. The punish- ment, after having undergone various mo- difications, is penal servitude for not more than seven years ; or, in some cases, imprisonment not exceeding two years in duration. The principal acts bearing on the subject are 7 & 8 G-eo. IV. c. 28, passed June 21, 1827 ; 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, passed Aug. 20, 1853 ; and 20 & 21 Vict. c. 3, passed June 26, 1857. Abtemisixtm: (Sea Fight). — Eought be- tween the Persians and the Greeks off this promontory of Euboea, B.C. 480, without any decisive result. It was renewed two days later, on which occasion the Greeks suffered so much, that they were compelled to retreat. Abtesiais- Wells. — The Chinese are said to have been acquainted with the principle on which they are made, years ago. They have long existed in parts of Africa and Asia, in Italy, Germany, and France. The monastery of St. Andr^, near Aire, pos- sessed one in 1749. Another, in the ancient convent of Chartreux, at Lillier, is said to be 700 years old. The name is derived from Artois, in France, the ancient Artesium. An artesian weU was sunk at Sheerness in 1781 ; another in London in 1794, two at Portsmouth in 1828 and 1829. In 1852 an artesian well was opened at Kissengen, in Bavaria, the borings of which are 2,000 feet below the surface. A bUl for establishing a company to supply London with water by means of artesian wells was rejected by the House of Commons, June 2, 1835. Abtichoke. — This vegetable was brought from the Levant into Italy, in the 15th cen- tury. It was brought from Naples to Florence in 1466, and was first seen at | Venice in 1473. Artichokes were introduced into France in the 16th century, and into England from Holland in 1602. Aeticlbs of Peeth. — Adopted by the AET General Assembly of Scotland held at Perth, Aug. 25, 1618. They were five in number. Firstly, it was ordered that the Lord's supper should be received kneeling; secondly, the communion of the sick was allowed ; thirdly, private baptism in cases of apparent neces- sity; fourthly, confirmation; and fifthly, the observance of Christmas and other holy seasons. They were ratified by the Parha- ment in Edinburgh, July 25, 1621. Aeticles op Eeli&ioit. {See Thiktt- NiNE Aeticles.) Aetieicees. — Any artificer taking more than the usual rate of wage was subject to imprisonment by the Statute of Labourers, 23 Edw. III. c. 5 (1349), and the wages of several sorts of artificers were fixed by another statute of labourers, 25 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 3 (1351). By 13 Eich. II. st. 1, c. 8 (1389), the rates were to be assessed and proclaimed by the justices of peace. By 34 Edw. III. c. 10 (1360), artificers were hable to punishment for departing into other lands. Conspiring to raise wages was, by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15 (1549), punished by a fine of £10, or twenty days' imprisonment for the first offence. The above acts were repealed by 5 Eliz. c. 4 (1562), when the assessment of their wages was placed under the direction of justices of the peace, sheriffs, mayors, &c. By one clause of this statute they were compelled, on pain of imprison- ment in case of refusal, to assist in agricul- tural operations during haytime and harvest. Several changes in the law ensued. Persona convicted of enticing artificers in certain hranches of industry to go abroad, were, by 5 Geo. I. c. 27 (1718), subject to a fine of £100 and imprisonment for three months, with additional penalties for a second offence ; and artificers thus offending were treated as aliens, and forfeited all property if they did not return within six months. The fine was increased to £500, and the imprison- ment to twelve months, both being doubled for a second offence, by 23 Geo. II. c. 13 (1750). So much of EHzabeth's act as related to the fixing of wages by justices of the peace was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 40 (April 15, 1813), and portions of the latter were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 97 (June 21, 1824). Aetilleey. — The earliest military engines were, in all probabihty, those for casting large stones, which are mentioned in 2 Chron. xxvi. 15, as in use about B.C. 810. Similar engines, and others for throwing darts and arrows, both called by Greek names, were much used in Eoman times and subsequently, but do not seem to have been introduced into England until the Norman invasion. Edward I. employed engines at the siege of Stirling Castle, in 1304, which threw stones of 300 lb. weight. Gunpowder was in use among the Hindoos and the Chinese in periods of remote but unknown antiquity. Colonel Chesney is of opinion that cannon-balls were propelled, by means of gunpowder, in India, as early as a.d. 1200, though the use of artillery is not mentioned AET by any European writer before the 14th century. A writer in the new edition of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," deriving his information from Colonel Chesney, says : •' The Moors, according to Conde, used artillery [in the modern sense of the word] against Saragossa in 1118 ; and in 1132 aculverin of four-pound calibre, named Salamonica, was made. In 1157, when the Spaniards took Mebla, the Moors defended themselves by machines which threw darts and stones by means of fire ; and in 1156 Abd'almumen, the Moorish king, captured Mohadia, a fortified city near Bona, from the Sieillians by the same means. In 1280 artillery was used against Cordova ; and in 1306 or 1308 Ferdinand IV. took Gibraltar from the Moora by means of artillery. Ibn K"ason ben Bia, of Granada, mentions that guns were adopted from the Moors, and used in Spain in the 12th century, and that balls of iron were thrown by means of fire in 1331. These, and other examples, render it almost certain that the use of gunpowder first became known in Europe through the Moorish conquests and warfare in Spain, although the true components of gunpowder were known to Friar Bacon, and were made pubhc by Schwartz in 1320. Edward III. of England used 'crakeys of war' during his campaign against the Scots, in 1327. In 1339, ten pieces of cannon were prepared for the siege of Cambray, by the Chevaher Cardaillac. Quesnoy was defended success- fully in 1340 by cannon which flung large iron bolts. In 1343, the Moorish garrison of Algesiras, besieged by Alphonsus XI. of Castile, used long mortars, or troughs of iron, which threw among their enemies thunderbolts. In 1346, an iron gun, with a square bore capable of projecting a cubical iron, shot of 11 lb. weight, was constructed at Bruges. In 1346, Edward III. is said to have used artillery at the battle of Cressy; but this is very doubtful, as the appHcation of guns to field operations ap- pears to be of later date, and no notice of them at the subsequent battle of Poitiers can be traced. In 1347 Edward did, how- | ever, us§ artillery in the siege of Calais ; as | did the prince of Wales in 1356 in reducing j the castle of Romozantin. In 1378, Richard [ II. employed 400 cannon, which fired day and night, in his unsuccessfvd attack on i St. Malo. . . . Though portable guns had j been occasionally made, from the earher | half of the 14th century, and had been i abundantly applied in the wars of the 15th, they do not appear to have been reduced to a perfect system of field artillery until the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., and in 1500 the latter monarch was able to move his artillery from Pisa to Rome, a distance of about 240 miles, in five days, and possessed light pieces which were suflaciently manage- able to be taken rapidly from one ,point to another duriug a battle. When he recovered Genoa, in 1507, he had sixty guns of large calibre for an army of about 20,000 men, and overcame the Venetians on the Adda ARIT in 1509, by means of his artilleij. Francis I. adopted a fighter construction for field-guns, and had them drawn by the best description of horses." At the battle of Marignan, in 1515, according to the same author, "the French artillery played a new and distinguished part, not only by protecting the centre of the army from the charges of the Swiss phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss, but also by rapidly taking such positions from time to time during the battle as en- abled the guns to play upon the flanks of the attacking columns." AKTiiitEKT CoMPAinr OP LoiTDON' is said to have sprung from a voluntary association formed for the encouragement of archery, during the reign of Henry VIII., who granted a charter to the fraternity of artil- lery in great and small ordnance in 1537. The Artillery company was established in 1535, during the dread of an invasion by the Spaniards, by citizens who voluntarily exer- cised themselves and trained up others to the use of war. They assembled every Thursday. The exercises were discontinued after the excitement respecting the Spanish Armada had subsided. A new company was, how- ever, formed in 1610. In 1636 Charles II., then prince of Wales, and his brother the duke of York, belonged to the company. The exercising-ground was removed from Bishopsgate to the ArtiUery-ground, Fins- bury, in 1622. Aets (Degrees in). — The term master is beheved to be the oldest amongst those of graduation. Eugenius II., by the 34th canon of a council held at Rome Nov. 15, 826, speaks of the appointment of masters and doctors. This was confirmed by a decree of Leo IV. in another council at Rome, Dec. 8, 853. Gregory IX. (1227— 1241) is said to have instituted the inferior rank of bachelors. The degrees both of bachelor and master of arts were conferred at Oxford in the time of Henry III. (1216— 1272) . The degrees for laws are said to have come into the university in 1149. The number of arts ia the course, during the middle ages, was seven ; of which three — grammar, logic, rhetoric — constituted the Trivium; and the remaining four — arith- metic, astronomy, geometry, and music — the Quadrivium. Aet-Union's. — Associations for the exten- sion of the fine arts originated in France early in this century, and were then intro- duced into Germany. The first society of the kind known in England was the London Art-Union, estabhshed in 1837, and incor- porated by royal charter, Dec. 1, 1846. Doubts having been expressed respecting the legahty of art-unions, temporary acts were passed ia 1844 and 1845 to relieve then- promoters from the penalties to which they were supposed to be liable, and they were legalized under certain conditions by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 48, passed in 1846. The Art-Union of Ireland was estabhshed in 1858. Aeundel (Sussex). — Camden says he has not met with the name before the time of V 2 AEU Alfred, and adds, " All its renown is deriTed from the castle, whicli flourished in the Saxon times, and was rebuilt immediately after the arrival of the Normans, by Eoger de Mont- gomeiy, thence called earl of Arundel." In his introduction to " Domesday Book," Ellis speaks of it as existing in the days of Edward the Confessor. In 1433, it was decided that the tenure of Arundel Castle, without any creation, patent, or investiture, constituted its possessor earl of Arundel. It was garrisoned by the parhament during the civil war ; was captured by Lord Hopton in 1643, and retaken in 1644. Aeundel Constittjtiok. — Archbishop Arundel, at his visitation in London, in 1397, revived an old constitution, originated by Simon Niger, bishop of London (1229 — 1241), by which the inhabitants of the re- spective parishes were compelled to pay their rector one halfpenny in the pound out of the rent of their houses. Hence its name. Aetjitdelian', or Oxfoed Maebles. — A collection of relics of antiquity found in the island of Paros, early in the 17th century, purchased by Thomas, earl of Arundel, in 1624, and brought to England in 1627. It consisted, when entire, of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, besides sarco- phagi, altars and fragments, and gems ; and having been dispersed, the remains were presented to the university of Oxford, in 1667, by Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk. Another portion, now called the Pomfret Marbles, was transferred to Oxford, 1755. Amongst the remains presented by Henry Howard, is the Parian chronicle, which contains a chronological compendium of the history of Greece from B.C. 1582 to B.C. 355, the ninety years to B.C. 264 having been lost. The accuracy of these tables has been questioned, and even their authenticity denied. Clarendon (ch. i. 119) says of the earl "of Arundel, their collector, "He was willing to be thought a scholar, and to understand the most mysterious parts of antiquity, because he made a wonderful and costly purchase of excellent statues, whilst he was in Italy and in Kome (some whereof he could never obtain permission to remove from Rome, though he had paid for them), and had a rare collection of the most curious medals ; whereas in truth he was only able to buy them, and never to imderstand them." AezilIiA (Africa), taken from the Moors by Alfonso V., king of Portugal, in 1471. The king of Fez wrested it from the Chris- tians in 1506. AscALON (Syria) is mentioned as a city of the Phihstines, Josh. xiii. 3, and 1 Sam. vi. 17. The tribe of Judah captured it B.C. 1425 (Judges, i. 18), but it was retaken by the Philistines, and is frequently denounced by the prophets. It fell successively into the hands of the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans. It became a iDishop's see in the 4th century. Omng to the attacks and occupation, in the 7th century, of the Sara- cens, who held it for many years, the suc- 68 ASH cession of its bishops was interrupted. It was besieged by the Crusaders in HOC, and again in 1148, without success. Baldwin III. captured it in 1157. Saladin re-took it in 1187, and burnt it in 1191. Richard I. of England obtained possession the same year, and restored the fortifications in 1192. Sultan Bibars destroyed its fortifications and filled up its harbour in 1270. AscAioN (Battle). — ^Fought during the second crusade, between the Fatimite army led by the caliph of Egypt, and the Cru- saders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon, Friday, August 12, 1099. The former were defeated, leaving 30,000 killed upon the field of battle, with immense booty. AscEirsioif ^EA, supposed, says Nicolas, to have been used only by the author of the " Chronicle of Alexandria," who dates the year of the martyrdom of St. Menas of Cotys. It corresponds with the 12th of November, 295. AscEKSiOK Day, formerly called Holy Thursday, a movable feast, to commemo- rate the Ascension of our Saviour, appointed, according to some authorities, in the apo- stohcal times. It was not, however, gene- rally celebrated until the 4th century. King John dated a charter on the Monday next before the Ascension, May 20, 1191. AscENSioK Island (Atlantic), discovered by the Portuguese mariner Galego, on Ascension-day, Thursday, May 20, 1501. It remained uninhabited till the Enghsh took possession of it Oct. 15, 1815, and formed a military station. AscoLi (Battle). — Fought at this place, the ancient Asciilum Picenum, during the struggle for the crown of Sicily, between the emperor Henry YI. and Tancred, in 1190. The emperor's army was defeated. Ascoli was annexed to the papal states in 1426. It was made a bishopric in the 4th century. AscTJLTJM (Battle). — Fought between Pyr- rhus and the Romans, B.C. 278. It was hotly contested, and terminated in favour of Pyr- rhus. Asculum, in Apuha, is often mistaken for a place of the same name in Picenum, The modem name of both places is Ascoh. AscTTLUM Picenum (Italy) . — Captured by Sempronius Sophus, B.C. 268, when the whole nation of the Piceni submitted to Rome. The conspiracy and revolt of its inhabitants, and the massacre of the Romans dwelling in the city, B.C. 91, led to the Marsianwar, and the siege and capture of Asculum by the Romans, B.C. 90. AsHANTEE (Africa), or Asiente. — In- formation of this country was first obtained at the commencement of the 18th century. It is inhabited by a warlike people, who, by making continual aggressions on their neigh- bours, have largely increased their territory. The Ashantees gained a victory over the English in 1807, the latter having assisted the'Fantees ; and in another struggle, in 1816, the Ashantees had the advantage. War was renewed in 1823, and on the 21st of Januarv, 1824, Sir C. M'Carthv, governor of Cape Coast, was killed, and his army defeated by ASH the Aahantees. The English drove them from Cape-Coast Castle, July 22 in the same year. On the 7th of August, 1826, the Ashantees suffered a terrible defeat, when their king was glad to purchase peace, and sent his son as a hostage to Cape-Coast Castle. AsHBTTBTOir (Treaty). — Concluded at Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, between England and the United States ; Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster being the respective plenipo- tentiaries. It settled the boundary -hne between the British possessions in North America and the United States. AsHDOD (Palestine), now Esd^d, a city assigned to Judah in the division of the Promised Land (Joshua, xv. 46, 47), about B.C. 1444. It was the chief seat of the wor- ship of the idol Dagon, which fell on its face before the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines about B.C. 1116 (1 Sam. v.). Uz- ziah took Ashdod, B.C. 810 (2 Chron. xxvi. 6) ; and the Assyrians, B.C. 713 (Isaiah, xx. 1). Herodotus (ii. 157) speaks of it as having been captured by the Egyptians, after sus- taining a siege of twenty-nine years, the longest on record (b.c. 630). Nehemiah, about B.C. 428, denoxmced the marriages contracted by the Jews v?ith the women of Ashdod (Neh. xui. 23). It was called by the Greeks and the Eomans Azotus, and under that name was knovra during the AsHDUNE (Battle), was fought a.d, 871, between the Danes and the English. The latter, commanded by Ethelred and his brother Alfred, were victorious. In the ancient chronicles the place is called ^sces- dune, or Eschendun. Some vrriters believe Aston, in Berkshire, and others Ashendon, in Bucks, to have been the scene of this victory. AsHMOLEAN- MtTSBtTM (Oxford), — This repository of manuscripts, books, coins, various curiosities, and antiquities, was founded by EMas Ashmole, March 20, 1682. This eminent antiquary died May 18, 1692. The Ashmolean Society was established at Oxford in 1828. Ash Wednesday. — Among the early Christians, Lent commenced on the Sunday now called the first in Lent. Ash Wednesday and the three following days, making the fast to continue forty days, were afterwards added. " Some say it was the work," Bing- ham (Antiq. b. xxi. ch. i. s. 5) remarks, "of Gregory the Great (590 — 604) ; but others ascribe it to Gregory II., who lived above an hundred years after, in the beginning of the 8th century." Other authorities attribute it to Felix III. in 487. It received its name from the Eoman Cathohc practice of sprin- kling ashes on the heads of penitents, in remembrance of Gen. iii. 19. Asia, the cradle of the human race, and the earhest seat of empire, civilization, and commerce, is said by some Greek writers to have been named from the nymph Asia, one of the Oceanides. The term was, how- ever, appHed by the Greeks to a portion only AST of this extensive continent. The overthrow of the Lydian empire by Cyrus, B.C. 546, first brought it under their notice ; and the victories of Alexander, B.C. 334^B.c. 323, led to a further acquaintance. Ptolemy, a.d. 160, asserts that not more than one-fourth part of Asia was known to the ancients. The progress of discovery in this quarter of the globe was accelerated by the invasion of Europe by the Saracens, and the crusades. Marco Polo, the account of whose travels was circulated in 1298, is the pioneer of modern discovery in this direction. He ob- tained information respecting China, Japan, and parts of India. Little was, however, effected until the invention of the mariner's compass, and the discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, enabled the navigators of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries to prosecute their researches by sea: — A.D. 1497. Vasco de Oama doubles the Cape of Good Hope, and arrives at Calicut in the summer of the following year. 1498. The Portuguese explore Malabar. 1503. The Portuguese obtain a footing in Cochin. 1506. Almeida discovers Ceylon, and Soarez the Maldives. 1507. Martin Baumgarten travels in Palestine. 1509. Several Portuguese settlements planted in Asia. 1511. The Portuguese establish themselves at Malacca, and reach the Spice Islands, 1516. Duarte Coelho visits Siam. 1517. The Portuguese reach China, and are permitted to form a settlement in the island of Macao. They erect the fortress of Colombo in Ceylon. 1518. The Portuguese enter the Bay of Bengal, and visit Chittagong. 1523. Borneo visited, 1542. De Mota, a Portuguese navigator, cast, by a tempest, on one of the islands of Japan. 1558. Jenkinson explores the Caspian, and reaches Bokhara. 1568. Acbar invites the Portuguese to send mis- sionaries to Delhi. 1579. Siberia entered, and seized by the Russians. 1607. The Jesuit, Father Goez, tiavels from India to the Great WaU of China. 1639. The river Amour discovered by the Bussians. 1656. Grueber starts on his travels, in which he traverses China. 1696. Peter the Great takes possession of Kamt- schatka. 1714. Desideri crosses the Himalaya motmtains, and visits Cashmere and Thibet. 1728. Behring discovers the straits known by his 1760. The Jesuits' map of China published at Pekin, under the authority of the Chinese em- peror. 1762. Niebuhr explores Arabia. 1790. The north-eastern coasts of Siberia examined by the Russians. 1796. Thibet explored by Captain Hardwicke. 1804. Krusenstem explores the Gulf of Tartary, the Kurile Archipelago, and the coasts of Japan and Yesso. 1808. The Himalaya ascended by Lieutenant Webb, in order to determine the soturce of the Asia Minoe.— This name was first appUed in the 4th century to the north-western peninsula of the Asiatic continent. It is also called Anatolia, although the latter term is more correctly used for a particular portion. A writer in the " Encyclopasdia ASI Britannica" (iii. 758) remarks : — "AsiaMinor was the theatre of the earliest remarkable events recorded in profane history ; as the Argonautic expedition, the Trojan war, in which the gods are said to have descended from Olympus and joined battle with mor- tals ; the conquests of the Persians, the overthrow of their empire by Alexander, and the settlement in this part of Asia of his successors. It subsequently fell under the Koman sway, and suffered severely in after-ages in the wars of the Saracens, Turks, Tartars, &c. It is also intimately connected with the early history of Christianity, and the first Christian churches were planted here." Its chief political divisions in ancient times were Bithynia, Cappadocia, Caria, Cilicia, Galatia, Lydia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Ljeia, Mysia, Pamphylia, Paphlagonia, Phry- gia, Pisidia, and Pontus. Asiatic Societies. — The first society of the kind was established by the Dutch at Batavia, in 1780; the next was the Eoyal Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded at Cal- cutta by Sir W. Jones, in 1784 ; and this was followed by the Societe Asiatique at Paris in 1822. The Eoyal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was founded in London in March, 1823, and received its charter in 1824, for the investigation and encouragement of arts, sciences, and literature in relation to Asia. The Oriental Translation Com- mittee, estabhshed in 1828, is in (^nuection with this society. The Literary Society of Bombay, founded in 1804, joined it as a branch in 1829. The Literary Society of Madras, the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, insti- tuted in 1845; that of China, founded at Hong Kong in 1847 ; and that of Shanghai, established in 1858 — are also branches. AspEEK and Essling (Battle). — Ifapoleon I., after a series of encounters, extending over two days, May 21 and 22, 1809, was compelled to take refuge in the island of Lobau, on the Danube. He lost 30,000 men in these actions. The Austrians, who were commanded by the Archduke Charles, were greatly inferior in point of numbers to the French. Marshal Lannes fell in this battle. Assam (Asia) . — The early history of this country is involved in obscurity. Its inha- bitants waged many contests with the Mohammedan conquerors of India, and long maintaiaed their independence. In 1638 they invaded Bengal, but were repulsed with great slaughter. The country fell nnder the sway of the Burmese, who were expelled by the Enghsh in 1825, and by the second article of the treaty of Tandaboo, concluded Feb. 24, 1826, renounced aU claim to Assam and its dependencies. A part of the country remained independent uutil 1838, when the whole was annexed to British India. Mr. Bruce discovered the tea -plant in Assam in 1823. Further researches were made, cultivation was en- couraged, and the first twelve chests of tea reached England in 1838. In the following year an association was formed for the culti- vation of the tea-plant. 70 ASS AsSASSiiTATiOK Plot. — Several persons leagued together for the purpose of assas- sinating William in., Feb. 15 (N.S. 25), 1696, between Brentford and Tumham Green, through which places he passed on Saturdays to hunt ia Kichmond Park. The plot was revealed by one of the conspirators, and William III. remained at home. The execu- tion of the plan was consequently deferred till the following Saturday, Feb. 22 (N.S. March 3) , and was again frustrated. Some of the conspirators were captured and executed. Their chief object was to restore James II. to the throne. Assassins, or Ismaeliaws, a military and religious order sprung from the Carmatians, a Mohammedan sect that settled in Persia ia the 11th century. Hassan-ben-Sahib, having obtained possession of the hill-fort of Alamoot, or "Vulture's Nest," in Casvin, Persia, estabhshed the order there, about 1090. The leader, called Sheikh-el-Jebelz, was known in Europe as the Old Man of the Mountain. The Assassins gained other strongholds and spread into Syria. Hassan died in 1124. The Persian branch of the Assassins was exterminated by Holagou Khan in 1258 ; and the Syrian by the Mame- luke sultans of Egypt in 1270, or, according to Gibbon, 1280. Gibbon says of them: — "With the fanaticism of the Koran the IsmaeUans had blended the Indian transmi- gration and the visions of their own pro- phets ; and it was their first duty to devote their souls and bodies in blind obedience to the vicar of God. The daggers of his mis- sionaries were felt both in the East and West : the Christians and the Moslems enumerate, and perhaps multiply, the illus- trious victims that were sacrificed to the zeal, avarice, or resentment of the Old Man (as he was corruptly styled) of the Mountain. But these daggers, his only arms, were broken by the sword of Holagou, and not a vestige is left of the enemies of mankind, except the word assassin, which, ia the most odious sense, has been adopted in the lan- guages of Europe." AssATE (India). — This battle was fought Sept. 23, 1803, when Wellington with 4,500 troops, of whom only 2.000 were British, defeated the combined forces of the Mahratta ehief, Scindiah, and the rajah of Berar, amounting to 50,000 men. Assembly op Divines. — ^This body, con- sisting of 130 divines, with 30 lay assessors, was constituted by an ordinance dated June 12, 1643, and appointed to meet, July 1, 1643, in Henry the Seventh's Chapel at Westminster, for the purpose of consulting and advising both houses of parUament relative to the liturgy, discipline, and govern- ment of the Church of England. They were divided into three parties, the Independents, the Erastians, and the Presbyterians, the latter being in a majority. Charles I. issued a proclamation, June 22, declaring the assembly illegal, and prohibiting the meeting. In spite of this they assembled on the appoiuted day. They presented a petition to ASS ASS both houses of parliament for a fast, sent | hibited judicial combat in 1259. St. Louis letters to the Protestant commimities on the continent, drew up a confession of faith, and a larger and shorter catechism. This assembly sat at intervals tmtil Feb. 22, 1649; and, somewhat modified in character, it held meetings every Thursday until the dissolution of the Long Parliament in 1653. It was also called the Westminster Assembly. AssENS (Battle). — Christian III., king of j 1817, Denmark and Norway, defeated the rebel- lious Danes at this place in 1535. This vic- tory, Yidth other naval successes, restored the island to its allegiance. AssiENTO. — Charles V. entered into a con- tract with the Flemings, who agreed to supply a certain number of negroes yearly to the Spanish colonies in South America. In 1532 the Spaniards withdrew the contract, and, in 1580, Philip II. granted it to the Genoese. PhUip V. on his accession trans- ferred it to France; and by a treaty con- cluded between France and Spain, at Madrid, Aug. 27, 1701, the former agreed to furnish annually for ten years 4,800 negroes, or of France abolished it throughout the royal domains. A trial by combat was appointed in England under the sanction of the judges of the court of Common Pleas, in 1571, when Elizabeth interfered to prevent it. A re- markable case led to its abolition in this country. Abraham Thornton having been acquitted at the Warwick assizes, Aug. 8, 1817, I f the murder of Mary Ashford, her brotheij William, deeming the verdict xmsa- tisfactory, appealed against it. On being placed at the bar of the court of King's Bench, Nov. 17, 1817, the accused threw down his glove and challenged the accuser to mortal combat. The court eventually decided, April 16, 1818, in favour of the legality of this privilege, however obsolete. The appellant declined the combat on ac- count of his extreme youth, and the prisoner was discharged. The law was repealed by 59 Geo. III. c. 46, June 22, 1819. Assize op Beead. — Littleton designates the word assize nomen cequivocum, on ac- count of its application, especially in Eng- 3,000 ill time of war. By a treaty between j lish law, to a great variety of subjects. England and Spain, signed at Madrid March | some cases, as in the present, it is equivalent 26, 1713, England agreed to take it for thirty years, from May 1, 1713, on the same terms as France had done ; and this agreement was confirmed by the 12th article of the treaty of Utrecht, July 13, 1713. The war of 1740 caused its suspension; but, by the 16th article of the treaty of Alx-la-ChapeUe, Oct. 7, 1748, England was to resume it for four years. A treaty was, however, signed at Madrid, between England and Spain, Oct. 5, 1750, by which Great Britain gave up the Assiento contract and the annual vessel during the remainder of four years, Spain agreemg to pay £100,000 in liquidation of all claims. AssiGNATS. — State notes or paper money issued on the security of the church lands, seized during the French revolution. The first issue, made in 1790, was to the amount of 400,000,000 of francs, bearing interest, and in September 800,000,000 in addition were issued, but without the liability to pay interest. Further sums were raised in this manner on the lands of the emigrants and other confiscated property. To these assig- nats a forced currency was given ; but they soon became almost valueless. Various ex- periments to prop up this paper currency were tried without success, and the system was virtually abandoned iu 1796. AssiNGDOK (Battle), or Assastduh-. — A desperate conflict between Canute and Edmund Ironside took place here in 1016. Edmvmd lost several of his most valiant leaders, and withdrew during the night. Assize op Battel, or Teial bt Combat. — This mode of appeal, so prevalent in Europe under the feudal system, was of \ was repeated in the charter of Henry III. gradual growth, and extended ultimately to I (9 Hen. III. c. 12, 1225). It was not xmtil persons of every class and to nearly all cases, | the year 1285 that these courts were pre- but more especially to those of murder and j sided over by judges of the superior courts, treason. It was introduced into England \ By 13 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 30, they were appointed from Normandy. Michael Palseologus pro- ! to go into every shire at the most three to an assessment. The first notice of an assize of bread is to be found in a proclama- tion made in 1203, during the reign of King John, enforcing the legal assize. By 51 Hen, III. St. 1 (1266;, called the "Assisa et Panis et Cervisiae," or the assize of bread and ale, the prices of these articles were regulated by those of corn, and by 51 Hen. III. st. 6 (1266), a baker was fined for transgressing the law, and in case of a grievous offence was to suffer punishment of body in the pillory, or some other correction. The latter statute was repealed by 9 Anne, c. 18 (1710), which fixed a new assize. Other alterations were made in the law, and the statute Assisa, &c. was repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, s. 23 (June 17, 1824). Bread has siace been sold by weight in the metropolis, and the system was extended to the country by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37 (1836), which came into operation Oct. 1, 1836. The law .re- quires bakers, when delivering bread, to be provided vnth weights and scales. By 1 Vict. c. 38 (July 4, 1838), aU former acts relating to the sale of bread in Ireland are repealed, and a new assize established for that country. Assize Courts. — Itinerant justices were appointed for every part of the kingdom, by the parliament held at Northampton in 1176. The judges were invested with a delegated authority from the aula regia, or the king's court, and they made their circuit rovmd the kingdom for trying causes once in seven years. The twelfth article of Magna Charta (1215) provided that they should be sent into each county once a year, and this ASS times a year. Assizes were first allowed to be held during Advent and Lent, by the consent of the bishops, at the king's special request, as set forth in the statute of West- minster 1 (3 Edw. I. c. 51), in 1275. AssizB OF Jeeusaiem. — This code was compiled in 1100, imder the auspices of Grodfrey of Bouillon, the first sovereign of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, founded July 23, 1099. Godfrey sought the advice of the Latin pilgrims best skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe. With their aid the code, which Gribbon terms " a precious monument of feudal jurisprudence, was drawn up. The new code, attested by the seals of the king, the patriarch, and the viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in the holy sepulchre, enriched with the improve- ments of succeeding times, and respectfully consulted as often as any doubtful question arose in the tribunals of Palestine." It was restored for the use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus in 1369. An Itahan version appeared in 1535, at Venice, and one in French at Paris, in 1690. Assize of Wood aitd Coal. — On ac- count of the frauds practised, a law was passed in 1543 (34 & 35 Hen. YIII. c. 3), regulating the measure for coal and wood, la consequence of the scarcity of wood and the impossibility of enforcing the regula- tions of this statute, it was amended by 7 Edw. VI. c. 7 (1553). The latter act was altered by 43 Eliz. c. 14 (1601). The law was enforced by 9 Anne, c. 15 (1710), and an exemption granted in favour of billets made of beech wood only, by 10 Anne, c. 6 (1711). These acts were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, s. 23 (June 17, 1824). The sale of coal in the metropolis is regulated by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 76, passed Oct. 5, 1831. AssTTMTTiON. — This Eomau Catholic festi- val, celebrated on the 15th of August, in honour of the alleged assumption of the Virgin Mary into neaven, was instituted, according to some authorities, in the 4th, and according to others in the 7th century. The early Church commemorated her death, but the assumption is a Eomish innovation. The feast was originally observed on the 18th of January, which was afterwards changed to the 15th of August. The Greek and Russian churches on the latter day observe the festival of "the Day of Rest of the Most Holy Mother of God," but do not hold the doctrine of the Assumption. AiSSTEiA (Asia) . — The narrow tract of country inclosed between Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Armenia, Susiana, and Media, called by the ancients Assyria, or Asturia, was the original seat of that extended do- minion known as the Assyrian empire. From the 10th chapter of Genesis we learn that Nimrod, leaving Babylon, which he had founded, went forth into Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Rhehoboth, Calah, andResen, about B.C. 2218. Such is the interpretation given in the margin of the Bible, though some authors prefer the reading, that Assur went forth and buUt these cities. The next 72 notice of this empire that occurs in the Old Testament, is the invasion of Palestine in the reign of Uzziah, by Phul (2 Kings, xv. 19) , king of Assyria, B.C. 769. The sacred historian relates that Menahem, king of Israel, in- duced him to retire by a bribe of 1,000 talents. Tiglath PHeser, the successor of Phiil, at the solicitation of Ahaz, king of Judah, invaded Syria, and took many of its people away captive (2 Kings, xvi. 5 — 9), B.C. 738. Sal- manassar, having besieged Samaria three years, captured it, and put an end to the kingdom of Israel B.C. 722 (2 Kings, xvii. 5, 6), and carried away its people into cap- tivity. Another king, Sennacherib, came up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them (2 Kings, xviii. 13, and 2 Chron. xxxii.), B.C. 714, but failed in an attack upon Jerusalem, the angel of the Lord having slain 185,000 men in one night, B.C. 712 (2 Kings, xviii. 13, xix. 35, 36, and 2 Chron. xxxii. 21). On his return to Nineveh, Sen- nacherib was slain by two of his own sons, and another king, named Esarhaddon, assumed the Assyrian sceptre, B.C. 711 (2 Kings, xix. 37) . The last king of Assyria mentioned in Scripture is Nebuchadnezzar, who is supposed to have ascended the throne B.C. 650. From these notices and the scanty details given by some ancient writers, at- tempts have been made to construct a history of this powerful empire, and to ascertain the various dynasties of its kings. Though much has been accomplished, particularly by the investigations and labours of Botta, Layard, Fergusson, Rawlinson, and others, to whose works the student and inquirer are referred for additional information, nothing approaching to a connected history of As- syria has been obtained. The discoveries of these enterprising men confirm, in a most re- markable manner, the Scripture accounts. It is evident that the Assyrian empire existed at a very early ;period in the history of the world ; that its rulers obtained extensive dominion; and that, after a partial dismemberment, it continued to exist for many years. The theory of an Assyrian empire that terminated at the revolt of the Medes, about B.C. 711, fol- lowed by an Assyrian monarchy that con- tinued till the destruction of Nineveh, B.C. 606, though supported by high authori- ties, is now generally rejected. Chnton (Fasti Helleniei, i. 268) remarks, with refer- ence to the duration of the Assyrian monar- chy : " The period dehvered by Ctesias seems to have been 1306 years. He placed its commencement 1000 years before the Trojan war, and its termination at B.C. 876. But in assigning the termination of the Assyrian monarchy, Ctesias, and those that followed him, confounded two events, — the revolt of the Medes and the destruction of Nineveh ; which they made to happen together. These two events, however, were divided by a con- siderable interval of time, and the conclu- sion of the term of 1306 years assigned to that monarchy did not occur at the Median revolt, but at the final capture of Nineveh. AST Tlie date of this event we are enabled to fix with precision, on the concurrent authority of Scripture and Herodotus." (B.r. 606.) Chnton gives the following summary : — Yrs. B.C. Mnut, B.C. 2182. Assyrian monarchy, 1306 years) o^k -la-in before the empire .. ..j During the empire, 24 Itings . . 526 1237 Sardanapalus, B.C. 876. Alter the empii-e, 6 kings . . 105 711 Capture of Nineveh Vaux (Nineveh and Persepolis, p. 508) gives, on the authority of Colonel Eawhnson, the following list of Assyrian monarchs : — FIEST ASSXEIAIT EMPIEE. 1306 Belukh 1273 PudU 1255 Phulukh 1 1240 SUima-Rish L . . . . 1220 Sanda-pal-imat .. 1200 Aashur-napal-il .. 1185 Mntaggil-Nebo .. 1165 Aflshur-Eish-ipan 1140 Tiglath-Pileser I. 1120 Asshur-bani-pal I. 1100 Asfihur-adan-akhi 950 B.C. Asshur-danin-il 925 Phulukh II 900 Tigulti-Sanda 880 Sardanapalus 850 SiUmaEishll 815 (Asshur-danin-pal). Shamasphul 780 Phulukh III. (Pul) ) and > 760 Semiramis ; SECOND ASSTEIAN BMPIEE. B.C. Tiglath-PUeser IL 747 Shalmaneser 730 Sargon 721 Sennacherib 702 Esarhaddon 680 Asshur-bani-pal IL . . ( Asshur-FiTui t-Ilut . . . . ( Final overthrow of Nineveh ( AsTA, now AsTi, in Piedmont, was cap- tured by the Gauls about B.C. 400. Alaric besieged it a.d . 403. It was taken and retaken several times during the struggles with the barbarians. The emperor Frederick I. captured it a.d. 1154. The French obtained possession in 1387, and after holding it nearly a centiiry and a half, relinquished it to the emperor Charles V., by the treaty of Cam- bray, 1529. Charles bestowed it upon Beatrice of Portugal, and by her marriage with Charles III. of Savoy, it passed into the possession of that house. It was made a bishop's see at an early period. Evasius, supposed to be the first bishop, suffered martyrdom Dec. 1, 265. AsTLEx's Amphitheatee, a temporary building in 1774, was, in 1780, converted into a roofed amphitheatre. It was destroyed bv fire Aug. 17, 1794; Sept. 2, 1803; and June 8, 1841. AsTOEGA (Spain), "the city of priests," buUt on the site of the Asturiea Augusta of the Eomans, was taken by Almansor in 990, and recovered in 1010. The king of Navarre took it in 1033; and the French, after a desperate encounter, obtained possession April 12, 1810, when they dismantled the fortifications and committed great havoc. It was made the seat of a bishopric in the 3rd century. A council on discipline was held here Sept. 1, 946. AsTEACAN (Russia), formerly the capital AST of a Tartar state, was taken by Ivan in 1554. The Turks besieged it in 1569 ; and a rebel- hon broke out here in 1670. It is the seat of an archbishopric. AsTEOiOGY. — The Chaldaeans, the Egypt- ians, the Hindoos, and the Persians cultivated this "illusory science ;" and with the former it is supposed to have originated. By an edict issued at Rome, B.C. 139, the Chal- dseans, or mathematicians, as the astrologers were then called, were banished from the city. The senate, in the reign of Augustus, expelled them from Italy in the year 16. Sharpe (Hist, of Egypt, ii. 179), writing on the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 — 161), when Egypt was a Roman province, remarks : — "The poor Jews took to it as a trade. In Alexandria, the Jewess, half beggar half fortune-teller, would stop people in the streets and interpret dreams by the help of the Bible, or sit under a sacred tree like a sibyl, and promise wealth to those who con- sulted her, duly proportioned to the size of the coin by which she was paid." Constan- tius (July 13, 358) made a law declaring astrologers to be the enemies of mankind. The Arabians were great astrologers. Pres- cott says, with reference to the Aztecs, " In no country, not even in ancient Egypt, were the dreams of the astrologer more implicitly deferred to. On the birth of a child he was instantly summoned. The time of the event was accurately ascertained ; and the family hung in trembling suspense, as the minister of heaven cast the horoscope of the infant, and unrolled the dark volume of destiny," During the Middle Ages the practice became general. In the 13th and 14th centuries, astrology was taught in the Italian universi- ties, whilst at Padua and Bologna professore of astrology were appointed. Many of our own early philosophers and men of science were captivated by this study. ASTEONOMICAL SOCIETY OP LONDOIT, WaS founded in 1820, and its charter was granted March 7, 1831, since which time it has taken the title of the Royal Astronomical Society of London. AsTEOiroMT. — ^This science was cultivated, before the Christian aera, by the Chaldaeans, the Egyptians, the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Phoenicians, and the Greeks ; and to each of the four first-mentioned has its invention been attributed, whilst Josephus claims it for the Jews. There can be no doubt that it was practised amongst the Chaldseans and the Egyptians; and the great antiquity of the Hindoo observations is acknowledged by all astronomers. The claims of the Chinese on this point are not supported by satisfac- tory evidence. In Greece, Thales, born B.C. 640, who predicted an echpse, was the earUest astronomer. He was followed by Anaxi- mander, bom B.C. 610; Anaximenes, born B.C. 530; and Anaxagoras, born B.C. 500. Pythagoras, bom B.C. 580, greatly advanced the science. Meton and Euctemon intro- duced the Metonic cycle, B.C. 433. Aris- totle, born B.C. 384, wrote a treatise on the subject ; and Autolycus two books, the most AST ancient astronomical works tliat have come down to us. Hipparchus, born B.C. 135, reduced it to a systematic form, and is the father of true astronomy. Ptolemy, called the "prince of astronomers," born ia the year 130, was the last astronomer of the Greek school. The science was revived by the Arabians, "who," says Hallam (Lit. Hist. vol. i. pt. i. eh. 2), " understood astronomy well, and their science was transfused more or less into Europe." The caliph Al Mansur is said to have en- couraged the study of this science ; and Albategnius is the most celebrated of the Arabian astronomers. Alfonso X., of Cas- tile, produced the AJfonsiae tables in 1252. Little was accomplished until the appearance of Copernicus, who is justly termed the founder of modem astronomy. He was born at Thorn, in 1473, and published his cele- brated treatise on the Eevolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, just before his death, in 1543. It was issued at Nuremberg, and the treatise, consisting of six books, is said to have been completed by the astronomer about 1530. Tycho Brahe (1546^1601), Hallam admits, " did far more in this essen- tial department of the astronomer than any of his predecessors." He was the first to make a catalogue of the stars, and his new mundane system paved the way for the important discoveries of the 17th century. In 1582 Gregory XIII., by the aid of Lilius and Clavius, reformed the calendar. It is impossible in a small compass to explain even the chief results of the wonderful pro- gress made in astronomical science since the commencement of the 17th century; but some of the more important are given in the following summary : — 1. Galileo remarks the isochronism of the pen- 1611. 1616. 1618. 1631. 1654. 1665. 1671. 1675. 1687. 1705. Bayer's maps, in which the stars are distin- guished by letters. Galileo makes his telescope. Kepler pub- lishes his work on Mars, containing what are called his Firgt and Second Laws. Galileo announces discoveries of Jupiter's satellites ; of spots on the moon ; of ne- bulae ; ofnew phenomena in Saturn, which prove to proceed from the ring ; and phases of Venus. Galileo observes spots on the sun. The Copernican theory prohibited by the court of Rome. Kepler's Third Law. Gassendi observes the transit and measures the diameter of Mercury. Transit of Venus first observed by Horrox and Crabtree, and her diameter measured. Discovery of Sattirn's ring by Huyghens. Casstni determines the time of rotation of Jupiter. Newton fii-st turned his attention to gravi- tation. Eicher observes the shortening of the seconds' pendtilum in nearing the equator. Boemer announces his discovery of the velocity of light by means of Jupiter's satellites. Newton publishes the " Principia." Halley first predicted the return of a comet ; viz., that of 1758. Bradley discovers aberration. Death of Newton. 74 ASY 1731. Hadley's quadrant invented. 1732. Maupertuis introduces the Newtonian theory into France. 1765. Harrison gains the parliamentary reward for his chronometer. 1767. First nautical almanack published. 1781. Herschel discovers Uranus. 1784. Laplace's researches on the stability of the Solar System, &c. 1795. Separation of the Milky "Way into stars by 1814 1820. Herschel suspects the motion of the whole Solar System towards the constellation Hercules. Piazzi's catalogue of 7,646 stars. Astronomical Society of London founded. •32. Sir J. Herschel's investigations of double stars. Lord Rosse completes his telescope. The planet Neptune discovered by Adams and Le Verrier, who conducted their researches quite independently of each other. Herschel publishes the " Results of Astrono- mical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope." Nebulae observed by Lord Rosse. Airy makes investigations resjjecting ancient eclipses. Photography successfully applied to astrono- mical purposes. Annular eclipse of the sun visible in England. Donati's comet appears with great splen- dor for several weeks. AsTTJHiAS (Spain). — An ancient province, to which, in 1833, the name of Oviedo, its chief town, was given. In its mountains the Gothic fugitives sought refuge on the inva- sion of Spain by the Saracens in the 8th century. The independence of the country was maintained by a race of native rulers, commencing with Pel^o, a.d. 716. Henry, eldest son of John L, assumed the title of Prince of Asturias in 1388 ; and from that period the heir apparent to the Spanish throne has been thus styled. The insurrec- tion against the French (1808) commenced in the fastnesses of the Asturian mountains, which became the scene of many severe struggles. Its junta was the first organized in Spain, and thus, as AUson remarks, its inhabitants had " a second time the honour of having taken the lead in the dehverance of the peninsula." AsTLUM. — The earliest notice of a place of refuge for criminals is found in the command to Moses for the Jews to build six cities of refuge, for the manslayer, B.C. 1451 (ISTxmibers, xxxv. 6). A similar order was given to Joshua, b.c, 1444 (ch. xx.), on the entrance of the Jews into Canaan. Cadmus is said to have erected one at Thebes, B.C. 1493, and Eome on its foundation was a general place of refuge. Some place of sanctuary existed amongst all ancient na- tions of which we have any record. On the introduction of Christianity, the custom was retained. Miknan (Latin Christianity, vol. i, b. iii. ch. 5.) states: — "The privilege of asylxim within the Church is recognized in most of the barbaric codes. It is asserted in the strongest terms, and in terms impreg- nated with true Christian humanity, that there is no crime which may not be par- doned from the fear of God and reverence for the saints." It became a privilege of ATE churches from the time of Constantine. The altar was at first the sanctuary, until the privilege was extended to the other parts of the church. Theodosius regulated asylum by law, A.D. 392. When Alaric captured Eome, A.D. 410, he ordered that all who took refuge in the churches should be spared. During the Middle Ages even convents, the dwellings of the bishops, the precincts of these places, the graves of the dead, hospitals, &c., were privSeged in this respect. The canon law of Gratian and the Pope's Decretals granted protection to all except night and Mghway robbers, and offenders against the Church. The practice gave rise to various abuses, and many attempts were made to find a remedy. At the Eeformation the system, as far as criminals were concerned, was abo- lished though it continued to exist in a modified form for the benefit of debtors, until abolished by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, in 1697. Ateliebs Natiowattx, or Fatioitai, Workshops, were established at Paris by decrees of the 27th and 28th of February, 1848, for the purpose of providing occupa- tion for the numerous unemployed workmen in that capital. About 5,000 were at first admitted, but their numbers soon increased to above 100,000. They rose against the goverimient on the 22nd of June, were over- come after a painful struggle by General Cavaignac, and the national workshops were dissolved on the 4th of July, having been in existence about four months. Atella (Italy). — ^The French army under Montpensier, capitulated to the Spaniards and Italians at this town, July 21, 1496. Philip of Commines denounces this sur- render as ignominious, and compares it to the capitulation of the Komans at the Cau- dine Forks. Atella was the seat of a bishopric, which was transferred to Aversa about 1050. Athabtasias" Creed. — A confession of faith, so called because it was supposed to have been composed by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, a.d. 326. The latest critics have, however, shovni that it was not the work of Athanasius. By some it is ascribed to Vigihus Tapsensis, "an African bishop, who lived in the latter part of the 5th cen- tury, in the time of the Vandalic Arian persecution;" and by Dr. Waterland it is attributed to Hilary, bishop of Aries, in the 5th century. It was written chiefly against the Arians ; and to the fact that Athanasius was their vigorous opponent, may its pecu- liar designation be attributed. Athen^um Clttb was founded in 1823. The club-house was built in 1829 and opened in November, 1830. Athens, the capital of Attica and the most celebrated city of ancient Greece, is said to have been first called Cecropia, from Cecrops, an Egyptian who built the original city on the Acropohs, according to Hales, B.C. 1558; Usher, B.C. 1556; and Chnton, B.C. 1433. It received the name of Athens i'rom the worship of Athenae or Minerva, ATH said to have been established by Ereehtheus, B.C. 1383. The legendary accounts give a succession of kings from Cecrops to Theseus, and with the latter the history of Athens as a state is declared by some writers to com- mence. Theseus ascended the throne, accord- ing to Hales, B.C. 1236; Usher, b.c. 1235; and Clinton, B.c. 1234. He united into one political body the twelve states into which Cecrops had divided Attica, and made Athens the capital. Codrus, the last king of the dynasty, sacrificed himself for the safety of Athens, B.C. 1070 according to Hales, or b.c 1044 according to CHnton. Seventeen kings reigned during the monar- chical period, and they were followed first by perpetual, then by decennial, and finally by annual archons. Homer speaks of Athens as a place of importance during the Trojan war (b.c 1183). B.C.. 1069. 754 752. Medon made perpetual archon. Alcmseou last of the perpetual archons. Charops first decennial archon. Erixias, the seventh and last of the decennial archons, dies. Nine annual archons appointed, the title of archon being given only to the first. Creon first annual archon. Legislation of Draco, whose laws, on account of their severity, were said to have been written in blood. Cylon attempts to make himself master of Athens. Solon remodels the constitution, and gives a new code to Athens. Pisistratus usurps the government. Death of Solon. Pisistratus expelled. Thespis first exhibits tragedy at Athens. Death of Pisistratus. Assassination of Hipparchus by HarmodiuB and Aristogiton. Ostracism established. War between Athens and Sparta. Battle of Marathon. War between Athens and ^gina. Banishment of Aristides. Fleet of 200 ships built at Athens. Ascendancy of Themistocles, Athens taken by Xerxes. Mardonius burns Athens. Themistocles rebuilds the city. Commencement of the Athenian supremacy. Banishment of Themistocles. Ostracism of Cymon. Athens asserts her supremacy over the other states of Greece. The ' Long walls' of Athens commenced. The Athenians defeat the Thebans at .^no- phyta. Truce between the Athenians and Peloponne- sians for five years. The Athenians defeat the Persians The Athenians assist the Phocians in the Sacred War. The Boeotians defeat the Athenians at Chse- ronea. Thirty years' truce between Sparta and Athens. , Pericles at the head of afiiairs. Comedies prohibited at Athens. Samos sub- dued by Pericles. Athens at the height of its glory. The law against comedies repealed. Alliance between the Athenians and the Coreyrseans. Peloponnesian war begins, aod Attica is in- Plague at Athens. Second invasion of Attica. 75 ATH 429. Pericles dies of the plagne. 428. Third invasion of Attica. 415. First Athenian campaign in Sicily. 414. The Athenians defeated in the second cam- paign in Sicily. 413. The Athenian fleet and army destroyed. 411. Government of the " Four Hundred." 407. Second and last banishment of Alcibiades. Lysander defeats the Athenians. 406. The Athenians defeat the Spartans in a sea- fight. 405. Battle of ^Egospotamos, in which Lysander again defeats the Athenians. 404 Athens taken by Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian war. The rule of the Thirty Tyrants, who are replaced by " the Ten." 403. Thrasybulus overthrows the government of " the Ten." 399. Death of Socrates. 394. Xenophon banished from Athens. 393. Conon rebuilds the walls of Athens. 388. Plato founds the Academy. 378. The Thebans and Athenians allied against Sparta. 376. Athenian victory off Naxos. 374. Peace between Athens and Sparta. 371. Greneral peace. 360. War between the Athenians and Olynthians respecting Amphipolia. 359. Philip of Macedon makes peace with Athens. 357. Commencement of the Social War. 355. The Social War terminates. 352. Philip takes Methon6, and enters Thessaly. He is stopped at Ihermopylce by the .,. Athenians. "346. Peace between Athens and Macedon. 339. War breaks out between Philip and the Athenians. 338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at Chseronea. 323. Samian war commences. 322. End of Samian war. Submission of Athens to Macedon. Death of Demosthenes. 317. Cassander conquers Athena. 307. Demetrius restores the ancient constitution of Athens. 297. Demetrius fails in an attack on Athens. 296. Demetrius besieges Athens. 295 Demetrius takes Athens. 287. Athens revolts from Demetrius. 277. Athens, Sparta, and Egypt allied. 268. After a series of sieges, Athens surrenders to Antigonus Gonatus, king of Sparta. 229. Athens joins the Achaean league. 215. The Athenians and JBtolians unite against Macedon. 211. A Roman fleet arrives at Athens. 200. Athens and other Greek states join Kome against Philip. 196. The Romans proclaim Athens free from the Macedonian power. 146. The Romans subdue Greece. S56. Athens stormed by Sylla. Athens (Modern).— This city sank into comparative insignificance early in the Chris- tian sera. St. Paul visited it (Acts, xvii. 15 — 34) in the year 51. At first a bishop's see, it became an archbishopric, and ulti- mately received the metropolitan dignity. 267. Besi^ed by the Goths. 395. Taken by Alaric. 532. The walls restored by Justinian. 1146. Plundered by Roger, king of Sicily. 1205. Taken by Otho de la Roche, whom the mar- quis of Montferrat makes lord of Athens and Thebes, by the title of Grand Sire. 1311. Conquered by the Catalans. 1394. Bequeathed by JSeilo Acciaiuoli to the church of St Mary. 1456. Taken by Mohammed II., who thus puts an end to the domination of the Latins. 76 ATM 1466. Taken by the Venetians. 1479. Restored to the Turks. 1687. Retaken by the Venetians. 1827. Insurrection of Greeks ; siege and capture by the Turks, May 17. 1834. Declared the capital of the modem kingdom of Greece. 1850. Blockaded by a British fleet. 1854. Occupied by French and English forces. They retire in 1856. DTJKES OP ATHENS. HOUSE OF DB Li EOCHS. A.D. A.D. Otho 1205 I WUliam 1275 GuyL 1225 Gay II 1290 John 1264 | HorsB OF BEnawK. Walter de Brienne 1308 CATALAN GBAKD COMPANT. RogerDeslau 1311 HOUSE OF ARAGOir. (Dukes of Athens and Neopatras.) Manfred 1326 I Frederick 1348 William 1330 Frederick 1355 John 1338|Maria 1377 HOUSE OF ACCIAIUOIX Nerio 1 1386 Infant son of Nerio IL Antonio 1394 with his mother as Nerio n 1435 regent 1453 R-anco 1455 Atheeton Moob (Battle). — The parlia- mentary army, led by the earl of Essex, was completely defeated here, June 30, 1643, by the royahst forces under the marquis of Newcastle. Athlone (Ireland), called "the key of Connaught," a place of considerable strength, situated partly in Westmeath and partly in Eoscommon, was besieged by WiUiam the Third's army in 1690. The siege was raised on the 25th of Jtily. The attempt was renewed by General GinkeU, afterwards earl of Athlone, and the town was taken July 1, 1691. Atlantic Telegeaph. {See Submaeinb Telegeaph.) Atmospheee. — Atmospheric air was sup- posed by the ancients to be a simple ele- mentary body, and the experiments of their philosophers did not lead to the discovery of its real properties. The investigations of Anaxamines (b.c. 548), of Aristotle (b.c. 384 — 323) , and of others, produced no great results. The weight of air and its pressure on aU bodies were first perceived by Galileo in 1564. Descartes probably went further in the same direction, but it was not demon- strated until TorriceUi's successful experi- ment by the agency of quicksilver in 1643. Pascal fully confirmed the theory of atmo- spheric pressure in 1648. In spite, however, of these and other important discoveries, the ancient doctrine, that air was one of the four elements, continued prevalent tiU Dr. Priestley, in 1774, discovered osygen gas, showing it to be a constituent of air. Azotic gas, the other constituent, was discovered soon after. Scheele and Lavoisier endea- voured to determine the volumes of each contained in the atmosphere, and Mr. Caven- ATM dish published in the " Philosophical Trans- actions" for 1783, the results of experi- ments made the year before, by which the matter was settled with greater precision. Atmospheeic Eailway. — The appUcation of atmospheric presstire as a motive power on railways was first suggested about 1812. A line was constructed to test the principle, between Kingston and Dalkey, near Dublin, and opened in 1843 ; and another, between Croyd!on and London, was opened in 1845. Atomic Theoey in chemistry, sometimes called the doctrine of definite proportions, was first explained by Dr. Dalton, in 1803, in his " Manchester Memoirs." In 1808 he pnbhshed his "New System of Chemical Philosophy," on the same subject. The basis of the theory is found in a work " On the Affinities of Bodies," published by Wen- zel, a German chemist, in 1777. Attaindee. — The Norman laws provided that by attainder of treason or felony a person not only forfeited his land, but that his blood became attainted; by which his descendants, as well as himself, were for ever (i. e. unless the attainder had been reversed) disqualified from inheriting pro- perty. The theory of constructive treason proved a source of great injustice in the days of arbitrary ride. Its severity was mitigated by 7 Will. III. c. 3 (1695), an act which modified 25 Edw. III. stat. 5, c. 2 (1350) ; and 54 Geo. III. c. 145, passed July 27, 1814, restricted disinheritance, ex- cept in cases of high-treason, to the actual culprit. By 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 106 (Aug. 29, 1833), it was enacted that after the death of a person attainted, those tracing descent through him may inherit, unless the land should have escheated before Jan. 1, 1834. Attica (Greece). — The early history of this political division of ancient Greece is involved in obscurity. Its capital, Athens, was, according to the traditional accovmt, founded by Cecrops, a native of Lais, in Egypt, about b.c. 1558. (See Athens.) Atioenet, one who is appointed to act in place, or in tti/rn of, another in the conduct of a suit. In early times, every suitor was obhged to appear in person, in obedience to the king's writ. After appearance, the courts of record had the power of allowing them to appear by attorney. Suitors could also have attorneys appointed by letters patent, under the great seal; but if these could not be obtained, the suitors were obliged to appear each day in court in their •roper person. The Statute of Westminster I. c. 10 (13 Edw. I, 1285), gives to all per- sons the power of appointing an attorney vrithout letters patent. In the poU-tax of 2 Eich. II. (1379), the legal profession were divided into four classes ; from which it ap- pears that the attorneys had by this time be- come a separate body. Attorneys are also mentioned as a distinct body of men in 4 Hen. IV. c. 18 (1402) ; whereby it is ordained that all attorneys should be examined by the justices, and by their discretions should be put in the roU. They were to be good, virtuous, and ATT of good fame. Their disciphne, mode of admission, and qualifications, have been regulated by a long series of statutes, down to the 6 & 7 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 22, 1843), by which previous enactments were repealed, and the present regulations estabhshed. Act- ing without proper qualification is punished as a misdemeanor, Attoeney-Geneeal. — ^The records of the year 1278 furnish two instances of the ap- pearance of an officer designated "attomatus regis." Another mode of describing this official adopted at the time was, " qui sequi- tur pro rege." It is, therefore, certain that such an officer, appointed, probably, at first for special occasions only, was created some time before 1278. Eoss (Judges of England, iii. 45) says, — "In most years two were regularly employed, who may be supposed to answer to our modern officers — the at- torney and solicitor general. The latter title, however, had certainly not been then adopted ; and, as far as I can find, was not used tin the reign of Edward IV." The queen also had an attorney to attend to her separate interests. Holinshed mentions one killed in a fray in Fleet Street, April 13, 1458. Eoss states that Lord Bacon was the first attorney-general elected a member of the House of Commons. This was in 1614. ATTOENEYS-GElirEEAL OP ENGLAND. Edward L A.D. 1277-8. WilUani Bonneville. 1278-9. William de Giselham. 1279-80. Gilbert de Thornton. 1280-1. Alan de Walkingliani. 1281-2. John le Fawconer. 1284-5. William de Seleby. 1286-7. William Inge. 1289-90. John de Bosco. Nicholas de Warwick. John de HaydeU. 1291-2. Eichard de Breteville. Hugh de Louther. 1292-3. Koger de Hegham. 1293-4. John de Mntford. 1300-1. John de Chester. 1304-5. John de Drokenesford. Edward II. 1307-8. John de Chester again. 1309-10. Mathew de Scaccario. 1312-3. John de Norton. 1315-6. William de Langley. Gilbert de Toutheby. William de Herle. Geolfrey le Scrope. 1318-9. Adam de Eyncham. 1320-1. Geoflrey le Scrope again, 1322-3. Geoffrey le Fyngale. Edward III. 1327. Adam de Eyncham again. Alexander de Hadenham. William de Mershton. 1329. WilUam de Aldeburgh. 1334. Simon de Trewythosa. William de Hepton, or Hopton. 1338. John de Lincoln. John de Clone, or Clove. William de Merington. 1342. WQliam de Thorpe. 1349. Simon de Kegworth. 1353. Henry de Greystoke. 1356. John Gaunt. 1360. Richard de Friseby. 1362. WiUiam de Pleste. 1363. William de Nessefield. 1366. Thomas de Shardelowe. 77 ATT ATT A.D. 1367. John de Ashwell. Michael Skylling. Kichard II. 1378. Thomas de Shardelowe again. 1381. William Ellis. Laurence Dnu 1384. William de Homeby. 1386. Edmund BrudneU. 1398. Thomas CoTeley. Henry IV. 1399. Sept. 30. WUliam de Lodlngton. 1401. Thomas Cowley, or Coveley. 1407. July 13. Thomas Dereham. Aug. 17. Koger Hunt. 1410. Thomas TickhiU. Henry V. 1414. Jan. 16. William Babington. 1420. WilUam Babthorp. Henry "VX 1422. Nov. 11. William Babthorp. 1429. Oct. 28. John Vampage. 1452. June 30. William Nottingham. Edwai-d IV. 1461. Aug. 12. John Herbert. Henry Sotill. 1471. June 16. WiUiamHusee. 1481. May 7. WUUam Huddersfield. Edward V. 1483. William Huddersfield. May 28. Morgan Kydwelly. Kichard III. 1483. Morgan Kydwelly. Henry VII. 1485. Sept. 20. WiUiam Hody. 1486. Nov. 3. James Hubbard, or Hobart Henry VHI. 1509. April. John Ernie. 1519. Jan. 26. John Fitz-James. 1522. Feb. John Roper. 1524. April 1. Ralph SwiUtngton. 1525. Aug. Richard Lyster. 1529. June 3. Christopher Hales. 1535. July 10. John Baker. 1540. Nov. 8. William Whorwood. WilUam Staundford. 1545. June 18. Henry Bradshaw. Edward VI. 1547. Jan. Henry Bradshaw. 1552. May 21. Edward Griflla. Mary. 1553. July. Edward Griffin. Elizabeth. 1558. Nov. 17. Edward Griffin. •' 1559. Jan. 22. Gilbert Gerard. 1581. June 1. John Popham. 1592. June 2. Sir Thomas Egerton. 1594. April 10. Edward Coke. James I. 1603. March. Edward Coke. 1606. July 4. Sir Heniy Hobaxt. 1613. Oct. 27. Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albany. 1617. March 12. Sir Henry Yelverton. 1621. Jan. 11. Sir Thomas Coventry. Charles I. 1625. March. Sir Thomas Coventry. Oct. 31 Sir Robert Heath. 1631. Oct. 27. William Noy. 1634. Sept. 27. Sir John Banks. 1641. Jan. 29. Sir Edward Herbert. 1345. Nov. 3. Sir Thomas Gardner. Ti-ial of king. 1649. Jan. 10. William Steele. Interregnum. Feb. William Steele. April 9. Edmond Prideaux. 1659. Robert Reynolds. Charles II. 1660. May 31. Sii- Geoftey Palmer. 1670. May 10. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1673. Nov. 12. Sir Francis North, afterwards Lord Guildford. 1675. Sir William Jones. 1679. Oct. 27. Sir Creswell Levinz, or Levinge. 1681. Feb. 24. Sir Robert Sawyer. 78 James IL 1687. Dec. 13. Sir Thomas Powis. William HI. A.D. 1689. Mar. 9. Sir Henry Pollexfen. May 7. Sir George Ti-eby. 1692. May 2. Sir John Somera, after-wards Lord Somers. 1693. April 4. Sir Edward Ward. 1695. June 10. Sir- Thomas Trevor, afterwards Lord Trevor. 1701. July 5. Sir Edward Northey. Anne. 1707. April 25. Sir Simon Harcourt, afterwards Lord Harcourt. 1708. Oct. 21. Sir James Montague. 1710. Sept. 18. Sir Simon Harcourt again. Oct. 19. Sir Edward Northey again. George I. 1718. March 14. Sir Nicholas Lechmere, after- wards Lord Lechmere. 1720. May 9. Sir Robert Raymond, afterwards Lord Raymond. 1724. Jan. 31. Sir Philip Torke, afterwards Lord Hardwicke. George II. 1733. Nov. 30. Sir John Willes. 1737. Jan. 26. Sir Dudley Ryder. 1754. AprU 20. Hon. William Murray.afterwards Lord Mansfield. 1756. Nov. 6. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards Viscount Henley and Earl of North- ington. 1757. July 1. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards Lord Camden. George III. 1762. Jan. 25. Hon. Charles Yorke. 1763. Dec. 16. Sir Fletcher Norton, afterwards Lord Gi-antley. 1765. Aug. 25. Hon. Charles Yorke a^iain. 1766. Aug. 6. WnUamde Grey, afterwa.ds Lord Walsingham. 1771. Jan. 23. Edward Thiarlow, afterwards Lord Thuxlow. 1778. Jtine 16. Alexander Wedderbume, after- wards Lord Loughborough. 1780. July 11. James Wallace. 1782. April 20. lioyd Kenyon. 1783. April. James Wallace again. Nov. 18. John Lee. Dec. 26. Lloyd Kenyon again. 1784. March 30. Richard Pepper Ai-den, after- wards Lord Alvanley. 1788. June 28. Sir Archibald Macdonald 1793. Feb. 13. Sir John Scott, atterwards Lord Eldon. 1800. June 4. Sir John Milford, afterwards Baron Redesdale. 1801. Feb. 2. Sir Edward Law, afterwards Lord Ellenborough. 1802. April 15. Hon. Spencer PercivaL 1806. Feb. 14. Sir Arthur Pigott. 1507. April 7. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 1812. June 26. Sir Thomas Plumer. 1813. May 4. Sir WUliam Garrow. 1817. May 7. Sir Samuel Shepherd. 1819. July 24. Sir Robei-t Giflford, afterwards Lord Gifford. George IV. 1824. Jan. 31. Sir John Singleton Copley, after- wards Lord Lyndhurst. 1826. Sept. 20. Sir Charles WethereU. 1827. AprU 27. Sir James Scarlett, afterwards Lord Abinger. 1828. Feb. 19. Sir Charles WethereU again. 1829. June 10. Sir James Scarlett again. WUUam IV. 1830. Nov. 26. Sir Thomas Denman, afterwards Lord Denman. 1832. Nov. 26. Sir WilUam Home. 1834. Feb. 19. Sir John CampbeU, afterwards Lord CampbeU. Dec. 17. Sir Fi-ederick PoUock. 1835. April 30. Sir John CampbeU again. Victoria. 1841. July 3. Sir Thomas Wilde, afterwards Lord Truro. 1846. 1850. 1851. 1858. 1859. AUB Sept. 6. Sir Frederick Pollock again. April 17. Sir William Webb FoUett. July 4. Sir Frederick Thesiger, afterwards Lord Chelmsford. July 6. Sir Thomas Wilde again. July 13. Sir John Jervis. July 19. Sir John Komilly. March 28. Sir Alexander Jam.e3 Edmund Cockbum. March a. Sir F. Thesiger again. Dec. 28. Sir A. J. E. Cockbum again. Nov. Sir Richard BethelL Feb. Sir Fitzroy Kelly. June. Sir K. Bethell again. Atteaine. — This right, by which the sove- reigns of France claimed the property of a stranger who had died in their dominions without having been natnrahzed, was abol- ished by laws dated Aug. 6, 1790, and April 13, 1791 ; confirmed by a constitutional act, Sept. 3, ] 791 . It was re-estabhshed in 1804 j and finally abolished July 14, 1819. Attbeeoche (France). — A battle was fought between the EngHsh and French be- fore this place Aug. 19, 1344, in which the former, although greatly inferior in point of numbers, were victorious; the loss of the French amounting to 7,000 slain and 1,200 prisoners. AvBiN -DV CoEMiEB, St. (Battle). — Fought at this place, between the Bretons and the French, July 28, 1488. The former gained the victory, and St. Aubin fell into their hands. Auckland (Australasia), the capital of Kew Zealand, was founded Sept. 19, 1840, Captain Hobson, the first governor of the colony, arrived in January, 1841. AtrcTioiT. — This mode of sale was common amongst the Eomans. Petronius gbres the following caricature of the handbOl of a Eoman auction : — " Julius Proculus wiU make an auction of his superfluous goods to pay his debts." In the 13th century the crier, called cursor, stood under a spear, as amongst the Eomans. By 19 Geo. III. c. 56, s. 3 (1779), an auction is defined, — " a sale of any estate, goods, or effects, what- soever, by outcry, knocking down of hammer, by candle, by lot, by parcel, or by any other mode of sale at auction, or whereby the highest bidder is deemed to be the pur- chaser." Duties were fiLrst levied on auc- tions by 17 Geo. III. c. 50 (1777). The auction duty was increased and extended to Ireland in 1797 ; and was again increased by 45 Geo. Ill, c. 30 (April 5, 1805). AuDiANs, or AuD^ANS, a Christian sect, so called from Audaeus or Audius, a native of Mesopotamia, who was persecuted by the Syrian clergy because he censured their irregular lives. In revenge, he was ejected from the Syrian church, and banished to Scythia, where he died a .d . 370. His followers celebrated Easter on the same day as the Jewish passover, contrary to the decree of the council of Nice, in 325 ; and they main- tained that God had a hmnan form, and that man was created after his image. From the former doctrine they have been called Quartodecimarians ; and from the latter. AUG Anthro]^omorpUie8. Theodoaius, in 385, de- creed aeath against those who dared to perpetrate the atrocious crime of celebrating Easter on an improper day. Only a small number of Audeeans remained after the year 377, and they dwelt in cabins and monasteries near Antioch. By the 5th century they had become extinct. Atjeestadt (Battle). (5'ee Jena.) Au&HBiM, or Agheim (Battle). — Fought near this place, in Ireland, on Sunday, July 12, 1691. The troops of William III., com- manded by General GinkeU, gained a com- plete victory over the army of James II. The chief result was the submission of Ire- land to WiQiam III. Augmentations (the Court of), called "The Court of the Augmentations of the King's Eevenues," was established by 27 Henry VIII. c. 27 (1535), to take cognizance of suits and controversies arising out of the suppression of monasteries. It consisted of a chancellor, treasurer, attorney, sohcitor, ten auditors, seventeen receivers, a clerk^ an usher, and a messenger. It was sup- pressed by letters patent, re-estabhshed, and was annexed to the court of Exchequer by 1 Mary, sess. 2, c. 10 (1553), and revived by 1 Ehz. c. 4 (1558). Augsbue& (Bavaria) . — Founded by Augus- tus about B.C. 12, and called Augusta VindeH- corum. It was pillaged by the Huns about the middle of the 5th century ; and Charle- magne destroyed it a.d. 788. It was restored, and enjoyed the rights of a free and imperial city from 1276 — 1806. Marshal ViEars cap- tured it Sept. 18, 1703 ; the elector of Bavaria in December of the same year ; and Marl- borough retook it in 1704. It was taken by the French Oct. 10, 1805, and delivered by them to the Bavarian authorities in March, 1806. The bishopric is very ancient. Councils were held at Augsburg 7th Aug. 952, and Feb. 1051. A treaty called the Peace of Eehgion was signed at Augsburg Sept. 25, 1555, for the purpose of confirming the free exercise of the Protestant religion and the treaty of Passau. AuGSBUEG CoNEESSiON. — This celebrated confession of faith, compiled by Martin Luther, Melancthon, and other reformers, was read before the diet of Augsburg, June 25, 1530. It consisted of twenty-eight arti- cles, seven of which contained refutations of Eoman Cathohc errors, and the remaining twenty-one set forth the leading tenets of the Lutheran creed. Soon after its promulgation, the last hope of induciag the pontiff" to reform the Eoman Cathohc church was abandoned, and the complete severance of the connection followed. It was answered by the Eoman Catholics in August, 1530; and the Augsburg diet declared that it had been refuted. Melancthon drew up another confession somewhat different. The first is called the unaltered, and the second the altered confession. AuQ-SEUBG- Intesim. — The Confessiou having been condemned by the Diet, the emperor Charles V. advised, and Joachim, 79 AUG the elector of Brandenburg, directed, that an interim should be prepared. It was the joint production of John Agricola, Julius Phlug, and Michael Heldingus, commonly called Sidonius, from his bishopric. The document, neither Eoman Cathohc nor Pro- testant, was presented as an ultimatum to the Protestants, in 1548, and having failed to produce the desired effect, waa at length vrithdrawn. AtTGSBTJEQ- League. — Concluded at Augs- burg Jvdy 9, 1686. It was negotiated by the prince of Orange, June 21, 1686, for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France. The German princes at first joined it, and Spain and England acceded to it in 1689. AtTGUET, supposed to be of Asiatic ori- gin, was transferred to Etruria, and thence to Eome. The story of the rival pretensions of Romulus and Eemus to be decided by the flight of birds, B.C. 753, is well known. Eomulus instituted four augurs, and Numa Pompilius established them as an order, B.C. 716. The Romans never embarked in any important enterprise without consulting the augurs, and one of them always attended upon the consul when commanding an army. In B.C. 307 the number of augurs was in- creased to nine, five plebeians being asso- ciated with four patricians. SyUa increased the number to fifteen, B.C. 81. Augustus, B.C. 29, obtained the right of electing augurs at his pleasure. Theodosius the Great abohshed the office of augur in 390. Gibbon (iii. eh. 28) , referring to the final destruction of paganism, remarks : — " Fifteen grave and learned augurs observed the face of the heavens, and prescribed the actions of heroes according to the flight of birds." August. — By a decree of the senate in B.C. 30, the name of this month was changed from SextiHs to August, in honour of the emperor Augustus, who extended the num- ber of its days from thirty to thirty-one. Augustine Feiaes, ato called Austins, or Eeemites. — Their origin is uncertain. Pope Alexander IV. is said to have collected several bodies of hermits and placed them under the conmion rule of St. Augustine in 1256. Lanfranc of MUan was their general. Much controversy has been excited respect- ing the date of their introduction into Eng- land. A small body is said to have settled at Woodhouse, in Wales, in 1252. Humphrey Bohun, afterwards earl of Hereford^ and Essex, gave them a house and a church in London in 1254. They had about thirty -two houses in England and Wales at the suppres- sion of monasteries. Augustuses, or the Canons of the order of St. Augustiiie, sometimes called Austin Canons, because they pretended to foUow the rule of St. Augustine, or Austin, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, a.d. 395. They were Httle known until the 11th century, and did not assume the name until a later period. It is generally beheved that they came into Eng- land in the reign of Henry I. about 1105. Stevens states that they did not take any vows imtil the 12th century, and that they AUR assumed the name of Regular Canons of St. Augustine, when Innocent II., at the tenth general coimcil, that of Lateran, in 1139, placed all regular canons under hia rule. There were canon esses of this order, which had about 175 houses in England and Wales at the time of the suppression of the monasteries. AuLDEAEN ( Battle ) . — The Covenanters were defeated at Auldearn, or Alderne, near Inverness, by the earl of Montrose, May 9, 1645. AuLic CouNcrL. — Soon after the establish- ment of the Imperial Chamber by the diet of Worms, Maximihan I. instituted an Auhe Council at Vienna. The judges were appointed by the emperor. "The AiSic Council," says HaUam, " had, in all cases, a concurrent jurisdiction with the Imperial Chamber; an exclusive one in feudal and some other causes. But it was equally confined to cases of appeal ; and these, by multiphed privileges de non appellando, granted to the electoral and superior princely houses, were gradually reduced into moderate cumpass." This court underwent various modifications. An edict for its regulation was issued by Ferdi- nand III. in 1654. During the wars between Austria and Napoleon, the Auhc Council directed the military affairs of the empire. Its interference with the plans of the generals frequently proved disastrous. The Aulic Council was abohshed on the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, but was revived on the renewal of the struggle against Napoleon. AuEAT (Battle) . — ^Was fought at this town, in France, Sept. 29, 1364, between Bertranddu Guesclin and some English and Breton forces led by John Chandos. Bertrand was defeated and taken prisoner, and the results of the victory were the capture of Auray, Yannes, and other tovras, and the conclusion of a peace at Guerande, April 12, 1365. AuEicuLAE Confession. — The practice of private confession of sins to the priest arose at an early period of Christianity, and was frequently condemned by the primitive church. It was estabhshed in the Roman Cathohc church by the decision of the twelfth general council (fourth Lateran), in 1215, and confirmed by that of Trent, 1545 — 1563. The former decreed it to be heresy for any one to assert that it was sufficient to confess sins to God, without making confession to a priest. The penitent in Anglo-Saxon times was required to say to the priest (Thorpe, Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, p. 404), "I confess to thee all the sins of my body, of skin, of flesh, and of bones, and of sinews, and of veins, and of gristies, and of tongue, and of Mps, and of gums, and of teeth, and of hair, and of marrow, and of everything, soft or hard, wet or dry." It was abohshed in England at the Reformation. Attempts have been made by members of the Tractarian party to revive the practice in the Anghcan church; and in 1858 a clergy- man was suspended from his office on tins account. AUR At'Eiflamma. {See Oriflamme.) Aurora Bokealis. — Pliny declares this phenomenon of nature was greatly dreaded. He speaks of one appearance as exhibiting daylight in the night. Extraordinary dis- plays were ^een in Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, and Great Britain, Aug. 31, 1769, and Feb. iJ9, 1780. The aurora borealis seen Oct. 24, 184(7, one of the most brilliant ever witnessed in this country, was preceded by great magnetic disturbance. AusTERLiTz (Battle). — Fought near a small town of this name, in Moravia, Dec. 2, 1805. It has been called " the battle of the three emperors," because the French were commanded by Napoleon I., and the Austrians and Eussians by the emperors Francis II. and Alexander I. The French army numbered 90,000, and that of their opponents 80,000 men. The former proved victorious, and the result was the breaking up of the third coalition, and the conclusion ot the treaty of Presburg. Australasia, the fifth great division of the world, comprises several the islands lying in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The most important are Australia, or New Hqlland; Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania; Papua, or New Guinea ; New Zealand, New Britain, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and Solo- mon's Archipelago. The first discovery made by Europeans in this quarter of the globe was that of Papua, now called New Guinea. Menezes, a Portuguese navigator, landed here in 1526. 1528. Saavedra, a Spaniard, lands in Papua. 1529. Saavedra visits Papua a second time. 1537. An expedition sent by the viceroy of Peru, lands in Papua. 1.542. Gaetano discovers one of the Sandwich Isles. 1567. Mendana, a Spaniard, discovers New Georgia, or Solomon's Islands. 1543. Kuy Lopez de Villabos changes the name of Papua to New Guinea. 1606. The New Hebrides discovered by the Span- iards. 1606. March. The Dutch sight Australia. 1606. Torres, a Spaniard, passes through the strait named after him in 1762, separating Australia from New Guinea. He also dis- covers islands iu the Louisade Archipelago. 1616. Hartog makes discoveries in West Australia. 1618. Zeachen makes discoveries in North Au- stralia. 1619. Von Edels makes discoveries in West Au- stralia. 1627. Nuyt's Land, in South Australia, discovered by the Dxitch. 1628. De Witt and Cai'penter discover portions of Northern Australia, which were named after them. 1642. Tasman discovei-s Van Diemen's Land to be an island. It was named Tasmania after him. He also discovers New Zealand. 1644. Tasman's second voyage to A\istralia. 1686. Dampier lands on the north-west coast of Australia. 1696. Amsterdam. Island discovered. 1699. Dampier's second visit to the north-west of Australia. 1700. Dampier discover the island of New Britain. 1705. The Dutch explore Noi-them Australia. 1767. Cai-teret discovers New Ii-eland. 1770. New Guinea explored. 1770. Cook explores the east coast of Australia, and lands in Botany Bay. 81 AUS 1772. Kerguelen, or Desolation Island, discovered. 1773. Furueaux discovers Adventure Bay. 1774. Cook visits the New Hebrides, and discover- New Caledonia. 1777. Cook visits Adventirre Bay. 1789. Banks's Island, to the north of the New Hebrides, discovered by Bligh. 1792. D'Entrecasteaux explores South Australia. 1798. Bass, in the Norfolk, explores the strait bear- ing his name. 1799. Flinders circumnavigates Van Diemeu'a Land. 1800. Grant explores part of South Australia. 1805. Hinders surveys Nuyt's Land. 1813. The Blue Mountains iu Australia crossed. 1818. Oxley completes the discovery of the Blue Mountain chain. 1824 Several rivers discovered by Howell and Hume. 1829. Stui-t's first exploring expedition. 1830. Sturt's second exploring expedition. 1831. Mitchell explores South Australia and Eastern Australia. 1835. Mitchell makes further explorations. 1836. Mitchell's third exploring expedition. 1841. Further discoveries by Earle, Ross, and Strelecki. 1843. Landor and Lefray explore Western Au- stralia. 1844 Leichardt leaves Sydney on an exploring expedition. 1851. Hargreaves discovers gold la the Bathurst Mountains. Australia, or New Hollattd. — The dis- covery of this, the largest island in the world, has been claimed by the French for Captain Paulovier de Gonneville, iu 1504. Recent researches have proved that it was the coast of Madagascar, and not that of Australia, upon which this French navigator was driven. There is, however, httle doubt that Australia was discovered previous to the year 1542, and the Portuguese are supposed to be en- titled to the honour of this discovery, of which no record remains. The Dutch, in November, 1605, despatched the yacht Duyf- Tien, from Bantam, to explore the islands of New Guinea, and during the voyage, about March, 1606, they sighted the coast of Australia. In June of the same year, it was seen by Torres, a Spanish navigator, when passing through the straits that bear his name ; yet neither of these enterprising men was aware of the importance of the discovery. Between the years 1616 and 1705 several expeditions were sent by the Dutch in this direction, and various portions of the Austrahan coast were explored. William Dampier, the first Englishman who visited Austraha, landed in January, 1686. In 1770, Captain Cook explored the eastern coast of Austraha, and was the first to give the world valuable information respecting Australia and the islands iu its vicinity. On the termination of the American war, the Enghsh government determined upon esta- bhshing a depot for convicts in tins island, and the settlement of New South Wales was formed. A fleet of eleven ships, carrying 558 male and 218 female convicts, and about 200 soldiers, with their wives and children, sailed from Plymouth May 13, 1787. The coast of Austraha was sighted on the 3rd of January, 1788, and aU the convicts were AUS landed at Port Jackson, near Botany Bay, before the end of tliat month. A.D. 1788. Jan. 26. Captain A. Phillip, the first governor, founds Sydney. 1790. The colonists in danger of perishing from starvation, caused by the loss of the store- ship Giuirdian. 1793. First church erected. 1795. First printing-press established. 1798. Bass and Flinders discover Bass's Strait. 1802. Flinders explores the south coast of Au- stralia. 1803. Sydney Gazette published by authority. 1804. The Irish rebellion suppressed. 1808. Governor Bligh deposed by the colonists for his tyranny, and sent home. 1813. The colonists penetrate beyond the Blue Mountains. 1821. Departure of Governor Macquaire, under •whose rule the convicts were well treated, and assisted to retrieve their character and obtain a position. 1829. Legislative Council first appointed. In 1829, Western Australia, or Swan Eiver, was founded. Other provinces were erected into separate colonies, and the subsequent history of the island is given under t"he fol- lowing divisions: — 1. New South Wales; 2. Western Austr aha, or Swan Eiver; 3. South AustraHa ; 4. Victoria, or Port Phillip ; 5. Queen's Land, or Moreton Bay. AusTEASiA, or East Feance, was allotted to Thierry on the death of his father Clovis, A.D. 511. It was imited to Neustria by Clotaire II. in 613, and separated from it by Dagobert I. in 622. Charles Martel annexed it to his dominions in 737. Carloman re- ceived Austrasia on the death of Charles Martel in 741, and Charlemagne annexed it to his empii-e in 772. Sigebert transferred the capital from Eheims to Metz in 561. Many of the sovereigns of Austrasia were mere puppets in the hands of the mayors of the palace. KINGS OF AUSTEASIA. A.D. 511. Thiei-ry. 534. Theodebert I. 548. Theodebald. , 555. Clotaire I., king of the Franks, seizes Austrasia. 561. Sigebert I. 575. Childebert n. 596. Theodebert II. 613. Clotaii-e II. annexes it to Neiistria. 622. Dagobert I., sole king of the Franks 628. 638. Sigebert II. receives Austrasia. 660. Childeric II. 670. Thien-y III. 674. Dagobert II. After the death of Dagobert II., in 680, Pepin of Heristal seized the reins of go- vernment, and was acknowledged duke. DUKES OP AUSTEASIA. Pepin of Heristal. Charles Martel, who becomes sole ruler of France in 737. Carloman receives Austrasia. Pepin the Short takes Austrasia, and Carlo- man retires to the monasteiy on Monte Cassino. Pepin, king of France. Chai-lemagne, who in 772 annexes Austrasia to his empu-e. 82 A.D. h80. 714. AUS AusTEiA. — Noric^ml, bordering on Pan- nonia, made a Eoman province B.C. 15, was the original seat of the Austrian empire. The two provinces of Noricimi and Pannonia consisted of the extensive territories between the Inn, the Save, and the Danube. During the decline of the Eoman empire, Noricum was overrun by various barbarian tribes, and one of these, the Avari, having pene- trated into Bavaria, was defeated and driven across the Eaab by Charlemagne, in 791 and 796. A colony was placed in the territory from which they had been driven, and it was called the Eastern Mark, or Ost- reich, whence its present name. On the division of the empire, it was annexed to Bavaria. The Hungarians took it in 900, but it was wrested from them by Otho I. in 955. Leopold I., grandson of Adalbert of Babenberg, was made margrave of Austria in 984 ; and one of his successors, Leo- pold III., obtaining Bavaria in 1139, the two provinces were again imited. Prederick I. (Barbarossa) adding to it the province west of the Ens, erected it into a separate duchy in 1156, and bestowed it upon Henry IX. of Bavaria, which he resigned. A.D. 1246. Extinction of the male branch of the ducal line, and commencement of an inttr- reguum. 1262. Ottocar II., king of Bohemia, elected in 1260, obtains the government of Aiistria and Styi-ia. 1263. Ottocar obtains Carinthia by succession. 1276. Ottocar resigns the dukedom to Rodolph of Habsburg. 1277. Ottocar rebels. 1278. Aug. 26. Battle of Marchfield, which secures Austria to Bodolph. 1308. The Swiss revolt from Albert I. 1331. Carinthia is annexed to Austria. 1333. Acquisition of the Tyrol. 1364. Treaty of Union between Austria and Bo- hemia concluded. 1438. Albert v., duke of Austria, king of Hungary and Bohemia, is made emperor of Germany under the title of Albert IL 1446. Invamany, and takes that of Fi-aucis I., emperor of Austria. Joins England and Russia in order to oppose France. Nov. 14. Napoleon enters Vienna. Dec. 2. Battle of Austerlitz. Dec. 2(3. Treaty of Presburg, and cession of Venice and the Tyrol to France. May 13. Vienna again taken by the French. Oct. 14. Vienna restored to the emperor. Mar. 11. Marriage by proxy of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor. Oct. 2. Congress at Vienna. Mar. 25. Treaty of Vienna. Austria regains her Italian possessions. Mar. 2. Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand. July 3. Treaty of commerce between Austria and Great Britain. Mar. 13. Insurrection at Vienna, and flight of . MetteiTudch. May 17. Flight of the em- peror. July 22. A constituent assembly meets at Vienna. Dec. 2. Abdication of the emperor, in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. Nov. 29. Convention of Olmutr. Feb. 18. Ldbeuy attempts to assassinate the emperor. April 24. Marriage of the emperor with the princess Elizabeth of Bavaria. Aug. 23. the Austrians enter the Danubian i^rin- cipaUties. Dec. 2. Alliance with Great Britain and France. Aug. 18. Signing of a concordat with Rome, whereby the Pope receives almost absolute power in Austria. March. The Austrians commence the evacua- tion of the Danubian principalities. Dip- lomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia broken off. Jan. 1. Napoleon in. throws Europe into excitement by a few words addressed to the Austrian ambassador. Feb. 13. Lord Cowley receives instructions to proceed to Vienna on a " mission of peace." April 25. The Austrians cross the Ticino. May 3. The French emperor declares war against Austria. Battles of Montebello (May 20), Palestro {May 30, 31), Magenta (June 4), and Malegnano (June 7), in which the Austrians are defeated. June 11. Death of Prince Mettemich. June 24. Battle of Solfevino lost by the Austrians. July 11. Treaty of Villafranca provisionally signed, by which the emperors of France and Austria agree to favour an Italian con- federation. Austria relinquishes Lom- bardy to Sardinia. Nov. 10. Treaty of Zurich, which confirms all the articles of that of Villafranca. Gre.-it reforms in the system of government. DTIKES OF AUSTEIA. A.D. 1282. Albert L 1308. Frederick I. 1330. Albert IL 1358. Rodolph IIL 1365. Albert III. 1395. Albert IV. 14u4. Albert V., king of Hungary an"! Bohemia in 1437, and emperor of Germany, by the title of Albert II., in 14:38. 1439. Ladislaus. 1458. Frederick III,, emperor of Germany. AECHDTJKES OP ATJSTKIA. 1493. Maximilian I., emperor of Gennany. From this period the imperial dignity remained hereditary in the house of Austria {see Emperoes of Germahy) until 1806. EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 1806. Francis II., of Gennany, resigned the title of emperor of Gennany, and a-sumed that of Francis I., emperor of Austria. 18.'35. Ferdinand II. 1848. Francis Joseph L Austria (Scre-w Steam-sliip) , was built on tlie Clyde in 1857, a,nd destroyed by fire on the 13th of September, 1858. She left Hamburg on the 4th of the month, -with 425 passengers and a crew of 103, including officers and men. They were principally Germans ; and of the 528 persons, only 67 were saved. Some of these were picked up by the Maurice, a French barque, and the remainder by a Norwegian barque. Auto-da-Pe, or " Act of Faith," a term applied by the Spanish and Portuguese to the ceremony with which the punishment of death was inflicted upon heretics, under the terrible Inquisition. " The last scene in this dismal tragedy," says Prescott, "was the act of faith (auto-da-fe) , the most imposing spectacle, probably, which has been witnessed since the ancient Eomau triumph, and which, as intimated by a Spanish writer, was intended, somewhat profanely, to repre- sent the terrors of the Day of Judgment. The proudest grandees of the land, on this occasion, putting on the sable livery of familiars of the Holy Office, and bearing aloft its banners, condescended to act as the escort of its ministers ; while the ceremony was not unfrequently countenanced by the royal presence. . . . The effect was further heightened by the concourse of ecclesiastics in their sacerdotal robes, and the pompous ceremonial which the Church of Eome knows so well how to display on fitting occasions, and which was intended to consecrate, as it were, this bloody sacrifice by the authority of a religion which has expressly declared that it desires mercy and not sacrifice." Thousands of victims perished in this manner in Spain, Portugal, and their colonies. It was instituted in Spain in 1556, and cele- brated annually after 1559. An auto-da-fe was held at Lisbon so late as Sept. 20, 1761 , at which Gabriel Malagrida, an old man of seventy, was burnt for having indulged cer- tain heretical notions. Fifty -four persona a2 AUT suffered at the same time. An auto-da-f^ is said to have taken place at Mexico during the present century. AUTOMATOK ElGUEES, Or AUTOMATA. The Chinese long since contrived to give motion to puppets by means of quicksilver; and several specimens of automata con- structed by the Greeks are mentioned by different authors. The wooden pigeon made by Archytas of Tarentum, about B.C. 400, though it coxild fly, was not able to resume its flight when it "had once settled. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus is said, after thirty years' labour, to have constructed a speaking head, which so frightened Thomas Aquinas that he shattered it to pieces ; and Koger Bacon produced a similar invention. These accounts, however, like that of John Miiller's, orMolitor's (Eegiomontanus) , arti- ficial eagle, which flew to meet the emperor Maximilian on his arrival at Nuremberg, June 7, 1740, are not supported by satis- factoiy evidence. Beekmann has no doubt that in the 14th and following centuries several automata were made. The emperor Charles V. during his cloister hfe amused himself with contrivances of this kind. Yaucanson exhibited at Paris, in 1738, a flute-player sitting, who performed twelve tunes ; another that played upon a shepherd' s pipe and a driun at the same time ; and a duck that imitated aU the motions of the living animal. Du Mouhn, in 1752, produced similar automata. Baron de Kempelen's automaton chess-player, exhibited in London in 1816, is beheved to have been a decep- tion. Faber's euphonia was exhibited at the Egyptian Hall in 1846. AuTUN (Council). — At this council sen- tence of excommunication was pronounced against Philip I., of Prance, Oct. 16, 1094. In the previous year he had put away his wife Bertha, mother of Louis VI., and married Bfertrade, wife of the count of Anjou, and for this he was first privately admonished by the Eoman Cathohc authori- ties, and then excommunicated. Autun is said to be the most ancient church ia Prance after Lyons and Vienne. AxrxiMim (Italy), now Osimo, first men- tioned B.C. 174, when the order for erecting walls around it was given by the Eoman censors. It was made a Eoman colony B.C. 157 ; and having been taken by the Goths, was wrested from them by Belisarius A.D. 538. AvA (Asia), for some time subject to Pegu, became an independent state in the 17th century. Its chief city, Ava, was taken by the Peguans iu 1752, and rescued from their hands in 1753. It was made the capital of Burmah in 1364, in 1761, and for the third time in 1822. It suffered severely from an earthquake ia March, 1839. {See Bttbmah.) Ataine, or AvBiB" (Battle). — The mar- shals ChatiUon and Breze, commanding the French and Dutch troops, defeated the Sjpanish forces, under the command of Prince Thomas of Savoy, in this plain, neax Luxem- 84. AVI burg, May 20, 1635. The Spaniards lost 4,000 men and fifty standards. Avars, sometimes called the Huns of Pannoma, a barbarian tribe fiist mentioned in history towards the close of the 5th centui-y. Eetiring before the Turks, they reached the shores of the Euxine, and sent an embassy to Constantinople, a.d. 558. In their audience with Justinian, at that time de- chning in years, the chief ambassador addressed him thus : — "You see before you, O mighty prince, the representatives of the strongest and most populous of nations, the invincible, the irresistible Avars. We are wUling to devote ourselves to your service ; we are able to vanquish and destroy all the enemies who now disturb your repose. But we expect, as the price of our alliance, as the reward of our valour, precious gifts, annual subsidies, and fruitful possessions." They afterwards advanced into Poland and Ger- many ; and in 626 joined the Persians in an attack on Constantinople, but were repulsed. Having committed various aggressions, and provoked numerous wars, they were, after a conflict of eight years' duration, subdued by Charlemagne in the year 799. Ave Maeia. — This form of prayer, use& in the Eoman Catholic church, is a repetition of the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary (Luke, i. 28) . Bingham shows that the use of this invocation to the Virgin cannot be traced higher than the beginning of the 15th century. " Ferrarius," he adds, "ingeniously confesses that Vincentius Ferrerius was the first ecclesiastical writer that ever used it before his sermons. Ba- ronius has not a syllable of its antiquity in aU his twelve centuries ; there being a perfect silence both among the ancients and all the Eituahsts about it, till that Dominican preacher, in his abundant zeal for the wor- ship of the Holy Virgin, began to use it before his sermons." John XXII. ordered Christians to annex it to their prayers, 1420. Tliis invocation is now generally used in the services of the Eoman Cathohc church. The early summons to worship was called the Ave-beU; and indulgences granted by various pontiffs for frequent repetition of the invocation were termed Ave Marias. Atebukt, or AvBTTET. — This village in Wilts occupies the site of a Celtic structure, composed of blocks of stone, and generally believed to be a Druidical work. Aubrey visited it in 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley commenced his examination of these antiquities in 1720 ; and Sir Eichard Hoare in 1813. It is sup- posed to be the remains of a national temple, or place of assembly for the per- formance of sacred rites, erected by the Druids before the Christian sera. Ateesa (Italy). — Bmlt a.d. 1020, by Eain\ilph, a Norman chief, near the ruins of the ancient Atella, from which place the bishopric was transferred to Aversa, about 1050. Alfonso V., of Aragon, took it in 1440; and it was frequently besieged. It suffered greatly from an earthquake in 1805. AviGWOM" (France). — This ancient city is AVI seated in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Rhone. The adjacent territory, the Venaissin county, "a populous and fertile spot," was ceded to the papacy by Philip III. in 1273 ; and the sovereignty of Avignon was sold to Clement VI. for 80,000 gold florins of Florence by Jane, queen of Naples and countess of Provence, in 1348. Clement V., elected through the influence of PhUip IV. of France, removed the papal chair to Avignon, 1309. The follo\ving popes re- mained here under French influence. 1309. Clement V. 1314. See vacant two years. 1316. John XXI. or XXII. 1334. Benedict XI. or XIL 1342. Clement VI. 1352. Innocent VL 1362. Urban V. 1370. Gregory XX 1378. Commencement of scLism of the West Two popes elected. Clement VIL at Avignon. 1394 Benedict XIIL Urban V. went to Eome for a short time, but returned to Avignon ; and Gregory XI. is said to have meditated flight, when sur- prised by death. In the schism called " the great schism of the West," occasioned on the election of his successor, in 1378, the an- tipope Clement VII. took up his residence here, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. The popes at Rome, however, triumphed, and Avignon was deprived of its rival pon- tiffs (1409). The French kings seized this city on various occasions. The annexation of the Venaissin and Avignon to France by the revolutionary government, Sept. 14, 1791, was their first act of aggression. By the treaty of Tolentino, Feb. 19, 1797, Pius VI. formally ceded these possessions to France. Avignon was made a bishopric in the 1st century, and was erected into an archbishopric in 1475. By the concordat of 1801 it ceased to be a metropoHs, but the privilege was restored in 1821. Councils were held at Avignon in 1080, 1209, 1270, 1279, 1282, 1326, 1327, 1337, and 1457. Avis (Order of). — Instituted in 1147 by Alfonso I., the founder of the Portuguese monarchy, and raised by him in 1162 to the rank of an ecclesiastical order of chivalry. The knights were then called "Knights of Evora," but took their present title in 1187, from their gallant defence of the fortress of Avis against the Moors. The order was changed from an ecclesiastical to a civil institution in 1789. AvKANCHES ( Normandy ) , anciently Ingena, also called Abrincae, came into the possession of England at the Norman con- quest. In its cathedral Henry II. received absolution of the pope's legate in 1172, for the murder of Becket; a flat stone marks the spot where he did penance. The Bretons captured it in 1203, and committed great havoc. The town was restored by Louis IX., and it again fell under the power of the English in 1415, but was recovered by France in 1450. The bishopric, estabhshed in the AZO 5th century, was suppressed and united to Coutances in 1801. AxAEQUiA (Battle). — In the winding de- files of the Axarquia, the Moors inflicted a severe loss on the Spaniards, in actions extending over two days, March 20 and 21, 1483. Axe. — The Franks in their expedition into Italy in the 6th century made use of an axe with a large blade. Hence it was termed francisca. The principal weapons of this kind were the taper axe, the broad axe, and the double axe. The pole axe and the adze axe were varieties of these. The Lochabar axe was used in the 16th century. AxuM, anciently Auxume, in Abyssinia. — This ancient city, founded about B.C. 650, became in later times the seat of a powerful kingdom, nearly co-extensive with modern Abyssinia, and embracing portions of Arabia. Though its origin has not been ascertained, it is mentioned as existing in the second cen- tury of our sera. Justinian formed an alliance with the Auximites a.d. 533. Gibbon is of opinion that the Auximites, or Abyssinians as he calls them, were a colony of Arabs, and there can be no doubt that the Arab element is blended with the Ethiopian in their composition. They were converted to Christianity in the 4th century; and in its defence came into coUision with the followers of Mohammed, who deprived them of their possessions in Arabia, and destroyed their commerce. The Chronicles of Axum, a kind of history of Abyssinia, a copy of wMeh the traveller Bruce brought to England in 1774, are deposited in a Christian church in Axum, built about 1657. Axum was made a bishopric about 356, and Frumentius was the first bishop. Atacttcho ( Battle ) . — On this plain, in Peru, the Spaniards were defeated by the repubhcan forces July 9, 1824, and a capitu- lation was soon afterwards made, by which Spain surrendered the whole of Peru and Chili. AxtESBiTEY (Buckinghamshire) . — This an- cient town formed one of the principal strong- holds of the Britons in their resistance to the Romans. In 571, Cuthulf, a West-Saxon chief, took Aylesbury, which was ravaged by the Danes in 921 . The town was incorporated and made a borough by Queen Mary in 1554. During the disputes between Charles I. and the Parliament, it espoused the cause of the latter, and in 1643 it formed the head- quarters of Lord Essex. John Wilkes repre- sented it in parliament in 1761. Atleseokd (Battle). — A victory was gained by the Britons over the Saxons a.d. 455, near a village of this name, in Kent. AzoE. — This sea, called by the ancients the Palus Mseotis, communicates with the Euxine by the Strait of Yenikale, or the Cimmerian Bosphorus. It was the scene of some important operations during the Crimean war. An alUed expedition 15,000 strong, composed of Enghsh, French, and Tiirkish troops of all arms, with five batteries of artillery, left the anchorage at Sebastopol 85 BAB on the 23nd of May, 1855, a&d arrived otf Eertch on the 2-ith. The Kussians blew up their fortifications on both sides of the straits, destroyed three steamers and several heavy-armed vessels, and large quantities of provisions, ammunition, and stores. Opera- tions were carried on against the chief Russian positions. A small garrison was left at Kertch and Yenikale, and the ex- pedition returned June 12. Azores (Atlantic), or Westeek Islands, nine in number, were discovered by Joshua Van der Berg, of Bruges, about the year 1430. The Portuguese no sooner heard of the discovery than they sent out Cabral, who sighted one of the group in 1432 ; and in 1449 Prince Henry of Portugal took formal possession of the islands. Alfonso Y. gave them in 1466 to his sister, the duchess of Burgundy, and they were colonized by the Dutch. When Philip I. seized the vacant throne of Portugal in 1580, they fell \mder the dominion of Spain. The earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh failed in an attempt to capture them in 1597. They reverted to Portugal in 1640, and still remain in her possession. Angra, the capital of Terceira, one of the group, was made a bishop's see by Paul III. in 1534. Owing to volcanic disturbance, rocks and islands have frequently been thrown up from the sea. The most remai-kable phenomena of this Idnd occurred in 1538, 1720, and 1811. Aztecs. — The earliest known seat of this tribe was Aztlan, a country to the north of the Grulf of Cahfornia, where they were dwelling in 1160. They soon after com- menced their migrations, arri\ing at Tula in 1196. They removed to Zumpanco about 1216, and eventually settled on a group of islands to the southof Lake Tezcuco. They were reduced to slavery by the Colhuans in 1314; and moving to the westward of the lake, founded Tenochtitlan, their capital, on the site of which Mexico now stands, in 1325. They were assailed by the Spaniards under Cortes in 1519. BaaIi and Ashtaeoth, the former sup- posed to represent the sun, and the latter the moon, were idols worshipped by the Phoenicians, Chaldseans, and other ancient nations. The IsraeHtes frequently fell into this idolatry. Josiah punished it with great severity, b.c. 624 (2 Kings, xxiii.) Baalbec (Syria), or Heiiopolis, the name given to the place by the Seleucidae, both words signifying " the city of the sun," is by some supposed to correspond with the Baal Gad of scripture. Little is known of its early history. Julius Csesar made it a Roman colony. Trajan consulted its famous oracle previous to his departure on his second Parthian expedition, a.d. 114. Antoni- nus either enlarged its temple to Jupiter or built a new one, that became one of the wonders of the world. Baalbec capitulated to the Saracens, paying an enormous ransom, A.D. 635 ; it was sacked and dismantled by the caliph of Damascus in 748; seized by Tamer- lane in 1401 ; and has since gradually declined. Thevet in 1550 ; Pococke in 1740 ; Mauudrell in 17.45 ; Wood and Dawkins in 1751 ; and Yoluey in 1785, are amongst the most cele- brated travellers who have visited and de- scribed its ruins. This Syrian city must not be confounded with another Baalbec, or HehopoHs, in Lower Egypt, one of the earhest cities of which any record remains. Smith (Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog.) remarks concerning the last-mentioned city : ' ' Its obeUsks were probably seen by Abraham when he first migrated from Syria to the Delta, 1600 years B.C. ; and here the father- in-law of Joseph filled the office of high- priest." Babel (Tower of). — Described Gen. xi. 1 — 9, and built 120 years after the Deluge, by the descendants of N"oah, about b.c. 2247. Much controversy has been excited respecting its exact position. It is now generally believed that Babylon was built upon the site, if not upon the actual ruins of this temple. Babceuf's CoirspisACT. — Babceuf, a Jacobin, surnamed Gracchus, formed a con- spiracy against the French Directory in 1796. [ His chief aim was to obtain a division of j property. The deliberations of this society were carried on in a large vault imder the i Pantheon, where, as Alison (iv. ch. 24) re- I marks, " by the hght of flambeaux, and ■ seated on the humid ground, they ruminated ; on the most likely method of regenerating France." They had agents in the provinces, and they also elected a secret directory of public safety in Paris. Their design was , at length acknowledged to be to estabhsh ; what they termed "the Public Good," by ; means of a division of property, and the ■ formation of a government consisting of "true, pure, and absolute democrats." They had framed a solemn instrument, called an " Insurrection Act," the publication of which was to be the signal for revolt. This was fixed to take place on the 21st of May, 1796; but one of the party having given information, tbe chief conspirators were arrested the day before. Babceuf and one of his associates suifered on the scaftold. Babtlon (Asia). — The capital of the pro- vince of Babylonia, and afterwards of the Babylonio-Chaldsean kingdom, called by Isaiah (xiii. 19) "the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," was at one period the metropohs of the ancient world. Its history is naturally mixed up with that of the state to which it gave its name. " The Babylonian and Assyrian empires," says Sir John Stoddart, " in all historical records, are much blended together. These empires, whether distinct or united, possessed in very early times two vast cities ; Babylon on the Euphrates, and K^ineveh on the Tigris. The country on the Tigris was called Assyria; that on the Euphrates Babylonia; and the large inter- I BAB vening space was commonly termed Meso- potamia, or ' between the rivers :' and this, together with Babylonia, seems to be meant in Scripture by the land of Shinar. Accerd- ing to the scriptural account, it would seem that Babylon was the first great city built after the Deluge, and that it was founded by Nimrod, a great-grandson of Noah, or at aU events by a tribe of his descendants, bearing his name." The city of Babylon is supposed to have been built on the site of Babel (Gen. X. 10), the scene of the confusion of tongues, about B.C. 2247 (Gen. xi. 9). The next notice of Babylon in tke Old Testament has reference to the invasion of Samaria, B.C. 730 (2 Kings, xvii. 24), and the generally received opinion is, that during the long interval of above 1,500 years, it formed a dependency of the great Assyrian empire. 747. Babylon independent of Assyria. Nabonassaa: king. 721. Miirdouempadus, king of Babylon, revolts against the king of Assyria. 699. Eisarhaddon, or Sennacherib, king of Assyria, takes Babylon. 677 or 675. Asaridinua, king of Babylon, invades Jndah, and makes prisoner its king, Manasseh, who is restored to his kingdom the following year. 625. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, asserts his independence of the king of Assyria. 604. Nebuchadnezzar succeeds his father, Nabopo- lassar. During his reign the Babylonian empire attains its highest splendour. 569. Nebuchadnezzar sets up the " golden image," and becomes insane the same year. 658. Neriglissar, the Belshazzar of Scripture, king. 538. Babylon taken, and the kingdom annexed to the Persian empire by Cyrus. 518. Babylon revolts from Darius Hystaspes, king of Pei-sia : it is besieged and taken the fol- lowing year. 331. Babylon surrenders to Alexander the Great. 324. Alexander enters Babylon, and commences the restoration of its architectural greatness. 323. May. Alexander dies in Babylon. 321. Seleucus Nicator is made governor of Babylon. 315. Antigonus expels Seleucus, and establishes Python, son of Agenor, in his dignities. 312. Seleucus returns to Babylon, which he recovers, and founds the kingdom and dynasty of the Seleucidse. 240. Invaded by the Gauls under Hierax : they are repulsed by Seleucus II. 64. On the conquest of Syria by Pompey, Babylon falls into the hands of the Romans. 62. Babylon forms part of the Eoman province of Syria. Many enterprising travellers, amongst whom may be mentioned Eich, Ker Porter, Layard, Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Eaw- linson, have, by their explorations amongst the ruins of the ancient city, during the present century, thrown considerable light upon the history of Babylon. Sir Henry Kawhnson, in particular, has intei'preted many of the iascriptions found on various relics brought to this country. BABTLONIAK SOVEEEIGNS. B.C. Feb. 26, 747. Nabonassar. 733. Nadius. 731. Chinzirus. 725. Jugaeus. BAG i.e. 721. Mardocempadxis 709. Ai-chiaiius. 704. (Interregnum). 702. Belibus. 699. ApronadiuB. 693. Regibalus. 692. Mesesimordachus. 688. (Interregnum). 680. Asaridinua. 667. Saosduchinus. 647. Chinaladanus. Jan. 27, 625. Nabopolassar. Jan. 21, 604. Nebuchadnezzar 561. Evil Merodach. 558. Belshazzar. 553. Nabonadius. 538. Cyrus takes Babylon. Babtlokish Captititt of the Jews. — This calamity, foretold by Isaiah (xxxix;. 6) and Jeremiah (xxv. 9 — 11), lasted seventy years, from B.C. 606 to 536. It commenced under Jehoiakim (2 Chron, xxxvi. 5 — 7) and terminated with the decree issued for their restoration by Cyrus (2 Chron. xxxvi. 22 and 23). BABTSrGTOlf's CONSPIBACT. — In 15S6, Anthony Babyngton, an Enghsh gentleman, instigated by John Ballard, a Eoman Catholic priest, entered into a conspiracy to assas- sinate Queen Elizabeth, with the view of placing Mary, queen of Scots, on the throne, and of restoring the Eoman Catholic rehgion. John Savage (a soldier serving under the king of Spain, who had first made the pro- posal to assassinate the queen) , and thirteen others, including Babyngton, embarked in this desperate project, and Mary herself did everything in her power to further its suc- cess. Intimation of the plot having been given to Walsingham by a spy, the conspira- tors were seized, brought to trial Sept. 13 — 15, and executed Sept. 20 and 21, 1586. Mary's share in this conspiracy alarmed Elizabeth, and was the principal cause of her subse- quent trial and execution. Bacchanalia, or festivals of various kinds in honour of Bacchus, are said by Herodotus to have been of Egyptian origin (see Dioktsia), and led to such abuses, as practised at Eome and in other parts of Italy, that they were suppressed by a decree of the senate B.C. 186. This decree, engraved upon a brazen table, was discovered at Bari in 1640, and is preserved in the imperial collection at Vienna. Bacheloss were branded with infamy by the laws of Lycurgus, and at festivals were exposed to pubhc derision. Dionysius of Hahcarnassus notices a law requiring aU persons of a certain age to marry. The Eomans imposed a fine on bachelors by the Lex Julia, b.c. 18. It was, however, abolished by Constantine. Bachelors of twenty -five years of age, and widowers with- out children, were, by 6 & 7 WOl. III. c. 6 (1694) , required to pay yearly, so long as they remained single, a tax of one shilling. It was levied for five years, commencing May 1, 1695. By 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, s. 14, the tax was continued tiU Aug. 1, 1706, when it was suffered to expire. In addition to the 87 BAG tax of one shilling per annum, every person of the undermentioned rank paid yearly as foUows ; — £. s. d. Duke 12 10 Ihike's eldest son 7 10 Yotmger sons, each 6 5 Marquis 10 Marquis's eldest son 6 5 Younger sons, each 6 Earl 7 10 Earl's eldest son 5 Younger sons, each 3 15 Viscount 6 5 Viscount's eldest son , 4 7 6 Younger sons, each 3 6 8 Baron 5 Barr x's eldest son 3 15 Yoiinger sons, each 3 Baronet 3 15 Knight of the Bath 3 15 Knight bachelor 2 10 King's sergeant 5 Other Serjeants at law, each 3 15 Esquire 1 5 (Jentleman 5 Archbishop 12 10 Bishop 5 Dean 2 10 Archdeacon 12 6 Canon or prebendary 12 6 Doctor of divinity, law, or physic 1 5 Sons of archbishops, bishops, deans, arch- ■) deacons, canons or prebendaries, and Vo 5 of doctors of divinity, law, or physic . . ) Persons with £50 per annum real estate, \ or personal property of £600, not charged >0 5 in the above ) Their sons, each 2 6 A registry was ordered to be kept by persons in holy orders, for the better coUeeting of the duty, by s. 20 of 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6 (1694). By 43 Geo. III. s. 43 (1785), bachelors above the age of twenty-one years were required to pay annuaify, in addition to tbe usual tax, £1. 5s. for every male servant in their employ ; and those that bad three or more female servants, paid 10s. per annual for eacb, in. addition to the ordi- nary tax. Backgammon'. — This, or some similar game played with dice, was known to the Greeks. It was a favourite amusement amongst the Saxons, by whom it is said to have been invented about the 10th century. Dr. Henry attributes tbe invention to the Welsh. It is recorded of Canute, that he frequently played at backgammon, which was called the Enghsh game in the early part of the 14th century. Back-staff, or Davis's Quadrant, for taking the sun's altitude at sea, was iavented by Captain J. Davis, about 1590. It has been superseded by later inventions. Bactea, called by Strabo and PHny Zariaspa, though Heeren contends that they were different places, the capital of Bactriana, was one of the oldest centres of commerce and civilization in the world. Heeren says it was the first place of exchange for the productions of India ; and that the great highways of commerce from east to west followed this direction. {See Balkh.) Bacteiana (Asia), or Bacteia. — This BAD India, being watered by the Oxus, by which it was bounded on the north, varied at dif- ferent periods in extent. IS'inus, king of Assyria, is said to have invaded it with an immense army. All his efforts against its capital proved unavailing, until Semiramis suggested a plan for its capture, thereby gaining the favour of the king and a share of his throne. For a considerable period Bac- triana formed part of the Persian empire, and in eastern traditions is represented aa having been the seat of powerful and iudependent princes long before it became a Persian satrapy. Alexander conquered it in his sixth campaign, B.C. 329. Its Grecian governor Theodotus, called by Strabo Dio- dotus, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidae about B.C. 250, and made it an independent state. It was afterwards conquered by the Scythians and Parthians, and remained under their yoke until Ardshir, or Artaxerxes, the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanides, restored the Persian empire, a.d. 226. It is now a dependency of the khanat of Bokhara, under the name of Balkh. 250. Diodotus revolts from Antiochus 11. of Syria, and founds the kingdom of Bactriana. 221. Euthydemus deposes and succeeds Diodotus II. 207. Antiochus of Syria defeats Euthydemus. 181. Commencement of the reign of Euoratides I., the period of Bactriana's prosperity. 168. Part of India is added to Bactriana. 143. Eucratides II. assassinates his father, a.nd succeeds to his throne. 130. Bactria overrun by tribes of wandering Scy- thians, by whom the kingdom is destroyed. SOVEBEIGNS OP BACTBIAIfA. B.C. 196. Menander. 181. Kucratides I. 143. Eucratides II. B.C. 250. Diodotus I. 245. Diodotus II. 221. Euthydemus. 200. Demetrius. Badajos (Spain). — This barrier fortress, the capital of a province of the same name, only five miles from the Portuguese frontier, has sustained numerous sieges, and was several times taken and retaken during the occupation of the peninsula by the Moors. It was besieged by the Portuguese in 1660, and was assailed, but without success, by a combined EngHsh, Portuguese, and Dutch force, Oct. 1705. Galway was beaten in a battle here bv the Spanish army. May 7, 1709. Soult captured it March 11, 1811; and Wellington having been compelled to raise the siege June 10, in the same year, obtained possession April 7, 1812. Badajos was made an episcopal see at an early period. The cathedral was commenced in 1248 ; and its granite bridge was biiilt in 1460, restored in 1597, and rebuilt in 1833. Badajos (Treaty). — Between Spain and Portugal, was signed at Badajos June 6, ratifi- cations were exchanged at Badajos June 16, and it was pubHshed at Madrid Aug. 8, 1801. It brought to a close the short contest between Portugal and Spain, which Napoleon I. had stirred up for the purpose of carrying out ancient state, situated between Persia and his ambitious designs. Spain restored all her BAD conquests, excepting Olivenza and its terri- tory, which were ceded to her; and she guaranteed the prince regent of Portugal the entire possession of all his states and possessions. Portugal agreed to close her ports against England, and to pay the expenses of the war. Baddesdown Hill (Battle), or Badon Mount. — This spot, near Bath, was the scene of a celebrated victory gained by the Britons over the Saxons in 493, according to Bede. This appears to be an error, as it is generally believed to have taken place in 520. Bad EH" (Germany) was made a mar- graviate about the year 1130, by Herman II., grandson of Berthold, landgrave of Brisgau; his father, Herman I., having previously acquired Baden by marriage. The rank held by Baden is that of seventh in the Germanic Confederation, and in time of war it is required to furnish 10,000 men to the federal army. 1130. Herman IL takes the title of Margrave of Baden. 1190. Herman IV. accompanies Frederick Barbarossa to the Holy Land, and dies vrith him in CUicia. 1226. Herman v., the Pious, cedes the. county of Bagsburs; to the bishop of Strasburg. 1250. Death of Herman VI., who is succeeded by his infant son Frederick, imder the regency of his mother, Gertrude of Aiistria. 1267. Oct. 29. Frederick is beheaded at Naples. 1283. Rodolph I. acquires part of Eberstein by purchase. 1288. Baden is divided among the four sons of Rodolph I. 1353. Eodolph VII. reunites Baden into a single state. 1405. Confederation of Marbach formed between Bernard, marquis of Baden, the archbishop of Mayence, the count of Wui-temburg, and some minor powei-s, against the emperor. 1462. June 19. Frederick II., king of the Romans, gains a great victory over Charles I. of Baden, and takes him prisoner. 1488. Christopher of Baden sends 4,000 men to deliver Maximilian, son of the eniperor Frederick, from the inhabitants of Bruges. 1503. Christopher claims the marquisate of Hoch- berg : the claim is referred to the imperial tribunal. 1515. Aug. 1. Christopher abandons the govern- ment to his sons, Bernard, Philip, and Ernest, who rule as his vicars. 1527. Baden is divided into Baden-Baden and Badeij-Durlach. 1533. Bernard establishes Protestantism in Baden- Baden. 1569. Oct. 3. Philibert of Baden-Baden assists the Catholics, and is slain at Moncontour. 1581. The lawsuit, in reference to the possession of Hochberg, terminates in favour of Baden. 1594. The creditors of Edward of Baden obtain permission from the emperor to indemnify themselves by seizing his territories. 1627. Arrangements as to territory made between the rulers of Baden-Baden and Baden- Durlach. 1683. Louis William, marquis of Baden-Baden, delivers Vienna from the Tm-ks. 1707. Death of Louis William, the most warlike marquis of Baden-Baden. 1733. The French ravage Baden, and coihpel Louis George to seek refuge in Bohemia. 1771. Baden-Durlach united to Baden-Baden. 1796. Treaty of peace with the French republic. 1801. Badeu receives an accession of territory by the treaty of Luneville. BAG 1803. Charles Frederick of Baden is raised to the rank of Elector. 1805. Brisgau added to Baden by the treaty of Prea- burg. 1806. July 12. The elector, Charles Frederick, ig raised to the rank of Grand-duke. 1815. March 25. Baden joins the alHes against Napoleon. 1818. Aug. 22. Representative constitution granted. 1849. May 14. Insurrections in Baden. The grand- duke quits Carlsruhe. 1850. Sept. 6. Treaty of peace with Denmark and other powers. 1857. July 9. General amnesty for the political offenders of 1848 and 1849. 1859. Deo. 1. The concordat signed with the Pope June 28, is published. 1860. June 16. Interview, at Baden-Baden, between Napoleon III., the Prince Regent of Prussia, ajid other German princes. GEAND-DUKES OV BADEN. A.n. 1806. Charles Frederick. 1811. Charles Louis Frederick. 1818. Louis William Augustus. 1830. Charles Leopold Frederick. 1852. Frederick WiUiam Louis. Baden- (Treaty) .—Signed at Baden, in Switzerland, Sept. 18 (O.S. 7), 1714, between the emperor Charles VI. and Louis XIV. It confirmed the treaty of Kadstadt. By one of its provisions Landau was ceded to France. Baeza (Spain) . — K'ear this town, which is of great antiquity, and contains many Roman relics and inscriptions, the younger Scipio vanquished Asdrubal B.C. 208. Having fallen under the Saracen yoke, it was taken by the Spaniards a.d. 1239. Baffin's Bat.— -This inland sea, between Greenland and the N.E. coast of America, was first explored in 1616, by the Enghsh navigator WiUiam Baffin, from whom it takes its name. BAGATrD.S!. — An appellation given to the peasants of Gaul who rebelled against the Eomans a.d. 287. Their work was executed with fire and sword. " They asserted," says Gibbon, "the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with the most savage cruelty." Eor some time they ob- tained the ascendancy, but were subdued by Maximian. The term was subsequently appHed to other turbulent rebels, Bagdad (Asia), on the Tigris, wasfoimded by Al Mansur, the second caliph of the Abbassides, in 762, and remained the seat of the caliphate until Feb. 20, 1258, when it was captured after a siege of two months by the Mongols, and Mostasem, the last of the Abbassides, was put to death. Tamerlane sacked the city July 23, 1401, erecting on its ruins a pyramid of 90,000 heads. Its Tartar rtilers returned, but were expelled in 1417, by Kara Yusef. His descendants were in 1477 replaced by Usum Cassim, who was followed by the Suffide dynasty, of Persian origin, in 1516. The possession of the city was long contested by the Persians and the Turks, and amongst the numerous sieges it sustained, may be mentioned those of 1534, when it was captured by Sohman the Magnificent j BAG of 1590, when taken by Abbas tlie G-reat ; of 1637, when it was captured by Amuratli IV., — 30,000 Persians having been ruthlessly massacred; and of 1740, when Ifadir Shah was repulsed by Achmet, who rendered the pashahc independent of the Porte. Its cele- brated college was founded in 1233. A Nestorian pati'iarch resided at Bagdad, and the Greek metropolitan was eipeUed in 913. BAGZfALO (Treaty) .—Concluded Aug. 7, 14S4, between the "S enetians on the one hand, and the king of ISTaples, the duke of Milan, and the Florentines, on the other. The news is said to have so affected Pope Sixtus IV. that it brought on a fit of the gout, which caused his death, Aug. 13, 1484. Bahama Islands (Atlantic), called also the Lttcaxos, consist of about twenty inha- bited islands, with innumerable rocks and islets. St. Salvador, the chief of the group, was discovered by Columbus Oct. 11, 1492, being the first portion of America discovered by him. The Spaniards conveyed the natives to Mexico, and the islands remained un- peopled till colonized by the Enghsh, under a patent granted Dec. 4, 1630. In 1641 the Spaniards destroyed the colony, but it was re-estabhshed by the English in 1666, and remained in their hands till 1703, when it was ravaged by a combined French and Spanish fleet. It afterwards became noto- rious as a rendezvous for pirates, who were extirpated in 1718, when a regular colonial admiaistration was estabhshed. In 1776 New Providence was stripped by the Ameri- cans of its artillery and stores, and the governor and some other officers were made prisoners. On the 8th of May, 1782, the islands surrendered to the Spaniards, but were restored to England by the 7th article of the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. Bahae, or Behae ( Hiudostan) . — This territory, -after changing rulers several times, was formally ceded to England by the treaty of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 1765. Bahaeites, the first Mameluke dynasty that reigned in Egypt, were descended from Turks sold to slavery by the Tartars. They began to reign in 1244", and the last sultan of the race was expelled by the Borgites, or Circassians, the second Mameluke dynasty of Egypt, in 1381, after having reigned 137 years. (See Boegites.) Bahawttlpooe (Hindostan), — This state, formerly ruled by deputy governors from Cabul, soUcited an alliance with the Enghsh in 1808 ; and it came under the direct pro- tection of the East-India Company in 1838. The khan having proved faithful, received as a reward, in Feb. 1843, a part of Seinde. Baheeih- Islam-ds (Persian Gulf). — This small group of islands, celebrated for its pearl-fishery, is called by the natives Awal, or Aval. The Portuguese, who had seized them, were expelled by the Persians in 1622 ; and the islands have since fallen under the sway of different Arab chiefs. During the expedition of 1809 against the pirates in the neighbourhood, they were occupied by British troops. 90 BAK Bail. — "The system of giving sureties, or bail," says Sharon Turner (Anglo-Saxons, iii. Ap. i. ch. 6), " to answer an accusation, seems to have been coeval with the Saxon nation." The Statute of Westminster 1 (3 Edw. I, c. 15), in 1275, defined what persons were baUable, and what were not; and this act was enforced by 27 Edw. I. stat. 1, c. 3 (1299). By 1 Eieh. III. c. 3 (1484), justices of the peace were allowed to bail offenders, and the facihty thus accorded having led to some abuses, not less than two justices were, bj' 3 Hen. VII. c. 3 (14S7), required. Bail was regulated by subsequent statutes, more par- ticularly by the Habeas Corpus act (31 Chas. II. c. 2, 1679) , which, as Hallam remarks (Const. Hist, of Eng. iii. ch. 12), "introduced no new principle, nor conferred any right upon the subject." ProAisions against exces- sive bail are embodied in various statutes. Bail in cases of felony is regulated by 7 Geo. IV. c. 64 (May 26, 1826). This act, entitled "An Act for Improving the Admi- nistration of Criminal Justice in England," repealed several previous statutes. Bailiff. — Two bailiffs were appointed for the city of London in the fii-st year of the reign of Eichard I. (1189) ; though such officers under another name existed in Anglo-Saxon times. "\Ye learn from the "Liber Albus" that the sheriffs of the city of London were formerly styled bailiffs ; and we know, from the same authority, that such officers were in existence at the time of the Norman conquest. In 1207 the office of sheriff superseded that of bailiff. BaIOLENSIANS, or BAGI^^OLEIfSIAXS. — Manichaeans, so called from Bagnols, in Languedoc, where they sprung up in the 8th century. Another sect, vri'th the same name, a branch of the Cathari, arose in Provence during the 12th century. Baize. — The art of making baize wag introduced into England by a body of Dutch artisans, who settled at Colchester in 1568 ; and their privileges were confirmed by letters patent under the great seal in 1612. An act of parhament was passed in 1660 (12 Chas. II. c. 22) for the regulation and protection of their trade. It took effect from Sept. 20, 1660. Bakee. — In early ages every household prepared its own bread. Pubhc bakers are first mentioned as existing at Rome B.C. 173. Athenaeus speaks of the Cappadocians, the Lydians, and the Phcenicians as the best bakers. It is probable the trade arose in the East. The punishments for bakers who transgressed the law were, at an early period of our history, extremely severe. Fabyian notices that in 1258 the tumbrel' was temporarily substituted for the pillory ; and that "sharpe correction upon bakers for making of light bread," was administered upon several of the fraternity in 14S5. The bakers formed a brotherhood in the reign of Henry II., about 1155. The white bakers existed as a company in 1308, and obtained in 1485 a new charter, which was confirmed by Henry the Seventh's successors. The BAK brown bakers, who are said to have existed ! as a company in 1380, were incorporated June 9, 1621. . 1 Baku (Asia). — This port, in the Caspian, i and the neighbouring territory, were sur- rendered by Persia to Eussia in 1723, and , restored to Persia in 1735. The Russians | seized Baku in 1801, and it was ceded to them by the treaty between Kussia and Persia, Oct. 19 (O.S. 7), 1813. Balaclava (Crimea), — A small port about ten miles to the east of Sebastopol. The harbour is commodious, though the entrance is very narrow; and it was with great difficulty that accommodation was obtained for the British ships during its occupation in the Crimean war. Our troops took possession Sept. 26, 1854, a portion of j the fleet having already arrived. They improved the harbour, constructed quays, | built a new town, with storehouses, hospitals, i &c., and laid down a line of rail to the camp, about seven miles distant. Soon after the conclusion of the treaty of Paris, our army of occupation was gradually withdrawn, and the last soldier quitted the place during the summer of 1856. Balaclava (Battle of).— Fought Oct. 25, 1854, between the Russians and the British and Turkish troops. Early in the morning a powerful Russian force, led by Liprandi, drove the Turks from some earthen redoubts facing the Tchernaya, a weak point in the Enghsh position. The further advance of the Russians was checked by the 93rd High- landers, under Sir C. Campbell (Lord Clyde), and the enemy was quickly repulsed by a charge of the heavy cavalry. From this day the British lines were, on account of the insuificiency of our force, contracted, and the communication by the Woronzoff road was effectually closed. Balaclava (Charge), called "The Ride of the Six Hundred."— Owing to some mis- conception of orders, the light cavalry brigade, only 670 strong, followed up the battle of Balaclava (Oct. 25, 1854), by charg- ing the Russian infantry and cavalry m position, protected by a powerful artillery. The exploit is without a parallel in the annals of war. In spite of the fearful and almost hopeless nature of their task, that handful of British horsemen rode fearlessly onward. When at a distance, their ranks were shattered by a murderous discharge, and many a gallant fellow was struck down before he could reach the foe. The Russians quailed before this band of heroes. Their artillery fired upon the struggling mass of friend and foe. The heavy cavalry and the •French Chasseurs d'Afrique covered their retreat. The glorious but fatal charge lasted twenty-five minutes. More than two-thirds of the men were kiUed or wounded, and 400 horses destroyed. The moral effect it produced was, however, extraordinary. Balaghaut Distbicts (Hindostan). — These provinces once formed part of the Hindoo kingdom of Bijyanagur, and on its fall were divided into sever 5. independent BAL states, until conquered in rapid succession by Hyder Ah, between 1766 and 1780. On the dismemberment of Tippoo's empire in 1799, a considerable portion came into the possession of the East-India Company, and the remainder was taken in 1841. Balambangaic (Indian Archipelago). — This island was ceded by the Idng of Sooloo, in 1762, to the East-India Company, and a settlement was formed by them in the following year. In Aug. 1774, intelligence was received that the Spanish governor of the Manillas had threatened to destroy the works and fortifications in case the English settlers did not retire ; and this threat was put into execution Feb. 24, 1775. Another settlement, founded in 1803, was abandoned, and the island is now uninhabited. BALAifCE OF PowEK. — ^The first combined attempt to preserve the balance of power in European affairs was made during the inva- sion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France, 1494 — 1496. Incited by the emperor Maxi- mihan I., the ItaUan states, and some other European powers, held secret conferences by night at Venice, and the celebrated league was signed at that city, March 31, 1495, between Austria, Milan, Rome, Spain, and the Venetian republic. Its object was to defeat the ambitious projects of the French king. Robertson remarks that princes and statesmen " had extended on this occasion, to the affairs of Europe, the maxims of that political science which had hitherto been apphed only to regulate the operations of the petty states in their own country. They had discovered the method of preventing any monarch from rising to such a degree of power as was inconsistent with the general liberty ; and had manifested the importance of attending to that great secret in modern pohcy, the preservation of a proper distribu- tion of power among aU the members ot the system into which the states of Europe are formed." After shovring that the attention of Itahan statesmen was from that period directed to the maintenance of the principle, he adds: "Nor was the idea confined to them. Self-preservation taught other powers to adopt it. It grew to be fashionable and universal. From this sera we can trace the progress of that intercourse between nations, which has linked the powers of Europe so closely together ; and can discern the opera- tions of that provident pohcy which, during peace, guards against remote and contingent dangers ; and, in war, has prevented rapid and destructive conquests." The principle was first pubhcly acknowledged at the peace of Westphaha, Oct. 24, 1648. Balasoke (Hindostan). — Different Euro- pean nations estabhshed factories here at the commencement of the intercourse with India. The English factory was destroyed by fire in Nov. 1688. The town itself was ceded to England by the Danes in 1844. Baleaeic Islands ( Mediterranean ) .— This group, off the coast of Spain, is supposed to have been colonized by the Phoenicians. The Carthaginians reduced the inhabitants 91 BAL to subjection. After the fall of Carthage they regained their independence. The Bomans, under the pretence that the peo- ple were pirates, took possession of the Balearic Islands B.C. 123. The Vandals seized them a.d. 423, and the Moors a.d. 790 ; but they were wrested from the latter by the troops of Charlemagne in 799, and placed under his protection. The Moors, however, regained their footing and were not expelled until 1286. {See Majokca and MlWOECA.) Balista. — Described by Gibbon as "a powerful cross-bow, which darted short but massy arrows." Belisarius made use of the bahsta in his defence of Kome against the Goths, A.D. 537. The more modem weapon is supposed to have been a species of "gyn," rather than a hand instrument. Its intro- duction into England is usually assigned to the 12th century. Eichard I. appears to have been the first to adopt the manu- balista after its use had been prohibited by Innocent II. in 1139. Balkh (Asia), the ancient Bactriana, is now a dependency of the khanat of Bokhara. Its chief city, also called Balkh, the ancient Bactra, is styled by Orientals the " Mother of Cities," on account of its great antiquity. It was taken from the Uzbeg Tartars by the khan of Bokhara in 1820. Ball. — Games with the ball have been common amongst ancient and modern na- tions. The Anglo-Saxons played at ball. An amusement of this kind was in vogue in this country amongst ladies and gentlemen in the 14th century, and it became fashionable at courts in the 16th. Fitzstephen, who wrote in the reign of Henry II., in alluding to sports at Shrove- tide, says, — " After dinner, aU the youth of the city goeth to play at the ball in the fields ; the scholars of every study have their balls. The practisers also of all the trades have every one their ball in their hands." Some writers suppose foot- ball is here meant. A complaint of the citizens of London was brought before the Privy Council in July, 14M, respecting the erection of several places where the people played " at the ball, cleche, and dice." It hasbeen highly recommended as a gymnastic exercise. Ballet. — Dancing applied to theatrical representation is an ancient amusement, supposed to have been revived in Italy during the 16th century. Baltagerini, director of music to Catherine of Medieis, was the first to introduce the ballet into France, where it became very popular in the time of Louis XIII. Since that period it has Tinder- gone various improvements. The first dra- matic piece performed in England, in which the story was entirely carried on by dancing and action, was a production by Mr. John Weaver, called "The Tavern Bilkers," per- formed at Drury Lane in 1702. A work of higher pretensions was produced by the same author at Drury Lane in 1716. It was entitled "The Loves of Mars and Venus," and its success led to the estabhshment, in BAL this country, of the ballet as a branch of theatrical amusements. Ballinamuck (Battle). — A French force landed at Killala Aug. 22, 1798, and having been joined by some Irish rebels, were defeated and taken prisoners at Ballinamuck, Sept. 8, 1798. Balliol Colle&e (Oxford). — Founded by John BaUiol, of Barnardcastle, Durham (father of BaUiol, king of Scotland), be- tween the years 1263 and 1268. He died in 1269, during the progress of the work, which was completed by his widow. Her statutes, dated the 10th year of the reign of Edward I. (1282) , are still preserved in the college. Balloon. — Albert of Saxony, a Domini- can monk, who flourished at the commence- ment of the 14th century, was the first to form a correct notion of the principle on which balloons might be constructed. The idea was taken up by several learned men ; and Bishop Wilkin s, in 1680, speaks of a carriage with sails, hke a windmill, to be propeUed through the air. The brothers Montgolfier, paper -makers, at Annonay, near Lyons, were the first to secure a prac- tical result ; and June 5, 1783, lavmched the first balloon, which, after them, was then called a Montgolfier. The experiment was repeated at Paris, Aug. 27, 1783 ; and on the 21st of November, in the same year, M. Pilatre de Eozier, and the Marquis d'Arlandes, made the first ascent from Paris, which was accomijfished with suc- cess, and the adventurers ahghted in safety about six miles from the point at which they had started. "The Montgolfiers," says a -writer in the " Encyclopaedia Britan- nica," " had the annual prize of 6O0 hvres ad- judged to them by the Academy of Sciences ; the elder brother was invited to court, deco- rated with the badge of St. Michael, and received a patent of nobility ; and on Joseph a pension was bestowed, with the further sum of 40,000 Hvres, to enable him to pro- secute his experiments with balloons." The first ascent in a hydrogen balloon was made Dec. 1, 1783, at Paris, by Messieurs Charles and Eoberts, who, after a pleasant voyage, alighted in safety about twenty-five miles from the spot where they started. Since that time great improvements have been made in the construction of balloons. The first ascent made in England was by Lunardi, Sept. 21, 1784. Blanchard and Jefferies crossed the Channel, from Dover to Calais, Jan. 7, 1785. Count Zamflec- cari, Admiral Vernon, and a Miss Grice, of Holborn, took their seats in the car of one of these machines March 23, 1785. The balloon was, however, over-weighted, and the lady was compelled to retire, which she did with great reluctance, and burst into tears at her disappointment. A successful ascent was made at Eanelagh Gardens, Dublin, Jan. 20, 1785. Balloon ascents have since been of frequent occurrence; and we read of one at Constantinople, by a Persian physician, in 1786. Eozier and BAL Eomain were killed through the ignition of their balloon, in an attempt to cross the Channel, June 15, 1785 ; and WiUiam Sadler, son of the celebrated aeronaut of that name, was killed by a fall from a balloon in 1825. The French are said to have employed balloons on various occasions for the purpose of reconnoitring the position of an enemy. The most remarkable instances occurred at Liege, in September, 1794, and during the Italian campaign of 1859. Ballot was used in several states of ancient Greece, as well as amongst the Romans. It was first introduced at Eome for the election of magistrates, by the Gabiana lex, b.c. 139; for state trials, treason excepted, by the Cassia lex, B.C. 137 .: and for the legislative assembly, by the Papinialex, B.C. 131. The ballot was used in the republic of Venice. It was employed at a political debating society, called the Eota, held nightly, in 1659, at Miles's coffee- house, New Palace Yard, Westminster. Its adoption in the election of members for the House of Commons has been frequently urged. Ballthoe (Battle). — O'lfeOl was checked in his career of plunder and devastation within the British pale, at a battle fought at BaUyhoe, in August, 1539. BALLTifAHiNCH (Battle). — Pought during the Irish rebellion, June 13, 1798. The rebels, led by Munroe, a draper of Lisburn, were defeated, and this terminated the rising in the north of Ireland. Balmoeal Castle. — Queen Victoria selected this mansion and domain, situated on the right bank of the river Dee, about forty-five miles from Aberdeen, as a royal residence, in September, 1848. The property, which had been previously rented, was pur- chased in 1852, and a new castle has been erected on the estate. Balta-Liman (Treaty). — Concluded between Russia and Turkey, at Balta-Liman, in 1849. It arose out of the transactions relating to the insurrection in the Danubian provinces and the Eussian occupation. Eussia was secured in the sanae rights as she then exercised in the principalities for seven years. Baltic Expeditions. — During the war with Eussia, two expeditions were sent into the Baltic Sea by the English government. The first, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead, March 11, 1854, and was afterwards joined by a Erench squadron, and reinforcements from England. The fleet entered the Baltic Sea March 20th. Several merchantmen were captured, and the Eussian ports blockaded, until more de- cisive operations were undertaken on the arrival of a French expeditionary force {See Aland Isles). The fleet returned home during the autumn. The second, accompanied by gun and mortar boats, under the command of Admiral Sir E. S. Dundas, sailed April 4, 1855, an advance squadron having left March 20. It was joined by a French squadron June 1. Several BAM infernal machines were taken up, and the ships penetrated within sight of Cronstadt. The chief operations at Hango and Swea- borg are described under these titles. The fleets returned during the autumn. Baltimore (Battle).— The Americana were defeated by the Enghshnear this town, in the United States, Sept. 12, 1814. BAMBEE& (Bavaria) is said to have been founded by a colony of Saxons ki 804. Other authorities state that it was founded by the emperor Henry II. in 1004, finished in 1012, and rebuilt, 'after a conflagration, in 1110. It surrendered to the Prussians May 16, 1759, and during two days was given up for pillage. It was again captured in 1763. Bamberg was made a bishopric in 1007 ; and in 1020, on the visit of Pope Benedict VIII. to Germany, the emperor presented the city and bishopric to the Eoman see, on condition of receiving every year a white horse and a hundred silver marks. The bishopric after- wards became independent, was secularized in 1801, and assigned to Bavaria in 1803. Councils were held here in 1020, 1052, and 1148. Bamboeough, or Bambueg- (Northumber- land). — This ancient town was built by Ida, who reigned twelve years, from 547. Bede says it was called Bebba, after its queen. It was frequently piUaged by the Danes, The castle, built in 1070, was wrested by stratagem from his rebellious barons by Wilham II., in 1096, and was besieged and taken by Edward IV., Dec. 24, 1463. Bameean (Battle). — Fought between Dost Mohammed Khan's army and his Oosberg aUies, under the Walee of Khoo- loom, and a small English and Sepoy force, conmianded by Brigadier Dennie, Sept. 18, 1840. The former were completely routed, and their leader fled into Kohistan. Bameleet (Essex). — This fortress was stormed and captured by king Alfred, and several Danish ships in the neighbourhood were destroyed in 894. Bampton Lectures. — Founded by Eev. J. Bampton, canon of Salisbury, who be- queathed to the university of Oxford, estates, the proceeds of which were to be devoted to the endowment of eight divinity lecture-sermons, to be preached every year at Great St. Mary's. The cost of the publi- cation of the lectures, withia two months of dehvery, was to be defrayed out of the endowment. The first course was deHvered in 1780, by the Rev. J. Bandinel. Only those who have taken the master's degree at Oxford or Cambridge are eligible ; and a second course by the same person is not allowed. Banbtjet (Oxfordshire). — In 1125, Blois, bishop of Lincoln, erected a castle here, which was frequently assailed. The royalists cap- tured it in 1642, defended it vrith great gal- lantry duruig a siege of thirteen weeks in 1644, and again in 1646. The parliamentary party demohshed it when it came into their pos- session. A battle was fought at Danesmore, near this town, Wednesday, July 26, 1469, BA5f in whieli the Lancastrians were defeated by King Edward's troops. Banca, or BiifJA (Indian Ocean). — This island, possessing tin mines, discovered in 1710, was ceded to the East- India Company by sultan ;N"ajemudin, of Palembang, in 1812. By the second article of the conven- tion of August 13, 1814, the Enghsh ceded the island to the king of the ISTetherlands, in exchange for Cochin and its dependencies, on the coast of Malabar. Bancroft's Hospital. — Almshouses, near Mile End, erected in 1735, pursuant to the will of Francis, grandson of Archbishop Bancroft. Accommodation is afforded for twenty -four poor men of the Drapers' Company, and a school for one hundred boys. Bak-da IsiAS-DS (Pacijac), ten in number, were discovered, in 1511, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1603. The English established a factory in 1608. After various struggles between them and the Dutch, the latter obtained possession in 1664. They retained their hold until March 8, 1796, when the islands surrendered to an Enghsh squadron. Having been restored to the Dutch, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802, they were agaiu captured by the Enghsh, Aug. 9, 1810, and once more restored to the Dutch at the peace of 1814. Bangaloee (Hindostan), was captured by Lord CornwaUis, March 22, 1791. The fortress was, however, restored to Tippoo Saib, by the treaty of peace of March 19, 1792. He destroyed it, but it was repaired in 1802. BAif&OB (Caernarvonshire) was made a bishopric early in the 6th century, Daniel, abbot of Bangor, in Ehntshire, its first bishop, having been appointed in 516. The cathedral was destroyed in 1071 ; and having been rebuilt, suffered severely in subsequent wars. An" order for union of the see with St. Asaph, issued in 1833, was rescinded, by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 108, July 23, 1847. Bastgoe (United States) was captured by a party of Enghsh sailors and marines, Sept. 3, 1814. Bakgoe-iscoed (Elintshire) , or Bakchoe, which must not be confounded with Bangor, in Caernarvonshire ; or Benchor, in Ireland ; was the seat of the largest ancient monastic estabhshment in Great Britain. It contained above 2,000 monks, and was founded by Dunod in the begiuning of the 6th century. Etholfrith, king of Northumberland, insti- p-ated it is supposed by Augustine, who was resolved to reduce the primitive Christian Church in these islands to subjection to Eome, destroyed the monastery and massa- cred all the monks and students. This event probably took place in 603, but as some confusion has arisen in the chronology of the time, the date cannot be ascertained with certainty. Augustine is said to have died in 604, though there is some doubt on the subject. Bede says, Augustine foretold of these monks that if they would not join in t.nity with their brethren, they should be 94 BAJJf assailed by their enemies, and that if they would not preach the way of life to the Enghsh people, they should perish at their hands. BAifGOEiAir CoifTEOTEEST. — During the reign of WiUiam III., the Lower House of Convocation had requested " that some synodical notice might be taken of the dis- honour done to the Church by a sermon preached by Mr. Benjamin Hoadley, at St. j Lawrence Jewry, Sept. 29, 1705, containing positions contrary to the doctrine of the Church, expressed in the fii'st and second parts of the homily against disobedience and vrilful rebeUion." Theenmity of this writer's \ opponents was ' further excited by a sermon ; which he preached before George I., March 31, 1717, and afterwards printed under the title, "The Nature of the Kingdom or Church of Christ." He had been made bishop of Bangor in 1715 ; was translated to Hereford in 1721 ; to Sahsbury in 1723 ; and to Winchester in 1734. What they termed the dangerous tenets of this discourse, and a work entitled, a " Preservative against the Principles and Practices of the Non- Jurors," were denounced in the report of a committee of the Lower House of Convocation in 1717. This gave rise to a general paper war between the supporters and opponents of Bishop Hoadley' s views on various points, and it is known as the Bangorian Contro- Tersy. Ban-k of En-giand. — Incorporated by royal charter, July 27, 1694, was projected by Wilham Paterson, who, with other mer- chants in London, subscribed £1,200,000 as a loan to the Government, to bear interest at 8 per cent, per annum. The first charter provided that at any time after the 1st of August, 1705, on a year's notice and the repayment of the £1,200,000, the said charter should cease and determine. It received the sanction of Parhament, and thus were the governor and company of the Bank of England estabhshed. Further loans have since been advanced to the government, the rate of interest has been reduced, and the charter has been repeatedly renewed and extended. The last, known as Sir E. Peel's act (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32), received the royal assent July 19, 1844. The bank suspended cash payments in 1696, but having recovered from a temporary pressure flourished greatly, until again compelled by the drain upon its resources, caused by the French war at the close of the last century, to suspend cash payments, for which an order in council appeared Feb. 27, 1797, and they were not resumed until May 1, 1821. By the sixth section of the Bank Charter Act, of 1S44, the directors are required to render a weekly account in a prescribed form to the Commis- sioners of Stamps and Taxes, to be pubhshed in the next succeeding Gazette. Since 1823 branch estabhshments of the Bank of Eng- land have been formed in several provincial tovms. Its business was transacted in the Grocers' HaU until June 5, 1734, when it was I removed to a building that forms part of the BAN present Bank of England. Sir John Soane commenced alterations in 1788. Bank of Ireland, was establislied by act of Parliament, with privileges similar to those enjoyed by the Bank ot England, and opened in June, 1783. In 1802, the go- vernors purchased the buildings in CoUege Green used as the houses of Parhament previous to the Union in 1801. These were adapted for the purposes of the bank, which was transferred here in 1808. The Bank of Ireland is now regulated by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 37 (July 21, 1845). Bank of Scotland, the first establish- ment of the kind iu that part of the kingdom, was foimded at Edinburgh in 1695, receiving a charter from Wilham III. and the Scottish Parhament. The second, the Eoyal Bank of Scotland, was incorporated in 1727. Bankeuptct. — ^The word bankruptcy is derived through the French from bancus the counter, ruptus broken. Ancient legislation on this subject was extremely severe. Accord- ing to the generally received interpretation, the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables gave to creditors the power of cutting a debtor's body in pieces, each of them receiving a pro- portionate share. Debtors were imprisoned in chains, subjected to stripes and hard labour at the mercy of the creditor, and liable with their vnves and children to be sold to foreign servitude. The severity of these laws was relaxed by the "Lex Poeteha Papiria," b.c. 326, and the Christian em- perors subsequently introduced the law of cession, by which a creditor making cessio honorum {i.e., giving up all his goods), was exempted from personal penalties. The first Enghsh statute on this subject, 34 & 35 Hen. YIII. c. 4 (1543), was principally directed against the frauds of traders, who were in the habit of acquiring goods from other persons and then escaping to foreign countries. This was made felony, and punished capitally. By 13 Ehz. c. 7 (1571), bankruptcy was confined to those who used the trade of merchandise, or sought their hving by buying and selling. By 21 James I. c. 19 (1624), a bankrupt might, unless his inabOity to pay his debts arose from some casual cause, be set upon the pillory for two hom-s, and have one of his ears nailed to the same and cut oft". It was repealed in 1816, By many subsequent statutes scriveners, aliens, denizens, bankers, brokers, factors, farmers, graziers, &c., were made hable to bankruptcy. All these statutes were conso- hdated by 6 Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 2, 1825). These laws were again amended and consoli- dated by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 1, 1849) ; and this act was further amended by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 77 (June 30, 1852), and by the Bankruptcy Act of 1854. The Court of Bankrupte V was estabhshed by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 56 (Oct. 20, 1831). This act was amended by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 29 (Aug. 21, 1835) ; and by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 122 (Aug. 12, 1842), which came mto operation Nov. 11, 1842. A further alteration was made in the law by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 119 (Aug. 11, 1854). The Irish bank- I ruptcy laws were consohdated by 6 WiE. IV. I c. 14 (May 20, 1836) ; and they were further I amended and assimilated to the Enghsh law j by several subsequent statutes, the last being 20 & 21 Vict. e. 60 (Aug. 25, 1857). ] The Scotch bankruptcy laws were consoh- I dated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 79 (July 29, 1856), which came into operation Nov. 1, 1856, and was further amended by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 19 (Aug. 10, 1857). Banks. — These estabhshments existed amongst the Greeks and Eomans. In mo- dern times the Jews were the first bankers. Banks were estabhshed in Italy in the 12th century. The first pubhc bank was founded at Venice in 1157, and the first bank of exchange and deposit was estabhshed at Barcelona in 1401. Money matters were for some time regulated by the Eoyal Exchangers, but their calling fell into disuse until revived by Charles I. in 1627. The Eoyal Mint, in the Tower of London, was used as a bank of deposit until Charles I. by a forced loan, in 1638, destroyed its credit. The Goldsmiths' Company undertook private banking in 1645, but on' the closing of the Exchequer in 1672 their transactions ter- minated. Child, of Fleet Street, was the first regular banker, and he commenced business soon after the Restoration. [See Bank of England.) Bannattne Club, was estabhshed by Sir Walter Scott in 1823, for printing works illustrating the history, antiquities, and hterature of Scotland. Bannee. — Is of very early origin, being referred to in Numbers, ii. 2. Banners of some kind or other were used amongst aU ancient nations, and the practice has been followed in modern times. Bede represents Augustine and his companions going in pro- cession to meet Etheked in 597, bearing banners, with a silver cross, and the image of our Saviour. Alfred captured the cele- brated Danish banner, called the Eaven, in 878. In the monasteries various banners were kept for festivals and great commemo- rations. Banneeet, or Knight B anneeet, aperson who received the order of knighthood, under the royal standard, for some distinguishedser- vice in the field. Shakespeare (King John, i.l) speaks of, — " A soldier, by the lionoTir-givlng hand Of Coeur-de-lion, knighted in the field." The time and place at which the dignity was iirst conferred have excited much controversy. "No man," says HaUam (Middle Ages, iii. ch. 9, pt. 2), " could properly be a banneret uxdess he possessed a certain estate, and could bring a certain number of lances into the field. His distinguishing mark was the square banner, carried by a squire at the point of his lance ; while the knight-bachelor had only the coronet or pointed pendant. When a banneret was created, the general cut off this pendant to render the banner square." Selden states that the first account of this dignitv occurs 95 BAN in the reign of Edward I. Edtnondson traces it as far back as 736. The Black Prince made Sir John Chandos a knight- banneret in 1367. The order was discon- tinued from 1642 ; the last, Sir John Smith, having been created after the battle of Edge- hill by Charles I., in that year. It was, however, revived by G-eorge II. after the battle of Dettingenj in 1743 ; and Sir Wm. Erskine was made a knight-banneret by George III. in 1764, for distinguished ser- vices at the battle of Emsdorff. la 5 Eich. II. s. ii. c. 4 (1382), bannerets are mentioned amongst those summoned to Parliament. _ Bannockbuen- (Battles). — Two bearing this name were fought ; the first at Bannock- burn, Scotland, between the English and the Scotch, in which the latter gained the victory, and secured their independence, Monday, June 24, 1314 ; and the second, at Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn, June 11, 1488, on which occasion James III., of Scotland, was slain by an army raised by the partisans of the duie of Albany. Bawns. — TertuUian, who died a.d. 245, states that the primitive Chui-ch was fore- warned of marriages. The practice was probably introduced into France in the 9th century. The bishop of Paris enjoined it in 1176 ; and it was regularly estabhshed in the Latin Church by the fourth Lateran council, in 1215. The earhest enactment on the subject in the Enghsh Church is the 11th canon of the synod of Westminster, in 1200, which decrees that no marriage shall be contracted without banns thrice pubhshed in the church. The 62nd canon of the synod of London (1603-4), forbids the celebration of marriage unless the banns have first been published three several Sundays, or holy days, during divine Service, in the parish churches or chapels where the parties dwell. The publication was required to be made on Sundays, and not on holy days, by 26 Geo. II. c. 33 (1752) . This act "has been superseded by 4 Greo. IV. c. 76 (1823), and various laws have since then been passed, but this regula- tion remains in force. By the latter act it is provided that if the marriage does not take place within three months after the publication of the banns, they must be repubhshed. Banquetiko- House (Whitehall). — Intended for the reception of ambassa- dors and state ceremonials, was built by Inigo Jones in 1606. It occupies the site of an old building that had been devoted to similar uses. The ceiling was painted by Eubens. Bantam (Java). — The Dutch commenced trading at this place in 1602, and the Enghsh in 1612, and, after various disputes, the latter estabhshed a factory in 1619 ; but were ex- pelled in 1683 by the Dutch, who abandoned the place in 1817. BAifTET Bat (Sea Eight). — Admiral Herbert, afterwards Lord Torrington, with 19 sail of the fine, attacked, in this bay, May 1, 1689, a Ereneh fleet of 28 ships of war, carrying from 60 to 70 guns each, and BAP 5 fire-ships. A short action ensued, when Admiral Herbert tacked in order to obtain the weather-gauge, and the engagement was not renewed. AFrenchfieet carrying 16,000 troops, intending to co-operate with the Irish rebels, anchored in this bay on the 22nd of December, 1796. They were com- pelled by a severe gale to cut their cables and stand out to sea on the 25th, and it was not until the 29th that they were able, in a sadly damaged state, 'to again cast anchor in the bay. A landing was not even attempted, and the remnant of the expedition returned to Prance. The men in Admiral Miehell's squadron mutinied here Dec. 1 to 11, 1801. The trial of fourteen of the mutineers com- menced on board the Gladiator, at Ports- mouth, Jan. 8, 1802, and terminated on the 12 th, when thirteen out of the fourteen culprits were sentenced to death, and suf- fered on the 15th ; the day on which the trial of some of their associates commenced. Baph^oit (Battle).— Othman, founder of the Ottoman empire, passed the heights of Mount Olympus, descended into the level country of Bithynia, and defeated the emperor Andronicus III., at Baphseon, in the commencement of the 14th centuiy. Baptism. — ^The first use of baptism is ascribed by Lightfoot to Jacob, on the admission of the proselytes of Shechem into his family and the Church of God, about B.C. 1732 (Gen. xxxv.). The Jews adminis- tered baptism to all Gentiles before admit- ting them into their church; but baptism was not made a permanent institution until the time of John the Baptist, who performed the rite in the waters of Jordan on those that flocked to hear his preaching in the autumn of the year 26 (Matt. iii. 6) ; and Christ himself was baptized by him in January of the year 27 (Matt. iii. 13—15). It was practised in various forms by the primi- tive Church, and was received as the initiatory rite by Christians, though certain heretics rejected it altogether. The ceremony was at first, according to the testimony of Justin Martyr, who wrote in the 2nd century, and of TertuUian, who wrote in the 3rd, performed by trine inmiersion in rivers. This is said to have been discontinued on account of persecution. Baptisteries containing pools for the performance of the rite were erected outside the churches about the 3rd century. Sacred fonts were constructed in the porches about the 4th century, and in the 6th cen- tury within the churches. The early English Church retained the practice of immersion tin a late period, as the council of Chelsea, July 27, 816, condemned the innovation of sprinkling. The Quakers reject baptism, altogether. Baptists. — The name applied to several sects who deny the validity of infant baptism, and require immersion, after the example of John the Baptist. They are in many respects followers of the Anabaptists, who arose in Germany in 1521. They are divided into several sects : the chief in England are the General, or Arminian Baptists, who beUeve BAR that God has excluded no man from salva- tion by any sovereign decree ; and the Particular, or Calvimstic Baptists, who pub- lished a confession of faith in 1&43, vrhich was reprinted in 1644 and 1646, and revised in 1689. The first congregation of English Baptists, the followers of John Smith, who died at Leyden in 1610, was organized in London in that year. These were General Baptists, and the Particular Baptists trace their origin to a congregation estabhshed in London in 1616. Their first institution in America was at Providence, in 1639. {See Anabaptists.) Bab (Confederation of) . — The Eoman Cathohcs of Poland, during their fierce rehgions struggles with the Dissidents, the latter being supported by the Eussians, seized the fortress of Bar, in Podoha, and formed the Confederation of Bar, in 1768. Anarchy ensued, and the confederates were defeated by the combined forces of Austria, Prussia, and Eussia, those powers having coalesced for the purpose of interfering in Poland. Baebadoes (Atlantic), one of the Caribbee islands discovered by the Portuguese at the close of the 15th century. The Enghsh first landed here in 1605 ; and their first settle- ment was formed in 1614. Various disputes having occurred between different claimants, the earl of Carhsle obtained the right of possession by patent, dated July 2, 1627. Sir William Courteen, an Enghsh merchant, had fitted out ships to effect a settlement, one of which landed colonists Feb. 17, 1625, who founded Jamestown. He was displeased at this arrangement, and obtained a grant of the island in 1628 ; but by another patent, dated April 7, 1629, Carhsle was confirmed in the possession. It afforded a refuge to the royahsts, and was captured by the repub- licans in 1652. After the Eestoration, htiga- tion ensued between rival proprietors, and these led to the imposition of a tax on the in- habitants, which was not repealed until 1838. Barbadoes was devastated by tremendous hurricanes in August, 1675, 1780, and 1831 ; and was created a bishop's see in 1824, Baebabt (Africa). — This term has been appUed to describe the northern portion of Africa, divided, both in ancient and modern tunes, into several states. The name is sup- posed to be derived from the Berbers, who occupied the country on its invasion by the Saracens in the 7th century. Baebastro (Spain), or Balbasteo. — This city was taken from the Moors in 1097 by Pedro I., king of Aragon. A sanguinary struggle occiu-red in its suburbs between the Carhsts and the Queen's troops Jmie 2, 1837. Both parties claimed the victory. The Carlists, however, crossed the Ciuea and entered Catalonia without opposition on the 5th of the same month. It is the seat of a Baebee. — The art of the barber was prac- tised in Greece about B.C. 420. Their shops were then, as in more modern times, cele- brated as places of gossip. Barbers are said 97 BAE to have been introduced into Eome from Sicily, B.C. 299. Formerly barbers practised surgery iu England. Chicheley pubhshed a decree in 1415 forbidding them to keep their shops open on Sundays. The barbers, long an ancient company, were incorporated by letters patent Feb. 24, 1462. It was con- firmed by Henry VII. and Henry VIII. By city law, in the time of Edward I. (Liber Albus), barbers who were so bold and daring as to expose blood in their windows, instead of having it privily conveyed into the Thames, were subject to a fine of two shillings. Baebee-Suegeows. — Though the barbers at first practised surgery, yet a company of surgeons had been formed, but not incor- porated, consisting, as Stow states, of not more than twelve persons at the commence- ment of the reign of Henry VIII. In 1540 (32 Hen. VIII. c. 42), an act was passed uniting the barbers and the surgeons in one body corporate, called " Masters or Go- vernors of the Mystery and Commonalty of Barbers and Surgeons of London." It pro- vided that none of the company that used barbery and shaving should occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or any other thing belonging to surgery, except only drawing of teeth ; nor he that used the mystery of surgery, should exercise the feat or craft of barbery or shaving. They were made distinct corporations in 1745, by 18 Geo. II. c. 15. BAE-suK-AtTBB (Battle). — The allies ob- tained a signal victory over the French near this town, in France, Feb. 27, 1814. Baeca (S. Africa). — This mai-itime dis- trict, the ancient Cyrenaica, was colonized from Cyrene, B.C. 560, and formed a part of the "Libya about Cyrene," mentioned in the Acts (ii. 10). The Persians besieged and captured its chief town, Barca; and it was conquered by the Saracens in 641. It was a bishopric of the early Church. Baecelona (Spain). — The foundation of this ancient city is assigned by tradition to as early a period as 400 years before the build- ing of Eome. Hamilcar Barcas, the Car- thaginian, is said to have restored it B.C. 235 ; and from him it received the name of Barcius. The Carthaginians were expelled B.C. 206 ; and it belonged to Eome from B.C. 146 until A.D. 411, when it was taken by the Goths. The Moors captured it a.d. 718, and Charlemagne in 801. It became the capital of a Spanish march, held by the counts of Barcelona, uutU their title was merged in that of Axagon in 1137. Its inhabitants having revolted, the city was besieged by John IL, of Aragon, and captured Oct. 17, 1471. It became a great centre of commerce in the 15th century; and the first bank of exchange and deposit in EurojDe was esta- bhshed here io. 1401. Barcelona has since that period sustained several sieges. The French took it Aug. 7, 1697 ; it was restored by the treaty of Eyswick, and taken again Oct. 9, 1705 ; by the eccentric Lord Peter- borough, Sept. 13, 1706 ; and by the duke of Berwick, after a long siege, Sept. 12, 1714. BAE The Erencli captured it on their invasion of Spain, Feb. 28, 1808. It was made the seat of a iDishop at an early period. Councils were held here in 540 ; Nov. 1, 599 ; in 906 ; Nov. 20, 1054 ; and in 1068. Its university, estabhshed in 1430, was suppressed in 1714, and restored in 1841. BAECELOJfA (Treaties). — A treaty between Charles YIII. of France, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was signed by the former at Tours, and by the latter at Barcelona, Jan. 19, 1493. It was an alliance offensive and defensive between France and Spain. Charles VIII. ceded the counties of Eoussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. Another was concluded at this place between the emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., June 29, 1529. Eobertson says that Charles, among other articles, agreed to restore all the territories belonging to the Eccle- siastical state ; to re-establish the Medici at Florence, and give his daughter to Alex- ander, the head of that family ; and to put it in the Pope's power to decide respectmg the fate of Sforza and the possession of the Milanese. Clement VII. gave the emperor the investiture of Naples without the reserve of any tribute, but the present of a white steed in acknowledgment of his sovereignty; absolved all who had been concerned in assaulting and plundering Eome, and per- mitted Charles and his brother Ferdinand to levy the fourth of the ecclesiastical revenues throughout his dominions. Other treaties of no great importance were also concluded at Barcelona. Baecelona, New (S. America). — This town was founded by the Spaniards in 1634. The province of the same name, of which it was the capital, with six other provinces, formed themselves into the American con- federation of Venezuela, April 19, 1810. Baedenet (Lincolnshire), orBAEDNET. — This ancient monastery, in the province of Lindsey, is said by Bishop Tanner to havebeen founded before a.d. 697, because Osthryda, queen of Mercia, who caused King Oswald's remains to be removed to this place, was murdered in that year. It was destroyed by the Danes in 869, and all the inmates were put to the sword. Babdesai^ists. — A Christian sect which flourished in Mesopotamia from a.d. 161 to 180. They were the followers of Bardesanes of Edessa, who at one time advocated the tenets of Valentinus the Egyptian, though he afterwards abjured them. Mosheim con- tends against this view, declaring that Bar- desanes admitted two principles, hke the Manichaeans. His followers denied the in- carnation and the resurrection. Baeds, or Peofessional Poets, were in high repute amongst ancient nations. They were the recorders of important events, celebrating in poetry and music the virtues and heroic deeds of their gods and great men. Amongst the ancient Gauls and Britons they were regarded with pecu- har veneration, and wielded considerable authority. The Druids had their order of 97 BAE bards. They continued to flourish in Wales, where Eisteddfods, or sessions of the l^ards, were held; and the supreme dignity, and the privileges of the bards, are dwelt upon at great length in their early laws. Edward I. has been accused, though unjustly, of having massacred the Welsh bards in 1283. The last commission for holding an eisteddfod is dated Oct. 23, 1568. The ancient Irish bards were also celebrated. The court bard is mentioned as a domestic officer in Welsh records of the year 940. BAEEB03srE's Paeiiament. — This " motley convention of one hundred and tweuty persons," as HaUam terms it, was assembled at Cromwell's command July 4, and dis- solved Dec. 12, 1653. It was sometimes called the Little Parliament. Amongst the seven representatives for London, was one Barebone, a leather-seller, of Fleet Street, a fanatic notorious for his long prayers and sermons, with the Christian name of " Praise God." Hence arose the term " Praise-God Barebone's Parliament," by which this assembly was afterwards known. It consisted of 122 members for England, 6 for Wales, 6 for Ireland, and 5 for Scotland, chosen by Cromwell and his officers. Baeeillt (Hindostan). — This district, in the province of Delhi, was ceded by the rulers of Oude to the East -India Company in 1801. A formidable mutiny broke out at its chief town, also named BareiUy, April 16, 1816. It was caused by a form of taxation obnoxious to the people. Conflicts ensued, April 18 and 21, and order was soon restored. The sepoys rose against the English, murdered some, and expelled others, Sunday, May 31, 1857. The muti- neers marchedinto Delhi Jvdy 2. Bareilly was recaptured by the British forces May 7, 1858. Baeeletje (Normandy). — A portion of Wniiam the First's fleet was equipped at this port for the invasion of England a.d. 1066. Near Barfleur, Prince William, only son of Henry I., perished by shipwreck during the nights of Nov. 25 and 26, 1120. Two of the king's illegitimate children and several nobles perished on this occasion, the total nimiber of persons being about three him- dred. Only one escaped, — a butcher, of Eouen. William had married Matilda, daughter of the count of Anjou, in June, 1119. The vessel was called the Blanche- Nef. The shipping at Barfleur was destroyed and the harbour filled up by Edward III. in his invasion of Normandy, in 1346. Baei (Italy). — This town, occupying the site of the ancient Barium, having been cap- tured by the Saracens a.d. 840, was wrested from them in 871, by Louis II., Charle- magne's great-grandson, after a siege of four years' duration. The Greek emperors made it the capital of the province of Apulia in 982. Afterwards it came into the possession of the Normans, and Eobert Guiscard be- came duke of Apulia in 1060. It was the seat of a bishop as early as 347, and became an archbishopric in 931. A celebrated coun- cil assembled here Oct. 1, 1098, at the com- BAR mand of Urban II., no less than 183 bishops, and among thena Ansebn of Canterbury, attended; the principal subjects discussed being the reunion of the Greek and Latin churches, and what is termed the Jilioque, or the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father as well as the Son. Barinas (S.America), or Vaeinas. — One of the Spanish colonies which joined the confederation of Venezuela, April 19, 1810, formed for the expulsion of the Spaniards. Barium. — Protoxide of barium was discovered in 1774, by Seheeler; and barium, the metallic base of baryta, by Davy, in 1808. Bark, called Peruvian, or Jesuits' Bark. — Its medicinal qualities were discovered by the Jesuits in South America; a diseased person having, by accident, taken water impregnated with it. As a medicine it was first used in Spain in 1640 ; and in England, about 1654. The Mercu/rius Foliticus, Feb. 3 — 10, 1659, announces where "the Feaver Bark, commonly called the Jesuits' powder, brought over by James Thompson, merchant of Antwerp," may be obtained. Baelaamites. — Followers of Barlaam, a native of Calabria, and a monk of the order of St. Basil, who, in the controversy between the Greek and Latin churches, after support- ing the cause of the latter, became an advocate of the former. He brought a complaint be- fore the patriarch of Constantinople, against the tenets of the Hesychistae, or Quietists, the name given to the monks of Mount Athos. The cause was tried, and the monks acquitted, in 1337. In 1339 Barlaam was the emperor's ambassador to the pope at Avignon for a luiion of the two churches. The old controversy was afterwards renewed, and to such a pitch did it proceed, that a council was held at Constantinople, June 11, 1341, in which the monks, with Palamas at their head, were victorious. The Barlaamites were condemned by subsequent councils, and Barlaam himself is said to have once more joiaed the Latins, He died about 1348. Barletta (S. Italy), was besieged by the French in 1502. During the siege, the celebrated military rencontre between eleven Spanish and as many French knights took place. The lists were formed on neutral territory, under the walls of Trani, and the combat came off Sept. 20, 1502. Though five of the French knights were slain. Bayard and a companion are said to have defended themselves with such skill against the seven Spaniards, that it terminated in a drawn battle. There are various accounts of this trial of arms. Bayard fought in single com- bat with the Spanish cavalier Sotomayor (Feb. 2, 1503), when the latter was slain. The French having been defeated in two battles, Friday, April 21, and Friday, the 28th, 1503, in the last of which the duke of Nemours was slain, abandoned the siege of Barletta. Barnaeites. — This religious order was formed at Milan, in 1530, by three persons, named Antony MariaZaQharias,Bartholomew 99 L-oFG, BAR Ferrarius, and Jacopo Antony Morigia. It was approved by Clement VII. in 1533, and confirmed by Paul III. in 1535. They were called regular clerks of St. Paul, from their assiduous study of his epistles, recommended to them by their first master ; and are said to have received the name of Barnabites from the church of St. Barnabas at Milan, fiven them in 1535. They spread through taly and Germany, and were invited into France by Henry IV., in 1608, to be employed in the mission of Bearne. On their first establishment they lived on the gratuities of the pious, but afterwards held property. BARifAED's Inn was named after Lyon el Barnard, who resided here in the year 1434 (13 Hen. VI.), at which time it was the pro- perty of Dr. John Mackworth, dean of Lincoln, by whose name it had been before known. In 1601, one Mr. Warren was fined £1. 6s. 8d. for wearing his hat in haU, and for his long hair, and otherwise misde- meaning himself. The first attempt to intro- duce attorneys into the inn was made in 1608. Baenet (Battle) .—Fought during the wars of the Roses, on Gladsmore Heath, near Chip- piag-Barnet, onEaster Sunday, April 14, 1471. The Yorkists, commanded by Edward IV., gained a complete victory over the Lancas- trians, led by the earl of Warwick, the king- maker, who fell in the battle. A monument was erected on the spot where the encounter took place, in 1740. Baeoach (Hindostan). — This district was conquered by the British in 1781, and was afterwards restored to the Mahrattas. The city of Baroaeh and its fortress were cap- tured Aug. 29, 1803, and the whole territory ceded to the East-India Company, by treaty, Dec. 30, 1803. It was a place of great trade in the 16th centxiry, and was taken by Acbar in 1572. Baroda (India), the capital of the Guico- war's territory, was a large and wealthy city in the reign of Aurungzebe, who died in 1707. A treaty of amity was concluded between its ruler and the East-India Company in 1780. In 1802 the king applied to the East-India Company for assistance to put down a rebellion. This was accomphshed, and the relations between the two governments were regvdated by arrangements made ia 1802, 1805, 1817, and 1820. Barometer was invented by TorriceUi, a Florentine, pupU of Galileo, in 1643. Pascal unproved it in 1648, and from that period great improvements have been effected in its construction by various scientific men. Baron. — This term, now apphed to the lowest title in the peerage, was formerly extended to all the nobihty of England. Its origin and real signification in the early period of our history have excited much controversy. The ancient baron is generally supposed to have been the same as our pre- sent lord of the manor. He was at first called vavassour, this being changed by the Saxons into thane, and by the 2f ormans into H 2 BAR baron. Originally, all barons had seats in the king's council. lu the reign of King John, the barons had become so numerous that they were divided, the greater barons, ■who held in capite of the crown, being sum- moned by writ to attend the king's council; whilst the lesser barons, who held under the greater barons by military tenure, were summoned by the sheriff to sit by repre- sentation ; hence arose the lower house of parliament. The first precept to be found is of the 49th of Henry III., Dec. 24, 1265, from which period no other seems to have been issued until 22 Edw. I. (1294), or, as Sir H. N. Nicolas is of opinion, until 23 Edw. I., June 24, 1295. Eichard II. converted it into a mere title of honour, by conferring it on persons by letters patent ; the first barony of this kind being that of Beaucharap and Kidderminster, datedOct. 10, 1387, and conferred upon John Beauchamp, of Holt. This baron never sat in parhament, as he was attainted in the following year. At the Eestoration, Charles II. granted a coronet to barons. The first instance of their being styled peers is in the award of exile against Hugh le Despencer and his son, in 1321. The citizens of London, York, Chester, and other towns, were at an early period honoured with the title of baron. Baeonet. — This order was instituted, or, as some assert, adopted, because the title existed previously in Ireland, by James I., in 1611 ; and the first patent, to Nicholas Bacon, is dated May 22, in that year. Each knight or esquire was, under the pretence of providing a fund for the defence of the English settlement of Ulster, to pay a sum of £1,000, to support thirty foot-soldiers for three years at 8d. per day, together vdth the official fees. The number fixed was 200, but only ninety-three patents were sold in six years. Baronets of Ireland were estabhshed in 1619, the first patent being dated Sept. 30; and of Scotland, called baronets of Nova Scotia, by Charles I. in 1625 ; the first patent being dated May 22. Females have assumed the dignity. The Gentleman's Magazine for 1754 gives the following instance of one created by James II. : — " Sept. 9, 1686.— Cornelius Speeknan, of the United Provinces, a general of the states of Holland ; with a special clause to the gene- ral's mother, of the rank and title of a baronetess of England." Baegn-s of G-eesian-y. — ^During the Middle Ages many of the German barons were little better than reckless freebooters. Hal- lam (Middle Ages, iii. ch. 9, pt. 1) says :— "Germany appears to have been, upon the whole, the country where downright robbery was most unscrupulously practised by the great. Their castles, erected on almost inaccessible heights among the woods, be- came the secure receptacles of predatory bands, who spread terror over the country. From these barbarian lords of the dark ages, as from a living model, the romances are said to have drawn their giants and other disloyal enemies of true chivalry." 100 BAH Their depredations compelled the inhabitants of towns to form leagues for purposes of protection and self-defence. Sixty cities were associated in the League of the Rhine in 1255. The Hanseatic union owes it3 origin to the same cause ; and in 1370 the cities of Suabia and the Rhine entered into a similar confederacy. Baeons' Wae, originated in the refusal of Henry III. to ratif »• the statutes enacted at Oxford, in the "Mad Parliament," June 11, 1258. The matter was referred to the arbitration of Louis IX. of France, who decided, at a council held at Amiens, that the statutes should be annulled, Jan. 23, 1264. The barons, with Simon de Montfort at their head, took up arms, and, on the 14th of May, | totally defeated the king at Lewes. A par- liament assembled at London Jan. 20, 1265. Disputes arose amongst the bai ons, and on the 4th of August (1265) , a second great battle was fought at Evesham, in which the king was victorious, and De Montfort was slain. The barons, who continued to oppose the king, took refuge in the castle of Kemlworth, and they were compelled by famine to surrender, in November, 1266. The war was stdl car- ried on, and Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., reduced the island of Ely, their last stronghold, July 25, 1267. Baeossa (Battle). — An allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese force, of 12,000 men, with 24 pieces of artillery, were attacked at this place, in Spain, by 16,000 French under Victor, on the 5th of March, 1811. The former were victorious, though the British contingent under General Graham, which amounted to only 4,000 men, received no support wh.atever from the Spaniards. An eagle, six pieces of artUlery, and 500 prisoners fell into the hands of the British. B AEEACEPOEE ( Hindostan ) . — A revolt occurred here in 1824, and the mutiny of the sepoys commenced at Dum-Dum and at this town, near Calcutta, in 1857. On the first occasion the 47th regiment of native infantry, then about to depart to assist in the Burmese war, displayed a mutinous spirit Sept. 15, and they refused to parade Oct. 30, 1824. They declared that they would not go to Rangoon, or anywhere else, by sea, or even march by land, unless they received double batta. A further manifestation took place Nov. 1, when a battery opened on their rear, killing a few, and putting the remainder to flight. Many arrests were made, the offenders were found guilty by a court-martial, and the ringleaders were exe- cuted. The 47th native regiment was erased from the army list. It was here that the sepoys, in Feb. 1857, objected to bite off the ends of the new cartridges, on the pre- tence that they contained fat, which, if per- mitted to come in contact with their hps or tongues, entailed a loss of caste. An inquiry took place Feb. 6, but it did not produce any satisfactory result ; and the 34th native regiment rebelled March 29th. The 19th I regiment of native infantry was disbanded I and dismissed here, March 31 ; and the 34ith, BAE May 5th. Three native regiments were dis- armed at Barrackpore, June 14th. Barkicades, constructed of the first mate- rials that came to hand, were used in popular insurrections during the Middle Ages. Paris has obtained notoriety as the city in which they have been most frequently employed. In 1358, its streets were barri- caded against the Dauphin. The first Battle of the Barricades took place on the entry of the duke of Guise into Paris, in 1588. Henry III., at his instigation, consented to take severe measures against the Huguenots, on the promise that the duke would assist him in purging Paris of strangers and obnoxious persons. No sooner, however, was an attempt made to execute this plan, than the people rose, erected barricades, and attacked the king's troops with irresistible fury. Henry III., having requested the duke of Guise to put a stop to the conflict, fled from Paris, and the moment the duke showed himself to the people, they puUed down the barricades. It was followed during the war of the Fronde, by another contest of a somewhat similar character, Aug. 26, 1648, when Anne of Austria ordered the arrest of Charton, Blancmeuil, and Broussel, three popiilar members of the Parliament. The first-mentioned managed to escape, but the other two were captured ; whereupon the people rebelled, formed barricades, and attacked the troops vnth cries of " Broussel and lii erty ! " The queen was intimidated, and, by the advice of Mazarin, ordered the release of the prisoners. In July, 1830, the elder branch of the Bourbons, and in Feb., 184S, the Orleans branch of the same family, were driven from the French throne after a struggle at the barricades. Cavaignac in defence of the Provisional Govermnent waged a fearful contest with the insurgents who had erected barricades, June 23, 24, 25, and 26, 1848, in which he was at length victorious. The killed and wounded amounted to 15,000, and about 8,000 of the rebels were taken prisoners. Napoleon III. has widened the streets, and taken other precautions to prevent the recurrence of such scenes. Barricades have been erected during popular outbreaks at Berhn, Vienna, and other continental cities. An attempt at something of the kind was made in London, on the occasion of the funeral procession of Queen C\roline in August, 1821, but it was speedily su.ipressed. Baeeiees (Battle), was fought under the walls of Paris March 30, 1814, when the aUied army after an obstinate contest gained a victory, which led to the capitulation of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon I. Bakrier Treaties. — The first between England and the Netherlands, was negotiated by Lord Townshend, and signed at the Hague Oct. 29, 1709. England engaged to assist the Dutch in preserving their barrier towns, whilst the Dutch pledged themselves to maintain the queen of England's title to her dominions, and the Protestant succes- 8ioii. It was very unpopular in this country, BAR and was called Lord Townshend's treaty. It was annulled in 1712, and a new barrier treaty concluded at Utrecht Jan. 30, 1813. Another treaty known by this name was signed at Antwerp, between England, the Netherlands, and the emperor Charles VI., Nov. 15, 1715. It determined the bounda- ries of the Netherlands, and the emperor recognized the Hanoverian succession, as the states general had done in the former treaties. Barristers, or Barrasters, at first styled apprenticii ad legem (apprentices) were first appointed, according to Dugdale, by an ordinance of the 20th year of the reign of Edward I. (1292). The clergy, who for some time supphed the only persons learned in the law, were at the commencement of Henry the Third's reign prohibited from practising in the secular courts. Reeves (Hist, of Eng. Law, V. 247), remarks, — "We have seen that heretofore there were only two descriptions of advocates ; these were Serjeants and apprentices. But we find in this reign (Elizabeth), and no doubt it had been so for some time, that the orders of the profession were these, — the lowest was a student, called also an inner barrister, and so distinguished from the next rank, which was that of an outer or utter barrister; then came an apprentice, and next a serjeant." The first order relative to the quahfications of barris- ters was made June 21, 1571, being the 13th year of Ehzabeth's reign. The following entry occurs in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Margaret, Westminster, for 1476: — " Also paid to Roger Fylpott, learned in the law, for his counsel-giving, 3«. 8^., with 4d. for his diimer." In the reign of Charles II. the client consulted the barrister in person, and handed him the honorarium vrithout the intervention of an attorney or clerk. The qualifications required varied until 1852; when the four societies agreed upon one set of rules. Barrow Island (Arctic Sea) . — Discovered by Captain Beechy, Jan. 26, 1826. Like Barrow's Straits, it is named after Sir John Barrow, Bart., secretary to the Admiralty, and author of "Chronological History of Arctic voyages," and other works. Barrows. — These tumuh, or mounds of earth, are the most ancient monuments in the world. Gough says they were both tombs and altars. They were used by the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and other ancient people. Homer makes mention of one raised by Achilles in memory of Patroclus, and of another to Hector. In some cases they were erected in honour of a deceased hero, whose remains were not deposited beneath them, and frequently to signalize some important event. After the battle of Plataea, and the utter failure of the Persian invasion, B.C. 479, Pausanias ordered the dead to be interred in tumuli or barrows. "A single burying-place," says a writer in the " Ency- clopaecEa Metropolitana," "was appointed to the use of the Athenians, Tegaeans, Megaraeans, and Philiasians; but the slain of 101 BAE the Lacedaemonians formed three separate i momids ; one consisting of those who had j borne the priestly office, another of the Lacedaemonians in general, and the third of their Helots." Barrows were very common in Britain at an early period. Those at Abury and Stonehenge are the most ancient. They are of numerous shapes, and devoted to various purposes. Many have been opened, and in addition to bones (calcined), ashes, stone coffins, &c., amber ornaments, and other rehcs have been discovered. Baeeow's Steaits. — This channel, leading from Baffin's Bay into the Polar Sea, was discovered by Baffin in 1616 ; and explored in 1819 by Lieutenant Parry, who named it after Sir John Barrow. BAETEif STEIN (Treaty).— Between Prussia and Kussia, was concluded at Bartenstein, April 25, 1807. It provided for a vigorous pro- secution of the war against France, and the contracting parties engaged not to make a separate peace. Baetholomew Faie. — To the priory of Bartholomew, founded by Eahere, King Henry I. iu 1133, granted the privilege of holding a fair in Smithfield on St. Bartholo- mew's Day, O.S. Aug. 24, N.S. Sept. 3. The original grant was for three days, but this was gradually extended to fifteen. In 1593, 1603, 1625, 1630, 1665, and 1666, the fair was suspended on account of the plague. An order of the Common Council in 1708, limited its duration to three days. At one time it was a great place of resort for traders, but it declined in importance until it was only attended by itinerant showmen and the o^vners of a few stalls. Proclamation of the fair was made for the last time in 1855. Jlorley's work entitled "Memoirs of Bartho- lomevir's Fair" contains fuU and interesting details on this subject. BAETHOiiOMEw's Dat (Massacrc of the Protestants). — On the evening of St. Bartho- lomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572, the massacre of the Huguenots at Paris commenced. The Boman CathoHc leaders, the dukes of Guise, Aumale, and Anjou, with the connivance of Charles EX., and at the instigation of Catherine de Medici, resolved by a general assassination to exterminate the French Protestants. Their leader, Admiral Coligny, the first victim, was shot Aug. 22, and the inhuman slaughter of man, woman, and child, which commenced on the 24th was carried on till it was believed that aU the Protestants iu Paris had been destroyed. The plot had been secretly organized, and similar' scenes were enacted in many towns in the provinces. According to the lowest estimate, 30,000 persons perished. The reign- ihg pope, Gregory XIII., celebrated this deed of blood by a procession and a Te Deum at Eome, and proclaimed a year of jubilee. He also ordered a medal to be struck in its commemoration. BAETHoiiOMBw's HOSPITAL was founded m 1102, by Eahere, who had been king's min- strel. It was originally in. connection with the priory, which Eahere established about 102 BAS the same time. Edward II., by letters patent, conferred upon it the privilege of sanctuary ; consequently no person covdd be arrested within its precincts. Both priory and hospital were dissolved by Henry "VIII., who founded the hospital anew, giring 500 marks per annum towards its maintenance, on the condition that the city should give a like sum. It escaped the great fii-e in 1666, and has been several times enlarged. Baetholomites. — This rehgious order of St. Basil, driven from Armenia in 1296, owing to the cruelties committed upon them by the sultan of Egypt, formed an estabhshment at Genoa in 1307. They obtained a second house at Parma in 1318, and afterwards spread to other towns in Italy. They assumed the habit of St. Dominic, and eventually followed the rule of St. Augustine, which was confirmed to them by Innocent VI., in 1356. The Bartholomites gradually decreased in numbers, and were suppressed by Inno- cent X. in 1650. Baewalde (Treaty). — Between France and Sweden, concluded by Gustavus, in his camp at Barwalde or Barenwald, Jan. 13, 1631. It provided for a defensive aUiance, and its duration was fixed at six years. It was aimed against the emperor and Spain. Baetholomew, St. (W. Indies). — This island was colonized by the French in 1648 ; taken by the EngUsh in 1689 ; and restored to France in 1697. The EngHsh took it again in 1746, restored it in 1748, and captured it again March 17, 1781. It was ceded in perpetuity by France to Sweden in 1784, in return for certain concessions. The Enghsh again cap- tured it March 22, 1801, but restored it to Sweden the same year. Basel (Svritzerland). — This ancient city was ruled during the Middle Ages by a b ishop, who was a prince of the German empire. It was taken by Eodolph of Habsburg in 1267 ; in 1392 became a free imperial city, which was, with the adjoining territory, admitted into the Confederation in 1501, when the bishops were expelled. A council was held here in Oct. 1061. The eighteenth General Council, transferred from Pavia to Sienna and from Sienna to Basel, assembled July 23, 1431, and was brought to a conclusion May 16, 1543. Its chief objects were the reunion of the Greek and Latin churches, and a general reformation of the Church. The university of Basel was founded by a papal buU from Pius II. in 1459. Treaties of peace were concluded at Basel between France and Prussia, AprQ 5 and May 17 ; between France and Spain, July 22; and between France and Hesse-Cassel, Aug. 28, 1795. The French seized the city in 1798. Bashee, or Bashi Islands (Pacific), five in number, were discovered by Dam- pier, in 1687, and colonized by the Spaniards in 1783. They form a dependency of the Philippines. Bashi Bazottks. — Irregular troops in the Turkish service, principally Asiatics. They formed a contingent of the Turkish army during the Crimean war 1853-56. As light BAS BA8 cavalry they are considered excellent, sur- passing the Cossacks in courage and powers of endurance. Basientello (Battle) .—Otho III., empe- ror of Germany, was defeated near this place, in Italy, by the Greeks and Saracens, Jiily 13, 982. Basiliasts. — Monks of the order of Basil, surnamed the Great, bishop of Csesarea a.d. 370. He had retired in 358 into a desert in Pontus and founded a monastery. He after- wards founded several similar establishments, placing them under rules of his own institu- tion. The order was introduced into the Western Church in 1057, and was reformed by pope Gregory XIII. in 1569. Basilica. — This code of Byzantine law was published a.d. 884 by Basil I., from whom its name is derived. It was revised and extended by Leo VI. and Constantine VII. (Porphy- rogenitus), and appeared in its amended form between 905 and 911. This remained the law of the Byzantine empire tiU its conquest by the Turks, and has been adopted in the modern kingdom of Greece. Basiijdians. — The followers of Basihdes of Alexandria, who is supposed to have quitted the Church during the reign of Tra- jan or that of Hadrian, were thus named. Cave says that he flourished in 112, Basnage in 121, and MiU in 123. Basilides, who died in 130, perverted the doctrine of the Logos. Clement of Alexandria asserts that Basilides boasted that he had been taught by a disciple of St. Peter. Basilikos" Doeon", or Eotai. Gipt, a treatise composed by James I., and pubUshed at Edinburgh in 1599. It is divided into three books, and contains precepts on the art of government, addressed by the king to his son, Henry, prince of Wales, who died suddenly, Nov. 6, 1612, aged 17. Basino (Hants) . — ^The scene of the Danish victory over Ethelred and Alfred in 871. Near this place is Basing House, celebrated for its heroic defence by the marquis of Win- chester, against the parhamentary forces in 16Mi. It was relieved by Col. Gage, after having sustained a siege of three months; but on his retirement, the enemy again returned. When Col. Gage once more approached to relieve it in November of the same year, they took to flight. The besiegers returned: Cromwell stormed the place in 1646, and put the garrison to the sword. Basket-making, or Wickee-woek. — The ancient Britons, from whom the Romans are said to have learned it, excelled in this kind of manufacture. Their boats, shields, and various implements were fashioned of wicker- work. Herodotus (i. 194) mentions boats of this kind on the Euphrates. A company of basket-makers once existed in London. Baslabd. — Sir W. Walworth wounded Wat Tyler in the neck with a baslard or basiliarde, a species of dagger, worn at that -time sus- pended from the girdle. By 12 Rich. II., c. 6 (1388), no servant or labourer was allowed to carry one of these weapons. This statute was repealed by 21 James I. c. 28 (1623). Wright states that in 1403, it was decreed that no person not in receipt of an income of £20 per annum should use a baslard orna- mented with silver. Basque Pkovinces. — Three provinces oi Spain — Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, o( which the origin is unknown. The inJiabitanti. preserved their independence against suc» cessive invasions of Romans and Goths, but were at length subdued by the latter about A.B. 585. Guipuzcoa and Alava were united to CastUe in the 13th century, and Biscay was annexed to Castile by Peter the Cruel in the 14th. Basque Roads (Sea-fight). — On the 11th of April, Captain Lord Cochrane, afterwards earl of Dundonald, in the Jmperieuse, with explosion-vessels, fire-ships, gunboats, &c., sailed from Basque Roads to attack the French fleet at anchor under the shelter of the batteries in Aix Roads. A boom, half a mile in length and composed of the thickest cables, floated by buoys, had been moored a few yards in front of the line of French fri- gates. An explosion vessel, fired by Lord Cochrane, broke through the boom, and such was the terror caused amongst the French fleet that the cables were cut and the ships drifted on shore. Lord Cochrane in the morning of the 12th signalled to Admiral Lord Gambler to send half the fleet to destroy the French ships, several of which were aground. This, however, Lord Gambler refused to do, and a large portion of the French fleet, by dint of great exertions, managed to escape. At St. Helena Napo- leon I. admitted, that if Lord Cochrane had been properly supported, aU the French ships must have been captured or destroyed. Bassano (Battles). — During the French revolutionary war, the Austrian general Wurmser was defeated at this town in Lom- bardy, Sep. 8, 1796, by the French republican army under Massena and Angereau. Bassano was restored to Austria, by the treaty of Campo-Formio, in 1797 ; but in the Itahan campaign of 1813 Eugene Beauharnaia wrested it from the Austrians. BASSEiif (Treaty), between the Peishwa and the East-India Company, was concluded at this place, in Hindostan, Dec. 31, 1802, and ratifications were exchanged, March 18, 1803. It was an alliance offensive and defensive be- tween the contracting parties, and in return for certain concessions the English engaged to support the rights of the Mahratta chief- tain. Basset. — ^This game at cards, said to have been invented by a noble Venetian in the 15th century, was introduced into France in 1674. The courtiers of James II. are, in an account dated Feb. 6, 1685, represented as playing at basset on the day of his proclamation. It was played at the court of Louis XIV., until that monarch lost a large sum by means of false cards ; whereupon he ordered that per- sons found playing basset should be fined 1,000 livres. Bassetekee (Sea Fight). — Count de Grasse made three attacks upon the British fleet, 103 BAS anchored in Basseterre Eoads, St. Christo- pher's, on the 26th of January, 1782, and "was, on each occasion, repulsed with great loss. Bassoeah, or Bttsea (Asiatic Turkey). — This city was founded by Omar a.d. 636, and captured during the revolt against Ah, by Telha and Zobeir, accompanied by Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, in 658. The rebels were, however, defeated under its walls in the same year. The Saracen rule terminated by its conquest by the Turks in 701. Though it became aflourishing place it was abandoned, some writers allege, because the canal onwhich it was built had fallen into neglect ; and the modern Bassorah, eight miles to the north- east of the ancient site, was estabhshed. The Turks made themselves masters of Bassorah in 1668 ; but it was wrested from them by the Persians April 16, 1776, after a siege of twelve months. It was recovered by the Turks in 1778, and is knovra under the name of Bus- sorah and Basra. Bass Eock (Frith of Forth). — This small island is first mentioned in history as affording a retreat for St. Baldred, a Scottish enthusiast, who died here March 6, 606 A.D. It was granted to the Lauder family by charter, dated June 4, 1316. A castle existed on this island in the 15th century, if not before. James VI. of Scot- land visited the Bass Eock in 1581, and the EngUsh government purchased it for a state prison in October, 1671. Having surrendered to the new government in 1690, some adherents of James I. regaiaed pos- session the same year, and they held it, plundering all vessels that came near, until April, 1694. It was the last place in Scotland that held out for James II. The fortifications were finally destroyed in 1701, by order of William III. To the Dalrjnnple family, in whose possession it has since remained, it was ceded by charter, July 31, 1706, ratified by parliament in March, 1707. Several of the Covenanters were imprisoned in this island. Bass's Strait (Pacific). — This channel, separating Van Diemen's Land from Aus- traHa, is named after Mr. Bass, surgeon of the ship Reliance, who, accompamed by FHnders, in 1798, circunmavigated Van Die- men's Land, long beheved to form part of Australia,' Bastia, was the capital of Corsica until that island was annexed to France in 1768. The town and its citadel were captured by the EngUsh in 1745, and again May 22, 1794. Bastille. — There were three lastOles or state-prisons, namely those of the Temple, St. Denis, and the Eue St. Antoine, at Paris. On the ground occupied by the last-men- tioned, a kind of fortress, which was strength- ened in 1356, had long before existed. The place generally known as the Bastille was commenced by order of Charles V., and the first stone was laid April 22, 1369. It was not completed until 1383, and was afterwards improved and strengthened in such a manner that it became one of the strongest fortresses 10^ BAT of the kind in Europe. It was taken in 1418, in 1594, and Jan. 13, 1649, by the Fronde army. The mob attacked it July 14, 1789, released the prisoners, put the governor to death, committed great havoc, and soon after the order was given for its demohtion. This was the commencement of the French Eevo- lution. Batalha (Portugal). — John I. built a convent at this place in commemoration of his victory over John I. of Castile, at Aljuba- rota in August, 1835. Batavia, an island in the Ehine, occupied in the time of C^sar, B.C. 55, by a German tribe, called the Batavi. Claudius Civilis, a Batavian chieftain, rose in arms against the Eomans a. d. 69, and after a fierce struggle, in which he gained many victories, was at last defeated. Zosimus, who was the first to caU the island Batavia, states that in thetimeof Constantius, about360, it belonged to the Franks. {See Holland.) Batavia (Java) . — A factory was estabhshed by the Dutch at the village of Jacatra in 1612, and upon its site the town of Batavia was founded in 1619. The new settlement be- came the seat of the government of their East-Indian colonies. The French obtained possession in 1811, and were expelled by the EngUsh Aug. 8 in the same year. It was restored to the Dutch by a convention signed in August, 1814. Batavian Ekpitblic. — ^In 1795 the French repubUcans invaded the Netherlands, and subverted the then existing government. The seven united provinces formed with France an offensive and defensive alUance against England, May 15, 1795. The constitution for the Batavian repubUc was promulgated Sept. 14, 1801. This new repubUc was gua- ranteed by the treaty of LimevUle in the same year. Other changes were made, and at last the Batavian repubUc was annexed to France, and named the kingdom of Holland, June 5, 1806. Bath (Order of ) .—Knights of the Bath were thus named from the ceremony of bathing, performed the night before their creation, and Sir Harris Nicolas mentions two cases of knights created in this manner during the reign of King John, the first in 1204 and the second in 1205. The order is supposed to have existed at a much earUer period. It is first noticed under the name of fhe Bath, March 17, 1400, when Henry IV., at his coronation, created forty-six knights. The practice was continued at the coronation of our sovereigns, but after that of Charles II., ia 1661, feU iato neglect, until it was revived by George I., May 18, 1725. The order was re-organized and extended Jan. 2, 1815, and April 14, 1847, the number of knights ia the existing classes was increased, whilst civil knights, commanders, and companions were added. Bath (Somersetshire). — The first colony of the Eomans in England is supposed to have been fixed at Camalodunum, near this city. B.C. 46. Thence they transferred their quar- ters to Bath, about B.C. 44. The Eomaaa BAT BAT improved the place with many noble buildings. Its hot springs are mentioned by their wri- ters. Bath suffered during the struggles between the Saxons and the Britons, and was seized and plundered by the Danes. Kichard I. f ranted the town a charter, which was con- rmed by Henry III. Edgar was crowned at Bath by Dunstan, a.d. 973. The hospital of St. John was founded in 1180 ; the abbey church was completed in 1609, and the town- hall in 1780. Sydney Gardens were opened in 1795, and Victoria Park in 1830. Bath and Wells. — The bishopric of WeUs was founded A. D. 909, and that of Bathinl078. William II. removed the see of WeUs to Bath, by charter, Jan. 25, 1092. This gave rise to a dispute between the canons of WeUs and the monks of Bath, and it was not ter- minated until about 1139, when, with the pope's consent, it was determined that the bishops should be called bishops of Bath and Wells ; that the election should be made by the canons of Wells and the monks of Bath conjointly; that the event of the election should be pronounced by the dean of WeUs, and that the bishop should be enthroned in both cathedrals. The episcopal residence is now at WeUs. Baths are mentioned in the Old Testament, and Homer speaks of the baths in the houses of the Grreeks. Hot baths were also used in ancient times, and Homer commends the warm fountains of the Scamander, though he attributes to them the effeminacy of the Phsea- cians. They were not common at Rome until the 1st century of the Christian sera. Augustus constructed public baths in every part of the capital. The baths of Antoninus CaracaUa, in the 2nd century, contained above 1,600 marble seats, and those of Diocletian, in the 4th cen- tury, about 3,000. Gibbon says (ch. xxxi), •' The meanest Eoman could purchase, with a emaU copper coin, the daily enjoyment of a scene ot pomp and lux\iry which might excite the envy of the kings of Asia." Baths and Wash-houses. — These useful establishments are of humble origin. During the prevalence of the cholera at Liverpool, in 1832, a poor woman, Uving in a back street in that town, knowing from experience the misery and sickness consequent upon dirt, offered her neighbours the opportunity of washing at a copper which she was fortunate enough to possess. Her dweUing was soon crowded ; benevolent ladies rendered assist- ance, and eighty -live families used this humble wash-house at a charge of one penny per week. The idea was soon taken up, and a small estabhshment was opened in Frederick Street, Liverpool, in 1842. In September, 1844, a meeting was held at the Mansion House, and a subscription raised, with the view of introducing them in London ; and while the first was in course of erection, an act ofparliament was passed to encourage the es- tabhshment of pubUc baths and wash-houses (9 & 10 Vict. c. 74), Aug. 26, 1846. Another act, relating to the establishment of similar places in Ireland (9 & 10 Vict. c. 87), received the royal assent the same day. Temporary establishments had been provided as early as 1844, and these were speedily followed by buildings erected for the purpose, affording every accommodation both for purposes of washing and bathing. Bathubst (N. S. Wales). — Gold was dis- covered at Ophir, nt^ar Bathurst, Feb. 12, 1851. The governor issued a proclamation on the 22nd of May, claiming the gold, but allowing persons to search or dig, on taking a license at 30s. per month. By the month of June 20,000 persons had arrived at the new diggings. B ATNE AB (Hindostan) . — The former capital of the Batnears or Battles of Hhidostan was taken by Tamerlane in 1398, and by the rajah of Beykaneer in 1805. Batteeins - BAM. — This machine, em- ployed for making a breach in the waUs of besieged cities, is mentioned in the Old Testament, and was used by the Greeks and Romans. Battering-rams were often of great length, the beam of wood having at the end the head of a ram, made of brass or iron. They were used e xtensively in the Middle Ages, and Sir Christopher Wren found them of great service in throwing down old waUs and disjointing stones. Battebsea Paek.— By 9 & 10 Vict. c. 38 (1846), the Commissioners of Woods, &c., were empowered to form a royal park in Battersea Fields. Additional powers were granted to them by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 102 (1848) ; by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 7, 1851) ; and by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 47 (1853). The park was opened in 1858, and the suspension- bridge across the Thames, leading to it, March 28, 1858. Battin (Battle). — The Russians defeated the Turks in a sanguinary attack upon their camp, near this place, Oct. 14, 1811. Battle Abbet (Sussex) was founded by WiUiam I., in 1067, on the spot near which the battle of Hastings was fought. It was dedicated to St. Martin, "in order that glory might be offered up to God for his •victory, and that offices for the souls of the dead might be there perpetuaUy performed." It was endowed with peculiar privileges and exempted from episcopal rule and juris- diction. The abbot was mitred and sat in parHament. Battle-axe. — Herodotus speaks of the battle-axes of the Scythians in Xerxes' army. The Teutonic tribes introduced the modern battle-axe into Europe, audit was afterwards so common amongst the Franks, that it was caUed francisca. They gained great cele- brity for dexterity in using it, on their invasion of Italy in the 6th century. The battle-axe was known in England at a very early period, and the assertion that it was intro- duced by the Danes is erroneous. Fragments of this weapon have been found in Druidical remains of a period antecedent to their arrival. Hoveden celebrates the might dis- played by King Stephen at the battle of Lincoln, in 1141 : — " Equal to a thunderbolt, slaying some with his inmiense battle-axe, and striking down others." It was borne, 105 BAT as a royal weapon, at the funeral of Henry VII., and offered up at the altar with the helmet, gauntlet, and crest. Battle-dooe. — This game was known in England in the 14th century, and was a fashionable pastime, even among adults, in the reign of James I. In a comedy called " The Two Maids of Moreclacke," printed in 1609, the expression occurs, — "To play at shuttle-cock methinks is the game now." BATTLEriELD (Battle). — Fought on a plain, that has since been called Battlefield, about two miles from Shrewsbury, Saturday, July 21, 1403. It occurred during the Percy insurrection against Henry IV. ; there the fiery Hotspur ieU, and Henry V. (then prince of Wales) distinguished himself. In this action Falstaff' is represented by Shakespeare as having led his ragamuffins where they were well peppered, only three out of has 150 ha\ang been left alive. Faktaff himself was found by the prince of Wales lying on the ground, and he declared that with a for- midable adversary, he had "fought a long hour by Shrewsbury clock." It was also caUed the battle of Shrewsbury, and some- times of Hartlefleld. Battle Eoll. — On the day following the battle of Hastings, WOliam I. called over, from the roll drawn up at St. Valery, the names of those chieftains who had accom- panied him. The number amounted to 629, and amongst them a large portion of the English territory was divided. Battles. — The most important battles recorded in history, whether by sea or land, are described under their appropriate titles, and an alphabetically arranged list appears in the Index. Batts (Parliament of), assembled at Leicester, Monday, Feb. 18, 1426, and was called the Parliament of Batts, because, arms having beenforbidden, servants and adherents followed the members with bats or clubs on their shoulders. Bauge (Battle). (See Asjov.) Bautzen- (Battle). — I^apoleon I. at the head of 100,000 men, supported by a nimie- rous artillery, attacked an allied Prussian and Eussian army, much inferior to his own in point of numbers, near Bautzen, Saxony, May 21 and 22, 1813. The French loss was very great ; but they compelled their opponents to retire, which they did in good order, presenting a bold front to their assailants. Bavaeia. — This country, occupied by the Boii, a Celtic tribe, was annexed to the Roman empire as part of JSTorieum and Vindelicia, B.C. 15. It subsequently fell into the power of the Ostrogoths and the Franks ; and was conquered by Charlemagne, who annexed it to his empire in 788. After his death it was governed by one of his grandsons, under the title of margrave, or lord of the marches. AD. 895. Formed into a dukedom. 1070. PHSsesi. by imperijil grant, into the possession of the Guelphs. 106 BAV 1180. The emperor Frederick I. bestows Bavaria on Otho of Wittelsbach. 1231. Otho II. becomes duke of Bavaria, uniting to Bavaria the Palatinate of the Rhine. 1294. Sei>aration of the Palatinate from Bavaria. 1648. The treaty of Westphalia restores the Pala- tinate, and constitutes Bavaria the eighth electorate. 1702. FoiTiis an alliance with France to oppose Austria. 1704. Aug. 13. Battle of Blenheim, in which Marl- borough and Prince Eugene defeat the united forces of Fi-aiice and Bavaia. 1714 Sept. 7. The treaty of Baden reinstates the elector in his dominions. 1740, The elector, Charles Albert, aspires to the imperial crown, and invades Austria in furtherance of his views. 1744. Maria Theresa defeats the Bavarians, and seizes the electorate, which was soon after restored. 1778. Death of the elector Maximilian Joseph. with whom the younger line of the house of V/ittelsba'-h bee .mes extinct. 1779. Treaty of Teschen, which recognizes Charles Theodore as elector of Bavaria, and cedes the district of thf Inn to Austria. 1798. A French army, under Moreau, occupies Munich, and forces Bavaria to conclude a treaty with France. 1801. Feb. 9. Treaty of LuneviUe, by which Bavaria cedes all her posse-ssiuns on the left bank of the Ehine, and receives, as an indemnifi- cation, territory of greater extent. 1805. Dec. 26. By the treaty of Fresburg, Napoleon confers the title of " King " on the elector of Bavaria, together with extensive addi- tions of territory. 1813. Bavaria joins the allies against Napoleon, and in the two following years has the additions to her territories confirmed to her by defi- nitive treaties. 1818. Mav 26. The king grants a constitutional charter. 1848. March 21. Louis, king of Bavaria, abdicates in favour of Maximilian II., the reigning monarch. 1850. Feb. 27. Conventionsigned at Munich, between Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtembuj-g, relative to the revision of the German constitu- tion. SOVEEEIGITS OF BATAEIA. KAKGBAVES. A.D. 805. Charles IL Pepin I. 811. Bernard I. 817. Louis, XL A.o. 895. Leopold I. 907. Amulph the Bad. 937. Eberhard. L 939. Berthold. 942 Henry I. 9.5.5. Henry IL 995. Henry III., em- peror in 1002. 1004. Henry IV. 1025. Henry V. 1047. Conrad L 1052. Henry VL 1054 Conrad II. 1056. Agnes, Duchess. 1061. Otho. 1071. Guelph L 1101. Guelph IL lieo. Henry VII. 1126. Heuiy VIIL A.D. 876. Carloman 1. 880. Louis IIL 882. Charles the Fat. 888. Amulph L I 1138. Leopold rr. of Au- 1142. HeniyrX. [stria. 1154 Henry X. 1180. Otho I. the Great. 1183. Louis L a 1231. Otho IL 1253. Louis IL 1294 Louis m., emperor in 1314 1347. Stephen. 1375. John I. 1397. Ernest. 1438. Albert L 1460. John IL and Sigis- mund. 1465. Albert IL 1508. WLLUam L 1550. AlVrt in. 1579. William IL BAY ELECTORS. A.D. 1596. Maximilian I. made elector 1623; confirmed in title 1648. 1651. Ferdinand Maria. Iii79. Maximilian Emanuel. 1726. Charles Albert, emperor in 1742. 1745. Maximilian Joseph I. 1778. Charles Theodore. 1799. Maximilian Joseph II., created king 1805. 180.5. Maximilian Joseph I. 1825. Louis Charles. 1848. Maximilian Joseph IL Bayazid (Battle). — The Eussians, 8,000 strong, defeated a Turkish army of 5,000 men at this place, in Armenia, July 29, 1854. Bateux (Normandy) was burnt to the ground by Henry I. in August, 1105; on which occasion its magnificent cathedral was much injured. Bayeux sujffered greatly in the wars between England and France. It capitulated to Charles VII. ia 1449. The bishopric was founded in the 4th century. Bayeitx Tapestet. — This celebrated roll of linen cloth or canvass, 214 feet in length, and 20 inches wide, contains, in seventy-two distinct compartments, a representation, in embroidery, of the events of the Norman invasion, from Harold's leave-taking of Edward the Confessor, on his departure for Normandy, to the battle of Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is supposed to have been worked by Matilda, wife of William I., and was by her presented to the cathedral of Bayeux. Montfaucon caused researches to be made that ended in the discovery of the tapestry in Bayeux Cathedral in 1728; and Napo- leon I. had it conveyed to Paris in 1803, where it was kept some time, and exhibited. It has been engraved, and several works upon the subject have been pubhshed. Bruce (Bayeux Tapestry elucidated) says it contains figures of " 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 animals of various kinds not hitherto enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships and boats, and 49 trees, — in aU 1,512 figures." Bat Islands. — This cluster, in the Bay of Honduras, was made an English colony in 1852. By a treaty in 1860, Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands to the republic of Honduras. Bat op Islands (Pacific), at the northern extremity of New Ulster, one of the New Zealand Isles, became the seat of a whaling- station in the 18th century. Batlen (Battle), — In 1808, Dumont's army was shut up in Baylen, where a battle was fought with the Spaniards, July 20. It terminated in the complete discorofiture of the French, 20,000 strong, who surrendered at discretion. Batonet. — Military instructions issued to the French army in 1646 and 1647 contain the earliest notice of this weapon: In 1671 they were introduced generally into the French army. From official documents it appears that in 1682 the bayonet was inserted into the barrel of the musket. The plug- BAZ bayonet was used in England until 1690, after which date the socket-bayonet was introduced. It superseded the pike; and was doubtless taken from the sweynes- feather, or swine's feather, called also swan's feather, invented during the reign of James I. This was a long thin rapier- blade, which the musketeer, after discharging his piece, fixed into the muzzle. The bayonet is said to have received its name from Bayonne, where it was invented. Batonne (France). — This ancient town was made a bishopric towards the end of the 4th century. Its cathedral was erected in the 13th century. It was taken by the Enghsh, Jan. 1, 1295, during the invasion of France by Edward I. The bayonet is said to have been invented at this place, from which its name is derived. Charles IV. resigned his crown to Napoleon, at the castle of Marac, near Bayonne, in 1808. Several encounters between the French and English took place near Bayonne, Dec. 9, 10, 11, and 13, 1813, in which the Enghsh were victorious, and the place was invested by them Feb. 24, 1814. The French were re- pulsed in a desperate sally, April 14th. This action was fought after peace had been concluded. The castle of Marac was de- stroyed by fire in 1825. Batonne Coneekence was held in June, 1565, between Charles IX., the queen mother, Catherine of Medici, Ehzabeth, queen of Spain, and the duke of Alva, envoy of Phihp II., to arrange plans for the repres- sion of the Huguenots. It is generally beheved that the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day was determined upon at this meeting. Batonne (Treaty). — Agreed to May 4, 1808, and signed May 5, between Napoleon I. and Ferdinand, king of Spain. The latter resigned his kingdom, and Napoleon engaged to maintain its integrity, and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion. Batkeuth (Germany). — This principaMty was ceded to Prussia in 1791 ; and its annexa- tion was agreed to by a treaty between France and Prussia, Dec. 15, 1805. France acquired it by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807 ; but it was transferred to Bohemia in 1810. Its capital, of the same name, is a place of some importance. The church of St. Mary Mag- dalen was built in 1446, and the gymnasium in 1664. Baza (Spain). — Thisstronghold of Granada was wrested from the Moors, after a siege of six months' duration, by Ferdinand and Isabella, in November, 1489. The Spanish sovereigns made their triumphal entrance into the city, Dec. 4, 1489. Bazaar. — This term is applied in Eastern countries to a large square or street ap- propriated to purposes of trade. The bazaar of Tauris is the most extensive in the world, and that of Khan Khaliel, at Cairo, which occupies the site of the tombs of the caliphs, contains some valuable records. It j was buUt in 1292. The bazaar at Ispahan I is, perhaps, the most magnificent of any. 107 BEA Adrianople and Constantinople have large bazaars. The last-mentioned was built in 1462. Beachet Head (Sea Kght). — A French fleet, consisting of 78 sMps of war and 22 fire-ships, defeated the combined Dutch and English squadrons, amounting to 56 sail, off Beachey Head, June 30, 1690. The French obtained the command of the Chan- nel, and great consternation was created throughout England, particularly in the metropohs. Wilham III. was incensed against the earl of Torrington, commander of the combiaed squadrons, who, being tried by court-martial, was honourably acquitted. Beacons, or Signal-Fiees, are referred to by Jeremiah (vi. 1), and were used by the Greeks and Eomans. The intelligence of the capture of Troy is represented by ^schylus as having been conveyed to the Peloponnesus by signals of this kind. Coke says: — "Before the reign of Edward III. they were but stacks of wood set up on high places, which were fired when the coming of enemies was descried ; but in his reign pitch-boxes, as now they be, were, instead of these stacks, set up ; and this properly is a beacon." By 8 Eliz. c. 13 (1566), the cor- poration of the Trinity House were em- powered to set up beacons, or sea-marks, in ail places where they deemed them necessary, and the penalty for destroying them was the fine of £100, and, in case of inability to pay, outlawry. They were some- times erected on the towers of churches. The eastern beacon nearest London was on Shooters' HiU; and that in Middlesex, on Hampstead Hill, as was represented in HoUar's View of London in 1666. The erection of beacons is a branch of the royal prerogative. BEADEH--HEAD (Battle). — The kings of Wessex and Mercia fought an indecisive battle at this place, supposed to be Great Bedwyn, in WUtshire, a.d. 675. Beads, made of various materials, were used as ornaments amongst ancient nations, and have been frequently found in bar- rows, more particularly in those of the Druids, in different parts of England. They were used for devotional purposes by the Chinese, Hindoos, and Egyptians ; and Au- gustine, in the 4th century, is said to have introduced the practice among the Chris- tians. According to the 10th of the canons of Cealcythe, passed in 816, seven belts of paternosters were to be said for the repose of a bishop. About the year 1200, St. Dominic introduced the rosary, which contains for every ten lesser beads, representing aves, one larger bead, or paternoster, amounting alto- gether to 150 smaller and 15 larger beads. It was afterwards neglected, but again brought into use about 1460. Beandune (Battle). — CynegUs, king of Wessex, defeated the Britons at this place, supposed to be Bampton, in Oxfordshire, though some authorities are in favour of Bampton, in Devonshire, in 614. More than 2,000 of the Britons fell in the action. 108 BEA Bear. — This military order was instituted at St. GaU, in Switzerland, by the emperor Frederick II., in 1213, St. Ursus being the patron. It was abohshed when Switzerland threw off the Austrian yoke. Beak-baiting. — This cruel pastime was very popular in England during the Middle Ages, and frequently took place on a Sunday, after service. In Pitzstepheu's description of London, — and he wrote in the time of Henry II., bear-baiting is enumerated amongst the sports of the citizens; and Stow speaks of the bear-gardens as being much frequented in his day. The act against cruelty to animals (5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 59), Sept. 9, 1835, inflicts upon persons keeping bear-pits a fine not exceeding £5 nor less than 10s. per day; and the 47th clause of the act for improving the police in and near the metropolis (Aug. 17, 1839) gives them the power of entering such places. Beard is first noticed in Lev. xix. 27 : "Thou shalt not mar the corners of thy beard." It was held in veneration amongst ancient nations, who regarded it as an emblem of wisdom, and a symbol of authority. So ne classes of the IsraeUtes wore long beards (2 Sam. X.). The flowing beards and ma- jestic mien of the Roman senators awed the Goths on their invasion of Italy, B.C. 390. The fashion of the beard has varied greatly at different periods. The Saxons wore forked beards. Owen, bishop of Evreux, allowed his beard to grow, as a sign of mourning. Taylor, the water poet, dwells on the great variety of beards in his day. The beard diminished in size and gradually went out of fashion in England after the reign of Charles I. The fashion has, however, of late years revived. Beaulieu Abbey (Hants), was foimded by King John for Cistercian monks, in 1204. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., took sanctuary here after the battle of Barnet in 1471, and Richard, duke of York,* after his failure upon Exeter, also sought sanctuary in this monastery, Sept. 21, 1497. Beauvais (France). — The Caesaromagus, or Bratuspantium of the Romans, was taken by Caesar B.C. 57. It received the name of Bellovacum in the time of Constantine. ChU- peric obtained possession a.d. 471, and after undergoing various vicissitudes, it resisted an attack by the EngUsh, June 7, 1433. Charles, duke of Burgundy, laid siege to it, Saturday, June 27, 1472, and aft^ making the most extraordinary efforts, was compelled to retire, Wednesday, July 22, in the same year. The women, called the heroines of Beauvais, distinguished themselves during the siege. Jeanne Laine, battle-axe in hand, carried off a Burgundian standard, for which she was called Jeanne Haehette ; and in honour of this deed of daring, a procession, headed by girls carrying her banner, takes place * The statement that he was an impostor named Perkin Warbeck, son of a Jew of Toumay, though generally received, does not rest upon good authority. BEA in her native town every October. The bishopric of Beauvais was erected iu the 3rd century. Beaver Dam (N. America). — Atthis place, near Queenstown, Captain Kerr, vdth a force not amounting to 200 men, captured a detach- ment of 500 men belonging to the army of the United States, June 24, 1813. Becancelde, or Baccancelde. — ^A coun- cil summoned by Withred, king of Kent, was held at this place in 694, to consult respecting the bettering of God's church in that part of England. Abbesses took part in its deUberations, and five subscribed the constitutions in the form of a charter, drawn up on the occasion. Beckenham, in Kent, is generally supposed to be the place at which this early synod was held. Beckascog- (Treaty), renewing the conven- tion of Helsinborg, dated Aug. 31, 1805, was concluded between Great Britain and Swe- den, at Beckascog, Octobfer 3, 1805. Sweden agreed to send 12,000 troops into Pomerania to co-operate with the Eussians against France, for which England was to furnish an annual subsidy, at the rate of £12. 10s. each man; and to pay for preliminary expenses the subsidy calculated at that rate for five months, on the ratification of the treaty. It consisted of ten articles, and by the ninth, England agreed to furnish an additional £50,000 sterhng, for the purpose of improving the defences of Stralsund. Bedee (Battle). — This battle, won by Mohammed over the Koreish of Mecca, was fought between that town and Medina, a.d. 623. It was the first struggle after the flight from Mecca, and was represented, from the great disparity in numbers, as having been gained by miraculous agency. Bedpoed. — The Saxon " Bedcanford," " the lodging at the ford," so called from its situation at an ancient ford of the Ouse. The West Saxons and the Britons fought a battle here in 572. The town, nearly destroyed by the Danes in 1010, was restored by Edward the Elder. Stephen took the castle in 1137, during his war against Matilda. King John captured it in 1216. It was frequently besieged. John Bunyan preached in a chapel here from 1671 to 1688 ; and in its gaol, on the site of which a new one has been erected, wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress." The bridge was rebuilt in 1811. Bedkoee (Hindostan). — This place, made in 1645 the seat of the rajahs of Ikeri, was captured, with a large amount of plunder, by Hyder Ali in 1763. Though he ordered the name to be changed to Hydernagur, it still retains its former appellation. It was taken by General Matthews in January, 1783, and was retaken by Tippoo Saib, April 18, in the same year. In 1833 it came into the pos- session of the East-India Company. Bed op Justice, the seat or throne on which the sovereign sat in the parliament of France. As the authority of the parliainent ceased when the king was present, a bed of justice came to signify a session of the king m parhament. The last bed of justice was BEG assembled at Versailles, Nov. 19, 1787, by order of Louis XVI. Bedeiacum, or Bebbiacttm (Battles).— The first, between the generals of Marcus Otho and Aulus ViteUius, rivals for the im- perial sceptre, was fought in April, a.d. 69, when the former sufiered a defeat, and Marcus Otho committed suicide on the 15th or 16th of April. The second was fought the same year between the generals of ViteUius and Vespasian, the latter being victorious. Bedriacum lay between Verona and Cremona, but its exact position has not been ascer- tained. Beds, — The earliest practice amongst ancient nations was to sleep upon the skins of beasts. Among the Israehtes an ordinary couch, with light coverings, served the pur- pose of a bed. At a later period ivory bed- steads were used by the wealthy (Amos vi. 4) . They were sometimes decked vnth rich hangings, and sprinkled with perfumes (Prov. vii. 16 & 17). The Greeks did not make use of pillows until about B.C. 850. Towards the end of the Eoman republic, and under the empire, when simplicity of living had given place to Asiatic luxury, the beds of the opulent classes were most costly and magnificent. Straw is said to have been used in the royal chambers in England in the 13th century. The great bed of Ware, to which Shakspeare alludes in "Twelfth Night" — "Although the sheet were big enough for the bed of Ware in England" (act iii. sc. 2) — is stOl in existence, and will hold twelve persons. Bee (Order of), was instituted at Sceaux, by Louise of Bourbon, vnfe of Louis Augus- tus of Bourbon, duke of Maine, June 4, 1703. It was intended for women as well as men. Beee-steak Club was established in the reign of Queen Anne, and is described in Ward's "Secret History of Clubs" (1709). Estcourt, the actor, who died in 1712, was its first president. The club was frequently noticed in contemporary hterature, and appears to have been famous for the jovial character of its meetings. A club under the same name was estabUshed at the Theatre Eoyal, Dubhn, in 1749. Bees, St. (Cumberland). — This ancient town derives its name from Bega, an Irish saint, who is said to have formed a small monastery here a.d. 650. It was destroyed by the Danes, and restored in the reign of Hen. I., about 1120, being intended for Benedictine monks. Archbishop GrindaU, who died a.d. 1583, founded the grammar- school. The founder's statutes were after- wards confirmed, and the governors incor- porated in 1585. The college was estabhshed in 1817. Beggaes have in all ages and amongst most nations of which any record remains, practised various arts in order to enlist the sympathies of the benevolent. Severe enact- ments have, from time to time, been passed against them. By 12 Eich. II. e. 7 (1388), beggars able to work were ordered to be punished, and a provision was made for the 109 BEG impotent. Various enactments followed. By 22 Hen. _VIII._ c. 12 (1530), justices of the peace might issue licences to poor and impotent persons to beg within a certain precinct ; they were punished if they went beyond the limits, while vagabonds found begging were to be whipped and compelled to labour ; and by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1535), persons giving alms to beggars were to forfeit ten times the value. All former acts were repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1547), and new regulations made. These, however, were abandoned, and the act 22 Hen. VIII. c. 12 revived by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 16 (1549-50). Byl4Eliz. c. 5 (1572) vagabonds above the age of 14 were to be grievously 1 whipped and biirnt through the gristle of | the right ear with a hot iron. A second ; offence was punished more severely, and for the third they were to suffer death. This | statute was repealed by 35 Ehz. c. 7, s. 24 I (1593), and fresh regulations were made by I 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597). All the statutes relating | to rogues, vagabonds, sturdy beggars, &c., were reduced into one law by 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 23 (1713), which was explained and amended by 10 G-eo. II. c. 28 (1737) ; and enforced by 13 Geo. II. c. 24 (1740). It was repealed by 17 Geo. II. c. 5 (1744), which made fresh provisions. The act 5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (June 21, 1824), repeals aU former acts, and lays down other regula- j tions. Beggar's Opeea was written by John Gay, and produced at the theatre in Lincoln' s- Inn Fields, ha\ing been refused bv CoUey Gibber for Drury Lane, Jan. 29, 1728. It ran for sixty-two nights, thirty-two being in succession ; and Gay received £693. 13«. 6d., and afterwards sold the copyright of the opera, with some fables in verse, for £94. 10s. Miss Fenton, the original " Polly Peachum," retired from the stage, and became duchess of Bolton during the run of the piece. Mahon (Hist, of Eng. ii. ch. 18) attributes it to the resentment of Gay against the Queen, who had offered him the appoint- ment of gentleman usher to one of the princesses, a child of about two years of age. The post was an easy one, and the salary £200 per annum. Gay was induced not only to refuse this offer of "an honourable sinecure," but to resent it as an insult. " Soon afterwards," says Lord Mahon, "he joined the opposition, and declared his quarrel by the production of the 'Beggar's Opera,' teeming with satirical strokes against the court and government. The name of 'Bob Booty,' for example, always raised a laugh, being vmderstood as levelled at Sir Eobert TV'alpole. The first idea of the play seems to have sprung from a suggestion of Swift (Spence's Anecdotes, p. 159), but the praise of its execution belongs entirely to Gay." Beghaebs, Beguaeds, or BEGTJiifES, is a term applied to several reh'gious orders, as well as heretics, during the Middle Ages. It was probably first used to describe those half monks of the third order of St. Francis, 110 BEJ who arose in the 11th century. They must not be confounded with later sectaries, a branch of the FraticeUi, condemned by the Fifteenth General Council, thut of Vienne, in 1311 and 1312. This mistake was so often made at the time that Pope Jolm XXII., by a decretal of 1322, declared the last-men- tioned to be execrable impostors, and in no way connected with the Begliards of the third order of St. Francis. Mosheim shows that the name is derived from the old German word heggen or beggeren, to beg, with the word hard subjoined ; and that it signified to beg earnestly and heartUy ; and he accounts by this derivnCion for the indiscriminate manner in which it was applied to so many orders and sects. The subject is involved in almost inextricable confusion, as the student or inquirer will discover if he attempts to reconcile the conflicting accounts of different authorities. Beguines, or Begtjttje, praying ladies, as Mosheim calls them, arose in the Nether- lands, and spread through France and Germany during the 12th and 13th centuries. They were pious women, virgins or widows, who formed themselves into societies, xmder the direction of a superior of their own sex. The first estabhshment of which any record remains, was at NiveUe, in Brabant, foimded according to some authorities in 1207, and according to others in 1226. They soon became so numerous that Matthew Paris speaks of 2,000 Beguines in Cologne and its neighbourhood about the year 1243. The example set by the ladies was soon followed by the men, and a society of Beghards, consisting of both bachelors and widowers, was formed at Antwerp in 1228. They were known under various appellations in different parts of the Continent, where, although they spread rapidly, they never became so nume- rous as the Beguines. As a natural conse- quence, the Beghards and Beguines became infected with heretical opinions and declined from the simple rule of Mfe observed in the earlier days of their organization. The popes tolerated and sometimes interfered to pro- tect them from their numerous enemies; but they suffered persecution and gradually diminished in numbers, although a few remain to this day in parts of Belgium, Holland, and Germany. Behmus Heights (Battle). — During the American revolutionary war. Gen. Burgoyne defeated the Americans at Behmus Heights, on the Hudson, Sept. 19, 1777. Behking's Sthaix, connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Arctic Sea, was discovered by Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the Eus- sian service, in 1728. Captain Cook surveyed it in 1788. On an island in the N. Pacific, named after him, Behring was wrecked Nov. 3, 1741, where he died of exhaustion Dec. 8, in the same year. Beja (Portugal), the ancient Pax Julia, was captured by the Moors in 1145, and retaken by Sancho, king of Portugal, in 1189. The see is known to have been in existence in the 6th century, as Aprigius was bishop BEJ in 540. The see was suppressed in 1647, and restored in 1770. Bejapoee (E. Indies). — This town was formerly the capital of an independent Mussulman state of the same name. Its founder, Yusuf, built the citadel in 1489. In 1566 the walls were completed by All Adil Shah, who died in 1579. Aurungzebe took Bejapore in 1686, and annexed it to Delhi, from which it was separated by the Nizam, in 1724, and ceded to the Mahrattas in 1760. In 1818 Bejapore passed into the hands of the British, who assigned it to the rajah of Sattara. Belchite (Battle). — The Spaniards under General Bake were assailed here by the French, commanded by Suchet, June 16, 17, and 18, 1809, and on the last-mentioned day the Spanish army took to flight without firing a shot. Belfast (Ireland). — The earliest mention of Belfast occurs m 1315, when Edward Bruce, on the inyitation of the native Irish, landed at Carrickfergus, and wasted Belfast and other towns. In 1476 the castle was destroyed by O'Neill; and agaLa in 1503 by G-erald, earl of Kildare, who returned in 1512 and committed still further ravages. In 1552 the castle was repaired and garrisoned, and given by Edward VI. to Hugh McNeill. In 1613 Belfast was incorporated by James I., and sent two members to the parliament of that year. The " Great Bridge of Belfast," which consisted of twenty-one arches, was founded in 1682, and seven of the arches fell in ten years afterwards, 1692, The first edition of the Bible printed in Ireland is that of Belfast, 1704. On the 4th of April, 1708, the castle was burnt. The first Belfast newspaper was pubhshed in 1737. The old Ex- change was built by the earl of Donegal in 1769. Cotton manufacture was introduced in 1777. The savings bank, established in 1811, was one of the first in Ireland. The museum was built in 1830. Queen's College was opened for the reception of students in November, 1849. In July, August, and September, 1857, the town was the scene of a series of disgraceful riots, in consequence of the opposition of the Eoman Catholics to the attempts of some Protestant ministers to introduce open- air preaching. On the 2nd of July, 1859, a fire destroyed the Victoria Chambers, Bel- fast, causmg a loss of £100,000. In the same year the town was one of the centres of the so-called religious revivals. Belfkoi, or Belfret. — This movable tower with difterent stories, used in besieging towns, is mentioned by Caesar. Some of them were of extraordinary height, the upper story rising above the walls of towns. Gibbon speaks ol one employed at the siege of Nicsea in 1097, and Eroissart describes one used against the castle of Breteuil in 1356. They were commonly employed during the crusades, Belgium. — An insurrection broke out at Brussels, Aug. 25, 1830, which led to a revo- lution and the separation of the Belgian proTincea from Holland. A national con- BEL gress, instaH-ed at Brussels Nov. 10, pro- claimed the iadependence of the Belgian people. A conference of the five great powers, assembled at London, interfered to prevent war between Holland and Belgium, and recognized the independence of the latter power, Dec. 20. The Belgian congress chose the duke of Nemours for king, Feb. 3, 1831, but Louis Phihppe refused to sanction the election, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was selected, June 4. The five great powers, Austria, England, France, Prussia, and Eussia, concluded a treaty, at London, with Belgium, Nov. 15, 1831, defining the hnuts of the new kingdom imder the guarantee of the contracting powers. 1830. Sept. 22. The separation from Holland resolved Tipou. Oct. 16. Arrangements made for a natioual congress. Oct. 27. The insurgents take Antwerp. 1831. Feb. 25. M. Surlet de Chokier is instaUed Regent of Belgium. July 21. Prince Leopold of Coburg is installed at Brussels. Aug. 4. Beuewal of hostilities with the king of Hol- land. Aug. 23. A French army of 50,000 men assists the Belgians, and a truce is resolved upon. 1832. Nov. 30. The Fi-ench besiege the Dutch in the citadel at Antwerp, which surrender's Dec. 23, after a gallant resistance. 1833. Great distress among the Belgian manufac- turers, in consequence of the cessation of trade with Holland. 1834. AprU 6. Riots in Brussels. 1838. Commercial panic, owing to the failure of the bank of Belgium. 1839. Feb. 4. Holland concludes a treaty -with Belgium. 1846. Dec. Terrible famine in Belgium. 1850. Aug. Calamitous floods in Belgium. 1852. Aug. 10. Queen Victoria visits Belgium, Oct. 17. Treaty of commerce betweex England and Belgium. 1853. Aug. 22. Man-iage of the duke of Brabant, heir apparent of Belgium, with the Arch- duchess Maria of Austria. 1857. The Roman Catholic clergy introduce a bili placing the administration of public chari- ties in their power. It passes ilay 19, but is abandoned June 12, in conss^quence of its unpopularity. 1860. June 17. Deputies from all the Belgian pro- vinces, assembled at Brussels, decii'.e iipou forming a league for the preservation of national independence. Belgeade (Servia), or The White Citt, built on the site of the ancient Singidunum, destroyed by the Avars in the 6th century, was founded in 1372. John Huniades de- fended it against Mohammed II. from July 23 to Sept. 4, 1456. The latter was repulsed, and Gibbon remarks, "the joyful nations celebrated Huniades and Belgrade as the bidwarks of Christendom." The Turks cap- tured it Aug. 20, 1521 ; the Austriaus obtained possession in 1688, but the Turks recovered it in 1690. Prince Eugene invested Belgrade, June 19, 1717, defeated the Turkish army sent for its relief, Aug. 16, and entered the town the following day. By a humiliating treaty it was restored to the Turks in Sep- tember, 1739. The Austrians retook it Oct. 8, 1789, and restored it in 1791. The Servians seized it in 1806; but in 1813 it reverted once more to the Turks. Ill BEL BsL&EADE (Treaty). — This humiliating peace, dictated at the point of the sword, was concluded between Austria, Eussia, and Turkey, Sept. 18, 1739. Austria ceded Ser- via, "VVallachia, with Belgrade and other fortresses, and Eussia restored her conquests to the Porte, and renounced her pretensions with respect to the navigation of the Black Sea. It was the most glorious treaty the Turks had ever made with any European* power. Bellaie (Battle). — Captain Sir Peter Parker, at the head of 120 men, landed from the Ilenelaus, at anchor in the Chesapeake, and attacked the Americans posted at Bellair, near Baltimore, Aug. 30, 1814. The enemy, who appeared in greater force than had been anticipated, were put to flight. Captain Par- ker was killed and the expedition returned carrying away their wounded. Bellegaede (France). — This barrier for- tress, near the Pyrenees, was taken by Pedro III. of Aragon, in 1285. The Span- iards regained possession in 1674 ; but were expelled by Marshal Schomberg in 1675. Louis XIV. constructed the present fortress in 1679. The Spaniards captured it June 25, 1793, and Dugommier, at the head of the French repubhcans, regained it Sept. 17, 1794. Belleisle.— This island, off the coast of France, was captured by the English in 1761. Having failed in effecting a landing on the 8th of April it was accomphshed on the 22nd, and on the 7th of June the whole island surren- dered. It was restored to France by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Bellmen. — Stow says that Alderman Draper set up the first beUman in Cord- wainer Street Ward, in January, 1556. The number was speedily increased, and the beU- man was often attended by a dog. He was added to the London watch, and went through the streets and lanes ringing his beU, and crying, "Take care of fire and candle; be kind to the poor, and pray for the dead." It was also a part of the bellman's office to bless the sleepers as he passed their doors. Milton refers to this in " II Penseroso :" — " Tlie bellman's drowsy charm. To bless the doors from nightly hai'm." Bells were in use amongst ancient nations both for religious and other pur- poses. They are first mentioned in the book of Exodus. The Egyptian monuments do not, however, contain any appearance of them. Bingham rejects as a vulgar error the story that they were fii'st introduced into the Christian church by Pauhnus, bishop of ISlola, about a.d. 400, and beheves that they were not known long before the 7th century. Benedict, abbot of Wear- mouth, brought one from Italy to England in 680. Ingulphus relates of Tux-ketul, abbot of Croyland, who died in 975, that he had a very large bell made, called G-uthlac, and that this, with six others soon afterwards added, produced such an exquisite harmony, that 112 BEIT England had no such peal of beUs in those days. William of Malmesbury speaks of the bells given to the churches \)j_ Dunstan. The custom of consecrating, anointing, and bap- tizing beUs, giving them the name of some saint, Bingham shows to be a modern inven- tion. Baronius himself does not assign the date earlier than the year 968, when John XIII. consecrated the great beU of the Lateran chxrrch, naming it John. The Turks have a saying that "bells drive away good spirits from the abodes of men," and do not allow them to be used. The Greek church under their dominion employ various modes of summoning peojple to service. In the 15th century bells of enormous size were cast. In olden times many superstitions were connected with the ringing of beUs. It was beheved to be efficacious in dispelling tempests. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 75, passed June 14, 1827, the court of the Company of Watermen were required to erect and main- tain a bell at Billingsgate, and another at Gravesend ; the former to be rung at high water, and the latter at first flood. Breslau Bruges Cologne Dantzic Erfurth Exeter Halbei'stadt . 1448 14.53 1497 1675 1457 Lincoln (Tom) .... 1610 Uucoln (new bell) 1834 Lucerne 1636 Montreal Moscow (great bell) 1653 and Notre Dame (Paris) Oxford St. Paul's Vienna Westminster (Big Ben) York 1716 1711 Bells (Ringing of). — This custom, almost pecuhar to England, was introduced in the Anglo-Saxon period of our history. Beloochisxan (Asia). — The early history of this state is involved in obscurity. Hajee Mohammed Khan, a kind of heutenant of Nadir Shah, was assassinated in 1739, by his brother, Kusseer Khan, who obtained the chief authority. In 1758 he declared Beloo- chistan independent, and after a struggle succeeded in concluding a treaty with the Afighan monarch. Under his successors Be- loochistanlost several of its provinces. Owing to the hostile and treacherous attitude as- sumed by the government and people towards the EngHsh in their advance through the Bolan Pass, Kelat, the chief town of Beloo- chistan, was captured 'Soy. 13, 1839, and temporarily occupied by them. The Beloo- chees regained possession July 27, 1840 ; but it was recovered by the Enghsh, jS'ov. 3, 1840, and held by them until the conclusion of the Affghan war. Bexaees (HijadoBtan). — The holy city of the Hindoos is tlie capital of a district of the same name, and the ancient seat of Brah- minical learning. It is studded with mosques and temples, whilst thousands of pilgrims flock to it annually to wash away their sins in the waters of the Ganges. It came into the possession of the East-India Company, May 21, 1775. There is a Sanscrit college here, founded in 1792, to which an Enghsh department was added in 1832. The 37 th regiment of native infantry, and tte 13th irregular cavalry, and Loodianah Sikhs, mutinied here June 4, 1857. Owing to the energy displayed by General Neill, the su- premacy ot the Knglish was maintained. Bencoolen (Sumatra). — The East-India Company, on being expelled from Bantam, formed a settlement, afterwards called Fort Marlborough, at this place in 1683. It was much enlarged in 1695. The natives massacred a large portion of the settlers in 1719. Ben- coolen and other English settlements in the island were destroyed by the French in 1760. They were, however, again restored. By the ninth article of the treaty between England and the Netherlands, concluded at London, March 17, 1824, they were ceded to the Dutch in exchange for their settlements on the con- tinent of India. The respective settlements were to be given up March 1, 1825. Bendee (Bessarabia). — Varnitza, the retreat of Charles XII. of Sweden after his defeat at Pidtowa (July 8, 1709), is situated near this place. He remained here in captivity until the end of 1714. Bender was taken by the Russians, Sept. 28, 1770. A sanguinary battle was fought at Tobak, near Bender, between the Turks and Russians in 1789, in which the former were defeated. Bender itself surrendered in the middle of November. It was again taken in 1809, and was finally ceded to Russia by the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. Benedictines. — This order of monks was founded by St. Benedict or Bennet, who in- troducedmonachismintowesternEurope, and erected his first monastery on the site of a temple of Apollo on Monte Cassino, about 50 miles from Subiaco, in Italy, A. D. 529. The order spread rapidly in Europe; St. Benedicthimself founded several monasteries, and his example was followed by others. The monks took the vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty. By some authorities the Benedictines are said to have been introduced into England by Augustine in 596, and by others the event is assigned to a later period, Duncan being considered the first English abbot of that order. Edgar (958-975) is said to have founded above forty Benedictine convents. MiLman, referring to the beautiful spots chosen for their monasteries, says, " In general, if a district in England be surveyed, the most convenient, most fertile, moat peaceful spot, wiU be found to have been the site of a Benedictine abbey." Towards the end of the 8th century they had become so numerous that Charlemagne caused inquiry to be made whether any other kind of monks existed than those of the order of St. Bene- dict. The austerity of their rule soon became relaxed, and Matthew Paris mentions a refor- mation that was attempted in 1238. Their merits in collecting, preserving, and multi- plying copies of classical manuscripts must not be forgotten ; and the order is every way distinguished for the numerous services rendered to hterature. There were several branches of the Benedictines Uving under the same rule but obser\'ing a diifereut discipline; 113 BEN the chief being the Cluniacs, established in 912 and brought into England in 1077, the Carthusians, founded in 1084 and introduced into England in 1180, and the Cistercians or Bernardines, founded in 1098 and brought into England in 1128. The habit of the Benedictines was black, and from this cir- cumstance they have been called Black Monks or the Black Monks of St. Benedict. According to an inquiry instituted bv Pope John XXII. (1316-1334), this order "had at that time produced 20 emperors, 10 empresses, 47 kings, 50 queens, 4 popes, 68 princes, lUO princesses, 200 cardinals, 7,000 archbishops, 15,000bishops, 15,000 abbots, and 4,000 saints, besides a host of other dignitaries, both in church and state. There were nuns as well as monks of this order. Benefice. — An estate held by feudal tenure was originally termed a benefice, which at length came to signify the ecclesi- astical estate granted to a clergyman for term of fife, to be enjoyed by him on account of his ministry in the Church. Lord Coke says benefice is a large word, and is taken for any ecclesiastical promotion whatever. The custom of endowingchurches arose in the time of Justinian, about a.d. 500. Towards the end of the 12th century the bishops of Rome issued mandates, requesting that particular benefices might be conferred upon their nominees. This was speedily assumed as a right, and Clement V. (1305-1314) claimed the disposal of all benefices. This claim was resisted, more particularly in England, and the statute of provisors of benefices (25 Edw. III. St. 6), passed in 1351, was aimed against this system. It was followed by other enactments of a similar character. The temporary submission of former sove- reigns to the claim had inundated the country with Italians and other foreign clergy. The statute of provisors was confirmed by 3 Rich. II. c. 3 (1380) ; and by 7 Rich. II. c. 12 (1383) it was enacted that no ahen should be eligible to purchase or to be pre- sented to any ecclesiastical preferment within the realm. The most terrible abuses arose on account of the pretensions of th e pope respect- ing the presentation to benefices. Milman (Lat. Christ, vol. vi. b. xiii. c. 3), treating on Boniface IX. (1389-1404), says, "The smaUer benefices were sold from the day of his ap- pointment with shameless and scandalous notoriety. Men wandered about Lombardy and other parts of Italy, searching out the age of hoary incumbents, and watching their diseases and infirmities. For this service they were well paid by the greedy aspirants at Rome. On their report the tariff rose or fell. Benefices were sold over and over again." A distinction between benefices and cathedral preferments is drawn in 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, s. 124 (Aug. 14, 1838), and in a later act, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 98, s. 3 (Aug. 14, 1850), the word " a benefice " is explained to signify a benefice with cure of souls and no other. Benefit of Clergy. — The exemption of the clergy from secular jurisdiction was one of the privileges claimed by the Roman I BEN- BEN Catholic church. Mihnan remarks (Lat. ! Christ, vol. hi. b. via. c. 8), " Crimes of great atrocity, it is said, of gi'eat frequency, crimes such as robbery and homicide, crimes for which secular persons were hanged by scores and without mercy, were committed almost with impunity, or vnth punishment altogether inadequate to the offence by the clergy ; and the sacred name of clerk, exempted not only bishops, abbots, and priests, but those of the lowest ecclesiastical rank from the civil power." The system, gradually introduced into this country after the Norman conquest, gave rise to many abuses. Not only the clergy, but clerks and all members of the laity who could read, in cases in which capi- tal punishment was awarded, were at length entitled to claim benefit of clergy, so that when the penalty of death was to be rigidly enforced, the statute expressly intimated that it was vrithout benefit of clergy. On the in- troduction of the custom the claim was not allowed unless the prisoner appeared in his clerical habit and tonsure. When ability to read became the test, this ceremony ceased, and he was merely required to read from a psalter or some other book before the judge. By 4 Hen. VII. c. 13 (1489), it could only be pleaded once by persons not in orders, and by 4 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1512) it was denied to murderers and felons. Abjurers in cases of treason were not allowed benefit of clergy, by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1536), and the same statute placed persons in holy orders, in respect to many offences, exactly on the same footing as the laity. Women were allowed to plead benefit of clergy by 3 & 4 Will. & Mar*', c. 9, s. 6 (1691), and by 4 & 5 Win. & Mary, c. 24, s. 12 (1692), women were only allowed to plead benefit of clergy once. Both these statutes were made perpetual by 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 14, s. 1 (1695). The Eractice of requiring the prisoner to read 'om a book was abolished by 5 Anne, e. 6, s. 4 (1706). Benefit of clergy was abolished by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27, s. 6 (June 21, 1827), and 4 Vict. c. 22 (June 21, 1841) removed all doubts as to the habUity of peers to pun- ishment for felony. It was abohshed in Ireland by 9 Geo. IV. c. 54, s. 12 (July 15, 1828). Be^tevexto (Italy). — The ancient Bene- yentum was made the capital of a duchy by Alboin, king of Lombardy, a.d. 571. In the time of Charlemagne, the duchy embraced the modern kingdom of Naples, and Arrechis, its reigning duke, saved it from the French yoke ; and though defeated at Amalphi in 786, presei'ved his dominions by doing homage. It was besieged by the Saracens in 874, and being severely pressed, a fearless citizen dropped from its walls, passed through the enemy, besought aid of the Greek emperor, and was returning with a favourable answer, when he was made prisoner. His captors offered him a rich reward to betray his countrymen, but as soon as he was led within hearing, he cried in a loud voice, — " Friends and brethren, be bold and patient ; maintain the city ; your sovereign is informed of your 114 distress, and your dehverers are at hand. I know my doom, and commit my wife and children to your gratitude." He had scarcely uttered the words, when he fell transfixed by the spears of the Saracens. It was a simple bishopric until 969, when it was made the seat of an archbishopric. It was taken by the Normans, and declared in favour of Pope Leo IX. in 1050. Eobert Guiscard besieged it in 1078, and Pascal II. expelled from Rome in 1117, sought refuge at Bene- vento. It was ceded to Rome in 1139, and taken by Frederick II. in 124(X Charles of Anjou, supported by France, defeated Man- fred, king of Sicily, who was slain in a great battle near it, Feb. 26, 1266. The city itself was sacked, and a general massacre of both sexes took place. The French seized it in 1798, but it was restored to the pope in 1815. In 1806 the principaUty was conferred by Napoleon I. on Talleyrand, with the title of prince of Beaevento. Councils were held here Aug. 1, 1059 ; in Aug. 1087 ; March 28, 1091 ; Aug. 12, 1108 ; in April, 1117 ; and March 10, 1119. Beneventum (Italy). — This important city fell into the hands of the Romans during the third Samnite war. Pyrrhus was de- feated near it B.C. 275, and it was made a Roman colony b.c. 268. The Carthaginians were defeated in the neighbom-hood B.C. 214 and B.C. 212. It suffered frequently from the ravages of war ; and was sacked a.d. 545, during the Gothic invasion. {See Bene- VENTO.) Benevolekce, though nominally a free gift, was, in fact, a forced loan. The old Chronicler of Croyland records, amongst other events of the year 1473, the intro- duction of a new and unheard of impost, by which every one was to give "just what he pleased, or rather, just what he did not please, by way of benevolence." Hallam (Middle Ages, iii. ch. 8, pt. 3) gives Ed- ward rV. the credit of having introduced this new method of obtaining the subjects' money, under the plausible name of bene- volences, and says " that they came in place of the still more plausible loans of former monarchs, and were principally levied on the wealthy traders." This form of exaction soon became intolerable, and was annulled for ever by 1 Rich. III. c. 2 (1484), though this monarch had recourse to them in order to raise money to carry on the war against the earl of Richmond in 1485. Henry VII. was the first Enghsh king who obtained the sanction of parhament to a benevolence, and this he effected in 1492. By 11 Hen. VII. c. 10 (1495), proclamation was to be made against defaulters, requiring them to pay the sum due within three months, and in default they were to be imprisoned, without bail, until payment was made or sufficient sureties obtained. In case of death the goods and chattels of a defaulter became chargeable. Wolsey ex- acted several benevolences between 1522 and 1525. In the latter year an extraordinary demand caused much discontent, and the BEN citizens of London who appealed to the statute against benevolences, passed in Kichard the Third's reign, were told that he was a usurper, and consequently that his laws were not binding on the king. In 1545, Henry VIII. exacted another benevolence which was very unwiUingly paid. Ehzabeth wdsely abstained from the practice, but James I. raised one in 1614. This method of obtaining supphes was declared illegal by the Petition of Kight in 1689 ; and 1 Will. & Mary, st. 2, c. 2, passed in 1689, declared levying of money without the authority of Parliament illegal. Bengal (Hindostan). — Was conquered by the Mohammedans in 1203, and became independent in 1340. The emperor Acbar made it a dependency of Delhi in 1580. A.D. 1517. 1336. 1620. 1634. 1640. 1658. 1664. liS". 1688. 1690- 1726. 1765, 1772, 1773, 1774 1793 1813 Some Portiiguese are cast upon the coast of Bengal ; their ships enter the Ganges. Nine Portuguese ships sent to assist Mahmoud Shah. Bengal made a dependency of Delhi. An attempt is made to establish a factory at Patna, but fails. The English obtain permission to trade to Piplee, in Orissa, where a factoiy is built. An English factory on the Hooghley estab- lished. The English obtain great influence in Bengal. Bengal placed under Madras. The French and Danes form establishments Bengal made an agency distinct from Fort S+. George, Madras. Dec. 20. The Council remove from the Hooghley to Chuttannuttee, or Calcutta. Sept. The Hooghley factory resumed. Dec. The factories in Bengal abandoned. The Company's agents return to Chuttan- nuttee and are allowed to erect a factory. The towns of Chuttannuttee, Govindpore, and Calcutta, granted to the Company. Fort William is erected, and the station made a presidency. Calc\itta made the 8e»t of a presidency dis- tinct from Madras. The garrison increased to 300 men. A mayor's court established in Bengal. Aug. 12. By the treaty of Allahaba^, the Company are empowered to receive the reveniies of Bengal. Bahar, and Orissa. The Comxsany assume direct authority. July 1. Bengal made the chief presidency in India, and the residence of the governor- general fixed at Calcutta. Supreme coui-t of judicature established. Aug. 1. The new arrangements commence in Bengal. Pennanent settlement introduced by Lord Comwallis. Calcutta made a bishopric. A.». 1746. 1764 1765. 1767. 1769. GOVEElfOES OP BENGAL. Alexander Dawson. WUliam Fytche. He died Aug. 8, and was s\icceeded by Roger Di-ake. Watts, Manningham, Becker, and Holwell, govern alternately, each for four months, Robert Clive, afterwards Lord Clive. John Zephaniah Holwell, retired July 27, when Mr. Henry Vansittart succeeded. John Spencer. Lord Clive again. Hai-ry Verelst. John Cartier. In 1772, Warren Hastings ■nas appointed to succeed him. (See Lsdia.! 115 BER Bennington (Battle). — A party of Hessians were defeated at this place in Vermont, by the Americans, July 16, 1777. Bensington (Battle).— Otfa, Ethelbald'a successor in the kingdom of Mercia, having subdued Kent, reduced the more powerful kingdom of Wessex by the defeat of Cyne- wufi", at Bensington, a.d. 777. This victory rendered him master of all the territory north oi the Thames. Beean-bikig (Battle). — Eought between the Britons and Savons at this place, sup- posed to be Barbary HiU, near Marlborough, Wilts, though some authorities are in favour of Banbury, Oxfordshire, a.d. 556. Henry of Huntingdon says that the Britons formed their battle array in nine battahons : three being posted in the van, three in the centre, and three in the rear, the archers, slingers, and cavalry being arranged in the Eomau order. The Saxons came on in a compact body, and charged with such fury, that the standards were dashed together, and a hand- to-hand fight ensued. The battle lasted tiU nightfall without any decisive result. Beebice (S. America), was discovered by the Spanish navigator Pinzon in 1499. The Dutch formed a settlement in this district in 1580. The English settled in the neighbour- hood in 1634, but withdrew in 1667. The French attacked the colony in 1690, and in 1712 ; on each occasion levying a contribution. An insurrection of the negroes occurred in Feb. 1762, when they destroyed a large amount of property. Berbice surrendered to an Enghsh expedition May 2, 1796 ; but it was restored to the Dutch by the 3rd article of the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was again taken Sept. 23, 1803 ; and retained by an agreement signed between England and the Netherlands in August, 1S14. With Demerara and Essequibo it was formed into one colony in 1831, under the name of British Guiana. Beeengaeians. — The followers of Beren- garius, archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1047, denied the real presence in the Eucha- rist. He was excommunicated by a council at Eome May 2, 1050. The cause was tried again in a council held at Tours, in 1055, when Berengarius is said to have recanted, and to have been reconciled to the Church. At a later period he persisted in maintaining the views he had previously advocated, and is said to have been again summoned before a coimcil at Kome in 1059, and to have once more recanted. He again wrote in defence of his former opinions, and was condemned at councils held at Angers, April 4, 1062; at Eome in 1063 ; at Poitiers in 1073 ; at Eome in Nov. 1078, and Feb. 1079, when he is said to have made a confession of faith ; and at Bordeaux in 1080, when he made another exposition of his faith. It is probable that some of the above-mentioned councils did not deal with Berengarius, who died in com- munion with the Church, Jan. 5, 1088. Beeesina (Battle).— The French, during their retreat from Eussia, were defeated at this river with great slaughter, 'No\. 26, 27, I 2 BEE and 23, 1812. Such scenes of carnage and de- struction as those of the night of the 28th and the follomng days have seldom been wit- nessed. The camp-followers — men, women, and children, — terrified by the Kussian artillery, pressed forward to the bridges, one of which broke down, and thousands were precipitated into the stream. On the return of spring above 12,000 bodies were taken out of the bed of the river, near the place where the struggle occurred. Bee& (Germany), was ruled by counts for many years, and on the failure of the first line in 1348, devolved on the princes of JuLiers. It was raised to a duchy in 1380, and in 1423 Juliers was incorporated with it. Berg and Juliers came into the posses- sion of the dukes of Cleves on the failure of the Juliers line in 1511. The Cleves hue became extinct in 1609, and after a long con- tention, the elector palatine and the elector of Brandenburg, in 1666, agreed to divide the possessions, the former taking Berg. It was merged in Bavaria, the elector of wliich ceded it to France in 1806 ; and Napoleon I. raised it into a grand-duchy, and conferred it with other territory upon Murat, Mar. 15 in that year. Murat went to Naples in 1808. This grand-duchy was extinguished in 1815, and the territories transferred to Prussia. Bekgamo (Italy), the ancient Bergomum, was ravaged by jittila a.d. 452. Under the Lombard monarchs it was made the capital of a duchy. It was annexed to Venice in 1428 ; and was taken by the French in 1509. The Venetians having succeeded in re-occupying it, the French again obtained possession in 1512; but it once more fell into the power of the Venetians in 1515. Bergamo revolted ' March 12, 1797 ; was incorporated with the Cis-alpine republic by the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 18, 1797 ; was given to Austria in 1814-15, and ceded by that power to Sardinia in 1859. It was a bishop's see in the early Church. It had two cathedrals, the oldest destroyed by the Venetians in 1531, and the other was founded in 896. Bergen- (Battles). — The first was fought between Bergen and Allonaar, in the north i of Holland, Sept. 19, 1799. The duke of York, commanding the Eussian and British troops, attacked the French and Dutch under Gen. Brune. The Eussians fled in disorder, but the English obtained some advantages. Both armies, however, at night resumed the positions they had occupied before the battle. In the second battle, fought at the same place Oct. 2, 1799, the duke of York, with 30,000 EngHsh and Eussians, engaged and defeated General Brune, at the head of 25,000 French and Dutch troops. Bergen (Germany). — A battle was fought near this place, in Germany, between the French and the allied English and German troops, April 13, 1759. The latter retired from the contest, but were not pursued by the French army. Bergen (Norway), was founded in 1070, and daring the 12th and 13th centuries was 116 BEE the residence of the kings of Norway. The merchants of the Hanse towns obtained great privileges in the way of trade in 1278, and these were confirmed and extended in 1343. From this time they obtained an ascendancy, which was destroyed by a law passed by Frederick II. of Denmark, July 25, 1560. It has several times suffered from the ravages of pestilence and fire. The former connnitted great ravages in 1348, 1353, 1618, 1629, and 1637 ; and a fire that broke out May 19, 1702, destroyed the larger portion of the town. Beegen-op-Zoom (Holland). — This strong fortress was unsuccessfully assailed by the duke of Parma in 1581 and in 1588, and by Spinola in 1622. The French captured it Sept. 17, 1747 ; and it was restored to the Dutch by the treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe in 1748. It again fell into the hands of the French in 1795. Graham carried it by stoi-m March 8, 1814, but some of the troops having broken into the wine-shops, were overcome by ^vine, and the garrison, taking fresh courage, expeUed the assailants. It was surrendered by the treaty of Paris in 1814. Bergerac (France). — The earl of Derby defeated the French at this place in Guienne in 1344. So great was the booty on the occasion that the earl of Derby is said to have obtained a pipe of gold. The French recovered Bergerac in 1371 ; but the Enghsh recaptured it, and were not finally expelled until 1450. It became one of the strongholds of the Huguenots. Louis XIII. captured it in 1621, and demolished its fortifications. Bergerac (Treaty). — Concluded at Ber- gerac between the Huguenots and the Eoman Cathohcs Sept. 17, 1577. Protestants were allowed to practise their rehgion in those places in which it was tolerated, on the day the treaty was signed, though its exercise was entirely prohibited in Paris, or within 10 leagues of the city. The nobility were free to follow the Protestant worship in their own houses. These and other points were settled by the treaty, which in the end satisfied neither party. It is also called tha treaty of Poitiers. Berkhamstead (Herts). — A council was held here A.D. 697, convened by Withred, king of Kent. Several constitutions were passed, and amongst them one ordering the suspen- sion of any priest who deferred the baptizing of children beyond the proper time. Berlin (Prussia). — This city is said to have been founded by Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg. The elector Frederick WiUiam improved and embellished the city, 1640 — 1683 ; and Frederick III., who erected Prussia into a kingdom in 1701, and bore the kingly title of Frederick I., grea'ly extended its area. The French aid Austrians surprised Berhu Oct. 17, 1757. Tae Aus- trians and Eussians captured it Ojt. 9, 1760, and having committed various depredations quitted it on the 13th. Napoleon I. entered Berlin Oct. 21, 1806. An insurrection broke out during the revolutionary trou )les on the BER Continent, June 15, 184S. Its Academy of Sciences was founded in 1702; its bank in 1765 ; and its university in 1810. Beklin (Treaties).— Several treaties have been concluded at this city, the principal being the peace between Prussia, Poland, and Hungary, by which the former obtained Silesia, July 28, 1742 ; the treaty of union and confederation for maintaining the indivi- sibility of the German empire, caused by the attempt of Austria to exchange her posses- sions in the Netherlands for the duchy of Ba- varia, which was signed at Berlin J uly 23, 1785, by the king of Prussia, the king of England as elector of Brunswick - Lunenburg, the elector of Saxony, and other German princes ; and the treaty between Prussia and France guaranteeing the neutrahty of the north of Germany, Aug. 5, 1796. Berlik Decree. — Prussia and a great part of the Continent being under his domi- nation. Napoleon issued this celebrated in- terdict against English commerce at Berlin, Nov. 20, 1806. It prohibited all commerce, and even correspondence between countries under his sway and Great Britain. England was declared to be blockaded ; Enghsh pro- perty was liable to seizure ; all subjects of England found in countries occupied by French troops were declared prisoners of war ; ad letters addressed to Englishmen or written in the Enghsh language were to be stopped ; and ships touching at any port in England or her colonies, were excluded from the ports under French control. Bermudas (Atlantic) , or Someks' Islands, were discovered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard wrecked upon them in 1522, during a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs. Henry May was wrecked upon them in 159.3 ; and Sir George Summers in 1609, who claimed them for the Virginia company. They sold them to another company, to which a charter was granted by James I. June 29, 1615. A settlement was imme- diately formed, and George -town founded. Their first general assembly was held Aug. 1, 1620. The group consists of between three and four hundred, but of these only six or seven are inhabited. The charter expired in 1684. Beenardines. — The Cistercians, a branch of ths Benedictines, instituted at Citeaux in 1098, were reformed by Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in Champagne, at the commence- ment of the 12th century ; from which circum- stance theyreceived the name of Bernardines. The second crusade, in 1146, was preached by Bernard, who was one of the most influential men of his time. He resolutely re- fused all ecclesiastical dignities, and is said to have founded 160 rehgious houses. The Bernardines came into England in 1128. Their first house, at Waverley, in Surrey, was founded in that year, and completed in 1129. At one time the numbfer of their estabhshments was about ninety. From the colour of their habit, they were called White Monks. There were nuns of this order, {See CisxEBCiAKS.) BES Berne (Switzerland) joined the Swiss confederation, being the eighth canton, in 1352. Its chief town, of the same name, was founded by Berthold V., duke of Za;rin- gen, in 1191 ; and was made a free and imperial city by a charter from Frederick II . , dated May, 1218. It was besieged, though unsuccessfully, by Eodolph of Habsburg in 1288. It long exercised considerable autho- rity, and obtained several accessions of ter- ritory. It was destroyed by fire in 14(i5. Berne was made the capital of Switzerland by the National Assembly of 1848. Its university was founded in 1834. Berwick-on-Tweed. — This ancient town, between England and Scotland, suffered greatly in the wai's between those countries. When first mentioned in history, it belonged to Scotland, and its castle was ceded to England in 1174, and restored to Scotland in 1189. Balliol did homage for himself and his heirs for the whole kingdom of Scotland at Berwick, Nov. 30, 1292. Edward I. captured Ber^vick, Mar. 30, 1296, united it to England, and granted it a charter, afterwards extended and confirmed by Edward III. Bruce took it in 1315, and again April 2, 1319; and Edward III. recovered it Jxdy 20, 1333. The Scots surprised it Nov. 6, 1355, but Edward III. retook it in 1356. Henry VI. surrendered Berwick to the Scotch, April 25, 1461 ; it was, however, retaken by Edward IV. in 1482, who conferred manv privileges upon it by 22 Edw. IV. c. 8 (1482). It was made independent of both countries in 1536. Cromwell captured it in 1648, and Monk in 1659 ; and it has since remained in the possession of England. The statute 20 Geo. II. c. 42, s. 3 (1746), provided that where England only is mentioned in any act of ParUament, the same, notwithstanding, shall be deemed to comprehend the dominion of Wales and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. A treaty was concluded here in 1560; and another between Elizabeth and James VI., of Scotland, July 1, 1586, proriding for mutual assistance in case of invasion by Eoman Cathohc powej's. BESAN90N (France). — This ancient city, called Vesontio by the Eomans, was occupied by Julius Ccesar B.C. 56. The Burgundians sacked it a.d. 456, and the Hungarians in 937. The emperor Frederick I. held a diet of more than usual magnificence at Besan9on, Oct. 24, 1157- It was an imperial city from 1184 till about 1664. It was captured by Louis XIV. in 1668, and soon after annexed to France. The allied army failed in an attack upon it in 1814. It was made a bishopric in the 3rd century. Besika Bat (Archipelago). — The Czar Nicholas having. May 31, 1853, issued an order for the passage of the Pruth by his troops, the French and English fleets sailed for this bay, at the entrance of the Darda- nelles, June 2, 1853, and anchored here June 13. Bessarabia. — This province, taken by the Turks vmder Mohammed II. in 1474, was seized by the Russians in the autumn of 117 BET 1770, and finally ceded to Kussia by the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. Bethlehem (Out Lady of). — Thismilitary order was instituted by Pius II. Jan. 18, 1459, in honour of the recovery of Lemnos from the Turks. It again fell into their power, and the order was not estabUshed. | Bethlehem (Syria). — This town, about six miles south of Jerusalem, is celebrated as the birthplace of the Saviour of mankind (Matt. ii. 8, and Luke ii. 4). It was called Ephi'ath, and is mentioned as the place at which Eachel died and was buried (Gen. XXXV. 17—19, and xlviii. 7), B.C. 1729. Eehoboam fortified or rebuilt it (2 Chron. xi. 5, 6), B.C. 973. David was born here (cire. B.C. 1085), and hence it was called the city of David. Helena, the mother of' Constantine, a.d. 325, erected a church, which i remains to this day, on the place of the \ ^Nativity. It was ceded, vrith other towns, to : Erederick II. by the sultan of Egypt in 1229. j It was called Bethlehem- Judah to distinguish it from Bethlehem in Zebulon (Joshua, xix. 15, 16). Bethlehem was made a bishopric in 11^0. Bethlehem (United States) was settled by the Moravians under Count Zinzendorf in 1741. Bethlehem Hospital, commonly called Bedlam, a priory for canons, both brothers and sisters, founded by a deed of gift dated Wednesday, Oct. 23, 1247, from Simon FitzMary, sheriff" of London, was with aU its revenues granted by Henry VIII., in 1547, to the city of London, for an hospital forlimatics. It was transferred from Bishops- gate Without to Moorfields in 1675. The foundation of the new building was laid in April, 1675, and it was finished in July, 1676. Tiie hospital was transferred to its present site in St. George's Fields in 1814. The foundation-stone was laid April 18, 1S12 ; and the erection of a new wing was com- menced July 26, 1838. Patients partially cured, and suff"ered to go at large, were called Bedlam beggars. Bethlehemites. — These monks were also styled Star-bearers, because they wore a red j star of five rays, with a blue circle in the middle, on their breast, in memory of the star which appeared to the wise men. Matthew Paris states that they obtained an estabhshment at Cambridge in 1257, and adds, — "So many orders of brethren now made their appearance in England that there was a most extraordinary confusion among them." A rehgious order bearing this name was founded at Guatimala, in New Spain, by Pierre de Bethencourt, about 1660. They attended the sick in hospitals. Innocent XI. confirmed the order in 1687, and ordered the brethren to follow the rule of St. Augus- tine. Betting-shops. — A considerable number of these places, the owners of which pro- fessed themselves ready to bet upon the principal races with all comers, sprung up in the metropohs between the years 1850 and 1853. Servants, apprentices, and work- 118 BHU men frequently robbed their employers to invest money in this new form of gambling, and a bill for their suppression (16 & 17 Vict, c. 119) received the royal assent Aug. 20, 1853. Beyekwtk (Battle). — In this position, near AUanaar, in the l^etherlands. General Brune's outposts were attacked by the Enghsh and Russian forces, Oct. 6, 1799. The French and Dutch were at length compelled to give way, though their antagonists did not succeed in capturing the position. Betlau ( Battle ). — Ibraham Pasha, at the head of the Egyptian army, defeated the Turks at this place, in Asia Minor, July 29, 1832. The battle was fought near the spot where Alexander the Great defeated Darius in the battle on the Issus. Betkout (Syria), the ancient Berytus, was the seat of a famous school of jurispru- dence from the 3rd to the middle of the 6th century. The city having been destroyed by an earthquake July 9, 551 a.d., the school was removed to Sidon. Beyrout suffered severely during the crusades, and having been taken by the Saracens, was wrested from them by Baldwin in 1110. The Saracens, however, regained possession in 1187. Ibrahim Pasha seized it in 1832 ; and it was bombarded by the combined fleets of England and Turkey, Sept. 11 — 16, 1840, and being captured, was restored to the Porte. Beyrout was made a bishopric by Theodosius the Younger, and after its capture by Baldwin I. it became the seat of a Latin bishop about 1136. Bezabde (Mesopotamia) was captured by Sapor II. A.D. 360, when aU the inhabitants, even women and children, were massacred. Constantius II. made a vain efibrt to wrest it from the Persians during the same year. It was the seat of a bishopric before the Persians seized it. Beziees (France). — This ancient city, made a Roman colony a.d. 636, was besieged during the crusade against the Albigenses, and captured Jiily 22, 1209. "A general massacre," says Milman (Lat. Christ, vol. iv. b. ix. ch. 8), " followed ; neither age nor sex were spared ; even priests fell in the remorse- less carnage. Then was uttered the fright- ful command, become almost a proverb, ' Slay them all, God will know his own.' In the church of St. Mary Magdalene were killed 7,000 by the defenders ot the sanctity of the Church. The amount of the slain is variously estimated from 20,000 even up to 50,000. The city was set on fire ; even the cathedral perished in the flames." It was rebuilt in 1289, and suffered severely in the rehgious wars in France. Tradition assigns the introduction of Christianity to St. Paul. Its bishopric, founded at an early period, was suppressed in 1801. Bhitetpoke (Hindostan). — The capital of a native state of the same name. General Lake concluded a treaty of perpetual friend- ship with the rajah in December, 1803. The rajah, however, espoused the causeof Holkar in 1804, and his chief town, Bhurtpore, was besieged Jan. 3, 1805, by General Lake. The BIA English general failed in several attempts to carry the place by storm; but the rajah surrendered April 10, and a second treaty was concluded, by which, on the payment of a heavy fine, the rajah was allowed to retain his authority. A rebeUion broke out Feb. 25, 1825. Lord Combermere captured Bhurt- pore, Jan. 18, 1826, and the rightful heir was restored Feb. 4. BiAGEOSSA (Treaty) . — Concluded between Louis XII. and the cardinal of Pavia, on behalf of Pope Juhus II. in July, 1509. BiALTSTOCK (Poland). — This province was incorporated vtdth Eussia by the third treaty of partition in 1795. A portion of it was transferred to the duchy of "Warsaw by the treaty of Tilsit, in July, 1807, whilst the remainder ^ as erected into a separate pro- vince. BiAifCHi. — Men and women, called White Penitents, from a white linen vestment that they wore, appeared all over Italy in August, 1399. In their progress from province to province, and city to city, they kept their faces covered and bent downward, carrying before them a large crucifix, and shouting " Misericordia." They sang continually "Stabat mater dolorosa." They were not confined to Italy, where, according to some authors, they effected a remarkable reforma- tion of manners. In 1400 Boniface IX. had their leader seized at Viterbo. He was sent to Eome, and burned there by his orders, and he prohibited these processions. BlABTCHI AND NeRI, or WHITES AND Blacks, appeared amongst the numerous factions into which the inhabitants of various Italian towns were divided early in the 14th century. They are said to have originated in the following manner. Two branches of a rich and powerful family in Pistoja, called the Cancellieri, were descended from the two wives of their common ancestor. The descendants of one of them, named Bianca, called themselves Bianchi, whilst the descend- ants of the other wife were termed Neri. A quarrel having ensued at a convivial meeting, one of the Bianchi wounded a member of the Neri branch. The latter in revenge waylaid and maltreated another of the Bianchi. The father of the last-mentioned aggressor com- pelled him to wait upon, and ask pardon of, Gughelmo CanceUiere, the father of the wounded man. Gughelmo could not, how- ever, be appeased ; he chopped off the hand of the penitent, bidding him return to his parent and tell him that wounds were to be healed by wounds, not words. The feud between the families gathered strength from this savage act; the citizens joined in the struggle, and factions, bearing these names, spread to other towns in Tuscany, At Flo- rence two noble families, the Cerchi and the Donati, took up the quarrel in 1300, the for- mer siding with the whites and the latter with the blacks. In 1302 Dante Aligheri, with several of the Bianchi, were expelled from Florer-ce, and in his exile the poet wrote the great work that has unmortalized his name. BLaUam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. 3, BIB pt. 1), remarks, "An outrage committed at Pistoja in 1300 spht the inhabitants into the parties of Bianchi and Neri ; and these, spreading to Florence, created one of the most virulent divisions which annoyed that republic." BiBEEACH (Battle). — During the French revolutionary war, the republicans, led by Moreau, defeated the imperialists at Bibe- rach, in Wiirtemberg, with considerable loss, Oct. 2, 1796. This is often mistaken for another combat at Biberach, in which Moreau defeated Marshal Kray, the Austrian general, May 9, 1800. Bible, or The Book. — A term derived from the Greek, apphed to the sacred writings by St. Chrysostom in the 5th cen- tury. The name Old Testament first occurs in St. Paul's second epistle to the Corinthians (iii. 14), written in the year 55. The canon is generally believed to have been closed by Simon the Just, about B.C. 292. The Apo- crypha was added B.C. 150. The Old Testa- ment canon consists of 39 books, divided into 929 chapters, containing 592,439 words. Of this portion of the Bible, the oldest edition is the Septuagint, translated into the Greek, ac- cording to the tradition of Aristeas, B.C. 277, by seventy -two Jews. The work was under- taken at the desire of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The books of the New Testament, written in Hellenistic Greek, were first collected about the middle of the 3rd century. Peter (2nd epistle, iii. 16), a.d. 65, speaks of St. Paul's epistles as though they had been collected in his time. Doiibtless the separation of the genuine from the spurious had already com- menced when St. Peter wrote. The New Testament is divided into 27 books, containing 260 chapters. The sacred writings were trans- lated by the early Christians into various lan- guages. Eusebiussays, "They were translated into aU languages, both of Greeks and barba- rians, throughout the world, and studied by all nations as the oracles of God." Many of the fathers bear similar testimony. Origen pubhshed a Bible, called Hexapla, in six columns, with different versions, and on adding two, called it the Octapla. The division of the Bible into chapters has been erroneously attributed to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1206. The Psalms were always divided as at present, and Hugo de Sancto Caro, a Dominican friar, and after- wards a cardinal, who compiled the first concordance to the Bible, divided the matter into sections, and the sections into under- divisions, and these sections are the chapters. He flourished about 1240, and died in 1262. Eabbi Isaac Nathan in 1445 introduced regular verses. These alterations have since been much improved. In the Latin trans- lation of the Bible, by Paginus of Lucca, published at Lyons in 1528, Arabic numerals are placed in the margin, opposite the EAELT TEAN-SLATIONS. B.C. 277 (about). The Septuagint. The Old Testament translated into Greek. 119 BIB 100. Oia Syrlac version. 128. Aqulla, a Jewbih proselyte, translates the Old Testament into Greek. 176. Theodotion translates the Old Testament. 205. Symma hus, by order of Septimus Severus, translates the Old Testament into Greek. 200-300. Coptic Translation. 300-400. F.thiopic version. 360. Gothic vei-sion, by Uphilas. 405. Jerome completes the Latin Vulgate, com- menced about 385. 410. Armenian version. 70.'). Saxon translation of the Psalms. 721. Saxon translation of the Gospels. 725. Bede's Saxon translation of the whole Bible completed. 864 Slavonian translation. 1160. French translation of the whole Bible, by Peter de Vaux. 1290. English translation. 1380. "WyckliS'e'3 English version. PHUiTTED BIBLES. Mazarin (Latin) . . Vulgate German (Vulgate) Italian „ Dutch „ . . Spanish „ French „ Bohemian „ Hebrew (Old Tes- \ tament) j Greek German Helvetian English Ditto French Swedish Danish Dutch Italian Spanish Russian Finnish Dialect . . Wel.sh Hungarian Icelandic Polish Bohemian Virginian Indians Vulgate (English") edition) J" Modern Greek Turkish Irish lapponic Manx Gaelic Portuijuese Green landish Chinese N.T. Bib. 1455 1462 1467 1471 1475 1478 1487 1488 1488 1516 1522 1534 1525 1529 1526 1.535 1.535 1534 1541 1524 1550 1.560 1562 1556 1569 1519 1581 1548 1642 1567 1588 1574 1589 1584 1585 1596 1593 1661 1663 1635 1638 1666 1602 1685 1755 1763 1767 1802 17H1 1783 1799 1814 Place of Printing. Paris. Mentz. Venice. Cologne. Valencia. Paris. Prague. Basle. Wittenberg. Zurich. Antwerp. Uncertain. Geneva. Upsall. Copenhagen. Geneva. Franklort or Basle. Ostrog. Stockliolm. London. Holum, Iceland. Cralitz, Moravia. Cambridge, New England. Rouen. Geneva. Oxford. London. Edinburgh. Lisbon. Copenhagen. Calcutta. EDITIONS OF ENGLISH BIBLES. A.D. 1526. Tyndale's New Testament. Antwerp. 1530. Tyndale's Pentateuch. Malborow, Land of Hesse. 1531. Joye's Isaye (Isaiah). Strasburg. 1535. Coverdale's folio Bible. 1537. Matthew's Bible. (Abroad.) 1537. An edition of Coverdale s Bible. South wark. 1539. The Great (or Cromwell's) Bible. London. (The first Bible printed by authority in England.) 120 A.D. 1539. 1540. 1657. 1717. 1850. BID Tavemer's Bible. Folio. T.ondon. Cranmer's edition of the Great Bible. London. Genevan Bible. Geneva. The Bishops' Bible. London. The Gospels, in Saxon .and English. Tlie Saxon from the Vu gate, and the English from the Bishops' Bible. London. Genevan Bible. Etliuburgh. (The first Bible printed m Scotland.) The Royal Bible, or King James's Bible. London. The •' Wicked Bible." London. Fii-st Scotch edition of Authorized Bible. Edin- burgh. Walton's Polyglot Bible. Vinegar Bible. Oxford. Wyclifiie's Bible. Oxford. Bible Societies. — Many societies have been formed for the dissemination of the Scriptures. The following are the principal associations of the kind, mth the date of the institution. New England re-incorporated in lf'61. Society for the Pi-opagation of the Gospel in Wales. Promoting Christian Knowledge. Propagation of Gospel in Foreign Parts. Pi'omoting Christian Knowledge in Scotland. Society at Halle. Promoting Christian Knowledge among the Poor. Naval and Military Bible Society. Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schools. French Bible Society. Society for promoting a more Extensive Cir- culation of the Scriptures, both at home and abroad. British and Foreign Bible Society ; being the Society of 1803 remoilelled. German Bibla Society. New York Society. Berliii Society, changed to Prussian Bibla Society in 1814 Philadelphia Bible Society. Russian Bible Society. Suspended in 1826. American Bible Society. 1701. 1709. 1712. 1750. 1808. 1813. 1817. Some of these societies have a large number of branch establishments. Pius VII. issued a bull, dated at Eome, June 29, 1816, against bible societies, denouncing the movement as a cral'ty device, by which the very foundatione of religion are undermined. BicoccA (Battle). — Prospero Colonna, at the head of the Imperiahsts, repulsed the French and Swiss at this place, April 22, 1522. The latter were compelled to retire from Italy, where Francis I. had nothing left but the castles of Milan and Cremona, both of which were closely besieged. BiDASOA, or ViDASOA (Spain). — ^Wellington effected a passage of this river in Spain, de- feating the French army under Soult, Oct. 7, 1813, BiDDEXDETT Maids. — On the afternoon of Easter Sunday, 600 roUs are distributed to strangers, and 270 loaves, weighing 3^ lb. each, with cheese in proportion, to the poor of the parish of Biddenden, in Kent, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, called Bread-and-Cheese Land, said to have been left for this purpose by the Biddenden Maids. The donors are represented as two sisters, named Elizabeth BIL and Mary Chulkhurst, who were born joined together by the hips and shoulders, at Bid- denden, in 1100. They hved together in this state for thirty-four years, when one of them died, and the other, refusing to be separated from the body of her sister, suc- cumbed a few hours after. An impression of the Biddenden Maids is stamped upon the rolls. Halstead, in his " History of Kent," rejects this story, saying that the lands were left by two maiden ladies of the name of Preston, and that the impression on the cakes is intended to represent two widows, as general objects of charity. W. Horner, rector of the parish, brought an action to obtain the lands as part of his glebe, but he was nonsuited. Bilbao (Spain). — This city, founded in 1300, quickly rose into importance. It was taken by the French in July, 1795, but re- stored by the treaty of Basel, July 22 in that year. The Spaniards expelled the French, who had again seized it, in September, 1808, but Napoleon recovered it in the same year. It surrendered to Wellington after his vic- tory at Vittoria, June 21, 1813. The Carlists besieged it during the civil war. It was re- lieved by Espartero and the British Legion, Dec. 24, 1836. BiLWAEDS. — ^This game is said to have been invented by the French, though by some authorities the invention is ascribed to the Italians. It was introduced into England, and became a favourite diversion in the 16th century. Evelyn speaks of a new sort of biUiards, with more hazards than ours usually have. Billingsgate. — Geoffrey of Monmouth (b. iii. c. 10) relates that amongst other works erected by Behn, was a wonderful gate in Trinovantum, upon the bank of the Thames, which is to this day called after him, BiUings- gate ; and that above it he erected an immense tower, and beneath a haven for ships. This somewhat strange and legendary story is the only account given of its origin. ToU was paid here in 1016, as appears from Ethefred's laws ; and in the time of Ed- ward III. the charge on every large vessel was twopence, for a smaller one a penny, and for a boat one halfpenny for standage. Bil- lingsgate was made a free market to aU persons from May 10, 1699, by 10 & 11 WiU. III. e. 14. Abuses having arisen, an order was issued in 1707, enforcing certain payments. The hours of the market were fixed, and a beU ordered to be rung by a proper oflBcer by 9 Anne, c. 26, s. 5 (1710). BiUingsgate was destroyed by fire Jan. 13, 1715, when fifty lives were lost ; it was, how- ever, rebuilt. An entirely new market was constructed, with superior accommodation, in 1852. Bill of Eights. — The petition of right, drawn up by parliament in 1628, and agreed to reluctantly by Charles I., June 7, 1628, was converted into a statute (3 Chas. I. c. 1), and called the BiU of Eights. The term is, however, generally used to describe the statute passed after much discussion (1 WiU. & Mary, BIE sess. 2, c. 2) , in November, 1689. It embodied the declaration of rights presented to William and Mary when the tender of the throne was made to them, Feb. 13, 1689, which defined and vindicated the rights and liberties of the subject, at the same time that it settled the succession to the throne. Bills of Exchange.— The origin of bills of exchange has not been clearly traced, though it is certain that they were known in Europe in the 13th century. Henry III. of England and Pope Alexander IV., for the purpose of carrying out their plans in Italy, in 1254, borrowed large sums of the Italian bankers, authorizing them to draw bills for the amount on the English bishops, the latter being compelled, under threats of excommu- nication, to furnish the necessary funds. Beckmann quotes an ordinance issued at Bar- celona, in 1394, requiring biUs of exchange to be accepted within twenty-four hours of presentation, and the acceptance to be on the back of the bill. In 1404 the magistrates of Bruges applied to the magistrates of Bar- celona for information as to how they were to act when bills of exchange were in certain cases dishonoured. Baldus, the jurist, quotes one dated March 9, 1328. They are mentioned in 3 Eich. II. c. 3, s. 2, 1379, and various enactments have been made for their regu- lation. Bills of Moktalitt. — Stow, on the au- thority of a learned author, says they com- menced in 1592, a year of great mortality ; and having fallen into disuse, were revived in 1603, the first of the weekly bills being dated Oct. 29 in that year. Diseases were first noticed in them in 1629. They were pubhshed every Thursday, and dehvered at the houses of the citizens for 4s. a year. They were superseded by the new machinery introduced by the Eegistration Act (6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 86), that became law Aug. 17, 1836. Its operations commenced March 1, 1837. Binaey Aeithmetic. — This kind of nota- tion, said to have been used amongst the Chinese 4,000 years ago, was invented by Leibnitz at the end of the 17th century. BiEKESTHEAD (Cheshire). — A Benedictine priory was founded here a. d. 1150, of which the ruins still exist. Birkenhead remained an obscure village until very recently. Its population of 200 in 1821, had, in 1851, increased to nearly 25,000, and it pos- sesses extensive docks, commenced Oct. 23, 1844. BiEKENHEAD, stcam transport, conveying troops to the seat of the Oaflre war, was wrecked near the Cape of Good Hope, Feb. 26, 1852, when only 194 persons out of 630 on board at the time were saved. BlKMiNGHAM (Warwickshire). — This manufacturing town, of which the name is said to be spelt in 150 ways, one being BromwycJiam, was founded in the Anglo- Saxon period, and was a market-town before the Norman conquest. It sided with Crom- well during the civil war, and a battle was fought near it in 1643, when Prince Eupert obtained possession of the town. 121 BIE 15S2. King Edward VI. founds the Gr School. 1643. Besieged, taken, and partially burnt, by Prince Rupert. 1665. Visited by the plague. 1764. Matthew Boltou founds the Soho manu- factory. 1767. Birmingham Canal commenced. 1774. Watt and Boulton commence their partner- ship. 1779. The General Hospital opened. 1791. July 14. Riots, in consequence of attempts to celebrate the anniversary of the French revolution. 1792. A\ig. 24. The theatre burnt. 1813. Government proof -house erected. 1817. May 15. Walter-street MUls entirely con- sumed by fire. Damage estimated at £200,000. 1820. Jan. 7. The theatre again destroyed by fire. 1831. Bii-mingham Political Union formed, to insure the success of the Reform Bill. 1832. Made a borough by the Reform BUI, and returns two members to parliament. 1833. Town-hall built. 18;i4. May 10. Dissolution of the Political XTnion. Erection of the present Grammar School 1837. July. Grand Junction Railway opened between Bii-uitngham and Jjiverpool. 1838. Sept. 17. London and Birmingham Railway opened. Oct. 31. Mimicipal Charter granted. 1839. July 15. Great riot by the Chartists. 1343. Queen's College incorporated. 1846. Queen's College authorized by royal warrant to issue certificates to candidates for degi-ees in London University. 1847. Oct. Com Exchange opened. People's Park opened, the gift of 5Ir. Adrlerley. New Music Hall opened. Lord Calthorpe's Park opened. 1858. June 15. The Queen opens Aston Hall and Park, which become the propsi-ty of the people of Birmingham. 1859. Sept. 27. Twenty persons killed by an explo- sion of gunpowder in a percussion - cap manufactory. BiETHS were first taxed in this country by 6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 6, 1694. The tax was granted for five years, from May 1, 1695, and was by 8 & 9 WiU. IIT. c. 20, s. 14, con- tinued till Aug. 1, 1706, and every person not receiving alms was required to pay 2s. for each child. The nobUity, &c., paid, in addition to the 2s., as foUows : — For each Eldest son. son and daughter. £. «. d. £. s. d. Duke 30 .... 25 JIarquis ... 25 20 Earl 20 15 Viscount 17 10 .... 13 6 Baron 15 12 Baronet, knight of the ■) bath, or knight-bache- > 5 10 lor j Serjeant-at-law, esquire 1 •, a ^ inn or gentleman /^ ** ^ ••• 1 <* Archbishop,bishop,dean,1 archdeacon,canon,pre- linn t n n beudary, doctor of di- r -l " « •••• 10 vinity, law, or physic J Every person not includ-"| ed in the above list, j having a real estate of i „ ,^ „ mo n £50 per annum, or per- f " ^" .... 10 sonal estate of £600 or ■apwards J BiETHs, Deaths, anb Makkiages.— A BIS j stamp duty on the registry of births, chris- tenings, marriages, and burials, was granted from Oct. ], 1783, by 23 Geo. III. c. 67 (1783) . The amount was threepence on each entry. The tax was extended to Dissenters from Oct. 1, 1785, by 25 Geo. III. c. 75 (1785), and both acts were repealed by 34 Geo. III. c. 11 (March 1, 1794), the duties ceasing Oct. 1, 1794. Bishop, or Ovekseeb, the title given by the Greeks and Eomans to certain civU officers, was adopted in the Christian Church for one of its chief authorities during the apostoHcal period. Bishops were at first styled apostles. By canons passed at the councils of Chalcedon (the fourth General Coimcil), A.D. 451 ; of Agda, Sept. 11, 506 ; of Lerida, Aug. 6, 546, and at many others, ascetics, hermits, and monks were made subject to them. Bishops were appointed ia England soon after the introduction of Chris- tianity during the 1st century, the monkish account of the foundationof the see of London by Lucius, between a.d. 170 and 185, being rejected as aii invention intended to convey the idea of the subjection of the ancient British church to Eome. The hierarchy be- came very powerful in Anglo-Saxon times. William I. changed the frank-almoign, or free alms, the spiritual tenure under which the bishops before held their lands, into the feudal or Norman tenure by barony in 1070 ; and in'right of succession to these baronies the bishops and abbots were afterwards allowed seats m the House of Lords as lords spiritual. They were at first elected to their office. Charlemagne claimed the right of confirming each appomtment, and of granting investiture of the temporahties, and this was recognized by Hadrian in 773, and the Council of Lateran. This custom prevailed in England until the year 1106, when Ansehn induced Henry I. to be satisfied with homage from the bishop for his temporahties. King John conceded by charter to the cathedrals and monasteries the right of electing their bishops and abbots. This right was recognized and confirmed ia Magna Charta, and by 25 Edw. III. st. 6, s. 3, in 1351. The ancient right of nomination was restored to the crown by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20 (1534). Twelve bishops were impeached and committed to the Tower, Dec. 30, 1641, for protesting (Dec. 28) against the legality of all laws, orders, votes, resolutions, and determinations passed during their enforced absence, from the violence of the mob, by whom they were daily assaulted on their way to parliament. Bishops were excluded from parhament by 16 Chas. I. c. 27 (Feb. 1641), but the act was repealed by 13 Chas. II. St. 1, c. 2 (1662), and they have since sat in the upper house. {See Nonjueoes, and Sevek Bishops, (Trial of).) BisHOPEics (England and Wales). — Many bishoprics were founded in this country during the early period of the Church. All particu- lars, and even, in most cases, the names of the sees, are lost. British bishops were pre- sent at the councils of Aries in 314, of Nieaea in 325, and Arminium in 360; and their BIS signatures are affixed to the canons passed at these synods. It is impossible to ascer- tain the exact date of the foundation of all the Enghsh bishoprics, and in cases in which this is not known, the earliest notice of them that occurs is given in the following Mst. By 10 & 11 Vict. c. 108 (July 23, 1847), which provided for the erection of the see of Man- chester, it was enacted that the number of bishops having seats in the House of Lords should not be increased, and that in case of a vacancy, London, Durham, and "Winchester being excepted, the junior bishop should re- main without a seat. The bishop of Sodor and Man never sat in parliament, and con- sequently this arrangement did not affect that see, ARCHBISHOPEICS. A.D. Canterbury 597 York.— Founded 180. Restored 622 BISHOPSICS. A.ix 616 Bath.— Founded 1078. Wells transferred to Bath 1092 Bristol.-United to Gloucester 1836 1541 Carlisle 1132 Chester 1541 Chichester.— At Selsey 680. Removed to Chi- chester 1078 Durham. — At Lindisfarne 634. Removed to Durham 995 Ely 1108 Exeter.— See of Devonshire 909, and Corn- wall 909. United 1040, and removed to Exeter 1046 Gloucester.- United to Bristol 1836. Founded 1541 Hereford. — First noticed 67d Hexham.— First noticed 678. Extinct 810 Lichfield. — Removed to Coventry, and also to Chester. Founded 669 Lincoln.— Founded at Lindsey in 680. Re- moved to Lincoln 1078 Llandaif. — Founded, according to some autho- rities, in 180, and according to others 516 London. — Said to have been an archbishopric in 180. Bishopric founded 604 Manchester . 1847 Norwich.— The see of the East-Angles was founded at Dunwich 673, and at Elmham 673. Removed to Thetford 1078, and to Norwich 1092 Oxford 1541 Peterborough 1541 Ripon 1836 Rochester 604 Salisbmy.— See founded at Sherborne 705. Divided ta 909 ; one being called Wilton. Reunited 10.58 Sodor and Man.— At Man 447. Sodor and Man 1109 St. Asaph 550 St. David's. — Formerly archbishopric of Caerleon. Bishopric founded 516 Wells. United to Bath 1092. Founded 909 Westminster.— Founded 1541. Suppressed .. 1550 Winchester 705 Worcester 680 BiSHOPEics (Ireland). — Two archbishop- rics were reduced to bishoprics, and several sees merged into others by 3 & 4 WiE. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), and 4 & 5 WiU. IV. c. 90 (Aug. 15, 1834). The archbishop and two bishops sit in the House of Lords, a change being made each session, that all the bishops may sit in turn. BIS AECHBISHOPRICS. A.D. Armagh. — Bishopric founded 445. Made an archbishopric 1152 Cashel.— Foundation, before 901. Became an archbishopric 1152; received Emly in 1568 ; and was reduced from an archbishopric, and became the bishopric of Cashel, Emly, Water- ford, and Lismore 1839 Dublin.— Foundation uncertain. Became an archbishopric 1152 Tuam. — Founded about 501 ; became an arch- bishopric 1152 ; received Mayo 1559 ; was re- duced from an archbishopric, and became the bishopric of Tuam, KLUala, and Achonry . . 1839 BISHOPEICS. A.D. Achonry. — Founded 530. United to KUlala ltj22 Ardagh. — Founded 454 ; united to Kilnaore 1660 ; separated 1692 ; reunited 1693 ; again separated and united to Tuam 1742 ; sepa- rated from Tuam and united to lulmore . . 1841 Ardfei-t and Aghadoe. — First noticed 500. United to Limerick 1663 Clogher. — First noticed 493. United to Armagh 1850 Clonfert. — Founded 558. Received Kilmac- duach 1602. Both united to Kiilaioe and Kilfenora 1834 Clonmacnois. — Founded 548. United to Meath 1568 Cloyne.— Founded before 604 ; united to Cork 1430 ; separated 1679 ; and united to Cork and Ross 1835 Connor. — Founded about 500. United to Down 1441 Cork. — Founded about 606. Received Cloyne 1430, and Ross 1583. Cloyne separated 1679. It became Cork, Cloyne, and Ross 1835 Derry before 618 ; and became Derry and Raphoe 1834 Down. — Founded about 499 ; became Down and Connor 1441 ; and Down, Connor, and Dromore 1842 Dromore. — Founded about 510. United to Down and Connor 1842 Elphin.— Founded 450. United to Kilmore and Ardagh 1841 Emly.— Founded about 448. United to Cashel 1568 Ferns. — Founded about 598. United to leighlin 1600 Glandalagh. — Founded before 612. United to Dublta 1214 Kildare. — Founded before 519. United to Dublin 1846 Kilfenora. — Founded before 1254. United to Tuam 1661 ; and to Kiilaioe 1752 KUlala.— Foimded about 434 ; became Killala and Achonry 1607 ; and both united to Tuam 1834 Kiilaioe.— Earliest certain date 1019. Became Kiilaioe and Kilfenora 1752 ; and Kiilaioe, Kilfenora, Clonfert, and KUmacduach 1839 Kilmacduach. — Founded about 620. United to Clonfert 1602 Kilmore. — Founded 1136 ; received Ardagh 1660 ; separated 1742 ; again received Ardagh 1839; and became Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh 1841 Leighlin.— Founded 632. United to Femsl600. Both annexed to Ossory 1835 Limerick. — Founded before 1106. Became Lim- erick, Ai'dfert, and Aghadoe 1667 Lismore. — Founded 631, or 636. United to Waterford 1.363 T outh. — Founded 534. Suppressed 1044 Mayo.— Founded about665. United to Tuam 15-59 Meath.— Founded 520 Ossory.— Founded 402. Became Ossory, Ferns, and Leighlin 1835 Raphoe.— Earliest authentic date, 885. United to Derry 1834 Boss.— Founded about 570. United to Cork and Cloyne 1583 Waterford.— Founded 1096 ; united to Lismore 1363 ; and both annexed to Cashel 1834 123 BIS Bishoprics (Scotland).— Episcopacy was abolished in Scotland in 1561, restored in 1606, again abolished in 1639, again restored in 1661, and abolished at the revolution m 1689, when the bishops were expelled. Be- fore the Revolution there were two arch- bishoprics and twelve bishoprics in Scotland, the last, that of Edinburgh, having been founded by Charles I. in 1633. Though the Presbyterian church was acknowledged as the national church at the Eevolution, some of the old episcopahan bishoprics have been revived. There are now seven, the last being that of Argyll and the Isles, re-established October, 1847. AECHBISHOPKICS. A.D. Glasgow.— Founded about 560 or 583. Erected into an ai-uhbishopric 1488 St. Andrews.— Bishopric 800. Made an arch- BISHOPEICS. A.D. Aberdeen. — Founded at Mortlach, Banffshire, 1010. Transfen-ed 1125 Argyll 1200 Brechin.— Before 11-55 Caithness.— About 106« Dunblane.— Before llo3 Dunkeld H^^O Edinburgh 1633 Galloway.— Before 500 Isles 360 Moray U",V1 ^^^^ Orkney. — Foundation very obscure. EarUest authentic date 1188 Boss 112-i The above were all suppressed at the Eevolution, and the following sees have been since erected : — ■ Argyll and the Isles Brechin Dunblane, 1731. United to Dunkeld Dunkeld, 1727. Transferred to St. Andrews Ediuburgh Fife, 1743. Transferred to Dunkeld and Dun- blane Glasgow, 1731. Suppressed 1734. Restored, and made Glasgow and Galloway Moray, 1727. United to Ross Ross, 1798. Became Ross and Moray 1838 St. Andi-ews.- The bishoiu-ic of Dunkeld and Dunbl.me was cuanged to thatof St. Andrews, Dunkeld, and Dunblane 1844 Bishoprics (Colonial). — The first colonial sea in connection with the Church of England was that of Nova Scotia, to which the Eev. S. Seabury was consecrated at Aberdeen, Nov. 24, 1784. Bishoprics were afterwards erected for New York and Pennsylvania, and other American colonies. These are now included in the Episcopal church of the United States. The following Ust contains all the colonial sees that had been founded previous to the year 1861. A.D. Adelaide 1847 Antigua 1842 Australia.— Founded 1836. Changed to Sydney 1847 Barbadoes and Leewara Isles 1824 Bombay 1837 Brisbane, Moreton Bay lo5» 124 BIT A.D. British Columbia 1850 Calcutta 1814 Cape Town 1847 Ceylon 1845 Chi'istchurch, New Zealand lo-^b Fredericton 1845 Gibraltar 1842 Goulbourn, N. S. Wales 185!) Graham's Town 1853 Guiana 1842 Huron 1857 Jamaica 18*24 Labuan 1855 Madras 1835 Mauritius 1854 Melbourne 1847 ! Montreal 1850 Natjil 1*53 Nelson, New Zealand ^8-?8 New Zealand 1841 Newcastle 1847 Newfoundland 1839 Nova Scotia 1787 Perth, West Australia 1856 Prince Rupert's Land 1850 Quebec 1793 Sierra Leone 1850 St. Helena, Cape 1859 Tasmania 1842 Toronto 1839 Victoria, Hong Kong 1849 Waiapu. New Zealand 1850 Wellington 1858 Bishops (Eoman Catholic).— The Church of Eome has no less than 731 archbishops and bishops on its establishment. After the Re- formation, England and Wales were placed under the care of bishops in partibus, the first appointment having been made March 23, 1623, and afterwards of Vicars-Apostohe. By a brief dated Sept. 30, 18aO, the hierarchy was restored in England, and one archbishop and twelve bishops appointed. In Ireland there are four Eoman Cathohc archbishops and twenty-four bishops. The Eoman Ca- thohc Church in Scotland is under the juris- diction of three bishops in partibus. BiTHTNiA (Asia Minor).— The original inhabitants of this ancient province were, according to the traditional account, expelled by some Thracian tribes, of which the Bithyni were the most numerous. The Megarians formed a colony at Astacus B.C. 712, which became a flourishing city. Bithynia was incorporated with the Lydian empire by Croesus about b . c . 560. BithjTiia is included in the modem Anatoha, 541. Succumbs with Lydia to the Persian yoke. 431 or 436. Dydalsus, or Dsedalsus, chief of the Bithyni, seizes Astacus, and founds the kingdom of Bithynia. 409. The Bithynians deliver to Alcibiades the pro- perty of the Chalcedoiiians intrusted to their safe keeping. 401. The Bithynians vigorously oppose the retreat of the Ten Thousand. 333. The Bithynians de ■ eat Galas, one of the generals of Alexander the Great. 315. Zipcetes wars with Astacus and Chalcedon. 281. Lysimachus, the Thracian, sends an army to subdue Bithynia ; but his troops are de- feated, and his generals i-lain. 278. Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, invites the Gauls into Asia, and assigns Galatia as their territory. 264 Nicomedes L founds Nicomedia, BIT 228 (about). Zielas having treacherously planned the massacre of the chiefs of Galatia, is detected and slain by them. 216. Prusias I defeats the Gauls iu a gi'eat battle. 183. Hannibal, who had sought refuge with Pru- sias I. and assisted him in his wars with the king of Pergamus, poisons himself, to avoid betrayal into the hands of the Eomans. 167. Prusias II. visits Kome, and is magniflcently received. 156. War between the kings of Bithynia and Per- gamus, in which the former is victorious. 88. War between Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, and Mithridates, king of Pontus, in which the latter is victorious. 74. Death of Nicomedes III. , who heq\ieaths Bi- thynia to the Komau people. A.D. 63. The provinces of Bithynia and Pontus are united about this time. 103. Pliny becomes governor of Bithynia. 104. PUny complains of the Christians in his pro- vince. 260 (about). Ravaged by the Goths. 1074. Seized by the Seljukian Turks. 12.31. First settlement of the Tart;irs in Bithjmia. 1298. The Ottomans found a new empire in Bithynia, and constitute Prusa their capital. 1339. The Emir Orchan conquers Nicomedia, and subdues the whole of Bithynia. KllfaS OP BITHYNIA. B.C. — DydaUus. — Boteiras. 376. Bas. 326. Zipoetes. 278. Nicomedes I. 250. Zielas. B.C. 228. Prusias I. 180. Prusias II. 149. Nicomedes II. (Epiphanes). 91. Nicomedes III. (Philopator). BiTONTO (Battle). — The Imperialists were defeated at this place, in Apulia, by the Spanish troops, led by the duke of Monte- mar, general to Don Carlos, May 27, 1734. Don Carlos was crowned king of Naples, the German viceroy expelled, and Montemar created duke of Bitonto. The whole of Sicily was soon after subjugated. Black Act, passed in 1722 (9 Geo. I. c. 22) , and so called because it was intended to put an end to the wanton destruction of deer, tame, plantations, the obtaining of the same by threats, and other outrages committed l)y persons called blacks, having their faces blackened, and being otherwise disguised. 'JTiese offences were punished as felony, the delinquents to suffer death without benefit of clergy. Offenders under this act were excepted from the general pardon granted by 20 Geo. II. c. 52 (1746). The act was to last for three years from June 1, 1723, and it was continued for five j^ears by 12 Geo. I. c. 30 (1725), and after other renewals was made perpetual by 31 Geo. II. c. 42 (1757). It was repealed by 7 &8 Geo. IV. c. 27, s. 1, June 21, 1827. The acts of the Scottish jiarhament from the re'gn of James I. of Scotland to the year 15S6 are also denomi- nated black acts, because they are printed in Saxon characters. Black Assize. — A fatal pestilence that broke out at Oxford, at the close of the assizes, July 6, 1577. It lasted until the 12th of August, and 510 persons in Oxford and its neighbourhood are said to have fallen victims BLA to this malady. Antony "Wood attributes it to the noisome smell of the prisoners or the damp ground. Something of the same kind occurred at the Lent assizes in Cambridge, in 1521, when all " there present were sore sick, and narrowly escaped with their lives." Black Cap, called the "Judgment Cap," isworn on extraordinary occasions, asforming a portion of the full dress of the judge. It is for this reason it is used when sentence of death is passed upon a prisoner. When the Lord Mayor is presented in the court of Exchequer, Nov. 9, the judges wear "the black cap" during the ceremony. Covering the head was a sign of mourning amongst the Israehtes, as may be seen from 2 Sam. xv. 30, and other passages in the Old Testament ; also amongst the Greeks, Eomans, and other ancient nations, and even amongst the Anglo- Saxons. It is not known when the custom for a judge to put on the black cap in passing sentence of death upon a prisoner was intro- duced in this country. Black Death. — This pestilence, so called from the black spots which at one of its stages appeared upon the bodies of the sufferers, desolated the world in the 14th century. It is said to have broken out in China. After having traversed Asia, it appeared in Europe in 1348, where it prevailed with more or less severity until 1351. The loss of human life was great, no less than 25,000,000 persons having perished in Europe alone. The terrors it excited gave rise to several sects, who wan- dered about, lashing themselves, singing penitential psalms, and declaring that the day of judgment was at hand. In some places the calamity was attributed to the Jews, who were, in consequence, persecuted with great severity. Our historians dwell upon the ■ great ravages it committed in London. It returned at a later period, but its visitations were less fatal in their character. Black Feiaes. — ^This name was given, on account of their black habit, to the Domi- nicans, who came into England in 1221. (See Dominicans.) Blackfeiaks Beidg-e. — The first pile was driven January 7, and the foundation stone of this edifice was laid Oct. 31, 1760. The temporary bridge was opened for foot- passengers Nov. 19, 1766 ; for horses, in 1768 ; and for carriages, Nov. 19, 1769 ; the edifice having been completed in 1770. ToU, to the amount of one halfpenny per foot- passenger, was at first levied ; but this was abohshed June 22, 1785. The bi-idge has nine arches, the width of the central one being 100 feet, and the length of the whole structure 995, and the width 42 feet. It was repaired in 1840, when the carriage-way was closed until October in the following year. It was at first called Pitfs Bridge, in honour of the great earl of Chatham. Blackeeiaes Theatee was built in 1576, and rebuilt in 1596. The edifice was pulled down, and tenements erected on its site, Aug. 6, 1655. In the reign of Charles I. the Blackfriars theatre was the first iu London. 125 BLA BtACKHEATH (Kent) . — ^This common, about five miles S.E. from London, has been the scene of many important events. The Danes were defeated here in 1011. Wat Tyler and his followers assembled here June 12, 1381, marching upon London the following day. Here, S'ov. 23, 1416, the citizens of London welcomed Henry V., after the victory at Agincourt. Jack Cade encamped on the heath June 1, 1450, and after having de- feated the king's army at Sevenoaks, entered London, July 1. The people of Cornwall resisted the "payment of a subsidy granted to Henry VII., for the prosecution of a war against Scotland, by a parhament held at Westminster, Monday, Jan. 16, 1497, and under the leadership of Lord Audley, ilichael Joseph, a blacksmith, and Thomas Flam- mock, a lawyer, advanced towards London, and were defeated at Blaekheath, June 22, 1497. Their leaders were taken and exe- cuted. Charles II., at the Eestoration, was met here by the army. May 29, 1660, and made his triumphal entry into the metro- poHs. It was a resort of highwaymen during . the 18th century. j Black-hole. — Dowlah, viceroy of Bengal, captured Calcutta June 20, 1756, when he ordered Mr. Holwell, its valiant defender, and 145 of his fellow-countrymen, to be im- i prisoned in the common dungeon of Fort j William, usually called the Black-hole. The dungeon was only 18 feet square ; but little air was admitted ; and the consequence was, that when the door was opened, only 23 of the 146 incarcerated the night before were found aHve. Clire exacted signal vengeance for this act of barbarity. He took Calcutta Jan. 2, 1757 ; won the battle of Plassey June 23 in the same year ; and the perfidious Dowlah was slain b}' one of his own officers on the 25th of the same month. BiiACK-iiAiL. — This tax, in kind or money, was levied by the borderers of England and Scotland, uuder the pretence of atfording protection from robbers, with whom those demanding the tribute were generally aUied. By 43 £hz. c. 13 (1601), aU persons in the counties of Northumberland, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and the bishopric of Durham, receiving or carrying black-mail, or giving it for protection, were to suffer death as felons, without benefit of clergy, and to for- feit all their goods. These iUegal exactions were carried to such an extent, that they became the subject of legislation just before the Union. The practice was, in spite of every effort for its suppression, continued in Scotland until the rebellion of 1745. Black MoifDAX. — Easter Monday, April 6, 1360, was thus named from the severity of the weather on that day. Stow, under the year 1360, says, "And here is to be noted that the 14th day of April, and the morrow after Easter -day, King Edward, with his host, lay before the city of Paris, which day was fuU dark of mist and hail, and so bitter cold, that many men died on their horse- backs with the cold ; wherefore unto this day it hath been called the Black Monday." 126 BLA Easter Monday in that year fell on the 6th of April. Launcelot, in the " Merchant of Venice," remarks, "Then itwas not for nothing that my nose fell a bleeding on Black Mon- day last." By school-boys, the first Monday after the hohdays — the day on which work usually commences — is also called Black Monday. Black Moket. — Base coin, brought into England from foreign cotmrries, was thus denominated. The importation of black money was prohibited by 9 Edw. III. c. 2 (1335) ; and 9 Edw. III. c.4 (1335). declared that it should not be current in this realm. The term was also applied to jettons and counters. Black Monks. — The Benedictines, from the colour of their outward garments, were usually called black monks. {See Bene- dictines.) Blackeock (Battle). — At this place, near Buffalo, the American army, amounting to nearly 2,500 men, were defeated by a Bri- tish force consisting of 1,4<.)0 regttlars and militia, Dec. 30, 1813. The Americans attempted to make a stand at Buffalo, but speedily gave way ; whereupon the village of Blackrock and the town of Buffalo, with all stores, &c., were destroyed. This was done in retaliation for the acts of plunder and devastation committed by the Americana during their invasion of Upper Canada. Black Eod. — The gentleman-usher of the black rod was appointed by letters patent from the crovm, at the institution of the order of the G-arter, of which he is an officer, in 1350. He, or his deputy, the yeoman- usher, is sent to desire the attendance of the Commons in the House of Lords when the royal assent is given to bdls, and on other occasions. Black Sea (Expedition). — The allied Enghsh and French squadrons entered the Black Sea, Jan. 4, 1854. Odessa was bom- barded April 22, and the British war steams Tiger was lost off that port May 12. The landing of the allied armament was effected at Old Fort, Sept. 14 — 18, Balaclava entered Sept. 26, and Sebastopol bombarded Oct. 17. A terrible gale occurred iJiTov. 11, and the hurricane in which so many British . and French ships were lost, Nov. 14. The expe- dition to Kertch sailed May 23, 1855, and after having captured several places and destroyed warlike stores, returned to Bala- clava June 14. The expedition to the Bug and the Dnieper anchored off Odessa Oct. 8, was detained by fogs and contrary winds tiU the 14th, captured Kinburn on the 16th, and returned to Balaclava in November. On the signature of the treaty of peace in 1858, the EngHsh and French squadrons were gra- dually withdrawn, and the Black Sea was thrown open to the commerce of all nations. Blackwates (Battle), took place during Tyrone's rebellion, between the Englishforces led by Sir Henry Bagnal, and the rebels, Aug. 14, 1598. The former were defeated, and the result of the disaster was a general rismg of the Irish in Ulster. BLA Bladensbueg (Battle). — AnEnglisli army defeated the Americans on the heights of Bladensburg, Aug. 24, 1814. The American force consisted of between 7,000 and 8,000 infantry, with 3,000 cavalry, in a strong position, supported by a powerful artillery; whilst the British could scarcely muster 5,000 men, and only 1,500 were actually engaged. The defeated army retreated through Wash- ington, of which the victors took possession. Blanket'EEKS. — Eioters, who assembled from all parts of Lancashire at St. Peter's church, Manchester, on Monday, March 10, 1817, for the purpose of carrying a petition for reform to London, in order to present it to the prince regent. They brought with them a blanket, amongst other necessaries for the journey, and on this account received the name of blanketeers. The authorities, by adopting proper pre- cautions, and suspending the Habeas Corpus act, were enabled to suppress the movement before mischief had been done. Blank Veese was, according to Hallam, first used in Enghsh poetry by Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, who was executed Jan. 21, 1547. His chief production in this measure is a translation of the second book of the -ffineid, pubhshed in 1557. Blank verse was much improved by Marlowe. Some authors give Chaucer the merit of having first em- ployed it. Blasphemy was severely ptmished, both in ancient and modern times. The penalty by the law of Moses was death, and the same was av/arded by the civil code of Justinian. The ecclesiastical codes were very severe upon persons guilty of any form of the offence. The Long Parhament passed a law (May 2, 1648) visiting it in some cases with capital punishment without benefit of clergy. By 3 James I. c. 21 (1605), any person or persons in any stage play, interlude, show. May-game, or pageant, jestingly or profanely speaking or using the name of either person of the Trinity, were fined £10 for every offence. The act for more effectually suppressing blasphemy or profaneness (9 & 10 WiU. III. c. 32), 1698, punished these offences with general disqualification and imprisonment for three years. By 53 Geo. III. c. 160, 8. 2 (July 21, 1813), Unitarians are reheved from its operation. The law respecting blasphemy is regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8, passed Dec. 30, 1819. Blenheim, or Blind heim (Battle). — The allied army, under Marlborough and Eugene, defeated the French and Bavarians at this place, Aug. 13 (O. S. 2), 1704. The forces of the former consisted of 52,000 men and 52 pieces of cannon; those of the latter of 57,000 men, advantageously posted and de- fended by a powerfid artillery. The battle commenced at eight in the morning, and by nine in the evening the triumph of the allies was complete. Their loss was 4,500 killed and 7,500 wounded ; that of the French and Bavarians, 12,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners ; whilst several thousands perished in the Danube. The victors took 100 pieces of BLO cannon, 24 mortars, 129 colours, and 171 standards. This was Marlborough's greatest achievement, and on the evening of the battle he wrote in pencil, on a sHp of paper torn from his memorandum-book, the following letter, still preserved in the family archives, to the duchess : — " I have not time to say more, but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory. Monsieur Tallard and two other generals are in my coach, and I am following the rest. The bearer, my aide-de- camp. Colonel Parke, will jive her an account of what has passed : I shall do it in a day or two, by another more at large. " MAfiLBoRouGH." This distinguished general received as a na- tional gift, the manor and honovir of Wood- stock, and the hundred of Wootton, where the palace of Blenheim was erected for him. The trophies of the victory were removed from the Tower to Westminster Hail, Jan. 3, 1705, amid the thunders of artillery and popular demonstrations . Blind.— Louis IX. founded the hospital of the Quinze Vingts at Paris, in 1260, for the reception of soldiers who had lost their sight in the Crusades. Simpson's hospital for the bhnd at Dublm was founded in 1781. The first school for the bhnd was opened by Valentine Haiiy at Paris, in 1784. Institu- tions for the bhnd were estabhshed at Liver- pool in 1791, at Edinburgh in 1792, at Bristol in 1793 ; the school for the indigent bhnd in London in 1799, at Norwich in 1805; the Eichmond Institution in Dublin in 1809, the Molineux in Dublin in 1815, at Glasgow in 1828, at Limerick m 1835, at York in 1837, at Manchester in 1838, at Newcastle in 1838, and at Exeter in 1839. The nimaber of these excellent institutions increases rapidly. Printing for the blind was introduced in 1827, and the methods of conveying instruction have been greatly improved. Blinding-. — Dueange, under the term Abacinaire, enumerates the various methods by which this barbarous punishment of depriving persons of sight was inflicted. Burning with hot irons was the most com- mon. Shakespeare, in the case of Gloucester (King Lear, act iii. sc. 7), and in the scene between Arthur and Hubert in King John (act iv. sc. 1), gives a vivid description of its horrors. Michael Palasologus blinded the young emperor John Lascaris, in order to render his own usurpation secure (Dec. 25, 1261). Gibbon (ch. Ixii.) remarks: "The loss of sight incapacitated the young prince for the active business of the world : instead of the brutal violence of tearing out his eyes, the visual nerve was destroyed by the intense glare of a red-hot basin, and John Lascaris was removed to a distant castle, where he spent many years in privacy and obhvion." This mode of torture was a fearful weapon in the hands of oppressors and tyrants in ancient times, as well as during the Middle Ages. Blois (Treaties). — A secret treaty was concluded here between Louis XII. and the 127 BLO arcliduke Philip, in September, 1504, by which the former ceded to Prince Charles (afterwards the emperor Charles V.) Bri- tanny, part of Burgundy, and certain places in Italy, as the dowry of his daughter, the princess Claude : the marriage never took place. A.nother alliance, between Louis XII. and the Venetians, was concluded here March 14, 1513, and a league between Eng- laad and France, negotiated at Paris, was signed at Blois, April 11, 1572. The latter was an offensive and defensive alliance, intended to Idl the suspicions of the French Protestants. Blood. — During the early and Middle Ages, human blood was regarded as a medi- cine of great efficacy, and blood-baths, in which the patients sat, were used in cases of leprosy. Louis XI. of France, after having tried a number of remedies, is said by the historian Gaguin to have hoped to recover by the blood of certain children, which he swallowed. The Harveian theory of the cir- culation of the blood was confirmed by the experiment of transfusing blood, tried upon dogs in 1657. Various attempts were made in France in the 18th century to renovate old and broken constitutions by means of some system of transfusion of blood. Blood (Circulation of). — The discovery of the general circulation of the blood has been attributed to several indi%dduals. Hal- lam, who substantiates the claim of Wilham Harvey, after reviewing the controversy, remarks: "It is thus manifest that several anatomists of the 16th century were on the verge of completely detecting the law by which the motion of the blood is governed ; and the language of one (Csesalpin) is so strong, that we must have recourse, in order to exclude his claim, to the irresistible fact that he did not confirm by proof his own theory, nor proclaim it in such a manner as to attract the attention of the world." Ser- vetus (1543-1553) was acquainted ^vith the pulmonary circulation, Columbus (1559) pos- sessed the same knowledge, and Caesalpin, about 1583, had a more just notion than any of his predecessors of the general circulation of the blood, discovered in 1619, by William Harvey, who fully demonstrated its truth in 1623. Asellius, in 1622, discovered the lacteal vessels. The common origin of the lacteal and lymphatic vessels was discovered by Pecquet in 1647, and madepuVdic in 1651. Blood of our Saviour. — This order of knighthood was instituted at Mantua by the duke Vincentio di Gonzaga, on the marriage of his son with Margaret of Savoy, in 1608. Bloody Assizes. — After the suppression of Monmouth's rebellion, a special commis- sion, dated Aug. 24, 16S5, for the trial of offenders, was directed to Jefferies and four otherjudges. They set out for the west of Eng- land under a military escort, commanded by Jefferies, with the rank of lieutenant-general, and at Dorchester, Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, condemned above 300 persons to death, almost without trial. Nearly 1,000 were 8")ld as slaves to the West-Indian 128 BLU plantations, and others were whipped, fined, and imprisoned. James II. termed the expedition Jefferies' Campaign, rewarding him with the lord-chancellorship Sept. 28. This is generally known as the Bloody Assizes. Bloomer Costume. — Hohnshed, in his description of England in the 16th centuiy, says, " I have met with some of these trulles in London, so disguised that it hath passed my skUle to discerne whether they were men or women." These were doubtless the first •wearers of what is called the Bloomer cos- tume, being a dress for females, attempted in America in 1848, and introduced into Eng- land in 1851, where, though recommended !1 by lecturers, it fell into contempt, and speedily disappeared. Bloomsbuky Gang, a clique of politi- cians, who, towards the close of the 18th century, exercised an undue influence over the councils of George III. They were so called from the fact that their meetings often took place at Bloomsbury House, the resi- dence of their leader, John, fourth duke of Bedford. To such an extent was their tyranny carried, that the sovereign was frequently compelled, though reluctantly, to submit to their demands. The marquis of Bath, and Lords Sandwich and Weymouth, were mem- bers of this political knot. The marquis of Stafford, who died Oct. 26, 1803, was the last survivor of the Bloomsbury Gang. Blore-heath (Battle).— Fought during the wars of the Roses, Sunday, Sept. 23, 1459, when the Yorkists, commanded by the earl of Salisbury, defeated a superior force of the Lancastrians, 1 ?d by Lord Audley. Henry VI. and Queen Margaret were in the neighbour- hood at the time of the encounter. Blotting-paper. — Though no account of its first use is known to exist, it was probably introduced soon after the invention of paper. Fuller (circ. 1655) says, " Paper participates in some sort of the characters of the country which makes it ; the Venetian being neat, subtile, and courtUke ; the Frenchhght, slight, and slender ; the Dutch thick, corpulent, and gross, sucking up the ink with the sponginess thereof." Blotting-paper is included amongst the items, in an account o stationery supphed to the Exchequer and the Treasury 1666-1668. Blowpipe. — The date of its invention has not been ascertained. It was first employed ! in the analysis of metals by Swab, in 1738, j and its use in the science of mineralogy was [ demonstrated by Cronstedt in 1758. It has been improved by various men of science since his time. I Blue Coat. — Blue was the colour in which ! the Gauls and ancient nations clothed their slaves ; and a blue coat with a badge was, in the time of Shakespeare, the livery worn by servants of the nobility. A serving-man in [ one of Ben J onson's dramas remarks, "Ever | since I was of the blue order." Blue was ! also the colour worn by beadles; hence blue- | bottle became a term of reproach for both, j DoU Tear-sheet (Henry IV., pt. ii. act t. \ sc. 4) says to the beadle who is dragging her j ELU to prison, " I will have you a3 soundly swinged for this, you blue-bottle rogue ! " Blue was also worn by apprentices, and even younger brothers; and a blue gown was the dress of ignominy for a harlot in the house of correction. BLtTE-STOCKiNe Cltibs.— Boswell, in his **Life of Johnson," thus describes their origin : — "About this time (1781) it was much the fashion for several ladies to have evening assemblies, where the fair sex might participate in conversation with literary and ingenious men, animated by a desire to please. These societies were denominated £lue- Stocking Clubs; the origin of which title being little known, it may be worth while to relate it. One of the most eminent members of those societies, when they first commenced, was Mr. StiUingfieet, whose dress was re- markably grave, and in particular it was observed that he wore blue stockings. Such was the excellence of his conversation, that his absence was felt as so great a loss, that it used to be said ' We can do nothing without the blue stockings ; ' and thus by de- grees the title was established." BoAED OF CoNTKOL was established by Pitt's East-India Bill, 24 Geo. III., sess. 2, c. 25 (May 18, 1784) . Six privy coxmcillors were appointed as commissioners to have control and superintendence of aU the affairs of the British possessions in the East Indies. The act was amended by 33 Geo. III. c. 52 (Jvme 11, 1793), and subsequent acts. The first president was Lord Sydney, appointed Sept. 3, 1784. The Board of Control was abohshed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858) , when a council of India, consisting of fifteen members and a secretary of state for India, was appointed. BOABD OF GeEES- ClOTH, or COUET OF Maeshalsea, was a court of justice, noticed as early as the time of Henry III., having exclusive jurisdiction in the king's palace and within the verge, described by 13 Rich. II. St. 1, c. 3 (1390), not to exceed twelve miles of the king's lodging. Its power, confirmed by several statutes, was derived from the common law. The statute 28 Edw. I. st. 3, c. 3 (1300), determined what pleas should be held m the court of Verge ; that of 2 Hen. IV. c. 23 (1400) , laid down regulations respecting fees. Its powers were extended to treasons, misprisions of treasons, murders, manslaugh- ters, bloodsheds, &c., by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1542) . This court was abohshed by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 27, 1828). BoAED OF Health. — ^The general Board of Health was established by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 31, 1848), for sanitary purposes, with the power of creating local boards in provincial towns. It was reconstructed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 95 (Aug. 10, 1854), entitled "An Act to make better provision for the administration of the laws relating to pubhc health." Sir B. Hall was made president, with a salary of £2,000 per annimi. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 2, 1858), all the powers of the General Board of Health were given to the privy council. Further provision for 129 B(E the local government of towns and populous districts in this matter was made by 21 & 22 Vict. C.98 (Aug. 2, 1858). BoAED OP Teade and Plaittations. Cromwell in 1655 appointed his son Eichard, with several lords of the council, merchants, &c., to consider by what means trade and navigation might be best promoted and regu- lated. Charles II. estabhshed a council to superintend and control the whole commerce of the nation, Nov. 7, 1660, and a council of Foreign Plantations, Dec. 1 in the same year. The boards were united in 1672, undergoing many changes imtil 1782, when, by 22 Geo. III. c. 82, the board was abohshed. A committee of members of the privy council was ordered to be appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to trade and foreign planta- tions. The order of council, issued March 5, 1784, was revoked, and a new committee, appointing the board as at present consti- tuted, was nominated Sept. 5, 1786, Lord Hawkesbury being the first president. BoBEE (Battle) . — Blucher was driven from his position on this river, in Silesia, by the French army, commanded by If apoleon I., Aug. 21, 1813. BoccA TiGEis, or The Bogue Foets, at the entrance of the Canton river, having been at- tacked, two were taken by the EngHsh, Jan. 7, 1841. The Chiuese having failed to carry out the provisions of a treaty by which a cessa- tion of hostihties had been secured, the rest of the forts were captured Feb. 26 in the same year. Bodleian LiBEAET(Oiford) . — Humphrey, the good duke of Gloucester, founded a hbrary at Oxford ; but it was destroyed, and in 1555 the desks and benches were ordered to be sold. The room remained empty until repaired and again devoted to the purposes of a hbrary by Thomas Bodley, an eminent diplomatist, who had been sent on several embassies by Queen EHzabeth. On retiring from his emplojrments in 1597, he undertook tp restore tMs hbrary. He endowed it richly, and presented it with a collection of books worth £10,000. It was opened Nov. 8, 1602, and alterations in the building were completed in 1606. The foundation-stone of a new hbrary was, however, laid by Sir Thomas Bodley himself, July 17, 1610. It was not completed until 1613, the year after his death. It has since received many valuable additions, and contains upwards ot 256,000 volumes of printed books and 22,000 volumes of manu- scripts. Several catalogues have been pubhshed, the first by Dr. James, in 1605. Casaubon calls the Bodleian hbrary a work rather for a king than a private man. BcEOTiA. — ^The early history of this pohtical division of ancient Greece, included in the modem kingdom, is involved in obscurity. Thucydides represents it as having been inhabited by various barbarous tribes until about sixty years after the Trojan war, when the Boeotians, an^ohanpeople, expeUedfrom their native seat by the Thessahans, settled in the country, at that time called Cadmeis, BOG to whicli they gave the name of Bceotia, B.C. 1124. According to traditional accounts, Ogyges was king of BcBotia b.c. 1796, and Cadmus is said to have founded Thebes in B.C. 1550, or, according to other authorities, B.C. 1493. There is, however, httle, if any, authentic information respecting the early period. The cities of Boeotia, with Thebes at their head, entered iuto a league, though the date of its formation is not known. The num- ber is generally supposed to have been ten, or at the outside fourteen. 608. "Wai in Boeotia between the Mityleneans and the Athenians. 519. Platsea withdraws from the Bceotian League. 507. The League joins the Peloponnesians and the Chalcidians against Athens. 480. The Bceotians join the Pei-sians. 456. The Athenians reduce all Boeotia to subjec- tion by the victory of CEnophyta. 447. The Bosotians defeat the Athenians at Coronea, and regain their iadependence. 395. The Boeotians take part against Sparta in the Corinthian war. Their country is invaded. 394 The Spartans defeat the Boeotians, &c. at Coronea. 387. Peace of Antalcidas. 386. Boeotia regains Platsea. 379. Pelopidas seizes the Cadmea at Thebes, and this causes war. 378. AgesDaus and Cleombrotus invade Bceotia. 377. Agesilaus invades Bceotia a second time. 371. The Spartans invade BoBotia, and are de- feated at Leuctra. From this time the history of Boeotia is merged in that of Thebes. The Bceotian confederacy, that had long had only a no- minal existence, was entirely dissolved by the Romans B.C. 172. BoGEStTND (Battle), between Sten Sture the younger, protector of Sweden, and Chris- tian II., king of Denmark, in which the latter was victorious, was fought in 1520. BoGOMiLEs, or BoGAEMiT.^;. — ^A sect of heretics that sprung up in Bulgaria early in the 12th century. The name is compoxmded of two Slavonic words, — bog, ' God,' and miloui, 'have mercy on us,' given to them from their custom of muttering prayers to themselves. They are said to have been Maaiichaeans. They rejected images, dis- carded aU mysteries in the sacraments and the historical books of the Old Testament. Their leader, one BasU, a monk, having been condemned by a council held at Constanti- nople in 1110, was afterwards burned ahve by order of the Greek emperor Alexius Commenus, Bohemia (Germany) derives its name from the Boil, its ancient inhabitants, who were expelled by the Slavonians. Charle- magne conquered the country a.d. 805, and annexed it to his empire. After various vi- cissitudes, its independence was restored by Borzivoi, who became its first duke in 891, The dukes were frequently nominated by the emperor of Germany, and two of them, Wratislaus II. in 1086, and Ladislaus III. in 1158, received the title of king as a mark of personal honour, before Bohemia was defi- nitivelv erected into a kingdom. i30 BOH A.D. 480 (about). The Czeches establish themselves in Bohemia. 630. Samo raises Bohemia into an independent state. 680. About this time the first advance in civUized arts is made by the Bohemians. 722. Libussa, granddaughter of Samo, weds Pre- loislaus, who founds the dynasty which bears his name. 805. Conquered by Chai-lemagne. 864. Borzivoi, a Bohemian chief, receives the sacra- ment of baptism. 967. Boleslaus U. founds the bishopric of Prague. 1004. Mescho, king of Poland, lays siege to Prague, which is delivered by Jaromir. 1039. War between Bretislaus I. and the emperor Conrad, in which the former is defeated. 106L On the death of Spitigneus I., Wratislaus II. unites Bohemia, Poland, Silesia, Lusatia, and Moravia into one kingdom. 1174. Ladislaus II., lung of Bohemia, is banished by his subjects, and takes refuge in Lusatia, where he dies. 1176. A large number of the Vaudois immigrate into Bohemia. 1191. Conrad II. dies of the plague at the siege of Naples, and leaves the succession to his dukedom much disputed. 1198. Premislaus Ottocar I., who succeeded to the dukedom the year before, is made the first king of Bohemia whose title is hereditary. 1241-2. The Tartars overrun Moravia. 1253. Premislaus Ottocar II. is king of Bohemia and its dependencies, and of Austria, and soon obtains possession of Styria, Carinthia, and Istria, when his dominions extend from the Baltic to the Adriatic. 1272. Premislaus refuses the imperial crown. 1278. Battle of Mai-chfield, and death of Premislaus Ottocai- II. Rodolph of Habsburg gains Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. 1289. Marriage of WenceslausIV. to Judith, daughter of Rodolph of Habsburg. Part of Misnia and Eger added to Bohemia. 1300. Wenceslaus IV. is elected king of Poland. 1306. Death of Wenceslaus V. , the last sovereign of the house of Premislaus. 1310. John of Luxemburg succeeds to the throne of Bohemia. 1319. Lusatia reunited to Bohemia. 1327. Silesia reunited to Bohemia. 1348. The University of Prague founded by Charles I. 1408. John Huss, rector of the ITnlversity of Prague, declares himself a disciple of WycLiffe. 1416. The Hussites, indignant at the martyrdom of their leader, take up arms to defend liberty of conscience. They form two sects, known as the Calixtins and the Taborites. 1419. Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague. 1438. Death of Sigismund, and extinction of the house of Luxemburg. The Hussites invite Cassimir, prince of Poland, to succeed him, but the crown falls to the lot of Albert of Austria. 1466. Pope Paul II. excommunicates George Podie- brad, the Hussite king of Bohemia, and sends an army against him, which is de- feated at Tina. 1483. Seditions and massacres at Prague. 1526. On the death of Louis I., the Bohemians confer the crown on Ferdinand I. of Austria, in whose family it has ever since remained. 1567. Maximilian II. abolishes the religious com- pacts which had restrained the spread of Protestantism. 1609. Rodolph II. establishes freedom of conscience in Bohemia. 1618. The Bohemian Protestants take up arms under Count Von Thum, and commence the Thirty Years' war. 1620. The Austrians totally defeat the Bohemians at the battle of Prague. 1648. The treaty of Munster puts an end to the Thirty Years' war, and to the political ex- BOI A-D. istence oif Bohemia, which is incorporated •with the Austrian empii-e. 1744. Frederick the Great, of Prussia, invades Bohemia, and takes Prague. 1757. May 6. Frederick the Great gains the great battle of Prague over the Austrians. 1762. The Prussians ravage Bohemia. 1772. A terrible famine devastates Bohemia. 1775. Insurrection of the peasantry. 1781. Joseph II. abolishes slaveiy. 1813. The Austrian army, under Schwai-tzenberg, assembles in Bohemia, preparatory to the campaign against INapoleon. 1848. June 12. Insun-ection at Prague. SOVEEEIGNS OS BOHEMIA. Bpitigneus I. Wratislaus I. Wenceslaus I. Boleslaus I. . . Boleslaus II. Boleslaus III. Jaromir Udalric Bretislaus I. Spitigneus II. .. 967 ,. 999 .. 1002 .. 1012 .. 1037 .. 1055 Wratislaus II 1061 Conrad 1 1092 A.D. Bretislaus II 1093 Borzivoill IIOU SuatopluG 1107 Ladislaus II 1109 Sobielaus 1 1125 Ladislaus m 1140 Sobielaus II 1174 Frederick 1178 Conrad 11 1190 Wenceslaus II 1191 Henry Bretislaus.. 1193 Ladislaus IV 1196 KLSGS. A.D. 1198. Premislaus I. 1230. Wenceslaus III. 1253. Premislaus IT. 1278. Wenceslaus IV. 1305. Wenceslaus V. 1306. Henry and Eodolph of Habsburg. 1310. John of Luxembui-g. 1346. Charles I. , emperor in 1347. 1378. Wenceslaus VI. , emperor. 1419. Sigismund, emperor. 1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 1440. LitdislausV. 1458. George Podiebrad. 1471. Ladislaus VI. 1516 Louis I. 1526. Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany. 1564. Maximilian IL 1575. RodolphIL 1611. Matthias. 1619. Ferdinand II. 1637. Ferdinand III. (incorporated with Austria), in 1648. BoiMNft TO Death.— By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9, passed in 1531, this punishment was awarded to poisoners. The act related that one Eiehard Roose, otherwise called Coke, a cook in the bishop of Rochester's diocese, had, by mixing poison in their food, caused the death of two and the iUness of several persons. He was declared guilty of treason, and ordered to be boiled to death, without receiving benefit of clergy ; and the like punishment was decreed for aU, from that time, found guilty of any manner of poison- ing. He suffered at Smithfield, April 5, 1532 ; and Margaret Dany, a maid-servant, was boiled to death at the same place. Mar. 17, 1542, for "poisoning of three households, that she had dwelt in." This act was re- ?ealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12, s. 11 (154.7). he punishment itself was common both in England and on the continent, previous to 131 BOL the enactment of the statute of Henry VIII. The Chronicle of the Grey Friars of Lon- don (Camden Society) records a case at Smithfield of a man who was fastened in a chain and pulled up and down divers times, tin he was dead. It appears to have been a common punishment for coining. Bois-LE-Duc (Holland). — Besieged and taken by the French republican army Oct. 10, 1794. It was taken by Bulow, Jan. 25, 1814. BoJACA (Battle). — During the war of independence in South America, the Span- iards were defeated at this place, in New Granada, by Bohvar's army, Aug. 7, 1819. BoKHABA (Asia), the ancient Sogdiana, also called Transoxiana, though not, as has been asserted, by ancient writers, was con- quered by the Saracens about 710 a.d. It was overrun by Zenghis Khan in 1222 ; by Timour in 1361 ; and by the Uzbeg Tartars in 1505. Bokhara has remained under the sway of various khans of this race ever since. Colonel Stoddart and Captain Conolly, sent by the British government on a mission to the Khan in 1843, were murdered by him at Bokhara, the chief town of the khanat; and Aug. 1, 1844, intelligence was received from the enterprising traveller Dr. Wolfi", who, in 1843, went to ascertain their fate, that they had been put to death in June or July of 1843. After undergoing a short imprison- ment. Dr. Wolff was allowed to leave Bok- hara, and he reached England in April, 1845. Bolivia (South America) . — The provinces of Upper Peru, which had separated from the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, having by the victory of Ayachucho, Dec. 9, 1824, secured their independence, were formed into a republic in 1825. The deputies met in August of that year, and decided in favour of separation, and upon calling the new state Bohvia, in honour of its liberator, Bolivar. This assembly separated Oct. 6, 1825, and a new congress met May 25, 1826. In 1836 slavery was abohshed in Bolivia. Changes in the constitution took place in 1839, 1843, and the new system was not settled until 1848. A commercial treaty was concluded with England in 1840. An attempt was made to assassinate the President Aug. 10, 1858. Bologna (Italy), the ancient Bononia, is said to have been founded by the Tus- cans, and was called by them Felsina, a name used by Livy. It became a Roman colony B.C. 189. A bishop's see was founded here at a very early period, and it was raised to an archbishopric by Gregory XIII. Dec. 10, 1582. Its university, the oldest in Italy, was established in 1116 ; the story of its foundation about 430, and its restoration by Charlemagne, being rejected by the best authorities. The emperor Henry V. granted Bologna a charter in 1112, and it was long governed by a podesta and consuls, being at the same time a zealous partisan of the pope. John XXII. sent Bertrand de Poiet, his legate, here in 1327, and though the city received bim as its lord, he was, in 1333, violently expelled. Giovanni Viseonte, tem- K 2 BOM poral and spiritual lord of Milan, purchased Bologna in 1351, but it threw off the yoke of Milan in 1356 ; and, having surrendered to the pope, Milan formally resigned its claim by treaty in 1359. Anarchy prevailed for some time, during which period Bologna frequently changed masters. It was taken by the papal army, and Julius II. made his triumphal entry ISTov. 11, 1506, but it fell into the hands of the French in 1511 ; was besieged by the papal forces early in 1512, and Gaston de Foix compelled them to re- tire Feb. 7, in the same year. Juhus II. had seized Bologna and its territory in 1506, and it was annexed to the papal do- minions by the treaty of peace between Louis XII. and Pope Leo X. in 1514. The French king dying that year, his succes- sor, Francis I., met the pope at Bologna in 1515, and confirmed the acts of Louis XII. Napoleon I. entered the city June 19, 1776 ; and it was made the capital of the Cispadane repubhc in 1797. It was occupied by the Austrians in 1S14), and was formally restored to the papal government in 1815. An insur- rection occurred here Feb. 4, 1831, when a provisional government was proclaimed. The sovereignty of the pope was, however, restored by Austrian interference. It re- belled again in 1848, and surrendered to an Austrian army, after a sanguinary struggle of eight days' duration, May 16, 1849. The Austrians quitted Bologna June 12, 1859; and a national assembly, soon after convened, threw off the papal yoke Sept. 7. A deputa- tion sent to offer the legations to Sardinia were received by the king, and their request acceded to, Sept. 24 in the same year. A council held at Bologna in 1264 excom- municated the Enghsh barons who had rebelled against Henry III. BoMAESUiTD (Gulf of Bothina). — This, the capital and principal of the Aland Isles, was captured by the French and Enghsh Aug. 14 and 15, 1854. Russia, by a con- vention annexed to the treaty of Paris of 1856, engaged not to restore the fortifica- tions. {iSee Ala>t) Isles.) Bomb. — This invention is, by Strada, attri- buted to an inhabitant of Yenlo, in 1558, in which year they were employed at the siege of "WachtendonJk, in the Netherlands ; whilst others, on the authority of Valturinus, con- tend that bombs were invented in the middle of the 15th century. The Moors are said to have used them at the siege of Baza in 1325. Conde (Arabs in Spain, iii. p. 231) speaks of "machines that cast globes of fire, with resounding thunders and hghtnings, resem- bling those of the resistless tempest." At any rate, they did not come into general use tiU much later. The Turks employed them at the siege of Ehodes in 1522, the French at that of La Mothe in 1634. Bomb AT (City), signifying 'good har- bour,' was founded by the Portuguese soon after they obtained possession of the island of Bombay, in 1530. The seat of the East- India Company's government was removed here from Surat in 1686. 132 JBOM A.D. 1676. Mint established at Bombay. 1688. Bombay besieged by Amungzebe, who is prevailed upon to withdraw. 1691. Bombay visited by the plague. 1702. The plague commits great ravages. 1718. Dec. 25. First English church opened. 1803. Great fire. 1810. The Minden, 70 -gun ship, launched at Bombay. 1818. The cholera breaks out. 1827. Supreme Court of justice established. 1833. Aug. 28. Power given to the crown to estab- lish a bishopric at Bombay. 1887. Elphinstone College founded. Bombay made a bishopric. Steam, communication with Suez established. 1845. Oct. Nearly 200 houses destroyed by fire. 1853. Feb. First Indian railway, from Bombay to Tannah, opened. Bombay (Island). — The Portuguese first arrived off the coast of this part of India in 1508, and visited the island of Bombay in 1509, at which period it formed a dependency of the Mohammedan rulers of Guzerat. 1530. The island of Bombay, &c., ceded by the Mongols to the Portuguese. 1534. Bombay fortified by the Portugue-se. 1612. Dec. Fii-man obtained for the establishment of the first English factory at Surat. Its solemn confirmation received Jan. 11, 1613. 1662. May 20. Bombay becomes an English posses- sion by the raaixiage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza. The fleet arrives Sept. 18, to take possession, but the Portu- guese governor refuses to give it up. 1664. Bombay is delivered to the EngUsh by the Portuguese. 1668. The island of Bombay is granted to the East- India Company, ou payment of the rent of £10 in gold, on Sept. 30 in each year. 1674 Mutiny amongst the EugUsh troops. 1683. Mutiny again breaks out. Captain Keigwia issues a proclamation declaring that the island belongs to the king, Dec. 27. 1686. Seat of government is transferred from Surat to Bombay. 1687. Bombay is made a regency, with unlimited power over the Company's settlements. 1688. Aurungzebe invades the islajid. (See India.) Bombay (Presidency) .—The seat of the East-India Company's government was re- moved from Surat to Bombay in 1686 J and in 1687 Bombay was made a regency, with unlimited power over the rest of the Com- pany's settlements. In 1773 a measure was passed by which Bombav became subordinate to Bengal from Aug. 1, 1774. By 24 Geo. III. c. 25 (Aug. 13, 1784), a governor and a council were appointed for this presidency. {See IiTDiA.) GOVEEN-QES OF BOMBAY. A.D. 1784. E. H. Boddam. A. Kamsay. 1788! Sept. 6. Major-Gen. W. Medows. 1790. Colonel E. Abercromby. 1792. G. Dick. 1795. J. Griffith. 1795. Dec. 27. J. Duncan. 1811. 6. Browne. 1812. Sir E. Nepean, Bart. 1819. Hon. IVL Elphinstone. 1827. Sir J. Malcolm. 1831. Earl of Clare. 1847. 1848. 1853. BON' Six R. Graxit. J. Fai-ish. Sir J. R. Carnac, Bart. Sir G. W. Andei-son. Sir G. Ai-thur, Bart. L. R. Reid. G. R. Clerk. Viscount Falkland. Lord Elphinstone. Sir G. Clerk, Bart. BoN-HOMMES, or GooD Meit, an order of friars, brought into England, and established at Ashering, in Bucks, by Edmund, earl of Cornwall, in 1283. Another house of the order was founded at Edington, in Wiltshire, in 1350. The Bon-homnaes followed the rule of St. Augustine, and wore a blue habit. The Pauhcians called themselves Good Men, or Los Bos Homos. Bonn (Prussia), occupies the site of the ancient Bonna, a Roman station, the scene of the victory of the Bafcavi and Canninefates over the Eomans, a.d. 70. It was frequently assailed, and even captured by the German tribes ; and was ravaged by them in 355. Jiihanus recovered it and repaired its walls about 359. In 1320 it became the residence of the archbishops of Cologne. The em- peror Charles IV. was crowned here in 1346. The French, who had captured Bonn, were besieged and expelled Nov. 12, 1673 ; and regained possession in 1688. Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, took Bonn in 1689 ; and Marlborough laid siege to it May 3, 1703, and gained possession on the 16th. The French repubhcan army entered Bonn in 1794, its fortifications having been destroyed in 1717. Its academy, founded in 1777, was made a university in 1784. Napoleon I. sup- pressed it, but it was re-estabUshed on an extended scale Oct. 18, 1818. Drusus threw a bridge over the Khine at this place B.C. 11. Bonn is an ancient bishopiic. BoNOifiA (Battle). — At this place, on the Danube, near Widdin, Constanttae defeated the Goths and Sarmatians a.d. 322. Book. — This word, derived from the Daaish hog, the beech-tree, the inner bark of which was used in former times for writing- material, has been applied to Uterary pro- ductions in general, whether in manuscript or in print. The ancients wrote upon wooden blocks, waxen and other tablets, imtil more flexible materials were made available for the purpose; and these they formed into rolls, or volumes, as they termed them when completed; and the parchment, or whatever material it happened to be, was rolled up, and placed upon the hbrary shelf. This form was, however, gradually abandoned during the Middle Ages, when books con- sisted of several leaves, joined together, and enclosed in boards or covers. The binding was often very magnificent. The boards, covered with leather or even velvet, were occasionally decorated with precious stones. Gold and silver clasps were also used. We read in Shakespeare, — " That book in many's eyes doth share the glory. That in gold clasps locks in the golden story." BOO In early times almost fabulous prices were paid for books. At the Reformation the Bible and other works were chained to desks in churches, that the people might have access to them. The custom is said to have originated from an act of Convocation in 1562, ordering that NoweU's Catechism, the Articles, and Bishop Jewell's Apology, should be joined in one book and taught at the universities, and educational establish- ments, and in the cathedral churches, and private houses of the kingdom. The custom has, however, been traced as far back as to Sir Thomas Ly ttleton, who, by his wiU, dated 1481, ordered some of his works to be chained in different churches. St. Bernard, who died in 1153, alludes, in one of his sermons, to some such custom. Dictionaries were also chained to desks in educational esta- blishments. Walton's Polyglott, fol., 1657, was the first book published in England by subscription ; Tonson's foHo edition of "Paradise Lost," in 1688, was the next; and Dryden's Virgil, fol., 1697, the third. By 8 Anne, c. 19, s. 4 (1709), any bookseller or printer setting what was conceived to be too high a price upon a book, might, after March 25, 1710, on complaint being made to the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord chan- cellor, and some other high functionaries mentioned in the act, be compelled to charge a price fixed by any of them, upon pain of forfeiting £5 for every book sold at a higher rate. This act was repealed by 12 Geo. II. c. 36, s. 3 (1739). Book Censoes. — Many centuries before the introduction of printing, authors sub- mitted their works to their superiors, before venturing to put them into circulation, and a regular system of censorship was established, by the Inquisition. Two books printed at Cologne in 1478, were issued with the appro- bation of the university censor ; and the "Nosce Teipsum," printed at Heidelberg in 1480, bore the approving testimonies of four persons. A mandate of Berthold, archbishop of Mayence, dated 1486, appointing a book censor, is still in existence. Alexander VI. in 1501 issued a buU prohibiting the publica- tion of books that had not been submitted to the censor, and the covmcil of the Lateran in 1515 ordered that no books should be printed excepting those which had been inspected by ecclesiastical censors. By the 51st of Queen Elizabeth's injunctions, in 1559, no person was allowed to print any book or paper without a license from the coimcil or ordi- nary. The Star Chamber, June 23, 1586, published ordinances for the regulation of the press. The Long ParMament, which aboHshed the Star Chamber, made an ordi- nance, Jime 14, 1643, prohibiting the print- ing of any order or declaration of either house, without order of one or both houses j or the printing or sale of any book, pamphlet, or paper, unless the same were approved and licensed by such persons as the House should appoint. A more severe enactment followed, Sept. 28, 1647 ; and from that time various regulations were made on the subject till 133 BOO 1694, when the censorship in this country ceased, much to the displeasure of Wil- liam III. and his ministers. Book-keeping-. — The system of double entry, called Itahan book-keeping, had its rise amongst the mercantile cities of Italy in the 15th century. Lucas de Burgo's algebraic work, pubhshed at Venice in 1494, and Luke's work on the subject, published in 1495, are the first known to exist. The earhest English book on this subject is Hugh Oldeastle's treatise, pubhshed in 1543. James Peele is said to have published a work on book- keeping in 1569 ; and a new and augmented edition of Oldeastle's treatise, by John Melhs, appeared in 1588. Gotheb pubhshed a work on book-keeping at Nuremberg in 1531. Book of Spoets. — This title was given to a proclamation issued at Greenwich by James I., May 24, 1618, sanctioning different recreations after divine service on the Sunday. It was intended only for Lancashire. As it proved very oifensive to the Puritans, no cler- gyman was compelled to read it. Amongst the recreations mentioned are dancing, archery, leaping, vaulting. May games, Whitsun-ales, morrice-dancers, and setting up of May- poles. The Sabbatarian controversy having been revived, Charles I. (Oct. 18, 1633) ratified and pubhshed his father's declara- tion. Some of the clergy refused to read it, for which one of them was deprived and excomonunicated by the High Commission Court in 1637. In 1643 it was ordered by Lords and Commons that the Book of Sports should be burned by the common hangman in Cheapside, and other pubhc places. Books (Privilege for Printing). — The oldest privilege known is that of Henry Bishop, of Bamberg, for a missal, set forth April 23, 1490. The first Venetian privilege is dated 1491, and another of 1492 is in existence. The first Milanese is dated 1495; Papal, 1505 ; French, 1507 ; and Enghsh, 1510, for "TheHistoryofKingBoccus."BylEich.ni. c. 9 (1484), ahens were allowed to import books and manuscripts. This act was, how- ever, repealed by 25 Hen. VIIL e. 15 (1534). In 1538, an order was issued respecting the printing of Bibles, and in 1542 the pri'nlege was granted to one person for four years. The last patent of the kind, commencing Jan. 21, 1830, for printing the Enghsh Bible and Prayer-Book, was conferred by Geo. IV. upon Strahan, Eyre, & Spottiswoode for a term of thirty years. Books BuEifT.— This mode of dealing with objectionable doctrines was practised both in ancient and modern times. Jehoiakim burnt the roU of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 23) B.C. 605, and persons at Ephesus, who used curious arts, brought their books together and burned them before aU men (Acts, xix. 19), in the year 57. The writings of Arius were condemned to be burnt during the reign of Constantine the Great. The Church of Eome has, both by the decrees of councils and of popes, caused innumerable works, and in some cases their authors, to be 134 BOE committed to the fiames. V/ycliffe's bones as well as his writings were condemned to be burned by the council of Constance (being the seventeenth General Council), in 1415 ; and a convocation at Oxford in 1410 con- demned and burned his works. Cardinal Wolsey went in procession to St. Paul's, May 12, 1521, for the purpose of having the works of Luther consumed. Several works were burned by order of the Parhament in the time of the Commonwealth. BooxAK (Hindostan). — The inhabitants of this hQl country invaded Cooch Behar, a dependency of Bengal, in 1772, and having been, by the aid of the British, expelled, concluded a treaty of peace with the East- India Company in 1774. Boothia Felix (North America), was discovered by Sir J. Eoss in 1830, and named after Sir Felix Booth, who furnished a large sum of money for the purposes of the expe- dition. Boots. — The Normans wore short boots, and in the time of "VVUham II. peak pointed boots were in fashion. In the wardrobe accounts of Edward II., the following passage occurs : — " For six pairs of boots, with tassels of silk and drops of silver gilt, price each pair 5s., bought for the king's use." Blanche says that boots reaching to the middle of the thigh, and turned over with straps, like modern top-boots, were worn in the time of Eichard III. Short boots were worn by ladies in the 12th century. The Hessian and WeUington boots for gentlemen, and the Balmoral for persons of both sexes, are the principal novelties of the kind intro- duced during the present century. BoEDEATJS (France), the ancient Burdi- gala, the metropohs of Aquitania Secunda, rebuilt by the Eomans after a fire, a.d. 261, was taken by Adolphus, king of the Goths, in 412 ; recovered by Cloris in 508 ; devastated by the Saracens in 529; and suffered re- peatedly from the ravages of the Danes. The modern town was rebuilt by the dukes of Guienne at the commencement of the 10th century. Henry II. obtained Aquitaine by marriage in 1151 with Eleanor, daughter of WiUiam V. of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France, and on his accession to the Enghsh crown, in 1154, Bordeaux and the remainder of the duchy became English possessions. In 1451 Bordeaux submitted to Charles VII., and though Earl Talbot restored the authority of the Enghsh, Oct. 23, 1452, it was besieged and taken by the French Oct. 17, 1453, and has since formed part of France. Eichard II., son of the Black Prince, was born here in Feb. 1366. It was made an episcopal see a.d. 314, and became an archbishopric. Its university, founded by Eugenius IV. in 1441, received great privileges from Loiiis XI. in 1473. Councils were held at Bordeaux in 384, in 670, m 1080, in 1214 or 1215, and April 18, 1255. Bordeaux suffered greatly during the civil and rebgious wars in France. BoEGiTES, or Ciecassians. — The second dynasty of the Mamelukes in Egypt de- BOR soeuded from a Circassian captive named Barcok, who, in 1381, on the deposition of the last sultan of the Baharites, obtained the sovereignty. Twenty-three sultans of this dynasty, which lasted 135 years, reigned. The last was hanged at the gate of his capi- tal, April 23, 1517, by order of SeUm, and the Mamelukes were expelled and the autho- rity of the Ottoman Turks established. BoENEO (Indian Archipelago), called by natives Brune, is, excepting Austraha, the largest island in the world. It was first visited by Lorenzo de Gomez in 1518 ; and by Pigafetta, with Magalhaen's expedition, in 1521. In addition to the Portuguese, the Spaniards, English, French, and Dutch endeavoured to form estabhshments in dif- ferent parts of this island. A.D. 1598. Oliver Van Noort, the first Dutchman who visited Borneo, arrives. 1604. The Dutch begin to trade at Suocadana. 1608. The Dutch at Batavia endeavour to enter into a commercial treaty with the ruler of 1769. 1772. 1775. 1776. 1780. 1786. 1787. 1812. 1813. 1818. 1839. 1841. 1846. A treaty is concluded by the Dutch with the ruler of Sambas, and they establish a factory. The Dutch abandon their settlement at Suo- cadana. The English take possession of Balam.bangan. The English endeavour to establish a factory at Passir. The attempt fails. The garrison at Balambangan are killed by pirates. The Dutch establish a factory at Pontianak. Part of the W. coast ceded to the Dutch. The Dutch, in alliance with the sultan of Pontianak, destroy Suocadana. Sovereignty of the S. coast granted to the Dutch. An English expedition against Sambas fails. July 3. Sambas captm-ed by the English. The Dutch, who had been expelled by the English during the war, return. August. Sir James Brooke aiTives at Borneo. Sir James Brooke is made Eajah of Sarawak, by treaty with the native ruler. (See Sarawak.) The Dutch colonies in Borneo formed into a special government, by decree of the Dutch governor. Labuan formed into an English colony. (See Labuan.) BoENOtr (Central Africa), called byHeeren "a great empire," was first explored by Den- ham and Clapperton, sent out by the EngHsh government in 1821. It has been more re- cently explored by Eichardson, Earth, and Overweg. BoEODiKO (Battle) . — During the invasion of Russia, Napoleon I. attacked the whole Russian army intrenched at this village, Sept. 7, 1812. After a sanguinary engage- ment, both armies encamped on the field of battle, but the Russians vdthdrew during the night. BoEoirGH, or Buegh, is supposed to have been first appUed to a tithing or collection of twelve families, bound together as sureties for one another. It was afterwardg applied to a castle, then to the group of houses built beneath the shelter of its defences, next to a walled tovm, and is now generally applied in this country to towns that possess the privi- BOS lege of sending representatives to the House of Commons. Guizot asserts that it was not until the 11th century that boroughs took up any important position in history. BoEOUGH-BEiDGE (Battle) .—Edward II. defeated the earl of Lancaster and the con- federated barons, with their Scottish aUies, at this place, in Yorkshire, Tuesday, March 16, 1322. The earl of Lancaster, who fled, was afterwards taken prisoner. He was tried by a mUitary council, and executed at Pontefract, Tuesday, March 23. Boeotjgh-English. — A custom, so called, as some assert, because it first began in England, existing in certain boroughs, by which the youngest son inherited, to the exclusion of his elder brothers, the father's tenements in the borough, in case the latter died intestate. It is a species of burgage tenure, which at one time prevailed to a great extent in this country, and stiU exists in some places. The best authorities regard it as a remnant of the pastoral state of the tribes from which we claim descent. Amongst them the elder sons invariably took their portion, quitted their father's roof, and sought new habitations, whilst the younger son, who remained at home, naturally became the heir. BoEEisow (Battle).— During the retreat of the French from Moscow, Portoimeaux's division, consisting of 8,000 men, surrendered to the Russians at this place, Nov. 27, 1812, and on the following day a drawn battle was fought between the French and the Russians. Bosnia (European Turkey) .—Part of the ancient Pannonia, long tributary to Hungary and Servia, was erected into a kingdom in 1376. Its monarch was defeated by the Turks in 1389. Bosnia became tributary to Turkey in 1463, and was annexed in 1522. Austria ob- tained a portion of Bosnia by the treaty of Passarovsitz, July 21, 1718. Thiswas, however, recovered by the Turks in 1738. Bosnia has been the scene of numerous insurrections ; and frequent quarrels have occurred between the Christian and the Moslem population. BosPOEUS (Asia) . — This ancient kingdom on the Cimmerian Bosporus was a great corn- growing country, and for many years served a,s a granary to Greece. Gibbon calls it " the httle kingdom of Bosporus, composed of degenerate Greeks and half-civilized barba- rians." It is supposed to have been a Milesian colony. The lustory of the kingdom cannot, however, be traced with accuracy, and much uncertainty prevails respecting the dynasties compiled from the works of the ancient writers. E.C. 480. Kingdom founded. 310. On the death of Parysades, the succession is contested by his sons Satyxus and Eumelus ; Satyrus defeats his brother, but dies in the battle ; so the younger brother, Prytanis, reigns in his stead. 309. Eumelus murders Prytanis and all his ad- herents, and succeeds to the crown. 108. Bosporus is ceded to Mithridates the Great of Pontus. 86. Bosporus revolts &om lUtbridates. 135 BOS 63. Pompey reduces Bosporus to a Koman pro- vince, and makes Pharnaces, soa of Mithri- dates, its king. 47. Julius Caesar defeats Phamaces, and gives iosponis to Mithridates of Pergamus, ■who soon afterwards dies, and his territory- is seized hy Asander. 14 Agrippa gives Bosporus to Polemon, king of Pontus. A.D. 49. Mithridates Achemenides, king of Bosporus, revolts against the Eomans, who depose 258. Bosporus captured by the Goths. 545. The Turks take the city of Bosporus. EITLEES OP BOSPOET7S. Arch»aiiactidae Spartocus I. . . . SatyrusI 407 Leucon 393 Spartocus IT. .... 333 Parysades 348 SatyrusII 310 Prytanis Spartocus in 304 Xieucanor Eubiotus Satyrus III Gorgippus Spartocus IV Parvsades IL .... Mithi-idates VI. of Pontus 108 Machares 79 Phamaces 11 63 Asander 47 Scribonius 14 Polemon 1 13 Pythodoris. . . . Sam-omates L . A.D. Rhescuporis L 30 Polemon H 38 Mithridates U 42 Cotys 1 49 ■Rhescuporis II 83 Sauromates IL 108 Cotys II 115 155 Sauromates III 180 Rhescuporis III 215 Cotys m 232 Inintheremus 235 Rhescuporis IV 235 Sauromates IV 276 Teiranes 277 Thothorses 297 Sauromates V 303 Sauromates VI 306 RhescupoiTS V. ..... 321 Sauromates VII Boston (Lincolnshire) , is supposed to have been built upon the site of the monastery of Icanhoe, founded by St.Bodolph a.d. 654, and destroyed by the Danes in 870. Boston be- came important as a commercial town in the 13th century, was made a staple for wool, &c. by 27 Edw. III. in 1357, and was incorporated on the dissolution of the monasteries, of which there were several in the town and neigh- bovirhood, by Henry VIII. The church of St. Bodolph was founded in 1309, and its tower, 290 feet in height, forms a well-known landmark. The grammar-school was founded in 1554, the Bluecoat school in 1713, the na- tional school in 1815, and the market-house was erected in 1819. The bridge was com- menced in 1802, and completed in 1807. BosTOiT (United States). — Founded in 1630 by colonists from Charlestovra. The American revolution commenced at this place, where the cargoes of tea were thrown into the sea, in December, 1773. The Enghsh forces held possession of Boston in 1775. They evacuated it by the terms of a capitu- lation, signed March 17, 1776. Slave riots occurred June 24, 1854; and a religious revival in 1858. BoswoETH Field (Battle). — The last battle between the houses of York and Lan- caster was fought Monday, Aug. 22, 1485. Eichard III., who displayed great gallantry, having been betrayed by Sir W. Stanley and BOT the earl of Northumberland, was defeated and slain, and the earl of Eichmond pro- claimed Mng, under the title of Henry VII. The crown worn by Eichard in the battle was placed upon his head. The line of the Plantagenets terminated with Eichard III., and that of the Tudors commenced -with Henry VII., who sought to strengthen his title by a marriage with Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., which took place Jan. 18, 1486. Botanical Gaedens. — Sylvaticus formed a botanical garden for medicinal purposes at Salerno in 1309, and Lorenzo de' Medici estabhshed one at Marburg in 1530. The first pubhc botanical gardens were estab- lished, one at Pisa, by the university, and another at Padua, in 1545. A professorship of botany was founded at Padua ia 1533. The first botanical garden ia France was estabhshed at Montpelher ia 1558 ; and the Jardia des Plantes, at Paris, was founded ia 1610. The first botanical garden ia Eng- land was formed at Oxford in 1632. Botanical gardens were established at Leyden ia 1577, at Jena in 1629, at Upsal in 1657, at Edin- burgh in 1680, at Carlsruhe in 1715, at Kew in 1730, at Schonbrunn ia 1753, at Madrid in 1755, at Cambridge in 1761, at Calcutta in 1768, at Coimbra in 1773, at St. Petersburg in 1785, at Dublin in 1790, at Ghent in 1797, at Moscow ia 1802, at Liverpool in 1803, at Ceylon in 1811, at Pesth in 1812, at Chiswick in 1822, at Birmingham in 1831, and at Mon- treal ia 1832. The garden at Chelsea was commenced ia 1673, and inclosed in 1686; and the gardens ia the Eegent's Park were opened in 1839. Botany. — Theophrastus, one of Aristotle's pupils, left the earhest existing treatise on botany, B.C. 322. The elder Pliny and Dios- corides ia the 1st century of our sera wrote more fully on thesubject. The Arabians began to cultivate the study of botany at the com- mencement of the 9th century, and Avicenna, who died in 1037, was long considered a great authority. The science was revived in the 16th century, and Otto Brunfels, of Strasburg, published his "Herbarvun Vivse Eicones" in three volumes foho, with 238 woodcuts of plants ia 1530. Euel of Soissoas pubhshed his treatise " De N^atura Stirpiiun," at Paris, in 1536, and Leonard, amongst other works, his " Commentaries on the History of Plants," at Basel, in 1542. Dr. Turner pub- hshed "The New Herbal" in three parts, in 1551, 1562, and 1568 successively. Columna, in his "Ecphrasis," a history of rare plants, pubhshed at Eome, in two parts, ia 1606 and 1616, laid down the true basis of the science, by establishing the distinction of genera, which Gesner, Caesalpin, and Joachim Came- rarius had already conceived . Eobert Mori- son, of Aberdeen, pubhshed works on botany, in 1669, 1672, and 1678; and although allowed to have benefited greatly fi-om the labours of his predecessors, he is generaUy considered the " founder of classification." Grew, in 1671, and Malpighi first directed attention to the anatomy of plants. Kivinus, in 1690, ia EOT said to have anticipated some portions of the system of Linnaeus, who produced quite a revolution in botany by the pubhcation, in 1735,- of his " Systema Naturae." Since that period the science of botany has rapidly advanced. BoTANT Bat (Pacific), on the E. coast of Australia, was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770, and thus named by a natu- ralist in the expedition, from the number of plants growing: on its shores. BoTHWBiiL Beidge (Battle) .—The Scottish Covenanters were defeated here June 22, 1679, by the duke of IVfonmouth. Bottle CoifJUEOE. — ^An immense crowd was attracted to the Haymarket Theatre, on Monday, Jan. 16, 1749 (O.S.), an announce- ment having been made that a person would play on a common waUnng-cane the music of every instrument then in use, get into a quart bottle, and whilst there sing several songs, at the same time permitting any spectator to handle the bottle, and perform other remarkable feats. The performer did not appear, and some person behind the curtain cried out that if the audience would remain there till the next evening, instead of going into a quart he would get into a pint bottle. Only a small portion of those who had assem- bled could obtaia admission ; a riot ensued, and the interior of the theatre was destroyed. The real history of the imposture was never discovered, but is supposed to have been the result of a wager. Bottles.— Vessels for containing liquids were made of leather, pottery, or metal, and, according to some authorities, of glass, by ancient nations. Glass bottles, with handles, were found in the ruins of Pompeii, which was overwhelmed August 23, a. d. 79. Beekmann says the use of bottles amongst modern nations commenced in the loth century. Stone and earthen bottles were first subjected to duty by 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 18 (1695), and half the duties on glass wares, and the whole duty on stone and earthen bottles were repealed by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 45 (1698). BoxrcHAiN (France). — This fortress was taken from Marshal ViUars by the duke of Marlborough, after a siege of thirty-five days, Sept. 14, 1711. The French recovered pos- session Oct. 10, 1712. Boulogne (France). — The ancient Geso- riacum, also called Bononia, is supposed to have been the port at which Claudius em- barked for Britain, a.d. 42. The Eoman fleet was stationed here a.d. 287. It was sacked by the Danes in 882, and was frequently assailed during the Middle Ages. Henry VIII. took it, after a siege of six weeks, Sept. 14, 1544. The French made several attempts to regain possession, and having failed, purchased it from Edward VI. for 400,000 crowns, March 24, 1549. Napoleon I. assembled his forces here for the invasion of England in 1801. Nelson attacked the flotilla Aug. 15, 1801, but without obtaining any decisive results. On the renewal of a threat of inva- bIou in 1804, and in subsequent years, much BOU damage was done by our cruisers. Louis Napoleon, with forty or fifty followers, landed here early ia the morning of Aug. 6, 1840, in his second attempt to raise an insur- rection against the Orleans dynasty, and having failed, was taken prisoner whilst re- treating to the steam -vessel which had brought ■ him and his colleagues from Eng- land. Napoleon III. visited this town, ac- companied by the king of the Belgians and his son, Sept. 3, 1854. The king of Portugal arrived Sept. 4, and Prince Albert Sept. 5. A grand mimic battle was fought on a plain between Boulogne and Calais, Sept. 8, after which Prince Albert returned to England. The seat of this ancient bishopric was re- moved from T^rouane to Boulogne in 1553. The see was suppressed in 1801. BouNTT (Mutiay) . — This ship sailed from England in 1787, on a voyage to the Society Islands, and, having taken on board a large number of bread-fruit trees for transplanta- tion in the West Indies, quitted Otaheite, April 7, 1789. At daybreak on the 28th, Cap- tain Bligh, the commander of the Bounty, was pinioned, and, with eighteen of the crew who had refused to join the mutineers, placed in the ship's boat with 140 lb. of bread, 30 lb. of meat, and a few gallons of water. They landed at Otaheite on the 30th of April, but ha.ving been driven off by the natives, made for Timor, touched at New Holland on the 5th of June, and reached Timor, where they were relieved by the Dutch, Jime 12, having been forty-six days in an open boat, with a scanty allowance of food. Captain Bligh reached England on the 14th of March, 1790. Fourteen of the mutineers were captured, but four perished in the wreck of the Pandora. Ten were brought to this country in irons, and tried by court-martial at Portsmouth, Sept. 12, 1792. The proceedings closed on the 18th, when six of them were sentenced to death, and four acquitted. {See Pitcaien's Is- land.) BouEBON (France). — ^Formerly the capi- tal of the Bourbonnois, frequently called Bourbon I'Archambault, received the name of Bourges-les-Bains in 1789. Pepin took it A.D. 759, and bestowed the town and the sur- rounding territory upon one of his followers, from whom, through the heiress Beatrice of Burgundy, married to Eobert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX., in 1272, the Bourbon family is descended. BouEBON (Indian Ocean) . — This island was discovered in 1542, by a Portuguese mariner, after whom it was called Mascarenhas. It was then uninhabited ; but the French formed a settlement in 1642, and in 1649 changed its name to Bourbon. It has since borne the following names, — Eeunion, Buonaparte, and Napoleon. It was taken by the Enghsh July 8, 1810, and restored to France at the general peace in 1815. BouEBONS. — Henry IV. of Navarre, who succeeded to the throne on the extinction of the house of Valois, July 31, 1589, was the first Bourbon sovereign of France. His 137 BOU fatlier, Antony of Bourbon, duke of Ven- dome, by his marriage with Jeanne d' Albret in 1548, beeame king of Navarre in 1555. He was descended through the younger branch, the elder having become extinct on the death of the constable of Bourbon, May 6, 1527, from Robert of Clermont, youngest son of Louis IX. By his marriage in 1272 with Beatrice of Burgundy, Robert of Clermont obtained the Bourbonnois, the Charlerois, and the lordship of St. Just. His son, Louis I., was created duke of Bourbon by Charles IV. of France in 1327. The Bourbons reigned in Trance from the accession of Henry IV. July 31, 1589, tUl the death of Louis XVI., Jan. 21, 1793. They were restored in the person of Louis XVIII. April 10, 1814; expeUed March 19, 1815, during the Hundred Days, and again restored, after the fall of Napoleon, July 8, 1815. The rule of the elder branch ceased on the abdication of Charles X., Aug. 2, 1830. Louis PhDippe, of the Orleans, or younger branch of the Bourbons, then succeeded to the throne, and their line ceased to reign in France on his abdication, Feb. 24, 1848. BouEBONs (Collateral Branches). — The Conde branch took its title from Cond^, in Hainault, which came into the possession of the Bourbon family by the marriage, in 1487, of Francis of Bourbon, count of Vendome, with Mary of Luxemburg, heiress of St. Paul, Enghien, Soissons, and Cond^. Their son Charles had several children, and one of these, named Louis, assumed the title of prince of Conde. This Hne became extinct in 1830. The later Orleans branch sprung from Philip, second son of Louis XIII., made duke of Orleans in 1660. The Spanish Bourbons are descended from Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., who was made king of Spain under the title of Philip V. in 1700. The Neapolitan branch is descended from Charles, third son of Philip V. of Spain, made duke of Parma in 1731, and king of Naples in 1735. The Conti, a, branch of the Conde, is descended from Louis, the first prince of Cond^, who mai'- ried Eleonore de Roye, dame de Conty or Conti, by whom he had two sons, Henry of Bourbon, prince of Conde, and Franfois, who took the title of prince of Conti. BouEGEs (France), the ancient Avaricum, afterwards called Bituriges and Biorga-s, whence the present name is derived. Csesar captured it B.C. 52, when it is said that only 800 out of 40,000 inhabitants escaped. It was captured by the Goths a.d. 475, and by Clovis in 507. It suiFered greatly from the ravages of war. The bishopric was founded in the 3rd century. It was made an arch- bishopric. The occupant of the see was termed patriarch and primate of Aquitaine. Councils were held at this town in 473; Nov. 1, 1031 ; Dec. 25, 1145 ; in 1225 ; Sept. 13, 1276; in Aprd, 1280; Sept. 19, 1286; in 1336; Aug. 26— Sept. 11, 1440, and March 21, 1528. Louis XL, who was born here, founded its university, which was 138 BOY suppressed at the Revolution. The Hu- fuenots seized the place in 1562, but were riven out Sept. 1, by the royal troops. BoTJEiGNONiSTS. — ^The followers of Antoi- nette Bourignon de la Porte, a fanatic bom at Lille, in Flanders, Jan. 13, 1616. Bayle says she was so ugly that it was debated for some days after her birth, by her family, whether she should be stifled as a monster. She took the habit and order of Augus- tine in 1658 ; and travelling in HoUand, France, and Scotland, taught that rehgion consists in internal emotions, and pubhshed a great many works. Driven from place to place, she died at Franeker, in Friesland, Oct. 30, 1680; and her tenets are said to have obtained a temporary popularity amongst the Scotch. BoviAS-UM (Italy).— This Samnite city, be- sieged by the Romans without success B.C. 314, was taken "by them B.C. 311, again b.c. 305, and again B.C. 298. It was an important mihtary position, and suffered in many suc- ceeding wars. Bovianum was destroyed by an earthquake in the 9th century, and the modem Bojano occupies its site. BoviNES (Battle), or BoxiviirES. — Fought Sunday, Jvdy 27, 1214, at the bridge of Bou^ines, where Phihp Augustus, with infe- rior numbers, defeated the army of Otho, emperor of Germany, and his alHes. The counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and WiUiam, earl of Salisbury, were made pri- soners. BowiDES. — A dynasty estabhshed in Persia A.D. 932. There were seventeen kings of this line, which lasted for 127 years, and became extinct in 1059. Bow Island (Pacific). — One of the coral islands discovered by Bougainville in 1768. He called it La Harpe, but it received its present name from Captain Cook, who landed upon it in 1769. BowYEE FoET (United States), near Mobile, was captured by the English troops, Feb. 11,1815. This was the last encounter during the American war, as the news of the conclusion of peace reached the beUigerents the next day. BoxTEL (Battle). — The republican army under Pichegru having wrested Boxtel from the Dutch, Sept. 14, 1794, the duke of York ordered General Abercrombie to advance during the night with the army of reserve. In the morning of the 15th he was engaged with the French, and was compelled to retire. On this occasion the duke of Wellington, then commanding the 33rd regiment, first came under fire. By a well-directed move- ment he cheeked the advance of the repubK- can troops, and inflicted such chastisement upon them, that the further retreat was effected without molestation. Boyadji-Keuy (Treaty). — Between Aus- tria and the Porte, was signed at Boyadji- Keuy, June 14, 1854. It consisted of seven articles, providing for the occupation of the Danubian principalities by the Austrians, who entered the principalities Aug. 20, 1854, and retired in 1856, at the close of the war. BOY BoT-BiSHOP, was elected in cathedrals and parish churches on St. Nicholas' day (Dec. 6), during the Middle Ages. This child, usually chosen from one of the choir, was invested with all the insignia of the episcopal office, and his authority lasted until Innocents' day (Dec. 28). He per- fonned aU the ceremonies and offices of the church except mass. At Sahsbury the boy-bishop is said to have had the disposal of aU stalls that came vacant dur- ing his rule. This custom was suppressed by proclamation July 22, 1542, and according to some authorities a previous proclamation had been issued July 22, 1540. This, with other Roman CathoHc pageants, was revived by Queen Mary ; and it was again suppressed by Elizabeth, though it continued to exist in rural districts for some time after the prohi- bition. A similar custom prevailed in many parts of the Continent. BoTLE Lectuees. — Instituted according to instructions in the will of the Hon. Robert Boyle (seventh son of the earl of Cork), who died Dec. 30, 1691. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society, and a man of extraordinary attainments. The lectures, eight in number, intended as a defence of natural and revealed religion, are preached at St. Mary-le-Bow church, on the first Monday in January, February, March, April, May, September, October, and November. The first course was preached by the cele- brated Dr. Bentley ia 1692, and he preached a second in 1694. BoYNE (Battle). — At this battle, in Ire- land, Wilham III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., July 1, 1690. The latter fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, from which port he set sail for France. BsABAN^ONS, or BEABAifCioifES, mer- cenary soldiers, called also Routiers, because they were always en route, and Cotereaux. They were frequently employed during the Middle Ages, and in this country in particular, by William II., Stephen, and Henry II. ; and were little better than freebooters. The greater number came from Brabant : hence their name. Bbaba]s-t (Holland and Belgium). — This ancient province formed part of Charle- magne's empire, and in the division of his territories, made a.d. 806, was assigned by him to his son Charles. Lothaire I. obtained it A.D. 843, and his son, Lothaire II., a.d. 855, by whom it was joined to Lorraine. Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, made it a separate duchy, called Lower Lorraine, and afterwards Brabant ; and bestowed it upon Geoffrey, its first duke. It passed under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy in 1429, and was with their dominions transferred to Austria in 1477. When Charles V., emperor of Ger- many, became king of Spain, in 1516, the Netherlands were united to Spain. PhiUp the Second's religious persecutions having caused a revolt. North Brabant joined the United Provinces in 1581 ; and South Bra- bant remained under the dominion of Spain until 1706, when it became part of the BRA Austrian Netherlands. Brabant, vrith the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, was united to France by decrees of the National Convention, dated March, 1793 and 1795, and armies were sent for the purpose of subju- gating the country. It formed part of the kingdom of Holland in 1815, and at the revolution of 1830, South Brabant became a province of Belgium. The heir to the throne bears the title of duke of Brabant. Beacelets, or Aemlets, were worn at a very early period. Abraham's servant gave Rebecca two bracelets of gold e.g. 1857 (Gen. xxiv. 22) ; and the Amalekite who killed Saul brought the bracelet that was upon his arm to Da^dd, e.g. 1055 (2 Sam. i. 10). They were worn both by men and women amongst most ancient nations. Wilham of Malmesbury relates that Alfred ordered golden bracelets to be hung up in the highways (circ. a.d. 890), and such was the good order that prevailed, that nobody took them away. The same author mentions, as part of the peace-oifering sent by Earl Godwin to Hardicanute, a.d. 1041, eighty soldiers, who had two bracelets on their arms, weighing sixteen ounces of gold. In the Saxon Chronicle, under the year 975, Edgar is called the "bracelet-giver to he- roes." Amongst the Danes, the most sacred form of oath was that sworn on the holy bracelet, originally kept at an altar, but afterwards worn on the arm of a priest. This ceremony is alluded to by the Saxon Chro- nicle under the year 876. Various ancient ornaments of this kind have been found in different parts of the island. Beadogk Dowif (Battle). — Sir R. Hopton with inferior numbers defeated the Parlia- mentary army at this place, near Liskeard, in Cornwall, about the middle of January, 1643. With trifling loss on his part, he took 1,250 prisoners, aU their cannon, colours, arms, &c. Beagan^a (House of). — Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke in 1640, and John, duke of Braganpa, was raised to the throne Dec. 1, under the title of John IV. The family dates from the beginning of the 15th century, when Alfonso, a natural son of John I., was created duke of Braganga and lord of Guima- raens. He married Beatrice, daughter of the count of BarceUos and Ourem, and from them the Bragan9a fine sprung. In 1801 Napoleon declared that the reign of the Bragan^a sove- reigns had ceased. John, regent of the king- dom, withdrew to Brazil in 1807, but he returned in 1821. At his death, in 1826, his son Don Pedro resigned the throne in favour of his daughter Maria II., preferring to remain emperor of Brazil, which he had been elected Nov. 18, 1825. Bbaganca (Portugal). — According to tra- dition, this city was founded by King Brigo, B.C. 1906. Its realfounder was Sancho I., who built the present city and castle in 1187. Bra- gan^a was erected into a duchy by Alfonso V., in 1442. On the revolt of the Portuguese from Spain in 1640, John II., eighth duke of Braganja, ascended the throne of Portugal BEA as John IV., and founded the reigning dy- nasty. In 1782 the see of Miranda was transferred to Bragan^a, the bishop retaiaing both titles. BEAHMiifS. — The order of Hindoo priests, constituting the highest of the four castes into which the Hindoo nation is divided, is of great antiquity. It is said that their Vedas, or sacred books, date from fourteen centuries before our aera, and that some of their codes of crimiaal and civil law go back nearly 3,000 years from the present time. The Hindoo tradition respecting the origin of'this caste is, that in the first creation, the Brahmius proceeded with the Veda from the mouth of Brama, their chief god. The system of castes prevailed both in Egypt and in India, and much controversy has oeen excited as to whether India borrowed it from Egypt or Egypt from India. Beailow (Battle) . — Fought near Brailow, or Ibral, in AVaUaehia, between the Eussians and the Turks, June 19, 1773, the latter having been defeated. The town, taken by the Eussians June 18, 1828, the siege having commenced May 11, was restored to the Turks by the treaty of Hadrianople, in 1829. Bramham Mooe (Battle). — Sir Thomas Eokeby, high sheriff of Yorkshire, defeated the earl of Northumberland, who had rebelled a second time against Henry IV. at this place, Feb. 19, 1408. The earl of Northumberland was killed in this battle. Beandenbueg (Prussia). — This province, subjugated by Charlemagne a.d. 789, some time after regained its independence, which it enjoyed until 928, when it was conquered and annexed to Saxony. It became a margra- viate under Albert, sumamed the Bear, in 1142. On the extinction of that race in 1320, it was given by the emperor Louis V. to his son Louis, and was sold by one of his descendants to Charles IV. It continued in this family until the emperor Sigismund obtained pos- session in 1411, and by him it was, in 1415, sold to Frederick of HohenzoUern, one of whose successors founded the kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The town of Brandenburg, lounded about the 7th century, was made a bishop's see a.d. 946. It was suppressed in 1565. Brandt, formerly called Brandwine, was first mentioned about 1671. The Aqua Vitse invented by Eaymond Lully, who died in 1515, is often mistaken for brandy. BEAifDT-wiNE (Battle). — At Brandy-wine Creek, near Newcastle, in Pennsylvania, Lord CornwaUis, Sept. 11, 1777, vsith inferior num- bers, defeated an American army of 15,000 men, advantageously posted. Brasenose College (Oxford). — William Smyth, bishop of Lichfield, afterwards of Lincoln, and chancellor of the university of Oxford, and Sir E. Sutton fovmded this insti- tution about 1508. A charter was granted by Henry VIII., Jan. 25, 1512, for one prin- cipal and sixty scholars of the King's HaU and CoUege of Brasenose. The new library was finished in 1663, and the foundation-stone of the new chapel was laid in 1656. It has 140 BEA received numerous benefactions, nose HaU existed in the time of Henry III., in the middle of the 13th century, and was known by that name in 1278, a nose of brass being fixed to the gate. The name is said to be derived from a corruption of brasinium or hrasinhuse, because originally situated in part of Alfred's palace, used as a brew-house. Brass. — The art of making this aUoy of copper and zinc was known in ancient times, and the early Britons are said to have pos- sessed brass -foundries. The celebrated colossus of Ehodes, erected about B.C. 288, was formed of brass. This fact has, however, been disputed, and it is certain that the pre- sent process of making brass is altogether of modern invention. The first works in Eng- land are said to have been established at Esher in 1649 ; and in 1781 Emerson obtained a patent for making brass in a more direct way, by melting together its constituent metals. Bray (Berks). — Fuller's story of the vicar of Bray,whoheldhislivingunder Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, being first a Eonian Cathohc, then a Protestant, again a Eoman Catholic, and once more a Protes- tant, on the principle that he intended to live and die vicar of Bray, is not borne out by the church records. The Hving was not held by the same person for so long a period as that required to prove the truth of the anecdote. Brazil (South America). — ^Vincent Pinzon landed m Brazil in February, 1500, and took possession of the country in the name of the Spanish government, and Cabral was driven by adverse winds on its coasts April 23 in the same year. It was afterwards surveyed by Amerigo Vespucci, who pubMshed an account of the country, with a map. The Spaniards and French occupied several por- tions of the country. 1500. Vincent Pinzon, having sailed from Palos, in December the preceding year, anives, ia February, at Cape Augustine, and disco- vers and names the river Amazon. On the 23rd of April, Pedi'O Alvarez Cabral is driven on to the coast, and takes possession of the country in behalf of the king of Portugal. 1530. Captain Hawkins, of Plymouth, commences intercourse with the natives, and prevails on one of their chiefs to accompany him to England. 1549. The Portuguese foxmd St. Salvador, and the Jesuits first enter BrazU. 1553. Settlements formed by Europeans extend as far as the river La Plata, and the country is made a Jesuit province. 1555. Coligny establishes a settlement of French Protestants in Brazil. 1558. The Portuguese massacre most of the French settlers. 1560. The colony of French Huguenots is entirely broken up, and the colonists are expelled by the Portuguese. 1572. The English make an unsuccessfvd attempt to obtain a footing in BrazU. 1580. Passes into the power of Philip II., king of Spain, who becomes sovereign of Portugal. 1594 Captain James Lancaster takes Pemambuco, and returns with a large booty of sugai's, timber, and cotton. 1661. 1711. 1723. 1760. 1763. BEE First invaaioBL of Brazil by the Butch, -who take Bahia, but are iinable to make a per- manent settlement. Second invasion by the Dutch, who take Olinda and the province of Pernambuco. Vieyra restores Brazil to the Portuguese rule. Free trade opened between Brazil and England. The Dutch resign all claim to BrazU. The French seize Blo-Janeiro. The French found Monte Video, which is seized by the Spaniards. The Jesuits are expelled from Brazil. The seat of government is transferred from Bahia to Kio. Revolt of the oppressed natives and negro 1817. 1821. Insurrection of the province of Minas. Nov. 29. The royal family of Portugal leave Lisbon for Rio-Janeiro, to which city the seat of the Portuguese government is trans- ferred. Jan. 21. The royal family of Portugal reach Brazil. Aug. 1. The culture of the tea-plant is intro- duced into Brazil. Dec. 16. John, prince regent of Poi-tugal, erects the state of Brazil into a kingdom. March. Insurrection of Pernambuco. Revolutions in Para, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio-Janeiro. The king returns to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro regent of Brazil. Sept. 21. Don Pedro refuses to recognize the authority of the king of Portugal, and is proclaimed " constitutional emperor of Brazil." May 13. The king of Portugal recognizes the independence of the Brazilian empire. Brazil recognizes Monte "Video as an indepen- dent state. Insurrection in Pernambuco. April 6. The emperor abdicates in favour of his infant son, Don Pedro, and next day embarks for Europe. July 23. The emperor is declared of age by a coup d'6tat, and assumes the head of affairs. Sept. 4. The emperor issues a decree, making the importation of slaves piratical. Nov. 8. Inauguration of the first Brazilian railroad from Rio to Belem (38 miles). EMTEEOES. A.D. 1822. Dec. 1. Pedro L 1831. July 18. Pedro XL Beead. — ^Various materials were converted into bread in ancient times, when wheaten flour was not in such general use as at pre- sent. From the description of England prefixed to Holinshed's Chronicle, we learn that even in this country bread was made " of such grain as the soil yieldeth, nevertheless the gentility commonly provide themselves sufficiently of wheat for their own tables, while their household and poor neighbours in some shires are enforced to content them- selves with rye or barley, yea, and in time of dearth, many with bread made either of beans, peas, or oats, or of altogether, or some acorns among." Amongst other sub- stitutes for wheat, potatoes and various Idnds of earth have been used. Stow says Bread Street was so called on account of its being the place where bread was formerly sold, and adds ; "for it appear eth by records that in the year 1302, which was the thirtieth of ERE Edward I., the bakers of London were bounden to sell no bread in their shops or houses, but in the market." Butter was substituted for dripping to be eaten with bread at breakfast between the reigns of Edward IV. and Elizabeth. By a royal mandate issued by Henry III. in the thirty- sixth year of his reign (1252), bakers were ordered not to impress bread intended for sale with the sign of the cross, Agnus Dei, or the name of Jesus Christ. {See Assize of Bread, Bakees, &c.) Bread-feuit Tree. — This esculent, found in the South -Sea Islands, was introduced into the West Indies by order of the British government. The first attempt in 1789 under Bligh failed, on account of the mutiny of part of Ms crew on board the Bounty. Bligh was sent out again in 1791, reached Otaheite in 1792, and landed the plants in 1793. Captain Bhgh received the gold medal offered in 1777 by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures to any one who should bring the bread-fruit plant in a state of vege- tation from the South -Sea Islands to the West Indies. The experiment succeeded, but the negroes prefer their own preparation of food from the plantain. Beeakwater. — The mole at Tangier, com- menced in 1663, and abandoned, though not completed in 1676 ; the works commenced at Plymouth Aug. 12, 1812, and completed in 1841; those at Cherbourg, commenced June 6, 1784, continued at intervals, and completed in 1853 ; and the Admiralty pier at Dover, com- menced about 1844, are amongst the most celebrated breakwaters in the world. Beeastplate. — A portion of the vestment worn by the high-priest amongst the Jews, was called the breastplate of judgment, and to it the Urim and Thummim were attached. The defensive armour called the breastplate, worn both in ancient and modern times, is made of various materials. BEECHiif (Scotland). — This ancient town, supposed to have been the capital of the kings of the Picts, was burnt by the Danes A.D. 1012. It was made a bishopric in 1150, and the see, suppressed in 1689, was revived in 1731. Near Brechin, at Huntly Hill, a battle was fought in 1452. Brechin was taken by Edward I., Aug. 9, 1303, and was burnt by Montrose in 1645. Beeda (Holland) was founded about 1190, and was annexed to Spain in 1567. It was recovered in March, 1590, by Prince Maurice of Nassau, to whose family it belonged during the 14th and 15th centuries. During the struggle with Spain conferences were opened here March 3, 1575, and closed July 8, 1575. The Spaniards besieged Breda in 1624, and captured it in 1625. It came into the posses- sion of the United Provinces Oct. 6, 1637, and was confirmed to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Charles II. resided here during part of his exile, and his celebrated declaration was written at Breda, and dated April 14 (O.S. 4), 1660. Peace between England, France, and Holland was concluded here July 20 (O.S. 10), 1667. During the 141 BEE BEE revolution tlie assembly of the United Belgic States met Jiere Sept. 14, 1789. Breda capi- tulated to fixe French Feb. 25, 1793. The French were expelled in 1813, and Breda was restored to Holland at the peace in 1815. Beehon Law, prevailedin Ireland previous to its conquest by Henry II. in 1169, and was so called because the Irish name for a judge is Brehon. The Irish nation received and swore to observe the Enghsh laws at the Great Council assembled at Lismore. Spen- cer, in 1596, describes Brehon Law as "a rule of right unwritten, but dehvered by tradition from one to another, in which oftentimes there appeared great show of equity in determining the right between party and party, but in many things repug- nant quite both to God's laws and man's." This account is not altogether correct, as the code existed in manuscript as early as the 14th centiiry. King John, who visited Ireland in 1210, ordained and estabUshed by letters patent that it should be governed by the laws of England. The Irish, however, clung to the Brehon Law. Henry III. and his successors made several efforts to induce them to abandon it, and Edward III. by the statuteof Kilkenny, inl366,formally abolished the Brehon Law, the practice of which was, by the last-mentioned statute, made treason. The Brehon Law was not, however, in spite of this and other enactments, entirely abo- lished until the reign of James I. Beemen- (Germany). — ^The capital of the repubhc of Bremen, and one of the free Hanse towns, is first mentioned as a bishop's see a.d. 787. The archbishop of Hamburg removed his seat here in 845, and Bremen itself became an archbishopric in 1203. It was destroyed by the Hungarians in 900. In 1283 it joined the Hanseatic League ; and in 1648 its arch- bishopric was suppressed. Bremen was made an imperial city in 1640. A majority of the inhabitants having declared in favour of Pro- testantism, the city was separated from the remainder of the diocese. The latter, called the duchy of Bremen, was ceded to Sweden by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Denmark conquered it in 1712, and sold it to Hanover in 1715, with which it was incorporated in 1732. The French captured it Aug. 29, 1757, again in 1758, butwere speedily expelled, and took it again in 1759. It was taken by the French in 1806, and annexed to the French empire in 1810, but regained its independence in 1813, and was made a member of the Ger- man Confederation in 1815. Beennevillb (Battle). — Louis VI. of France, who supported the claim of WiUiam CUto to the estates in j^ormandy seized by Henry I., was defeated by the latter in the plain of Brenneville, in Normandy, Aug. 20, 1119. This is sometimes called the battle of Bremulle, and also of Noyon. Bkentfoed (Battles). — Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes at Brentford, with great slaughter, in May, 1016. Charles I. defeated the ParHamentary army near this place, Nov. 12, 1642. 142 Bees CIA (Italy). — The ancient Brixia was conquered by the Eomans. The Goths burned it a.d. 412, and Attila plundered it in 452. It became an import ant city under Lombard rule, and the capital of a pro- vince of the same name. It was taken by Charlemagne. It joined the league against the emperor Frederick I. in 1175, and suc- cessfully resisted the arms of Frederick II. in 1238. It was long a prey to the various fac- tions by which Italy was convulsed ; was taken by the emperor Henry VII. iu 1311, by the Venetians in 1426, and by the French in 1509. The Venetians having regained possession in 1512, it was taken and sacked by the French, under Gaston de Foix, in the same year, but was again captured, after along siege, by the Venetians, May 26, 1516. It was annexed to Venice in 1576, and continued under the sway of that repubhc until 1797. The French having captured it in 1796, they were expelled in 1799 ; but Brescia again passed imder their yoke until 1815, when, with the remainder of Lombardy, it was ceded to Austria. During the revolution of. 1848, the Austrians were expelled, but it was retaken March 30, 1849, and passed to Sardinia, by the treaty of Zurich, in 1859. Its cathedral was commenced in 1604, and completed in 1825. Beeslau (Silesia). — Frederick II. of Prussia took possession of Breslau Jan. 1, 1741. After the battle of Czaslau, which took place May 17, 1742, a treaty of peace between Frederick II. and Maria Theresa was drawn up at Breslau under the mediation of the British ambassador, June 11, 1742, and definitively concluded July 28. Silesia and Glatz, in Bohemia, were ceded to Prussia. A great battle was fought here between the Austrians and the Prussians, Nov. 22, 1757, and the latter having been defeated, the Austrians took possession of Breslau on the 25th, but it was retaken by Frederick II. on the 19th of December in the same year. Loudon, who had appeared be- fore it July 30, 1760, was compelled to raise the siege August 5, and the Eussians bom- barded it in 1761. The French took it in 1806, and its fortifications were demoUshed in 1814. Its university was founded in 1702, and that of Frankfort-on-the-Oder was incor- porated with it in 1811. The bishopric of Smogre, founded in 960, was transferred to Breslau in 1062. Coimcils were held at Bres- lau in 1248, and Feb. 2, 1268. Beest (France), supposed to be the an- cient Brivates Portus, came into the posses- sion of the duke of Britanny in 1240. It was frequently captured and held by the Enghsh in the continental wars during the 14th and 15th centuries ; and it passed to the Fi-ench crown, with the remainder of Britanny, by the marriage of Louis XII. with Anne of Britanny, widow of Charles VIIL, in 149S. Sir Thomas Howard burnt Brest May 23, 1512 ; and an indecisive action between the French and Enghsh fleets occurred off the port Aug. 10, in the same year. Sir Edward Howard, lord high admiral, sailed into Brest, landed some men, and ravaged the country BEE in 1513, and was killed outside tlie port in an j attempt to destroy some French galleys. Sir Martin Frobisher assisted the French to recover Brest from the Spaniards in 1594. The EngUsh failed in an attack upon Brest in June, 1694. Lord Howe defeated the French fleet off Brest, June 1, 1794 ; and the port was blockaded by an English squadron during the French revolutionary war. The harboiu- was improved in 1631 by order of Kichelieu, who made Brest a naval station. Captain Gordon was beheaded at Brest in 1769, on a charge of being concerned in a conspiracy for setting fire to the shipping in that port. The hospital was destroyed by fire, and fifty slaves lost their hves Nov. 1776. Bbetignt (Treaty). — At the village of Bretigny, near Chartres, a treaty of peace was concluded between England and France, May 8, 1360. It consisted of forty articles. France ceded several provinces that England had conquered, and Edward III. renounced his claim to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, &c., and agreed to release the French king John, who had been prisoner in England since 1356, his ransom being fixed at 3,000,000 of gold crowns. King John was conducted to Calais July 3 ; the two kiags signed the treaty there Oct. 24 j and John was released on the 26th. He returned to England Jan. 4, 1364, and the kings of Scotland and Cyprus being then in London, he was received with great pomp ; but falling suddenly HI, he died at the palace of the Savoy, April 8, 1364. Some historians assert that he came to England because he was unable to fulfil the terms of his release; but a desire to see Edward III., for whom he entertained great affection, appears to have been his principal if not his sole object. Beeviaet, originally called the Cursus, is composed of psalms, lessons taken from Scrip- ture, homUies, histories of saints, hymns, anthems, prayers, &c., suited to the parti- cular season, festival, or canonical hour, collected for the use of Roman Cathohcs. After undergoing several alterations, it was settled by Pius V. in 1568. Reformation of the breviaries was enjoined upon bishops by the synod held at Cologne in 1536, and both popes and councils have introduced various alterations. Beewees. — The art of brewing is of great antiquity. By a statute of the Pillory and Tumbrel, 51 Hen. III. st. 6 (1267), brewers were fined for the first, second, and third offences not over grievous against the law of assize ; but if the offence was often, or over grievous, the brewer was condemned to the tumbrel, or some other correction. The trade of brewing, within the city of London, was at one time confined almost wholly to females. The company of brewers was incor- porated by Henry VI., Feb. 22, 1428 j con- firmed by Edward IV. in 1480 ; and again by Ehzabeth, Jxily 13, 1560. There were twenty- six brewers in London and Westminster in 1585, and they brewed 648,960 barrels yearly. Barrels were first ordered to be gauged by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1532). The trade itself BRI has been regulated by several subsequent statutes. Beiae Ceeek (Battle). — General Prevost, with about 1,200 EngHsh troops, defeated the American ai^ny, 2,000 strong, at this place, in America, March 3, 1779. Several colours, 7 pieces of cannon, all the baggage, and 200 prisoners, fell into the hands of the victors. Beibeet. — This form of corruption is mentioned several times in the Bible, and is forbidden Deut. xvi. 19. It prevailed exten- sively amongst most ancient nations. When Ergocles was convicted of having embezzled thirty talents, and payment was demanded of his friend PhUocrates, his party openly boasted of having bribed 2,100 jurymen at Athens. A modern author remarks that "in all periods of their history, the Greeks seldom had sufficient principle to resist a bribe." Bribery prevailed to a fearful extent in Rome, and existed in various forms during the Middle Ages. The first case of punish- ment for bribery at an Enghsh election is recorded by Parry (Pari, and Councils of Eng. p. 221). On the 10th of May, 1571, Thomas Long, a very simple man, and unfit to serve, coniessed that he gave the mayor of Westbury and another £4 for his place in ParHament. They were ordered to refund the money, to appear to answer such things as shoxild be objected against them, and the corporation and inhabitants of Westbury were fined £20 for their scandalous attempt. Bribery at elections did not prevail to any great extent in this country until the 18th century. Beiciak, or St. Beidget. — This Swedish order of knighthood was founded by Queen, afterwards St. Bridget, in 1366. Beick-making was known immediately after the flood (Gen. xi. 3), b.c. 2234, burnt bricks having been employed in the con- struction of the tower of Babel. The Mves of the Israehtes in Egypt were embittered by their cruel task of brick-making about B.C. 1571 (Exod. i. 14, and ch. v.). It is probable that these were sun-dried bricks. The Jews inscribed magical and other cha- racters upon bricks. The art was much improved by the Greeks, and carried to a still higher state of perfection by the Romans. The Aaglo-Saxons and the Normans em- ployed brickwork in their architecture. Bricks were first taxed by 24 Geo. III. c. 24 (1784), at the rate of 2s. Qd. per 1,000. This duty was several times increased vmtil, by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 24 (July 19, 1839), it was fixed at 5s. IM. per 1,000 for ordinary-sized bricks, and 10s. for the larger size. It was repealed by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 9 (1850) . Hampton Court, bmlt by Cardinal Wolsey, is a good specimen of Enghsh brickwork. Beide-ale, or Beide-stake, an old cus- tom, so called because the bride sold ale on her wedding-day, and her friends contributed what they pleased in payment. It was also called bride-bush, from a bush at the end of a pole, the ancient badge of a country ale- house : bride-wain, because poor persons 143 BEI Bent a cart round to their relations and friends, to obtain contributions ; and bidding, because guests were invited. The custom is supposed to have been confined to tbese islands. Puttenham, in the "Arteof Poesie," pubhshed in 1589, mentions a bryde-ale, and one was celebrated before Queen Elizabeth, at Kemlworth Castle, in that year. In the court-rolls of Hales-Owen, Salop, amongst other regulations is one made in 1573, to the effect that the wedding couple should not have above "eight messe of persons at his dinner within the burrowe." Beidewell. — A tower or castle bmlt in St. Bride's parish, was for many years a residence of the English kings. Here, in 1210, King John summoned a council, at which he exacted above £1,000 sterling from the clergy ; and after depriving the White Monks of their privileges, compelled them to contribute £40,000 in silver. Henry VIII. built a stately and beautiful house upon the ruins of this old tower, giving it the name of Bridewell, from a well in the neighbourhood dedicated to St. Bride, or St. Bridget. It is said to have been built specially for the entertainment of the emperor Charles V., who visited London in May, 1522. Kidley, in May, 1552, wrote a letter to Cecil request- ing him to obtain it for charitable uses ; and in June, 1553, Edward VI. granted it to the city of London for the maintenance of poor ancl impotent people. A mill to grind corn was placed in it in 1570. It was made a House of Correction in the 17th century, and was destroyed by fire in 1666. Several houses of correction bearing the same name have been erected in London and other parts of the kingdom. Beidgenoeth (Shropshire). — This ancient town was incorporated by John in 1214. Henry I. captured the castle in 1102 ; and Henry II. in 1157. Bridges, of rude materials and form, were constructed by ancient nations at the earhest periods. The first stone bridge of large dimensions was built at Rome by Caius Flavins Scipio B.C. 127. Old London Bridge was commenced a.d. 1176, and was not com- pleted until eighty-three years later. Bow Bridge, built in 1118, is said to have been the first stone bridge in England. By 9 Hen. III. c. 15 (1225), no town or freeman could be distrained to make bridges ; and by 22 Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1530), it was provided that if a bridge was within a city or town corporate, the inhabitants of such city or town corporate were bound to repair it ; if without a city or town corporate, the inha- bitants of the county had to effect the repairs ; and if part of a bridge was in one county and part within another, the inha- bitants of the respective counties were charged with the repairs of the portion within their own limits. Pritchard, in 1775, introduced cast-iron in the construction of bridges ; and the first of this material was built over the Severn, at Coalbrook Dale, in 1779. The punishment for pulling down or destroying a pubhc bridge was made trans- 144 BRI portatiou for not less than seven years, or imprisonment for not more than four years with flogging, by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, s. 13 (June 21, 1827). By 13 & 14 Vict. c. 64 (Aug. 14, 1850), the repairing, maintaining, and building of bridges, was placed under the sole management and control of the town councils. The following is a Hat of some of the principal bridges : — 100. Ponte MoUe at Eome Stone. 1305. 1354. 1454. 1474. 1569. 1591. 1611. 1755. 1760. 1765. 1771. 1774 1775. 1784 1791. 1791. 1794 1796. 1802. 1804 1805. 1814 1815. 1816. 1818. 1860. St. Esprit „ Lan^edoc „ Castle Vecchio „ "Verona . . „ "Vielle-Brioude „ Brioude . . „ Sisto „ Rome .... „ Holy Trinity „ Florence . . „ Kialto „ Venice . . „ Claix „ Grenoble.. „ Pout-y-prydd „ Glamorgan „ Orleans „ Orleans . . „ Mantes „ Mantes.... „ Blackfriars London . . „ Neuilly near Pai-is „ Lavaur at Lavaur .. „ St. Maxence „ St. Maxence „ Sarah „ Dublin „ Pont de la Concorde „ Paris „ Piscataqui „ N. America Timber. Sunderland „ Sunderland Iron. Pont de la Cit6 . . „ Paris Timber. Trenton „ Pennsylvania „ Montlion „ Montlion.. Stone. Ulm „ mm Tongueland „ Kirkcudbright „ Austerlitz „ Paris .... Iron. Freysingen ,, Bavaria.... Timber. .... near Augsburg . . „ Bamberg in Germany . . „ Pont Louis at Freysingen „ Elsingen „ Elsingen . . „ Colossus „ Philadelphia „ Munich „ Munich . . Stone. Jena „ Paris „ Waterloo „ London.... „ Southwark „ London .... Iron. Westminster .... „ London.... „ Beidgewatee (Somersetshire). — This an- cient town, called in Domesday Book Brugie, received its first charter, dated June 26, 1200, from John. It was taken by the ParUa- mentary forces July 23, 1645. In 1685 the corporation of Bridgewater proclaimed the duke of Monmouth king. Beidgewatee Teeatises. — The sum of £8,000 was, by the will of Francis Henry Egerton, last earl of Bridgewater, who died in Feb. 1829, placed at the disposal of the President of the Royal Society, to be paid by him to the writer, or writers, of a treatise "on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the creation," of which 1,000 copies were to be pubhshed. The subject, divided into eight parts, was allotted to eight individuals, each of whom received an equal share of the money. The works, pubhshed between 1833 and 1840, and known by the name of the Bridgewater Treatises, are as follows : — The Hand ; its Mechanism and Vital Endowments, as evincing Design. By Sir Charles Bell. 1833. On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitu- tion of Man. By Rev. Thomas ChaJmex-s. 1833. BEI On the Ailaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. By John Kidd. 1833. Astronomy and General Physics, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By the Eev. WUliam Whewell. 1833. Ohemisti-y, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- tion, considered with referenoe to Natiu-al Theology. By William Prout. 1834. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with reference to Natui-al Theology. By Peter IVIark Roget. 1834. Geology and Mineralogy, considered with re^'erence to Natui-al Theology. By the Kev. William Buckland. 1835. On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of XSod, as manifested in the Creation of Animals, and in their History, Habits, and Instincts. By the Ker. William Kirkby. 1835. The dates given are those of first publica- tion. Later editions have been issued. Beief, or Queen's Lettee. — This kind of document bearing the royal signature, addressed to the archbishops, bishops, cler- gjrmen, magistrates, churchvrardens, and overseers of the poor in England, authorizing the collection of money for some charitable purpose therein mentioned, was first issued in this country soon after the Reformation. Certain abuses crept in, and a measure was passed (4 Anne, c. 14) in 1706, entitled, "An Act for the better collecting charitable money on briefs by letters patent, and preventing abuses in relation to such charities." This act was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. e. 42 (July 15, 1828) ; and though the power of issuing briefs is stiU retained by the Crown, it has not been exercised during the last few years. Beief. [See Bull.) Beiel, or Beill (Holland).— This fortified seaport surrendered to the confederates in 1572, and was thus the first place in Holland to obtain its independence. It was placed in the hands of the EngKsh in 1585, Queen Elizabeth having agreed to protect the Netherlands, and was, with other cautionary towns, given back to the Dutch, May 27, 1616. Beienne (Battle). — Napoleon I. defeated the allied German and Russian army at this town, in France, in a sanguinary engagement fought Feb. 1 and 2, 1814, Beigettines, or Nuns op cub Holt Savioue, instituted by St. Bridget, duchess or nrincess of Nericia, in Sweden, about the middle of the 14th century. She died in 1373, and was canonized in 1391. They adopted, with certain modifications, the anole of St. Augustine. It was not lawful for them to have anything they could call their own, not even so much as a halfpenny. The new order arose in Spain, spread through parts of the continent, and had only one house in England, at Syon, in Middlesex, founded by Henry V. in 1413. Men were admitted into their convents. Beighton (Sussex), formerly Brighthehn- stone, was a place of some impoj-tance in early times ; and, having been plundered and Durnt by the French in 1514, was afterwards fortified by Henry VIII. . It declined, and was merely a, fishing-village at the commence- 145 BRI ment of the last century. George IV., then prince of Wales, visited it in 1782, and the foundation of the Pavilion was laid in 1784. It was completed in 1787, and additions were made in 1802 and 1817. The chain pier was commenced Oct. 1822, and opened in Nov. 1823. A battery was built in 1793, and rebuilt in 1830. The town-hall was commenced in 1830. The railroad to Lon- don was opened Sept. 21, 1841. The Pavihon was purchased by the corporation in 1850. Beihuega (Spain). — General Stanhope and 6,000 British troops were surrounded and taken prisoners, after a gallant resist- ance, at this small town, by the duke of Vendome, Dec. 9 (O.S. Nov. 28), 1710. The French were immensely superior in numbers. Beindisi (Calabria), occupies the site of the ancient Brimdusium. It was seized by the Romans B.C. 267, and made a Roman colony B.C. 244. The peace of Brundusium, between Antony and Augustus, was concluded here B.C. 40, and in accordance with one of its conditions, the marriage between Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus, was soon after celebrated. Virgil died here B.C. 19. It was frequently besieged, and suffered severely during the various invasions of Italy. Brindisi was nearly destroyed by an earthquake a.d. 1456. It became the seat of a bishopric a.d. 172, and was united vdth Oria, and made an archbishopric, about 1060 ; but the sees were disunited in 1591. Beistol. — Part of this town is in Somer- setshire and part in Gloucestershire. It was a walled town and royal burgh at the time of the Norman conquest. Henry of Hunting- don describes it as the most opulent city in that part of the country, and much frequented by shipping. The empress Maud repaired to this city a.d. 1140, and Stephen was impri- soned in its castle in 1141. Bristol has returned two members to parliament since 1283; and it was made a staple for wool, leather, &c., by 27 Edw. III. st. 2, c. 1 (1353) . A charter for making Bristol a town and county of itself was confirmed under the great seal (47 Edw. III.) Aug. 8, 1373. Henry VII. granted it another charter in 1550. Prince Rupert captured Bristol July 27, 1643, and it was retaken by the ParUamentaiy forces Sept. 10, 1645. The castle was demo- lished by order of Cromwell in 1656. Riots occurred here in 1749, 1793, and in 1831. The see was founded in 1534, and united to that of Gloucester in 1836. The docks were commenced in 1804, and completed in 1809. The councU-house was built in 1827. Beitannia, or Beitain. — Aristotle (b.c. 384 — 323), the first ancient writer who makes direct mention of Britain, speaks of two very large islands, Albion and lerne {i.e. England and Ireland), called Bretannic, lying in the ocean beyond the Pillars of Hercules. The term Albion, applied to England on account of its chalky cliffs, is probably de- rived from a Celtic word signifying white. The origin of the word Britain has excited much controversy. In early native poems it is called the isle of the Prydhain, of which BEI BEl Carte conjectures Britannia to be the Latin- | ized form. Some portions of the coast of Britain were knovm to the PhcBnicians, who resorted to them for tin, before the time of Aristotle. They gave the name of Cassiterides, or the Tin Islands, to the Scilly group, off the coast of Cornwall. Herodotus uses the term, though he declares that he can give no information on the subject, admitting that he never met a man who had seen the sea on that side of Europe. The original inhabitants of Britain were a Celtic race, divided into two principal branches, the Gaehc and the Cimbric ; but of their history previous to the Roman invasion, httle authentic is known. The islands are supposed to have been peopled from the neighbouring contiaent of G-aul. Their priests, called Druids {q. v.), wielded the chief authority. When Cssar, Aug. 26, B.C. 55, landed on the coast of Kent, Divitiacus was the most powerful of the native leaders. B.C. 57. Divitiacus, king of the Soissons, in Gatil, rules Britain. 55. Aug. 26. Jiilius C»sar arrives in Britain, but making no important conquests, retires to Gaiil Sept. 20. 54. May. Csesar returns to Britain, and is opposed by Cassivcllaunus. He crosses the Thames, and takes Verulam (St. Alban's). He im- poses a tribute on the Britons, and returns to Gaul in the autxunn. 51. Commius takes refuge in Britain from the pursuit of C.Tesar. 26. Augustus sets out for the purpose of invading Britain, but an embassy of the inhabitants meet hina. in Gaul, and olfer submission to him. 40. Caligula is persuaded to Invade Britain by Adminiiis, son of CinobelIinus,kiiig of the Britons. He returns without making any attempt at conquest. 43. Claudius sends Aulus Plautius into Britain, and soon afterwards comes in person, and reduces the greater part of the island to subjection. 44. Claudius has a triumph in celebration of the conque-t of Britain, and assumes the sur- name Britanuicus. 47. Flavius Vespasian annexes Britain to the Roman empire. Christianity is said to have been first preached in the island about this time, by Simon Zelotes. 50. Ostorius Scapula, Roman governor of Britain, reduces the Caugii, the Brigantes, and the SUures, takes Caractacus, king of the Silures, prisoner, and sends him to Rome. 51. Aultis Didius, governor, is opposed by Venu- sius, the British chieftain. 57. Veranius, governor, dies soonafter his api)oint- ment. 58. Suetonius Paulinus governor. Agricola com- mences his milita,ry career under his tutelage. 61. The Britons revolt, and capture several Roman posts. Suetonius defeats their army, led by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, who dies shortly after. 62. Petronius Turpilianus governor. 65. St. Peter is sud to have visited Britain. 69. The Roman legions in Britain revolt from the emperor Vitellius in favoiu: of Vespasian. 70. Petilius Casrialis governor. The Brigantes are restored to order. 75. Julius Frontinus governor. 78. Agricola govtmor. He reduces the isle of Auglesey, and reforms the abuses of his 146 Agricola's second campaign in Britain. The Roman language begins to be studied. Agricola's third campaign. He penetrates as far as the frith of Tay. Agricola's fourth campaign. He erects forts between the friths of Clyde and Foi-th. Agricula's fifth campaign. Agricola's sixth campaign. He defeats the Caledonians. Agricola, in his seventh carai^aign, defeats the Caledonians under Galgaeus. He sails round Britain, and discovers its insular form, resigns his governorship, and returns to Rome. Sallustius LucuUus governor. He is put to death by order uf Domitian. The Britons rebel under Aiviragus. Neratius Marcellus governor. The Britons strive to obtain their freedom. The emperor Hadrian visits Britaiu. Hadrian builds bis walL Platorius Nepos governor. The emperor Titus Antoninus' deprives the Bx-igantes of part of their tei-ritories. The Britons subdued by LoLUua Urbicus, who erects a wall of turf to exclude the barbarians. It is called the Wall of Autouinus. C. Valerius Pansa is proconsiil in Britain. Marcus Aurelius send.-* Calphurnius Agricola against the turbulent Britons. Lucius, king of the Bi-itons, sends an embassy to the Pope. Various dates, rangiug be- tween the years 137 and 199, are assigned for this event by different chroniclers. Some barbarous British tribes revolt, and are reduced to order by Marcellus. Marcellus puts an end to the war in Britain. The Britons again revolt, and are subdued by P. Heltrus Pertinax. Virins Lupus governor. South Britain is divided into two provinces by Severus. Britain again revolts. The emperor Severus heads an expedition into Britain. Severus completes his wall. Feb. 4. Death of Severus, at York. Papianus appointed governor. Marius Valerianus governor. MaciUus Fuscus governor. Gn. LucUianus governor. Nonnius Philippus governor. Desticius Juba governor. Proculus and Bonosus claim Britain for them- selves, and are defeated by Probus. Britain is assigned to Carinus, son of the Cai-ausius assumes imperial dignity in Bri- tain. Carausius is slain by Allectus, who succeeds him in the empire. Constantius reunites Britain to the Roman empire, and slays Allectus. Alban and other British Christians suffer martyrdom. The emperor Constantius Chlorus dies at York, and is succeeded by his son Con- stantine. Constantine subdues the Britons. British bishops present at the Council of Aries. The emperor Constans restores Britain to tranquillity. Jraiau sends 800 vessels to Britarn to obtain com. Britain invaded by the Picts and Scots. The Saxons assail the British coasts, and the Picts and .Scots penetrate inland. Revolt in Britain. Continued incursions of the Picts and Scots. The Saxons ett'ect a landing in Britain. The Roman army in Britain revolts, and pro- claims Maximus emperor. • Ninias, a Briton, is ordained bishop of the Southern Picts. BRI Britain seeks and obtains aid from Eome against the Picts and Scots. The army in Britain revolts, and chooses Gratian, a native of the country, em- peror. He is killed four months after- wards, and Constanline usurps his empu-e. The Britons revolt from the Romans, who are too much weakened by the Goths to attempt to reduce them to sulyectioa. Vortigern reigns in Britain. Vortigem seeks aid from the Saxons against the northern barbarians. The Saxons form an alliance with the Picts, and turn their arms against Vortigern. The Britons obtain assistance from Borne, and repel their invadei-s. The Eomaus finally quit Britain. The Britons are driven to the mountains by the Picts and Scots. First Saxon invasion. Hengist and Horsa retui-n for the ijurpose of conquest. Battle of Aylesford, which establishes Hen- gist as king of Kent. Second Saxon invasion. Ella aiTives in Britain, and defeats the natives at An- BRI 491. Ella founds the kingdom of Sussex, or of the South Saxons. 492. Ella made first Bretwalda. 495- Third Saxon invasion. Arrival of Cerdio. 519. Cerdio founds the kingdom of Wessex. 520. The renowned King Arthur defeats Cerdic at Fourth Saxon invasion. Essex founded. Cerdic invades and takes the Isle of Wight. Fifth Saxon invasion. Sixth Saxon invasion. Landing of Ida at Flamborough Head, and commencement of the kingom of Northumbria. Northumbria divided into Bernicia and Deira. Ella takes Deiia. Ethelbert, king of Kent, attacks Ceaulin, king of Wessex, and is driven back into his own territories. Cuthulf, brother of Ceaulin, fights the Biitons at Bedford, and takes from them four towns. Cuthwine and Ceaulin defeat the Britons at Deorham (Derham ?), and take Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath. Crida founds the kingdom of Mercia. Ceaulin is defeated by his nephew Ceolric, and expelled ; soon after which he dies. AiTival of St. Augustine, .^than. king of the Scots, invades Bernicia, but is repulsed, with much slaughter, by Ethelfrith. Tewdrick, king of the Welsh, defeats Ceol- wulph, king of Wessex. Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, is defeated and slain by Kedwald, king of the East Angles, and Edwin becomes king of Deira and Bernicia. Quicelm, king of Essex, makes an unsuc- cessful attempt to assassinate Edwiii, who is preserved by his thane Lilla. Penda, king of Mercia, defeats and slays Oswald, king of Bernicia. Oswy, king of Bernicia, slays Penda. Edilwaloh.king of Sussex, obtains possession of the Isle of Wight and part of Hamp- shire. A great plague in Britain. Sussex is united to Wessex. Eetirement and death of Cadwallader, last king of the Britons. Kent is devastated by the West Saxons. Ethelred, king of Mercia, voluntarily resigns his crown, and becomes abbot of Bardney. Ina, king of Wessex, quits the throne, and retires to Rome. Insurrection in Mercia, and death of King Ethelbald. Olfa, king of Mercia, commences an inter- course with Charlemagne. The Danes first land in England, 147 A.JO. 800. Egbert is recalled from exile to aacend the throne of Wessex. 813. Egbert lays waste West Wales. 823. Essex is united to Wessex. 824. Kent is united to Wessex. 825. Northumbria is united to Wessex. The date usually assigned for the dissolu- tion of the Heptarchy is 827 ; but the title "king of the Enghsh" was first assumed, according to Hume, by Edveard the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, in 901. Sharon Turner makes Athelstan first king of all England, and settles 934 as the year when he assumed the title. THE HEPTARCHY. KlifGS OF KENT. A.D. 455 .^sc 488 Octa 512 Ei-nric 534 Ethelbert 568 Eadbald 616 Ercombert 640 Egbert 664 Lothaire 673 Edcic 685 Withred 686 A.D. Ethelbert & Edbert 725 Ethelbert alone 748 Alric 760 Sigu-aed, Eadbert, audEardulf 774 Egebert 783 Cudi-ed 798 Baldred 805 Submitted to Egbert, king of Wessex. (United to Wessex) 824 KINOS OS SUSSEX. Ella ... Cissa ... Ceaulin, A.D. . 491 . 514 king of Ceolric, ditto 592 Ceolwulph, ditto .. 598 Cynegns, ditto .... 611 Quicelm 612 Cynegils, king of Wessex (again) .. 636 Cenwalch, ditto 643 EdUwalch 648 Ceadwalla, king of Wessex. (Perma- nently united to KINGS OP WESSEX. A.D. Cerdic 519 KenBic 534 Ceaulin 560 Ceolric 592 Ceolwulph 598 Cynegils 611 Cenwalch 643 pexburga 672 ..Escwin and Kent- win 674 Ceadwalla 686 Ina 688 A.l>. 727 Ethelheard Cuthi-ed 740 Sigebyxth and Cyne- wulf 754 Brithtric 784 Egbert 800 Ethelwulph 837 Ethelbald 858 Ethelbert 861 Ethelred 867 Alfred the Great. ... 870 KINGS OE ESSEX. A.D. Ercbenwin 527 Sledda 587 Sebert 598 Saxred, Seward, and Sigibert 616 Sigibert the " lit- tle" 623 Sigibertll 653 Swithelm 660 Sebbi and Sigher . . 665 Sebbi, alone 683 A.D. 700 Senfrid and Sige- herd Ofifa Suealred, or Sue- bricht 709 Swithred 746 Sigerio 791 Sigerid 799 Egbert, king of Wessex. (United to Wessex) 823 KINGS OE EAST ANGLES. A.D. A.D. Ufi'a 527 I Eorpwald 624 Titel 578 Sigibert 636 Eedwald 599 | EcgricAnna 644 I. 2 BUI Adelhere Edewald . . 655 Aldulph 664 Selred 683 Alphuald ... 747 Humbean and Al- bert 749 A.D. Beoma and Etbelred (Obscure period) 758 Edmund, the king and martyr, slain this year 870 KINGS OF MEBCIA. A.B. Crida 586 Wibba 593 Cearl 616 Peuda 625 Wulfhere 659 Ethelred 675 Cenred 704 Ceolred 709 Ethelbald 716 Offa 757 KINaS A.D. Ella, or Alia 559 Ethelric, king of Bemicia 589 Ethelfrith, ditto . . 593 Edwin 617 Osric 633 Oswald, king of Beinicia 634 Oswin 644 Offa and Ecgfrid .... 788 Cennlph . . 796 Ceolwulf 819 Beomwulf 821 Ludioan 826 Wiglaf 826 BertiUph 835 Burrhed 852 Ceolwulf 875 Ethelred 892 DEIEA. A.D. Oswy, king of Ber- nicia 652 Alfred 662 Ecgfrid, king of Ber- nicia. (Unitsd to Bemicia, taking the name Noi-th- nmbria) 670 ■KimaS OF NOBTHITMBEIA, OE BEENICIA. 547 Ida Adda 559 Clappa 566 Theodnlf 571 Ei-eothulf 572 Theodric 579 Ethelris 586 Ethelfrith 593 Edwin, king of Deii-a 617 Eanfrid 633 Oswald 634 Oswy 643 Ecgfrid. (United to Deii-a, the two kinsdoms being called North um- bria) 670 Alfred 685 Eadwulf (2 months) 705 Osred 1 705 Cenred 716 Osric 718 Ceolwnlph 730 Eadbert 737 Osulf 758 Ethelwald, sur- named Mollo .... 759 Aired 765 Ethelred 774 Alfwold 779 Osrerl II 789 Ethelred (restored) 790 Osbald, Eardulf .... 796 Alfwold 808 Eanred (submits to Egbert, kiug of Wessex 825) 810 Ella and Osbert, rival sovereigns of Northumbria, are slain by the Danes 867 Egbert, succeeded by Kicseg (who died 876) 871 THE BEETWALDAS. The following is the list of the Bretwaldag, or supreme rulers mentioned by Bede. Mr. Hallam and others doubt whether any sovereign in those early times possessed such authority : — A.D. 492. Ella, king of Sussex. 571. Ceaulia, king of Wessex. 594. Ethelbert, king of Kent. 615. Eedwald, king of East Angles. 623. Edwin, king of Deira. 634. Oswald, king of Bemicia. 343. Oswy, king of Bemicia. Beitanwia TuBTTtAE Beidge, over the Menai Strait, was commenced in 1846, and opened March .5, 1850. It was designed and executed by Eobert Stephenson, and is the first structure of the kind. 148 •s^ BKI Beitannt (France), or Beetagne.— -This name was given to a portion of Armorica, in which some Britons from Cornwall formed a colony, in the latter part of the 6th century. The country was subjugated by Charlemagne, but the Bretons regained their independence and were ruled by their own sovereigns, tri- butary at times to the Frankishkings. Charles the Bald, after several severe struggles, in- duced its sovereigns to do homage to him, and this was afterwards rendered to the dukes of ]?f ormandy. 818. Louis the Pious Intrusts Nominofe with dele- gated authority. 841. Nominoe revolts, and becomes the first duke. NominoS captures the march - land of Rennes. 843. First expedition of Charles the Bald into Bri- tanny. He is compelled to retreat on account of the severity of the weather. 845. Charles the Bald undertakes a second expedi- tion, and is defeated at Baldon, the battle lasting two days. 848. Nominoe assumes the title of king, and ob- tains the golden crown from the Pope, 850. Charles the Bald enters Britanny for the third time. Nominoe, again victorious, dies sud- denly. 851. His son, Herispoe, succeeds, and does homage to Charles the Raid. Dissensions arise be- tween France and Britanny, and Charles the Bald invades it for the fourth time. 852. Charles the Bald's fifth expedition leads to a peace. 858. The Bretons, incensed at the alliance with the Franks, are induced by Solomon, Heri^poe's nephew, to revolt, and Herispoe is killed in a church. Solomon succeeds. 861. Apoi-tion of Britanny is assigned to Eobert-le- ' Fort, by the great council held at Com- pifigne. 874. Solomon is deposed by a cousin and a nephew, who had conspired against him. Solomcu is cast into prison, and these relatives, Pasquitain and Gurv ard, divide Britanny between them. 877. Alain, sumamed the Great, obtains the su- premacy. 907. The Danes ravage Britanny, which, divided into four great counties, Eennes, Nantes, Vannes, ana Cornouailles, remains for some time in a very distracted state. 921. Britanny ceded to the Danes by Count Eobert. 922. Eollo's supremacy acknowledged in Britanny. 931. Sept. 29. The Bretons revolt against the Northmen. 932. Guillaume Long-6p6e, having vainly sought to induce the Bretons to return to their allegiance, invades and subdues them. The Channel Islands and other parts of Britanny annexed to Normandy. 937. Athelstane, king of "ngland, interferes in behaU' of Alain, who recovers part of Britanny. Cornouailles is permanently annexed to Normandy. 938^3. Alain defeats the Northmen at DOl, St. Brieux, and Nantes, and obtains part of Anjou. 944. The Danes invade Britanny. Confusion pre- vails for several years. 992. Geoffrey I. rules all Biitanny, and takes the title of Dulce, 1076. William I. of England invades Britanny, but retires with loss, as the duke is aided by Philip I. of France. 1148. Three diikes rule in Britanny. 1182. Marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou, duke of Britanny, with Constance, daughter of Duke Conan. 1186. Geoffrey is killed at a toiirnament at Paris. BRI 119b". Arthur, posthumoiis son of Geoffrey and Constance, is acknowledged duke of Bri- tauny. 1203. April 3. Mysterious death of Arthur, at Rouen. 1224. Alliance of France and Britanny against the English. 1237. Abdication of Peter Mauclerc, 'who is suc- ceeded by John I. 1309. Project to render Britanny subject to England is prevented by the natives. 1341. The duchy of Britanny is disputed by Charles of Blois and John of Montfort, the former being supported by Philip VI. of France, and the latter by Edward III. of England. 1378. Unsucces.sful incursions by John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 1395. Oct. 20. Peace in Britanny, after long wars. 1399. Death of John VI., " the Valiant," who is succeeded by his infant son John, under the tutelage of his mother. 1423. Treaty between Britanny and Henry VI. of England, against France. 1426. War declared between England and Britanny. 1449. Alliance between the duke of Britanny and the king ot France, who fight in concert against the English. 14.50. Francis I. poisons his brother- Giles, and dies, soon afterwards, from fear and remorse. 1489. MaiTiage, by proxy, of Anne of Britanny and Maximilian, king of the Romans. 1491. Charles VIII. of France annuls the marriage between Anne of Britanny and Maximilian, and weds her himself. 1501. Treaty of Trente, whereby Claude, the infant princess of Britanny, is betrothed to Prince Charles of Austria, on the condition that her duchy shall constitute her dowry. 1514. Death of Anne, and marriage of Claude with the duke of Angoul6nie. 1515. The duke of Angoulgme becomes Francis I. of France, and receives the duchy of Britanny from his wife Claude. 1524. Death of Claude, who bequeaths Britanny to the Dauphin. 1532. Britanny is finally added to France. DTTKES OF BEITANWr. Geoffrey I 992 Alain V 1008 Conan II 1040 HoelV 1066 Alain Fergent .... lo84 Conan III 1112 Eudes, Hoel VI., and Geoffrey .... 1148 Conan IV 1156 Geolfi-ey II 1171 (Interregnum) 1186 Arthur and Con- stance 1196 Guy de Tours, regent 1203 Peter Mauclerc .... 1213 John 1 1237 Britanny is incorporated John II 1286 Ai-thur II 1305 John III 1312 Charles de Blois and John de Montfort 1341 Charles, alone .... 1343 JohuV 1364 John VI 1399 Francis 1 1442 Pfcter II 1450 Arthur III 1457 Francis II 1458 Anne 1488 Claude 1514 Francis I., king of France and duke of Britanny 1515 with France in 1532. Beitish Ameeica.— Sir Walter Ealeigh formed a settlement in North America, in 1584, which, in honour of Queen Ehzabeth, was called Virginia. It did not, however, succeed, and Sir Francis Drake, who touched there in 1586, brought the colonists to England. Another attempt was made in 1607, when the first permanent settlement of the English in A.merica was formed at James Town in Vir- ginia. Other colonies were speedily estab- lished. The inhabitants of Virginia and of other parts of the American continent under English rule, in 1776 declared their indepen- BRI deuce, which was recognized by England in 1782. The British colonies in North and South America are noticed under their various titles. British Associatiok foe the Advance- ment OF Science, instituted by Sir David Brewster, to ]3romote scientific investigation and discovery, held its inaugural meeting at York in September, 1831. The annual meet- ings haye been held at the following places : — A.D. Oxford 1832 Cambridge 1833 Edinburgh 1834 Dublin 1835 Bristol 1836 Liverpool 1837 Newcastle 1838 Birmingham 1839 Glasgow 1840 Plymouth 1841 Manchester 1842 Cork 1843 York 1844 Cambridge 1845 Southampton .... 1846 A.D. Oxford 1847 Swansea 1848 Birmingham 1849 Edinburgh 1850 Ipswich 1851 Belfast 1852 Hull 18.53 Liverpool 1854 Glasgow 1855 Cheltenham 1856 Dublin 1857 Aberdeen 1859 Oxford 1860 Manchester ...... 1861 Beitish Auxiliaet Legion.— In June, 1835, the Foreign Enhstment Act was sus- pended, and a legion formed in this country under the command of General Evans to assist the Queen of Spain in svippressing the Carlist Eevolution. The war was waged with great fury, and in June, 1836, General Evans issued a proclamation declaring that every Englishman found fighting on the side of Don Carlos would be put to death as a traitor. British Bank (London), was estabHshed in 1849, under the act to regulate joint stock banks (7 & 8 Vict. c. 113) , passed in 1844. It stopped payment Sept. 3, 1856, and in con- sequence of the terrible mismanagement and the malversation of the capital by its directors, the government ordered a criminal prosecu- tion. The trial of eight directors commenced in the Court of Queen's Bench Feb. 13, and terminated with a sentence of guilty Feb. 27, 1858, when Humphrey Brown, Edward EsdaUe, and Hugh Innes Cameron were sentenced to one year's. Alderman R. H. Ken- nedy to nine months', W. D. Owen to six months', and H. D. Maeleod to three months' imprisonment. James Stapleton was dis- charged on the payment of a fine of one shilling, and the eighth defendant, Loran de Wolfe Cochran, did not surrender. An act (20 & 21 Vict. c. 54) to make better provision for the punishment of frauds committed by trustees, bankers, and other persons intrusted vrith property, received the royal assent Aug. 17, 1857. Beitish Chubch. — The Gospel was intro- duced into Britain at a very early period, but whether preached, as some authorities assert, by St. Paul between the years 63 and 66, it is impossible to decide. To St. Peter and Joseph of Arimathea, and to others, the honour of its introduction has been, on different grounds, attributed. Milman says there can be no doubt that during the 2nd and3rd centuries Britain gradually received the faith of Christ. 149 BEI The British church is often mentioned by wri- ters of the 2nd and 3rd centuries ; and British martyrs suffered under the edicts against the Christians issued by Diocletian in 303. Bede describes the death of Alban, the protomartyr of England, in 304. Julius, Aaron (the names adopted by these early converts at their bap- tism), and several members of the British church, suffered martyrdom about the same time. Sees were founded in the island, and colleges established. At the councils of Aries, in 314, and of ]S"ic8ea, the first general council, in 325, British bishops were present. It was notuntilthe 7th century that Borne attempted to interfere. Gregory I., about the year 597, sent Augustine and a band of monks to bring the British church into subjection to Eome. Ethelbert, king of Kent, was converted, and a struggle between the early British church and Grregory's emissaries at once commenced. Differences existed respecting the time for the celebration of Easter and other points. Augjustine peremptorily required the British Christians to conform in every respect to the Latin Church, uttering the remarkable threat that if they refused to comply they should perish at the hands of their enemies. By some authorities Augustine is said to have died in 605, but it seems probable that this event did not take place till later. It is sup- posed that the massacre of the British monks in Wales, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria, in 607, if not perpetrated under his imme- diate direction, was undertaken at his insti- gation. Though the emissaries from Eome at length triumphed, yet the more intolerant claims of the papal rulers were rejected by the British people. At the Eeformation the entire system was overthrown, and the Bri- tish church restored to that state of indepen- dence and purity in which it had originally existed in these islands. Bhitish Columbia (North America), for- merly IS'ew Caledonia, comprises "aU such territories within the dominions of her Majesty as are bounded to the south by the frontier of the United States of America, to the east by the main chain of the Eocky Mountains, to the north by Simpson's Eiver and the Finlay branch of the Peace Eiver, and to the west by the Pacific Ocean." Queen Charlotte's Islands and ah. other islands adjacent, with the exception of Van- couver's Island, are included in this colony, erected by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 99 (Aug. 2, 1858). This portion of America was first discovered by the Spaniards in the 16th century, and was visited by Sir Francis Drake in 1579, and called by him New Albion. The first settle- ment was formed in 1806. Small quantities of gold were discovered in Queen Charlotte's Island in 1850, and on the mainland in 1853. The intelligence was not, however, made pubhc until June, 1856, when numerous diggers flocked to the country. G-old fields were discovered on the Frazer and Thompson rivers in 1858, and large numbers of the gold- diggers from San Francisco went in that direc- tion during the summer of that year. British Columbia was made a bishop's see in 1858. 150 BEI British Gthai^a (South America). — Con- sisting of Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, which were formed into one colony in 1831. Stabrock, now called George-Town, on the Demerara, is the capital. Slavery was abo- hshed in 1834, and in 1838 the system of apprenticeship was abandoned. In 1827 this territory was included in the bishopric of Barbadoes and the Leeward Isles. It be- came an archdeaconry in 1838, and was erected into a bishopric in 1842. Bbitish Ixstitutios^, for the encourage- ment of British artists, received its charter June 4, 1805, and was opened Jan. 18, 1806. The building was erected by Alderman BoydeU, for his gallery of Shakesperean pictures. Beitish MiTSEirir, was formed of three collections, — the Cottonian, brought together by Sir Eobert Cotton in the time of Charles I. ; the Harleian, formed by Eobert Harley, afterwards Lord Oxford; and the Sloane, collected by Sir Hans Sloane. The Cottonian Library was for some time kept at Cotton House, AVestminster, and the statute 12 & 13 WiU. III. c. 7 (1700), laid down regulations for its better preservation. The authority for purchasing Cotton House and gardens for £4,500 was given by 5 Anne, c. 30 (1706) ; and a convenient room for a Hbrary was, at the same time, ordered to be built. The death of Sir Hans Sloane, Jan. 11, 1753, and the fact that he had, by a codicil to his win dated July 20, 1749, bequeathed his valuable collection to the nation, on the condition of the payment to his heirs of £20,000, compelled the government to take some decisive step. An act was therefore passed (26 Geo. II. c. 22, 1753), for the pur- chase of the Sloane Museum on the terms proposed by the will of Sir Hans Sloane ; and the Harleian Collection, then offered by the duchess of Portland, a grand-daughter of Lord Oxford's, for £10,000. For these, vtith the Cottonian collection, and a bequest made by Arthur Edwards, Esq., in his will, dated June 11, 1738, one general repository, within the precincts of London and Westmin- ster, was ordered to be provided. Trustees were appointed, and the powers to raise £300,000 by lottery were granted by the same act. Montague House, Bloomsbury, was purchased for £10,250 of Lord Hahfax in 1754, the duke of Montague having died in 1749 without heirs. Arrangements were immediately made for adapting it to the purposes of the new institution. 1756. Books transferred to Montague House. 1757. George 11. presents the library collected by his predecessors. 1759. Monday, Jan. 1.5. Eeading-room, entrance in Montague Place, opened to the public. 1762. A collection of 30 ,000 tracts and naanuscripts, bound up in volumes for the use of Charles L , purchased by George IIL, and by him pre- sented to the Museum. 1772. Mar. 20. Sir W. Hamilton's collection is pur- chased for £S,410. 1801. New rooms are added to receive Egyptian antiquities. 1805. The Towidey marbles are purchased forje20,000., BRO 1808. The Lansdowne MSS. are purchased for £4,925. 1810. A larger room is allotted to readers. The Greville collection of minerals purchased for £13,727. 1815. The Phigalian marbles are purchased for £19,000. 1816. The Elgin marbles are purchased for £35,000. 1818. Dr. Bumey's MSS., &c. purchased for £13,500. 1823. George the Third's library, consisting of 63,000 volumes, said to have cost £130,000, is presented by George IV. to the British Museum. The new building is commenced. 1845. The old house is removed. 1846. Eight Hon. Thomas Grenville bequeaths his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes, said to have cost above £54,000. 1847. April 19. Portico finished. 1854. First grant for new reading-room obtained. 1855. Jan. The first standard for the new room fixed. 1857. May 8. New reading-room opened. Beoad Bottom Administkation^. — Lord Granville having been compelled to retire from the Pelham ministry, Nov. 24, 1744, fresh arrangements were made which resulted in the formation, during the following month, of a coahtion between the chiefs of different parties. From this circumstance it was called the Broad Bottom Administration. First Lord of the Treasury 1 and Chancellor of the >The Hon. Henry Pelham. Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. President of the Council . .Duke of Dorset. Privy Seal Earl Gower. o „_„+ • f £-*„+„ 1 Duke of Newcastle and Secretaries of State j ^ord Harrington. Admiralty Duke of Bedford. Master of the Ordnance Duke of Montague. Master of the Horse Duke of Richmond. Lord Chamberlain Duke of Grafton. Lord Keeper, Scotland .... Duke of Argylle. op„ „f <=+„+.« ■» Marquis of Tweeddale, Sec. of State „ ..J- resigned in 1746. This administration, with the exception of an interval of two days, Feb. 11 and 12, 1746 (See LoifG-LiVED Administeatiok), re- mained in power untU the death of the Hon. H. Pelham, March 6, 1754. The following are the principal changes that ensued during the period : — the earl of Chesterfield replaced Lord Harrington, who resigned the secretaryship of state, Oct. 29, 1746. Chesterfield, who resigned Feb. 6, 1748, was replaced by the duke of Bedford Feb. 13, the earl of Sandwich having taken the Admiralty Feb. 10. The earl of Holder- nesse superseded the duke of Bedford June 21, 1751. Earl G-ranviUe became pre- sident of the council June 17, 1751. The duke of Richmond was replaced as master of the horse by the marquis of Hartington in 1751. Lord Anson took the Admiralty, vacated by the earl of Sandvrich, Jime 22, 1751. (See N ewcastle & Pitt [Chatham] Admin-istkatiok.) Bkokeb. — Regulations for the city of London, passed in 1285, ordered that brokers should be admitted and sworn before the warden or mayor, and aldermen. Persons acting in defiance of this law were to be arrested and imprisoned, and were for ever inadmissible to the franchise. A parhament BRO held by Edward III., in 1376, ordained that "no stranger, merchant, nor other stranger, should use or exercise the occupation of ' brocage,' between merchant and merchant, or other persons, nor be a 'brocour' within the city of London or its suburbs ;" and a petition was, in 1442, presented to Parliament demanding the enforcement of that law. They were called " broggers" in a statute of 10 Rich. II. (1386) ; and in 1574 Stow says there were but thirty of them in London. Beomine. — This elementary fluid body was discovered by Balard, a French chemist, in 1826. Beomsebeo, or Beoemsbeoe (Treaty;. — This peace between Sweden and Denmark was concluded in 1644. BEOJfZE. — Works in bronze were known in very ancient times ; and the Israehtes, at the time of their escape from Egypt, B.C. 1491, had made some progress in the art, as we learn from Exod. xxx. 18 ; xxxi. 4 ; and xxxii. 2 — 4. It was unproved by the Greeks and Romans, and revived in Italy about the 14th century. Bronze casting had almost reached perfection amongst the Greeks about B.C. 330. Beooks's Clttb.— This Whig Club, named after Brooks, a wine merchant and money lender, was established in Pall Mall in 1764, and was transferred to the new building in St. James's Street in Oct. 1778. The British Institution occupies the site of the original club-house in PaU MaU. Beoom Flowee IN" THE HusK. — This order of knighthood was instituted at Sens by Louis IX., on his marriage with Margaret, eldest daughter of Raymond Berengarius, count of Provence, in 1234. It became ex- tinct during the 15th century. Beownists, or Baeeowists. — The fol- lowers of Robert Browne, an ultra Puritan, born about 1550, who denounced the discipHne and ceremonies of the Church of England, and having been imprisoned for a short time on account of his extreme views, quitted England, and formed a church at Middle- burg in Zealand. In 1589 he returned to England, sought re-admission to the Church, and in 1590 received the rectory of Achurch, in Northamptonshire. He is said to have died in 1630,* in the prison of Northampton, in which he had been confined for striking a constable. On his deathbed he boasted of having been an inmate of thirty -two prisons. Landon says the Brownists "heldaU church oflBcers and ministers to be unchristian and unlawful ; that the evil of the minister does away with the efficacy of the sacrament ; that marriage is but a civil contract; that aU forms of prayer are unlawful, and that even the Lord's Prayer is to be used only as a model for extempore prayer ; that by communicating vrith the wicked at the Eucharist the good become partakers in their wickedness ; and that salvation was to be obtained only in their * This date is not correct, as the parish registers of Achurch contain an cnti-y in his handwriting dated May 21, 1631.— A^. db Q. 151 BEU sect." They were severely dealt with by the law. EHas Thaeker was hanged June 4, 1583, and John Coping J\me 6, for distributing Browne's hbeb against the book of Common Prayer. Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, and Henry Penny were executed, the two former April 6, and the latter May 29, 1593. From Henry Barrowthese sectarians received the name of Barrowists. They were con- demned by the synod of London in 164.0, and afterwards took the name of Independents. Sir Walter Ealeigh, in 1592, stated that there were 20,000 Brownists. Bruges (Belgium), ranked as a city in the 7th century, and was celebrated in the time of Charlemagne for its industrial productions. Bruges was fortified A. D. 837, walls were erect- ed in 1052, and extended in 1270. The counts of Flanders,whoresided at Bruges, obtained the rule in the 9th century. It became a member of the Hanseatic league in 1300, and passed under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy in the 14ith century. It suffered from the ravages of fire ia 1184, 1215, and 1230. During the 15th and 16th centuries it attained the highest prosperity as an emporium of trade, and in 1430 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in- stituted the order of the Golden Fleece, in commemoration of its celebrated woollen manufactures. Bruges passed to the Habs- burg family in 1477, and the citizens re- belled against the archduke Maximilian, and imprisoned him in 148S. During the religious struggles it surrendered to Spain, May 20, 1584. The Dutch bombarded Bruges \vithout success in 1704 ; and it surrendered to the allied army in 1706, after the victory at EamiUes. The French took it by surprise July 5, 1708, and retired in 1709. TheEnghsh took it in 1712, and the French again in 1745, and again in 1792. They were, however, expelled, but regained possession in 1794, and the inhabitants formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the French repubhc June 24. It was restored to the Jfetherlands in 1814, and has formed part of Belgium since 1830. Bruges was made a bishopric in 1561, and was united to Ghent in 1801. Wy- cliffe, as second in a commission, was sent, in 1375, by Edward III., to treat vrith the papal legate at Bruges, respecting the ques- tions at issue between the king and Gre- gory XI. WycliSe remained at this place from July 27 to Sept. 14. Wolsey concluded a treaty here, called the treaty of Bruges or Windsor, because concluded at the former place, Nov. 24, 1521, and ratified at the last- mentioned by Henry YIII. and Charles V. in June, 1522. The tovm-haU at Bruges dates from 1377. Bktjxanbueg (Battle). — According to the best received account, Anlaf, the pagan king of the Irish, incited by Constantine, king of Scotland, sailed up the river Humber, with an immense fleet, 615 in number ; and having landed, was, with his army, encountered by Athelstan, who defeated him with terrible loss. The contest is said to have lasted from daybreak to dusk, and in no previous battle m England had so much blood been shed. 152 BEU It has been called the Waterloo of the Anglo- Saxons. The chronicles differ respecting the locahtyandthedateof this battle. Itprobably took place somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the Humber, and about the year 937. Beijnh- (Moravia).— This town, made the capital of' Moravia in 1641, and besieged bv Torstenson in 1645, was entered by Napoleon I. Nov. 20, 1805, and became hi3 head-quarters. It is the seat of a bishop. Beunswick (Battle).— Otho of Brunswick, and Philip, duke of Swabia, were competitors for the imperial crown of Germany, and the former, besieged in. Brunswick by PhQip, made a sortie in July, 1200. This brought on an engagement, in which Philip's army was defeated. Betjnswick (Germany), formed part of Saxony during the reign of Charle- magne, and was made a separate lordship a.d. 955. It was inherited by Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, in 1126. One of his succes- sors, Henry the Lion, was, in 1180, for his refusal to aid the emperor in the war against the pope, deprived of all his possessions, except Brunswick. In 1235, Otho, sumamed the ChUd, was made first duke of Brunswick- Liineburg, by the emperor Frederick II. Various changes ensued, and in 1542, the duchy was divided into the modern duchies of Brunswick -Liineburg and Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. Beunswick (City), formerly called Bruno Vicus, was founded by Bruno, duke of Ost- falen, a.d. 868. It was beautified and extended by Henry the Lion in the 12th century, and became one of the chief cities of the Han- seatic League in the 13th. Its annual fair, that afterwards became celebrated, was es- tablished in 1498. It sutfered in various German wars, and was taken by the French July 28, 1757. They evacuated it early in 1758, and its fortifications were destroyed in 1794. Beunswick (House of). — The various branches of this family are derived from Albert Azzo I., margrave of Este, in the 10th century. His great grandson, Albert Azzo II., married Cunegonda, and their son, GuelphlV., inherited the dukedom of Bava- ria in 1071, and founded the junior branch of the Guelph family, from which the Bruns- vrick House trace their descent. Otho was recognised as first duke of Brunswick in 1235. Beukswick Clubs were Orange societies, formed in Ireland, in support of the princi- ples of the revolution of 1689, and against Eoman CathoUc emancipation. The proposal for the establishment of these associations was made Aug. 28, 1828, at a meeting of the Dublin members of the grand Orange club that had then been recently suppressed ; and the first general meeting was held in the Dublin Eotunda Nov. 4 in the same year. Similar clubs were formed in other parts of Ireland. A meeting of Yeomanry was held on Pennenden Heath, Kent, Oct. 24, 1828, for the purpose of petitioning the House of . BEU BUG Commons to preserve tlie Protestant consti- tution inviolate. Brunswick clubs were also formed in Leeds, Leicester, and other parts of England. Brunswick - LiJNEBirEG. — The modem duchy of Brunswick- Liineburg was founded by William, the second son of Ernest I., who on the death of his father, in 1546, took this portion of his dominions, with the title of duke of Hanover. Ernest Augvistus, one of his descendants, was made ninth elector of the empire in 1692. His son, George Lewis, descended from James I. of England, on the female side, became king of England under the title of George I., Aug. 1, 1714. {See Hanovee.) Beubtswick Theatee was built in 1827, on the site of the old Eoyalty Theatre, burnt down in 1826. The Brunswick theatre fell during a rehearsal of "Guy Mannering," Feb. 29, 1828, when twelve persons were killed, and several houses on the opposite side of the street destroyed. It had only been opened on the 25th. BEUNSwicE-WoLFENBTJTTEii. — The mo- dem duchy of Brunswick-Wolf enbiittel was founded by Henry II., eldest son of Ernest I., in 1546. Several of its dukes distmguished themselves in the continental wars of the last century, and Charles WUham Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1780, led the Prussian army against the French at Jena, Oct. 13, 1806, and having been wounded in that battle, died on the 10th of November, 1807. AH the Brunswick possessions were seized by the French after the victoir at Jena, and by the 8th article of the treaty of peace between France and Prussia, signed at Tilsit July 9, 1807, in- corporated with the new kingdom of West- phalia, conferred upon Jerome Bonaparte. They were, however, recovered by Frederick Wiluam, son of Charles WiUiam Ferdinand, in December, 1813. Eepresentative institu- tions were introduced in 1830. The then reigning duke was expelled and took refuge in England Sept. 6, 1830, and his brother, Augustus Levris William, assumed the sove- reignty April 23, 1831. Brusa (Asia Minor), or Botjesa. — The ancient Prusa was made the capital of the Turkish dominions in the 14th century ; and although the sultans transferred their re- sidence to Hadrianople about 1430, Prusa continued to be the Turkish capital until the capture of Constantinople, in 1453. Abd- el-Kadir took up his residence here in 1852 ; but on its destruction by an earthquake, Feb. 28, 1855, he obtaiaed permission from the French government to remove to Con- stantinople. Beussels (Belgium). — St. G^ry, bishop of Cambray, built a chapel on one of the islands in the river Senne, in the 7th century. A large congregation was attracted by liis eloquence, houses were built near his place of worship, and the town of Brussels was gradually formed. The Emperor Otho dates a decree, "apud Brusolam," a.d. 976. Walls with seven gates were formed round the town in 1044. 1010. 1213. 1273. 1300. 1314. 1346. 1369. 1370. 1380. 1401. 1405. 1489. 1507. 1518. 1567. Cathedral of St. Gudule founded. (Some authorities give a different date.) Brussels is taken by the English. St. Gudule is completed. The Old Palace is founded. BiTissels is visited by the plague. The Museum is commenced. The walls are remo v ed, and the city is enlarged. The Jews are banished. Second wall is built. Town-hall commenced. A large portion of the town is destroyed by fire. The Town -hall is completed. Taken by Philip of Cleves. The plague commits great ravages. Brussels becomes the seat of government for the Low Countries. The towers are added to the cathedral. Alva attempts to establish the Inquisition. 10,000 artisans quit Brussels. 1.588. Egmont and Horn are beheaded in the market- place, by order of Alva. 1578. The plague rages with great fury. 1695. Villeroi bombards the city, destroying a considerable portion. 1701. Brussels is captured by the French. 1706. Oct. 12. Marlborough enters Brussels, after his victoiy at Blenheim. 1708. Nov. 22. Assailed by the elector of Bavaria. Marlborough comes to its relief, and entei's Nov. 29. 1746. The Old Palace is rebuilt. Marshal Saxe takes Brussels Feb. 16. 1748. Restored to Austria by the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle. 1749. The Museum is extended. 1790. Nov. The Austriaus regain possession of Brussels, which had revolted. 1792. Nov. 14. Dumouriez takes the city. 1794. Dumouriez, having been driven out, regains possession. 1803. July 21. Napoleon I. makes a triumphal entry. 1814. Feb. 1. The Prussians enter Brussels. It be- comes one of the capitals of the Nether- lands. 1830. Sept. 23. Revolution. Brussels made the capital of the new kingdom of Bek'ium. 1831. June 4 The National Congress at Brussels elects Leopold king. 1834. University founded. 1848. Peace Congress assembles here. 1853. A Statistical Congress assembles at Brussels. 1859. Aug. 31. The Assembly of Deputies, by a majority of twenty, pronounces in favour of the fortification of Antwerp. The pro- posal is adopted by the Senate Sept. 6, and receives the royal assent Sept. 8. Bubble Act, passed in 1719 (6 Geo. I. c. 18), ia order to punish unpriucipled adventurers who proposed schemes merely as baits to extract money from the thought- less. "The whole nation," says Tindal, "was become stock-jobbers. The South Sea scheme was hke an infectious distemper, which spread itself in an astonishing manner. Every evening produced new projects, which were justly called Bubbles, and new com- panies appeared every day." The king issued a proclamation against them June 11, 1720. The act was repealed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 91, July 5, 1825. BuoANEEES. — The term houean was appHed by the Caribbees to the flesh of cattle or fish dried in the sun. They taught this mode of curing to the early French settlers in Hayti or St. Domingo, and they were called boucaniers, or bucaneers, because 153 BUG they hunted wild boars and buffaloes, and preserved their flesh after this peculiar method. The term was afterwards appKed to those bold and hardy adventurers, whether Eughsh, French, or Dutch, who assailed the Spanish settlements in America. On the failure of Dudley's conspiracy against Queen Mary, several of the confederates sought refuge at the court of Henry II. of France, who furnished them, in August, 1556, with three or four ships, in which they sailed with the avowed object of waging war against all Spaniards. Other expeditions were fitted out. The island of St. Chris- topher was taken in 1625, and the httle island of Tortuga, to the north of Hispaniola, in 1629. Here they carried on their piratical warfare, under various celebrated com- manders. The Spaniards captured Tortuga in 1638, and the bucaneers regained posses- sion in the following year. In 1603 the Dutch pirate, Yan Horn, sailed at the head of 1,200 bucaneers, and took Vera Cruz. Morgan captured Panama in 1664; Gram- mont took Campeachy in 1685 ; and in 1697, Pointis seized Carthagena, and gained booty to the amount of £1,750,000. A treaty called the treaty of America, for the entire sup- pression of this warfare, was concluded between Great Britain and Spain in 1670; but it was not until a few years after the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, that the bucan- eer confederacy was broken up. BucEPHALA (India). — This town, on the western banlc of the Hydaspes, was founded by Alexander, at the spot where he had crossed the river to attack Porus, an Indian Mng, whom he defeated B.C. 327. It was bunt in memory of his famous charger, "Bucephalus," which expired in the hour of victory. Jelum, in the Punjaub, is sup- posed to occupy its site. BucHANiTEs" — This Scotch sect sprang up in Irvine, in 1783. They were the fol- lowers of one Mrs. Elspeth Buchan, whose maiden name was Simpson, a woman of in- different character. In conjunction with Hugh "White, minister of the EeUef con- gregation of Irvine, she attempted to gain converts ; but an outbreak occurred, and they were both driven from the tovra in May, 1784. She was addressed "Friend Mother in the Lord," personified the woman mentioned in Eev. xii. 1, and pretended that Hugh TVTute was her son (Rev. xii. 5) . She promised her followers bodily transla- tion to heaven ; and on one occasion, after a long fast, led them to the top of a hill for that purpose. They retired to a place near Dumfries, where Mrs. Buchan died in May, 1791. On her deathbed she declared she had a secret to communicate, which was to the effect that she was the Yirgin Mary. The last member of this fanatical sect is said to have died in 1846. Bucharest (Wallachia) was captured by the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1789. The Russians occupied Bucharest in July, 1853, but qxiitted it on the 28th of the same month. The Turks regained pos- 154 BUE session Aug. 8, and were followed by the Austrians Sept. 6, iu the same year. The Austrian occupation terminated in 1856. By the treaty of Bucharest, concluded between Turkey and Russia at this place May 28, 1812, the former ceded Bessarabia to Russia, and thus the frontier of the last-mentioned power was extended to the Pruth. The Czar agreed to restore Anapa and other places in Asia to the sultan; but this part of the treaty was not fulfilled ; and soon after Russia had recovered from the disastrous effects of the French iavasion, she again made war upon Turkey. BucKiKGHAM Palace. — Is crcctcd on the site of Buckingham House, so called from John Sheffield, marquis of Xormanby, made duke of Normanby March 9, and duke of the coimty of Buckingham, March 23, 1703. Old Buckingham House was erected by him in 1703. The government purchased it in 1761 for Queen Charlotte, upon whom it was settled by George III., in case she should survive hnn. Hence it was called the Queen's House, and here nearly aU her children were born. The new palace was commenced in 1825, and after undergoing various altera- tions. Queen Victoria took possession of it July 13, 1837. It cost nearly £1,000,000 sterHng. Old Buckingham House occupied a portion of the mulberry garden, at which Evelyn relates that I^ady Gerrard treated him and some others. May 10, 1654. BuDA (Himgary), or Ofek, the ancient Acincum, held by the Romans till about the 4th century. Arpad made it the residence of the Magyar chieftains about a . d . 900 . The modern city was founded in 1240, and became the capital of Hungary iu the 14th century. Soliman II. captiired it in 1526, and in 1529. The Turks sacked it in 1541, and it was considered the key of the Ottoman empire until 1686, when it was wrested from them by the Austrians, under the duke of Lorraine, after having been in their possession 145 years. Its university was founded by Martin Corvinus between the years 1470 — 1490, and its library was destroyed by the Turks in 1527. Buda, seated on the Danube, is con- nected with Pesth by a bridge of boats. A council held here Sept. 14, 1279, ordered sixty -nine canons for the regulation of the Church of Hungary to be promulgated. Another council was held at Buda May 7, 1309. The Austrian army took Buda from the Hungarians Jan. 5, 1849. Buddhism, long the prevailing religion in India, was, according to Sir Wifiiam Jones, introduced iuto that country about 1,000 years before Christ; though later authorities are incHned to accept the traditional account of its introduction by Gautama, or Godama, about B.C. 500. A feud arose between the Buddhists and the Brahmins, and the former were expelled from the greater part of Hindostan, though Buddhism is still the prevailing religion in China, Japan, Ceylon, and other parts of Asia. Buenos Atees (South America). — This province threw off the Spanish yoke in 1810, BUE and with other South American states issued a declaration of independence, July, 1816, and formed themselves into the Argentine Confederation. A treaty of commerce be- tween England and Buenos Ayres was signed Eeb. 2, 1825. It separated from the Ar- gentine Confederation, and became au inde- pendent state in 1853. Buenos Atees. — This city, the capital of the state of the same name, was founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1534, but was abandoned, owing to the attacks of the Indians, in 1539 ; and was not permanently colonized by the Spaniards until 1580. A.D. 1620. Buenos Ayres the capital of Rio de la Plata, is made the seat of a bishopric by Paul V. 1763. Jan. 1. An English and Portuguese expedition fail in an attack upon the city. 177.5. Is made the seat of a viceroyalty. 1778. The river thrown open by Spain. 1806. June 27. Taken by the English, and a large amount of treasure secured. The Spaniards regain possession Aug. 12, and the English Oct. 29. 1807. July 5. The English fail in an attempt to captvu'e Buenos Ayres. 1827 -S. Is blockaded by the Brazilian fleet. 1859. Oct. 23. Indecisive battle between the forces of the Argentine Republic and of Buenos Ayres. Nov. 10. A treaty signed/by which Buenos Ayres again joins the Argentine Confederation. 1860. June 6. The act of union between the Argen- tine Confederation ana Buenos Ayres signed and ratified. Buffalo Town (United States). — This town, and part of the enemy's squadron, with stores, were destroyed by the Enghsh army, after the defeat of the Americans at Black Kock (q.v.) Dec. 30, 1813. Bulgaria (East Turkey), the ancient Moesia Inferior, was invaded by the Bulgarians in the 7th century, and named after them Bulgaria. The first kingdom lasted from A.D. 640 to 1018, when it was subjected to the Greek empire by Basil II. The second, estabhshed about 1186, was amiexed to the Ottoman empire in 1396. 559. The Bulgarians, tinder Zabergan, invade Macedonia and Thi-ace, but ai'e repulsed by The Bulgarians, led by Asparuch, conquer the country between the Hsemua and the Danube. The Bulgarians defeat the general of Thrace. Cardam, king of the Bulgarians, defeats Con- stantine VI. July 25. Crumn, king of the Bulgarians, de- feats and slays the Emperor Nicephorus. Battle of Bei-sinikia, in which the emperor Michael I. is defeated by Crumn. The Emperor Leo defeats and annihilates an army of 30,000 Bulgarians. Michael and Bardas defeat the Bulgarians, whose king becomes a Christian. Bogoris, or Michael, first Christian king of Bulgaria, abdicates and retires to a monastery. The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine genei-al, Leo Hatakalon. Aug. 20. Battle of Achelons, in which the Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine army. Sim.eon, king of Bulgaria, defeats the Byzan- tine forces, and plunders Constantinople. BUL 923. The Emperor Romanus purchases peace from Simeon on the most humiliating terms. 981. The emperor Basil II. invades Bulgaria. He is driven back, with great loss, by King Samuel. 996. Samuel invades Greece. His army is totally routed, and he himself escapes with diffi- culty. 1014. July 29. Basil U. defeats the Bulgarians, and takes 15,000 prisoners, whose eyes he puts out. Samuel dies of grief. 1018. Death of Ladislaus, last king of Bulgaria, whose teiTitoi-y becomes a province of the Byzantine empire. 1040. The Bulgarians revolt, and invade, and render themselves masters of. Western Greece. 1186. The Btdgarians revolt from the Byzantine yoke, and establish a second monarchy. 1285. Bulgaria is overrun by the Tartars. 1330. Is made subject to Servia. 1363. Invaded by Amurath I. 1396. The Sultan Bajaset conquers Bulgaria, and xmites it to the Ottoman empire. SOVEEEIGKS OF BULGAEIA. A.D. Mocrus Terbelis (about) 700 Cormes 727 Telesis (a few months) 763 Sabin 763 Pagan 764 Teleric (about) 771 Cardam 776 Crumn (about) 806 Doucom 814 Ditzeng 815 Mortagon 821 Baldimir, or Vla- dimir 826 Bogoris, or Michael 844 Presiam Michael Vorize Simeon (about) 889 Samuel (about) 914 Peter 927 Borise 971 Gabi-iel 1014 John Ladislaus ....1015 Bultaria is made a province of the empire 1018 SECOND KINGDOM. A.D. Peter IT 1186 John 1 1196 Vorylas 1207 JohnAsanll 1215 Caloman 1 1241 Michael 1245 Caloman n 1258 Mytzes, A.D. 1258 or 1259. after whom the throne is a continual object of contention, till the conquest of Bulgaria by Bajaset, in 1396. Buljanak: (Crimea). — A skirmish took place near this river, between 15,000 Cossacks and 500 British horse, Sept 19, 1854. The former, having lost a few men, vrithdrew. Bull. — This term, derived from the word bulla, a seal, was first apphed to deeds, ecclesiastical as well as regal. Subsequently it was used to denote a papal edict, or rescript, written upon parchment, bearing a leaden seal, and issued by order of the pope from the Eoman chancery. The seals varied in form until 1088, when one side was impressed with the heads of Peter and Paul, the reverse bearing the name of the pope and the year of his pontificate. Vigilius, in the 6th century, introduced the date of the regnal years of the emperors into bulls, and this custom was continued till the middle of the 11th century. In buUs of grace or favour the lead is attached by silken (red or yellow), and in those of punishment by hempen cords. Pius V. pubhshed a bull against Elizabeth, April 25, 1570. Feuton, who posted a copy of it on the gate of the bishop of London's 155 BUL palace May 24, was taken and executed Aug. 8. By 13 Eliz. c. 2 (1570), bringing balls in, or putting them into execution, Avas made high treason, for which the penalty was death and forfeiture of property. The bull in Ccend Domini, excommunicating heretics and opponents of the papacy, was read in the pope's presence every Maundy Thursday, until the time of Clement XIV. According to the ancient mode of pro- nouncing the sentence of excommunication, the pope, after the reading of the bull, threw a lighted torch into the public j)lace. It was declared void by the council of Tours Sept. 1510. Brief is the term apphed to papal acts sealed with wax. | BULL-BAIXIN& was a favourite amusement | amongst the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Eomaus, and other ancient nations, and was ! frequently practised in this country during the Middle Ages, and even to a comparatively j recent period. Fitzstephen, the monk of ; Canterbury, in his description of London in > the 12th century, speaks of buU-baiting as then common ; and Henzel, who visited England in lo9S, gives a description of the i sport. Evelvn mentions a visit he paid to i the bear-garden Jime 16, 1670, when one of the bulls tossed a dog into the lap of a lady i sitting iu the boxes : he calls it " a rude and dirty pastime." The following occurs in an advertisement dated 1719 : — "This is to give notice to all gentlemen, gamesters, and others, that on this present Monday is a match to be fought by two dogs at a bull, for a guinea, to be spent ; which goes fairest and farthest in wins aU. Likewise a green bull to be baited which was never baited before ; and a buU to be turned loose with fireworks all over him." A bill for its suppression was introduced into the House of Commons April 3, 1800. Mr. Windham opposed the measure, declaring ; that it had existed more than one thousand ' years, and that it was a manly amusement, j Mr. Canning contended that the amusement i was a most excellent one ; it inspired courage and produced a nobleness of sentiment and ! an elevation of mind. The bill was rejected by a small majority, and though a similar j attempt in 1802 failed, buH-baiting has since been declared illegal, and by the act against cruelty to animals (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59, [ Sept. 9, 1835), persons keeping places for bull-baiting incur a penalty. The Stamford i Bull-running, which took place annuaUy on i the 13th of Jfovember, was in 1825 postponed tm the next day, because the 13th fell on a Sunday. BuU fights are said to have been introduced into Spain by the Moors, and they still form a favourite sport with the Tulgar in that country. Isabella, in the 15th century, vainly endeavoured to abolish them. BuLWEE-Ci-ATTOir Teeatt, between Eng- land and the United States, relative to the establishment of a communication by ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, was signed at Washington April 19, and ratifi- cations were exchanged there July 4, 1850. It consisted of nine articles. The contracting 1£6 BUR parties declared that they would not erect fortifications on the banks or in the vicinity of the proposed canal, and that they would not assume dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part of Central America. Opposite and contradictory constructions having been placed upon this treaty by England and the United States, another, caHed the Clarendon Dallas Treaty, was, after various negotiations, signed at London, Oct. 17, 1856, but objections having been raised to it on both sides of the Atlantic, it was ultimately rejected, and the President, in his message for the year 1857, recom- mended the abrogation of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty as the best method of solving the difficulty. BuNDELCUiTD (Hindostan) .— This exten- sive province, consisting of thirty -three states, five of which are tributary, attained great power, under a native dynasty, in the 11th century. Their rule was, however, subverted by the Delhi princes in 1183, and for a long period the country remained in a very un- settled state. By the treaty of Bassein, Dec. 31, 1802, a portion of the province was ceded to the East-India Company. Owing to the refractory conduct of certain chiefs, military expeditions were sent into portions of Bimdelcimd, and in the treaty of Poonah, July 5, 1817, the articles of the treaty of Bassein were explained and amended; cer- tain provisions being added calculated to prevent the recurrence of such disastrous outbreaks. Bu>-kee's Hill (Battle). — The revolted .Americans having thrown up batteries and erected a formidable redoubt on Bunker's or Breed's HOI, an eminence that commanded the harbour of Charlestown, were attacked in this position by the Enghsh, June 17, 1775. The latter amounted to 2,000, whilst the batteries and redoubt were defended by 5,000 men. In their advance the assailants suffered severely from sharpshooters, posted in the houses of Charlestown. In spite of every obstacle the English had almost reached the works, when a terrific fire was opened upon them. General Howe was for a few seconds left ahnost alone, several of the officers near having been either kUled or wounded. The troops, however, rallied from the confusion into which they had been thrown, and carried the works at the point of the bayonet. In this brilliant action 226 officers and men were killed, and 828 wounded. The American loss, according to their own representation, amounted to 450 killed, wounded; and missing, but it is be- heved to have been much greater. BuEFOED (Battles). — ISear this town, iu Oxfordshire, Cathred, king of Wessex, de- feated Ethelbald, king of the Mercians, a.d. 752. Fairfax defeated the Royalist army here in 1649. BuEFOED Club. — In 1722 Christopher Layer, a barrister, was convicted of high treason, for having compassed the death of the king, and was executed at Tyburn May 17, 1723, after having been respited several times. BUR He was an agent of the Pretender, and in the I papers connected with the plot frequent mention appeared of Burford's Club. Being called upon to explain the meaning, Layer declared it to be an appellation made use of by the Pretender and his agents to denote a club of Tory lords and others, of which association Lord Orrery was declared to be chairman. Earl Cowper, one of the lords mentioned as being a member, made a decla- ration, March 20, 1722, to the effect that he had never heard of such a club, and that three out of the six commoners named as being members, he did not know even by sight. A committee of the House of Conmions, ap- pointed to examine Layer, declared in their report that " the matters asserted of Bur- ford's Club in Plunket's Letters, seem utterly inconsistent with the known characters of some of those persons." BUEGHEES, AlfTI-BUBGHEES, andBUEGHEE Secedees. — These terms are apphed in eccle- siastical history to the parties that grew out of the schism in the Scottish church, caused by the induction of a pastor to the parish of Kinross, in direct opposition to the wishes of the congregation. After much discussion, eight ministers protested against this proce- dure, for which they were deprived, and their parishes declared vacant in 1740. Their con- fregations adhered to them, and so powerful id they become, that, in 1745, they formed themselves into a synod, consisting of three presbyteries. An inquiry which they insti- tuted into the lawfulness of certain oaths, led to a further division amongst them, the sub- ject being the particular oath administered in royal bui'ghs when persons were admitted to the privileges of a burgess. The Burghers maintained that it was lawful to take the oath in question, whilst their opponents, the Anti- burghers, took a different view, and in 1746 carried a vote condemning the oath. In 1747 the Burghers mustered in great strength, whereupon the Anti-burghers withdrew, and formed a synod of their own. The rival persuasions were, after a long period of hos- tihty and opposition, reunited in 1820, under the name of the United Associate Synod of the Secession Church. BuEGOS ( Spain) . — The capital of the ancient province of Burgos was founded by Diego Porcelos, a.d. 884. The Cid was buried in this city in 1099. The bishopric of Oca or Auca was transferred to Burgos in 1077. It was made an archbishopric by Gregory XIII., Oct. 22, 1574. The cathedral was founded in 1221, and completed in 1567. Councils were held at Burgos in 1080, and in October, 1136. In the 15th century Burgos was made a royal residence. Charles V. transferred the court to Madrid in the 16th century, and from that time Burgos gradually dechned. Wellington besieged it, and carried some of the works Sept. 19, 1812, but faUed in an attempt to carry it by storm Oct.- 18 in the same year. The French blew up the castle and retired, June 12, 1813. BuEGUNDiAN Ceoss. — This order of knighthood was instituted at Tunis, by the BUR emperor Charles V., on the feast of St. Mary Magdalen, July 22, 1535. BuEGUNBT (Kingdoms of).— The Bur- gundiones, a Vandal tribe, established them- selves in the southern portion of Gaul about A. p. 406 J and from them the country re- ceived its name. They succeeded in forming a kingdom, which, says Gibbon (ch. xxxviii.), "was defined by the course of two Gallic rivers, the Soane and the Rhine, extended from the forest of Vosges to the Alps and the sea of Marseilles." It was finally con- quered by the Franks in 532. A second kingdom of Burgundy was estabhshed by Rodolph I. in 887. It consisted of nearly the same territories as the first, under Rodolph II., in 933, and was ceded to the empire by the will of Rodolph III., who died in 1032. PIEST KINGDOM OF BTJEGUNDT. A.D. 413. Gundicar, king of the Bta-gundians, receives a grant of land from Joviutis, and perma- nently settles in Gaid. 435. The Btu-gimdians are defeated by Aetius, and the country is invaded by the Huns. 491. Gondebaud murders his brother Chilperic, and seizes his kingdom. 500. Gondebaud is defeated by Clovls I., king of the Franks. 523. Sigismund, king of Burgundy, is msde prisoner, and put to death by the Franks. 532. Clotaire and Childebert make war on Bur- giuidy. 534. Clotaire and Childebert conquer Burgundy, and render it subject to the Franks. For second kingdom of Burgundy, see Aeles. SOVEEEIGNS op the EIEST KIlfGDOjr. A.D. A.D. Gundicar .... 413 Gondebaud ... .... 491 Gundeiic .... 436 Sigismund . . . .... 516 ChUperic I .... 466 Gondemar . . . .... 523 Bttegttitdt (Duchy), or BuEGTTifDT Peopee, was created into a duchy during the reign of Charles the Bald, and assigned to his son-in-law, Richard le Justicier, at the council of Quiercy, or Kiersy, June 14-16, 877 A.D. It underwent several changes, and was ultimately incorporated with France. 877. Burgundy is erected into a duchy by Louis the Stammerer. 923. Eodolph, duke of Burgundy, is elected king of France, and resigns his duchy to Gisel- bert. 938. Hugh the Great, count of Paris, and Hugh the Black, rule Burgundy between them. 943. Hugh the Great sole duke uf Bureundy. 956. Death of Hugh the Great, who is succeeded by his son Utho. 987. Henry the Great is confirmed in his title of duke of Burgundy, with sovereign righti, by Hugh Capet. 1002. Death of Henry, whose duchy is claimed by Eohei-t of France and two other compe- titors. 1015. Henry II., son of King Eobert, becomes duke of Burgundy. 1032. Henry, having become king of France the precedine year, makes his brother Eobert duke of Nornjaiidy. With him begins a long succession of dukes. 157 BUK 1361. Death of PhUip I., duke of Burgundy, -with. whom tenainates the first succession of dukes. John, king of France, unites Burgundy to his own dominions. 1363. John gives Burgundy to his son, Philip the Bold, with whom commences the second duchy. 1364. John, king of France, erects Burgundy into a duchy, and bestows it upon his son Philip. 1369. Marriage between Philip of Burgundy and Margaret of Flanders. 1384. Philip inherits Flanders, Artois, Khetel, Nevers, and other territories. 1407. John the Fearless causes the assassination of the duke of Orleans, and is compelled to seek safety tii flight. 1416. Secret treaty between John the Fearless and Henry V. of England. 1419. John the Fearless is assassinated at iMon- tereau, by the Orleanists. 1420. Philip the Good enters into an alliance with Henry V., and sanctions the treaty of Troyes. 1430. Acquisition of Brabant. 1435. Philip of Burgundy withdraws from his alliance with the English, and enters into a league with France. 1443. Acquisition of Luxemburg. 1468. July 2. Marriage of Charles the Bold and Margaret, sister to Edward TV. of England. 1472. Charles invades France, ravages Normandy, and adds Guelders to his dominions. 1476. Charles invades Switzerland, where he is defeated. 1477. Jan. 4. Death of Charles, at the battle of Nancy, fought against the Swiss. Louis XI. seizes part of the duchy. Mary, daughter of Charles, succeeds htm, and marries Maxi- milian of Austria the same year, Aug. 19. 1479. Louis XI. of France seizes Burgundy, and annexes it to France. 1482. Mar. 27. Death of Maiy of Burgundy, in consequence of a fall from her horse. 1482. Dec. 23. Treaty of Arras, between Louis XI. and Maximilian of Austria, for the settle- ment of the dispute respecting Burgundy. Margaret of Austria affianced to the Dauphin. DUKES OF BUEGUNDT, A.D. Hugh II 1102 Eudes II 1142 Hugh III 1162 Eudes in 1193 Hugh rV. 1218 Robert IL 1272 Hugh V. 130.5 Eudes rv. 1315 Philip 1 1350 PhiUp the Bold.... 1364 John the Fearless 1404 Philip the Good .. 1419 Charles the Bold . . 1467 Mary of Burgundy 1477 A.D. Richard le Justiciei 877 Rodolph 021 Giselbert 923 Hugh the Black) and Hugh the ). 938 Great ) Otho 056 Henry 1 965 (Intewegnum and ) disputed succes- >1003 sion) ) Hemyn 1015 Robert 1 1032 Hugh 1 1075 Eudes 1 1078 Btieiai, is the most ancient mode of disposing of the dead. Abraham buried his wife Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, B.C. 1859 (Gen. ixiii.). It was practised amongst ancient nations ; although burning of the dead was at one period common amongst the Greeks and Eomans. Burial in woollen material only was ordered by 18 Chas. II. c. 4 (1666). This statute was repealed by 30 Chas. IL st. 1, c. 3 (1677), which enforced new regulations, and in- flicted a penalty of five pounds in every case where a person was not buried in stuff 158 BUR made from sheep's wool only. Eegisters of burials were ordered to be kept in every parish. Further regulations were made by 32 Chas. II. c. 1 (1680). These acts were repealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 108 (July 23, 1814) . A tax of four shilHngs on each per- son on burials, to last five years from May 1, 1695, was imposed by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 6 (1694). It was continued till Aug. 1, 1706, by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, s. 14 (1697). In addition to the four shillings, a regular scale was imposed on the different ranks between a duke and person possessing real property of £50 per annum, or personal property of £600. The burial of a duke was taxed at £50, that of the lowest iu the scale 10s. BiTEiAL Clubs, on the principle of friendly societies, were introduced into this country duriag the first half of the 19th century. It would appear that this is merely the revival of an ancient institution. Miller states (Anglo-Saxons, p. 363) : — "The Saxons had also gUds or clubs, in which the artizans, or such as seem to have consisted of the middle classes, subscribed for the burial of a member, and a fine was inflicted upon every brother who did not attend the funeral. Thus, above 1,000 years ago, were burial societies established in England." As some irregularities arose from the insurance of children, the legislature interfered for their regulation. Burking. — The high price paid by medical practitioners for subjects for dissection, induced a man named Burke to endeavour to supply bodies, by decoying persons into his house, and then murdering them by suffocation. He carried on this inhuman trade at Edinburgh, and secured many victims, until he was at length detected, and suffered the extreme penalty of the law, Jan. 28, 1829. Burke, from whom it was called burking, admitted having perpetrated fifteen murders of the kind. A woman named M'Dougal, who was charged with being his accomplice, was acquitted. This terrible crime was revived in London by Bishop and Williams, who were convicted of burking an Italian boy, and were executed Dec. 5, 1831. They admitted having mur- dered several persons in this manner. BuELiNGTON Aecade was built in 1819, by Samuel Ware, an architect. BuEHNGTOif Heights (Battle). — In a night attack upon the American camp near this place, June 6, 1813, an Enghsh force, consisting of 704 men, completely routed the Americans, 3,500 strong including cavalry. The action was continued during the night ; but the Americans were repulsed in every attempt to retrieve their disaster, and eventually took to flight, leaving 100 pri- soners and four guns in the hands of the victors. BuEMAH (Asia) . — This extensive kingdom, sometimes called Ava, from its capital, when first visited by the Portuguese in the 16th century, was divided into four states, — Arra- can, Ava, Pegu, and Siam. Very httle is known of its history previous to the estabhsh- BUE ment of intercourse with Europe. Buddhism is said to have been introduced amongst the inhabitants about a.d. 301. The seat of the govei-nment was removed from Panya to Ava in 1364. With the assistance of the Portuguese, the Burmese subdued the Pe- guans. Ealph Fitch, who travelled in India at the end of the 16th century, is the first Enghsh writer who notices Burmah. 1687. English take possession of the island of Negrals, at the mouth of the Irawaddy. 1709. Captain Hamilton visits Burmah. 1740. The Peguans revolt. 1752. Ava is captured by the Peguans, and the Bur- mese are completely subdued. 1753. Alompra recovers Ava, and builds Rangoon. 1754. The Peguans are defeated in another attempt upon Ava. The French assist the Peguans, and the English the Burmese, in this struggle. 1755. Alompra is again victorious. 1757. Alompra captures Pegu. The East-India Company obtain a site for a factory. 1760. Alon I pra is taken Ul whilst besiegtag the capi- tal of Siam, withdi-aws his army, and dies on his way home. 1766. Shembuan captures the Siamese capital. 17t>7. Burmah invaded by a Chinese army of 50,000 men. They are defeated, with great slaujihter. 1771. The Siamese revolt, and regain their inde- 1781. 1783. 1785. 1810. 1811. 1819. Amarapora is made the capital. Arracan is annexed to Burmah. The Bui'mese fail in an attack upon the island of Junkseylon. The Burmese invade Siam, and are again repulsed. Peace concluded between Burmah and Siam. The provinces of Tenasserim, Mergui, and Tavoy ceded to Burmah. The Burmese make inroads upon the terri- tories of the East-India Company, in pur- suit of robbers. A satisfactory explanation is given, and -wax is averted. Salang conquered. Arracan is invaded by a Mugh force. The Biu-mese make fiu-ther inroads upon the tenritories of the East-India Company. Sept. 23. The Burmese attack and overpower a British guard on the island of Shaparee. March 5. The governor- general of India de- clares war. Rangoon is captured May 11. Cheduba, Negrais, Tavoy, Mergui, Mar- taban, the whole of Tenasserim, and Yeah surrender. Feb. 1. Assam conquered. March 8. General Cotton is defeated at Donabew. It is cap- tured April 2 ; and Arr;ican, after a series of actions, March 26, 27, 28, and 29. Prome entered April 25. An armistice for one month, signed Sept. 17, and afterwards extended to Nov. 2. The ai-mistice is bi-oken, and the Burmese army defeated, Dec. 1, 2, and 5. The Burmese send a flag of truce Dec. 26. Jan. 1. First conference held. Jan. 3. Treaty signed. It is not ratified, and hostilities are resumed on the 18th. Melloone cap- tured Jan. 19. The Bvirmese defeated at the battle of Pagahinallew, Feb. 9. Treaty of Yandaboo signed Feb. 24. Dec. 28. Rangoon is destroyed by fire. Complaints by EugUsh seamen of ill-treat- ment received from the governor of Rangoon. Reparation is demanded, and refused. Jan. 10. The batteries at Rangoon fire upon the Fox man-of-war. Martaban taken April 5 ; Rangoon, April 14 ; Bassein, Apiil 19; Prome, Oct. 10; and Pegu, BUR Nov. 21. Pegu is annexed to India, by proclamation. Dec. ao. 1853. Several marauding chiefs are punished. The tei-mination of the Burmese war is officially proclaimed by the governor -general of India, June 30. BuENiWQ- Alite was a common punish- ment, amongst ancient nations, for various kinds of offences. The Anglo-Saxons used it in certain crimes, and it was the ordinary punishment for witchcraft during the Middle Ages. Blackstone says: — "In treasons of every kind, the punishment of women is the same, and difierent from that of men. For as the decency due to the sex forbids the exposing and pubhc manghng their bodies, the sentence is to be drawn to the gallows, and there to be burned alive." The Scan- dalous Chronicle contains an account of a woman, named Perrette Mauger, who was burnt ahve at Paris in 1460 for having com- mitted several robberies, and having har- boured thieves and housebreakers. They were generally strangled and their bodies afterwards burned. Katherine Hayes, who suffered for the murder of her husband, was, through the carelessness of the executioner, really burnt ahve at Tyburn, Nov. 3, 1726. The last woman executed in this manner was Christian Murphy, alias Bowman, March 18, 1789, for coining. The law was altered by 30 George III. c. 48 (1790), which provided that after June 5, 1790, women under this sentence were to be hanged. Death at the stake was long considered the only method of extirpating heresy, and as early as 304, Alban, the protomartyr of England, suffered in this manner. Lord Hale says : — " Before the time of Eichard II., that is, before any acts of parHament were made about heretics, it is without question, that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial synod, they might and frequently did here in England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." By 29 Chas. II. c. 9, s. 1 (1676) , the writ commonly called breve de hceretico comburendo, with all process and proceedings thereupon in order to the executing such writ, or following or depend- ing thereupon, and aU punishment by death, in pursuance of any ecclesiastical censures, was utterly taken away and abohshed. BuRNiJSTG Glasses.— Gibbon (ch. xl.) re- marks : — " A tradition has prevailed, that the Eoman fleet was reduced to ashes in the port of Syracuse by the burning-glasses of Archimedes ; and it is asserted that a similar expedientwas employed by Proclus to destroy the Gothic vessels in the harbour of Con- stantinople, and to protect his benefactor Anastasius against the bold enterprise of Vitahan. A machine was iixed on the walls of the city, consisting of a hexagon mirror of polished brass, with many smaller and mova- ble polygons to receive and reflect the rays of the meridian sun ; and a consuming flame was darted to the distance, perhaps, of 200 feet. The truth of these two extraordinary facts is invahdated by the silence of the most authentic historians; and the use of burning- 159 BUR glasses was never adopted in the attack or defence of places. Yet the admirable experi- ments of a French philosopher (Buffon) have demonstrated the possibility of such a mir- ror ; and, since it is possible, I am more disposed to attribute the art to the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, than to give the merit of the fiction to the idle fancy of a monk or a sophist." Leonhard Digges, in his " Pantometria," published in 1571, speaks of a burning-glass which he had constructed on the plan of Archimedes ; John Ifapier, the inventor of logarithms, who died in 1618, mentions them as a means of defence. Dr. Gregory sent one that he had constructed to Sir Isaac Newton in 1673. That eminent man's attention having been thus directed to the subject, he is said to have constructed one himself. Kircher investigated the sub- ject with much perseverance. Yilette con- structed several burning-mirrors of great magnitude, and experiments were tried in this country with one of them in June, 1718. Buffon made several successful experiments in 1747. Mr. Parker, in 1800, aud other men of science at later periods, have im- proved the construction of burning-mirrors. Btjese. — This title for a place of resort for financiers and commercial men, now gene- rally termed an exchange, was first apphed to the burse at Bruges, formed early in the 16th century. Lewis Eoberts, in " The Merchants' Mappe of Commerce," pubhshed in 1638, says : — " This city (Bruges) hath an eminent market-place, with a pubUck house for the meeting of all merchants at noon and evening ; which house was called the Burse, of the houses of the extinct family Bursa, bearing three purses for their arms engraven upon their hoiises, from whence these meeting-places to this day are called hiirses in many countries, which in London we know by the name of the Eoyal Exchange, and of Britain's Burse." The burse at Antwerp was estabhshed in 1531 ; that at Amsterdam in 1608 ; at Paris in 1784. The first stone of Britain's Burse, or the first Eoyal Exchange iu England, was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and the building was opened by Queen Ehzabeth Jan. 23, 1571. BuRTHfG- Alive. — This mode of punish- ment was occasionally resorted to by the Jews and other nations of antiquity. Hero- dotus mentions burying ahve as a Persian custom, and states that Xerxes buried ahve nine sons and nine daughters of the Edon- ians ; and that Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, in her old age ordered fourteen children, selected from the best Persian famUies, to be buried ahve, in order to show her gratitude to the god under the earth. In ancient Eome it was the punishment awarded to the vestal virgin who violated her vow; and, during the Middle Ages, the rehgious were for a similar offence subjected to the same penalty. Sir Walter Scott, in " Marmion," describes the manner in which it was carried out. The cul- prit was placed in a small niche, made in the massive wall of the convent, a slender meal 160 BUR of water and bread was deposited in it, and at the words Vade in Pace, the opening was closed. Skeletons have been discovered in an upright position in the ruins of abbeys in this coimtry, and it is probable that they are the remains of persons who had been for some oifence or other immured. It was at one time the punishment for a female thief. BuETiifGr- Place. — The Jews and other ancient nations buried their dead in fields, near the highways, and other places, without the walls of their cities and towns. Plutarch relates of Lycurgus, that, in order to do away with superstition and to accustom the youth of Sparta to such sights, he ordered the dead to be buried within the city, and per- mitted their monuments to be erected near the temples (b.c. 830 — 820). In ancient Rome, the bodies of her more illustrious men were allowed, as a favour, to be buried within the city. The Twelve Tables pro- hibited burial in the city. Hadrian and several emperors pubhshed edicts against the practice. Bingham shows that no bury- ing -places existed either in cities or in churches during the first three centuries of our sera. Graves in the pubhc roads, or vaults and catacombs in the fields, were used for this purpose. The Christian emperors prohibited the practice several centuries later. The origin of the change in the cus- tom appears to have arisen from the erection of churches over the graves of martyrs, or the removal of their rehcs into the churches, and this commenced in the 4th century. The next step was the burial of emperors and kings in the church porch, or some outer building of the church, which origir> ated in the 5th century ; and to this privilege the people were admitted in the beginning of the 6th century. The council of Braga, May 1, 563, allowed burial in the church- yard, but prohibited it within the walls. Hereditary burying-places were forbidden in the 9th century (council of Meaux, June 17, 845) ; but this was afterwards allowed by a decree of Leo V., inserted in the decretals of Gregory IX. about 1230. From this later period it became customary for bodies to be buried in churches and in family sepulchres. {See Cemeteeies, Chuechtaeds, &c.) Btjet St. Edmunds (Suffolk).— This town received its name from Edmund, king of East Angha, who was crowned at Bury, on Christmas Day, a.d. 856. He was taken pri- soner by the Danes, and, refusing to renounce the Christian faith, suffered martyrdom, Mon- day, ISTov. 20, 870. According to the chroni- clers, his persecutors bound him to a tree, scourged him, shot at him with arrows, and beheaded him. On account of his heroic constancy, he was afterwards canonized, and a monastery dedicated to him was founded at Bury. Stephen Langton and the barons met here Nov. 20, 1214, and agreed upon the demands which form the basis of Magna Charta. Henry III. held a parhament at Bury in 1267 ; Edward I. held another here Nov. 3, 1296 ; and Henry VI. another Feb. 10, 1447, and his example in this respect was on BUS one or two occasions followed by some of his successors. A large portion of the town was destroyed by fire in 1608. The grammar- school was founded in 1550. Bttsaco (Battle). — Massena and Ney were defeated at the convent of Busaco, near Coimbra, in Portugal, by Wellington, Sept. 27, 1810. The French attacked the British and Portuguese with a superior force. Their loss was 4,500 men killed and wounded, whilst that of the allies was only 1,300. Wellington soon after retired to the famous lines of Torres Vedras. Bushel, supposed to take its name from an old EngHsh word buss, signifying a "box," was regulated by several enactments. By 14 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 12 (1340), a standard bushel was ordered to be sent throughout the realm, according to a provision in 9 Hen. III. st. 1, c. 25 (1225), which ordained that only one measure should be used throughout the kingdom. The bushel of wheat was to contain eight gallons by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496) . By 22 Chas. II. c. 8, s. 1 (1670), the Winchester bushel, containing eight gallons, was ordered to be used in gauging corn or salt, and in 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 22, s. 9 (1696-7), it was declared to be a round bushel, with a plain and even bottom, being 18^ inches wide throughout, and 8 inches deep. The heaped bushel was done away vrith by 4 & 5 Will. IV. 0. 49 (Aug. 13, 1834), the prohibition taking effect from Jan. 1, 1835. AH former statutes were repealed, the Winchester bushel abo- lished, and a general measure established, from May 1, 1825, by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 (June 17, 1824). Btjshire (Persia) was made the seat of a factory by the East-India Company in the 17th century. During the Persian war it was captured by the British forces, Dec. 10, 1856, and was occupied by them until the conclusion of peace, May 2, 1857. BusiEis (Egypt) . — Four places in ancient Egypt bore this name. One Busiris, in the Thebais, was utterly destroyed by order of Diocletian a.d. 296 j and at another Busiris, on the west bank of the Nile, Merwan II., the last cahph of the Ommiades, was slain, Feb. 10, 750. BuTCHESs. — There were three classes of butchers among the Eomans ; viz., the Suarii, who provided hogs ; the Pecuarii, or Boarii, who provided oxen, sheep, &c. ; and the Lanii, or Carnifices, who killed the animals. During the Middle Ages, a com- mon slaughter-house, in which the inhabitants had their beasts killed, was established in many towns. The butchers of Dunstable are said to have been the first to erect sheds in 1279. A clause in the ordinary of the butchers' company at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, dated 1621, ordered that any member who killed flesh in that town during the Lent season without the general consent of the fellowship, should incur a penalty of £5 for each ofience. Edward III., in a letter to the mayor and sheriffs, dated Feb. 25, 1361, ordered that no large beasts should be 161 BUT slaughtered nearer to London than Stratford on the one side, and Knightsbridge on the other ; and a similar injunction was made by Eichard II. in 1380. A statute for the regu- lation of the trade was passed in 1531. The butchers were incorporated under letters patent of James I., bearing date Sept. 16, 1605. They were at that time an ancient fraternity. The blue dress is the uniform of a guild. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1532), butchers were required to seU by weight "called Haver-du-Pois." A penalty was fixed for infraction of thislawby25 Hen. VIII c. 1 (1533). By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1535), butchers were allowed from April, 1536, to April 12, 1540, to sell meat as they had done previous to the statute of 1532; and by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 11 (1541), former regulations were repealed, and the privilege was con- tinued. Bute ADiiiifiSTEATion-. — Its advent to power was caused by the retirement of Mr. Pitt, Oct. 5, 1761, from the Newcastle and Pitt (Chatham) Ministry, though the new ministry was not formed tiU the following year. The earl of Bute, who had been tutor to George III., was made prime minister May 29, 1762. Treasury Earl of Bute. Lord Chancellor Lord Henley. President of the Council.. Earl GranvUle. Privy Seal Duke of Bedford. ( Sir Erancia Dashwood, Chancellor of Exchequer< aftei-wards Lord Le ( Despencer, Principal Secretaries of /Earl of Egremont and State \ Hon. Geo. Grenvllle. Admiralty Earl of Halifax. Ordnance f Viscount, afterwards Earl ■ ( Ligonier. Board of Trade Lord Sandys. The Hon. George Grenville was replaced by the earl of Hahfax early in 1763, and the Hon. George Grenville took the Admiralty. Henry Fox, afterwards Lord HoUand, pay- master of the forces, was made leader in the Commons, vrith a seat in the cabinet. This administration was assailed by Junius and Wilkes, and the earl of Bute resigned Aprils, 1763. His opponents called him "the favour- ite," and in some parts of the kingdom he was burnt under the eifigy of a jack-boot. {See Gkehtville Administration.) BuTTEB. — The word rendered butter in our translation of the Old Testament (Gen. xviii. 8 ; Job, xx. 17 ; and other passages) is supposed by the best bibhcal critics to sig- nify cream or sour thick milk. Herodotus, in his notice of the Scythians, describes a rude process of churning practised amongst them, and as his account is confirmed oy Hippocrates, who was almost contemporary with him, Beckmaim believes this to be the earliest mention of butter. It was probably introduced at a later period, though not generally, amongst the Greeks and Eomans, who derived their knowledge of it from the Scythians. The Eomans anointed the bodies of their children with butter; the Burgun- dians besmeared their hair -with it, and Clemens of Alexandria (192) speaks of it as u BUT having been used by the early Christians in lamps, instead of oil. The trade is regvilated by act of parUament. BuTTrN&TOif (Battle) . — Ethelred collected an army and surrounded the Danes in their fortifications at Buttington, on the banks of the Severn, a.d. 894. The Danes were so reduced by famine, having eaten their horses, that their leader. Hasting, was compelled to risk a saUy towards the east. This led to a battle, in which the Danes were routed with great slaughter. BuxAE (Battle). — Major, afterwards Sir Hector Mimro, with 7,072 men and 20 field- pieces, defeated the army of the confederated native princes of Hindostan, consisting of 40,000 men and a powerful artillery, at this fortified town in Bahar, Oct. 23, 1764. The loss of the latter was severe, 6,000 men having been left on the field of battle. The victors captured 133 pieces of artillery. Bye, Sttepeise, or Suepeising Plot. — George Brooke, brother of Lord Cobham, who was engaged in the plot to place Ara- bella Stuart on the throne, this being termed the Main Plot, to distinguish it from the lesser scheme, the Bye Plot, had also con- spired with Sir Griffin Markham, Lord Grey of Wilton, and two Eoman Catholic priests, named Walton and Clarke, to seize James I., imprison him, compel him to change his ministers, and to grant liberty of conscience and the free exercise of reHgion. The exist- ence of the plot was made known to the government about midsummer, 1603, and in July the conspirators were apprehended. {See Maik Plot.) Btzant, or Bezantlne. — ^Wfiliam of Mal- mesbury (book iv. ch. 2) states that By- zantiimi, the original name of Constantinople, is stiU preserved in the imperial coin called a byzant. This coin was current in England from the 9th to the 14th centuries, and Cam- den, writing in the 16th, says "that a great piece of gold, valued at £15, which the king offered on high festivals, is yet called a Be- zantine, which was anciently a piece of gold coined by the emperors of Constantinople ; but afterwards there were two purposely made for the king and queen, with the resem- blance of the Trinity inscribed, — In honorem Sanctce Trinitatis ; and on the other side the picture of the Virgin Mary, — In honorem Sanctm Marim Virginis." The last were cast by order of James I., in 1603. The Turks, at the siege of Csssareia, in 1102, are said to have hidden byzants in their mouths. The Crusaders struck the captives in the neck, whereupon the coin was disgorged. One writer declares that the bodies of the slain were also piled up and burnt, for the Eurpose of obtaining the byzants which they ad swallowed. A similar coin was struck in other countries, and in the reign of Stephen, a white or silver byzant, of the value of two shillings, is supposed to have been current in England. BTZAifTiNE Empiee. {See Easteeit Em- PIEE.) Byzats^tine HiSTOEiAifS. — ^The Greek his- 162 CAA torians and writers, in whose works are recorded the principal transactions of the Byzantine or eastern empire, from a.d. 325 to 1453, are known by this name. A collected edition of their works was pubHshed at Paris, 1645 — 1711 ; another, in twenty -three volumes foho, was pubhshed at Venice 1722 — 1733 ; and a new edition at Bonn commenced in 1828. BTZAifTitTM: was founded B.C. 667, by the navigator Byzas, with followers from Argos and Megara, and received a considerable accession of numbers from Megara under Zeuxippus, B.C. 628. It was captured by the Persians B.C. 505, and retaken by the Greeks under Pausanias, B.C. 477, from which cir- cumstance he has been called its founder. Byzantium became subject to Athens B.C. 470, threw off the yoke B.C. 440, but again submitted. Alcibiades took it B.C. 408, Lysander B.C. 405, and Philip of Macedon made an attempt B.C. 340, but was compelled to raise the siege B.C. 339. It was then allied with Eome, and eventually became a Eoman colony. In the ciril wars that ensued on the accession of Severus, Byzantium remained faithful to Niger, and after having sustained a siege of three years' duration, was reduced by famine a.d. 196. Severus ordered its walls to be demolished, and suppressed many of its privileges. Maximin took it after a siege of eleven days in 313, and in the civil war between ConstantineandLicinius, the former captured it in 323. Struck with what Gibbon terms "the incomparable position of Byzantium," Constantine determined to make it the seat of his government, and an imperial edict for the building of the new city was issued in 324. The emperor, at the head of a proces- sion, marked out its boundaries, the capital was forthwith constructed, and inaugurated in May, 330. The rites of inauguration lasted forty days, and the city received the title of Second or New Eome, which soon gave place to that of Constantinople, derived from its founder. The Byzantine church is sup- posed to have been founded in the 1st cen- tury. {See Constantinople.) Caaba, or the Sacked Stone of Mecca, was guarded by the Koreish tribe ; and the term was applied to the temple in which it was kept. Gibbon (ch. 1.) says, that its genuine antiquity "ascends beyond the Christian sera ;" and he describes the rites which the idolaters, and after them the Mussulmans, practised. " At an awful distance they east away their garments : seven times with hasty steps they encircled the Caaba, and kissed the black stone : seven times they visited and adored the adjacent mountains : seven times they threw stones into the valley of Mina : and the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the present hour, by a sacrifice of sheep and camels, and the burial of their hair and nails in the consecrated ground." Mohammed destroyed the three hundred and sixty idols CAB of the Caaba, a.d. 630. The Carmathians de- spoiled the temple in 929 and bore away the black stone, which was, however, afterwards restored. Cab. — This term, an abbreviation of cab- riolet, is appUed to the conveyances intro- duced into London in 1820. {See Hackney Carriages.) Cabal. — Soon after the dismissal of the earl of Clarendon, Aug. 30, 1667, the forma- tion of the secret council called the Cabal commenced. It has been incorrectly stated that the name " Cabal" originated from the mitial letters of the names of the five mem- bers of this ministry. This is not the case, as the word Cabal had been employed at an earher time to denote a secret council, or what is now termed the cabinet. Its influence was directed principally to the direction of foreign affairs, and it was when fuUy formed, in 1670, composed of the following members : Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Clifford, Lord, afterwards earl of Arlington, the duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, and the earl of Lauderdale. Sir Wilham Coventry was associated with them. The passing of the Test Act, 25 Chas. II. c. 2, early in 1673, spread dis- union in its ranks; and by the spring of 1674 it was entirely dissolved. HaUam (Eng. ii. ch. xi.), whilst admitting that their counsels soon became " extremely pernicious and dishonourable," declares, " the first measures after the banishment of Clarendon, both in domestic and foreign poHey, were highly praiseworthy." Cabbage was introduced into England at an early period, and is noticed in documents of the 13th century. Henry says the better kind was known in the time of Edward IV. It is supposed that Evelyn, in assigning the introduction of the cabbage from Holland to the 16th century, alludes to some particular sort. The soldiers of Cromwell's army are said to have introduced the x^lant into Scot- land. Cabbalists.- — Jewish doctors, who study the Cabbala, described by Dr. Moore as a traditional doctrine or exposition of the Pen- tateuch, which Moses received from God on Mount Sinai. Prideaux considers Cabbahst to be the general name of aU those who pro- fess the study and knowledge of aU manner of traditions, which are of the interpretative part of the Hebrew Scriptures. HaUam de- clares (Lit. pt. 1, ch. 3) that the cabbala is the offspring of the Alexandrian Jews and not far from the beginning of the Christian aera. It was revived during the 11th and 12th centuries. Cabinet Cou]srciL. — {See Administra- tions OF Great Britain.) Cabira (Battle). — Mithridates the Great was defeated near this city, in Pontus, by Lucullus, B.C. 71. The Koman general cap- tured the town itself and secured a large quantity of treasure. Cables, made of hemp, rush, papyrus, barks of trees, &c., have existed from time immemorial. Iron cables were first suggested 163 CAB in the narrative of M. Bougainville's voyage of discovery, which was published in 1771, but no attempt was made to adopt them till Mr. Slater obtained a patent for their manu- facture in 1808. The first vessel fitted with iron rigging was the Penelope, which made her trial trip in 1811, and satisfactorily proved the efficacy of the system, which was gene- rally adopted in the royal navy in 1812. Captain Brown invented the proving ma- chine, for testing chain-cables, in 1813. Cabochiens. — In 1412, John the Bold, duke of Burgundy, armed a chosen body of about 500 journeymen butchers or skinners, who took the name of Cabochiens, from John Caboehe, their leader. They main- tained the cause of Burgundy against the Armagnac faction, and, ruling Paris in the most despotic manner, kept the inhabitants in a state of constant terror. The citizens rose against them in 1418, and the Armag- nacs obtaiued the ascendant. Cabrita Point (Sea-fight).— Sir Thomas Dnkes engaged vrith a French squadron off Cabrita Point, March 10, 1705, when two out of the five ships of which the French squadron consisted were driven on shore and destroyed, and three captured. _ Cab Strike. — Displeased \rith the provi- sions of an act of parHament reducing the fare from 8d. to &d. per nule, London cab- men withdrew their vehicles after midnight on Tuesday, July 26, 1853. The strike lasted three days, during which time locomotion was entirely paralyzed. Arrangements haring however been made for bringing up veliicles from various provincial towns, the cab pro- prietors and drivers relented, and returned to their work on Saturday, the 30th of July. Cabul (Affghanistan) is said to have been founded by Pusheng. Baber acquired pos- session of it in 1504, and in 1647 his son Humayun expelled his brother Camran from the city. On the accession of Akbar, at the age of thirteen years, in 1556, Cabul was seized by Mirza Sohman ; but it was again added to the empire of the Mogul in 1581. An insurrection was quelled in 1611. K'adir Shah took Cabul in 1738, and in 1774 it was made the capital of Affghanistan by Timour Shah, who died there. May 20, 1793. In 1801 a revolt of the Gluljies took place at Cabul ; but after severe struggles it was suppressed. May 11, 1802. In 1809 Shah Shujah was deposed and driven from the city by Futteh Khan, who was murdered in 1818, after which Cabul fell into the hands of Dost Mohammed. Shah Shujah was restored by the Enghsh, May 8, 1839. In 1841, Nov. 2, an insurrec- tion broke out at Cabul, and many English officers were massacred ; and on Jan. 6, 1842, the British commenced their disastrous re- treat from Cabul, leaving Lady Sale and others prisoners in the hands of the enemy. The force consisted of 4,500 men, only one of whom survived the massacre of the Boo- thank pass. On the 15th of September, 1842, Cabul was retaken by General" Pollock. Ge- neral Nott arrived vrith another force the following day. Operations for the destruc- M 2 CAO CAD tion of the great bazaar at Cabul, the most celebrated building of Central Asia, in which Sir W. MclS'aghten's body had been exposed, were commenced Oct. 9, and the objects of the expedition having been fuUy aceom- pUahed, a portion of the EngHsh army evacuated Cabul October 11, and the whole force gradually withdrew from Aifghanistan. Cachao (Anam). — The capital of Tonquin, was nearly demohshed by an incendiary lire during the 17th century. Since 1820 the sovereign has resided in Cochin China, and Cachao has of course suffered in consequence. Cachas (Hindostan). — This province was invaded by the Burmese in 1774, but no con- quests were effected. The Brahminical re- ligion was introduced in 1780. In 1813 Eajah Govind Chunder became sovereign of Cachar. He was soon expelled, and in 1818 Choorjeet fained the ascendancy and maintained it for ve years, when Govind Chunder was re- stored. This prince, finding himself unable to protect his kingdom against Burmese invasion, sought the assistance of the British in 1824, and on his assassination in 1830, his territory was annexed to the possessions of the East-India Company. Cachet (Lettresde), or Sealed Letters, issued by the kings of France, and coun- tersigned by a secretary of state, on the authority of which persons were suddenly seized and imprisoned, were not frequently employed untU the time of Louis XIV. (1643—1715). Disraeli (Curiosities of Lit. iii. 196) says : " Father Joseph, the secret agent of Cardinal Richelieu, was the inventor of lettres de cachet, disguising that instru- ment of despotism by the amusing term of a sealed letter." During the reign of his successor, Louis XV. (1715 — 1774), they were openly sold by the mistress of one of that monarch's ministers. The practice afterwards led to great abuses. Michelet says that Saint Florentine alone gave away 50,000; adding, "they were the object of a profitable traffic ; they were sold to fathers who wanted to get rid of their sons, and given to pretty women who were inconvenienced by their husbands." They were abolished at the Revolution. Caddee Leag-ue, originated in Switzer- land, and was occasioned by an alliance formed between the subjects of Hartmann, bishop of Coire, and the counts of Werdenberg, A.D. 1396. The peasantry of Upper Rhsetia as- sembled by night at Trons in 1400, and exacted from theu' feudal lords a recognition of their right to independence, justice, and security. A second league, formed at the same place in May, 1424, was attended by the nobles as weU as "the peasantry, and ah present pledged themselves to unite for the maintenance of justice and pubhc safety. Ovring to the pre- dominant colour of the costumes at this meeting, it is known as the Greif League, or League of the Orisons. A siinilar alliance, known as the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, was estabhshed in 1436, and in 1471 the three confederacies met at the village of Vazerol, and united for mutual defence and assistance. 164 Cadesia (Battle) .—The Saracens defeated the Persians on this plain, near Cufa, a.b . 636. Some authorities are, however, of opinion that this battle was fought early in 635. The battle lasted four days, and the different periods were distinguished by peculiar appel- lations. The first was called the day oisuecour, because a Syrian reinforcement reached the army ; the second the day of concussion, the third the day o{ embittered war, and the fourth o{ cormorants, or howling, or barking. The Saracens sacked Ctesiphon, and obtained the province of Irak, or Assyria. Cade's iNSumiECTioir. — Several risings took place in difterent parts of England in 1450, caused by general dislike of the duke of Suffolk. The most formidable was excited in Kent during the month of May, by John Cade, an Irishsoldier of fortune, who assumed the name of Mortimer, called himself John Amend-all, and claimed relationship with the duke of York. He encamped on Blackheath June 1, defeated the royal army at Sevenoaks June 27, and slew its commander, Sir Humph- rey Stafford. Their demands were set forth in fifteen articles. Cade entered London July 1, beheaded Lord Say and Sele and others July 3, and was expelled by the citizens July 5. He was killed by John Iden, sheriff of Kent, July 11, and his head was exhibited on London Bridge. Several of his followers were executed. Cadiz (Spain). — The ancient Gadir, Latin form Gades, the seat of a Phoenician colony, several centuries before the Christian sera. It was made subject to Carthage B.C. 233. The inhabitants entered into an aUiance with RomeE.c. 212, and this was confirmed B.C. 78. Juhus Caesar conferred the civitas on aU its citizens B.C. 49, and it was made a municipium by Augustus. The Goths destroyed it on their invasion of Spain, 415 — 418, and it was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th century. The Moors held it for many years, until "it was wrested from them by Alonso the Wise in 1262. Sir Francis Drake burnt several ships VQ. its harbour April 19, 1587, and Lord Howard of Effingham and the earl of Essex captured Cadiz June 21, 1596. Two galleons, thirteen ships of war, and twenty -four merchantmen, were taken or burnt. The town was plundered and the fortifications were destroyed. An Enghsh expedition failed in an attack in 1625, and another Aug. 15, 1702. If elson bombarded it July 3 and 5, 1797. Victor iavested it in 1810, and raised the siege Aug. 12, 1812. Insurrections broke out here July 7, 1819, and Jan. 1, 1820, and massacres ensued March 9 and 10 in the latter year. It was taken from the revolu- tionary Cortes by the French, under the diike d' Angouleme, Oct. 3, 1823, and held by them until 1828. It was made a bishopric in 1264. It has two cathedrals, one biult iu 1597, and the other commenced in 1720, and completed in 1840. Its academy of arts was founded in 1789. Cadmium. — This metal was discovered by M. Stromeyer in 1817. Cad SAND (Zealand). — ^Thia island was CAE captured, its Fleming garrison defeated, and the town sacked and burned by the earl of Derby, Nov. 10, 1337. It was overrun by the republican army in 1797, and part of the Walcheren expedition landed in Cadsand July 29, 1809. It was ceded to France by treaty, March, 1810, and was restored to Holland at the close of the war. Caen- (France), originally called Cathern or Cathorn, was an important city in the 10th century. Henry I. captured it in 1105, Edward III. in 1346, and Henry V. Sept. 4, 1417. The French recovered it" in 1449, and it has since remained in their possession. The church of the abbey of St. Etienne, now the cathedral, was founded by William I . , between 1061 and -1070. The town was a favourite re- sidence of Wilham I. and his wife Matilda, both of whom were buried here. Louis XI. concluded a treaty at Caen with the duJre of Britanny, Dec. 22, 1465, and it was ratified on the following day. CAEELEOif (Monmouthshire), or Castle OF THE Legion-, — the Isca Silurum of the Komans, is supposed to have been the chief city of Wales when it formed a Roman province. St. Alban, Aaron, and Jiilius, the proto-martyrs of England, suffered here a.d. 304. The seat of the archbishopric was re- moved from Caerleon to St. David's, a.d. 519. Caeemaethem" (Wales), — the ancient Maridunum, was made a Eoman station A.D. 70. Caeenaevon (Wales) . — Edward I. laid the foimdations of its castle in 1282, and it was not completed for ten years. Edward II. was born here, April 25, 1284. Edward I. granted the town a charter in 1284, being the first accorded to any town in Wales. The Welsh captured the castle, and put its garrison to the sword in 1294. It was taken and retaken during the civil wars. C^SAEEiA (Cappadocia), originally called Mazaca, was the residence of the kings of Cappadocia. It was taken by Tigranes, and by the Persians under Sapor, about a.d. 260, and again under Chosroes II. in 612. The gospel was preached here by St. Peter and St. Paul ; and it became the metropolitan see of Pontus. A council was held at Caesareia in 365. CiESAEEiA (Palestine) was founded by Herod the Great e.g. 10, and named in honour of Caesar Augustus. St. Paul ap- peared before Felix, and was imprisoned at Caesareia a.d. 58 (Acts, xxiii. 33 — 35). It was made a metropohtan see at an early period. CouncUs were held here in 334 and 358. It must not^ however, be confounded with Caesareia Phihppi, another town in Palestine (Matt. xvi. 13) . Cjssars, JEtsl of.— {See Spaiit, ^ra of.) Caffa (Crimea). — Built on the site of the ancient Theodosia. The Genoese captured it in 1261. It was wrested from thei;i by the Venetians in 1296, but they recovered 'it in 1299. The Turks took it in 1474. Caffa was made a free port in 1806. Caffeaeia ( South Africa) appears to have been quite unknown in 1718, as it is CAG not mentioned in Peter Kolben's " Descrip- tion of the Cape," pubhshed in that year. In 1797 Mr. Barrow explored part of Caf- fraria, and obtained the first authentic information as to the manners and customs of the CalFres. The interior was explored by Duncan in 1844, and by Ruxton in 1845. A part of CaiFraria was placed under the pro- tection of the English on the termination of the war in 1853. (See Caffee War.) Caffee Wae.— In 1817, the Caffres under Makanna, a pretended prophet, attacked Graham's Town, but were repelled and forced to purchase peace by a cession of territory. In 1834 they agaia invaded the Enghsh settlements under their chief Charlie, who carried slaughter and devastation wherever he appeared. Sir Peregrine Maitland ex- pelled them from the Tyumie district in 1846. In 1850 Sir Harry Smith was appointed governor of the Cape ; and in the same year, Dec. 24, the Cafires .rose in a general insurrection, and treacherously attacked a British force of 600 men in the Kriskamma defile. On the 29th they blockaded Sir Harry Smith in Fort Cox, and repelled Colonel Somerset, who came to his assistance. On the 21st of January, 1851, Fort Hare was unsuccessfully besieged by the Caifres, who lost more than 100 men. On the 31st of May the Hottentots rose in rebeUion, and joined the Caffre chiefs, who continued to harass the colonists. Colonel Fordyce and several other officers and men were kiUed in a battle fought on the Water-Kloof HiUs in November. The war continued with great violence. Sir George Cathcart succeeded Sir Harry Smith as governor ApiH 9, 1852. On the 20th of December the Caffi-es were defeated near the Berea mountain. They sued for peace Feb. 13, 1853. A meeting between the governor and the chiefs was arranged, and peace was fuHy restored March 9. Cagliabi (Sardinia) occupies the site of the ancient CaraHs, said to have been founded by the Carthaginians. It is the seat of an archbishopric. The Genoese were defeated at Caghari by the united Venetian and Catalan forces in 1352. The university was founded in 1626, and re-established in 1764. During the war of the Spanish succession, Caghari was bombarded and taken in 1708, and the inhabitants were compelled to declare in favour of Charles III. It was seized by the Spaniards ia 1717. The French bom- barded the town in 1793, but did not succeed in reducing it to subjection. The king of Sardinia resided at Caghari from 1798 to 1814. Cagots. — This proscribed race, existing in the Pyrenees, are said by some to have descended from the fugitive Goths who survived the defeatofVouille a.d. 507. Others refer their origin to the Arabs who. fled to Gaseony on the defeat of Abd el Eahman, by Charles Martel, in 732. They are first mentioned in the year 1000, when they were under the absolute power of the nobility. In 1288 they were forbidden to sell articles of 165 CAI food, and compelled to wear a peculiar costume, on the alleged ground of leprosy. From documents dated 1365 and 1385, it appears that the Cagots were then located in the province of Beam; but they after- wards appeared in I^avarre, Aragon, and other districts in the north of Spain. It was not till May 13, 1515, that the papal buU was pubhshed which estabhshed them iu the commonest rights of humanity; and even then the privileges obtained were limited to the Cagots of Navarre. They subsequently became obnoxious to the Inquisition, which continued to persecute them as late as 1755. CAi-ron^G-FOTJ (China), or Kaifong, the ancient capital, was invested by the Mongols about 1227, and yielded in 1232. It was besieged by rebels in 1642, when the embank- ments were destroyed, and 300,000 persons perished in the inundation. Cainites, or Cainiats^s. — A Gnostic sect that arose in the 2nd century. They pre- tended that Cain was produced by a superior virtue to that which produced Abel, who was thus easily overcome. They honoured all the worst characters mentioned in Scrip- ture, Judas among the number. Origen did not regard them as Christians. Caieo (Egypt), or Cahera, the "Victo- rious," called by the natives Musr, the capital of modem Egypt, was founded by the first of the Fatimite eaUphs a.i>. 969, and became the chief city of Egypt in 973. On the approach of the Crusaders in 1171 it was partially burnt by the inhabitants, who suc- ceeded in saving it from foreign occupation ; and a second attempt to surprise it, made by Louis IX. of France, was defeated in 1249. In 1382 it passed under the rule of the Memlook kings of the Circassian or Borgite dynasty, during whose government a Tartar invasion, under Tamerlane, was successfully resisted in 1393 and 1394. In 1517 the Turks under Sultan Selini took Cairo, and sub- verted the dynasty of the Egyptian sultans. In 1754 it was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake ; and in July, 1781, the plague carried off many inhabitants. Cairo was taken July 21, 1798, by ISTapoleon Bonaparte, who held it tUl 1801, in which year the inhabitants threw off the French yoke, March 29, and tlie town was taken by the English and Turks June 27. Cairo was the scene of the massa- cre of the Mamelukes, by order of Mehemet Ali, in 1811. It was the seat of a Jacobite bishop, who possessed the rights of a metro- politan. Councils were held at Cairo in 1086 and 1239. Cairtan (Tunis), or Kaiewajt, was foimded a.d. 670, by Akbah, the Saracenic conqiieror of Africa. A city of the same name had been built by his predecessor, but Akbah, not liking the site, determined upon erecting another. It was about 33 leagues from Carthage. Caiijs College (Cambridge) was founded n 1348, by Edmund G-onviUe, and named G onville HaU, after him. It was completed by W. Bateman, bishop of Norwich. Dr. John Caius rebuilt a portion of the college, erected CAL a chapel, and increased the endowments, in 1557, and he changed the name from Gonville HaU to Caius College. Calabria (Italy) was anciently peopled by the Messapians, who possessed some of the arts of civilization, as early as B.C. 708. They origraaUy suffered much from the tyranny of the Tarentines, whom they de- feated with great slaughter B.C. 473 . Another battle was fought B.C. 338. The Eomana took possession of Calabria B.C. 286, and suppressed a rebellion in favour of Hannibal B.C. 213. The province subsequently formed part of the empire, until conquered by Odoacer, a.d. 476. On the defeat and death of Odoacer, in 493, it formed part of the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric, tintil sold to Justinian by Theodatus, in 536. Alboin, king of the "Lombards, took it in 570, and made it part of the duchy of Bene- ventum; and in 828 its richest towns wer* pillaged by the Saracens, who made a per- manent settlement at Bari in 842. In the 11th century it was conquered by KoberJ Guiscard, the Norman, who was installed duke of Apulia and Calabria, together with aU the lands he could rescue from the in- fidels, in 1051. The emperor Manuel I., in 1155, despatched Michael Palseologus to conquer Calabria; but the success gained was merely temporary, as William I. _ of Sicily expelled the invaders the following year. Calabria has since formed part of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was erected into a dukedom in 1597. Calais (France) was only a fishing -village until A.D. 997, when Baldwin IV., coimt of Flanders, unproved the harbour, and erected fortifications. Philippe, count of Boulogne, extended its defences in 1224, and built a castle in 1227. It suffered greatly during the wars between England and France. Edward III. invested it in September, 1346, and it surrendered Aug. 4, 1347. The French failed in an attempt to regain possession in 1349. Wolsey was sent to mediate between the emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of France ; but the conferences, held in Aug. 1521, proved ineffectual. Henry VIII. landed here on his invasion of France, July 14, 1544. The castle surrendered to the duke of Guise Jan. 6, and the town itself Jan. 7, 1558. By the treaty of Cateau- Cambresis (Api-il 2, 1559) Calais was to be restored to the English, if no act of hostility were committed in eight years. This en- gagement was not, however, fulfilled, and Calais passed out of the hands of the English, who had held it 210 years. Henry VIII. granted to Calais the privilege of representation in the English parhamentjj and this it continued to exercise during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary. The Spaniards took Calais April 24, 1596. Several- statutes relating to Calais will be found in our statute-book, under -the reigns of many of our Irings to the time of Edward VI. Calatatud (Spain) . — This town, near thd site of the ancient Bilbilis, was wrestecf from the Moors by Alfonso VII. in 1119. CAL Calatrava (Order of). — This order of knighthood was instituted by Saneho III. of Castile, a.d. 1158. His father having taken the town of Calatrava from the Moors in 1147, intrusted its defence to the Templars. They resigned it to Saneho III. in 1158, when Eaymond, abbot of a Cistercian monastery, undertook to defend it, and the order was instituted. It was confirmed by Pope Alex- ander III. in 1164. The grandmastership was united to the crown by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487. Calcium, the metallic basis of lime, was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. Calculating Machines. — The schwan- pan of the Chinese, and the Eoman abacus, were employed in early times for performing arithmetical operations. Pascal, born in 1623, and Leibnitz, in 1646, invented machines of this kind. Sir Samuel Morland also con- structed machines for performing some of the simpler operations of arithmetic about 1670. Mr. Babbage's difference-engine was commenced in July, 1823, government hav- ing granted £1,500 to be employed in per- fecting the invention. Ovraig to misunder- standings with the draughtsman, the under- taking was suspended in 1833, at which time it had cost £17,000. This machine was removed to King's CoUege, London, in 1843. Calcutta (Hmdostan). — ^When the East- India Company removed their factory from the Hooghly in 1686, the site on which Cal- cutta now stands was occupied by one of the villages afterwards granted to them by Au- rungzebe. Fort William was erected in 1700, and Calcutta, now the chief city of Bengal, and the metropolis of the English dominions in India, was soon after commenced. A.D. 1707. Calcutta made a separate presidency. 1742. A ditch dug round a portiou of Calcutta. 1752. Defences commenced. 1756. June 20. Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah. Howell and 145 of his fellow-prisoners thrust into the Black-hole, and only 23 re- mained alive in the morning. 1757. Jan. 1. Watson and Clive anchor in the Hooghly ; and plant the British standard on the walls of Calcutta, Jan. 2. 1758. Meer JaflB.er grants the free teniu-e of Calcutta to the East-India Company. 1773. July 1. Calcutta made the residence of the governor-general, and a supreme Court of Judicature is established. 1793. High Court of Criminal Appeal established. 1801. University founded. 1804. Govermnent House erected. 1813. Bishopric established at Calcutta. 1820. Bishop's Coll- ge founded. 18i!9. General Assembly's Institution for extending a knowledge of Christianity among the Native Youth, founded by the Scotch Church. Insolvent Court established. 1833. The bishop of Calcutta made metropolitan. A high tide in the Hooghly commits great destruction. 1836. The Martinidre, an Institution founded by General Claude Martin, for the education and maintenance of indigent native Chris- tian children, is opened. 1855. Jan. 25. Industrial Exhibition opened. Caldieeo (Battles). — ^ITapoleon I. was defeated in a sanguinary engagement at this CAL strong position near Verona, Nov. 11, 1796, by Alvinzi, at the head of an Austrian army superior in point of numbers. Massena attacked the Austrians in this celebrated position Oct. 29 and 30, 1806, and after a gaUant struggle was repulsed. Caledonia. {See Scotland.) Caledonian Canal. — In 1773 James Watt showed the practicability of executing this work, which was commenced by Telford in September, 1803, and was opened Oct. 23, 1822. In 1837 and 1838 the works sustained considerable injury, and as the expenditure far exceeded the revenue, the idea of aban- doning the whole undertaking was seriously entertained. An act was obtained in 184^ to permit the transfer of the canal to a joint- stock company ; but the project was not car- ried out. This canal, connecting the North Sea vrith the Atlantic Ocean, is navigable for ships of 500 or 600 tons burden. Calendae. — The Jews and some ancient nations divided the year into twelve lunar months, a thirteenth being added from time to time to accommodate it to the seasons. The year amongst the ancient Egyptians con- sisted of twelve months, each of which con- tained thirty days. At the end of the year five supplementary days were added. The Greeks for a considerable period made the year consist of twelve lunar months. Solon, B.C. 594, introduced a change respecting the length of the months, making them of twenty- nine and thirty days alternately. An inter- calary month was occasionally introduced to restore the balance. Eomulus is said to have divided the year into ten months, of which March was the first. This year consisted of 304 days, and was the original Eoman calen- dar. Numa added two months, January at the commencement, and February at the end of the year, and caused an additional month, consisting of twenty -two and twenty -three days alternately, to be inserted every second year. The Decemvirs altered this arrange- ment B.C. 452, by placing February after January. Confusion having arisen in these calculations, Julius Caesar abolished the use of the intercalations B.C. 47. He adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to the months the number of days which they now contain. He added an inter- calary day to February every four years. The new system, arranged by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexanctia, whom Caesar in- vited to Eome for the purpose, commenced January 1, B.C. 46, and was called the Julian or solar year. This arrangement was disturbed by the emperor Augustus. The consequence was, that the equinox, which, on the intro- duction of the Julian Calendar, feU on the 25th of March, retrograded so much that in the year 1582 it feU upon the 11th. Gre- gory XIII. in that year effected another reformation, which is now generally adopted, and is called the Gregorian calendar. He ordered ten days to be deducted, making the 5th of October, 1582, to reckon as the loth. In order to make the civil and the natural year of the same length, he ordered that 167 CAL every hundredtli year, excepting the fourth, commencing with 2000, should not be a leap- year. Thus whilst 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap-years, 1600 was ; and 2000 will be, but 2100, 2200, and 2300 wiU be common years. (See New Style.) Calendae (Eevolutionary) .—The National Convention of France passed adecreeNov. 24, 1793, for the estabUshment of the new calen- dar, according to the report presented by Fabre d'Eglantine, Oct. 6. The year was to consist of 365 days, divided into 12 months, each containing 30 days. Five complementary days, called sansculottides, were added, and a sixth complementary day was to be intro- duced every fourth year. The first year of the French republic, according to this ca- lendar, commenced at midnight, Sept. 22, 1792. The Gregorian reckoning was restored from and after Jan. 1, 1806, by an imperial decree, dated Sept. 9, 1805. The following calculations are given by a writer in the "National Cyclopsedia." " Though every pe- riod of four years was a Franciade, and the last year of the Franciade was called Sextile (having six complementary days) , yet in fact An IV., An VIIL, &c., are not leap-years. The foUovring Ust wiU afford the necessary explanation : — "An I. begins Sept. 22, 1792. II. , 22, 1793. Sext. HI. , 22, 1794. IV. , 23, 179.5. V. , 22, 1796. VI. , 22, 1797. Sext. VII. , 22, 1798. VIII. , 23, 1799. IX. . 23, 1800. X. , 23, 180L Sext. XI. , 23, 1802. XII. , 24, 1803. XIII. , 23, 1804. XIV. , 23, 1805. " When the Gregorian year is not leap-year, the beginnings of the months are as follows, according as the Repubhcan year begins on Sept. 22, 23, or 2'1 :— 1 VendSmiaire is Sept. 22, 1 Brumaire 1 Frimaire 1 Niv6se 1 PluviOse 1 VeutSse 1 Germiual 1 Flor6al 1 Pi-aii-ial 1 Messidor 1 Thermidor 1 fructidor Oct. 22, 23. 24. „ Nov. 21, 22, 23. „ Dec. 21, 22, 23. „ Jan. 20, 21, 22. „ Feb. 19, 20, 21. „ Maich 21, 22, 23. „ Api-il 20, 21. 22. „ May 20, 21, 22. „ June 19, 20, 21. „ July 19, 20, 21. „ Aug. 18, 19, 20. " But when the Gregorian year is leap-year, the beginnings of the months are as follows, according as the Eepublican year begins on Sept. 22, 23, or 24 :— " 1 Vendfimiaire is Sept. 22, 23, 24 1 Bmmaii-e „ Oct. 22, 23. 24 1 Frimaire „ Nov. 21, 23. 1 2Slivo8e „ Deo, 21, 22. 23. 1 Pluviase „ Jan. 20, 21, 22. 1 VentSse „ Feb. 19, 20, 21. 1 Germinal „ March. 20, 21, 22. 1 Flor6al « April 19, 20, 21. 168 CAL 1 Prairial is May 19, 20, 21. 1 Messidor „ June 18, 19, 20. 1 Thermidor „ July 18, 19, 20. 1 Fi-uctidor „ Aug. 17, IS, 19. " For instance, what is 14 Floreal, An XII. ? The Repubhcan year begins Sept. 24, 1803, so Floreal falls in 1804, which is Gregorian leap-year. Look at the third table ; and, when the year begins Sept. 24, the 1st Floreal is April 21 ; consequently, the 14th is May 4, 1804." Brady (Clavis Calendaria, i. 38) quotes the following sum- mary of the revolutionary calendar : — " Autumn — ^wheezy, sneezy, freezy. Winter— slippy, drippy, nippy. Siiring— showery, flowery, bowery. Summer— hoppy, cioppy, poppy." Calends, in the Roman calendar, the first day of the month. Nicolas says the term in the Middle Ages was sometimes used for the first day of the preceding month, on which the calends of the ensuing month began to be reckoned. Calico, so called from Cahcut, a city of India, has been manufactured in Hindostan from time immemorial. The first importa- tion was made by the East-India Company in 1631, and the pi-inting was commenced in London in 1676. In 1768 this branch of in- dustry was introduced into Lancashire. In consequence of the hostihty of the Spital- fields silk-weavers, the importation of Indian cahcoes was prohibited in 1700, and in 1721 it was made Olegal to wear any printed cahco whatever. In 1730, British cahco, partly made of hnen, was permitted under a heavy duty, and it was not till 1774 that cloth entirely of cotton was sanctioned. By 1 Will. IV. c. 17 (March 15, 1831), all laws restricting cahco-printing were finally re- pealed, and the manufacture has since rapidly increased. Calicut (Hindostan) was the first port in India reached by Vasco de Gama, in 14Q8. The Portuguese attacked and burnt Cahcut in 1510. They were repulsed, but afterwards obtained permission to erect a factory in 1513. The Enghsh East-India Company es- tabhshed their factory in 1616. Hyder AH seized the town in 1766, and compelled the inhabitants to remove to NeUaru, afterwards called Furruckabad. The Enghsh took Cahcut Feb. 12, 1782; Tippoo obtamed possession in 1789, and completely destroyed the town. The country was finally ceded to the British in 1792, and the people returned and rebuilt the town. CALiFOEiriA(N. America) was discoveredby Grixalva in 1534, and visited in 1537 by Cortes. Its coasts were explored by CabriUo in 1542 ; but no Exiropean settlement was formed till a subsequent period. It is now divided into Lower and Upper California; the former had been previously caUed Old and the latter New California. Sir Francis Drake landed near the site of the present San Francisco in June, 1579. In the account of the proceed- ings of the expedition in this part of America, CAL it is stated, "There is no part of earth here tojbe taken up, wherein there is not special likelihood of gold or silver." Capt. George [ Shelvocke, who visited CaUfornia in 1719, declared that gold dust was promiscuously and universally mingled with the common earth, and he brought away some of the earth for the purpose of making further investigations. This was, however, lost in China, and the actual discovery of the gold was reserved for the 19th century. A.D. 1578. 1829. 1831. 1840. 1846. Sir Francis Drake takes possession, in be- half of Queen Elizabeth, of the northern part of California, calling it New Albion. The Spanish Jesnits establish the first E\u-opean settlements in California. The Spanish Jesuits are succeeded by the Franciscans. Revolution, by which California is separated from Spain. Eevolt among the Califomians and Indians at Monterey. Don Manuel Victoria becomes Governor, and occasions an insurrection by his tyranny. The Mexican government seizes all the mis- sionary stations of the Spanish priests, and declares them public property. Nov. Overtlu-ow of the Mexican dominion in California. All foreigners are expelled from California. California is occupied by the aa-my of the United States. Gold discovered on the Sacramento river in September. Upper California ceded to the United States by treaty, Feb. 2. California admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. Caligeapht. — ^Varro, who died B.C. 28, is commended by Cicero for the elegance with which he adorned his manuscripts, and Seneca, a.d. 65, speaks of books ornamented with figures. The great Charlemagne (800 — 813) was a munificent patron of professors of cahgraphy, as was also the emperor Basil (867—886). About 1150, great progress began to be made in the art, and Charles V. of France (1364 — 1379) granted special pro- tection to caligraphic painting in France and Flanders. Calippic Peeiod. — Calippus of Cyzicus, said to have been a disciple of Plato, lived about B.C. 330. He discovered and corrected the error of the Metonic cycle, which was composed of 235 lunations, or periods from new moon to new moon, containing a few hours more than nineteen years. Calippus observed that a more correct period might be formed by taking four times the period of Meton, all but one day, or 27,759 days, very nearly 76 years. The CaKppic cycle is therefore four Metonic cycles all but one day. The first dated from July, B.C. 330, and corresponded with the 3rd year of the 112th Olympiad, and to A.u.c. 423. Calixtines. — In 1420 a schism broke out amongst the Hussites, and they separated into two factions, the Cahxtines and the Taborites. The former derived their name CAL from the circumstance that they insisted on the use of the cup {calyx, the Greek word) in the Eucharist. The difference between the Cahxtines and the Roman Catholics was very slight, and they were reconciled to the Pope in 1433. In 1458 they persecuted the original Hussites, whom they expelled from Bohemia in 1467. Also a Lutheran sect, the followers of George CaHxtus of Sleswick, who flourished 1586 — 1656, and endeavoured to unite the various branches of the Romish, Lutheran, and Reformed churches. He was assailed by Buscher in 1639, and other Lu- theran divines. Cali titga. — The Hindoo sera of the Deluge. Hales remarks, " Though the date of the Astronomical aera Cali yuga be invariably fixed to E. c. 3102, the Historical sera of that name fluctuates considerably. B.C. "The Bhagavat leckona it 1913 The Vishnu, Purana 1905 Other Puranas 1«70 The followers of Jina 1078. " Caliao (Peru), the port of Lima, from which it is seven iniles distant, was founded during the reign of Phihp IV. (1621—1665). In 1746, the original town was destroyed by an earthquake and covered by the sea. It surrendered Sept. 22, 1821, during the Peru- vian war of independence. In the struggle between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, CaUao capitiilated, after a siege of two years' dura- tion, Jan. 23, 1826. Severe shocks of an earthquake were felt here ia the middle of Aprfl, 1860. Callikghue (Hindostan). — Mahmoud of Ghuznee failed in an attempt to capture this stronghold a.d. 1024; and Sher Shah, the Aff"ghan- leader, was unsuc- cessful in an attack in 1543. The EngHsh failed in an attempt to carry it by storm Feb. 2, 1812; but the fort surrendered on the 7th. CALLiNictrM: (Battle). — The Persians defeated Belisarius near this smaU town on the Persian frontier, Easter Sunday, April 20, 531 a.d. Calmae (Sweden). — The celebrated treaty known as the " Union of Calmar," by which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united into one kingdom, under Queen Margaret, was concluded here in June, 1397. The Union was finally dissolved by Gustavus Vasa, in 1523. A large portion of the town was destroyed by a fire, which broke out Oct. 18, 1765, and raged till the 21st. Calmucks. — This name was given to one of the three principal Tartar divisions by the Mohammedan Mongols. Expelled from China in 1672, they settled on the banks of the Volga. Repeatedly invited to return, the great transmigration of these hordes conmienced in Jan. 1771, when above 300,000 set out for their original seat in China. By the end of May they crossed the Torgan, after a inarch in which they endured such CAL terrible hardships, that 250,000 of their number perished in its progress. In June they were compelled to resume their joiir- ney, by an army of Bashkirs ; and on the 8th of September they arrived in China, where they were permitted to enjoy rest and prosperity after their adversities. Calomel (Chloride of Mercury) seems to have been prepared by the alchemists; but the original discoverer is unknown. Croillus, writing at the beginning of the 17th century, speaks of its preparation as a great mystery. Beguin made the process public in 1608. Calvaet (Jerusalem), the place where Christ was crucified, Friday, April 5, a.d. 30. Clinton gives the year 29, Hales 31, and other authorities 38, as the date of the passion. In Hebrew, the place where the Saviour suffered is called Golgotha, the place of askuU (Matt, xxvii. 33 ; Mark, xv. 22 ; and John, xix. 17). In our version of St. Luke (xxiii. 33) it is called Calvary; and in the original, Cranion, of which the Latin trans- lation in the Tulgate is Calvaria. Hadrian placed statues of Jupiter and Venus on this mount, A.D. 131. {See Holt Places.) Calves' -HEAD Club. — In a tract entitled " The Whigs Unmasked : being the Secret History of the Calves' -head Club, during the Kise and Progress of that infamous Society since the Grand Eebellion, &c.," of which several editions were published at the commencement of the 18th century, Milton and other members of the Common- wealth are said to have instituted this club. This account of its origin is not, however, considered authentic. Some members of such an association met at a Frencli tavern in Suffolk Street, Jan. 30, 1735, and exhibited calves' heads, on which they were feasting, at the window. They drank to the memory of the army which dethroned the king, and of the men who cut off his head on the scaffold. This led to a riot, which was suppressed by the interference of the military. Calvi (Corsica) was taken by the English under Lord Hood in 1794, after a siege of fifty-one days. Nelson was engaged in this struggle, and received a wound which de- stroyed the sight of his right eye. The English retired in 1796. Calvinism. — This name is given to the peculiar doctrines taught by John Calvin, the reformer, born at Noyon, July 10, 1509. He quitted the Eoman Catholic Church, in which he held a cure, in 1532, and published his " Christian Institutes" in 1535, at Basel, where he had taken refuge on leaving Paris in 1534. He went to Geneva in 1-536, but hav- ing advocated some unpopular views, was ex- pelled in April, 1538. The edict of banishment was cancelled in May, 1541, and in September he returned to Geneva, where he exercised absolute authority. By his influence Michael Servetus was arrested and burnt at the stake, Oct. 27, 1553. The peculiar doctrines of the Calvinists, called the five points, are — 1. particular election ; 2. particular redemp- 170 CAM tion ; 3. moral inability in a fallen staje ; 4. irresistible grace; and, 5. final persever- ance. Calvinism spread through Prance, Holland, England, Scotland, and other parts of Europe. Calvin himself died at Geneva, May 27, 1564. Various divisions have broken out amongst his followers. On the subject of predestination they are divided into the Infra-lapsarians and the Supra - lapsarians ; the former contending that God permitted, and the latter that he decreed, the fall of man. CAMALDTrLEN-SIA>'S, Or CaMALDOLITES. — An order of religious persons founded at Camaldoli, or Campo-Malduli, a desert spot on the lofty heights of the Apennines, about 30 miles from Florence, by Eomuald, an Itahan, a.d. 1023. They follow the rule of St. Benedict, and are divided into Cenobites and Eremites. One of their houses was estabhshed at Grosbois, near Paris, but they do not appear to have ever had an establish- ment in England. Camakina (Sicily). — Founded by a colony from SjT-acuse, B.C. 599. It revolted and was destroyed by the Syracusans B.C. 552. Hippocrates restored it about B.C. 495; but it was again destroyed by Gelon B.C. 485. The town was re-estabhshed soon after. It fell into the hands of the Carthaginians B.C. 406, and joined the Somans in the first Punic war. The Eoman fleet was destroyed off the coast, near Camarina, B.C. 255. Camarina afterwards declined, and no trace of it re- mains. Cambat (Hindostan), supposed to have been the capital of the Hindoo empire in Western India in the 5th century, was men- tioned by Marco Polo on his return to Europe in 1295. In 1780 the EngHsh took Cambay from the Mahrattas, to whom it was restored in 1783. Cambay has formed part of the British empire in India since 1803. Cambodia (Asia). — Ifothing is known of this country beyond the Ganges till about 1590 A.D., when the king of Cambodia implored the assistance of the governor of the Philippines against the king of Siam. Christianity was introduced by the Portu- guese Jesuits in 1624. The Siamese invaded the coimtry, in 1809, and made themselves masters of the capital; and in 1819, aU direct intercourse of foreigners with the Cochin Chinese portion of Cambodia was prohibited by the emperor of Anam. The final partition of the country between the emperor of Anam and the king of Siam took place in 1820. Cambeat (France), the ancient Camara- cum, was fortified by Charlemagne, and was long governed by bishops imder the rule of the empire. The English besieged the town in 1339 ; and in 1477 it fell into the possession of Louis XL, who restored it to Burgundy in 1478. It was captured by Charles V. in 1544. The prince of Parma besieged Cambray in 1580, but without success. In 1595 it was seized by the Spaniards. Louis XIV. re- united it to France in 1667. Daring the CAM CAM revolutionary riots of 1793, the cathedral was utterly destroyed. Cambray was twice be- sieged by the Austrians in 1793, being taken by them Sept. 10. The French were defeated here by the duke of York, AprU 24, 1794 ; and the EngHsh under Sir Charles Colville captured the town June 24, 1815. Cambray was made a bishopric in 390, an archbishopric in 1556, reduced to a bishopric in 1801, and reconstituted an archbishopric in 1841. It was in union with Arras until 1092, when a separation took place. Fenflon was made archbishop of Cambray in 1695. Councils were held herein 1064; Dec. 27, 1303; Oct. 1, 1383; and in Aug. 1565. Cambbat (League), is supposed to have been determined upon at the meeting be- tween Louis XII. and Ferdinand and Isa- bella of Spain, at Savona, June 28 to July 3, 1507. The celebrated convention was signed Dec. 10, 1508, between Louis XII. and the emperor Maximilian, the pope, Ferdinand, and other princes being invited to join. Ferdinand and Julius soon after ratified the treaty. Its objects were the humiliation of Venice, and the partition of her territories. The contracting parties advanced into Italy in order to carry out the project, and this proved the signal for a struggle, in which one member of the league was often arrayed against another, until peace was re-estab- lished in 1516. Cambkat (Peace of), known as the "Paix des Dames," because the negotiations were commenced by Margaret, duchess- dowager of Savoy, the emperor's aunt) and Louise, mother to Francis I., of France. The treaty of Madrid served as the basis for that of Cambray, signed Aug. 5, 1529. Eobertson says the chief articles were, that the emperor " should not, for the present, demand the restitution of Burgundy, reserv- ing, however, in fuU force, his rights and pretensions to that duchy; that Francis should pay 2,000,000 crowns as the ransom of his sons, and, before they were set at liberty, should restore such towns as he still held in the Milanese ; that he should resign his pretensions to the sovereignty of Flanders and of Artois ; that he should renounce all his pretensions to ISTaples, Milan, Genoa, and every other place beyond the Alps ; that he shomd immediately consummate the mar- riage concluded between him and the em- peror's sister Eleanora." CAMBEIAlf AsCHiEOLOGICAIi ASSOCIATION, for promoting the study and preservation of the antiquities of Wales, was established in 1846. Cambric, originally manufactured at Cam- bray, in Flanders, whence its name, was introduced into England by the Dutch emi- grants in 1563. In 1745, the importation of foreign cambric was prohibited ; and in 1761 the manufacture was estabhshed ^t Winchel- sea, and brought to such perfection that, in 1785, the home-made article was considered equal to the French. Cambric was also manufactured at Dundalk, in Ireland. By 7 G-eo. III. c. 43 (1767), the restrictions on the importation of cambric were reimposed ; but they were repealed 1)y the commercial treaty between England and France, signed at Versailles, Sept. 26, 1786. They were again enforced June 6, 1797. Cambridge, the Camboricum of the Eomans, and the Grantabricsir of the Saxons, is said to have been founded by a Spaniard named Cantaber, B.C. 375. In a.d. 871 and again in 1010, it was plundered and burnt by the Danes. William I. founded the castle in 1070, and fortified the town against the attacks of the Saxons. In 1088 it was seized and plundered by the rebellious barons of Wilham II. Cambridge suff'ered much during the struggles of Eang John's reign, and in 1215 the barons took the castle, which, however, was soon recovered by the king. Cambridge also suffered from the "Barons' War," in the reign of Henry III., havingbeen plundered by the insurgents, who carried away such of the inhabitants as were able to pay heavy ransom, 1266. In 1381 the town lost its charters in consequence of an attack made by the populace on the university, and from that period nothing noteworthy appears in its history tiU 1642, when it was seized by Cromwell and made "the prime garrison and rendezvous of the associated counties." The FitzwiUiam Museum was founded ia 1816 ; the Cambridge Philosophical Society was esta- blished Tiov. 15, 1819, and chartered Aug. 3, 1832. The railway from London was opened in July, 1845. Cambridge (University) by some authors is said to have been founded by Sigebert, king of East Angles, who began to reign a.d. 636 ; and to have been restored by Edward the Elder in 915. The more probable account is that given by Ingulphus, who relates that Joffrid, abbot of Croyland, in 1109, sent Gislebert and three other monks to Cam- bridge every day, where, having hired a barn, they taught the sciences, and collected a great concourse of scholars. The number had increased so much in the second year after their arrival, that no house or church was large enough to hold them. For this reason they separated into classes, and met in dif- ferent places. The first mention of the university under the title of the chancellor and masters occurs in 1231, during the reign of Henry III., who granted several charters, and contribvited greatly to the welfare of the institution. In 1381, during Wat Tyler's riots, the town of Cambridge rose in arms against the university and burnt its charters, all which were afterwards restored by Eiehard II. Pope Martin V. gave it full ecclesiastical and spiritual juris- diction over its students, in 1430, and it was incorporated by Queen Ehzabeth in 1571 (13 Ehz. c. 29) . In 1687, Feb. 9, the univer- sity refused to admit Francis, a Benedictine monk, in consequence of which the vice- chanceUor and senate rendered themselves obnoxious to James II. The present imi- versity statutes were confirmed by Queen Victoria, by an Order in Council, July 31, 1858. There are seventeen colleges at Cam- 171 CAM bridge, which, with the date of their founda- tion, are as follows : — Name of College. St. Peter's College Clare College Pembroke College Gonville and 1 Caius College J Corpus Christl "| College J King's College Queen's College . . St. Catherine's ") College J Jesus College . . . . Christ's College . . St. John's College Magdalene CoUege Trinity College . . Emmanuel Col- 1 lege J Sidney Sussex "I Colleide / Downing College 1257 1326 1347 1350 1352 1473 1496 1511 1519 1546 1584 By whom Founded. Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely. Lady Elizabeth, sister of GUbe 1 1, earl of Clare. The widow of Aymer de Valence, earl of Pem- broke. imund Gonville. En- larged in 1557, by John Caius, M.D. Wil 1 iam Bateman, bishop of Norwich. Two "Gmlds" in Cam- bridge. King Henry VI. Margaret of Anjou. Ke- founded, 1465, by Eliza- beth Woodville. Eobert Wodelarke, D.D. John Alcock, bishop of Ely. Margaret, countess of Kiehmond. Originally established by Henry VI. , under the name of " God's House," in 1442. Margaret, countess of Richmond. Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden. Henry VIU. Sir Walter Mildmay. Lady Frances Sydney, countess of Sussex. Sir George Downing. Cambeidge (United States) was first settled in 1631, under the name of Newtown. Harvard University, the oldest institution of the kind in the United States, was founded jn 1638. The Synod of Cambridge met in 1646, and was dissolved in 1648, after adopting the system of church discipline known as the " Cambridge Platform," which formed the rehgious constitution of the New England states. Cambuskeis-h-eth (Battle).— Wallace de- feated John de Warrenne, earl of Surrey, guardian of Scotland, at this place, near Stirling, Sept. 10, 1297. Camden- (Battles) .—The first was fought at the village of Camden, in South Carolina, Aug. 16, 1780, between the Americans under G-eneral Gates, and the British under Lord Cornwallis. The former were completely routed, with a loss of 1,000 killed and wounded and as many prisoners, the English having only 20 killed and about 200 wounded. The second battle, at the same place, was fought April 25, 1781. The Americans, commanded by General Greene, were defeated. Lord Kawdon, the Enghsh commander, evacuated Camden the 13th of May following. This is ' At Cambridge, colleges aaid halls are synonymous. 172 CAM sometimes called the battle of Hobkirk's HiU. Camden Society, for the publication of documents illustrative of English history, was established in 1838. It takes its name from the celebrated WiUiam Camden, author of the " Britannia " and historian of Queen Ehzabeth. Camel. — This machine for raising ships, in order to enable them to pass over shallows, was invented about the year 1688, by a Dutchman named Meuvis Meiudertzoon Bakker, of Amsterdam. Camel (Battle). — Fought under the walls of Bassorah, A.D.656, by the caliph Ali, against the Arab chieftains Telha and Zobeir, who were accompanied by Ayesha, the widow of the Prophet. She rode upon a camel : hence the name given to the battle. The rebels were defeated, and Telha and Zobeir were slain. Cameieoed (Cornwall), the scene of the famous battle between King Arthur and his rebeUious nephew Mordred, in which both leaders were mortally wounded, a.d. 542. A second battle was fought there in 823, be- tween the Britons, and the Saxons under Egbert. Camelford was incorporated by one of the Cornish earls, and sent two members to the first parliament of Edward VI., in 1547. At the passing of the Eeform Bill, in 1832, the borough was disfranchised. Cameea Lucida. — Dr. Hook invented a camera lucida, for making the image of any object appear on the wall in a light room. The modem camera lucida was invented by Dr. WoUaston in 1807. Camera Obscuea was described by Bap- tista Porta in the Magia ISTatm-alis, of which the first edition was pubhshed at Naples in 1558, and is said to have been invented by Eriar Bacon. Cameeino (Italy) was made a bishopric A.D. 252, by Pope Lucius I. In 1545 Paul III. received Camerino in exchauge for Parma and Piacenza. The statue of Sixtus V. was erected in 1587. The see was made archi- episcopalby Pius VI. in 1787, and Pius VII. added the see of Treja to this archbishopric in 1817. Napoleon I. united Camerino to the kingdom of Italy in 1807, but it was after- wards restored to the pope. CAMEEONiAifS. — The followers of Eichard Cameron, who entered Sanquhar, in Dumfries- shire, Jime 22, 1680, and made apubhe decla- ration that Charles II. had, by usurpation over civil and rehgious hberties, forfeited all right to the crown. They separated from the Presbyterians, refused the terms of accommodation proposed by Charles II., and demanded the rigorous observance of the Solemn League and Covenant received by the parliament Sept. 25, 1643. They are, on this account, frequently called Covenant- ers. Cameron was killed "in a skirmish with the Royal troops at Airdsusoss, in Kyle, July 20, 1680, and his followers were dis- persed. They pubhshed declarations against the test of 1681, on the 12th of January, 1682; against the royal authority Oct. 28, I CAM 1684, and May 28, 1685. On the 1st of Au- gust, 1743, the Cameronians formed them- selves into a presbytery called the Keformed Presbytery. A writer in "Notes and Que- ries" (2nd series, vol. v. p. 262) asserts that " the Cameronians stOl exist as a distinct sect, a small but tenacious body." Cameeonites. — Some French Calvinists, the followers of John Cameron, are thus designated. He was born at Glasgow in 1580, and in 1600 went to France, where he held professorships at Sedan and Saumur. Mosheim says that this divine and his fol- lowers "devised a method of imiting the doetrmes of the Genevans respecting the divine decrees, as expounded at Dort, with the views of those who hold that the love of God embraces the whole human race." They were also caUed Hypothetical Univer- Camisaeds, so called from the camise or smock which they often wore over their other clothes, were French Protestants, who appeared in the Cevennes early in the 18th century. Their object was the maintenance of religious Hberty, which had been sacrificed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes {q. v.). In 1703 their numbers had increased to 10,000. They maintained their ground for some time, gaining several victories, but were at length unable to resist the strong forces sent against them, and were ultimately suppressed in 1705. Camlet. — Marco Polo, whose boot of travels was circulated in 1298, speaks of camlet among the manufactured articles produeedin Thibet. This stuff is supposed to have been made en- tirely of camel's hair, and is a much coarser material than the modern camlet. A mixed stuff of wool andsilkwas used for govms inthis cotintry in the time of EHzabeth. During the Middle Ages the term camlet appears to have been applied to hair-cloth in general. Campagita (Italy),— Clement VII. erected this town of Naples into an episcopal see July 19, 1525, united it to Satriano, and made it subject to Salerno. Campagna di Koma. — This name is said to have been first applied during the Middle Ages, to the unhealthy plain in which Rome is situated. Pius VI. (1775—1799) drained a considerable portion of this plain. Campania (Italy) . — This province, in Cen- tral Italy, has been considered both in ancient and modern times as the richest plain in the world. The luxuriance and fertility of its soil, and the salubrity of its atmosphere, have been frequently celebrated in prose and verse. The first well-ascertained fact in its history is the settlement of the Greek colony of Ciunae, B.C. 1050. It afterwards fell under Etruscan rule. The Samnites captured Capua B.C. 423, and Campania was afterwards the theatre on which the Romans and the Samnites, and other nations, waged hostil- ities. A large portion of the province was conquered by the Romans B.C. 340. Pyrrhus passed through Campania B.C. 280; and some of the smaller towns declared in favour of Hannibal B.C. 216; but the Carthaginians CAM were driven out of Campania b.c. 212. This province became the favourite retreat of the wealthy Romans. The towns of Hereula- neum and Pompeii were overwhelmed by an eruptionof Vesuvius a. D. 79; but the pro- vince speedily recovered from the effects of this terrible calamity. Campania formed part of the kingdom of Naples, under the name of Terra di Lavoro, and is now included in the new kingdom of Italy. Campe (Treaty), between Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France, was concluded at this small place, between Axdi-es and Guignes, June 7, 1546. Henry was to retain Boulogiie until the debt of 2,000,000 livres due to him should be paid, and a further claim of 500,000 livres was adjusted. The emperor was included by both parties in the treaty, and Henry agreed to include Scotland, on condition that the Scotch gave him no further cause to make war upon them. Campeacht Bat (Mexico) was dis- covered in 1517 by Cordova. The Spaniards founded the town of Campeachy in 1540. It was taken by the Enghshin 1659, who formed a settlement of logwood-cutters about the year 1667; it was again taken in 1678 by the pirate Louis Scott, and by the bucaneers in 1685. CAMPEiif (Battle).— The hereditary Prince of Brunswick was repulsed in an attack upon the French at the convent of Campen, on the Lower Rhine, Oct. 15, 1760. Campeedown (Sea-fight) . — Fought off the Dutch coast, near the village of Camperdown, Oct. 11, 1797, between the Dutch and Enghsh fleets commanded by Admirals De Winter and Duncan, in which the latter gained a complete victory, taking or destroying eleven of the enemy's ships. For his valour and address in this engagement. Admiral Duncan was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Duncan of Camperdown, on the 21st of October in the same year. Camphoe has been long known in the East, although the Greeks and Romans were unacquainted with it. The date of its intro- duction into Europe by the Arabians is not known. iEtius, who Mved at the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century, is the first author who names it, and it is also mentioned by Paracelsus (1493 — 1541). The results of the first correct experiments on the properties of camphor were pubhshed by Neumann in 1725. Campillo (Battle).— The French, under General Molitor, defeated the Spaniards under De BaUesteros, at CampiUo de Ai'enas, in SeviUe, July 28, 1823. Campo-Foemio (Treaty). — The prelimi- naries of this treaty between Austria and the French republic were signed at the castle of Eckenwald, near Leobeu, in Styria, April 18, 1797, and the treaty itself was concluded at Campo-Formio, in Italy, Oct. 17, 1797. The emperor surrendered the Austrian Nether- lands, the Ionian Islands, extensive terri- tories in Italy, receiving Venice and some other places in return. He acknowledged the independence of the Cisalpine republic, 173 CAM and acquiesced in tlie incorporation with it of tlie duchies of Modena and Mantua, Massa, Carrara, Bergamo, Brescia, Bologna, Ferrara, and Eomagna. This treaty, most humiliating for Germany, consisted of twenty -five articles, to which fourteen secret articles were attached, invohdng further sacrifices on the part of the emperor. The twentieth article provided that a congress should assemble at Eadstadt vrithin one month after the conclusion of the treaty, or sooner if possible. It was to be composed solely of the plenipotentiaries of the Grerman empire and of the French repubhc, and its object was to conclude a pacification between these powers. Campo Malo (Battle) .—Fought, in 1036, between the bishop of Milan and his rebel- lious vassals, who were aided by numerous auxiliaries. It termiuated ia favour of the latter. Camtoka (Battle). — Constantine defeated the Goths and the Sarmatians, their aUies, at this place, in Italy, a.d. 322. Canaan (Asia) . — This portion of Palestrae was named after Canaan, one of the sons of Ham (Gen. x. 6, 15 — 19). Abram, at the command of God (Gen. xii.), went forth into the land of Canaan B.C. 1921, (_See Palestine.) Canada (North America). — This portion of the New World was visited by the Scandi- navians in the 12th and 13th centuries. John and Sebastian Cabot discovered Canada ia June, 1497 ; but no permanent settlement was formed here until the French arrived in the next century. According to a Castilian tradition, the Spaniards visited this country before the French, and finding neither gold nor riches of any description, exclaimed " Aca Nada! " — " Here is nothing," — ia the presence of the natives. Hence the name Canada. Another account is, that the Spaniards named the coimtry "El Capo di Nada," or " Cape Nothing." Charlevoix's derivation of the term is, however, generally received. He says that Canndda, signifying ia the Iroquois language a number of huts, or a village, was apphed by the inhabitants to the first settlements made by the French, and the entire proviace afterwards received this desiguation. The French called it New France. A.D. 1497. June 24. John and Sebastian Cabot discover Canada. 1500. The Portuguese mariner Cortereal visits Canada, and is said to have discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1517. June 11. Sir Thomas Pert's expedition, -which is accompanied by Sebastian Cabot, enters Hudson's Bay, but does not explore it, owing to the timidity of the commander. 1524. Francis T. despatches an expedition, under Verazzano, who takes possession of the N.E. coasts of N. America, which he calls New Fi'ance. 1535. Jacques Cai-tier ascends the St. Lawrence as far as the present site of Montreal, and carries several of the natives, with their chief, to France. 1540. The French erect the fort of Charlesboxu-g. 1549. K'>berval sails for Canada, and is lost. 174 CAN 1581. The French again trade to Canada. 1591. A French fleet sails to Canada. 1598. Hemy TV. of France commissions the mar- quis de la Eoche to conquer Canada ; but the undertaking proves a failure. 1608. Julys (N.S. 13). Quebec fouuded by Champlain. 1627. Richelieu intrusts the government of tLe colony to the " Company of a Hundred Associates." 1629. Quebec taken by the EngUsh. 1632. March 17. Quebec and all Canada restored to France by th^ treaty of St. Germains. 1648-49. The colony suffers much from the incur- sions of the Iroquois Indians. 1663. Louis XIV. erects Canada into a royal govern- ment, with the laws and usages of PVaiicK. 1665. Canada is granted to the French West-India Company. 1667. Peace is made with the Indians. 1690. Sir William Phipps is despatched from New England to conquer Canada. He readies Quebec Oct. 16, and re-embai'ks, without effecting any conquests, Oct. 22. 1711. The British American colonies send another fleet to conquer Canada, but it is wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, Aug. 22. 1713. April 11. The peace of Utrecht restores tran- quillity to Canada. 1746. Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, projects the conquest of Canada, but ouly carries his arms into Nova Scotia. 1755. The English again attack Canada. 1759. Battle of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe, Sept. 13. The town sun-enders to the British Sept. 18. 1760. Entti-e reduction of Canada by the British. 1763. Feb. 10. Canada ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris. 1765. Canada submits to the Stamp Act. 1774. Legislative council of twenty-three members appointed. 1775. The American forces invade Canada, and land at St. John's, Sept. 10. General Montgomery takes St. John's, Nov. 3 ; Monti-eal, Nov 12 ; and, in company with Arnold, assaults Quebec Dec. 31. He is killed in the action, and the Americans surrender to General Carleton. 1770. June 18. The Americans evacuate Canada. 1791. March 4. Pitt proposes the Quebec Bill, by which Canada is divided into the Upper and Lower provinces, and receives a repre- sentative constitution (SI Geo. III. c. 31). 1792. The first Hoxise of Assembly is opened by Lieutenant-Governor Clarke. 1793. Canada is erected into a bishopric. 1812. The Americans, under General Hull, invade Canada, but are compelled to surrender Aug. 15. A second army, under General WjwJsworth, also capitulates Oct. 14 ; and a third, under Van Rensselaer, Nov. 27. 1813. The Americans take York (Toronto), April 27 ; Fort George, May 27 ; they repel the British at Sacket's Harbour, May 29 ; and are de- feated at Stony Creek, June 6. Indecisive battle of Williamsburg, Nov. 11. 1814. The Americans gain the battle of Longwood March 4 ; take Fort Erie July 3 ; and gain the battle of Chippewa July 5. Inde- cisive battle of Bridgewater July 25. Peace signed at Ghent Dec. 24. 1828. 87,000 Canadians petition the king against the manner in which the governors had applied the revenues. 1836. Sept. 22. The Houses of Assembly refuse to vote supplies. 1837. The " Sons of Liberty," under Papineau, rise in rebellion at Montreal. They are de- feated in an attempt to seize Toronto, Dec. 4 ; and again at St. Eustace, Dec. 14. 1838. Jan. 15. Resignation of Sii- Fiancis Head. He is succeeded by Lord Durham, who arrives at Quebec May 29. 1841. Feb. 10. Upper and Lower Canada united into one proviuce. AD. isa. 1856. 1858. CAN" The seat of government is transferred from Kingston to Torouto. April 25. Disturbances in Canada, owing to the KebelUon Losses Indemnity Bill. The insurgents burn the parliament house at Montreal. May 9. By 16 Vict. c. 21, the legislature is empowered to make provision concerning the lands known as Clergy Reserves, and their proceeds. Sept. Extensive immigration from the north of Scotland. March 12. An accident on the Hamilton Kailway. Seventy people killed. April 17. Quebec is made the seat of government. Ottawa made the capital. The Prince of Wales visits Canada. Aug. 18. He is received with great enthusiasm at Quebec. Sept. 20. He leaves for the United States. Canals. — Canals were made in Egypt as early as 1350 b.c. They existed in England previous to the Conquest, 1066; and the junction of the Trent and Witham was re- paired 1121. The Great Canal of China was commenced 1278. The canal of Languedoc was completed in 1680; and that from Amsterdam to Mewdiep in 1825. Locks were used in the ancient canals of Upper Egypt, and were introduced into England from Elanders in 1652. The following are some of the principal canals of Great Bri- tain : — A.l>. Aberdeenshire, opened June, 1805 Arie and Calder Navigation April, 1778 Bamsley June 8, 1799 Birmingham 1774 Bii-mingham and Fazeley July 12, 1790 Birmingham and Liverpool Junction 1834 Birmingham and Walsall June, 1799 BirmiJigham and Wednesbury Nov. 1769 Bradford 1774 Bridgewater July 17, 1761 Caledonian Oct. 1822 Cardiff Feb. 1794 Chester and Nantwich 1780 Chesterfield 1776 Coventry July, 1790 Deame and Dove 1804 Dee River Navigation April, 1737 Derby 1794 Exeter 172.5 Forth and Clyde July 28, 1790 Grand Junction 1805 Hartlepool 1764 Hereford and Gloucester 1796 Homcastle Navigation 1802 Kennet and Avon Dec. 28, 1810 Leeds and Liverpool Oct. 1816 Leicester Feb. 1794 Leicestershire and Northamptonshire Union 1800 Leominster Nov. 1796 Newry (Ireland) 1761 Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation . . Sept. 30, 1833 Nottingham 1802 Peak Forest May 1, 18J0 Regent's 1820 Stover 1794 Swansea Oct. 1798 Tavistock 1817 Thames and Severn Nov. 19, 1789 Trent and Mersey May, 1777 Ulverstone ~. 1797 CiJTANOiiE (Hindostan). — The Portuguese had a fort at this town as early as 1505. They CAN were expeUed by the Dutch, who in 1664 sold their privileges to the native princes. It afterwards formed part of the empire of Hyder Ali. The English were repulsed in an attack upon Cananore in 1768, but it was captured by General Abercrombie in 1790. Canaea (Hindostan) . — This province was wrested from the Hindoos by Hyder Ah in 1763. On the death of his son Tippoo, in 1799, it came under the rule of the East-India Company, and has since formed part of the presidency of Bombay. It is (Hvided into North and South Canara. Caktaet Isles (N. Atlantic Ocean) are supposed to be the Hesperides, or Fortunate Islands of the ancients. Their discovery in modern times is attributed to the crew of a French vessel, who were driven to their shores by stress of weather about 1330-4. Some Spanish adventurers visited them about the year 1395, and plundered aU the populous districts, carrying off as captives the king and queen and about seventy of the inha- bitants. In 1400, the king of Castile granted the Canaries to John de Bethencourt, a Norman baron, who renewed his oath and homage for this estate to John II. in 1412. In 1483 the Spaniards commenced the con- quest of the Canaries, which have remained in their possession ever since. In 1494 most of the Guanches, the aboriginal inhabitants who had escaped slavery, war, and famine, were carried off by a terrible pestilence. In 1822 the Canary Isles were formed into a Spanish province, with the right of represen- tation in the Cortes. Ximenes extended the Inquisition to the Canaries in 1516. An episcopal see was estabhshed in the Canaries in 1404. Candahae. — {See Kattdahae.) Candia (Mediterranean), the ancient Crete, became a Eoman province B.C. 67. The capital of the island, also called Candia, was taken by a band of Spanish Arabs a.d . 823, and recovered by the Greeks under Nice- phorus Phocas in 961. The Venetians pur- chased the island Aug. 12, 1204, and took possession in 1205. In consequence of the frequent insurrections of the Candiotes, the Venetians, in 1243, divided the island into three parts; the first for the republic, the second for the Church, and the third for the colonists. Notwithstanding this, the in- habitants remained so turbulent, that it was necessary to despatch a fleet to reduce them to subjection, which was done in 1364. In 1571 the Turks made a short stay in Candia, but soon abandoned it to prosecute their conquests in other directions. They retvirned June 24, 1645, and after a siege of twenty-four years, gained possession of it in 1669. In 1830 it was ceded to the Pasha of Egypt, and again restored to Turkey in 1840. An in- surrection among the Christians of Candia, that broke out in 1841, was suppressed by the Turkish government before the end of the year. Candle (Inch of) . — At an auction by inch of candle, persons continued to bid whilst a 175 CAJJf small piece of candle continued to burn, the article being knocked down to the person who made the last offer before it was extin- guished. In excommunication by inch of candle, the sentence was not passed upon the offender if he repented before the piece of candle burnt out. Shakespeare (2 Hen. IV. ii. 4) alludes to the old custom practised by the amorous gallant, who " drinks off candles' ends for m-p-dragons." Nares remarks, that " as a feat of gallantry, to swallow a candles -end formed a more formidable and disagreeable iiap-dragon than any other substance, and therefore afforded a stronger testimony of zeal for the lady to whose health it was drunk." CAifBLEMAS Dat. — A festival held on the 2nd of February, to commemorate the puri- fication of the Virgin Mary. Bingham (b. XX. c. 8, s. 5) says, "This at first among the Greeks went by the name of Hypapante YTTaTravrff, which denotes the meeting of the Lord by Simeon in the temple, in com.- memoration of which occurrence it was first made a festival in the church ; some say in the time of Justin, the emperor ; others in the time of his successor Justinian, anno 542." A proclamation against carrj-ing candles on Candlemas was issued by Edw. VI. in 1548. Candles. — Pliny, who died a.d. 79, speaks of the invention of rush-lights, and ApuJeius, who flourished in the 2nd century, mentions candles of wax and tallow. Alfred the Great used them to measure time, 871 — ^900. Tallow candles did not come into general use till about 1300, before which time torches and oil lamps were most frequently employed. The composite candle, which does not require snuffing, was introduced in 1840. An attempt to obviate the inconvenience of snuffing was made in 1799. The patents of Gwynne, in 1840, of Wilson, in 1842, and of Tighlman, in 1854, have led to great improvements in the manufacture. A duty on candles was first imposed bv 8 Anne, c. 9, s. 1 (1709) ; it was repealed from Jan. 1, 1832, by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 19, passed in 1831. Cajtdle STICKS. — Some of the ancient utensils called by this name were lamps for burning oil. Moses was commanded to make a candelabrum with six branches, of ham- mered gold, for the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 31 & 32), B.C. 1491. The golden candlestick, which had been replaced in Solomon's temple by ten golden candelabra, was restored after the Babylonish captivity. It was taken by the Eomans on the capture of Jerusalem A.D. 70, carried ruto Africa by the Vandals under Genseric a.d. 455, and taken from them A.D. 533, by Belisarius, who removed it to Constantinople. It was afterwards transferred to Jerusalem. Cah-iculae Tear. — The Egyptians and Ethiopians began their year from the rising of the Cauicula, or Sirius, the Dog-Star; whence the term. It consisted ordanarUy of 365 days, to which another was added every fourth year. It commenced Jidy 20, 2785 B.C. 176 CAJS- Canx^ (Battle), between the Eomans under Varro, and the Carthaginians under Hannibal, in which the former suffered a total defeat, was fought Aug 2, b.c. 216. The Eoman infantry was cut to pieces ; only 3,000 out of 70,000 men escaped. Cawu-ing ADMiifisTEATiON. — The earl of Liverpool having been incapacitated from continuing at the head of affairs by a paralytic stroke, with which he was seized Feb. 17, 1827, George IV. applied to Mr. Canning, then secretary of state for foreign affairs, and after protracted negotiations, he re- ceived formal instructions from the king to form a ministry, April 10. During the 11th and 12th, the duke of Wellington, Lord Westmoreland, Lord Eldon, Lord Bexley, Earl Bathurst, and Mr. Peel resigned. The king, however, persevered, and Mr. Canning kissed hands April 12. Other resignations followed. The new ministry was composed as foUows : — First Lord of the Trea- ) sury and Chancellor of >Rt. Hon. 6. Canning. the Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhurst. Pi-esident of the Coimcil . . Earl of Harrowby. Privy Seal Duke of Portland. Home Secretary Bt. Hon. W. S. Bourne. Foreign Secretary Viscount Dudley. Colonial Secretary Viscount Groderich. Board of Control ilt. Hon. C. W. Wynn. Board of Trade Et. Hon. W. Huskisson. Chancellor of the Duchy \, -d^^i^-^ of Lancaster ^^""^ ^e±iey. Secretary at War Lord Palmerston. Without office Marquis of iiansdowne. Lord Carlisle was gazetted privy seal, July 16, 1827, in place of the duke of Portland, who retained a seat in the cabinet ; and the mar- quis of Lansdowne home secretary in place of Et. Hon. W. S. Bourne, who became first commissioner of woods and forests, retaining his seat in the cabinet. A reconstruction of this ministry occurred after the death of the Et. Hon. G. Canniag, which took place Aug. 8, 1827. {See Godeeich Administeation-.) CANifOir have been long known to the Chinese, whose books mention them as early as 618 B.C. Guns to throw stones of 12 lb. weight a distance of 300 paces were con- structed A.D. 757, and at the siege of Cai- fong-fou, LQ 1232, round stone shot were used to defend the town. No credible record of the employment of cannon in Europe exists previous to 1118, when they were used by the Moors at the siege of Saragossa, and also at the defence of Niebla in 1157, and in 1312 they appear to have been used to throw shells into Baza. We also know that there was a cannon in the arsenal of Bamberg in 1323. The earliest document yet discovered relative to the employment of cannon for siege and defence, is among the ordinances ot' Flo- rence for 1326, where metal cannon are appointed to be made for the defence of the forts and lands of Florence, and for the injury of her enemies. The first French mention of cannon is dated July 2, 1338, and provides ammunition for the attack on South- ampton, and there are also documents of October and December, 1339, which prove that Cambray was defended with artillery during its siege by the Enghsh. Froissart speaks of cannon used by the inhabitants of Quesnoy against the duke of Normandy in 1340. In September, 1346, a cannon with a square bore was fired at Bruges ; but as a man was killed in the experiment, it was not repeated. The employment of artillery by the English at Cressy, in 1346, is doubtful, but it was certainly used at the siege of Calais, in 1347. In 1366 the Venetians first used cannon at the siege of Chioggia. In 1378 Kichard II. attacked St. Malo with 400 cannon, which failed to make a breach, though fired night and day. The first authentic date of the use of field-guns is 1382, when they were employed by the men of Ghent against the inhabitants of Bruges. The Turks first used cannon in 1394, at the siege of Constantinople. The use of artUlery is mentioned at the siege of Bourges, Etampes, and Melun, in 1420; of Meaux, in 1422; Orleans, 1428; Zurich, 1444; and again at Constantinople, 1453. Mohammed II. estab- lished a foundry at Hadrianople in 1452, where a piece of brass ordnance of incredible mag- nitude was cast expressly for the siege of Constantinople. Gibbon says its bore mea- sured twelve palms, and that the stone bullet weighed 600 lb. ; according to another authority, the bullet was double that weight. This gun burst during the siege. Von Ham- mer declared that he had seen the great cannon of the Dardanelles, and that it fur- nished a hiding-place for a tailor who had run away from his creditors. Horse artillery was introduced by Charles VIII. of France, about the year 1489. The invention of brass cannon is attributed to John Owen, in 1535. Iron cannon were first cast in England in 1547. Cawnoitgate Maeeiages. — In the middle of the 18th century, couples were married at public-houses in the Cannongate, Edin- burgh, by unauthorized persons. Hence the term by which such marriages were known. Canonization. — Mihnan (Lat. Chris- tianity, book xiv. ch. 2) remarks, " Canon- ization has been distributed into three periods. Down to the 10th century the saint was exalted by the popular voice, the suffrage of the people with the bishop. In the intermediate period the sanction of the pope was required, but the bishops retained their right of initiation. Alexander III. seized into the hands of the pope alone this great and abused prerogative." The first recorded canonization by the pope is that of Ulric, bishop of Augsburg, who received the titleofsaintfrom JohnXV.,A.D. 995. In 1176, during the supremacy of Alexander III., the privilege of adding to the calendar of saints was vested in the pope alone. Canon Law is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions, decisions, and rules for the regvdation of the Eoman Cathohc Church. It consists principally of ordinances of provincial 177 CAN and general councils, the decretals, bulls, and epistles of the papacy. The earhest of these rules (canones) are the Apostohcal Canons (q.v.). Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman monk, compiled a " Codex Canonum," a.d. 520, and the canons of the four councils of Mee, Con- stantinople, Ej^hesus, and Chalcedon, received the sanctionof Justinian A.D. 545. The Codex Canonum, vnth the Capitularies of Charle- magne, and the decrees of the popes from Siricius, A.D. 398, toAnastatius IV., a.d. 1154, formed the chief part of the canon law down to the 12th century. In 1114 Ivo, bishop of Chartres, collected the decrees made by the popes and cardinals, and this work was com- pleted by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, and pubhshed in 1140. Raimundus, chaplain to Gregory IX., pubhshed in 1234 the decretals, which were rescripts or letters of the popes, in answer to questions on ecclesiastical mat- ters submitted to them. The work consisted of five books, to which Boniface VIII. added a sixth in 1298. Clement V. added what were called the Clementines inl308,and John XXII. the Extravagants in 1317. To these have since been added some decrees by later popes, and the whole form what is now known as the " Corpus Juris Canonici," or the great body of the canon law received by the Church of Eome. The primary object of this system vras to estabhsh the supremacy of ecclesias- tical authority. It was not received in Eng- land, though attempts at its introduction were made at various times. The legatine and provincial constitutions formed, however, a kind of national canon law, adapted to the Enghsh church. The former were made in national councils held in England by Otho, legate of Gregory IX., in 1220 ; andby Otho- bon, legate of Clement IV., in 1268. These were edited, with a gloss, by John of Athona, canon of Lincoln, about 1290. The provincial constitutions were made in convocation of the clergy of the province of Canterbury, commencing under Stephen Langton, in the reign of Henry III., and ending under Henry Chicheley, in the reign of Henry V. They were collected, and edited with a gloss, by WUham Lyndwood, official of the court of Can- terbury, and afterwards bishop of St. David's ; and were received by the province of York, in convocation, in 1463. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1553), it was enacted that these canons should be reviewed by the king and certain commissioners to be appointed under the act, and that imtil such review was made, aU canons, constitutions, ordinances, and synods provincial, being then already made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the kiiig's prerogative, should remain in force. This act, repealed by 1 Phil. & Mary, c. 8 (1553), was revived by 1 Ehz. c. 1, s. 10 (1559). By 27 Hen. VIIL c. 15 (1535), power was given to the king to ap- point thirty-two commissioners under the act of 1533. Divers urgent matters inter- fered to prevent the exercise of the power, and by 35 Hen. VIIL c. 16 (1544), power was given to the king to nominate them during his life. A commission was duly appointed, CAN but tlie death of the Idng prevented the com- pletion of the work. In the reign of his successor, Craniner renewed his efforts to obtain a satisfactory settlement of the ques- tion. By 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 11 (1549), another commission was ordered, and eight persons were appointed to prepare the materials for the larger commission. They were engaged on the work in 1552, and concluded their labours during the year. Various matters interfered to delay the ratification and estab- lishnient of the new code of ecclesiastical laws, and after the death of Edward VI., it was almost entirely neglected. The manuscript containing this code of laws, with numerous notes and corrections in the handwriting of Cranmer, is preserved amongst the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum. From this draught Archbishop Parker probably pre- pared the code published in 1571, under the title of " Eeformatio Legimi Ecclesiasti- carum." It was repubhshed in 1640. The Eev. E. CardweU has published several edi- tions of this remarkable work. Canojt of Sceiptuee consists of those books which are in "the rule or canon, or catalogue of boots authorized to be read in the Church," and recognized as inspired, and therefore authentic. The Church of Rome admits into the canon several books which neither the Primitive Church nor the Church of England accepts as canonical. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem in the 4th century, in spealnng of the canonical books, mentions aU those in the Enghsh Bible, except the book of Revelation. The council of Laodicea, A.B. 366, forbids any but the canonical books to be read in the Church, and gives the following Hst of them : — Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, If umbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther, four books of Kings, two of ParaUpomena or Chronicles, two of Esdras, the book of 150 Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Job, twelve Pro- phets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and epistles of Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the seven CathoHc epistles; fourteen epis- tles of St. Paul. "Where none of the apocryphal books," says Bingham, "nor the Revelation, are mentioned; which is a plain evidence that none of them were read in the churches of that district." Ezra collected the books of the Old Testament about B.C. 444; and Simon the Just, who died about B.C. 291, added the two books of the Chronicles, Ezra, ISTehemiah, Esther, and Malachi, and this closed the canon of the Old Testament. With respect to the canon of the New Testament, Townsend (The Holy Bible in Historical and Chronological Order, vol. ii. p. 439) remarks : — "As the canon of the Old Testament was completed by Simon the Just, the last of the great Sanhedrin, so it is probable the canon of the 'New Testa- ment was completed either by St. John, or that ' disciple who might be the survivor of the 120, the number of the Sanhedrin, who met at the day of Pentecost. It is not pro- bable that any of these outlived St. John, 178 who died nearly seventy years after the ascension of his Divine Master." OLD TESTAMENT. Book. Author. When composed. "^rt Genesis , Moses .... Joshua Samuel ■ . Unknown Ezi-a Unknown Ezra Nehemia,h Unknown Job D.-ivid and others .. Solomon . . IsaVah '.'.'.'. Jeremiah Ezeicier!; Daniel.... Hosea Joel Amos Obadiali .. Jonah Micah .... Nahum . . Habakkuk Zephaniah Zechariah Malachi .. Beforei451 „ 1451 „ 1451 „ 1451 » 1451 .. 1443 „ lOSO „ 1060 ,. 1060 Before 444 „ 444 Before 444 3i2 Varioiis times. Before 976 ,. 976 950-94d 758 627 About 627 595 604 784-740 877-847 790 580 825 750 713-711 650-627 627 520 520 410 50 Exodus . . 40 Deuteronomy Joshua 34 S4 Judges 21 Ruth 4 1 Samuel 31 2 Samuel 1 ICings 22 2 Kiugs 25 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles ".... Ezra 29 36 10 Esther 13 IC Job 42 Psalms 1 150 31 Ecclesiastes Song of Solomon Isaiah . 12 8 66 52 Lamentations Ezekiel 5 48 Daniel 12 Hosea Joel 14 3 9 1 Jonah 4 Micah ... 7 3 Habakkuk 3 Zephaniah 3 Haggai 2 Zechariah .. 14 Malachi ... 4 NEW TESTAMENT. Book. Author. When composed. Chap ters. Matthew Matthew.. Mark .... Liike .... John Luke ^Paul James Peter .... Johk. .!!.'! ju£..:::: John A.D. 37 or 38 60-63 63 or 64 97 or 98 63 or 64 57 or 58 56 or 57 52 or 53 61 62 or 63 62 52 52 64 65 64 62 or 63 62 or 63 61 64 65 68 or 69 Uncertain 66 96 or 97 28 Mark . . Luke John The Acts Epistle to the Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Coiinthians Galatians PhiHppians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians Pbilfimnn . Hebrews 1 Peter 1 John 2 John... 3 John Eevelation iSt Canons ( Apostolical ) . — These ancient canons are attributed by Baronius, Bellar- min, and other Eoman Catholic writers, to the apostles. Other authorities ascribe them to St. Clement, whilst some declare that they are the forgeries of some heretic in the 6th century. They are seventy-six or eighty-five in number, according to different modes of division. Canons (the Church of England). — In addition to the constitutions and canons formerly used in the Anghcan Church, and noticed in the article on Canon Law, a body of canons, 141 in number, was drawn up by Bancroft, bishop of London, accepted by Convocation in 1604, and assented to by the king. They were chiefly composed of the older canons, a few new ones being intro- duced. They never received the sanction of Parliament, and are considered by the courts of common law to be binding on the clergy only. In 1640 Convocation formed a new body of canons. The House of Commons voted them unlawful Dec. 16, and Archbishop Laud, as their author, was committed to the custody of the usher of the black rod, Dec. 18. Thirteen bishops were impeached for their share in drawing up these canons, Aug. 13, 1641. Canons (Regular and Secular) . — ^Mosheim states that this new species of priests, at first called the Lord's Brethren, and afterwards canons, was instituted by Chrodegang, bishop of Metu, in the 8th century. They formed an intermediate class between monks and regulars, and although they followed the discipHne and mode of life of monks, took no vows upon them. Canonesses were added in the 9th century. By the 11th century they had, like the other orders, become corrupted, and several efforts were made to effect re- forms. Nicholas II. was, at the council of Rome, April 13, 1059, to a certain extent successful in this object; but some communi- ties would not proceed so far in this direction as others. Hence arose the distinction be- tween regular and secular canons, the former having all things in common, whilst the latter had nothing in common but their dwelling and table. The term canon is now applied to a prebendary of a cathedral. Canons (Scottish). — Tbe book of canons for the Church of Scotland, drawn up by the Scottish bishops, was confirmed by letters patent under the great seal, May 23, 1635. It was very unpopiilar in Scotland, and was withdrawn by Charles I. Sept. 9, 1638. Canosa (Italy), the ancient Canusium, in Apulia, which is said to have been founded by the Pelasgi, submitted to the Romans B.C. 318, whereupon the Canusians renounced their aUiance vsith the Samnites, and re- mained faithful to Rome for many years. Having revolted, their city was besieged and their territory ravaged B.C. 89. During the civil war, Sylla gained a battle here B.C. 83. The modern city occupies the site of the citadel of Canusium. At a very early period of the Christian asra, it became the seat of a bishopric which was united to the arch- 179 CAJS bishopric of Bari a.d. 845. It was besieged by the French July 2, 1502. After repulsing two assaults, the Spanish garrison capitu- lated on honourable terms. Canossa (Italy). — This fortress, near Reggio, in Modena, was the scene of Henry the Fourth's humiliation to Pope Gregory VII. A.D. 1077. The pope had summoned the em- peror to appear before him at Rome to answer some charges brought against him by his subjects. Henry, in an assembly held at Worms in 1076, declared that Gregory was no longer pope. Gregory was no sooner informed of tMs, than he called a council in the Lateran, excommunicated Henry, de- prived him of the kingdoms of Germany and Italy, and released ms subjects from their allegiance. The emperor at first, bent upon resistance, was frightened by some disaffec- tion that revealed itself at home, and he crossed the Alps to submit and seek absolu- tion. Gregory VII. was at the time in the castle of Canossa, with the Countess Matilda. Henry IV. arrived at its gates in the depth of a winter of unusual severity. Three suc- cessive days he remained in an outer court, without food, in a woollen shirt and with bare head and-naked feet, and only on the fourth would Gregory admit him to his presence. Absolution was then granted. Henry's friends, disgusted at this base humiliation, deserted him, and, goaded by the insolence of Gregory, he renounced his treaty. The pope stmxmoned a council at Rome, March 7, 1080, deposed Henry IV. and elected Rodolph of Swabia in his place. The emperor summoned a council at Brixen, June 23, 1080, deposed Gregory, and elected Guibert in his stead, under the title of Clement III. Success crowned Henry's efforts in the field ; he entered Rome in 1083, after a siege of three years' duration, and was crowned by the new pope. Gregory VII. took ref ge with Roger Guiscard, at Salerno, where he died. May 25, 1085. Canteebttey (Kent), the Roman Duro- vernxim, is said by Geoffrey of Monmouth to have been founded by Hudibras, who reigned about 900 B.C. Undoubtedly it existed at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, as it is mentioned in Antonine's Itinerary, written about a.d. 320. At the com- mencement of the Heptarchy, in 455, it ranked as the chief city of Kent, and con- tinued the residence of the king till Ethelbert gave up his palace to St. Augustine and with- drew to Reculver, 597. The foundation of the cathedral is referred to the same date. Augustine became first archbishop of Can- terbury in 602. In 754 the town was nearly destroyed by fire, and in 851 it was taken by the Danes. Between 940 and 960 Archbishop Odo restored the walls and roof of the cathedral, which was, however, much damaged by the Danes, who again sacked the town in 1 Oil, putting Elphege, the archbishop, to death, on Easter Eve, March 24. In 1067 the cathedral was burnt down., and the work of restoration was reserved for Archbishop Lanfranc (1070—1093) and his successors, by N 2 CAI? whom the new edifice was finished in 1130. The murder of Becket, which occurred on Tuesday, Dec. 29, 1170, rendered the city a resort lor pilgrims. Canterbury was repre- sented in parliament iu 1265. The city remained unpaved tUl 1477. In 1561, Queen Ehzabeth permitted the Protestant refugees from the Low Countries to worship in the undercroft of the cathedral. Cromwell passed through the town in 1651, when the cathedral was used as a stable by his troops. The hospital was founded June 9, 1791. Thom's riots at Boughton, near Canterbury, occurred May 28 to 31, 1838, and were only suppressed at the sacrifice of several Uves. Cawtekbuey (See of), was founded by Ethelbert a.d. 602, when Augustine became the first archbishop. After a long contest with York, the primacy of the archbishops of Canterbury was established at a council held in England from Easter to Pentecost, in 1072. Lanfranc, at that time archbishop, laboured diligently in order to secure this result. The archbishop is primate of all England and metropoHtan. In the following fist, the date of the appointment of each archbishop is given. Augustine quitted Eome in 596, landed in England in 597, went to France, and was consecrated by the bishop of Aries, Sunday, 'No\. 17, 597 ; returned to England in 598, received the pallium from Eome in 601, and fixed the see at Canterbury in 602. AECHBISHOPS OP CANTEEBUET. CAP A.D. Augustine 602 Lawreuce 605 Mellitus 619 Justus 624 Honoriua 631 Deusdedit, or Adeo- datus . 655 Tlieodore of Tarsus 668 Berthtuald 693 Taetwine 731 Nothelm 735 Cutlibert 741 Breogwine 759 Jaenberht 763 Ethelherd 790 Wulfi-ed 803 FleogUd 829 Ceolnoth 830 Ethelred 870 Plegemund 891 Ethelm 923 Wulfelm 928 Odo 941 Dunstan 959 Ethelgar 988 Sigeric, or Siric .... 990 Elfric 995 Elphege 1006 Lyffing, or Aelfstan 1013 Aethelnoth 1020 Eiidsige 1038 Robert 1050 Stigand 1052 LaTLfranc 1070 Anselme 1093 EadulfusdeTui-biue 1114 William de Cur- bellio 1123 Theobald 1139 Thomas Becket 1162 Eichard 1174 Baldwin 1184 180 A.D. Eeginald Fitz-Joce- line 1191 Hubert Walter 1 1 93 Stephen Langton . . 1207 Richard Weather- shead 1229 Edmund de Abben- dor, or Abingdon 1233 Boniface of Savoy 1245 Kobert Kilwarby . . 1272 John Peckham 1279 Robert Winchelsey 1294 Walter Reynolds .. 1314 Simon de Mepham 1328 John Stratford .... 1333 John de Uttord, or Offord 1348 Thomas Brad wardin 1349 Simon Mip 1349 Simon Langham . . 1366 William Wittlesey 1369 Simon Sudbury, alias Tybold .... 1375 William Courtenay 1381 Thomas Ai-undel . . 1397 Roger Walden . . 1398 Thomas Arundel (again) 1399 Hem-y Chicheley . . 1414 John Stafford .... 1443 John Kemp 1452 Thomas Bourchier 1454 John Morton 1486 Henry Deane, or Denny 1501 Wniiam Wareham 1504 Thomas Cranmer . . 1533 Reginald P. .le .... 15-56 Matthew Parker . . 1559 Ednaund Grindal . . 1.576 JohnWhitgift . .. 1.583 Richard Bancroft . . 1604 A.D. A.D. George Abbot . 1611 Matthew Hutton.. 1757 William Laud . . . . 1633 Thomas Seeker 1758 WUliam Juxon . . 1660 Hon. Frederick Gilbert Sheldon . . 1663 ComwaUis 1768 William Bancroft. . 1678 John Moore 1783 John Tmotson . . . . 1691 Charles Manners . 1695 Sutton 1805 WUliam Wake . . . 1716 WiUiamHowley .. 1828 John Potter . 1737 John Bird Sumner 1848 Thomas Herring . . 1747 Caktojn- (China) is said by native histo- rians to have been founded about B.C. 200. Its importance as the seat of foreign trade dates from about a.d. 700, when it was appointed the residence of an imperial com- missioner of customs. In 1517 the Portuguese obtained permission to trade here, and in 1634 the Enghsh made an inefiectual attempt to obtain the same privilege. The original city was destroyed in 1650, after a siege of eleven months. The East-India Company estabhshed a factory here in 1680. Canton was nearly destroyed by fire ISTov. 1, 1822, and in September, 1833, a flood did much damage to Ufe and property. The forts fired on two Enghsh ships of war, Sept. 7, 1834 ; but they were speedily silenced, and amicable relations re-estabhshed. In consequence of the opposition of the Chinese government to the opium trade. Commissioner Lin im- prisoned all the Enghsh in Canton, March 22, 1839, and kept them in confinement till May 4. Sir Hugh Gough reduced the town to subjection May 30, 1841, after a siege of eight days, and it was ransomed for six million dollars. By the treaty of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842, Canton was made one of the five ports open to British commerce. The factories, however, were burnt down soon afterwards, and the Enghsh suifered greatly until April 6, 1847, when, having threatened to bombard the town, they obtained the execution of four miirderers of their coun- trymen. The Arrow, a lorcha manned by Chinese but commanded by an Enghshman, was boarded by order of Commissioner Yeh, Oct. 8, 1856, and as compensation was refused, Sir M. Seymour seized the forts on the 24th, and bombarded the town on the 28th and 29th. An allied Enghsh and French force captured it Dec. 29, 1857, and on Jan. 5, 1858, the governor and Yeh were taken prisoners. Yeh was sent to Calcutta on the 8th. {See China.) Cap. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans usually left the head uncovered, and regarded the Phrygian cap as a mark of barbarism. The Eomans gave their slaves a cap when they made them free. Hence the origin of the cap as a symbol of hberty. According to Diodorus Siculus (b.c. 44), the aboriginal British used a conical cap, which was dis- continued during the Eoman supremacy, and resumed under the Saxons, who wore head- coveriags of felt, wool, and sldn. After the Norman conquest, skull-caps were intro- duced, and during the 14th century both sexes adopted head-dresses of most extra- ordinary forms. It is usual to refer the general use of caps to the year 1449, when CAP Charles VII. of France entered Eouen ; but the change was probably very gradual. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy ; and in the 16th and 17th centuries bank- rupts in France were compelled to wear a green cap. Cape Breton (N". America). — This island is supposed to have been discovered by Se- bastian Cabot in 1497. In 1632 it was ceded to France by the treaty of St. Germain ; but the French did not form a settlement until 1712, when they called it Isle Koy ale . Th ey fortified Louisbourg in 1720. In 1745 it was talc en by the Enghsh, but restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, Oct. 18, 1748. The Enghsh again took it in 1758, and it was finally ceded to them by the fourth article of the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Sidney, the capital, was founded in 1823. It forms part of the colony of Nova Scotia. Cape-Coast Castle (Africa). — This settle- ment in Guinea was estabhshed by the Por- tuguese in 1610 ; taken by the Dutch in 1643, and by the Enghsh in 1661. In 1665 it was besieged, though unsuccessfully, by the Dutch imder De Euyter. It was finally ceded to the Enghsh by the treaty of Breda, July 10, 1667. Cape Comokin (Hindostan) is first men- tioned iu the Travels of Marco Polo, pubhshed in 1298, and called by him Komari. Cape Finisteeee (Sea-fight). — Lord Anson and Admiral Warren defeated and captured a French fleet and convoy, con- sistrag of tldrty-two sail, under Admiral La Jonquiere, off this cape. May 3, l74f (O.S.). Cape Hobn (S. America) is supposed to have been sighted by Sir Francis Drake in 1578. It was first doubled by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616, and named after the birth- place of the last-mentioned. Cape op Good Hope (S. Africa) was dis- covered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1486, and first doubled by Yasco de Gama, Nov. 19, 1497. The Enghsh took possession iu 1620, but neglected to plant a settlement, and it remained abandoned by Europeans tiU colo- nized by the Dutch in 1650. Diaz named it the Stormy Cape, which the king of Portugal changed to its present appellation. {See Cape Town.) Cape St. Vincent (Sea-fights). — Sir George Eooke, with twenty-three men-of-war and the Turkey fleet under convoy, was attacked near this promontory, in Spain, by a force of 160 vessels, under Admiral Tour- vflle, June 16, 1693. The French captured or destroyed twelve Enghsh and Dutch men- of-war, and above eighty of the merchant- men. Admiral Rodney gave chase to a Spanish fleet in these waters, Jan. 16, 1780, and succeeded in capturing one 80 and five 74 - gun ships, on the 17th. Sir John Jervis, with fifteen ships of the line and a few frigates, defeated a Spanish fleet of twenty-seven men-of-war, four of which he captured, besides sinking others, Feb. 14, 1797. Capet (House of). — Hugh Capet, count CAP of Paris, seized the crown of France on the death of Louis V. a.d. 987, and founded the third dynasty of French monarchs. He was crowned at Noyon by the archbishop of Eheims, July 1, 987. Fourteen kings of this line reigned before 1328, when Philip VI. vested the power in the house of Valois. Cape Town (South Africa) was founded by the Dutch iu 1650, and remained in their possession tiU captured by the Enghsh under Admiral Elphinstone and General Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795. A Dutch squadron, sent to recapture it,was taken byElphinstone,Aug.l7, 1796. At the peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802), England restored it to the Dutch. It was again taken by Sir Home Popham and Sir David Baird, Jan. 10, 1806. It was finally ceded to England by the treaty signed at London Aug. 13, 1814. An attempt made by government in 1849 to convert the colony into a penal settlement was abandoned, owing to the opposition of the inhabitants. The constitution granted to the colony of Cape Tovm was ofticially proclaimed July 1, 1853. {See Capeib Wab.) Cape Vebde (Africa) was discovered by Dinis Fernandez, a Portuguese, iu 1446. It is beheved to have been the Pr. Arsinarium of the ancients. Cape Vebde Islands (North Atlantic Ocean) were known to the ancients as the Gorgades. Though the rediscovery is usually attributed to the Genoese navigator Antonio de Noh, sailing in the service of Portugal, in 144i9, Nuno Tristan is supposed to have dis- covered some of them two or three years earher. Pope Clement VII. erected them into a bishopric in 1532. Capitol, the fortress of ancient Eome, was founded by Tarquinius Priscus B.C. 615, completed by Tarquinius Superbus B.C. 533, and was dedicated to Jupiter by the consul Horatius B.C. 507. It was destroyed by lightning B.C. 188, by fire B.C. 83, rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated by Catullus, B.C. 69; again destroyed by fire Dec. 19, a.d. 69, and rebuilt by Domitian the same year; again burnt 80, and restored 82. During the sack of Eome by Genseric, iu June, 455, the Capi- tol was stripped of its gold ornaments and roof, and abandoned to decay. Petrarch was crowned here April 8, 1341, Gapitoline Games were instituted B.C. 387, to commemorate the preservation of the Capitol from the Gatils, and revived by the emperor Domitian, a.d. 86. Capitularies, a term derived from capi- tula, ' little chapters,' is apphed to all laws passed by the Prankish kings. Guizot enu- merates 60 of the first race, and 152 of the second. Of these, no less than 65 were passed during the reign of Charlemagne (768 — 814) . HaUam considers the last capi- tularies to be those of Carloman in 882, though two have been attributed to Charles the Simple, who died in 921. They have been pubhshed at Paris. Cappadocia (Asia Minor).— The early history of this ancient state is involved in obscurity. Pharnaces, who held it as a fief 181 CAP of the Persian empire, is said to have founded the kiagdom B.C. 744. Assassination of the Magi Smerdis by seven nobles, one of whom, Anaphas, is descended from Phamaces. Perdiccas, regent of Macedon, subdues Cap- padocia, puts to death King Aiiarathes I., and invests Enmenes vrith the govern- ment. Mithxidates III., king of Pontus, seizes Cap- padocia and Paphlagonia. Cappadocia becomes subordinate to the Se- leucidae. Seleucus Nieator is slain, and Cappadocia regains its independence. Ariarathes rV. main-ies Antiochis, daughter of Antiochus the Great. Ai-iarathes V., dethroned by Holophemes, is restored by the Romans. Ariarathes V. is slain with Crassns, in battle against Aristonicus of Mysia. Five of his sons are poisoned by their mother Laoin I. repels the Portuguese fleet which was sent to invade Castile. July. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. invades Castile, and Is proclaimed king at ! Santiago. I 190 CAS A.X>. 1387. John of Gaunt foregoes his claim to the crown of Castile, on condition that John's son, Heniy, marries his daughter Catherine. 1390. Oct. 9. Death of John I., in consequence of a fall from his horse. His infant son, Henry III., succeeds him. 1407. Accession of John 11., luider the regency of his uncle Ferdinand. 1439. Revolt of the Castilians, who demand the permanent expulsion of Don Alvaro de Luna from the court. 1469. Oct. 19. Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. 1474. Ferdinand and Isabella proclaimed sovereigns of Castile. 1479. Ferdinand becomes king of Aragon, which is thus united to Castile. SOTEEEIGNS OE CASTILE. Sancho I. the Great 1026 Ferdinand 1 1035 Sancho II 10t>5 Alfonso 1 1072 Urraca 1109 Alfonso ir. 1126 Sancho in. 1157 Alfonso in. 1158 Henry 1 1214 Ferdinand ILL 1217 Alfonso X 1252 Sancho IV 1284 Ferdinand rv 1295 Alfonso XI 1312 Peter the Cruel 13.50 Henry II 1369 John 1 1379 Henry HI 1390 John 11 1406 Henry IV 1454 Ferdinand and Isa- bella 1474 Castillejos (Africa). — General Prim, at the head of the Spanish army, defeated the Moors at this place, Jan. 1, 1860. Castillon (France). — Charles VII., of France, defeated John Talbot, earl of Shrews- bury, near this town, in Guienne, July 7, 1453. Talbot was slain in the battle, in which the French were greatly superior in point of numbers. Castillon surrendered to the French, July 16. The result was that Guienne passed out of the possession of the Enghsh. Admiral Penrose destroyed a flo- tilla at Castillon, April 6, 1814. Castle. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans erected castles very similar in appearance to ours ; and GUdas relates that the aboriginal British built very strong tail houses on the tops of hills, which were fortified for pur- poses of defence. Perhaps the oldest castle whose date is determined is the Eoman for- tress at Richborough, in Kent, which was commenced a.d. 43, and completed by Seve- rus, about the year 205. Anglo-Saxon castles consisted of a round or square tower- keep, ascended by a direct flight of steps in front; and such a one was erected at Bamborough, by Ida, king of N'orthumber- land, about 548, though they appear not to have become common till the reign of Al'red. The chief alteration introduced by the Kor- mans, was an enlargement and elaboration of the keep, which was built of prodigious strength and security. One of the most famous is that at Rochester, built by Bishop Gundulph, about 1088. Castlebae (Battle). — General Humbert, at the head of a French force of 1,150 men, defeated General Lake near this town, in Ireland, Aug. 27, 1798. The former, who had landed at KjUala Aug. 22, were after- CAT wards surrounded, and laid down their arms at Ballinamuck, Sept. 8. Catacombs, called cri/ptcB and arenaria, says Bingham, from their being digged pri- vately in the sand under ground, were the E laces used for Christian burial during the rst three centuries of our aera. The cata- combs in the Via Appia, near Home, extend for six miles under ground, and are sup- posed to have been quarries. The bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul are said to have been interred in these catacombs. They were, it is beheved, used as places of inter- ment by the pagans before they were thus employed by the Christians, who often as- sembled ia them for the celebration of divine worship. Catacombs are found in various countries. The catacombs of Egypt, explored by Belzoni in 1815-17, were found to contain vessels of various kinds, works of art, deeds, and other documents. Eomanelli discovered in a catacomb at Naples, inscrip- tions recording the ravages committed by the plague in that city a.d. 1020. The cata- combs at Paris are the quarries out of which materials were excavated for the bunding of the city. The victims of the massacres of September, 1792, were interred in these crypts, to which the remiains of human beings taken from the Paris ceme- teries, suppressed in 1784, had been removed. Several persons were lost in these labyrin- thine chambers, which, on account of their dangerous nature, are now closed to the pubhe. Catalogues op Bodes. — George Wilier, a bookseller at Augsburg, who frequented the fairs at Frankfort, first pubhshed a cata- logue of new books, with titles and size. There is a difference of opinion respecting the date of his first catalogue, some autho- rities placing it in 1554, and others in 1564. HaUam is in favour of the latter. The ear- hest known catalogue of EngUsh books for sale is one pubhshed by Andrew Maimsell, in 1595. Catalowia (Spain). — This province, form- ing part of the Eoman Tarraconensis Pro- vincia, the new name given to Hispania Citerior by Augustus, was, on the decline of the Eoman power, invaded by the Goths and the Alani, about a.d. 410, and a settlement formed by them was called Goth-Alania. The Saracens conquered it a.d. 712, and it was wrested from them by Charlemagne in 788, and included in his Spanish march. Cata- lonia was annexed to Aragon by the mar- riage of Queen PetroniUa with Eaymond Eerenger, count of Barcelona, in 1137. Phihp III. of France invaded it in 1273. A general insurrection against the Aragon dynasty broke out in Catalonia in 1461, and the inhabitants, in 1466, elected Een^ the Good, of Anjou, king. He was, however, unable to accept the proffered crown, and an accommodation was made with the king of Aragon, who swore to respect the laws and constitution of Catalonia, Dec. 22, 1472. Both Aragon and Catalonia were united with Castile by the marriage of Ferdinand CAT and Isabella, Oct. 19, 1469. Ferdinand emancipated the serfs of Catalonia in 1486, and transferred his court to this province in October, 1492. The inhabitants of Catalonia rose against the French in 1808 ; but, after a desperate struggle, it was subjugated and annexed to France in 1812. The struggle was renewed, and, with the assistance of the Enghsh, the French were expelled in 1814. Catamaean. — During the invasion panic of 1804, some projector induced Lord Mel- ville to countenance a plan for the destruc- tion of the flotilla at Boulogne, by means of catamarans. They were copper vessels of an oblong form, containing a quantity of combustibles, and so constructed as to ex- plode in a given time by means of clockwork. They were to be towed and fastened under the bottoms of the enemy's gunboats, by a small raft, rowed by one man, who, being seated up to his chin in the water, would, it was hoped, escape detection in a dark night. Fire-ships were also to be employed. Lord Keith anchored at about a league and a half from Boulogne on the 2nd of October, for the purpose of carrying out the experiment. Operations commenced at a quarter after nine the same evening, and terminated at a quarter after four on the morning of Oct. 3. No damage was, however, done to the ene- my's fleet, and their loss was only twenty- five in killed and wounded. In fact the catamaran project proved a failure. Catania (Sicily), the ancient Catana, founded about b.c. 730, by a Greek colony. The original inhabitants were expelled by Hieron of Syracuse, B.C. 476, and a colony of Syracusans and Peloponnesians intro- duced, the name of the city being changed to .ffitna. The original inhabitants were restored B.C. 461. Dionysius of Syracuse captured it, and sold the people' to slavery, B.C. 403. It submitted to the Eomans B.C. 263, and having been captured by the Goths, was vrrested from them by Behsarius, A.D. 536. This city, situated close to Mount Mtrxa,, has frequently been partially de- stroyed both in ancient and modern times. Eichard I. held a conference with Tancred at this city, 1190. The earthquake of 1693 committed the greatest havoc. Catania, however, rose from the ruins, and is con- sidered the finest city in Sicily. It was made a bishop's see at an early period, but re- mained vacant for nearly 200 years, from the close of the 9th century, about which time Catania was captured by the Saracens, from whom it was wrested by the Normans. The nave of the celebrated cathedral, constructed from the ruins of an ancient pagan temple, was completely destroyed by the earthquake of 1693. The university was founded in 1445. During the Sicihan rebeUion, it was captured by the royal troops, April 2, 1849. Cataphetgians. — The followers of Mon- tanus, who founded his new church at Pepuza, a smaJl town of Phrygia, a.d. 171 or 172. (See Montanists.) CATEAtr-CAMBEEsis (Peace). — The con- ferences for peace between England, France. 191 CAT and Spain, opened at Cambray in Oct. 1558 were brouglifto a sudden close by the death, i of Queen Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. The com- missioners, however, met again first at Cercamp, and afterwards at Cateau-Cam- bresis, in Feb. 1559, and the peace known by this name was concluded between Eng- land, France, and Spain, April 2, 1559. The French called it the Unfortunate Peace. Two treaties were signed; the one between France and Spain, and the other between England and France. By the former, the contracting parties engaged to maintain the Eoman CathoUc worship inviolate, and the conquests made by each country during the previous eight years were restored. Henry II., of France, renounced aU claims to Genoa, Corsica, and Naples. His sister Margaret was given in marriage to the duke of Savoy, vrith a dowry of 300,000 crowns ; and his daughter EUzabeth, betrothed to the Infanta Don Carlos, was given to Philip II., of Spain, with a dowry of 400,000 crowns. By the treaty with England, Henry II. engaged to restore Calais within eight years, and to give security for the payment of 500,000 crowns in case of failure ; the queen's title to Calais to remain unaifected by this payment. This was a general peace, to which all the principal powers of Europe acceded. Catechism. — Bingham (book x. ch. 1, s. 6) shows that the subjects of the ancient cate- chisms were as follows : — ^The doctrine of repentance and remission of sins ; the necessity of good works ; the nature and use of baptism ; the explanation of the several articles of the Creed ; the nature and immor- taUty of the soul ; and an account of the canonical books of Scripture. The Cate- chism of the Church of England was pub- lished in 1551 ; the Tridentine Catechism in 1566; Noel's Catechism in 1570; and James I., at the Hampton Court conferences, recom- mended additions that were adopted in 1604 ; the Catechism of the orthodox Greek Church was published in 1642 ; the Shorter Catechism, prepared by the Assembly of Divines, in 1647 ; and the Longer in 1648. Caxhaeists, or Cathaei. — This word, signifying pure, was applied to several sects in the early Church. The Apotactici and the Montanists, and especially the followers of Novatus, who separated from the Church A.D. 251, were called Cathari. The appel- lation was subsequently assumed by the descendants of the Paulicians, who appeared during the 12th century. Mosheim repre- sents these Catharists as proceeding from Bulgaria, and spreading over Europe. He says they were divided into two principal parties, the one holding two first causes, and the other but one ; and of the last-mentioned hie makes the Albigensians a branch. There is much confusion in the accounts of these sects, and it is certain that the Albigenses of Languedoc were not Catharists. Cathay. {See China.) Cathedeal. — The name given to the epi- scopal church of every diocese, because it 192 CAT contains the cathedra, or bishop's seat, was not used, in its present sense, before the 10th century, and is confined to the Western Church. Catheeine (Knights of St. Catherine of Mount Sinai). — This order of knights was instituted a.d. 1063, for the protection of pUgriras to the shrine of Catherine, saint, virgin, and martyr, who suffered at Alexandria, under Maximin, a.d. 307, and whose relics are said to have been miracu- lously conveyed to Mount Sinai, where they are preserved in a monastery. Landon (Eccles. Diet.) remarks : " She is said to have been put upon an engine made of four wheels joined together and armed with spikes, which, when the wheels were moved, were intended to lacerate her body ; but at the instant at which the machine was put into motion, her bonds were miraculously broken, and she was released, only, how- ever, to be instantly beheaded. Hence the name of Catherine-wheel." Catheeine Hall (Cambridge). — Founded in 1473. Catheeine, St. (Nuns of). — The earliest record of this order, which was originally for monks only, occurs a.d. 1188, when it is mentioned as connected with the hospital of St. Opportune. The title was changed to St. Catherine in 1222, and nuns were ad- mitted about the year 1328. In 1558 the order became exclusively one of nuns, who received a new constitution and regulations from Eustace du BeUay, bishop of Paris, about 1564. CATHEEiifE, St. (Order of), for females only, was instituted by Peter the Great, of Eussia, or, as some say, by his wife Catherine, in 1714, in memory of hia escape from the Turks in 1711. Catilike's Conspieact was formed by Lucius Sergius Catihna, a Eoman patrician, born B.C. 108. He was elected praetor B.C. 68, governor of Africa B.C. 66, and intended to offsr himself for the consulship B.C. 65 ; but the senate declared him inehgible, be- cause he was under an accusation for mis- conduct in his late African administration. Annoyed at this, he entered into a con- spiracy with P. Autronius and Cn. Piso to murder the new consuls on the day of their inauguration, the 1st of January. Piso was to be sent with an army to secure Spaia, and the other two conspirators intended to seize the consulship. Suspicion having been excited, the execution of the plan was post- poned until the 5th of February, when seve- ral senators were included in the list of proposed victims. Catiline gave the signal too soon, and the scheme miscarried, though its authors were not molested. Soon after, CatDine was brought to trial for alleged misconduct in Africa, and acquitted. In B.C. 63 he formed plans for a second revolu- tion on an extended scale. Cicero, who was consul, obtained some intimation of his pro- ceedings, and informed the senate of what he had learned. They made the usual provi- sion to avert the peril, and Catiline, who CAT was again a candidate for the consulship, was rejected. His agents took up arms in Etruria, and attempted to assassinate Cicero, who called a meeting of the senate in the temple of Jupiter Stator on the Palatine HiU, Nov. 8, B.C. 64, and denounced Cati- line, who in vain attempted to reply, and was compelled to quit Eome. CatUine left some of his associates behind, who, on a certain day, were to set fire to the city in several places, murder the magistrates and leading men, whilst Catiline was to be ready in the neighbourhood with an army to com- plete the massacre and put the finishing stroke to the revolution. By the vigilance of the authorities, the principal conspirators were arrested, Dec. 3, B.C. 64, and soon after strangled. CatQine's followers ra- pidly deserted him, and he was slam in a conflict with the army of the repubHc early in B.C. 63. Some critics question the accu- racy of the accoimt of this conspiracy given by Sallust and Cicero. Cat Island (Atlantic), St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, is the first portion of the New World on which Columbus landed in 1492. Cato-Steeet Conspieact, so called from the place, near the Edgeware Eoad, where the conspirators assembled to arrange their plans, was formed by one Arthur Thistle- wood, who had imbibed revolutionary pro- jects during a residence in France just after the fall of Kobespierre. He had collected a few associates, and on Saturday, Feb. 19, 1820, they finally resolved to murder the ministers separately in their own houses, to seize the Bank, and set fire to London in several places, on the following Wednesday. Fittding that a cabinet dinner was to be given at Lord Harrowby's, in Grosvenor Square, on the day they had fixed for carry- ing out the plot, they determined to obtain entrance by stratagem, and to murder the whole party. Information was given to government by one of the conspirators, and several of them were arrested in Cato Street, at eight on the Wednesday eveniog ; Thistlewood, the leader, escaped; taut he was taken on the following day in bed, ia a house near Finsbury Square. They were found guilty. Thistlewood and four of his feUow conspirators were executed. May 1, 1820; five were transported for life, and one was pardoned. Cattaeo (Dahnatia) . — The ancient Catta- rus was a Roman colony. The modern town was probably founded in the 6th cen- tury. It suifered from earthquakes in 1563 and 1667. Formerly the capital of a small state, it was ceded to France by the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, and was to be given up in three weeks from that date. The Austrian garrison, however, surren- dered it to the Eussians, March 4, 1806, who held it till the next year, when they gave it up to France by the treaty of Tilsit. An EngUsh squadron captured Cattaro Jan. 5, 1814, and it was ceded to Austria at the general peace of 1814-15. Catjdixe Foeks. — In the valley of Cau- 193 CAV dium, supposed to be the modem Arienzo, the Romans were completely surrounded by the Samnites, in the spring of b.c. 321. Half their number were cut to pieces on the spot, and the remainder capitulated to the Sam- nite general, C. Pontius. The treaty was, however, flagrantly violated by the Romans. The name of the pass into which the Roman army had been allured was Fv/rculcB Cau- dincB. According to Livy (b. ix. 2), it con- sisted of two narrow defiles, which opened into a plain, surrounded, excepting at these outlets, by mountains. The Romans ad- vanced through the first defile, and found the second blocked up to oppose further progress, and their vigilant enemy at once closed the one through which they had entered. Hence retreat was impossible. Cauliflowee was brought from the Le- vant to Italy about the end of the 16th cen- tury, and was introduced into Germany at the end of the 17th. Alpinus mentions that it was very plentiful in Egypt in 1588. It was introduced into England in the 17th century, and had become very plentiful towards its close. Cauesines, or the Pobe's Meechants, Italian usurers who came to England early in the 13th century. They practised the most flagrant extortion, and are denounced by Matthew Paris as " a horrible nuisance." Roger, bishop of London, expelled them from the city of London a.d. 1235. They obtained the protection of the Pope, and became numerous. To such a lieight did they carry their extortion, that, in 1251, many of them were prosecuted in the civil courts and punished. They managed, by the payment of a large siun of money, to obtain permis- sion to pursue their nefarious traflH.c, but were at length expelled. CAT7TIONAET TowNS. — In July, 1585, Queen EUzabeth accepted the protection of the Netherlands, repeatedly urged upon her by their inhabitants. She engaged to supply them with 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, for which they were to pay at the close of the struggle with Spain. As security for this repayment, Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren, were placed in Elizabeth's possession ; and these were called the Cau- tionary Towns. The Dutch only refunded a third of the sum due to England, but the Cautionary Towns were, notwithstanding, delivered to them June 14, 1616, the treaty for the purpose having been signed May 22. Cavaliees. — The apprentices of London published and circulated a petition against popery and prelates in 1641. Seditious cries having been raised, and the bishops assaulted on their way to Parhament, skirmishes between the malcontent apprentices and their followers, and many gentlemen who voluntarily offered their services to form the king's body-guard, were of almost daily occurrence. "And, from these contesta- tions," says Clarendon, " the two terms of roundhead and cavalier grew to be received in discourse, and were afterwards continued for the most succinct distiuction of affections Q CAV throughout the quarrel : they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called cavaliers; and the other of the rabble contemned and despised, under the names of roundheads." CavaI/ET. — All ancient nations appear to have used horses in warfare. The Canaan- ites, whom Joshua defeated at the waters of Merom, are said to have assembled " with horses and chariots very many," B.C. 1445 (Josh. xi. 4) . The Jews, however, possessed no cavalry tUl the time of David, who took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, a thousand chariots. David houghed all the chariot horses except sufficient for a hundred chariots, B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. viii. 4). The conquests of Alexander the Great may be attributed to his numerous cavalry ; and this arm of warfare gained for Scipio the battle of Zama, B.C. 202. Edward III. divided the Enghsh cavalry into small bodies, commanded by constables, a.d. 1324. The word troop, as appHed to a body of horse-soldiers, first appears in an army list for 1557. The cavalry force of the United Kingdom for 1859-60 amounted to 21,117 men. Cavak (Ireland). — Part of Cavan was formed into a county of Ulster in 1584, and the remainder was escheated to the crown in 1610, in consequence of the rebellion of the O'EeiLLys. The chief town, Cavan, was burned in 1690. Cawn-poee (Hindostan), the chief town of a district of the same name, was founded in the 18th century. The district belonged to Oude ia 1777, and was ceded to the East- India Company in 1801. On the breaking out of the Sepoy revolt in 1857, the Eng- lish residents of Cawnpore were placed in the greatest perQ. Their efforts to obtain reinforcements failed, and the 2nd regi- ment of native cavalry revolted June 5. Their example was speedily followed by the native infantry. The English, their wives and children, with native servants, amounting to nearly 900 persons, were besieged within a narrow intrenchment, by the rebel soldiers commanded by Nana Sahib. They defended themselves heroically against overwhelming numbers. Death, however, rapidly thinned their ranks, and, June 24, N"ana Sahib sent a message to Sir Hugh Wheeler, offering to aUow the Enghsh to proceed unmolested to Allahabad, provided they gave up the public treasure, the guns, and ammunition. A contract to this effect was signed on the followiag day, and on the 27th, the remnant of the 900 besieged at Cawnpore, embarked in boats prepared to convey them to Allaha- bad. 'No sooner, however, had they quitted the shore, than the treacherous sepoys opened fire upon them, following them along the banks in order to insure their destruc- tion. The boats were sunk, many of the men killed, and the survivors, with the women and children, carried back to Cawnpore. Other prisoners, male and female, were brought in, and all who survived were bar- barously slaughtered on the 15th of July. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib near Cawn- 194 CEL pore, July 16, and entered the town on the following day, when the horrors that had been enacted there became known. The Gwalior rebels defeated General Windham near Cawnpore, November 27 and 28, 1857. Sir Cohn Campbell soon after reached the scene of action, and completely routed the rebels, 25,000 strong, at Cawnpore, Dec. 6. Cateni^e (South America) was settled by the French a.d. 1604, and again in 1635. In 1654 the Enghsh supplanted them, and retained the colony tiU 1664. The Dutch seized it in 1676, but were compelled to restore it to the French in 1677. The British took Cayenne, Jan. 12, 1809, and reUnquished it to France at the peace of Paris, May 30, 1814. During the revolution, many persons were transported to Cayenne. Many of the insurgents who fought at the barricades in Paris, June 22—26, 1848, were also sent there ; and numerous poHtical prisoners siace that time have been transported to this colony by the French government. Cazan, or Kazan (Eussia) . — Baton, a cele- brated khan of the Golden Horde, founded this town A.D. 1265. It was taken and com- pletely destroyed, its inhabitants having been cruelly massacred, by the Eussians about 1405. The town was rebuilt by another khan of the Golden Horde in 1445. The Eussians sent several expeditions against it, and committed great ravages. Ivan captured it Oct. 2, 1552, when the town was burnt, and the dominion of the khans overthrown. Cecetphal^ (Battle). — The Athenians defeated the Corinthian and Epidaurian forces in a sea-fight off this island, B.C. 458. Celebes (Indian Archipelago).— The Por- tuguese occupied this island in the 16th century, and were followed by the Enghsh and the Dutch. The latter entered into treaties with the native rulers, and formed permanent settlements. The English wrested Celebes from the Dutch in 1811, but restored it at the general peace, and the Dutch returned in 1816. The harbour of Macassar, on the west coast, was made a free port from Jan. 1, 1847, by a decree dated Oct. 7, 1846. Celibacy. — Under the law of Moses, priests were allowed to marry, and the office was confirmed to the descendants of one particular fanuly. The vow of perpetual cehbacy, or abstinence from conjugal society, was not required of the clergy for the first three ages. " For the contrary is very evi- dent," says Bingham (Antiq. b. iv. c. 5, s. 5), "from innimierable examples of bishops and presbyters, who lived in a state of matrimony vrithout any prejudice to their ordination or fimction. It is generally agreed by ancient writers that most of the Apostles were married. Some say all of them, except St. Paul and St. John. Others say, St. Paul was married also, because he writes to his yoke-fellow, whom they interpret his wife." (Phn. iv. 3.) A life of cehbacy began to be extoUed in the 2nd century, and the with- drawal of ascetics and hermits to desert places, and the subsequent introduction of CEL monasteries, tended to bring it into repute. A proposal for compelling the clergy to abstain from aU conjugal society with their wives, was rejected by the Council of Nice A.D. 325. The Council of Gangra, about 379, anathematized Eustathius, the heretic, be- cause he taught men to separate from those presbyters that retained the wives to whom they had been married while they were laymen. Sericius, 385 — 398, was the first pope who ordered the clergy not to marry. It was not, however, until the time of Gregory VII., 1073—1085, that the system of the ceUbacy of the clergy was fuUy esta- blished. It met with much resistance, and the question was re-opened at the Coimcil of Trent, which, by the ninth canon of the twenty -fourth session, decreed that persons in holy orders, and regulars who had made a vow of chastity, were incapable of contract- ing marriage, and that such marriages are null and void (1545—1563) . Ansekn, in 1102, introduced the practice into the English church. Convocation, in 1547, passed a law allowing the English clergy to marry. Celt^, Celts, or Kelts. — Turner (Anglo- Saxons, vol. i. b. i. c. 2) says : " The tendency of the notices of the Kelts, by Herodotus, Aristotle, and Ephorus, is to show, that in their times, this people lived in the western parts of Europe, about Gaul and Spain. They are spoken of as being in the same places by later writers." About B.C. 600, they invaded Italy, and, at a subsequent period, attacked Eome itself. They invaded Greece about B.C. 280. The earliest inhabi- tants or settlers in Britain came from this stock. _ The origin and history of the Celtae have given rise to much controversy amongst learned men. Celtiberians. — The inhabitants of Celti- beria, an extensive inland division of ancient Spain, were known by this name. They are supposed to have arisen from a union of the aborigines, the Iberians, and their Celtic invaders. Various limits have been assigned to their country by ancient writers. Hannibal subdued the Celtiberians, and they after- wards passed under the Koman yoke. They revolted b.c. 181, and were subdued by Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 179. Another struggle, which commenced B.C. 153, was waged with more or less fury until B.C. 133, when the Celtiberians were again reduced to subjection. Sertorius raised his standard against SyUa, B.C. 77. The Celtiberians at first gained several advantages, but the assassination of Sertorius, B c. 72, proved fatal to their cause. The Koman authority was completely re-established, and the Celti- berians, as an independent people, do not again appear in history. Cemeteet. — Ornamental burial - grounds existed in Turkey previous to their introduc- tion into Western Europe. The JS^ational Assembly, in 1790, prohibited burial in churches, and ordered that public cemeteries should be formed. The ground for the Pere la Chaise cemetery, at that time consisting of forty-two acres, was purchased by the 195 CEP municipality of Paris, in 1800, to form the first national cemetery. It was consecrated in 1804, and the first grave was opened May 21. It has been since increased in size, and at present consists of 112 acres, sur- rounded by a wall. The Metropolitan Inter- ments Act (13 & 14 Vict. c. 52, Aug. 5, 1850) laid down some salutary regulations respect- ing the London churchyards. This measure was amended by the Interment Act (14 & 15 Vict. c. 89, Aug. 7, 1851) ; and in consequence of these salutary changes in the law, the practice of intramural interments is being gradually discontinued. BunhiU Eields was opened as a suburban burial-place in 1665. Censoes. — Two Eoman oificers of state, first appointed B.C. 443. The office was the highest in the commonwealth after the dic- tatorship, and had been exercised from an early period, first by the kings and afterwards by the consuls, until two patricians received the appointment, B.C. 443. The censors attended to numbering the people. Public morals and the finances of the state were also placed under their control. The office was filled by patricians tmtil B.C. 351, when C. Martins Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. In B.C. 131 two plebeians were appointed. The duration of office, fixed at five years, was reduced to a year and a half by the lex ^mUia, B.C. 433. The office having ceased under the emperors, was revived by Decius A.D. 251, Valerian, afterward em- peror, being unanimously appointed censor Oct. 27. Gibbon (ex.) remarks, "A censor may maintain, he can never restore, the morals of a state." Ce IT SITS. — God commanded Moses to number the Israelites (ISTumbers, i. and ii.), B.C. 1490. David was punished for having numbered Israel (2 Sam. xxiv. 1), b.c 1017. A census was taken at Athens B.C. 317, when the population was found to consist of 127,660 citizens and 400,000 slaves. The term census originated at Eome. The first census took place there B.C. 566, when the city was found to contain 84,700 citizens. Alter B.C. 432, it was held in the Campus Martius. It was generally taken every five years at Eome. The first census of Great Britain was made in 1801 ; the act of Parlia- ment ordering a census to be taken every ten years, 41 Geo. III. c. 15, having passed Dec. 31, 1800. Ireland was not included in this return, and the census for that portion of the United Kingdom was first taken in 1813. Centeal Ceiminal Cotjet. — This criminal tribunal, with authority to hear and deter- mine aU treasons, murders, felonies, and misdemeanors conmiitted in London or Middlesex, and some parts of the adjacent counties, and aU offences committed within the jurisdiction of the Admiralty of England, was estabhshed by 4 Will. IV. c. 36 (July 25, 1834) . It meets at least twelve times in the course of the year. Cephalonia (Mediterranean). — The an- cient CephaUeiiia, the largest of the Ionian Islands, became subject to Eome b.c 187. O 2 CEP On the division of the empire, it passed under the rule of the emperors of the East, and was taken by the Franks in the 13th century. The princes of Aehaia held it until 1224, when it came into the possession of the Venetians. The Turks took Cephalonia in 1479, but it was retaken in 1489 by the Vene- tians, who held it imtil the overthrow of their repubhc in 1797. By the treaty of Campo Eormio it was ceded to Erance. {See loifiAN- IsLAifBS.) Cephalonia was a bishop- ric of the early church, and was united to the see of Zante in 1621. It was ravaged by an earthquake in 1767, and was captured by an Enghsh squadron in October, 1809. Cephisus (Greece). — On the banks of this river, in Attica, Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Cata- lans, in March, 1311. The Greeks defeated the Turks with great slaughter whilst passing this river, July 5, 1823. Ceecamp (France).— At this abbey, near Cambray, the envoys from Spain, France, and England, assembled in the middle of October, 1558, for the purpose of negotiating a peace. The proceedings were suspended by the death of Queen Marj' of England, Nov. 17, and the congress afterwards re- assembled at another place. Cerdicsfoed (Battle).— At this place, supposed to be Charford, in Hants, Cerdic and Cynric defeated the Britons, a.d. 519, and began to reign in Wessex. Ceedicsohe (Battles). — The Saxons fre- quently landed at this port, supposed by some wi'iters to be Yarmouth, in the 5th and succeeding centuries. They defeated the Britons in great battles in the neigh- bourhood, A.D. 495 and a.xi. 514. Ceedonians, the followers of Cerdo or Cerdon, a Gnostic of Syria, who advocated the Persian doctrine of the two principles of good and evU. He abjured his errors at Eome, A.D. 140, but afterwards relapsed, and was expelled from the Church. TertuUian says that Marcion borrowed many of his errors from him. Ceeet (France). — The plenipotentiaries of France and Spain assembled at this town, in the Pyrenees, to settle the boundaries of their respective kingdoms in 1660. During the revolutionary war, the Spaniards seized the town, and resisted several attempts of the French to recover it (1793). Having been defeated in a battle fought here April 30, 1794, the Spaniards abandoned the position. Ceeignola (Battle). — Gonsalvo de Cor- dova, at the head of the Spanish troops, defeated the Fi-ench under the duke of Nemours, at this town, in Italy, Friday, April 28, 1503. Each army consisted of about 6,000 men, and while the Spanish loss was small, 3,000 of the French were killed. Cerinthians. — This sect was founded by Cerinthus, a Jew, who hved at the close of the apostohc age. He studied at Alexandria, and afterwards taught in Palestine. Irenseus says that he appeared a.d. 88, and that St. John wrote his gospel to refute his errors, which were a strange mixture of Judaism 196 CEY and Gnosticism. He inculcated the greatest laxity in morals. The sect was not of long duration, though the doctrines were repro- duced in an altered form. Ceeisoles (Battle). — The imperialists, commanded by the marquis of Guasto, were defeated by the French, under the count d'Enghien, at this place, in Piedmont, April 14, 1544. The French captured tents, baggage, and artillery, and 10,000 of the imperiaUsts were killed. It is also called the battle of Ceremola. Ceeiitm. — This metal was discovered by Hisiager and Berzehus, in a Swedish mineral caUed carite, in 1803. It is named after the planet Ceres. Cetjta (Africa), the ancient Septem or Septa, was taken during the campaign of Behsarius in Africa, a.d. 534, and was after- wards fortified and adorned by Justinian. The Goths captured it in 618, and the Moors in the following century. John I. of Portu- gal wrested Ceuta from the Moors in 1415, and it passed under the Spanish rule in 1580. The Africans have frequently attempted to regain possession of this fortress. Ceutla (Battle). — ^During the expedition led by Cortes for the discovery of Mexico, he defeated the Indians in the plain of Ceutla, near Tabasco, on Lady -day, March 25, 1519. The town of Santa Maria de la Vitoria was founded on the spot where the battle took place. Ceteknes (Fi-ance). — In this mountain- range and the adjoining districts, the Re- formed doctrines first took root in France. They afterwards became the arena of reh- gious warfare. The Huguenots took refuge in those retreats in times of persecution, and heroically resisted many attempts at their extermination. {See Camisaeds.) Ceylon (Indian Ocean). — This island, the ancient Taprobane, was made known to the Greeks by the conquests of Alexander the Great, e.g. 325. Pliny relates that ambas- sadors from Ceylon visited Rome and did homage to the emperor, in the reign of Clau- dius (a.d. 41 — 54). Christianity was preached in India and a church founded at Ceylon. Marco Polo, who wrote in 1298, refers to it under its name of ZeUan. He says it pro- duces many precious and costly stones, and speaks of a ruby a span in length, and the thickness of a man's arm, brilliant beyond description, and without a single flaw. It was in the possession of the king, who, being oifered the value of a city for it by the great khan, rephed, that he would not sell it for aU the treasure in the universe, nor allow it to go out of his dominions, because it was a jewel that had been handed down to him by his predecessors. Cej^on is said to have been described by the Portu- guese Thome Lopez, in 1502, but its re-dis- covery by Europeans is usually ascribed to Lorenzo de Almeida, who was driven to the port of Galle by sti'ess of weather, in 15G6. In 1517 the Portuguese obtained permission to erect a fort or factory at Colombo, where they remained in peace till 1527, when the CHA mountaineers of Kandy began to resist their encroachments. The native princes, how- ever, were so overawed by the power of the Europeans, that they assisted in suppressing the rebels, and in 1541, Franciscan mission- aries were allowed to establish themselves in the island. In 1542 the sovereign of Cotta, with many of his court, embraced Chris- tianity. In 1550, the king of Kandy pro- fessed a desire for spiritual instruction, but treacherously attacked and routed the mis- sion sent for his benefit. In 1586 Colombo was besieged by Eajah Singha, who was compelled to retire the following year. Ealph Fitch, the first Englishman who visited Ceylon, landed in Colombo, March 5, 1589. In 1592 the sovereignty of the whole island feU into the hands of Wimala Dhar- ma, who carried on war with the Portu- guese for many years. The lawful emperor of Ceylon died in May, 1597, and bequeathed his empire to the king of Portugal. The Dutch first visited Ceylon, May 30, 1602 ; in 1609 they entered into a treaty with the native rulers ; and in 1612 they built a fort at Cottiar. War followed between the Dutch and Cingalese and the Portuguese, and in August, 1630, the latter were de- feated with great slaughter. The Portu- guese were again defeated in 1638, and a pyramid of their skulls was erected by the victorious Kandyans. In 1656 hostilities broke out between the native rulers and the Dutch ; but the latter preserved their foot- ing. Trade was restored and brought to great perfection in 1664. In 1763 friendly relations were estabhshed between the Bri- tish and Kandyans ; but the intercourse was broken oflF, from the indifference of the English government. Trincomalee was taken by the British Jan. 11, 1782 ; recaptured by the French Aug. 30, 1782 ; restored to the Dutch in 1783 ; and taken by the British, after a siege of three weeks, Aug. 26, 1795. The whole island submittted Oct. 1. By a treaty signed at Colombo Feb. 15, 1796, the Dutch ceded aU their fortified stations in Ceylon to the British, who have since been rulers of the island. In 1802 war broke out between the king and the British governor, and a terrible massacre of the British took place at Kandy, June 24, 1803. No effort was made to resent this aggression until January, 1815, when war was declared, and in March the king was deposed, and his territories ceded to the English crown. Rebellion again broke out in 1817, and it was not till the end of 1818 that peace was restored. Sir Edward Barnes became go- vernor ia 1820, and under his jurisdiction a military road of stupendous magnitude was carried into the midland districts of the island. Ch^eokeia (Greece).— This town was situated on the river Cephissus, in Bceotia. There was another town at no great distance from it, named Coroneia, and battles fought in the neighbourhood of these places are sometimes mentioned under one and some- times under the other name. The Athenians CHA were defeated near Chseroneia B.C. 447, when their supremacy over Bceotia was destroyed. Philij) defeated the united Athenian and Boeotian forces near Chseroneia, Aug. 7, B.C. 338; and Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates B.C. 86. Chain Bridge. — Suspension-bridges of five parallel chains, on which a light bamboo flooring is laid, have been long used in China, though they were not introduced into Europe till 1741, when one of very primitive construction was built across the Tees, in Eng- land. Mr. Finlay commenced the erection of a bridge of this kind in America in 1796, and took out a patent for their construction in 1801. Little progress was made, however, tin 1814, when Mr. Telford commenced his experiments on the tenacity of iron. Capt. Brown patented his invention of bar-chain bridges in 1817, and completed the first structure of the kind, across the Tweed, in July 1820. The act for erecting the Menai bridge was passed in July, 1819 ; and on the 30th Jan. 1826, the bridge was opened. Chain Cable.— Caesar (Bell. Gal. ui. 13) relates, that when he was in Gaul, b.c. 57, the Veneti, who inhabited the coast of Britanny, used iron chains instead of ropes for their anchors. In 1771, M. BougaiaviDe suggested the idea of substituting iron for Hemp ; and, in 1808, Mr. Slater, a surgeon in the navy, took out a patent for a chain- cable. The chain cable was introduced into the royal navy in 1812. Chain-shot. — This invention, of two iron balls linked together by a chain eight or ten inches long, was made by John de Witt, in 1666. Chalcedon (Bithynia) was founded by a colony from Megara, B.C. 684, directly opposite Byzantium. Darius captured it B.C. 505, and it came into the possession of the Eomans B.C. 74. It was plundered by the Goths a.d. 259. Chosroes II. captured it after a long siege in 616. Chalcedon was repeatedly ravaged by the barbarians, and the Turks employed the materials of the ancient city for their mosques and other edifices in Constantinople. It was made a bishopric in the 4th century. The fom-th general council assembled at Chalcedon Oct. 8, 451, and above 500 bishops were present. Chalcis (Greece), the capital of the island of Eubcea, was, according to tradition, founded before the Trojan war, and is men- tioned by Homer. It became the seat of an Ionic colony, and flourished greatly. The Athenians landed here and defeated the Chalcidians B.C. 506; and Chalcis feU imder their yoke. The people rebelled several times, and in B.C. 411 became independent; but they were again subdued by the Athe- nians. After various vicissitudes, it passed under the rule of Macedon, and was vmsuc- cessfuUy assailed by the Eomans e.c. 207. Maximus destroyed the ancient city B.C. 146. (See Negkopont.) Chald^a (Asia) was, in its restricted sense, a province in the Babylonian empire, 197 CHA though its actual position and history can- not be ascertained. The term was often applied to the Babylonian dominion, which is called the Babylonian-Chaldsean, or the Chaldseo-Babylonian empire. {See Babx- LOJS-.) Chal&bave (Battle).— On this plain, in Oxfordshire, an encoimter occurred between the Eoyalists, commanded by Prince Eupert, and the Parhamentary forces, June 18, 1643. The latter were defeated, with a loss of 200 prisoners. In this action Hampden received a wound which caused his death, June 24. Chai,o]!«^s-suk-Maeh'e (France), the an- cient Catelauni, where Aurelian defeated Tetricus, a.d. 272 or 273 ; Jovinus overcame the Alemauni a.d. 367; and Aetius and his allies defeated AttUa and the Huns a.d. 451. Chalons was made a bishopric at an early period. Its cathedral was founded a.d. 450, and having suffered greatly from fire, was rebuilt in 1672. This place must not be con- founded with Chalons-s\ir-Sa6ue, the ancient Cabilloniun, or CabaUinum, in the depart- ment of Saone-and-Loire, France. Chalus (France). — Eichard Cceur de Lion was woxmded by an arrow March 26, 1199, whilst reconnoitring this castle, which be- longed to the viscount of Limoges, who had refused to surrender some treasure which he had found. Eichard lingered twelve days, expiring April 8. Chamberlain-.— The office of lord great chamberlain, which has existed in England from a very early periocf, was granted to the family of De Vere during the reign of Henry I. (1100—1135). Owing to the ex- tinction of the family in 1625, it became the subject of htigation, but was ultimately con- firmed to Lord WOloughby d'Eresby, ia whose fanuly it still remains. Lord Cham- berlain of the Household is mentioned as early as 1208. In 1341 it was ordered that he should swear, on his appointment, to keep the laws of the land, and the great charter; and, in 1406, he was appointed a member of the Privy Council. Chambees oe Ageicultitee, for the pro- motion of agriculture, were formed in many parts of France in 1851. Chambees oe Commeece.— The first insti- tution of this kind was formed at Marseilles early in the 15th century, and after various changes it was established on a permanent footing in 1650. A chamber of commerce was opened at Dunkirk in 1700, and during the 18th century similar institutions were established in the principal commercial towns of France. They were suppressed in 1791, restored in 1802, andhave sincebeen extended and organized. A chamber of commerce was established at Glasgow in 1783, at Edin- burgh in 1785, at Manchester in 1820, and at Hull in 1837. They have since been intro- duced into several of our important commer- cial centres, Chambeet (Savoy), the chief town of the ancient duchy, came into the possession of the French in 1690, but was restored to the duke of Savoy by the treaty of Utrecht in 198 CHA 1713. The French republicans took the town in September, 1792, and a Jacobin club, con- sisting of 1,200 members, was immediately formed. Chambery, with the whole of Savoy, was annexed to France Nov. 27, 1792. The Austrians took possession of Chambery in 1814, but were soon after expeUed by the French. Chambery was restored to the house of Savoy in 1815. Sardinia ceded it to France by a treaty signed March 24, 1860, and a detachment of French troops entered the town March 28. Chamboed (France). — This Gothic castle, which gives the title of count to the last descendant of the elder branch of the Bour- bons, was founded by Francis I. in 1526, and completed by Louis XIV. It is in the depart- ment of Loire-and-Cher, and about twelve miles from Blois. The treaty between Henry II. of France, and Maurice, duke of Saxony, was ratified at Chambord Jan. 15, 1552. Champagne (France) . — This old province, wrested from the Eomans about a.d. 486, was long ruled by its own counts, and was annexed tolfavarre in 1234. Philip IV., by his mar- riage, Aug. 16, 1284, with Jeanne, heiress of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie, united it to France, with which Mngdom it was formally incorporated in 1316. Champ AETY, or Champeety. — This was a bargain between the plaintiff or defendant in a suit with a third party, generally a lawyer, whereby the latter was to divide the land or matter sued for in case of success, and was to carry on the action at his own expense. Though prohibited in 1275, by 3 Edw. I. c. 25, it was still practised, as the acts 13 Edw. I. c. 49 (1285), 28 Edw. I. c. 11 (1300), 7 Eich. II. c. 15 (1383), and 32 Hen. VUI. c. 9 (1540), are all directed towards its sup- pression. Champ de Maes. — In this celebrated area, used by the garrison of Paris for military exercises, the Fete de la Federation was held on the anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, July 14, 1790. Deputies from the provinces and the Parisians assembled in great numbers. Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, performed a solemn mass. Louis XVI. and all the prin- cipal authorities took the oath of allegiance to the new constitution framed by the repub- licans. The leaders of the Jacobin, Cordeher, and other clubs, brought a petition to the Champ de Mars, calling upon the king to abdicate, July 14, 1791 ; and an eff'ort on their part to create an insurrection was suppressed July 17. Louis XVI. again went in proces- sion to the Champ de Mars to celebrate the taking of the Bastille, July 14, 1792. On the fete held in honour of the Supreme Being, June 7, 1794, the people marched in proces- sion to this spot. Napoleon I. distributed eagles to his army on the Champ de Mara the day after his coronation, Dec. 3, 1804. It has since been the scene of many grand commemorations and festivals, and here Napoleon III. distributed eagles to the army. May 10, 1852. Champion os the King. — ^Taylor, in "The CHA Glory of Eegality," terms this "the most] perfect, perhaps, and most striking relic of] feudalism that has come down to us from the ages of chivalry." The office of champion existed under the Iforman kings, and was originally held by the family of Marmion. It is supposed that they held the barony of Fontney, in Normandy, by the service of being hereditary champions to the dukes of that province, and that William I. granted the castle of Tamworth and the manor of Scri- velsby, in Lincolnshire, to Wilham of Mar- mion, one of his followers, on the same tenure. Philip, the last lord of Marmion, died without male issue in 1292, when the castle of Tamworth passed by his elder daughter and co-heir to the family of Fre- vile, and the manor of Scrivelsby, with a younger daughter, to Sir Thomas Ludlow, from whom they descended to the family of Dymoke. This led to a contest ; the cham- pionship, at the coronation of Richard II., July 16, 1377, was claimed by Sir John Dymoke, as possessor of Scrivelsby, and by Sir Baldwin de Frevile, as lord of Tamworth. It was then decided that the office was attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, and it continued in the family of Dymoke. The last appearance of the champion was at the coronation banquet of George IV., July 19, 1821. Taylor says : " The duty of the champion is to ride into the hall where the feast of the coronation is held, during dinner, (before the second course is brought in), mounted on one of the king's coursers, and clad in one of the king's best suits of armour ; he is attended by the lord high constable and the earl marshal, and by the mouth of a herald is to proclaim a challenge to any who shall deny that the king is lawful sovereign ; which being done, the king drinks to him from a gold cup, which, with its cover, he receives as his fee, and also the horse, sad- dle, suit of armour, and furniture thereto belonging." This officer has been sometimes erroneously styled champion of England. Champlain- (United States). — The Eng- lish defeated an American squadron on this lake Oct. 11-13, 1776. The Americans escaped on the night of the 11th, but the Enghsh went in pursuit, and captured and destroyed most of the flotilla. The Americans, in much superior force, overpowered an Eng- lish squadron in these waters Sept. 11, 1814. The want of support from the land forces contributed to this result. Chanoei,.— This part of the church was separated from the rest of the building by rails of wood, curiously and artificially wrought in the form of net-work, called cancelli. Hence the origin of the term chancel. The thrones of the bishop and his presbyters were in early times fixed in this part of the church. In 1641 the Long Parhament resolved that the chancels should be levelled. Chancelloe op thb Excheqtteb. — John Mansell, appointed to reside at the receipt of the exchequer in 1234, is supposed to have been the first chancellor of the ex- CHA chequer. The equity jurisdiction formerly exercised by the court of Exchequer, was transferred to the court of Chancery by 4 & 5 Vict. c. 52 (1841). The foUowing is a list of the chancellors of the Exchequer siuce the Eestoration : — Sept. 8. Six Robert Long. May 24. AntHony Lord Ashley, afterwards eai'l of Shaftesbiiry. Nov. 13. Sir John Duncomhe. Mar. 26. Lavrrence Hyde, afterwards Viscount Hyde and eail of Koohester. Nov. 21. Sir John Emiey. Apr. 8. Henry Booth, Lord Delamere. Mar. 18. Richard Haiupdeu. May 3. Sidney, Lord Godolphin. May 2. Charles Montague. Nov. 15. John Smith. Mar. 29. Henry Boyle, afterwards Lord Carleton. Feb. 11. John Smith. Aug. 10. Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford. May 30. Robert Benson, afterwards Lord Bingley. Sir William Wyndham. Oct. 13. Sir Richard Onslow, afterwards Baron Onslow. Oct. 11. Robert Walpole, afterwards earl of Orford. April 15. James Stanhope, afterwards Earl Stanhope. Mar. 18. John Aislabie. Jan. Sir John Pratt. Apr. 3. Robert Walpole, afterwards earl of Orford. Feb. 17. Samuel Sandys, afterwards Baron Sandys. July 26. Henry Pelham. Mar. 9. Sir William Lee. April 6. Henry Bilsou Legge. Nov. 22. Sir George Lyitelton, afterwards Lord Lyttelton. Nov. 18. Heniy Bilson Legge (second time). Apr. 9. William Murray, afterwards Lord July 2. Henry Bilson Legge (third time). Mar. 22. William, Viscount Barrington. May 29. Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despenser. Apr. 16. George Grenville. July 13. William DowdesweU. Aug. 2. Charles Townshend. Sept. 12. William Mun-ay, afterwards Lord Mansfield (second time). Dec. 1. Frederick, Lord North, afterwards earl of Guildlord. Mar. 27. Lord John Cavendish. July 13. William Pitt. Apr. 5. Lord John Cavendish (second time). Dec. 27. William Pitt (second time). Feb. 17. Henry Addington, afterwards Vis- count Sidmouth. May 12. William Pitt (thii-d time). Feb. 5. Lord Henry Petty, afterwards marquis of Lansdowne. April. Spencer Perceval. Jmie 9. Nicholas Vansittart, afterwards Lord Jan. 31. Frederick John Robinson, afterwards Viscount Goderich and earl of Ripon. April. George Canniug. Aug. 17. John Charles Herries. Jan. Henry Goulburn. Nov. 22. John Charles, Viscount Althorpe, afterwards Earl Spencer. Dec. 9. Sir Robert Peel. April. Tiiomas Spring Rice, afterwards Lord Monteagle. Aug. Francis Thornhill Baring. Sept. Henry Goulbum (Second time). July 16. Sir Charles Wood. 199 CHA 1852. Mar. Benjamin Disraeli. 1852. Dec. WUliam Ewart Gladstone. 1855. Feb. 22. Sir George Cornewall Lewis. 1858. Feb. Benjamin Disraeli (second time). 1859. June. William Ewaxt Gladstone time). Chanceet (Court of). — The rise of the power of this, the highest court of judicature in the kingdom, is thus described by HaUam ( Eng. i. ch. vi. p. 344): "The equitable jurisdiction, as it is called, of the court of Chancery appears to have been derived from that extensive judicial power which, in early times, the king's ordinary council had exercised. The chancellor, as one of the highest officers of state, took a great share in the council's business ; and, when it was not sitting, he had a court of his own, with jurisdiction in many important matters, out of which process to compel appearance of parties might at any time emanate. It is not un- likely, therefore, that redress, in matters beyond the legal province of the chancellor, was occasionally given through the para- moimt authority of this court. We find the council and the chancery named together in many remonstrances of the Commons against this interference with private rights, from the time of Eichard II. to that of Henry VI. It was probably in the former reign that the chancellor began to establish systematically his peexihar restraining jurisdiction." The abolition of the court of Chancery was voted by Barebone's Parhament, in 1653. The court of Chancery was entirely remodelled and its practice amended by 15 & 16 Vict, ec. 86 & 87 (July 1, 1852) ; and 16 & 17 Vict, c. 98 (Aug. 20, 1853). The famous Berkeley suit, which lasted 190 years, commenced soon after the death of the fourth Baron Berkeley, in 1416, and terminated in 1609.. It arose out of the marriage of the fourth Baron Berkeley's only daughter and heiress, EHzabeth, with Eichard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. The castle and heirship of Berke- ley was the object of the suit. Chandekna&oee (Hindostan) . — The French established a factory at this place on the Hooghley, above Calcutta, in 1676. They fortified it soon after, and it was for some years a formidable rival to Calcutta. Clive took it March 23, 1757, and it was restored to France, by the 11th article of the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The Enghsh cap- tured it again in Jvlj, 1778, and restored it to France at the end. of the war, by the 13th article of the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. It was taken again at the outbreak of war between France and England in 1793 ; rehnquished by the 3rd article of the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802 ; taken again on the renewal of the war in 1803, and restored j by the 8th article of the treaty of Paris, I May 30, 1814. | CHA3«rDos Clause. — This name was given [ to the 20th clause of the Eeform Bill ' (2 Will. IV. c. 45, June 7, 1832), which ' gave the right of voting to the occupiers of . 200 CHA lands or tenements of a rent of not less than £50 per annum. It had been moved as an amendment in committee of the Eeform BiU of 1831, by the marquis of Chandos, afterwards duke of Buckingham, and was carried against the government by a ma- jority of eighty-four. Ministers incorpo- rated it in their measure, and although that Eeform BUI was rejected by the House of Lords, the clause was introduced by mi n isters themselves in the biH of 1832, which passed into a law. Channel Islands (English Channel). — These islands are the only parts of the ancient duchy of ISTormandy that remain in our possession. They are situated within a few miles of the coast of France, and came into the possession of England as a portion of the duchy of Normandy, during the reign of Henry I. (See Aldeenet, Gueensey, Jeeset, and Saek.) Chanting is supposed to owe its origin to the want of power in the voice, for making itself heard in the large open buildings and amphitheatres of the ancients. It was first introduced into Christian worship between the years 347 and 356. St. Ambrose brought it from the Greeks to Milan, whence it passed to Eome, France, &c. Chantet. — HaUam (Eng. i. eh. ii. p. 94) remarks : — " There was a sort of endowed colleges or fraternities, called chantries, consisting of secular priests, whose duty was to say daily masses for the founders." The English chantries, amounting to 2,374 in number, were suppressed at the Eeformation by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (Dec. 15, 1545), and 1 Edw. VI. e. 14 (1547). They generaUy consisted only of a httle chapel or altar placed in a church. Here the priests ofifered daily prayers for the soul of the founder, and for the souls of the deceased members of the family. Chap Books. — Tracts, or Httle books printed for chapmen, or pedlars, and sold by them about the country in the 16th and 17th centuries, formed the popular hterature of those times. The typography and paper were of an inferior kind. Ballads, songs, legends, biographies, tales of wonder, and theological tracts, are found amongst the subjects treated on in chap books. Chapel. — In olden times the French kings always took with them St. Martin's hood when they went forth to war, and the place where it was watched over by an attendant priest, was called capella. The word is a diminutive from capsa, which signifies a chest or cofifer, where the rehcs of saints were kept. Hence the origin of the apphcation of the word chapel to private oratories. Several kinds of chapels exist now, such as parochial chapels, chapels of ease, chapels of colleges, and private chapels. The places of worship used by dissenters generally bear this designation. Chapels were formerly built upon bridges, which the priests were bound to keep in repair from the benefactions received. There was a chapel on old London Bridge. CHA Chapel, Knights op the, or Poor Knights of Windsob, were first established by King Edward III. in 1348, and consisted of twenty-six veteran knights, "infirm in body, indigent, and decayed," The original constitiition of the order was altered by Edward IV. in 1482-83, after which it fell into a state of decline, from which it was raised by EHzabeth, who re-estabUshed it for thirteen poor knights, Aug. 30, 1559. This number was raised to eighteen in 1659. In Sept. 1833, Wilham IV. changed the title of the order to "Military Knights of Wind- sor," its present designation. Chaplain. — By 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13, §§ 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 24 (1529), the number of chaplains allotted to various dignitaries was as follows : — ^Archbishop, 8 ; baron, 3 ; baroness, 2 ; bishop, 6 ; chancellor, 3 ; chief justice, 1 ; comptroller of the house- hold, 2; countess, 2; dean of the chapel royal, 2 ; duchess, 2; duke, 6; earl, 5; king's almoner, 2 ; king's secretary, 2 ; knight of the garter, 3 ; marchioness, 2 ; marquis, 5 ; master of the roUs, 2; treasurer, 2 j viscount, 4; warden of the cinque porta, 1. Chapter. — The canons in the cathedral or conventual churches began to form what was called a chapter in the 8th century. This was a kind of coimcil for the bishop. Chapter-houses were built for these meet- ings, and were generally contiguous to the cathedral. Chaeade. — Disraeli, in the "Curiosities of Literature," says : — " The charade is of recent birth, and I cannot discover the origin of this species of logogriphes. It was not known in France so late as 1771 ; in the great Dictionnaire de Trevoux, the term appears only as the name of an Indian sect of a military character." A new spe- cies of charade, of a dramatic character, called the Acting Charade, has of late years become popular. The word charade is said to be taken from the name of the inventor. Chaeing Ceoss. — Edward I. erected a marble cross, adorned with divers figures, in memory of Queen Eleanor, at the village of Charing, a.d . 1291, and from this the name is derived. This cross was destroyed by the Long Parliament in 1641. The eques- trian statue of Charles I. was east in bronze by Le Seur in 1633, by order of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel. The Long Parlia- ment ordered it to be broken up after the execution of the king. John Eiver, a bra- zier, purchased it, concealed it in his garden, in Holbom, and, at the Eestoration, pre- sented it to Charles II., who ordered ii to be erected upon a pedestal at Charing Cross, Chaeiots are frequently mentioned in Scripture, as well as in the works of the ancient poets and historians. The Greeks attributed the invention to Minerva ; Virgil to Erichthonius, a mythical king of Athens ; and Pliny states that four-wheeled carriages were invented by the Phrygians. {See Was Chaeiots.) Chabixable Bequests were placed under CHA the care of commissioners appointed to inquire into the misemployment of property bequeathed or otherwise devoted to chari- table purposes by the Statute of Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz. e. 4, s. 1 (1601). The Irish act, 4 Geo. III. c. 18 (1764), orders that a return of all such property bequeathed in Ireland be handed in to the bishop of the diocese or the archbishop of Armagh. This being foimd ineffectual to secure the proper application of such bequests, the Eoman Catholic Bequests Act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 9, 1844), laid down more stringent regulations. The Charitable Trusts Act, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 137 (Aug. 20, 1853), instituted a board empowered to inquire into the condition and management of charities, to examine accounts, to hear witnesses, and to report their proceedings annually to parha- ment. This act was amended by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 124 (Aug. 14, 1855), and certain charities were temporarily exempted from its operation by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 76 (Aug. 25, 1857). Chaeitable Institutions. — According to the report of the commissioners appointed to investigate this subject, the following are the oldest charitable institutions in England : St. Bartholomew, Guildford, founded a.d. 1078; Cirencester, 1100; Eipon, 1109; St, Bartholomew, London, 1122 ; Northampton, 1138 ; and St. Catherine, London, 1148. By the Charitable Trusts Act, 16 & 17Vict.c.l37, passed Aug. 20, 1853, a body of commis- sioners was appointed to inquire into aU charities in England and Wales. Chaeitt (Brothers of). — This order of hospitallers, chiefly laymen, was founded by St. John de Dieu, at Granada, in 1540, and obtained a second establishment at Madrid in 1553. Gregory XIII. confirmed the order in 1572, and Paul V. admitted some of them to take orders in 1609. They attend upon the sick poor, and were introduced into France in 1601. Chaeitt Schools. — The sixth general council, held at Constantinople a.d. 680-81, by one of its canons ordered charity schools to be estabhshed in connection with country churches; and further regulations were, from time to time, issued on the same subject. William Blake, a woollen draper of Covent Garden, about the year 1685, is said to have projected the first charity school in England, and to have purchased Dorchester House, Highgate, for that purpose. Franck, a Ger- man divine, laboured for the same object at Glaucha, in 1698. Another, which claims to be the first, was estabhshed in London in 1693, and the movement was prosecuted with zeal in 1698. The trustees of the then existing schools formed themselves into a voluntary association in 1700. Chaeleeoi (Belgium). — A fortress was erected here a.d. 1666, by Eodrigo, Spanish governor of the Low Countries, who named it in honour of Charles II. of Spain. By the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe (May 2, 1668), it was ceded to the French. The prince of Orange besieged it in 1672, but was obliged 201 CHA to raise the siege. Louis XIV. of France added the lower and middle town in 1676. In 1677 the prince of Orange again made an rmsuceessful effor*^ to take the town, which was restored to Spain by the treaty of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678. In 1690 it was again taken by the French, and again restored to Spain by the peace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. The French again captured it Aug, 2, 1746, Nov. 12, 1792, and June 26, 1794. In 1795 the walls were destroyed, but they were rebuilt in 1816, by order of the duke of WeUington. The railioad from Charleroi to Paris was completed in 1856. Chaeles the First, the second son of James I. of England and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dimifermline, Not. 19, 1600. He ascended the Enghsh throne March 27, 1625, and married Henrietta Maria of France June 13, in the same year. They had three sons and four daughters ; the eldest ascended the throne as Charles II. (q.v.), and the third child and second son succeeded his brother as James II. (q.v.). Their eldest daughter, Mary, was born Nov. 4, 1631. She married Prince WiUiam of Nassau, and died Dec. 24, 1660. Their fourth child was Elizabeth, born Dec. 28, 1635, and died Sept. 8, 1650. Their fifth child, Anne, born in 1637, died young. Their sixth child, Henry, born July 8, 1640, died Sept. 13, 1660; and their seventh child, Henrietta Maria, bom June 16, 1644, married Philip, duke of Anjou, and died June 30, 1670. Charles the First was beheaded at Whitehall Jan. 30, 1649, and buried at Windsor Feb. 8. Charles the SECoifD, the eldest son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at St. James's, May 29, 1630. He succeeded to the throne, de jure, on the death of his father, Jan. 30, 1649, but did not become king de facto until May 29, 1660. He mar- ried Catherine of Portugal, May 20, 1662. Charles II., who left no legitimate issue, died Feb. 6, 16S5, and was buried at West- minster Feb. 14. CHARLESTOWif (United States). — This sea- port town in South Carolina was founded in 1672, and called " Oyster-Point Town." In 1706 it was attacked by the Spanish and French, who were repulsed and defeated. A ■furious hurricane, in Aug. 1728, occasioned an inundation, which did considerable injury to the town, and a visitation of the yellow fever in the same year carried off multitudes of the inhabitants. In 1740 and 1778 great damage was caused by fires. The Enghshtook Charles- town May 11, 1780, and retained possession till Dec. 14, 1782, when it was evacuated. In 1783 it was made a city by the legislature of S. Carohna. In 1796 about a third of the city was destroyed by fire. A negro con- spiracy was discovered and suppressed here in June 1822. The college was founded in 1785. Chabmoitth (Battles). — Egbert defeated the Danes at this place, in Dorsetshire, A.D. 833. The invaders had disembarked from thirty-five ships. His successor, Ethel- 202 CHA wulf, was defeated by the Danes at this place A.D. 840. Chaetee-House. — This is a corruption of Chartreuse, the name given to a house of Carthusian monks, established in London by Sir Walter Manny a.d. 1371. Before that time the site had been used as a burying- place for the poor. Its last prior was hanged and quartered for denying the king's supre- macy. May 3, 1535. After the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., it was purchased by Mr. Thomas Sutton, whom Stow calls " the right Phoenix of charity in our times," from the earl of Suffolk, in 1611, to be converted into an hospital, " consist- ing of a master, governor, a preacher, a free school, with a master and usher, eighty poor people, and forty scholars." The be- nevolent founder died Dec. 12, 1611, before his work was completed; but he had pro- vided amply for the endowment, and the hospital was opened Oct. 3, 1614. An at- tempt having been made by one of Mr. Sutton's relatives to obtain possession of the property, the foundation was confirmed by 3 Charles I. c. 1 (1627). Chaetee-Paktt. — Agreements between merchants and seamen respecting their ships and cargoes, were regulated by the law of Rhodes as early as B.C. 916. The Scottish parliament passed several acts for their regulation in 1467, which were ratified in 1487. Chaetees. — "Nearly all the nations," says Sir Harris Nicolas, "which estabHshed themselves upon the ruins of the Roman empire, gave to their charters the form of epistles, in imitation of the Romans." The most ancient Anglo-Saxon charters extant are of the 7th century. It is beheved that the earhest known is of the time of Ethel- bert, king of Kent, and was granted in full council, April 29, 619. The charters of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs were generally in Latin. Pubhe liberties were secured by the early charters. They were renewed and confirmed so frequently, that between the reign of Edward I. and Henry IV. Sir Ed- ward Coke reckons thu'ty-two. These were termed royal charters. A calendar of the Charter RoUs in the Tower, extending from 1199 to 14S3, which contain grants of privi- leges to cities, corporations, guilds, rehgious houses, and individuals, has been published by the government. Charters were fre- quently forged. Chaetists. — The first demonstration, on a large scale, made by the pohtical agitators called Chartists, because they clamoured for what they termed the six points of the People's Charter, was held iu the open air at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 1838. The six points were, 1. Universal suffrage; 2. Vote by ballot ; 3. Paid representatives in parlia- ment ; 4. Equal electoral districts ; 5. Abo- Htion of the property quahfication for members of parhament ; and 6. Annual parHaments. Large bodies of the Chartists, armed, assembled at night in various parts of the country in the latter part of the year. CHA and a proclamation was issued declaring all such meetings illegal, Dec. 12. The agita- tion, however, continued, and an enormous petition, signed, it was said, by 1,200,000 Chai'tists, was presented to parhament by Mr. Attwood, June 14, 1839. The Chartists attacked Newport Nov. 4, 1839, and were, after some resistance, dispersed by the troops, the leaders being taken and after- wards tried. Another petition, presented in 1843, was said to contain 3,500,000 signa- tures. In 1848 Chartist disturbances oc- curred in various parts of the kingdom, and a meeting was summoned by the Chartist leaders to take place on Kennington Com- mon April 10. They avowed their inten- tion of going in procession to the House of Commons with a petition, which, they boasted, contained above 5,000,000 signa- tures. Every preparation was made by the authorities to preserve the public peace, 170,000 special constables were organized, and the duke of Wellington, as commander- in-chief, was at his post. When the Chartists assembled, their leaders were informed by the pohce that any attempt to pass the bridges in procession wotdd be resisted. The Chartists gave way, and consigned the peti- tion to tkree cabs for conveyance to the House of Commons. On examination, it appeared that, instead of 5,706,000, only 1,975,490 names were appended to the mon- ster petition, and of these a large number had been fabricated. Prince Albert and the Queen figured amongst the names appended to the document. The name of the duke of Wellington was signed thirty, and that of Colonel Sib thorp twelve times. This ex- posure, coupled with the determination evinced by the public to repress agitation, proved fatal to the cause, and from that day Chartism rapidly declined. Chaetees (France), the ancient Autri- cum, was a towii of the Carnutes, from whom it received its modern name. The Normans ravaged it a.d. 852 and 872. EoUo received a check here in 912. Henry I. of England entertained Innocent II. at Char- tres Jan. 13, 1131. It afterwards fell into the power of the English, but was recovered by surprise in 1432, and was taken and re- taken several times during the civil wars in France. The cathedral was founded in 1020, and dedicated in 1260. The roof having been destroyed by fire in 1836, a metal one was erected in 1841. Louis XIII. bestowed the duchy on the duke of Orleans, in whose family the title still remains. Chaeteexise. — This monastry, called La Grande Chartreuse, was founded near Gre- noble, in France, by St. Brimo of Cologne, A.D. 1084. It was several times injured by fire, and the present building dates from about 1676. St. Bruno followed the rule of St. Benedict with certain modifications. It was called the order of the Chartreux, or the Carthusians, The monks were expelled during the Kevolution, but they returned in 1826, and Chartreuse is still the chief monas- tery of the Carthusians. CHA Chatham.— Queen Elizabeth established a dockyard at Chatham in the 16th century, a little before the time of the invasion pro- jected by Spain. It was removed to its present site in 1622. The Dutch fleet entered the Medway and destroyed several ships June 12, 1667. The "Chest" for the rehef of wounded and superannuated sea- men, estabhshed at Chatham by Queen Ehzabeth, was removed to Greenwich by 43 Geo. III. c. 119 (July 29, 1803). The school for engineers was established in 1812. Additional fortifications were ordered to be erected by parhament in 1860. Chatham (Fiest) Administeation. (See Newcastle and Pitt Administeatioit.) Chatham (Secos'ii) Administeation. — Wilham Pitt, the elder, created earl of Chatham July 30, 1766, presided over two administrations, the first formed in 1757, and called the Newcastle and Pitt (q. v.) Admin- istration; and the second, designated after his title, the Chatham Administration, formed July 30, 1766, on the dissolution of Lord Eockingham's first cabinet. Lord Chatham's ministry contained the following appoint- ments : — Treasury Duke of Grafton. Lord Chancellor Lord Camdeu. President of the Council .. Earl of Northington. ^ . „ 1 /Earl of Chatham, First PnvySeal | Minister. Chancellor of Exchequer.. Hon. CnarlesTownshend. TEarl of Shelburn and Principal Secretaries of J Gen. Conway. The State 1 latter leader of the L House of Commons. Admiralty Sir Charles Saunders. Board of Trade Lord Hillsborough. Secretary at War Viscouiit Barrington. Ordnance Marquis oi Granby. Tj i. /~i 1 / Lord North and Thomas Paymasters General . . . . | Xownshend. Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Hawke suc- ceeded Sir Charles Saunders at the Admiralty Dee. 13, and the Hon. Eobert (afterwards Lord) Nugent replaced Lord Hillsborough at the Board of Trade Dec. 16, 1766. The Hon. Charles Townshend, who died Sept. 4, 1767, was succeeded by Lord Mansfield Sept. 12. The earl of Chatham's health rendered him incapable of taking any part in pubHc affairs ; and, towards the end of 1767, the whole power fell into the hands of the earl of Grafton, who in December made several changes in the cabinet. Lord Chat- ham finally resigned the privy seal Oct. 21, 1768. {See Gbaetok Administeation.) Chatham Islands (South Pacific). — Lieutenant Broughton discovered these is- lands Nov. 29, 1791, and named them after H.M.S. Chatham, in which he sailed. The group consists of three large and several smaU islands. A whahng station was esta- bhshed at Oinga by Captain Eichard in 1840. Chatillon-site-Seine (Congress). — Pro- posals of peace were made whilst the aUied armies were advancing upon Paris in 1814, and ChatUlon was fixed upon as the place for the congress, which opened Feb. 4. England 203 CHA sent tliree plenipotentiaries, Austria, Prussia, Eussia, and France eacti one to the conferen- ces. The allies demanded that France should be restricted to the limits she had attained before the Eevolution. Some temporary successes gained in the field induced I^Tapo- leon I., Feb. 17, to send instructions to Caulaincourt, the French plenipotentiary, to sien nothing without his orders. Early in March, Caulaincourt announced to the em- Eeror that the allies had deter min ed to reak up the conference if the fundamental principle of reducing France to its ancient limits was not accepted. Caulaincourt de- livered a counter -project Mar. 15, from which it became evident that IN'apoleon was not sincere in his desire for peace, and the congress broke up March 18. Chaumont (Treaty). — The insincerity dis- played by IS'apoleon I. during the negotia- tions at ChatiUon-sur-Seine, induced the great powers whose plenipotentiaries were engaged at that congress, to enter into more solemn obligations for the energetic prose- cution of the war, in case France should reject their proposals. With this view, treaties were signed by each of the four powers, England, Austria, Kussia, and Prus- sia, separately with the three others at Chauinont, March 1, 1814. The fotir treaties were of course, word for word, the same. Each treaty consisted of seventeen articles, and provided for the number of men to be maintained in the field by each power, and the amount of subsidies to be paid by Eng- land. By the second article, each contracting power engaged not to enter into separate negotiations, nor to conclude a separate peace, without the consent of the others. The treaty was to remain in force for twenty years, and not to be renewed before the expiration of that period. Chedtjba (Bay of Bengal). — This island was taken by the Burmese in the 17th cen- tury. The Enghsh captured it in May, 1824 ; and it was ceded to the East-India Company by the third article of the treaty of Yanda- boo, Feb. 24, 1826. Cheese was known to the Greeks and Eomans much earher than butter, according to Beckmann, who could find no notice of the latter substance in Aristotle, though he frequently mentions cheese. Athenaeus speaks of a celebrated Achaian cheese. The inhabitants of the island of Cynthus excelled in the preparation of this article of food, which was stamped upon their coins. In the Middle Ages it was made from deer's milk. The Artotyritse (from dproQ, bread, and Tvpbg, cheese) offered cheese with their bread in the Eucharist, in the 2nd century. They pretended that the first inhabitants of- the world oifered, as oblations, the fruits of the earth and of sheep. Chelsea (Middlesex). — Some authorities are of opinion that this is the place called Calcuith, at which a council was held July 27, 816, when it was ordained that aU bishops should date their acts from the year of the CEDE Incarnation. It was designated Chelc-hethe in 1291. Sir Thomas More, who lived there, wrote Chelcith; and as late as 1692 it was called Chelchey. Stow describes it as "a tovm not large, but graced with good well- built houses." During the 16th and 17th centuries it was a favourite place of residence for noblemen and wealthy persons. Chelsea College, for the study of polemical divinity, was projected, in 1609 by Dr. Matthew Sutchffe, dean of Exeter, who endowed it, though not sufficiently. James I. granted it a charter in 1610, and gave it the name of the College of King James in Chelsea. In 1616, James I. issued a declaration setting forth the reasons which induced him to erect the college. The scheme did not, however, succeed, and it was converted iato an hospital for invalid and decayed soldiers by Charles II. who laid the foundation-stone of the new building, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, in 1682. The good work, carried on by James II., was completed by William and Mary, in 1690, at a cost of £150,000. The Eoyal MHitary Asylum in connection with the" hospital was founded in 1801. Cheltenham (Grloucestershire). — Doctor Short discovered the medicinal properties of the water at this place in 1740; the first spring having been found in 1716. George III. visited Cheltenham in 1788, and a spring found on the estate where he resided is called the King's Well. A salt spring was discovered in 1803. Cheltenham was enfran- chised in 1832, and returns one member to ParUament. Chemical Society, of London, was insti- tuted Feb. 23, 1841. Chemistey. — Ample evidence may be found in the Old Testament to show that the ancient Egyptians possessed a knowledge of chemistry, and from them the Saracens, to whose industry the origin and improvement of the science are attributed by Gibbon, derived much information. Geber, who flourished in the 9th century, admits that he derived most of his knowledge on the subject from the early sages. (See Al- chemy). Little real progress was made for several centuries. " Chemistry," says HaUam, " as a science of principles, hypo- thetical, no doubt, and, in a great measure, unfounded, but cohering in a plausible system, and better than the reveries of the Paracelcists and Behmenists, was founded by Becker in Germany, by Boyle and his con- temporaries of the Eoyal Society in England." Becker published his ' ' Physica Subterranea" in 1669, andhe diedin London in 1685. Boyle's "Sceptical Chemist" appeared in 1661. Ernest Stahl, who died in 1734, originated the phlo- gistic theory of combustion, and Dr. Hales, 1761, stands first as a pneumatic chemist. Dr. Priestley first obtained oxygen gas, Aug. 1, 1774, and Mr. Cavendish discovered the composition of water in 1784. Lavoisier, who died in 1794, threw considerable light on the theory of combustion, and proved the chemical identity of the diamond and common charcoal. CHE Chemistry, (Eoyal College of,) founded in London in July, 1845. Chepstow Castle (Monmouthshire) is said to have been founded in the 11th cen- tury and rebuilt in the 13th. It was taken by "the parhamentary forces Oct. 10, 1645, and surprised by the royalists early in 1648. CromweU, who failed in an attempt to re- take it by storm, ordered it to be besieged, and the small garrison, having exhausted all their provisions, surrendered May 25. The iron bridge over the Wye, which joins the Severn, two naUes below Chepstow, was built in 1816. Cheque. — The first cheque by an English king was the foUowiug, given by Edward I. to Bourunonio de Luk, or Luke, a Floren- tine merchant : — " Whereas, our beloved Eobert de Brus, earl of Carrick, is in pre- sent need of money, we request that you will cause to be advanced or lent to the said earl or his attorney, for his occasion, forty pounds, and we wiU cause them to be repaid to you. And when you have lent to him the aforesaid money, you shall take from him his letters patent testifying his receipt of the same. Witness our hand, Windsor, Sept. 10, 1281." A stamp duty of one penny was placed upon aU drafts or cheques by 21 Vict. c. 20 (May 21, 1858). Chekboueg (France), the ancient Chere- burgum, Carohwrgum, or CcBsaroburgus, re- ceived a visit from Harold, king of Den- mark, about the year 945. The castle is mentioned in an act of 1026, and its chapel and the town hospital were founded by WiUiani the Conqueror between 1060 and 1064. On the conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus in. 1203, Cherbourg fell under French domination, and in 1295 it was pillaged by the EngHsh. Charles the Bad, of Kavarre, obtained possession in 1355, and in 1418 it was taken by the English under Henry V. after a three months' siege. Charles VII. retook it Aug. 19, 1450. Louis XIV. conceived the idea of erecting Cherbourg iato a naval fort and arsenal about 1687, and Vauban was appointed to superintend the improvements; but the project was abandoned, and the new and even the old defences demohshed in 1689. Some of these were restored in the begin- ning of the ISth century, and the town was of sufficient importance to receive an attack from the Enghsh, who effected an entry Aug. 6, 1758, and, after destroying the works and seizing all the stores, re-em- barked Aug. 15. In 1781 Louis XVI. re- sumed the attempts to establish a naval sta- tion here, and in 1784 M. Cessart commenced the breakwater, which is acknowledged to be one of the finest in the world. The out- break of the Eevolution of course suspended its progress, but it was resumed by Napo- leon in 1803, and inaugurated in 1813. Since then additions have been continually made. In 1828 the foundations were found to have shifted very considerably froin their original position. Louis Philippe restored them on a new principle in 1832 ; but even CHE now the dike is liable to serious injury frojn every violent tempest. The military strength of the place has been prodigiously increased by Louis Napoleon, who opened the railway and the Grand Basin of the Napoleon Docks Aug. 4 and 5, 1858, in presence of Queen Victoria, the EngUsh court, and many distin- guished visitors. Cheret. — "Lucullus, after the war with Mithridates," says Isaac Disraeh, "intro- duced cherries from Pontus into Italy (about B.C. 74) ; and the newly imported fruit was found so pleasing, that it was rapidly propagated." PHny states that the cherry-tree was introduced into Britain about 120 years afterwards, that is, a.d. 46. This race of cherry-trees, so called from Cerasus, now Keresoun, was lost in the Saxon period, and another stock brought from Flanders by the gardener of Henry VIII., and planted in Kent in 1540. Native cherries were, it is said, known in Norfolk in the 13th century. The Cornelian cherry was introduced into England from Austria in 1596; and the American Bird Cherry from America in 1629. Cheret Island (Arctic Sea) was disco- vered by the Dutch pilot Barentz, June 9, 1596. It was at first called Bear Island, because the Dutch sailors killed a bear, the skin of which measured twelve feet in length. The Muscovy Company took formal posses- sion of the island in 1609. CHEESOif (Crimea), an ancient city near the site of which Sebastopol now stands, is supposed to have been built about the 5th century. It formed for many years a re- public, and joined the alliance against Pliar- naces I. about B.C. 184. The inhabitants assisted Constantiae I. against the Goths, who were defeated a.d. 334. Justinian II. was banished to this city in 695. He made his escape in 705, and having been restored to the imperial throne, sent an expedition against Cherson in 709, The youth of both sexes were reduced to servitude, seven of the principal citizens were roasted alive, twenty drowned in the sea, and forty-two taken in chains to receive sentence from the emperor. On the return voyage, the fleet was wrecked on the coast of Ana- toHa, when conquerors and captives perished. Justinian II. sent another expedition in 711. The people of Cherson prepared for resist- ance. The army sent against them revolted, elected Bardanes emperor, under, the name of Philippicus, returned to Constantinople, and put Justinian II. to death in Dee. 711. Theophilus reduced Cherson to subjection in 831. Wolodomir of Eussia was converted to Christianity and baptized at this city in 988, and at the same time married to Anna, a Christian princess. The baptism of Wolodomir and his marriage were celebrated at the same time, and to the desire of obtaining a Eoman princess for his bride his conversion is attributed by Gibbon. Alexis I. of Trebizond annexed Cherson to his empire about 1210. CHEESoif, or Kheesoh- (Eussia). — The 205 CHE capital of a province of the same name was founded in 1778 and fortified in 1780. John Howard, the philanthropist, died in this city, Jan. 20, 1790, and the emperor Alex- ander erected a monument over his grave. Catherine II. of Russia made a triumphant entry into Cherson in 1787, passing under an arch bearing the inscription, "The Way to Byzantium." Joseph II. of Germany met her here, and entered into an alliance against Turkey. During the war with Eussia, an allied fleet appeared in the neighbourhood of Cherson in Oct. 1855; but no attack was made upon that city, which must not be confounded with the ancient city of the same name in the Crimea. Chesapeake. — This frigate, belonging to the United States, was captured by Captain Broke in the British frigate Shannon, June 1, 1813. The action, which only lasted a quarter of an hour, was fought near Boston, in the presence of a large number of Ameri- cans who lined the shore. The strength of the rival frigates was as follows : — lous. Guns. Crew. U35 50 376 1U66 49 330 SbaruLon The former had 46 men tilled and 106 woimded, and the latter 24 killed and 59 wounded. Chesapeake Bat (IS'orth .America) was first explored by Capt. John Smith in 1607. He arrived ia the bay with colonists in April of that year. The squadron of three vessels was commanded by Capt. Newport, and carried 110 settlers. Chess. — The Chinese are said to have invented chess ; but Sir WilHam Jones ia of opinion that the game was invented by the Hindoos. He says: "We may be satisfied with the testimony of the Persians, who, though as much iucliued as other nations to appropriate the ingenious inventions of a foreign people, unanimously agree that the game was imported from the west of India in the 6th century of our sera. It seems to have been immemoriaUy known iu Hindostan by the name of chaturanga, i.e. the four angas, or members of an army; which are these, elephants, horses, chariots, andfoot- Boldiers ; and in this sense the word is fre- quently used by epic poets ia their descrip- tions of real armies." Gibbon states that it was introduced into Persia in the reign of Chosroes I. (531 — 579) . Tamerlane, who died in 1405, was fond of the game, which he is said to have improved. The Saracens intro- duced this game into Spain in the 8th century, and it gradually spread over Europe. The date of its introduction into England has not been clearly ascertained. It was known here in the 11th century, as Canute is represented as having played it in 1028. Caxton pub- lished " The Game at Chess" in 1474. Chestee was called Deva by the Eomans, who formed a colony here, and were not expelled imtU a.d. 476. The Britons called it Caerleon. It was taken by the Saxons ia 828 ; was destroyed by the Danes in 894, and 206 CHI rebuilt by Edelfleda in 904. The councQ of London advised the formation of a bisho- pric at Chester in 1078, but the see was not fully estabhshed until 1534. Richard II. made Chester a principaHty in 1389. Henry VII. separated it from Cheshire by letters patent dated April 6, 1506, and made it a county of itself. The coimty hospital was founded in 1756, and opened in 1761. Some portion of the cathedral was finished in 1485, and the west end was commenced in 1508. The city was taken by the Parhamentary forces, after a long siege, in 1645. The jurisdiction of the countv palatine of Chester was abohshed by 1 WUl. IT. c. 70, s. 14 (July 23, 1830). Chesteefield (Battle). — King Henry the Third's troops defeated the foi'ces of the rebellious barons at this place on Whitsun- eve, May 15, 1266. Chichestee (Sussex) was taken by Ella the SaxonA.D.480, and, having been destroyed by the South Saxons in 491, was rebuilt by Cissa, from whom the name is derived, in 538. The bishop's see was removed here from Selsey in 1015 or 1082. The cathedral, completed in 1108, was burnt May 5, 1114, and rebuilt in 1125. It was again destroyed by fire in 1187, and the rebuilding commenced in 1199. The present edifice was completed in the 13th century. The Parhamentary forces captured the city in 1643, and the fortifica- tions were destroyed by order of the Long Parliament in 1648. The grammar-school was founded in 1497. The spire of the cathedral was blown down Feb. 21, 1861. Chieeasco (Treaty), by which the duke of Nemours obtained possession of his terri- tories in Mantua, was signed at Chierasco April 6, 1631. Chili (South America). — This coxmtry, the name of which is supposed to be derived from the Peruvian word Tchili, signifying "snow," was imder the rule of the Incaa when the Spaniards commenced the con- quest of Peru. Pizarro sent Almagro to subdue ChiU in 1536, but the marshal, as he was called, returned without having effected his object. Pedro de Valdivivia went by Pizarro's order in 1540. He overran the country, foimded the city of Santiago in 1541, and remained there twelve years. The people maintained a struggle against the Spaniards for nearly two centuries, the war being terminated by a treaty in 1722. They rose against the Spaniards in 1772 and expelled them from a large part of the country. In 1810 the Chdenos threw off the Spanish yoke, and declared themselves inde- pendent Sept. 18. They were, however, subdued in 1814 ; but, the Spaniards being defeated at Chacabuco Feb. 12, 1817, and at Maipu April 5, 1818, the independence of ChiU was secured. It had been officially proclaimed at Santiago Feb. 12, 1818. Seve- ral struggles have occurred between the difierent factions of the repubUc since it became independent. The present constitu- tion was promulgated May 25, 1833. The independence of Chili was recognized by Mr. Canning in 1823. CHI CHiLLiAifw ALLAH (Battle). — Lord Gough, at the head of 22,000 men with 125 guns, encountered the Sikh army, 60,000 strong, at this village, near the river Chenab, Jan. 13, 1849. The English remained masters of the field, though their loss was severe, amounting to 2,269 in killed and wounded. The Sikhs lost 3,000 killed and 4,000 wounded. Chilteeit HtriTDEEDS. — The forests on the Chiltern Hills, in Buckinghamshire, were in olden times infested with banditti, and an oflB.cer called the steward of the Chiltern Himdreds was appointed to prevent their depredations, and protect the people in the neighbourhood. This oflSce, which no longer exists, now serves to enable a member of parhament, in certain cases, to vacate his seat. May ("Parliamentary Practice") thus explains the practice : — " It is a settled Erinciple of parhamentary law, that a mem- er, after he is duly chosen, cannot relin- quish his seat; and, in order to evade this restriction, a member who wishes to retire, accepts ofl&ce under the crown, which legally vacates his seat, and obUges the house to order a new writ. The offices usually se- lected for this purpose are those of steward or bailiff of her Majesty's three Chiltern Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough, and Bonen- ham, or of the manors of East Hendred, Northstead, or Hempholme, which, though sometimes refused, are given by the Treasury in ordinary cases to any member who apphes for them ; and are resigned again as soon as their purpose is effected." The legahty of the practice, which sprvmg up in 1750, is doubted, as the oifice is not one of those for which the occupant is required to vacate his seat. Chimket. — Beckmann contends that the Greeks and Komans were not acquainted with the use of chimneys. None are found at Herculaneum. They appear to have warmed their rooms by means of a large fire-pan, or portable stove, and this, filled with wood well ignited, or burning coals, was brought into the apartment. Hot air, con- veyed by means of pipes, seems also to have been employed. There were no chimneys in the 10th, 12th, and 13th centuries. Peo- ple in the Middle Ages made a fire in a hole or pit in the centre of the floor, and the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof. The first authentic account of chim- neys occurs in an inscription at Venice, relating that in the year 1347 many chim- neys were thrown down by an earthquake. The first chimneys at Home were erected by order of Francesco de Carraro in 1368. In a manuscript giving an account of man- ners and customs in England, written about the year 1678, it is stated that before the Ee- formation, "ordinary men's houses, as copy- holders and the like, had no chimneys, but flues like louver holes ; some of them were in being when I was a boy." Chimiaeys did not come into general use in France until the middle of the 17th century. A chimney- tax, or hearth-money, was levied by 13 & 14 CHI Charles II. c. 10 (1662). It proved so ob- noxious, that it was abolished by 1 Will. & Mary, sess. 1, c. 10 (1689). Chimnex-Sweepers. — Chimneys were at first swept with a little brushwood fastened to a rope, but when the fiues were made narrower, boys began to be employed. The first chimney-sweepers were boys from Savoy and Piedmont. In consequence of the numerous accidents that happened to boys, a machine for sweeping chimneys was introduced into England towards the close of the 18th century, and a society formed for encouraging the sweeping of "chimneys vrithout the use of boys. By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 7, 1840), any person compelling or allowing a child or young person under the age of twenty-one years, to ascend or descend a chimney after July 1, 1842, was made liable to a penalty of not more than £10 or less than £5. China (Asia). — The annalists of this country, called the " Celestial Empire," trace its history to the remotest antiquity. E^musat, accepting their statements, ex- presses his behef that it goes back with certainty to the 22nd century before our sera, and that the date of its com- mencement, according to traditions wor- thy of credit, may be fixed even four cen- ttiries earher, namely, B.C. 2637. Gibbon (ch. xxvi.), who says the aera of the Chinese monarchy has been variously fixed from B.C. 2952 to B.C. 2132, adds that the histo- rical period does not ascend above the Greek Olympiads. This, however, is con- sidered much too early, and the best author- ities fix the commencement of the historical period at the beginning of the Han dynasty, B.C. 203. The northern and southern em- pires, the former ruled by the Great Khan, and the latter by the Chinese, from A.D. 1234 to A.D. 1279, were called Cathay and Magni. In the Middle Ages the name Cathay was sometimes apphed to the whole country. China is the most extensive empire in the world. Mr. S. Wells Williams ("The Middle Kingdom") gives the foUowic^j estimates of the amount of population, at different periods, according to imdermen- tioned authorities : — Inhabitants. 1711. Chinese Repository 28,605,716 1736. Grosier, De Guignes 125,04(5,245 1743. Ditto 157,343,975 1753. Chinese Repository 103,050,060 1760. Yih-tung-chi 143,125,225 1760. De Guignes 203,916,477 1761. Ditto 205,293,053 1762. AUerstain, Grosier, De Guignes 198,214,553 1790. Chinese Repository 155,249.897 1792. Dr. Morrison 307,467,200 1792. Macartney 333,000,000 1812. Chinese Repository 362,467^83 B.C. 2700. First Chinese cycle. 2357. Accession of the emperor Yao, who reigned a huudred years. 2217. Commeiicemtnc of the Hia dynasty, according to Du Halde. 2198. Commencement of the Hia dynasty, according to " L'Art de Verifier les Dales." 207 CHI 651. Earliest date in Se-ma-tsetn's History of China. 0.30. Birth of Confucius. 246. All Chinese books ordered to be burnt. 211. Completion of the Great WaU of China. 202. Printing known in China. 200. Jewish settlement in China. 170. Invaded by the Tartars. 24. Supposed Chinese embassy at Eome. 15. The Taou-tse sect of philosophers attain great influence. A.D. 65. The religious belief in Boodh, or Fo, intro- duced into China. 94. The emperor Hoty sends an envoy to Arabia. 166. Chinese historians report the aiTival at the Chinese court of an em.bassy from Anthon, who is supposed to be the emperor Anto- 184. China is divided into three separate states. 265. China is rtiuiited into one kingdom, under the Tsin iiynas^y. 420. Seat of government established at Nankin. 635. Christianity is preached by the Nestoiian 84.5. 851- 12:i4. 1317- 1324. 1420. 1517. 1537. 1.543. 1556. 1.565. Expulsion of the Nestorian Christians. 877. China it visited by Arab travellers. The MongoJs obtain possession of the northern half of China. First European mention of China made by friar John de I'lano Carpini, missionary to the Mongols. Knbuquis sent by St. Louis as missionary to the court of the Great Khan. Kublai Khan builds Pekin, and makes it his capital. Grand canal commenced. Kublai Khan obtains possession of the whole empii-e, and founds the Mongol or Yuen dynasty. Giovanni di Monte Corvino, papal legate at the court of the Grand Khan, dies at Pekin. Marco Polo arrives in Venice, after having resided seventeen years in China. Oderico de Pordenone travels in China. The Arab Xbn Batatu arrives in China, of which he publishes a correct description. Restoralion of a Chinese dynasty by Choo, who commences the Ming family of em- perors. Timour the Tartar sets out to invade China, but dies on the march. A Persian embassy ai-rives in China. Aug. 15. The Portuguese, under Andrade, aiTive at the island of Tamang, three mUes from the mainland, and reach Canton by the end of September. Jan. Thomas Pires, Portuguese ambassador at the court of China, falls into diserace, and is imprisoned at Canton. His coun- trymen are forbidden to enter the empire. The Portuguese obtain permission to erect sheds for commercial purposes at Macao. A Spanish colony is established at Manilla, and intercourse opened with Chinese mer- chants. Fi'iar Diego Bernardo conducts a religious mission into China. A Spanish fleet arrives at the island of i575. July 5. The Jesuit missionaries, Martin de Herrada and Gerontmo Marin, land at Gan-hai. 1-576. June 21. Alvaro and other Augustine monks arrive at Canton. 158L Martin Ignatius conducts a Franciscan mis- sion to China. 1596. Queen Elizabeth despatches a fleet to China ; but it is wrecked on its voyage out. 1600. The Jesuit Matteo Eicci obtains the emperor's permissirin to settle in Pekin. 3624. The Dutch open a trade with China. 3637. May 28. The British attempt to trade at Macao, but are prevented by the Por- 208 1662. 1664. 1689. 1700. 1719. 1723. 1727. 1792. 1793. OHI Li Kong deposes the last Ming sovereign, and establishes the Mantchoo Tartai- dynasty. The Dutch expelled from Formosa by Ko- shinga. The British again attempt to trade with China, but in vain. Trade opened with Eussia. In consequence of the exertions of the Jesuits, the emperor Kanghy issues a decree per- mitting Christianity. A Eiissian embassy arrives in China. The East-India Company open a factory at Canton. limpo, Amoy, and Canton opened to British commerce. Peter the Great despatches Ismaloff on an embassy to China. Christianity is prohibited by the emperor Yoong-t-chirig, who expels the Jesuits. Catherine I. of Eussia concludes a treaty with the emperor, and forms an ecclesiastical establishment and regular embassy at Pekin. European intercom-se restricted to Canton. Nov. 24. A Chinese killed by a loaded gvm accidentally fired as a salute. The gunner is seized, and straneled Jan. 8 next year. Sept. 26. Lord Macartney sets sail from Portsmouth. July. Lord Macartney arrives at Chusan. Sept. 14 He has an interview with the emperor at Zhehol. Mar. 17. He sets sail for England, where he lands Sept. 6, having accomplished no results of importance during his absence. An affray takes place between the crew of H. M. S. Providence and some Chinese, in which one of the latter is wounded. First American consul in China allowed to reside at Canton. Trade with England stopped for a time, in consequence of the death of a native in a skirmish with the crew of the ship Neptune. Oct. 20. Sir George Staunton compels the imperial viceroy to allow the EngUsh to correspond under seal and in Chinese with the government, and also to promise that British factories should not be entered by Chinese officers without previous per- 1816. Feb. 10. Lord Amherst's embassy leaves England. Aug. 12. Reaches Tien-tsin, where his lordship refuses to perform the humiliating ko-tow, or prostration, before the emperor, and, consequently, returns without accomplishing the results of the 1821. Dec. lo.ThecrewofH.M.S To^aze are attacked by the Chinese, who lose two men in the Bti-uggle, and attempt to put a stop to trade in consequence. 1822. Feb. 23. Trade recommenced on its old footing. 1834. April 22. Teimination of the East -India Company's monopoly in the trade with China. July 25. Ai-rival at Canton of Lord Napier, chief commissioner, to super- intend British trade with China. Sept. 5. Lord Napier sends for a guard of marines, in consequence of the injuries inflicted on his residence, &c. by the natives. Oct. 11. Death of Lord Napier at Macao. He is succeeded by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J F. Davis. Nov. 3. Imperial edict, prohibiting the opium trade. 1835. Jan. 31. Tlie Chinese seize a boat and its crew belonging to the British merchant- ship Argyle. 1837. Mar. 18. The emperor allows the residence of a British ponmiissi oner .at Canton. Nov. 29. Captain Elliot strikes the British flag at Canton, and retii'es to Macao. 1838. Jan. Insurrection of the Meaou-tszesuppre.^ed by the imperial troops. July 12. Admiral Sir F. Maitland ai-rives at Tunkoo, Dec. 4. CHI CHI Disturbance and stoppage of trade in con- seciuence of persistence in the opium traffic. 1838. Mar. 10. An-ival of Commissioner Liu at Canton. Mar. 18. He issuer an edict for the seizure of opium. Mar. 19. The British forbidden to leave Canton. Mar. 24. They are blockaded ia their factories. Mar. 27. Captain Elliot requii-es the surrender into his hands of all opium in the possession of British subjects, and promises that they shall receive its full value from govern- ment. April 8. Half the opium is given over to the Chinese. May 5. Passage from Canton open to all English merchants, except sixteen, who are detained as hostages. May 21. The remaining 20,283 chests of opium are delivered up. May 24. CaiJtain Elliot and the British merchants leave Canton. June. The Chinese destroy the opium. July 7. A Chinaman is killed in a fray with British and American seamen. Aug. 17. The Chinese attack and murder the crew of the British schooner Black Joke. Aug. 26. British residents at Macao ordered to quit in twelve hours. Sept. 4. Sea fight between the British and Chinese in the Bay of Coalloon. No decisive result. Nmv. 3. War is commenced by the naval action at Chumphee. The Volage and Hyacinth disable twenty -nine war-junks, sinking three and blowing up one. Dec. 6. Edict of the emperor, prohibiting all inter- course with England. 1840. Jan. 5. Imperial edict, declaring -the English oiitlawed. Jan. 14. Projected massacre of the English. Feb. 28. Attempt to bm-n the British fleet in Tongkoo Bay by means of lire-junks. May 22. The Hellas attacked by pirates. June 9. Another unsuccessful attempt to bum the British fleet at Cap- siugmoon. June 28. Canton blockaded by Sir Gordon Bremer. July 3. The Blonde, with a flag of tmce hoisted, is fired on by the Chinese at Amoy. July 5. Captm-e of Chusan by the British. Au^.6. Mr. Stantojj. is seized by the Chinese, a nd carried prisoner to Canton. Sept. 16. Seizure of Captain Anstruther, and wreck of the j^ite, the crew of which, with the captain's lady, are made prisoners, and treated with great cruelty. Oct. 17. Lin receives orders to hand over his seals of office to Commis- sioner Keshen. JS'ov. 6. Truce proclaimed. Nov. 10. Release of Mr. Stanton. Nov. 29. Admiral Hliot resigns the command of the fleet. 1841. Jan. 6. Cessation of the negotiations, owing to the procrastination of the Chinese. Jan. 7. Two of the Bogue forts are taken by the British. Jan. 20. Hong-Kong is ceded to Great Britain ; and an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid to the English before 1846. Jan. 26. British flag hoisted at Hong-Kong. Jan. 27. Date of imperial edict disavowing the treaty made by Keshen. Feb. 22. Recommence- ment of hostilities. Feb. 2.5. Evacuation of Chusan. Feb. 26. Destmction of the Bogue forts by Sir Gordon Bremer. Feb. 26. Keshen is degraded by an imperial edict, and ordered to be conveyed to Pekin for trial. Mar. 1. The English fleet ascends the Pekiang to CaTiton. Mar. 2. Sir Hugh Gough assumes command of the forces. Mar. 3. Another truce. Mar. 12. The de- fences of Canton are seized by the British. Mar. 18. The forts and factories at Canton are seized by the British, and a Chinese flo- tilla is destroyed. Mar. 20. A triwe is agi-eed upon between Captain Elliot and the impe- rial commissioner Yang. Apiil 14. Ai-riva,l ofYihshan, the new imperial commissioner. May 21. The Chinese attempt to burn the English fleet at Canton with fire -rafts. May 24. The British, under Sir Le Fleming Senhouse, attack Canton, and gain the heights behind the city the next day. May 27. Captain Elliot abandons the attack, and a ransom of 6,000,000 dollars is paid to the British government. June 14. Death of Sir Le Fleming Senhoube. July 16. Imperial proclamation re-opening British trade. Aug. 10. Sir Henry Pottinger, the new British plenipotentiary, lands at Macao. Aug. 26. Amoy is taken by the British. Oct. 1. Recovery of Chusan island by the British. Oct. 9. Capture of the city of Chinhae. Oct. 13. Capture of Ningpo. Dec. 28. Capture of the district cities of Yuyao, Tsikee, and Punghwa. 1842. Mar. 10. The Chinese make a futile attempt to recover Ningpo and Chinhae, with a force of 12,000 men. Mar. 13. Sir- Hugh Gough defeats a Chinese force of about 8,000 men at Tse-kee. May 7. Evacuation of Ningpo by the British. May 18. Capture of the city of Chaijoo. June 16. CaptiU'e of Woosung, on the Yang - tze - kiang. June 19. Capture of Shang-hai. July 21. Storm and capture of Chin-keang-foo. Aug. 6. The English fleet takes its station before the walls of Nanking. Aug. 15. Arrival of Ke-ying, the imperial commis- sioner, with powers to treat for peace. Aug. 29. Signing of the treaty of Nanking (q.v.), whereby an end is put to the first Chinese war. Sept. 16. B-.U.^. Auckland leaves Nanking with the emperor's ratifi- cation of the treaty on board. Oct. 17. Dedication at Hong-Kong of the first Pro- testant ijlace of wo 1 ship in China. Dec. 7. Riots at Canton, and destruction of the European factories. 1843. June 26. Hong-Kong is made the British seat of government in China, and placed under the governorship of Sir H. Pottinger. July 27. Canton is opened to the British, under the regulations of the treaty of Nanking. Oct. 8. Supplementary treaty of Homum- Chae. 1844. May 7. AiTival at Hong-Kong of Mr. Davis, Sir H. Pottinger's successor as British governor-general in China. 1846. April 4. Treaty of Bocca Tigris. July 8. Fracas at Canton between the natives and English 1847. April 3. The English residents at Canton present a list of their grievances to Sir John Davis. Apinl 5. A British force, under General d'Aguilar, destroys the Bogue forts, threatens Canton, and compels the Chinese commissioner, Ke-ying, to accede to the demands of the governor. Dec. 5. The natives seize and murder six English residents. Sir John Davis after-wards ob- tains the execution of the criminals. 1850. Oct. 3. First battle of the Tae-ping rebellion. Oct. 20. The great piratical fleet of Shapng- tsai is destroyed in the Bay of Tonquin, by H.M.S. Columbine and Fury, and the E.I.C. steam-sloop Phlegetlwn. Nov. 5. Commissioner Lin is despatched against the Tae-pings, but dies on the journey. 1851. AprU 11. Defeat of the rebels at the Kew- heen-heu ferry. Nov. 30. Organization of the Tae-ping army. 1852. May 19. The rebels raise the siege of Kwei- lin. Dec. 30. They extend their conquests to the Yang-tze-kiang. 1853. Jan. 12. They take Woo-chang. Mar. 18. Amoy submits to the Tae-pings. Mar. 19. Capture of Nanking by the rebels. May 22. Kae-fung successfully resists a siege by the rebels. Sept. 7. They enter Shaug-hai. Nov. 1. Tae-ping army in a state of blockade at Tsing-hae. 1854. June 26. The rebels take "Woo-chang. 1856. Oct. 8. The Chinese board the Arrota lorcha, said to be a British vessel, and thus bring about a renewal of hostilities. Oct. 27. Six- M. Seymour opens fli-e on Canton. CHI CHI Nov. 12 and 13. Sir M. Seymonr captures all the Bogue forts and the Annunghoy lorts. Dec. 14. The foreign factories at Canton are burned by the natives. 1857. Jan. 15. Attempt to poison the British resi- dents at Hong-Kong, by mixing arsenic with bread. May. Commodore JEUiot and Sir M. Seymour totally destroy the Chinese fleet of war-junks in the Canton waters. June 12. A British squadron sets fire to the suburbs of Canton, and retires to the lower part of the river. July. Lord Elgin, the British plenipotentiary, arrives at Hong-Kong. Oct. Baron Gros, the French plenipotentiary, anives at Canton. Dec. 28. Bombardment of Canton, which surren- ders to the French and English next day. 1858. Jan. 5. The victors enter Canton, and capture Yeh, Peh-kwei, the governor, and Tseang- keun, the Tartar general. May 19. The allied squadrons force an entrance into the Peiho river, in spite of the fire of the Chinese forts. June 26. Signing of the treaty of Tien-tsin. Aug. 11. Capture and destruction of Fort Namtow. 1859. May. The Hon. Mr. Bruce arrives at Hong- Kong, as her Majesty's minister at the court of Pekin. June 13. Commercial treaty with Russia. June 24. The forts on the Peiho treacherously ooen fire on Admiral Hope's squadron, which is com- pelled to retire to Shang-hai, after losing 64 oflicers and men kiUed, and 252 Wounded. 1860. Expeditions fitted out by England and Fi-ance sail for China. Mar. 8. Ulti- matum sent by Mr. Bruce to the Chinese government. June 21. Lord Elgin and Baron Gros reach Hong-Kong. Aug. 21. Capture of the Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho. Aug. 23. Tien-tsin occupied. Sept. 9. The expedition leaves Tien-tsin, and advances on Pekin. Sept. 18. Mr. Parkes, Mr. De Norman, and party, consisting of twenty-six, including Sikhs and Europeans, who had started for Tang- chow under a flag of truce, are treacher- ously made prisoners. Oct. 6. The emperor's summer palace is captured and sacked by the Fi'ench. Oct. 8. Mr. Parkes and other pi-isonei's restored. Oct. 12. The allies pre- pare to open fire on Pekin, when the Chinese government gi-ant all their de- mands. Oct. 24. Convention is signed at Pekin. Nov. 5. The allied forces evacuate Pekin. Nov. 14. Treaty between Russia and China. Dec. 27. The conclusion of peace is proclaimed in the city of London. LIST OF DTIfASTIES, 1. Hia 2. Chang 3. Tcheou 4. Tsin . 2198 . 1766 . 1110 . 246 A.D. . 221 . 265 . 420 . 479 . 602 . 557 THE A.D. . 1644 . 1662 . 1722 . 1735 12. Sony 13. Tang 14. Heou-Leang 15. Heou-Tang .. 16. Heou-Tsin .. 17. Heou-Han .. 18. Heou-Cheou 19. Song 20. Yuen 21. Mtug 22. Tsin . 590 619 . 907 6. Heou-Han . . . 7. Tsin 8. Song 9. Tsi . 947 . 951 . 960 . 1280 1368 10. Leang 1 fCHE and the first stone of the hall was laid by the duke of York in April, 1825. Christ's TnoEif.— The Zizypkus paliurus, supposed to be the same from which the crown of thorns was made, was brought to this country from Africa a.d. 1596. Chkomitjm. — This metal was discovered in 1797, by N. L. Vauquehn, a distins;uished anatomical chemist, born in IS'ormandy. Chump ANEEE (Hindostan), was taken by Mahmoud, king of Guzerat, in 1483, after a siege of twelve years. The emperor Humayun seized it in 1534, and it subsequently formed part of the Mahratta territory. The British took it Sept. 17, 1802, and in 1803 it was annexed to Scinde. Chunae, or CHUifAE&HTTE (Hindostau), was held by the emperor Baber in 1529, and taken by the Affghan Shir Khan in 1530. Humayun, the successor of Baber, regained possession in 1538, after a siege of six months. In 1763 the town was taken by the British, to whom it was formally ceded in 1768. A treaty was concluded here between Warren Hastings and the nabob of Oude in 1781. Chupas (Battle). — During the civil wars amongst the Spanish conquerors of Peru, Yaca de Castro defeated Almagro's army after a hotly-contested battle in the plains of Chupas, Sept. 16, 1542. Ahnagro escaped to Cuzco, where he was immediately made pri- soner and executed. Chxtquisaca (South America), the capital of Bohvar, was founded by one of Pizarro's officers a.d. 1539. It was at first called the "YiUadela Plata," or " City of Silver," in allusion to the mines in the vicinity. Chuquisaca was made a bishopric in 1551, and erected into an archbishopric in 1608. This city is sometimes called Sucre, from the general who secured the dehverance of the country by his victory at Ayacucho, Dec. 9, 1824. Chuech. — Bingham supports Mr. Mede's view that churches, or buildings for the per- formance of divine services, existed in the 1st century. St. Paul (1 Cor. xi. 22) speaks of the church as a place set apart for sacred duties. Towards the end of the 2nd century Clemens Alexandrinus uses the word ecclesia for the place of assembly; and Eusebius, referring to the peace enjoyed by the Chris- tians from the persecution of Yalerian to that of Diocletian (253—303), declares that the Christians had increased so greatly in that half-century, that ' ' their ancient churches were not large enough to receive them, and therefore they erected from the foundations more ample and spacious ones in every city." St. Austin, moreover, founds the use and building of churches on 1 Tim. ii. 1, and declares that as soon as the Christian re- ligion was planted in the world, then churches were built. Churches existed in this island at a very early period of the Christian sera. Grildas speaks of the restoration of those destroyed during the Diocletian persecution. The emperor Constantine bmlt several new churches, and repaired and beautified others in the East. In 326 he laid the foundation of 214 CHU the temple called Sancta Sophia, which was completed by his son Constantius in 360. The first Enghsh churches were made of wood. During the 4th centui-y Bishop N^inias built a stone church in Galloway, and on account of its extreme rarity the place was called "WTiit church. Chuech of Engiand. — The early history of the Church in this island is given under Beitish Chuech. Many laws for the regula- tion of the Church were made by the Anglo- Saxon kings. Its right of sanctuary was rigidly enforced. Attempts at encroachment by Eome were frequently opposed, and the first article of Magna Charta (1215) provided that the Church of England should be free, and enjoy her whole rights and Mberties inviolable. This was confirmed by subsequent acts. The connection with the Church of Eome was entirely severed at the Reforma- tion. In 1530, the clergy in convocation acknowledged Henrv YIII. as supreme head of the Enghsh church; and by 25 Hen. YIII. o. 21 (1534), the Papal power in England was abrogated. The king was appointed supreme head of the Church by 26 Hen. YIII. c. 1 (1534). The Articles were drawn up in 1551, and pubhshed in 1553. They were forty-two in number. They were revised and reduced to thirty-nine in 1562. At the Union in 1800, the Church of Ireland was vmited with that of England, under the title of the United Church of England and Ireland. Chuech of Noeth Ameeica. (See Ameeican Episcopal Chuech.) Chuech of Scotland. — The General Assembly, which met at Glasgow, abolished episcopacy and deposed the bishops Dec. 20, 1638 ; from which time Presbyterianism has been adopted as the religion of that part of the United Kingdom. Chuech-eates have existed in England from time immemorial, though the earhest documentary record of their existence is found in the Year-books of the 44th Edward III. (1370). Chuechwaedens. — These officers are said to have been first appointed by an African council about a.d. 425. In England they were anciently called church reeves, were some- times appointed by the clergyman of the parish, and sometimes by the clergyman and the parish, according to custom. The 89th canon of 1603 directs, that "churchwardens shall be chosen yearly in Easter week by the joint consent of the minister and parish- ioners, if it may be ; and if they cannot agree, the minister shall choose one, and the parishioners another." From a communi- cation in JVotes and Queries, it appears that three churchwardens have been chosen an- nually at Attleborough, in Norfolk, since 1617. Chuechtaed. — The practice of interring the dead in churchyards arose in the 6th century. The council of Braga, a.d. 563, allowed men to be buried in the churchyard, under the walls of the church, but pro- hibited burial within the church. The French, however, retained the ancient practice until CHU pei'mission was accorded for interment in churchyards by the council of Nantes in 660. In former times churchyards were privileged places, and property was often carried to them for safety, (See Bueial and Ceme- TEET.) Chfsan {China Sea). — The principal island of this group, called Chusan, was captured by the EngHsh July 5, 1840 ; and evacuated Feb. 25, 1841. Its chief city was again captured, and the island re-occupied, Oct. 1, 1841. By the treaty of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842, the English were to hold this island until the indemnities had been paid, and certain ports opened. It was restored to the Chinese in 1846. CiBALis (Battle). — During the civil war between Constantine and Licinius, the latter was defeated near this city, in Pannonia, Oct. 8, 314 A.D. Licinius abandoned his camp and magazines, and retreated with great expedition. CiLiciA (Asia Minor) . — This country was originally inhabited by a Phoenician tribe. Syennesis, king of Cilicia, is said to have assisted in a mediation for peace between Croesus, the king of Lydia, and the Medes, B.C. 610. Cilicia was afterwards subject to Persia, and supphed 100 ships for the invasion of Greece, B.C. 480. The inhabitants indulged in piracy. The Komans sent several expe- ditions to suppress these malpractices, and the country was finally conquered by Pom- pey B.C. 66, and was made a Eoman pro- vince B.C. 64. It was overrun by the Saracens in the 7th century. They were expelled by Zimisces a.d. 964. It underwent various changes, and was finally conquered by Amu- rath I. in 1387. C 1MB EI. — This Celtic tribe, inhabiting Jutland, having joined with the Teutons, entered Ulyria, where they defeated Cn. Papirius Carbo, at the head of a consular army, B.C. 113. After this triumph they advanced into Gaul, b.c. 112, passed into , Spain, and, reappearing on the frontiers of Transalpine Gaul, defeated two Eoman armies b.c. 109 and 107. They inflicted a terrible defeat on another Eoman army, led by two consuls, b.c. 105, after which they vrithdrew into Spain. The Celtiberians drove them from this province B.C. 104; whereupon the Cimbri returned into Gaul. Marius collected a large army and went to oppose them. The Cimbri and Teutons sepa- rated into two bodies, the former taking the road through Helvetia, and the latter press- ing forward to assail the Eoman army. Their intention was to reunite their forces on the Lombard plains. The Teutons were attacked and overwhelmed by the Eomans, and 100,000 mien are said to have perished on that occasion, fi.c. 102. The Cimbri in the mean time had reached the vaUey of the Adige. Marius allured them intd an unfa- vourable position, in which they were de- feated and exterminated, B.C. 101. The women, having put their children to death, committed suicide. A distinct tribe was discovered, in the middle of the 18th cen- CIN tury, inhabiting the villages in the moun- tains near Verona and Vicenza, and speaking the Danish language. Some writers endea- voured to prove that these people were a remnant of the Cimbri defeated by Marius. CiMMEEii. — This nomadic race, inhabiting the Crimea and parts of the neighbouring country, having been expelled by the Scy- thians, passed along the shores of the Euxine, invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia, b.c. 635. In this country they are said to have remained until about B.C. 617, when they were defeated and driven out of Asia Minor. Little authentic is known of this people. Homer refers to another peo- ple of the same name, fabled to have dwelt in a land of perpetual darkness. Hence the term " Cimmerian gloom." Cincinnati Oedee was established by the Americans during the revolutionary war, about the year 1783, and was for a time very popular. The French officers wore the decoration, but the order soon ceased. Cinnamon. — The Hebrews used this spice in their religious ceremonies B.C. 1496 (Exod. XXX. 2'3). It is also mentioned in the Song of Solomon (iv. 14), and in Prov. vii. 17. Ceylon is the place at which the tree flourishes best, and from this island Europe has derived its principal sup- plies from the earUest times. The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufac- tures, and Commerce, in 1773 awarded a gold medal to Dr. Young, for introducing the culture of the cinnamon-tree into St. Vin- cent's. A few plants found in a French ship bound from the Isle of France to Hispaniola, and captured by Eodney, were presented by him to the Jamaica planters in 1783, and thus the cultivation of the tree was introduced into that island. No sooner had the passage round the Cape of Good Hope been dis- covered than the Portuguese endeavoxired to get the cinn3,mon trade, which had before that period been monopolized by Arab mer- chants, into their hands. They established a factory at Ceylon, and concluded a treaty with the king of Kandy, who engaged to furnish them with 124,000 lb. annually, in return for their assistance against his enemies. The Dutch became the rivals of the Portu- guese, and in 1612 the king of Kandy engaged to deliver to them all the cinnamon he could collect. This led to a struggle, which was terminated in 1644 or 1645, by an agreement between the Dutch and the Portuguese to share the produce between them. War broke out again in 1652 ; the Dutch captured Colombo in 1656, and in 1663 the Portuguese were finally excluded from aU participation in the trade. Ceylon was captured by the EngHsh in February, 1796, when the trade passed from the control of the Dutch. Cinque Poets. — The commencement of this system of defence against invasion may be traced to the period of the Eoman occu- pation of England. Jeake states that the five ports, Hastings, Hythe, Sandwich, Dover, and Eomney, were enfranchised in the time of Edward the Confessor, although only three, 215 crN" Sandwich, Dover, and Eomney, are mentioned in Domesday Book. William I. erected the district of the Cinque Ports into a kind of palatine jurisdiction under a warden, in whom the military, naval, and civil authority was combined. Eichard I. admitted Eye and Winchelsea to the privileges of the Cinque Port?, by a charter dated March 27, 1191. The number was thus increased to seven prin- cipal ports, wMlst smaller places were attached to them as subordinate ports. They were required to furnish a fleet for the defence of the sea, and according to an ordinance of Henry III. in 1229, in the following propor- tions : — Dover and Hastings each 21 ships, carrying 21 men and one boy ; Winchelsea, 10 ships ; and Hythe, Sandwich, and Eye, 5 each. These vessels were to serve 15 days at the expense of the towns, but were paid for any service beyond that time. The Cinque Ports reeeived'their charter of confirmation from Edward I. , iu 1278, and all their liberties and free customs were secured to them by 25 Edw. I. c. 9 (1297). The jurisdiction of the constable of Dover Castle was defined by 28Edw. I. c. 7 (1300). CiNTEA (Convention). — The day after the battle of Vimiera, General KeUermann pro- posed an armistice, which was signed at Ciutra August 22, 1808. The convention, erroneously called the convention of Cintra, was finally concluded at Lisbon, Aug. 30, and consisted of twenty articles, to which three additional articles were appended. The French by this convention agreed to evacuate Portugal. Their soldiers were allowed to disembark with arms and baggage, and were not to be considered prisoners of war, the Enghsh government furnishing the necessary transports to convey them to their own country. They were, however, compelled to relinquish all their spoils. This agreement excited so much discontent in England, that a board of in quiry was summoned by a warrant dated Nov. 1, 1808. In the report issued Dec. 22, the Board declared that no further military proceeding was necessary on the subject, and on the 25th of December a majority of the Board voted approval of the armistice of Aug. 22, and of the convention of the 30th. CiPHEE. — The Spartan Scytale was in use at least as early as 400 b.c, and is supposed by some authors to be the earhest attempt at writing in cipher, ^neas Tacticus, who was contemporary with Aristotle, and flourished about 350 b.c, was one of the most eminent ancient masters of the art of writing in secret characters, having collected about twenty different modes, all which were unintelligible, except to those who knew the key. The first modern author who described this art was the Abbe Trithemius, whose "Polygra- phia" appeared A. D. 1499; since which period many writers have directed attention to the subject. CiECASSiA (Asia) was conquered by the Huns in the 5th century, by the Chhazars in the 11th century, and at the commencement of the 13th century feU under the Mongol 216 CIE emperor of Kaptchak. Timour invaded it in the 14th century, but was unable to efi"ect a permanent conquest. Its first intercourse with Eussia took place in 1555. It afterwards submitted to the khans of the Crimea, but, owing to their tjTanny , the Circassians revolted in 1708, and apphed for protection to the Ottoman Porte. At the peace of Belgrade in 1739, Circassia was declared independent, but it soon returned to its dependence on Turkey, which did not renounce all right to exercise authority over it till the peace of Koutchouk-Kainardji, in 1774. In 1783 Cir- cassia was claimed as part of the Eussian empire, but it was not finally incorporated therewith till the treaty of Hadrianople, in 1830. The Circassians strenuously resisted Eussian domination under their leader Schamyl, who was captured Sept. 7, 1859. CiECLES OP Geemany. — Maximilian I. in 1501 carried into execution the design of Wenceslaus, attempted by Albert II., of dividing Germany into circles. The empire, the electorates and the dominions of Austria excepted, was divided into six circles ; viz., Bavaria, Franconia, the Ehine, Saxony, Swabia, and Westphalia. In 1512 four more were added; viz., those of Austria, Burgundy, the Lower Ehine, including the three eccle- siastical electors and the elector Palatine, and Upper Saxony, including the electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg. " It was," says HaUam, "the business of the police of the circles to enforce the execution of sentences pronounced by the Imperial Chamber against refractory states of the em- pire." The circles were abolished by the Confederation of the Ehine, concluded at Paris, July 12, 1806, and each German prince resumed such of his titles as referred to his connection with the Gei-man empire, Aug. 1. CiECUiTS. — In a great council held at North- ampton Jan. 26, 1176, Henry II. divided England into six districts, to each of which he appointed three itinerant judges, who were to make their circuit round the kingdom once in seven years, for the purpose of trying causes. Various changes in the number of the circuits, &c., were afterwards made. England and Wales are now divided into eight circuits, to which the judges go twice a year. CiECTrLATiif& LiBEAET. — Jerome relates that PamphUius, presbyter of Csesareia, who died A.D. 309, collected 30,000 rehgious books, for the purpose of lending them ; and this is the first notice of a circulating library. In 1342 the stationers of Paris were cornpelled to keep books to be lent on hire. This was intended for the benefit of poor students, before printing had been invented. Merry- weather (BibHomania in the Middle Ages) remarks : " The reader will be stu'prised at the idea of a circulating hbrary in the Middle Ages ; but there can be nodoubt of the fact that they were established at Paris, Toulouse, Vienna, and other places." Catalogues, with the charge for reading, were exhibited in their shops. A circulating library was established at Edinburgh in 1725, and in London in 1740. CIR There were, however, only four in the metro- polis in 1770 ; but since that period the number has rapidly increased. CiBCTJMCisiON. — The practice of this rite amongst the Hebrews was instituted by Abra- ham in accordance with the divine command, B.C. 1897 (Genesis, xvii. 10 — 14). It existed amongst other nations previous to that time. Rawhnson considers that it was practised by the Egyptians long before the birth of Abra- ham, or B.C. 1996. The custom prevailed amongst many nations, and has been found to exist in the islands of the Pacific. ClBCUMIfAVIG-ATION" OP THE GlOBE. — The first ship by which the circumnavigation of the world was accompHshed was the Vittoria, forming one of the expedition that sailed from San Lucar under Ferdinand Magel- haens, or Magellan, a Portuguese commander, Sept. 20, 1519. With three out of the five ships that formed the expedition, he passed through the straits which bear his name, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, K"ov. 28, 1520. Magellan was killed in an encounter on the Philippine Islands in 1521. Sebastian del Cano, in the Vittoria, the only ship which returned to Europe, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at San Lucar Sept. 6, 1522, having achieved for the first time the circumnavigation of the globe. The following are the most celebrated expe- ditions : — CIR Caius Flaminius, who was defeated by Han- nibal at Thrasymene, b.c. 217. CiBCUS Factions.— The race, at its first institution, was a contest between two cha- riots, distinguished ly ivhite and red colours. To these green and blue were aftel•^vard3 added ; the four colours, according to some authorities, being intended to represent the four seasons. So excited did the people be- come in these contests, that the supporters of the different candidates degenerated into factions, and frequently provoked tumults that ended in sanguinary conflicts. Even princes shared in this folly, and Gibbon (ch. xl.) relates that Cahgula, Nero, ViteUius, Verus,Commodus,CaracaUa, and Eliagabalus, were enrolled in the blue or green factions of the circus. The system, with its abuses, was transferred to Constantinople, in which two factions, the greens and the blues, con- tended for supremacy. Justinian I. favoured the former, and during the celebration of the festival of the Ides of January, in the fifth year of his reign, a.d. 532, a quarrel arose between them. For five days the city was in their power, and the cathedral of St. Sophia, the baths of Zeuxippus, part of the palace, and many edifices, were destroyed by tire. Their watchword v^&sNika, " Vanquish," by which name the contest is sometimes designated. The outbreak was suppressed by Behsarius, when a terrible slaughter ensued, and though Navigator. Place of Depai'ture. Date of Departure. Date of Return. Magellan Sir Francis Drake Cavendish San Lucar Plymouth Ditto Goree Sept. 20 or 21, 1519 Dec. 13, 1577 July 21, 1586 Sept. 13, 1598 Aug. 8, 1614 June 14. 1615 April 29, 1623 Sept. 11, 1703 Sept. 1, 1708 Feb. 13, 1719 Aug. 21, 1721 Sept. 18, 1740 Sept. 15, 1763 July 3, 1764 Aug. 22, 1768 Aug. 22, 1766 Aug. 26, 17tj8 July 13, 1772 July 12, 1776 ^wg. 1790 Aug. 11, 1822 May 22, 1826 Aug. 18, 1838 Sept. 6, Sept. 26, Sept. 9, Aug. 26, July 1, July 1, July 9, July Oct. 14, July 30, July 28, June 15, March 16, May 7, May 20, March 20, June 12, July 30, Oct. 4, June 19, March 24, June 10, 1522 1580 1588 1601 1617 1617 1626 1706* 1711 1722 1723 1744 1769 1766 1768 1769 1771 1775 1780t 1792 18:^5 1830 1842 Van Noort Spilbergen Schouteu and Le Maire The Texel Ditto Goree Kinsale Cork Dampier Plymouth The Texel St. Helen's St. Malo Plymouth Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Anson Bougainville Byron Wallis Cook \ Duperrey Fitzroy Wilkes Plymouth Norfolk (U.S.) .... * Only part of Dami-ler's expedition returned in 1706, the remainder, with the commander, being detained in the East Indies, as prisoners, by the Dutch. t Cook was killed by the Sandwich Islanders, Feb. 14, 1779. He was succeeded in the command by Captain King. CiECUS, called by the Greeks Hippodrome, was devoted by the Romans to horse and chariot races. The most celebrated and the earhest was the Circus Maximus, said to have been built by Tarquinius Priscus, B.C. 605. There were several of these buildings in Rome. The Circus Flaminius was erected B.C. 220. The founder is supposed to be the circus was closed for several years, the fury of the factions again burst forth at its restoration. CiKENCESTEE (Gloucestershire) . — This an- cient city was a station of the Roinans, which they called Corinium. A fine mosaic pavement was found here in 1723, and many antiquities have been from time to time discovered. The 217 CIR Danes captured it a.d. 878, and Guthrum win- tered here in 879. Canute held a council at Cirencester in 1020. Henry I. founded its abbey in 1117. The inhabitants assailed and expelled the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and Sahsbury, who had formed a plot to restore Eiehard II., Jan. 6, 1400, and were rewarded for this service by Henry IV. Prince Ru- pert captured the town in Feb. 1643, but it surrendered to the parliamentary army during the same year. The Grammar School was founded 'in 1750, and the Agri- cultural College in 1S46. CiEEHA (Greece). — This town of Phocis, the seaport of Delphi and Crissa, with the latter of which it is often confounded, was of ancient origin. Its inhabitants levied exor- bitant toUs on pilgrims passing through on | their way to the temple of Delphi, and com- mitted other outrages, on which account the Amphictyonic council declared war against them B.C. 595. This, the first sacred war, was carried on by a joint force of Athenians, Sicyonians, and Thessahans, and after a long siege Cirrha was taken and razed to the ground, B.C. 586. The assailants are said to have poisoned the spring which supphed the town with water. All the males were put to the sword, the women and children sold to slavery, and the Pythian Games were founded with the spoils. Crissa, said to have been the seat of a colony of Cretans, is mentioned by Homer. It had fallen into insignificance before the Sacred War. Cisalpine Eepublic was formed by the union of the Cispadane and Transpadane re- pubhcs, by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797. By the 8th article of the treaty of Campo-Pormio, Oct. 17, 1797, the emperor of Germany re- cognized this new state, which was therein stated to comprehend "Austrian Lombardy, the Bergamasque, the Bressau, the Cre- niasque, the city and fortress of Mantua, Peschiera, part of the Venetian states, the Modenois, the principality of Massa and Carara, and the three legations of Bologna, Perrara, and Eomagna." By a decree dated Oct. 10, 1797, Napoleon annexed the Valte- hne to this repubhc. Constitutions were made and abrogated in rapid succession, and the interference of Napoleon became intole- rable. Treaties of aUianee and commerce were concluded between France and this republic in 1798, by which the last vestige of independence was destroyed. Austria re- fused to recognize its envoy, sent to Vienna in 1798, and its fortunes dechned, owing to the reverses sustained by the French. It was, however, once more recognized by the emperor of Austria by the treaty of Lune- viUe, Feb. 9, 1801 ; its independence was guaranteed, and some alterations were made in its limits, and it received an addition in the duchy of Modena. Other changes were made in 1802, and on the 26th of January Napoleon nominated himself president, and changed its name to that of the ItaUan Eepubhc. It was merged in Napoleon's ItaJian kingdom in 1805. Cispadane Eepublic. — In 1796 Napoleon 218 CIV conceived the design of forming two republics from the Itahan territories wrested from Austria and other IraUan states. They were called the Cispadane and Transpadane repubhcs, and were both merged in 1797 in the Cisalpine Eepubhc (q. v.). Cisteecians. — This rehgious order was founded a.d. 1098, by Eobert, abbot of Mo- lesme, in Burgundy, and received its name from Citeaux, in which forest, near Dijon, the first convent was situated. They increased rapidly, although their rules were extremely severe, and became engaged in a quarrel with the Cluniacs or Cluniacensians, who accused the Cistercians of too great austerity, whilst the Cistercians taxed them with having aban- doned their regular disciphne. The Cistercians followed the rule of St. Benedict, and having been reformed early in the 12th century by Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, were afterwards called Bernardines. There were nuns of this order. {See Bebnaedines.) CiTATE (Battle) . — The Eussian troops oc- cupied a strong position at this village on the Danube in the winter of 1853-4. Several skirmishes between the Cossacks and the Turkish cavalry took place near Citate towards the end of December and the be- ginning of January. The Turks assailed the lines at Citate Jan. 6, and, after a despe- rate combat, expelled the Eussians. City. — In Kerr's "Blackstone" a city is described as " a town incorporated, which is or hath been the see of a bishop : and though the bishopric be dissolved, as at Westmin- ster, yet still it remains a city." The term is, however, appHed to many large towns that have not enjoyed this distinction. Al- fonso V. granted a charter to Leon a.d. 1020, and Berenger, count of Barcelona, in 1025, confirmed to the inhabitants of that city all the franchises they already possessed. Char- ters as old as 1110, though the precise date has not been ascertained, granted to French cities, are in existence. Lord Lyttleton states that in England many cities and towns were bodies corporate and communi- ties long before the alteration introduced into France by Louis le Gros. CiUDAD EoDEiGO (Spain). — This strongly- fortified town has sustained several memor- able sieges. Henry II. of Castile failed in an attempt to wrest it from the Portuguese in 1370. Lord Galway captured it May 26 (O.S.), 1706. The French invested it June 1, 1810, and their breaching batteries com- menced fire June 25. The Spanish garrison, after a gallant defence, surrendered July 11. Wellington invested it Jan. 8, 1812, and car- ried it by storm Jan. 19. Civil Law. (See Eoman Law.) Civil List. — AH the expenses of the Eng- hsh government, including military charges, were formerly comprehended in one list, and defrayed out of the royal revenue. At the Eestoration in 1660, a division took place between the nulitary expenses and those in- curred for ordinary purposes. The revenues employed for the last-mentioned were termed the hereditary or civil-hst revenues. The CIV civil-list revenues averaged, during the reigns of William III. and of Queen Anne, £680,000 per annum. They were raised to £700,000 un- der George I. ; to £800,000 under George II. ; and in 1812 had reached the sum of £1,080,000. By the settlement of the civil list, made by 1 Will. IV. c. 25 (April 22, 1831), a net yearly revenue of £510,000 was allotted to the king. Queen Victoria surrendered the hereditary revenues of the crown by 1 Vict. c. 2 (Dee. 23, 1837), receiving a clear yearly sum of £385,000 for the support of the royal household, and of the honour and dignity of the crown. The following is the distribution of the money according to the act : — 1. For her Majesty's privy pm-se 60,000 2. Salaries of her Majesty's household, and retired allowances 131,260 3. Expenses of her Majesty's household 172,500 4. Koyal bounty, alms, and special ser- vices 13,200 5. Pensions to the extent of £1,200 per annum. 6. Unappropriated moneys 8,040 Total £385,000 Civil Seevice. — This term is applied to the large body of men by whose labours the executive business of the country is carried on. In its widest sense the civil service has been said to consist of above 50,000 persons. There are about 17,000 civil servants, exclu- sive of 17,000 inferior revenue officers, post- men, &c., 15,000 artificers and labourers in the government dockyards, and 4,000 office- keepers and messengers. By an order in council, May 21, 1855, a civfl. service com- mission was appointed to examine candidates for this service. Civil Seevice Estimates. — The general expenditure of the state, exclusive of the sums required for the army and navy. For the financial year ending in March, 1861, these estimates were : — Public works and buildings £ 622,000 Salaries and expense of public de- partments 1,414,000 Law and justice 2,565,000 Education, science, and art 1,306,000 Colonial and consular services 484,000 Superannuation and retired allow- ances and gratuities 254,000 Miscellaneous and special 723,000 Total £7,368,000 CiviTA Castellana (Battle) .^Macdonald defeated the Neapolitans at this town, in Central Italy, Dec. 4, 1798. Civita Vecchia (Italy), or Old Town, is built on the site of the Centumcellae of the Eomans. Trajan constructed the port A.D. 103. It was captured by BeMsarius in 539 ; taken by TotUa in 544, and recaptured by Narses in 552. The Saracens^ destroyed CentumceUse in 812, and the remnant of the inhabitants formed a settlement in the inte- rior ; from which circumstance the town was called Civita Vecchia, or Old Town, Cle- ment XII. made it a free port. An Eng- CLA lish fleet appeared off Civita Vecchia in 1708, and threatened to destroy it on ac- count of the assistance rendered to the cause of the Pretender by Clement XI., and another threat of the same kind was made in 1743. It capitulated to an EngUsh squadron Sept. 30, 1799. Captain Louis, of the Mino- taur, rowed up the Tiber in his barge, hoisted the EngKsh colours in the Eternal City, and was made provisional governor of Eome. The French expedition to Kome landed here May 25, 1849. Clans. — Chahners (Caledonia, vol. i. b. iv. c. 7) has the following observations respect- ing the Scottish clans: — "During GaeHc times, there existed, in every part of North Britain, clanship, from blood. Throughout the whole Scoto-Saxon period, as we have seen, there existed, from conquest and birth, universal villeynage, which disappeared dur- ing the 15th century. Amidst the anarchy of subsequent times, there arose various clans, which were divided, in the policy of those ages, into the clans of the borders and the clans of the highlands. From this state of society, and the want of employment, we may accoxmt for the facility with which great bodies of men could then be brought into action. In 1587, the chiefs of all those clans were obliged to give sureties for their quiet conduct, and were made answerable for their wrongs. The union of the two crowns dis- solved the clans, and established the quiet of the borders : several of the other clans remained to our own times, often disturbing domestic tranquillity, and sometimes defy- ing the mandates of law." The following list of the clans is given at the end of the statutes of the 11th parhament of James VI. (July 29, 1587) :— middle maeche. I Nicksonnes. 1 Crosers. WEST MAECHB. Scottes of Eusdaill. Beatisonnes. Littles. Glendunninges. Irvinges. Carrutheres. Grahames. Johnstones. Moffettes. Latimers. HIE-LANDS AND ILES. Buchannannes. Mak-farlanes of the AiToquhalr. Mak-knabbes. Grahames of Monteith. Stewartes of Balquhidder Clan-Gregoire. Clan-Lauren. Campbelles of Lochtnel. Campbelles of Innerraw. Clan-Dowall of Lome. Stewartes of Lome, or of Appin. Clan-Mackeane Awricht. Stewartes of AthoUl and partes adjacent. Clanne-Donoquhy in Athoill and partes adjacent. Meinzies in Athoill and Apnadull. Clan-Mak -Thomas in Glensche. Fergussonnes. Spaldingea. Makintosches in AthoUl. 219 CLA Clan-CliaiQron. Clan-Kannald in Loch-Aber. Clan-Kaimald of Kiioydei-t, Moydert, and Glen- garrey. Clan-Lewid of the Lewis. Clan-Lewid of the Harrich. Clan-Neill. ClanKinnon. Clan-.Tea.ne. Clan-Chattane. Grantes. Fraseres. Clan-Keinzie. Clan-Avercis. Muni-oes. MuiTayes in Southerland. The act for abolishing heritable jurisdictions in Scotland (20 Geo. II. c. 43, 1747), put an end to the legal authority of the chiefs of clans. Claee Hall (Cambridge) . — University HaIl,foundedA.D. 1326, havingbeen destroyed by fire in 1342, was rebuilt and endowed in 1347 by Ehzabeth de Burgh, one of the sis- ters and coheirs of Gilbert, earl of Clare. From this benefactress it received its new name. The present haU was built in 1638. The old chapel, built in 1535, was never con- secrated. The new chapel was commenced in 1763 and consecrated in 1769. CLAEEiiONT (Surrey) was built by Van- brugh in the reign of Queen Anne, and named after the earl of Clare, who became duke of Newcastle in 1715. It was sold in 1769 to Lord Chve, by whom the house was rebuilt and the grounds newly arranged. On the death of Chve, in 1774, the house and estate passed into the hands of Lord Galway, and subsequently of the earl of Tyrconnel, who sold them to Mr. EUis in 1807. By 26 Geo. III. c. 25 (1816), the property was purchased by government as a residence for the Princess'Charlotte, who died here Xov. 6, 1817. Louis Phihppe, king ofthePrench, lived at Claremont on his retirement to England, March 4, 1848 ; and here he died, Aug. 26, 1850. Claeencieux (King-at-Arms) . — This name was given to a herald of the duke of Clarence during the reign of Edward III. (1327—1377), and was confirmed by Ed- ward rV., at whose funeral in 1483 Claren- cieux king-at-arms was present. Claeendon Constitutions. — A council was held at Clarendon, near Sahsbiu-y, Jan. 25, 1164, when these laws, defining the limits between the civil and ecclesiastical juris- diction, andregulating certain chiu'chmatters, were passed. Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, having refused to sign them, withdrew from the kingdom in disguise, and landed at Gravehnes ]!s ov. 3. He excommu- nicated many of the bishops, clergy, and influential laymen, who had subscribed to them, June 12, 1166 ; whereupon Henry II. banished 400 of the archbishop's supporters. The king and archbishop met at Fretville, in Touraine, July 22, 1170, and were reconciled. Soon after his return to Canterbury, Dec. 3, he excommunicated several nobles, and was assassinated before the altar of St. Benedict, in the cathedral, Dec. 29, 1170. These con- stitutions, most of which were annulled by 220 CLE the pope, are given in Eoger of Wendover's "Flowers of History," Lord Lyttleton'a " Life of Henry the Second," and other works. Claeendon-Dailas Tee ATT, intended to clear up difficulties that had arisen between England and the United States, respecting the interpretation of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty of April 19, 1850, was signed in Lon- don Oct. 17, 1856. It Avas altered in the United States, and signed in the new form March 12, 1857. To one of the amendments the British government objected, and the treaty was never ratified. Claeendon Peess (Oxford). — The design of estabhshing a press for the use of Oxford university was formed in 1672, at which time the business was carried on at the Sheldonian Theatre. 0\\ing to the profits arising from the sale of Lord Clarendon's " History of the EebeUion," the university- was enabled, in 1711, to erect a special build- ing for the purpose, after the designs of Yan- brugh. In 1721 the statue of Lord Claren- don was placed over the south entrance. The present university printing-office was commenced by Eobertson in 1825, and com- pleted by BloVe in 1830, when the business was transferred thither from the Clarendon, which was converted into a museum, lecture- hall, &c. In Eeb. 1838, the new btdlding was damaged by fire to the amount of £2,000. Claee, St. (Order), or Clabisses. — This rehgious order was founded by St. Clare, with the aid of St. Francis of Assisi, a.d. 1212. The order was confirmed by a bull of Inno- cent IV. At first the nims followed the rule of St. Benedict ; this was, however, modified by St. Francis in 1324, and by Urban IV. in 1264. They were brought into England in 1293, under a license from Edward I., but they had only four houses in this country. They were called Poor Clares. Clastidium (Battle). — MarceUus defeated the Gauls at this place, in Cisalpine Gaul, B.C. 222, whereupon they sued for peace. The modern town of Casteggio occupies its site. CLAITSENTBEE& (Transylvania), the capital of Transylvania, was founded a.d. 1178. The cathedral was founded in 1399, and the citadel erected in 1721. Clavichoed, or Claeichoed. — This musi- cal instrument is mentioned by Ottomarus Luscinus in 1536 ; but its invention is no doubt to be referred to a considerably earUer date. It was much used by nuns in convents. Clavijo (Battle). — Ramiro defeated the Moors at Clavijo a.d. 844. No less than 69,000 of them are said to have perished in the con- flict and the retreat. Clementines. — These spurious writings, amongst which are two epistles to the Corin- thians, represented as the works of Clement, bishop of Eome in the 1st century, are supposed to have been concocted by one of the sect of the Ebionites. This father of the Church is generally beheved to be the Cle- ment mentioned by St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3). CLE He died a.d. 100. Some apostolic canons, constitutions, recognitions, &c., are included in the Clementines. The constitutions of Pope Clement V. (1305—1314) are also called Clementines. Clementiwes and Uebanists, — Gre- gory XI. returned to Rome, after a long residence at Avignon, in April, 1377, and thus terminated what is called the Babylonish Captivity of the popedom. He died March 27 or 28, 1378. An outcry was immediately raised for the election of an Italian pope, and Bartholomew Prignani, archbishop of Bari, was chosen, April 9. He took the title of Urban VI. The French cardinals at Avignon declared the election void, August 9, and elected Robert of Geneva pope, who took the title of Clement VII., Sept. 16. Such was the commencement of the schism by which the Latin Church was agitated and divided for Ihirty-eight years. Each pope had his followers, and these were known by the names of Clementines and Urbanists. Clemets't's Inn. — This inn of Chancery is said by Dugdale, on the authority of an ancient record, to have been in existence long before 1479. The hall was bmlt in 1715. Cleobtiet (Battle). — Leofgar, bishop of Hereford, having led an army against the Welsh king Griffith, was defeated and slain at this place, in Herefordshire, June 17, 1056 a.d. Several of his priests who had accompanied Mm to the field of battle fell at his side. The chroniclers do not agree respecting the name of the place at which the battle was fought. Roger of Hoveden says Glastonbury. Clepstdea, or Watee-Clock. — The Chal- dseans and the Egyptians are said to have made use of some ingenious invention of this kind in order to measure time. Vitruvius ascribes the invention to Ctesibius of Alex- andria, who lived about b.c. 245. P. C. Scipio !Nasica introduced them at Rome B.C. 157. There can be no doubt that they were used by the Greeks at an early period. They were known in India in the 12th cen- tury. Modern water-clocks were invented during the 17th century. They were intro- duced from Burgundy into Paris in 1693. Ceee&t. — Bingham (Antiq. h. i. ch. v. 8. 8) says : " As to the reason of the name elerici and clerus, St. Jerom rightly observes, that it comes from the Greek K\fjpog, which signifies a lot; and thence he says, 'God's ministers were called elerici, either because they are the lot and portion of the Lord, or because the Lord is their lot, that is, their inheritance.' Others think some regard was had to the ancient custom of choosing per- sons into sacred offices by lot, both among Jews and Gentiles ; which is not improbable, though that custom never generally prevailed among Christians." The distinction between the clergy and the laity commenced at the foundation of the Christian church. The name clergy was at first given to the bishops, priests, and deacons, the only orders in the Chm-ch. In the 3rd century sub-deacons, CLE acoljrthists, readers, and other inferior or- ders, were appointed ; and these were also styled elerici. The clergy were afterwards divided into the regular and secular, the for- mer hving under some reUgious rule, such as abbots and monks, and the latter mingling with the people and having the care of souls, as bishops and priests. The term the clergy is now apphed in England to aU persons in holy orders belonging to the established church. A clergyman is exempted from serving on a jury, or as a baLliff, reeve, con- stable, &c. A clergyman is incapable of sitting in the House of Commons, or of being a councillor or alderman in a borough. He is free from arrest in a civil suit whilst engaged in divine sei-vice, or whilst going to or coming from the performance of this duty (9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 23, June 19, 1828). The mode of proceeding against the clergy for ecclesiasti- cal oifences is regulated by the Church Dis- cipline Act, 3 & 4 Vict. c. 86 (Aug. 7, 1840). At one time the clergy engrossed every branch of learning, and were remarkable for their proficiency in the study of the common law. The judges were selected from their ranks, and from the lower clergy the inferior offices were suppUed. Hence the term clerk. Clee&t (Sons of). — The festival of the Sons of the Clergy, celebrated every year at St. Paul's Cathedral, was instituted a.d. 1658. The society's charter of incorporation is dated July 1, 1678. It is not known whether the annual sermon was instituted at the origin of the feast. It has, however, been preached regularly since 1697. Cleek. {See Clesgy.) Cleekeitwell is called by Stow "Clarkes- Well, or Clarken-WeU." The same writer adds, the well "took name of the parish clarks in London, who (of old time) were accustomed there yearly to assemble, and to play some large history of Holy Scripture. For example of later time, to wit in the year 1390, the 14th of Richard the Second, I read, that the parish clarks of London, on the 18th of Jtdy, plaid interludes at Slrinners' Well, near unto Clarks' -Well, which play continued three days together, the king, queen, and nobles being present." Dugdale records the foundation of a nunnery here about 1100, and the erection of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem about 1110. In Fitz- Stephen's "Description of the most noble City of London" (1190), Clerkenwell is named as one of the spots where "the scholars, and youth of the city, do take the air abroad in the summer evenings." In 1563 the locality was still unoccupied, except by the monasteries and St. John's Street an'd Cow Cross ; but the number of houses was much increased before 1598. The Bridewell was erected in 1615 ; Sadler's WeUs Theatre was built as a music-house in 1683 ; the Work- house was erected in 1790; the Middlesex House of Correction in 1794 ; and the IN'ew Prison, or House of Detention, was built on the site of the Bridewell in 1813, and rebuilt in 1844. CLEEMOifT Febeand (France), the 221 CLE ancient Augustonemetum, was sacked by the Vandals a.d. 408, and by an army under Honorius in 412. Thierry captured it in 507, and it became the capital of Auvergne. It was frequently besieged. The Normans took it in 853 and in 916, committing great ravages on each occasion. It was the seat of the bishopric of Auvergne, founded about 250 ; but since 1160, the occupants of the see have taken the title of bishops of Clermont. Parts of the church of Notre Dame du Port were bmlt in 863, and the cathedral was foimded in 1248. In the Middle Ages, Cler- mont, called Clams Mons, or Claromonta- num, was the scene of two celebrated coun- cils. The first, which led to the first crusade, was summoned by Urban II., and lasted from the 18th to the 28th of Nov. 1095 ; and the second was held in 1130. Cleves (Germany) . — This district was ruled by cotmts from the 9th century until 1439, when Thierry VIII. was made duke by the e^nperor Sigismund. It passed into the possession of the house of Brandenburg in 1609; the French seized it in 1794, imited part of it to Berg in 1806 ; but it was restored to Prussia in 1815. (See Ber&.) The town of Cleves is pleasantly situated about two miles from the Ehine. The cathedral was bunt in 1346, and the castle, built in 1439, was the birthplace of Anne of Cleves, mar- ried to Henry VIII. Jan. 6, 1540. The marriage was abrogated by act of parUa- ment July 24, in the same year. Clifford's Ink received its name from the De CHfford family, who granted it to students-at-law in the reign of Edward III., about the year 1344, when it was made an inn of Chancery. Clifton Mooe (Battle).— During there- treat of the Pretender, Charles Edward, from England, the Enghsh were repulsed in an attack upon the Scottish rear-guard, at Clifton Moor, Dec. 18, 1745. The former lost one hundred men in killed and wounded, and the latter only twelve. Clissau (Battle).— Charles XII. of Swe- den having invaded Poland, gained a com- plete victory over Augustus, lang of Poland, on this plain, between Warsaw and Cracow, July 20, 1702. Charles XII. in pursuit of the king of Poland, fell from his horse and broke ms coUar-bone. Cloaca Maxima. (See Sewfibs.) Clock. — Sun-dials and clepsydras, orwater- clocks, preceded clocks moved by wheels and weights. Beckmann assigns the invention of the last-mentioned to the 11th century. The first pubhc clock was erected at Padua. Others were put up at Westminster in 1288 ; at Canterbury in 1292 ; at Dover in 1348 (the oldest extant) ; at Bologna in 1356 ; and at Paris in 1364. Their general introduction mto England may be referred to 1368, in which year Edward III. invited three Dutch clock- makers from Delffc to settle in the country. The Strasburg clock was erected about 1370. The duke of Burgundy took away the clock at Courtray, and removed it to Dijon in 1382. A public clock was set up at Spire CLO in 1395 ; and another at Nuremberg in 1462. Balance clocks were used by Walther for astronomical observations as early as 1484. A clock was erected at Venice in 1497. Port- able clocks are supposed to have been in- vented about 1525, in order to be used at sea in computing the longitude. The first Eng- hsh clock that measured time with accuracy is said to have been that at Hampton Court, which bears date 1540. Charles I. incor- porated the company of Clockmakers Aug. 22, 1632. The invention of pendulum clocks is claimed for three persons, — Richard Harris in 1641 ; Vincenzio Galileo, who is said to have rendered his father's discovery of practical utility in 1649 ; and Huygens in 1657. Repeating clocks were first con- structed by Barlow in 1676 ; the anchor escapement by Clement in 1680 ; and equation clocks, whose inventor is unknown, some time previous to 1699. Jewelled pallets and pivot-holes were introduced by De Baufre about 1704, and the compensation pendulum by Graham and Harrison in 1715. The electric clock was first exhibited to the Royal Society by Professor Wheatstone in 1840, and was much improved by Messrs. Bain, Appold, and Shepherd, the last of whom supphed the clock at the Exhibition of 1851. Clocks were formerly subject to a duty of 25 per cent., which was reduced to 10 per cent, in 1842, and stiU further dimi- nished in 1853. Cloghee (Ireland) was erected into a bishopric a.d. 493 hj St. Macartin, uwho founded a monastery, and died in 506. The cathedral was rebuilt in 1041 and again in 1295. The first Protestant bishop of Clogher was MOer Magrath, whom Queen EHzabeth appointed Sept. 10, 1570. Charles I. erected this town into a borough, and it returned two members to the Irish parliament till its disfranchisement at the Union. On the death of the Right Hon. Lord R. P. Tottenham, bishop of Clogher, April 28, 1850, the see was united to Armagh by the Church Tem- poralities Act. Clonfeet (Ireland) , — St. Brendan found- ed a monastery here a.d. 558, and became the first bishop of the diocese. In 1601 the see was united to Ejbnacduagh, and in 1834 to the sees of KiUaloe and Kilfenora. Clonmel (Ireland) was incorported at a very early period, but did not receive its charter till 1608. The manufacture of wool- len goods, introduced in 1667, decHned at I the Revolution. The trial of Smith O'Brien j for high treason commenced here Sept. 28, and terminated Oct. 9, 1848. Clontabf (Battle) . — Brian Bom, king of j Ireland, with a force of 20,000 men, defeated ; 21,000 Danes, under King Sitric, on the j plains of Clontarf, near Dubhn, on Good i Friday, April 23, 1014. 7,000 Irish, includ- ing Brian and his son Murrogh, feU in the action. The Danish loss amoimted to 13,000. Closetings. — The name given to the pri- vate conferences to which James II. in 1687 and 1688 summoned members of parhament CLO and Tarious public functionaries, for the pur- pose of winning: them over to his plan for the re-establishment of the Koman Catholic reli- gion and other arbitrary measures. CiiOSH, or Closstnge. — ^An old game of ninepins, prohibited by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1477-8) . The penalty for a person allowing this and several other games to be played in his house, was three years' imprisonment and a fine of £20, the players to be impri- soned two years and to forfeit £10. By 33 Hen, VIII. c. 9 (1541-2), any person keeping a house or place for the practice of this and other games mentioned in the statute, was to forfeit £2 per diem, and those using or haunting the place, 6s. 8d. for every offence. Closteh-Seven" (Convention). — The duke of Cumberland, at the head of 38,000 Hano- verians, Hessians, and other Germans, being hardly pressed by the French army, at the intervention of the count de Lynar, the Danish ambassador at Hamburg, signed this con- vention Sept. 8, 1757. It consisted of five articles, to which three separate articles were annexed. The troops laid down their arms and were dispersed. George II., as elector of Hanover, disavowed the authority of his son, the duke of Cumberland, to sign it, and the latter resigned aU his commands. It led to innumerable difficulties and dis- putes. Cloth. — The manufacture of woollen cloth was practised in Tyre B.C. 588, but its invention may no doubt be referred to a stiU earher period. Plaids were made in Eng- land about A.D. 500. In 960 the business became considerable in Flanders ; whence it was introduced into England in 1111. The first exportation of British cloth occurred in 1189, in which year the manufacture appears to have spread widely in England. Broad- cloth was made in 1197. In 1261 all Eng- lishmen were commanded to wear British cloth ; but, after the arrival of the Flemish weavers, in 1331, an exception was made in favour of their goods. The manufacture had obtained a firm footing in Yorkshire before 1461, and on the passing of the act to confine the manufacture to towns, and Hmit the number of looms allowed to each weaver (2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 11, ss. 9 & 10), in 1555, this county was exempted from all restric- tions. Medley cloths were invented in 1614. In 1643 cloths were fuUy finished in England, although some kinds were still sent to HoUand to be dyed. The art was, however, completely introduced in 1667. In 1698 both houses of parliament petitioned William III. to diminish the Irish manufacture of woollen cloth and substitute that of hnen in its stead ; and measures were afterwards taken with this view. The Clothworkers' Company was incorporated April 28, 1482, and con- firmed by Henry VIII. in 1528.- It was re-incorporated and named Clothworkers by Elizabeth, whose charter was confirmed by Charles I. in 1634. Cloud, St. (France). — The name is said to be derived from St. Clodoald, a son of Clodo- CLU mir, who became a monk and founded a monastery at this place, about five miles from Paris, a. n. 551. The palace was built in 1572 by Jerome de Gondy, a rich financier. Henry III. was assassinated here in 1589. Louis XIV. purchased it in 1658, and presented it to the duke of Orleans, and it remained the seat of that family uutd 1782, when Louis XVI. purchased it for Marie Antoinette. The council of the Ancients and that of the Five Hundred assembled at St. Cloud. The capitulation of Paris was signed at this palace in 1815. The palace and the park have been embellished and improved by successive sovereigns of France. Cloveshoo (Kent). — A celebrated council was held at this place, CHif, near Rochester, in Sept. 747 A.D. Twelve EngUsh prelates assem- bled, with the nobihty and clergy, under the sanction of Ethelbald, king of the Mercians. Thirty canons were passed, relating to the government and discipline of the Church. Councils were held here in 800; Oct. 12, 803 ; in 822 : and in Aug. 824. Cloyne (Ireland) was erected into a bishopric by St. Colman, who died Nov. 24, 604. In 1431 the see was united to Cork, but was separated in 1638. The celebrated Dr. Berkeley was bishop of Cloyne from 1733 to 1753. On the death of Bishop Brink- ley, in 1835, this see was permanently united to those of Cork and Eoss, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). Club (the Literary). — Dr. Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds formed a small circle oi friends, which was called "The Club." It was founded in 1764, and the original mem- bers were nine in number, Edmund Burke and Oliver Goldsmith being included in the list. They first met at supper, but in 1772 they resolved to dine together once every fortnight during the session of parliament. The first meeting recorded in their books took place at the "Turk's Head," Gerard Street, April 7, 1775. At Garrick's funeral, in 1779, it took the title of the Literary Club. Clubmen. — During the Great Ee- bellion, bands of armed men, bearing this title, opposed the military oppression to which they were subjected by both armies. In 1645 they petitioned Prince Eupert against their grievances, but, not receiving the satisfaction they required, they harassed the royahst forces, and, in the words ox Clarendon, " did him (General Goring) more mischief than all the power of the rebels." Clubs. — Dr. Johnson defined a club to be "an assembly of good feUows, meeting under certain conditions." A club of this kind, under the name of " La Court de bone Compagnie," was established during the reign of Henry IV. Occleve was one of its members ; and Chaucer is supposed to have belonged it. Sir Walter Ealeigh established the celebrated club at the Mermaid, in Friday Street, about the beginning of the 17th century. This was the scene of the 223 CLU wit-combats between Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, described by Beaumont : — " What things have we seen . Done at the Meimaid ! heard words that have been So nimble and so full of subtile flame, As if that every one from whom they came Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest." Ben Jonson founded another club in Fleet Street. The Civil Club was established in 1669. These, however, were social clubs, and the political club did not come into existence until a later period. Lord Stan- hope, in commenting upon the formation of the Eockingham administration in 1765, says, " It was at this period and under such a condition of parties that rival clubs for pohtics were formed, and rose into great vogue and importance. Under Lord Bute the Ministerial Club, as it was at first termed, used to meet at the Cocoa Tree Tavern, from which it soon derived its name." Gribbon describes it in his journal for Nov. 1762. The principal London clubs are : — Established. Built A.D. A.D. Alfred 1808 Ai-my and Navy . . 1848 Arthur's before 1756 Athenaeum 1823 .. 1829 Boodle's before 1772 Brooks's 1764 .. 1778 Carlton .. 1847 City of London . . 1833 Cocoa-tree before 1711 Conservative . . 1845 Ei-ectheum, now Parthenon 1836 GaiTick 1831 Guards .. 1848 Literary Caiub 1764 Military, Naval, and County) ,q,q Service / ■• ^^^^ Oriental 1824 .. 1828 Oxford and Cambridge . . 1838 Reform 1832 Travellei-s' 1814 .. 1832 Union .. 1822 United Service . . 1826 University . . 1826 White's. — Established as a chocolate-house 1698, and as a private club, 1736. Whittingtou . . 1847 Clxths (Toreign). — Political societies, estabhshed in Paris in 1782, were sup- pressed by the pohce in 1787. The Breton Club was formed at Versailles in 1789, and in 1792 it changed its name to that of the Jaco- bins. The " Club des Peuillants," of which La Fayette was a member, was founded in 1791 ; that of the Eeunion was commenced by the Grirondins, but suppressed Aug. 10, 1792. AU these French clubs were abolished Sept. 4, 1797. An attempt was made to revive these institutions dxiring the revolu- tion of February, 1848, but they were totally prohibited in 1849. During the first revo- lution several female clubs were formed in Paris, and the number of members at one time amounted to 6,000. They led to such grave disorders that they were closed by the Convention. Cltjg-n-i, or CLTJGiry (France), celebrated 224 CNO for its Benedictine abbey, founded by Wil- liam I., count of Auvergne, a.d. 910. Louis LX. of France and Pope Innocent IV. held a conference here in 1245. The monastery was frequently assailed by the Huguenots, and was ahnost entirely destroyed during the revolution in 1789. (See Cluniacs.) Ci-UN-ii cs, or Cluniacensians. — Monks of the abbey of Clugny received this name. They were a branch of the Benedictines. Odo, abbot of Clugny, a.d. 927, reformed their rule, and the Cluniacs became renowned throughout Europe. William of Warrenne, made earl of Surrey by WiUiam II., intro- duced the Cluniacs into England, and gave them their first house, at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1078. They had forty -two priories and ceUs in this country, the last having been estabhshed at Sleveshohn, Norfolk, in 1222. Wolsey dissolved four of their establishments in 1525, and the rest were suppressed at the Eeformation. There were also nuns of this order. Cltjsiitm (Italy) . — One of the twelve cities of which the Etruscan confederation was composed. Its original name was Camars. Porsenna, who is represented, by tradition, as having besieged Kome B.C. 508, was ruler of Clusium. It was besieged by the Gauls B.C. 388, B.C. 295, and B.C. 225. It became the seat of a bishopric at an early period, and is known under the modern name of Chiusi. Cltde Cakal. — The act for making this important communication between the rivers Forth and Clyde was obtained in 1768, and the works were commenced by Sir Laurence Dundas, June 10 in the same year. Mr. Smeaton was the chief engineer, and under his direction the works were completed July 28, 1790. Cltst, St. Maet's, (Battle,) was fought between the Protestant forces under Lord Grey and the Eoman CathoUc peasantry of Devonshire, on the evening of Saturday, Aug. 3, 1549, when the latter were defeated. Miles Coverdale, who afterwards translated the Bible into Enghsh, preached a thanks- fiving sermon for the victory on the battle- eld. Cnidits (Asia Minor) . — This city, in Caria, was the metropohs of the Dorian confede- racy. It is celebrated for the victory gained by Conon over the Lacedaemonian fleet, commanded by Pisander, B.C. 394. The inhabitants carried on a flourishing trade with Egypt at an early period. Aphrodite was the great object of worship amongst the Cnidians. Cifosxis (Crete), also written Cnossus and Gnosus, was founded, according to tradition, by Minos, the mythical king of Crete. It was colonized by the Dorians, and, in alliance with the cities of Gortyna and Cidonia, ruled over the whole of the island. The Eomans captured it and planted a colony in it, b.c. 67. The celebrated labyrinth of Crete, in which the Minotaur was confined, is always represented as having been situated in this city. COA Coach. — The precise period at which coai;hes were introduced is not known ; but Italy, France, Spain, and Germany all claim the honour of the invention. Towards the end of the 13th century, the queen of Charles of Anjou entered ISTaples in a caretta, which appears to have borne some resemblance to our carriages, and to have been regarded with favour by the French ladies, as Philip the Fair prohibited the use of similar vehi- cles to citizens' wives in 1294. The emperor Frederick III. visited Frankfort in a covered carriage in 1474, and in 1509 the elector of Brandenburg possessed a coach gilt all over. The first carriage seen in England was introduced by the earl of Arundel in 1580, but they were not generally used tiU about 1605. The first who drove six horses in his coach was the duke of Buckingham, in 1619; and his example was immediately emulated by the earl of jSTorthumberland, who set up a team of eight. Hackney coaches were first let for hire in London in 1625, in Paris in. 1650, and at Edinburgh in 1673. Stage- coaches were introduced into England during the 17th century, but the earliest public notification of their establishment is dated April 26, 1658. One was started between London and Edinburgh before 17,54 ; and in 1784 mail coaches were instituted. Mr. Josiah Child brought the first cabriolet from Paris in 1755, and Horace Walpole states that every man of fashion soon set up a similar conveyance. Cabs were introduced into London in 1820, and cabriolets were first let for hire in 1823. Coal is supposed to have been known to the Britons before the arrival of the Eomans, and to have been used in England a.d. 852. The earliest document in which its name occurs, is Bishop Pudsey's Boldon Book, dated 1180, in which we read of colliers es- tabhshed at Escomb and Bishopwearmouth. Newcastle coal is first mentioned in 1234, when Henry III. granted the inhabitants a charter to dig it ; and seaborne coal was sold in London before 1245, though at first only employed in the arts and manufactures. The Chinese used it in 1295. In consequence of a petition presented by Parliament to Edward I. in 1306, the use of coal in London and the suburbs was prohibited by procla- mation as a nuisance ; but, in 1321, the palace was warmed by its means. The exportation of coal from Newcastle com- menced in 1325, in which year several car- goes were conveyed to France. A tax of twopence per chaldron on all coals sold to persons not franchised in the port of New- castle was imposed in 1421, and made payable to the king; but the payment being very irregidar, siich large arrears were claimed by Queen Elizabeth, in 1599, that the town voluntarily agreed to pay a duty of one shilling per chaldron. Coal was first em- ployed in the manufacture of "glass and iron in 1624 ; and in 1638 its sale was made a monopoly by Charles I. The duty of Is. per chaldron was granted by Charles II. to the diike of Kichmond, in 1677 ; whence 225 COA it became known as the Richmond shilling. Its existence in Newfoundland was dis- covered in 1763, and mines were opened in Cape Breton in 1767. The production of tar from coal was discovered in 1779. The impost of the Richmond shilling was finally relinquished March 1, 1831 ; at which time the arrears, in consequence of which it was first claimed, were redeemed, with an overplus of £341,900. The following tables are given in Hunt's " Mineral Statistics for 1858.'" Froduce of the United Kingdom for 1858. Tons. Dmham and Northumberland 15,853,484 Cumberland 920,137 Yorkshire 8,302,150 Derbyshii-e, Nottinghamshire, and") .^ta--,. Leicestershire / 4,710,7u0 Warwickshire 356,500 Staffordihire 6,680,780 Lancashire 8,050,000 Chesliiie 695,450 Shropshire 749,360 Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and 1 Ti„-c~n Devonshire / 1,12o,2j0 North Wales 1,022,500 South Wales 7,495,289 Scotland 8,926,249 Ii-eland 120,750 Total 65,008,649 Exports of Coal from the United Kingdom in 1858. Tons. France received 1,344,342 Germany „ 679,2<>4 N. America „ 363,628 Prussia „ 363,499 Denmark „ 344,667 Russia „ 306,306 S.America ,, 269,41.5 E.Indies „ 2.58,807 Mediterranean „ 258,534 Spain „ 251,423 Holland „ 245,552 W. Indies „ 215,615 Italy „ 208,419 Tui-key „ 198,0al Africa „ 1{)6,(J53 Sweden „ 142,093 Other counti-ies „ 461,023 Total 6,077,271 CoAi, Exchange.— In 1807 the corporation of London possessed a coal exchange, w^hich was converted into a market in 1831. The fii-st stone of a new building was laid Dec. 14, 1847. It was opened by Prince Albert Oct. 30, 1849. Coalition (North and Fox) Adminis- tration. — The vote of censure on the peace of Versailles, passed Feb. 21, 17S3, induced the earl of Shelburne and his colleagues to resign office. Mr. Pitt, then only twenty- three years of age, was requested by George III. to form a ministry; but he dechned, and a long int.erregnum ensued, which was brought to a close by a coahtion between Mr. Charles James Fox and Lord North, under the premiership of the duke ot Portland. The new ministry kissed hands April 2, 17 stituted : — COA The cabinet was thus con- Treasury Duke of Portland. President of the Council. .Vi= count Stormont. Privy Seal Earl of Carlisle. Chancellor of Exchequer . .Lord John Cavendish. Home Secretary Lord ^'orth. Foreign Secretary Mr. Fox. Admiralty Viscount KeppeL The cabinet consisted of only seven persons. The gnreat seal vras placed in commission. Viscount Townshend was masterrgeneral of the ordnance ; Edmund Burke, paymaster- general ; Mr. Kichard Brinsley Sheridan, secretary to the treasury ; and Mr. Charles Townshend, treasurer of the navy. Mr. Fox's India Bill was rejected on its second reading, in the House of Lords, Dec. 17, 1783 ; and on the 18th, George III. sent a messenger to Lord North and Mr. Fox, requesting them to dehver up the seals of their oifices, which was done on the 19th of December. {See Pitt (Fiest) Adminis- TEATION.) CoAST-GuAED. — This force, at first formed for the prevention of smugghng, but now organized for defensive purposes, was trans- ferred from the Customs department to the Admiralty by 19 & 20 Vict. e. 83 (July 29, 1856). Coast Voitjnteees, or Waval Coast VoLUNTEEES.— By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 15, 1853), the Admiralty were em- powered to raise a number, not exceeding 10,000, of royal naval coast volunteers, by voluntary entry from among seafaring men and such others as may be deemed suitable. They were to be entered for a period of five years, and were to be exercised on board ship or on shore for a time not exceeding twenty- eight days in each year. By 19 & 20 Vict, c. 83, s. 10 (July 29, 1856), the officers of the coast-guard are to train and exercise the Eoyal Naval Coast Volunteers. Cobalt. — "The name Cobalt," says Bect- mann, "is given at present to that metal, and its ores, the oxides of which are largely employed in the manufactures of glass, porce- lain, and pottery, for the production of a blue colour." It was not known to the ancients. In 1754 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences oifered a premium for the discovery of a cobalt-mine in the south of Eng- land. One was found at Gwennap, in C omwall, to the proprietor of which the premium was awarded in December of the same year. The word cobalt is said to be derived from the Tcohold, gobhn, a term appHed to it by the German miners, because, as they assert, more valuable metals are never found where it occurs. CoBi/EifTZ (Prussia), the Confluentes of the Romans, is a town of great antiquity. The church of St. Castor, consecrated a.d. 836, is the spot 'where the grandsons of Charlemagne met when they divided the Western empire into Germany, France, and Italy, A.D . 84-3. At a council held here June 5, 860, peace was concluded between Lothaire, 226 COC king of Lorraine, and the sons of Charles the Bald. Another council took place in 922, and a third in 1012. Edward III. of England had an interview here vrith the emperor Lewis of Bavaria in 1338. The palace, built by the elector of Treves in 1779, was used by the French as barracks during their occupa- tion of the town in 1792. The Russians occupied Coblentz in 1814. A wooden bridge was built over the Rhine in 1819. In the spring of 1830, the waters of the MoseUe thawed before those of the Rhine, and, being stopped by the ice, occasioned a destructive inundation. The millennial jubilee of the church of St. Castor, built A.D. 836, was celebrated with great solemnity in 1836. CoBTJEG (Germany). — Capital of Saxe- Coburg Gotha. The palace was built a.d. 1549. "WaUenstein made an unsuccessful effort to besiege the castle during the Thirty Years' war (1632). The gymnasium was founded in 1604. CoccEiAis^s. — The followers of John Cocceius, of Bremen, bom A.D. 1603. He was professor of divinity at Levden, and taught that the whole of the Old Testament "was a kind of emblematic history of Christ, and of the Christian church ; that the prophecies of the ancient prophets, in their Uteral im- port, treated of Jesus Christ; and that whatever was to occur in the Christian church, down to the end of time, was all prefigured in the Old Testament, in some places more clearly, and in others less so." He beheved in a visible reign of Christ upon earth, after the conversion of the Jews. CocHEBEL (Battle).— Bertrand du Gues- clin defeated John, king of Navarre, at this place, near Evreux, Thursday, May 16, 1364. Although the forces of the king of Navarre were much inferior to those of the enemy in number, the struggle was maintained with great resolution. By this victory nearly the whole of Normandy was brought under sub- jection to Charles V. of France. Cochin (Hindostan) .—This native state was made tributary by Hyder a.d. 1776. Trea- ties were concluded by the East-India Com- pany with the rajah of Cochin in 1791 and May 6, 1809, by which, on the payment of an annual tribute, it was placed under British protection. The seaport town of Cochin was founded by Albuquerque in 1503, being the first Portuguese estabhshment. The Dutch captured it in 1663, but it was wrested from them by the Enghsh in 1796, and was, vrith its dependencies, ceded to England, in ex- change for the island of Banca, by the second and third articles of the convention between England and the United Netherlands, signed at London Aug. 13, 1814. CocHiif Chitsta (Asia) formed part of the Chinese empire till a few centuries after our sera. Its ancient history is very httle known. In 1774 the reigning family was expelled, and the land divided between three brothers, vrith whom "Warren Hastings in vain sought to establish commercial inter- course in 1778. The rightful heir returned coc in 1790, aiid recovered his possessions from the usurpers, and in 1797 he commenced the introduction of many European arts into his dominions, being assisted in his efforts by a French missionary. The East-India Com- pany again attempted to trade with the country in 1804 and 1822, but they were disappointed in both instances. Cochin China was invaded by a French and Spanish force in 1858, and the fort and bay of Turon were taken Sept. 1. In the spring and summer of 1859 other victories followed, and the French having captured all the forts on the Saigon, and driven back the native troops, a treaty of peace was signed July 30, and the French admiral withdrew his fleet. (^See Anam, Cambodia, and ToifQUiN-.) Cochineal was discovered by the Span- iards in Me3dco, a.d. 1518. The insect from which the dye is obtained was introduced into St. Domingo by Thierry, a French naturalist, in 1777, and into India in 1795. Only an inferior quaHty of dye is produced there. Prescott says that the rich crimson of the best kinds is the modern rival of the famed Tyrian purple. The excise duty on cochineal, reduced to a shilling the hundred- weight in 1842, was finally repealedby 8 & 9 Vict. c. 90, passed in 1845. Cockade. — The ancient custom of wearing badges in the bonnet is generally considered to have given rise to the modern cockade. As worn by gentlemen's servants, it is sup- posed to have originated during the wars of the Eoses. In later times the black cockade was the Hanoverian badge, the white that of the Stuarts. Cock-Ceower (the King's).— This officer during Lent crowed the hour every night within the precincts of the palace. George II., then prince of Wales, was sitting down to supper on Ash-Wednesday, 1715 (the first Lent after the Hanoverian accession), when the occupant of the office entered the apart- ment, and performed his peculiar duty. The prince, mistaking it for an intended insult, was greatly incensed, and the custom was from that time discontinued. CocK-FiGHTiNG was established at Athens as a pubhc or solemn pastime by Themis- tocles, before B.C. 465. The Eomans received the custom from the Greeks, although they appear to have preferred quail-fighting. The date of its introduction into England is uncertain, but may probably be referred to the period of Roman supremacy. The ear- liest record on the subject occurs in a work of Fitz-Stephen's, who died a.d. 1191. He m.entions that it was the practice of school- boys to bring their cocks to the master on Shrove Tuesday, and devote the morning to an exhibition of their prowess. The sport was prohibited in France in 1260, and in England, by Edward III., in 1365 \ again by Henry VIII., by Elizabeth in 1569, and by Cromwell, March 31, 1654. It was pro- hibited in England by the Cruelty to Animals Act, 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 59 (Sept. 9, 1835). This act was extended to Ireland by 1 Vict. c. 66 (July 15, 1837) , It is common in Asia, 227 COC is a fashionable pastime with the ladies of Peru, and is carried to a great height in the island of Cej^lon. Cock-Lane Ghost.— This famous decep- tion, practised in a house in Cock Lane, West Smithfield, in the years 1760, 1761, and 1762, created considerable sensation. The second and most notorious visitation com- menced in January, 1762. A chUd about eleven years of age was thrown into violent fits by seratchings and knockings heard in different parts of the room, and comatnunications were held with the supposed ghost who produced these noises. The case was taken up by several influential persons. The child was removed to the house of the Eev. Stephen Aldrich, rector of St. John's, ClerkenweU, and an investigation took place in the presence of several influential persons, on the night of Jan. 31. Measures had been taken to pre- vent any collusion, and the result was that the people assembled were unanimously of opinion, that " the child has some art of making, or counterfeiting, particular noises ; and that there is no agency of any higher catxse." The girl was moved from house to house, and was iiltimately detected in an attempt to play off a trick upon her auditors. Wilham Parsons, the officiating clerk of St. Sepulchre's, the father; Elizabeth, his wife; Mary Frazer, a girl who assisted in the deception ; a clergyman, and a tradesman, were tried at Guildhall, July 10, by a special jury, before Lord Mansfield, and convicted of a conspiracy against the life and character of Mr. K . Sentence having been de- ferred for seven or eight months, the clergy- man and the tradesman paid Mr. K between five and six hundred pounds, and were dismissed with a severe reprimand. The father was sentenced to stand in the pillory three times in one month, once at the end of Cock Lane, and after that to be imprisoned two years ; his wife to one year's imprisonment, and Mary Frazer to six months in Bridewell, with hard labour. Cockney. — The origin of this term, and its apphcation to a native of London, are involved in obscurity. In 1517, Henry VlII. made an order with reference to the feast of the King of the Cockneys, held on Childer- mas-day. Cocoa. — The properties of the kernel or seed of the cocoa-tree were known to the Spaniards and Portuguese before any other Europeans. In 1649 only one cocoa-tree existed in aU the Windward Isles, and that was grown as a curiosity in the garden of an Englishman. The tree was discovered in Martinique in 1655, and the cultivation was commenced in 1660. The use of the beve- age caUed cocoa did not become general till the end of the 17th century. Cocoa-Teee Club, the Tory chocolate- house of Queen Anne's reign, is mentioned by Addison in the first number of the "Spec- tator," Thursday, March 1, 1711. A club was subsequently formed here, which was caUed the '; Cocoa-tree Club" from the place of meeting. Q 2 COD Code Napoleon. — The eonmiissioii for the formation of a new civil code was ap- pointed by Napoleon in 1800. The code was promulgated in 1804, as the " Code Civil des Franfais." It was afterwards greatly ex- tended. Napoleon introduced it into Italy in 1805, into Portugal in 1808, into the Papal States in 1809. It was afterwards adopted in other countries. Codes. — A coUeetion or system of laws, made by order of Theodosius II., was pro- mulgated in the Eastern empire a.d. 438, and in the AVestern empire by Yalen- tinian III. in the same year. This was called the Theodosian code. Justinian ap- pointed a commission in Feb., a.d. 528, to compile one code from those of Gregorianus, Hermogenianus, and Theodosius. It was promulgated Api'il 7, 529. The Institutes were completed Nov. 21, 533, and the Pan- dects, or Digest, Dec. 16, 533. A second edition of the code appeared Nov. 16, 534. This formed the celebrated Theodosian code. Other sj'stems of laws, framed in diiferent countries, are also called codes. {See Code Napoleon, &c.) _ Ccelestines, or Ccelestinians.— This reh- gious order was founded near Sulmona, in the Abruzzi, by Peter of Morone, afterwards Ccelestine V., in 1254; was approved by Urban IV. in 1264, and called the order of the Hermits of St. Damien, or Moreonites. Eaised to the pontificate in 1294, Peter of Morone favoured the new order, and they took the name of Ccelestines. They spread through Italy and France, and were sup- pressed in the latter country in 1778. Coffee was introduced into Arabia from Persia in the loth centmy, and brought to C on- stantinople in 1554. The Venetians were the first Europeans acquainted withits use. It was brought to Marseilles in 1644, to London in 1652, and to Paris inl657 ; but until 1660its use was restricted to those who had travelled in the East. In 1690 the plant was reared at Am- sterdam ; it was planted at Surinam in 1718, at Cayenne in 1722, at Martinique in 1727, and before 1732 formed one of the staple produc- tions of Jamaica. Various acts encouraging the growth of British plantation coffee were passed in 1781, 1783, 1788, and 1796. Pro- sper Alpinus, the botanist, who spent several years in Egypt, and who died in 1617, is said to have been the first European author who mentioned coffee. By 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), a duty of fourpence on every gallon of coffee made and sold was granted to the king. Coffee-houses were estabhshed at Con- stantinople A.D. 1554. One was opened at Oxford in 1650, at London in 1652, at Paris in 1662, and at Marseilles in 1671. By a procla- mation of liing Charles IL, issued in Dec. 1675, they were suppressed ; but were soon re-opened by request of the tea and coffee merchants. For many years the use of coffee and the coffee-houses was assailed, by various writers. Coffins are said to have been invented by the Egyptians, who made them of stone and COX of sycamore-wood. Joseph was embalmed and placed in a coffin (Gen. 1. 26) in that country B.C. 1635. Coffins were made of lead, of iron, and of wood, at a very early period. Bede states that the Saxons buried their dead in wood. Coggleshall, or Coggeshall (Essex). — King Stephen founded a Cistercian abbey in this place a.d. 1142, and some remains exist at this day. It was once celebrated for the manufacture of white baize, called " Coggles- hall whites." Cognac (League) , called the Holy League, because the pope was at the head of it, wag concluded between the pope, the Venetians, the duke of MUan, and Francis I. of France, May 22, 1526. The objects were to compel the emperor Charles V. to release the French king's sons, on the payment of a reasonable ransom, and to re-estabhsh Sforza in the possession of the MUanese. The king of England was made protector of the league ; a prineipahty in the kingdom of Naples, with an annual revenue of 30,000 ducats, was to be settled upon him, and lands to the value of 10,000 ducats given to Wolsey. Cognac was one of the cautionary towns granted to the Huguenots by the peace signed Aug. 11, 1570. Coif. — Serjeants-at-law first adopted the coif as their badge during the reign of Henry III. (1216—1272). They used it to conceal their baldness, as there were then few lawyers who were not also priests, and, consequently, obliged to shave their heads. When it became inciunbent on judges to have passed through the degree of serjeant- at-law, they retained the coif in their higher dignity, as we learn from Sir John Fortes- cue's discourse Be Laudibus Legum Anglia, vrritten between the years \4^6\ and 1470. On the appointment of official legal costume by the decree of the Westminster judges, subscribed June 4, 1635, the coif became an established portion of judicial uniform. As a portion of female attire, coifs were intro- duced early in the 17th century. The use of the coif in the coronation has been discon- tinued since the reign of George II. Coimbatoee (Hindostan). — This state, annexed to Mysore a.d. 1746, was taken by the Enghsh in 1783, and was formally incor- porated with our possessions in India in 1799. The town of Counbatore, captured by the Enghsh Nov. 26, 1783, was restored at the peace concluded iu 1784. It was retaken July 21, 1790. Tippoo invested it June 13, 1791, and, having summoned it in vain, made a general assault, which was repulsed, Aug. 11. Having received i-einforcements, Tippoo compelled the garrison to surrender Nov. 3, 1791. CoTMBEA (Portugal), the Conimbrica of the Romans, was erected into a bishopric during the 6th century. It was taken from the Moors a.d. 872, recovered by them in 982, and finaUy reconquered bv Ferdinand the Great and the celebrated Cid in 1064. The monastery of Santa Cruz was founded June 28, 1131, On the elevation of Portugal COI into a kingdom in 1139, Coimbra became tbe capital ; and in 1308 the university was tem- porarily removed there from Lisbon by King Dionysius. The murder of Inez de Castro by Alfonso IV. took place Jan. 7, 1355. On the accession of John I., April 6, 1385, the seat of government was transferred to Lis- bon. The plague carried oflf many of the inhabitants in 1423. The university was finally transferred to Coimbra in 1537. The aqueduct was built in 1568. Coimbra suf- fered much from an earthquake in 1755, and was the scene of a victory gained by the Enghsh over the French in 1810. Coin. — The Parian chronicle attributes the invention of coin, or metal stamped for currency, to Pheidon of Argos. He is said to have coined silver money in the island of .ffigina, B.C. 895. Herodotus (i. 94) says the Lydians were the first who coined gold and silver money. The first known copxJer coins of Greece are about the date b.c. 490. Silver coinage commenced at Eome b.c. 266, and gold coinage B.C. 204. A metallic currency existed in Britain previous to the Koman occupation. Under the Komans, the coin of England resembled that of Eome ; but the Saxons introduced money of a totally diiferent character. Silver skeattse, coins worth about a twenty-fifth less than the penny afterwards used, have been discovered, which were struck probably before the conversion of Ethelbert, king of Kent, a.d. 597, as they are without the sign of the cross. The stycas, minute coins of copper, zinc, and silver, were coined by the kings of Northumberland about 670, and are remarkable for the excellence of their workmanship. Silver pennies, worth three of ours, were introduced about 725 or 794, and formed the principal English money till some time after the Norman conquest. Ed- ward the Confessor issued a few gold pennies, but no regular gold coinage took place till the time of Henry III. ; since which the history of Enghsh coinis much better defined. During the Anglo-Saxon and early Anglo- Norman periods, gold byzants had a legiti- mate circulation in England, and were indeed the chief commercial medium throughout Europe. Elizabeth withdrew the base coin- age of former sovereigns in 1560, and the fact is noticed in the inscription on her tomb. A.D. 1-227. 1247. 1344. 1465. 1504. 1551. Groats, or "grotes," ordered to be coined. Henry III. forbids the currency of the old money, and commands a new coinage. Fii'st gold coinage in England by Henry III. This piece was called a " gold x^enny," and passed current for twenty ordinary pence. Round pennies, halfpennies, and farthings ai-e coined by Edward I., who introduces niany improvements. First gold florins and nobles are coined by Edward III. New issue of gold nobles, called rials and angels, by Edward IV. Sovereigns ordered to be struck by Henry VII. ShUUngs coined by Henry VII. Crowns, half-crowns, and sixpences are coined by Edward VI. ItJOl. 1663. 1665. 1670. 1672. 1699. 1718. 1797. 1817. 1849. COI Irish shillings are struck by Elizabeth. Their intrinsic value was nine pence, l)ut they were ordered to pass cui-rent for twelve pence. Milled money is first coined by Elizabeth. First copper coinage in England, by Elizabeth. This money was for use in Ireland. Guineas of twenty shillings are tii-st coined by Charles II. Copper halfpence and farthings are coined by Charles II. Gold coins of ten, forty, and one hundred shillings are ordered. Aug. 16. Copper cun-ency is established. Kefonnation of the silver coinage by Mr. (afterwards Sir Isaac) Newton. The value of the guinea is settled at twenty- one shillings. Quarter-guineas are coined by George I. Gold bcven-shilling pieces, and copper two- penny pieces, are coined by George III. July 1. The new sovereign of twenty shillings is first coined. Florins are coined. Coiif-CLippiifG. — This crime was of fre- quent occurrence in early times. The custom of cutting the silver penny into halves and quarters served to encourage it. Henry III. prohibited the circulation of chpped coin, by letters dated at Merton, Nov. 17, 1248, and in 1278, 280 Jews were hanged in London for coin-clipping. By 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 1 (1696), £1,200,000 was raised by a house-duty to defray the expense of withdrawing the chpped coin. Scarcely any of the coin in circulation was worth half the nominal value. CoiN^ijsTG. — The coining of money is the exclusive prerogative of the Crovra. The privilege was in early times occasionally granted to bishops and abbots. By the common law of England, and in many sta- tutes, the crime of counterfeiting the money of the realm was declared high treason. By 27 Edw. I., de Falsa Monetd (1299), the im- portation of false money was made a capital crime. The counterfeiting of foreign coin current in England was declared high treason by 1 Mary, st. 2, c. 6 (1553), and as such rendered the offender subject to all the penalties used and ordained in that case. By 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 26, ss. 1 & 4 (1696-7), the mere possession of coiner's tools, as well as the colouring, gilding, &c., any coin resem- bling the current money, was made high treason. This was continued in 1702 by 1 Anne, c. 3. All former acts, however, were repealed by 2 WiU. IV. c. 34 (May 23, 1832), which made the manufacture, pur- chase, or importation of false money, and the wilful injury of good money, punishable by transportation, since altered to penal servi- tude; while those guilty of uttering such coin were liable to imprisonment. The provisions of this act were extended to the colonies by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 48 (Aug. 4, 1853) . Attempts having been made to use coin for advertising purposes, by stamping names upon it, this was made a misdemeanour by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 102 (Aug. 20, 1853). The process of coining was, in early times, accomphshed by hammering bullets of metal fiat, and placing them between two dies ; these were struck with heavy mal- lets until the impression was obtained. The COL French made an improvement upon this pro- cess about the middle of the 16th century, by the apphcation of the screw, ^utoine Brucher invented the eoinin^-press in 1553, and milled money was coined by Ehzabeth in 1562, though it was not general in England until 1662. Boulton invented his coining- machine in 1788, and the greater part of the coinage of the reahn was carried on at his works at Soho, Birmingham, till the Mint was established in 1810. During the Middle Ages the right of coining was considered the best guarantee of independence. The citizens of Lucca, in the 13th century, by way of asserting their independence of Pisa, went and coined money at the gates of that city. CoLAPOOR (Hindostan). — This Mahratta state was founded by Sumbajee, the grandson of Sevajee, who overran the country a.d. 1670. At the commencement of the centiiry, pirates from several of its ports infested the seas, and by treaty concluded Oct. 1, and ratified Nov. 13, 1812, the seaboard was ceded to the East-India Company. The rajah was assas- siuated in 1821, and such confusion prevailed, that the state was for some time occupied by Enghsh troops. C o L B E E G (Pomerania) . — The Eussians having besieged this place for 29 days, retired Oct. 31, 1758. They retm-ned in 1760, with a fleet of 27 ships and an army of 15,000 men. General Werner came to the assistance of the garrison, who held out bravely, Sept. 18, and in a few days dispersed both fleet and army. The Russians returned in 1761, and Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg, at the head of the army sent for its rehel, cut his way through the Eussians Nov. 14, and the place, long defended with wonderful heroism, sur- rendered Dec. 16. CoLCHESTEK (Esscx), the Camalodunum of the Romans, and the Caer CoHn of the Britons, is said to have been the birthplace of the emperor Constantine, a.d. 265, and to have sent a bishop to the council of Aries 314. Neither of these stories is supported by trustworthy evidence. It was seized by the Danes in 838, and was not finally retaken till 921, when Edward the Elder expelled the foreigners and rebuilt the fortifications. Eichard I. granted the first charter, Dec. 6, 1189. The castle was besieged and the town plundered by King John's barons in 1215. The plague prevailed here in 1348 and 1360. Henry VI. visited the town Aug. 5, 1445, and Catherine of Aragon in 1516. The Dutch and Flemish exiles settled here in 1571, and established the manufacture of various woollen goods. Colchester was besieged and taken by the ParUamentarians during the civil war, the defence lasting from June 13 to Aug. 27, 1648, Between Aug. 1665 and Dec. 1666, the plague carried ofi" 4,731 of the inhabitants. Colchester was deprived of its | charter in June, 1684, but recovered it in ; 1693. The theatre was built in 1812 ; and the j Essex and Colchester Hospital in 1820. j Colchis (Asia) . — This country, celebrated in mythical history, is said by Herodotus to 230 COL have been peopled by the renmant of the army led by Sesostris into Scythia. Xeno- phon attacked and defeated the Colchians during his celebrated retreat, B.C. 401. Col- chis, long subject to Persia, became indepen- dent before the time of Alexander the Great (B.C. 336—323) . It was subjected by Mithri- dates, of Pontus, from whom it was wrested by Pompey, B.C. 65; but the Eomans did not reduce the country into the form of a pro- vince. Gibbon remarks (ch. xhi.) that " the riches of Colchis shine only through the darkness of conjecture or tradition ; and its genuine history presents an uniform scene of rudeness and poverty." In early times the Colchians were noted for their manufacture of hnen and knowledge of navigation. It is the scene of the exploits of the fabled Argo- nautic expedition, the first attempt of the Greeks at distant navigation, said to have been undertaken B.C. 1260. Its original name was ^a, and it comprised the modern Mingreha, and part of the neighbouring country. CoLDisTGHAM (Berwickshire). — This place is celebrated for a nunnery, founded as early as the 7th century. In 679 it was destroyed by hghtning, and in 870 seized by the Danes. The nuns cut off their noses and lips, in order to disfigure themselves ; which so infuriated their brutal captors, that the whole sisterhood was burnt in the monastery. Eling Edgar founded a Benedictine priory on the same site in 1098. Coldstream Guards. — This regiment was enrolled in the town of Coldstream, Berwick- shire, by General Monk, Jan. 1, 1660, and on the disbanding of the army in January, 1661, was retained by Charles II. in las special service. CoLEEAiNE (Ireland) was originally the seat of a bishop's see, founded by St. Cabreus about A.D. 540. In 1171 it was plundered by the king of Down, and again in 1213 by Thomas MacUchtry, who used the stones of the abbey as materials for a castle which he erected here. A monastery for Dominican friars was founded about 1244. James I. granted Coleraine and the surroimding dis- tricts to a company of London merchants, known as the " Governor and Assistants of the New Plantation in Ulster," in 1613, and in 1614 the town was incorporated by the same monarch. Coliseum. — This celebrated amphitheatre at Rome was commenced by the emperor Vespasian a.d. 75, and completed by Titus A.D. 80. It received the name of Cohsetun on account of its magnitude. Gibbon (ch. xii.) thus describes the magnificent edifice : — " It was a building of an elhptic figure, five hun- dred and sixty-four feet in length, and four himdred and sixty-seven in breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four successive orders of architecture, to the height of one hundred and forty feet. The outside of the edifice was encrusted with marble and decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast concave, which formed the inside, were iLUed and surrounded with COL sixty or eighty rows of seats, of marble like- wise, covered with cushions, and capable of receiving with ease above fourscore thousand spectators." A bull-feast was celebrated in the Cohseum, Sept. 3, 1332. Eugenius IV. surrounded it with a wall, and it was conse- crated by Benedict XIV. CoLLAE. — The use of collars of gold and jewellery is of the greatest antiquity. They were worn by the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Komans, Manlius Torquatus, who was consul at Kome B.C. 287, received his surname from a collar he took from a Gaul whom he slew in fight. Collars were afterwards used as part of the insignia of the various orders of knighthood. The collar of SS. is said to have been adopted in honour of the two martyrs Sim- plicius and Faustinus, who were thrown into the Tiber with stones and chains round their necks, by order of Diocletian ; but this and other explanations of its origin do not rest upon good authority. This subject has been discussed in the second volume of the first series of "Notes and Queries" BouteU gives the following explanation : — " Next to the Garter itself, the most celebrated knightly decoration of this class is the Collar of SS. introduced by King Henry IV., apparently as a memorial of the success with which his aspiring ambition had been crowned : this letter S, repeated either in Mnks of gold, or in gold embroidery, worked upon a fillet of blue, is the initial of the word ' Souveraine,' Henry's motto, which he bore while earl of Derby." It was ori- ginally the hvery of John of Gaunt, adopted by Henry IV. as part of the royal hvery in 1399. Previous to the battle of Agincourt, Oct. 25, 1415, Henry V. permitted all the untitled members of his retinue to wear this collar ; thereby conferring upon them the privileges of nobfiity. The collar of the order of the Garter was assigned by Henry VII. some time between the years 1496 and 1502. Collects were introduced by Pope Gela- sius between a.d . 492 and 496. The collects for the day of the Church service appeared in the first prayer-book of Edward VI., in 1548. Many are very ancient, some being the com- position of St. Jerome, and even of Gelasius himself. CoLLEGiAifTS, or CoLLEGiANS. — This sect was formed in Holland a.d. 1619. They were thus named because they called their assem- blies, or sacred conventions, held twice a year at Eheinsburg, near Leyden, colleges. Three brothers, John-James, Hadrian, and Gisbert Koddeus, were its authors. Mosheim describes them as " a very large society of persons of every sect and rank, who assume the name of Christians, but entertain differ- ent views of Christ; and which is kept together neither by rulers and teachers, nor by ecclesiastical laws, nor by a formula of faith, nor, lastly, by any set of rites, but solely by the desire of improvement in scrip- tural knowledge and piety." In 1686 the Collegians spht into two opposing sects, but COL the breach was healed early in the 18th cen- tury. CoLLiEEY. — The earliest mention of col- lieries occurs in a charter of Henry III. (dated 1239), granting to the burgesses of Newcastle permission to dig for coal. In 1330 they were regarded as valuable pro- perty. The employment of females in col- lieries was regulated by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 10, 1842), which ordered that no new female workers should be engaged at all ; that in three months after it was passsed, no female under eighteen should be so employed; and that after March 1, 1843, female service in mines should be totally abolished. CoLLODiow. — The iodized collodion now so largely employed for photographic pur- poses, was discovered by Mr. Scott Archer, who published an account of its preparation and properties in the " Chemist" for March, 1851. CoLLTKiDiANS. — Arabian heretics, who "invested the Virgin Mary with the name and honours of a goddess." Epiphanius says they were all females, and that they sacrificed to the Virgin Mary. They arose towards the close of the 4th century, and received their name from the collyrides, or Uttle cakes, which they offered to the Virgin Mary. They came from Thrace and parts of Scythia. CoLMAE (France), near the site of the ancient Argentaria, was raised to the rank of a town A.D. 1220. It was made a free impe- rial city in the 13th century, and was fortified in 1552. The Swedes captured it in 1632, and Louis XIV. took it and destroyed its fortifications in 1673. It was ceded to France in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick. The plague committed great ravages in 1541. Its cathe- dral was founded in 1363. CoLOGifE (Prussia), the Colonia Agrip- pina of the Romans, received its name from the empress Agrippina, who estabhshed a colony here about a.d. 50. It was erected into an archbishopric before 314. A.D. 508. Clovis is declared king of the Franks at Cologne. 700. The church and nunnery of Santa Maria in Capitolio are founded. 715. Chai-les Martel susUiins a defeat near Cologne. 782. Charlemagne holds a council here. 870. Sept. 26. A council is held on discipline. 873. Sept. 26. A council is summoned. 887. April 1. A council held against robbers of churches. 957. Cologne is declared an imperial town. 980. Archbishop Bruno fouiids the church of St. Pantaleon. 1057. A council for the reformation of the clergy. 10o6. St. Gereou's Kirche is founded. 1110. A council is held. 1115. The emperor Henry V. is excommunicated at a Council held here. 1119. The excommunication of Henry V. is published at a council. 1164. The relics of the three kings ai'e removed to Cologne. 1185. The outer walls are buUt. 118(5. A coun.-.U is held. 1187. Another councU. 1259. All ships trading to the neighbourhood are compelled to unload here. 231 COL COL 1261. March 12. A council is held. 1266. Another councU. 1270. The cathedi-al is commenced. 1281. March 9. A council on discipline. 1307. Feb. 22. A council against the Beghards. 1310. The year is ordered hy council to commence at Cologne at Christmas, instead of at Baster, according to their custom. 1322. Oct. 31. Another council is held. 1388. The university is founded. 1390. Sept. 16. Theancient statutes of the province are renewed at a council. 1424. April 22. A council is held on discipline. 1425. Persecution and expulsion of the Jews. 14.32. March 3. A council on discipline. 1536. A council on the duties of ecclesiastics, &c. 1571. The town-hall is built. 1577. Birth of Kubens at Cologne. 1618. Expiilsion of the Protestants 1636. Church of the Jesuits is founded. 1642. Mai-y de Medicis dies at Cologne. 1655. Sept. Prince Charles, afterwards Charles II. of England, ai-rives at Cologne, and re- mams in this city above two years. 1787. The Protestants are allowed to erect a place of worship and a school. 1795. Cologne is seized by the French. 1801. It is made the capital of the French depart- ment of La Roer. 1814. It is restored to Prussia. 1815. The fortifications are restored. 1837. Tne navigation of the Rhine is opened, which enables Cologne to caiTy on a direct foreign trade. 1841. Sept. 1. The raUroad to Aix-la-Chapelle Is opened. 1848. Sept. The newly-finished parts of the cathedral are thro%vn open to the public. 1855. A pei-manent bridge over the Rhine, for rail- way and common traffic, is commenced. Colombia (South America). — The ancient vice-royalty of IS'ew Granada and Quito, and the state of Venezuela, having thrown oflF the Spanish yoke, lormed themselves into a republic under the name of Colombia, in 1819. 1820. 1821. 1824. 1825. July 13. The Congress express willingne-ss to enter into negotiations with Spain, if their republic is acknowledged independent. Jiine 24. The republican troops, under General Bolivar, defeat the royalists at Carabobo. Bee. Spain loses aU power in the new republic. Nov. 13. Battle of Maracaibo, in which the republicans are defeated by the royalists, under General Morales. March 8. Treaty of alUance between Colombia and Buenos Ayres. Nov. 6. The Colombians tate Puerto CabeUo. Feb. 10. Bolivar is elected dictator by the Congress of Peru. June 30. Alliance between Colombia and Mexico. Jan. 1. Great Britain recognizes the inde- pendence of Colombia. March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Guatemala. May 28. Ti-eaty of friendship and com- merce with the United States. Nov. 7. Treaty of friendship and commerce with Great Britain. Aug. 19. The Congress at lima declares Bolivar president for life. Sept. 1. Bolivar appoints Santa-Cruz his deputy during his absence in Peru. Nov. 14. Bolivar returns to Bogota. Nov. 23. He accepts the dic- tatorship. , April 18. Insurrection of Colombian troops. April 23. The Congress of Ocana declares Ignacio Marques president. Sept. 25. San- tander excites a revolt against Bolivar, who escapes assassination, and quells the in- surrection. 1829. Venezuela constitutes itself a separate re- public. 1830. Jan. 20. Bolivar tenders his resignation of the presidentship, and retires to Cdxthagena shortly afterwards. Venezuela again joins New Granada. Dec. 17. Death of Bolivar. 1831. Nov. 17. Venezuela, New Granada, and Colombia, again become separate states. {See Venezttela.) Colombo (Ceylon) was founded by the Portuguese a.d. 1-517, and fortified by them in 1520. Eajah Singha laid siege to it in Aug. 1586, but was forced to withdraw the follow- ing year. The Dutch wrested it from the Portuguese in 1656, and retained possession tiU Feb. 14, 1796, when it was taken by the Enghsh. CoLoirr. — The formation of colonies is among the earliest events of which any his- torical record exists. The Phoenicians and the Carians planted several colonies in the Mediterranean, and the Greeks followed their example. The Eomans began to establish colonies during the monarchical period. In modem times, the Venetians, the Portuguese, the Spanish, the French, the Enghsh, and the Dutch, have been dis- tinguished by their attempts to form colo- nies. In this respect England has distanced all competitors, having succeeded in estab- lishing the most extensive colonial empire of ancient or modern times. The following is a list of the British colonies with the date of their settlement, capture, &c. : — African Forts— Settled in 1618 Anguilla „ 1666 Antigua „ 1632 Ascension Island — Granted by Spain 1827 Australia, South— Settled 18:U West „ 1829 Bahamas „ 1630 Barbadoes „ ... 1614 Ceded by the emperor Shah Allum June 20, 1765 Berbice— Capitulated Sept. 1803 Bei-mudas- Settled 1609 Bombav— Ceded by Portugal June, 1661 British" Colombia— Settled 18-58 British Guiana— Capitulated Sept. 1803 Canada, Lower „ Sept. 18, 1759 „ tipper ,, Sept. 8,1760 Cape Breton Island— Taken from the French 1745 Cape Coast Castle— Ceded by the Dutch .... 1661 Cape of Good Hope— Capitulated . . Jan. 10, 1806 Ceylon- CapitiUated Sept. 17, 1795 Demerara „ Sept. 1803 Dominica — Ceded by France 1763 Essequibo — Capitulated Sept. 1803 Falkland Islands— Settled 1833 Fernando Po— Taken possession of 1815 Gambia— Settled 1618 Gibraltar— Capitulated Aug. 4, 1704 Gold Coast— Settled 1618 Gozo— Capitulated Sept. 1800 Granada — Ceded by France 1763 Heligoland— Capitulated 1807 Honduras— Treaty 1670 Hongkong „ 1842 Ionian Isles — Placed under British protection 1814 Jamaica — Capitulated 1655 Labuan— Settled 1847 Madras „ 1639 Malacca — Received from the Dutch in ex- change for Sumatra April 9, 1825 Malta— Capitulated Sept. 1(?00 Mauritius „ Deo.3,1810 COL Hon tserrat— Settled 1(532 Natal— Taken from the l>utch 1842 Nevis „ „ \ms New Brunswick — Ceded by France 1713 Newfoundland— Settled before 1548 New South Wales— Settled 1787 New Zealand „ 1815 Nova Scotia— Ceded by Fran'e Oct. 7, 1748 Port PhUlip— First sale of crowii lands m . . 1835 Prince Edward's Island — Taken from the French 1758 Prince of Wales Island — Purchased by the East-India Company 1786 Sierra Leone — Settled 1787 Singapore— Treaty Feb. 26, 1819 St. Helena— Taken from the Dutch 1673 St. Christophei-'s, or Kitt's— Settled 1623 St. Lucia— Capitulated June 22, 1803 St. Vincent— Ceded by France 1763 Swan River— Settled 1829 Tobago — Ceded by France 1763 Tortola— Settled 1666 Trinidad— Capitulated Feb 18,1797 Vancouver — Settled 1848 Van Diemen's Land— Settled 1803 Victoria (Hongkong) „ 1842 Victoria (Port Phillip)— Erected into a separate colony 1851 Virgin Islands Colophon' (Asia Minor) . — An Ionian city, founded, according to tradition, by Andrse- mon. It was a flourishing city as late as B.C. 66. Strabo says that the Colophonians were celebrated for the excellence of their cavalry. It was, in fact, considered invin- cible, and gave rise to the proverb, " He has put the Colophon to it," or given the finishing stroke, used to show that a matter had been brought to a certain tei-mination. Old works, before the introduction of a title-page, had title, date, &c., printed at the end; and this, as the last thing printed, was termed a colo- phon. CoiossiANS, (Epistle to the,) was addressed by St. Paul to the Christians of Colossse, in Phrygia, in June a.d. 60. Colossus of Ehodes, a brazen statue of Apollo, commenced by Chares B.C. 290, and completed B.C. 280. The statement that one foot rested on each side of the harbour of Ehodes, and that ships passed under it in full sail, does not rest on good authority. It was 105 feet in heigbt, and was ascended by a winding staircase. An earthquake threw it down B.C. 224, and it was never re-erected. The remains were sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa, a.d. 672, and 900 camels were loaded with the brass. It was one of the seven wonders of the world. CoLTJMBiNiA. — This metal was discovered by Mr. HatcheU in a ferruginous mineral from North America, a.d. 1801. Eckeberg, who afterwards found it in a Swedish mine- ral, gave it the name of Tantalum. Columbus (United States), the chief town of Ohio, was founded a.d. 1812. The old State-house was destroyed by fire in 1852. Combs were made by the Greeks and Eomans, and during the Middle Ages, of boxwood, ivory, and other materials. They often occur in early barrows, British, Eo- man, and Saxon; and were buried with both J)agans and Christians. Some were foimd at COM Pompeii like the modern smaU-tooth combs. In the 13th century combs were sometimes made of gold and set with jewels. Comedy was introduced at Athens by Susarion and Dolon, b.c. 562. Thespis, the "father of comedy," performed on a wag- gon B.C. 535. A decree for its prohibition was passed b.c. 44fl, but was evaded, as per- formances are recorded to have taken place B.C. 439 and B.C. 437. Aristophanes, the chief poet of the old comedy, exhibited his first production B.C. 427. The middle comedy commenced B.C. 375, and was supported by thirty-five poets, none of whom are of great repute. The new comedy, which began about B.C. 335, owes its chief celebrity to the productions of Menander, who began his theatrical career B.C. 321. The principal Latin comedy writers are Plautus, who died B.C. 184, and Terence, B.C. 159. Some differ- ence of opinion prevails respecting the origin of Enghsh comedy. Hallam (Lit. vol. ii. pt. ii. ch. 6) speaks of " Ealph Eoister Bolster, written by Udal in the reign of Henry VIII. , as the earliest English comedy in a proper sense, so far as our negative evidence warrants such a position." This comedy, probably written before 1540, was first printed in 1565. Hallam beUeves it to be "the earliest lively picture of London manners among the gallants and citizens, who furnished so much for the stage down to the civil wars." For a long time " Gam- mar Gurton's Needle," supposed to have been written by John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath and WeUs, was considered the first English comedy. It was repre- sented at Christ's College, Cambridge, about the year 1565, and the earliest edition is that of 1575. " Misogonus," vmtten by Thomas Eychardes, another comedy, is known to have been written before 1560. In France, Jodelle's comedy of "La Eencontre" was I represented before Henry II. in 1552 ; and : his comedy of "L'Abb^ Eugene" was pub- lished about the same time. Hallam terms the " Le Menteur" of CorneiUe "the first French comedy written in polite language, without low wit or indecency." The comedies of Larivey were published in 1579; and Moliere began to write in 1653. Spanish comedy commenced in the latter portion of the 16th century, and was chiefly supported by Lope de Vega, who flourished in 1600, and by Calderon, who pubMshed twelve comedies in 1635. Ariosto wrote the first regular Italian comedies in 1495, and Ma- chiaveUi composed his "Mandragola" before 1520. Flaminio Scala first published the outhne of a series of extemporaneous come- dies in 1611, and they afterwards became the most popular branch of the Italian drama. The German theatre is not very rich in comic authors. Hans Sachs, whose works appeared in 1578, perhaps supplied its earliest comedies. Comets. — Humboldt (Cosmos, vol. i. p. 84) remarks, that " Kepler, with his usual anima- tion of expression, said that there were more comets in the regions of space than fishes 233 COM in the depths of ocean. As yet, however, there are scarcely one hundred and fifty whose paths have been calculated, if we may assume at six or seven hundred the number of comets whose appearance and passage through known constellations have been ascertained by more or less precise observa- tions." The Chinese observations, which go back 500 years before the Christian aera, are of great value. Mr. John Rus- sell Hind has pubHshed a history of cornet^ ; and to his work we are indebted for much of the information given in the fol- lowing list : — 370. A comet mentioned by Aristotle. by PiBgig. 136. Mentioned by Justin, and China. 178. Observed by the Chinese. 389. Mentioned by contemporary historians as of extraordinary briUiaucy and size, and as a cause of much teiTor. 682. Recorded in the Chronicle of Idatius. 615. July. Observed in China. First mention of coruscations in the taU of a comet. 891. May. Observed in Europe and China. 989. Observed in China ; and supposed to have been Bailey's Comet. 1066. Obsei-ved in Europe, and considered ominous, as it ocoui-red in the year of the Norman conquest. 1264 CalcToIated by Piagr6, and supposed to be identical with that of 1-556. 1337. Fine comet, described by Nicephoras Gre- goras and in the Chinese annals. 1402. A very splendid comet visible in Europe and Asia. 1456. Bailey's Corned, observed in Europe and China. 1472. A very splendid comet, with a prodigiously long tail, observed in Europe and China. 1577. Parallax of this comet ascertained by Tycho Brahe. 1618. Nov. Discovered by Kepler. Gassendi, and others, and observed by Hanlot. 1680. Nov. 14. Discovered by Godfrey Kirch, at Cobui-g. This comet directed Newton's attention to cometaiy astronomy. 1682. Bailey's Comet, discovered by him to be identical with that of 1456 and succeeding years, and to be periodical in its return. This was the first demonstration of the periodicity of comets. 1707. Nov. 25. Discovered by Manfredi and Stan- car i, at Bologna. 1744. The finest comet of the 18th century. It was observed by almost every astronomer of the age. 1772. Biela'.< Comet. 1786 Jan. 17. Enck^s Comet, discovered by Mechain. 1811. March 26. The Grand Com,et, discovered by Flaugergues, at Viviers. 1815. March 6. Olbers' Comet, discovered by Olbers, nt Bremen. 1819. JEncke's Voynet, discovered by Pons. During this appearance its periodicity was detected by Encke. 1823. Dec. Discovered in various parts of Europe. This comet had two tails, one tvirned from the sun, and the other towards it. 1825. July 15. The Great Comet of 1825, discovered by Pons. Calculated by HansenJ* 1826. Feb. 27. Biela's Comet, discovered by Biela, at Josephstadt. During this appearance its recurrence at shoi-t periods was ascer- tained. 1843. Feb. 28. The Great Comet of 1843, discovered in America, Italy, and at the Cape. 234 COM 1844 Nov. 22. Faye's Comet, discovered by Faye, at Paris, and ascertained to be periodical. 1851. June 27. jy A nest's Comet, discovered by D'Anest, at Leipsic, and ascertained to be periodical. 1858. June 2. Donati's Coijie^, discovered by Donati, at Florence. It was seen in Great Britain in September and October. 1861. June 30. A brilliant comet is first visible in England. Comfits. — During the reign of Henry III. of France (1574 — 1589) an abundant use of comfits was one of the flagrant foDies of fashion. Disraeh (Curiosities, i. 221) says, " AH the world, the grave and the gay, car- ried in their pockets a comfit-hox, as we do snuff-boxes. They used them even on the most solemn occasions ; when the duke of Guise was shot at Blois, he was found with his comfit-box in his hand." CoJiMEECE. — The Phcenicians, who were the most ancient nation of traders on the earth, are called the inventors of commerce and navigation. Their ships traded with Greece as early as b.c. 1800, and they foimded many colonies as centres of trade B.C. 1450. The chief commercial nations of the Middle Ages were the Venetians, whose importance commenced about a.d. 722 ; the Pisans, who reached the culminating point of their prosperity about 1063; and the Genoese, who rose to great power and afflu- ence in 1064. The Hanseatic league, a con- federacy of towns for the protection of trade, became influential about the year 1140. In 1252 Flanders attained a high position from the success of its merchants, and the Floren- tine republic was one of the chief com- mercial powers in 1298. The commercial importance of England was considerably improved by Edward I., who granted a charter in behalf of foreign merchants in 1302. From this charter it appears that the British then had intercourse with Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, Flan- ders, Lombardy, Florence, and other less considerable powers. France was so poor in 1360, that a leather currency was adopted, and long afterwards commerce was in a very languishing state. Jacques Coner, how- ever, who held some financial office under Charles VII., was said to be the wealthiest merchant in the world in 1449. The dis- covery of America by Columbus in 1492, and the other results of the marine enterprise of the 16th century, developed new fields for commercial activity. Common Council (London). — This arose out of the folk-mote, a general mote, or meeting of the people, an institution of Anglo-Saxon origin. It was held at a much earher date than 1208, the year mentioned by many authorities as the first in which a folk-mote was summoned. There were three principal folk-motes in the year ; one at the feast of St. Michael, to know who was j to be sheriff; the second at Christmas, to j arrange the wards ; and the third at the i feast of St. John (June 24), to protect the { city from fire, by reason of the great COM drought. Each citizen neglecting to attend was fined forty shillings, a large sum in those days. Stow relates that in the time of Edward II. the citizens claimed the east part of St. Paul's churchyard to be the place of assembly of their folk-motes ; and that "the great steeple, there situate, was to that use, their common bell ; which being there rung, all the inhabitants of the city might hear, and come together." The same author refers to a solemn meeting or com- mon council held on the 11th of October, 1190, in St. Paul's churchyard, and adds, *'it is likely in that place where the folk- mote used to assemble." The meetings in the open air were discontinued, and in 1347 each ward was instructed to send delegates according to its extent. The common coun- cil now meets in the Guildhall every Thurs- day, and the annual elections occur on St. Thomas's day (Dec. 21). Common Law. — Concerning the unwritten law of England, Dugdale observes (Origines, c. 3), "The common law is, out of question, no less ancient than the beginning of dif- ferences betwixt man and man, after the first peopMng of this land." It has been bequeathed us by the Britons, Romans, Saxons, and Danes, and was digested into a code by Edward the Confessor, who began to reign in 1044. This code was confirmed by William the Conqueror about 1070 ; and the statute of Merton, enacted in 1235-36, declared the intention of the nobles not to change laws which had been so long used and approved. CoMMOiir Pleas (England). — Originally the trial of common causes was referred to the aula regia, or court of exchequer, which followed the king in aU his progresses ; but the 11th chapter of Magna Charta, June 15, 1215, ordered that they should be tried in a court always held at one place. Westminster Hall was the place fixed upon, and a chief- justice of the Common Pleas was forthwith appointed, with power to hear and decide aU civil cases between subject and subject. Originally no barrister below the rant of Serjeant could plead in this coiirt, although all were permitted to move or show cause against a rule for a new trial ; but the act 9 & 10 Vict. c. 54 (Aug. 18, 1846), allowed the privilege to all barristers practising in the superior courts at Westminster. The following is a hst of the chief-justices of the Common Pleas : — 1272. 1274. 1278. 1290. 1301. 1327. 1329. 1331. 1335. 1341. 1377. Gilbert de Preston (in office before tiiis yeai', but appointment unknown). Roger de Seyton. Thomas de Weyland. John de Metingham. Sept. 19. Ralph de Hengham. March 15. William de Berelord. July 18. Hervey de Staunton. Feb. 4. William de Herle. Sept. 3. John de Stonore. March 2 William de Herle (again). July 7 John de Stonore (again). Jan. 8. Roger Hillary. June 26. Robert de Bealkuap. COM A.D. 1388. June 30. Robert de Charleton. 1396. Jan. 15. William Thiniing. 1413. June 26. Richard Norton. 1423. May 5. William Babiugton. 1436. Feb. 9. John Juyn. 1439. Jan. 20. John Cotesmore. 1439. Oct. 14. Richard Newton. 1449. June 16. John Frisot. 14tjl. May 11. Sir Robert Danby, 1471. May 29. Thomas Brian. 1500. Oct. 20. Thomas Wood. 1502. Sept. 30. Thomas Frowyk. 1506. Oct. Robert Read. 1519. Jan. 27. John Ernie. 1.521. April 13. Robert Brudenell. 1531. June. Robert Norwich.. 1535. April. John Baldwin. 1545. Nov. 6. Edward Montague. 1553. Sept. 5. Richard Morgan. 1554. Oct. 8. Sir Robert Brook. 1558. Oct. 5. Anthony Browne. 1559. Jan. 22. Sir James Dyer. 1582. May 2. Edmund Anderson. 1605. Aug. 26. Sir Francis Gawdy. 1606. June 30. Sir Edward Coke. 1613. Nov. 26. Sh- Heni-y Hobart. 1626. Nov. 28. Sir Thomas Richardson. 1631. Oct. 26. Sir Robert Heath. 1634. Oct. 14. Sir John Fhich. 1640. Jan. 27. Sir Edward Lyttelton. 1641. Jan. 26. Sir John Banks. 1648. Oct. 12. Oliver St. John. 1660. June 1 (O.S.). Sir Orlando Bridgeman. 1668. May 20 (O.S.). Sir John Vaughan. 1675. Jan. 23, Sir Francis North. 1683. Jan. 22. Sir Francis Peniberton. 1683. Oct. 1. Sir Thomas Jones. 1686. April 21. Sir Henry Bediugfield. 1687. April 16. Sir Robert Wright. 1687. April 21. Sir Edward Herbert. 1689. May 6. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 1692. AprU 30. Sir George Treby. 1701. July 5. Sir Thomas Trevor. 1714. Oct. 26. Sir- Peter King. 1725 June 1. Sir Robert Eyre. 1736. Jan. 31. Sir Thomas Rieve. 1737. Jan. 29. Sir John Willes. 1762. Jan. 23. Sir Charles Pratt. 1766. Aug. Sir John Eardley WUmot. 1771. Jan. 25. Sir William De Grey (afterwards Lord Walsingham). 1780. June 9. Alexander Wedderbum (afterwards Lord Loughborough). 1793. Feb. 11. Sir James Eyre. 1799. July. Lord Eldon. 1801. May 30. Richard Pepper Arden (afterwards Baron Alverley). 1804. May 8. Sir- James Mansfield. 1813. Nov. 29. Sir Vicary Gibbs 1818. Nov. 5. Sir Robert Dallas. 1824. Jan. 8. Sir Robei-t Giflbrd. 1824. April 28. Sir WUliam Draper Best (after- wards Lord Wyuford). 1829. June. Sir Nicholas Conyngham Tindal. 1846. July 11. Sir Thomas Wnde (afterwards Lord Truro). 1850. July 16. Sir John Jervis. 1856. Nov. Sir Alexander Cockbum, 1859. June. Su- WUliam Erie. Common Pleas (Ireland) .—The following is a hst of the chief -justices of the court of Common Pleas in Ireland, from the year 1532. The constitution of this court is similar to that of the court of Common Pleas in England. 1532. Aug. 22. Richard Delahyde. 1534. Oct. 17. Thomas Luttrell. 1554. July 7. John Bathe. 1559. Sept. 3. Robert DiUon. Nicholas Nugent. 235 COM 1581. June 28. Bobert Dillon. 1593. Oct . 10, Sir William Weston. 15!)4. March 15. Sir Robert Dillon (again). 1597. Nov. 15. Sir Nicholas Walshe. 1610. Nov. 28. Sir Dominick SarsfieliL 1634. Apiil 24. Sir Gerard Lowther. 1660. Jan. 19. James Donelan. 1665. Jan. 27. Sir Edward Smith. 1669. March 17. Sii- Robert Booth. 1679. May 3. John Keating. 1690. Jan. 22. Rieh.fJEVERAM (Hindostan). — This town was taken from the French by Chve in Dec. 1751. The English having retired, it fell into the hands of the French, from whom it was again vsrested April IS, 1759. The French surprised it Jan. 12, 1760. Hyder defeated the East-India Company's army near this place Sept. 10, 1780. CoNNAUGHT (Ireland). — The division of Ireland into the pro^•inces of Ulster, Mun- ster, Connaught, and Leinster, was made by Pope Eugenius II. a.d. 1152. Until 1590 Connaught constituted a kind of independ- ent kingdom ; but in that year it was divided into counties and rendered directly subject to the English crown. Clare county was separated from Connaught in 1602. CoNsrECTicxTT (United States). — Two settlements, formed in Connecticut in 1633 and 1638, were united by a charter granted by Charles II. in 1665. This state adopted the constitution of the United States Jan. 9, 1788. CoNsroE (Ireland). — This bishopric was founded about a.d. 500, by Aengus Mac Nisse, a pupil of St. Patrick, who erected a church, of which he became bishop, and where he was buried in 514. This see was united to Down in 1442. On the death of James Saurin, last bishop of Dromore, April 9, 1842, his see was united to Down and Connor by the Church Temporalities Act. CoiJ-SAKBKUCK (Battle). — The duke of Lorraine defeated the French, under Mar- shal Crequi, at this place, near Treves, in 1675. Cos-sciEXCE (Coui'ts of). — Courts of con- science, or of requests, for the recovery of small debts, were established in London as 240 The standard of height was gradually lowered and the age reduced, in order to supply the necessaiy number of conscripts. In 1813 boys Httle above 17 years of age were com- pelled to serve, and the height'required was little above five feet. A new law was pro- mulgated March 21, 1832. A similar system prevails in Kussia, Prussia, and other con- tinental states. CoifSECRATioiN-. — The first-born of man and beast were ordered to be consecrated to CON God B.C. 1491 (Exod. xiii. 2, 12, 15). The family of Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Num. i. 49, and iii. 12 & 13) were set apart B.C. 1490. The Hebrews consecrated both cattle and fields to the Lord (Lev. xxvii. 28 & 29) ; Solomon dedicated the temple B.C. 1004 (1 Kings, viii.) ; and Nehemiah (xii. 27, &c.) describes the ceremonies prac- tised at the dedication of the walls of Je- rusalem B.C. 445. On the introduction of Christianity, churches were consecrated. Bingham (bk. viii. ch. ix. sec. 1) says, — " Anciently, when churches were finished and adorned, it was then usual to proceed to a dedication or consecration of them." This ceremony, which signified the devoting, or setting them apart peculiarly for divine ser- vice, consisted during the first three cen- turies only of particular prayers and thanks- giving to God. In the 4th century churches were consecrated with great solemnity. The church built by Constantine over the Saviour's sepulchre at Jerusalem was con- secrated in a full synod of aU the bishops of the East, a.d. 335. The council of Antioeh, Aug. A.D. 341, was summoned on purpose to decficate the famous church in that city commenced by Constantine. A canon passed at a British council in 450, ordered that " a presbyter, though he builds a church, shall not offer the oblation in it, before he brings his bishop to consecrate it, because this was regiilar and decent ;" and the first council of Braga, in Portugal, May 1, 563, makes it deprivation for any presbyter to consecrate an altar or a church, declaringthat the olden canons forbade it also. The distinct consecration of altars is first mentioned at the council of Agda, Sept. 11, 506. The water in baptism was consecrated in the early Church. CojTSEBVATiVE Cltjb. — TMs club was founded in 1840. The house, situated on the west side of St. James' Street, was built from the designs of G. Bassevi and Sydney Smirke, between the years 1843-45, and was opened Feb. 19, 1845. The expense of the erection and furniture amounted to dE73,211. CoifSEEVATiTES, — TMs term was fii'st applied to a political party about the year 1830. By some authorities its origin is attributed to John Wilson Croker, who in an article on internal policy, published in the Quarterly Seview (vol. xlii. No. 83, p. 276) for Jan. 1830, declared, — " We despise and abominate the details of parti- san warfare ; but we are now, as we always have been, decidedly and conscientiously attached to what is called the Tory, and which might with more propriety be called the Conservative party." Conservators, Wardens, or Keepers OF THE Peace, were appointed by the com- mon law of England. The power of trying felonies was given them by 34 Edw, III, c. 1 (1360) , when they received the title of Justices of the Peace (q.v.) CoNSiSTOBT Court, which has jurisdiction in aU ecclesiastical causes arising within the diocese, was separated from the hundred 241 CON court by William the First's charter for the separation of the ecclesiastical from the civil courts, A.D. 1085. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1533), an appeal to the archbishop of the province from the Consistory Court was established. Consolidated Fund.— Three capital funds, the Aggregate Fund, the General Fund, and the South-Sea Fund, constituting the revenue of the country, were united in 1786, under the title of the ConsoKdated Fund. By 56 Geo. III. c. 98 (1816), the Consolidated Fund, or revenue of Great Britain, was combined with that of Ireland, forming "the Consolidated Fund of the United Kingdom," pledged for the repay- ment of the interest of the consohdated national debt of the United Kingdom. Conspiracy. (See Plot.) Constable. — The statute of Winchester (13 Edw. I. St. 2, c. 6), passed Oct. 8, 1285, enacts that two constables shall be chosen in every hundred or franchise. This is the first authentic record of the appointment in this country of high constables. Inferior officers, called petty constables, subordinate to the high constable of the hundred, were first appointed in the reign of Edward III. Justices of the peace are empowered, in cases of necessity, to swear in householders as special constables, by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 41, passed Oct. 15, 1831, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 43, passed Aug. 31, 1835. (See Lord Hian Constable.) Constance (Council of ) . — The seventeenth general council held its first sitting Nov. 16, 1414. Nicolas says, " In the second session, 2nd of March, 1415, the pope solemnly pub- lished his act of cession ; in the third session, on the 26th of the same month, the council was declared to be lawful : the fourth session was held on the 30th of March ; in the fifth, held on the 6th of April, all persons were enjoined to obey the decrees of the council. On the 29th of May, Pope John XXIII. was deposed. Gregory XII. abdicated 4th of July. The errors of Wycliffe were con- demned in the seventh session, 2nd of May, 1415 : in the fifteenth session, held 6th of July, 1415, John Huss was condemned to be burnt : in the forty -first session, held 11th ot November, 1417, Otho Colonna was elected pope, under the name of Martin V. The council ended 22nd of April, 1418." It established the authority of a general coun- cil above that of a pope, and terminated the great schism that had divided the Latin Church for nearly forty years. Constance (Germany). — Peace was con- cluded at this town a.d. 1183, between the emperor Frederick and twenty -four Lombard cities ; by which the freedom of the latter was secured. By another treaty signed here in 1474, the contest between Austria and the Swiss was brought to a close. Charles V. issued the ban of the empire against Con- stance, Oct. 15, 1548 ; and Ferdinand I. of Austria annexed it to his dominions in the following year. It was transferred to Baden by the 8th article of the treaty of Presburg, CON Dec. 26, 1805. In addition to the fifteenth general council (q.v.), from 1414-18, coun- cils were held here in 1005, in 1043, in 1094, and in 1153. Its bishopric, transferred from Windich about a.d. 570, was suppressed in 1802. Cos-STANTiNA (Africa), the ancient Cirta, was the residence of the kings of the Massylii, and the chief city of ISTumidia. The Romans, in the time of Juhus Caesar, sent out a colony to this place. The French captured it Oct. 13, 1837 ; and it is now the capital of the province of Constantina, in their colony of Algiers. Constantinople, (^ra of,) was adopted in Constantinople before the middle of the 7th century, and commences with the crea- tion of the world, B.C. 5508, according to this calculation. It is still used by the Greek Church, and the Russians followed it until the time of Peter the Great. The civil year commenced September 1, and the ecclesiastical March 21, and sometimes Aprill. Constantinople (Turkey), the ancient Byzantium, named Constantinople after its founder, Constantine the Great, who fixed the seat of the empire here a.d. 324. The new city, called Second or New Rome, was dedicated May 11, 330. Gibbon (ch. xvii.) says, " As often as the birthday of the city returned, the statue of Constantine, framed by his order, of gilt wood, and bearing in its right hand a small image of the genius of the place, was erected in a triumphal car. The guards, carrying white tapers, and clothed in their richest apparel, accompanied the solemn procession as it moved through the Hippodrome. When it was opposite to the throne of the reigning emperor, he rose from his seat, and with grateful reverence adored the memory of his predecessor." The rites of inauguration lasted forty days. The Turks call the city Istambul or Stambul. 365. Constantinople is seized by Procopius. 378. It is threatened by the Goths. 381. Nectarius becomes the first patriarch. 395. It is again besieged by the Goths, vmder Alaric. 413. Theodosius the Younger snrroTinds it with walls. 441. It is attacked by the Huns. 447. The walls are destroyed by an earthquake. 465. A fire consumes nearly half the city. 507. Anastasius builds the long wall. 532. Jan. Great part of the city is destroyed during the Nika sedition, which is queUed by Belisarius. 537. Dedication of St. Sophia's. 559. Belisarius saves Constantinople from the Bulgarians. 616. It is threatened by Chosroes IT. 626. Heraclius compels the Persians and the Avars to raise the siege. 668. Arrival of the Saracens, who lay siege to the city. 67-5. The Saracens raise the siege. 695. Revolution at Constantinople, and dethrone- ment of Justinian II. 716. It is again besieged by the Saracens. 718. The Saracens raise the siege. 865. It is unsuccessfully attacked by the 904. Second attack of the Kussians. 242 CON 941. Third attempted capture by the Kussians. 1203. July 18. It is taken by the Latins, during the fourth crusade. 1204. April 9. It is again taken by the Latins, and abandoned to pillage. 1261. July 25. It is recovered by the Greeks under Michael Palseologvis, who restores the walls. 1422. June 10. It is besieged by the Tui-ks, under Amurath II. Aug. 24. The siege is raised. 1453. April 6. It is besieged by Mohammed IL May 29. Mohammed II. effects its capture. 1590. An English embassy arrives at Constan- tinople. 1705. Revolt of the Janissaries suppressed. 1729. A calamitous fire does considerable injury. 1756. A fire consumes 8,000 houses and 200 mosques. 1778. Sept. 4. The city is again devastated by fire. 1782. It is visited by plague and fire. 1808. Nov. 14 and 15. Revolt of the Janissaries, who massacre the regular troops. 1821. Massacre of the Chi-istians. 1822. March 25. Second massacre of the Christians. 1826. June 14 and 15. InsuiTection of the Janis- saries, who are nearly all put to death. 1854. March 12. Signing of the tripartite treaty between England, France, and Turkey. 1857. Dec. 5. Signing of the final act settling the Asiatic boundaries between Russia and Turkey. 1858. Conference between the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Mon- tenegrin territory. PEINCIPAL COUNCILS HELD AT CONSTANXINOPLB. By the Eusebians in favour of Arius. By the Arians. By the Arians. May to June 30. Second general council, by Theodosius and Damasius, against heretics. To reconcile ditferences in the churches. For the reunion of schismatics. Sept. 29. To settle a dispute respecting the Arabian bishopric of Bostra. In favour of St. John Chrysostom. To depose St. John Chrysostom. Feb. 28. To ordain Sisinnius. Nov. 8-22. By which Butychus was con- demned. April 13. To confirm Eutychus's condem- nation. Aug. Against Futychus and Nestor. Against the Simoniacs. To depose Peter the Fuller and others. To coufiina the Council of Chalcedon. or 496. To excommunicate and depose the patriarch Euphemius. Against the CouncU of Chalcedon. July 20. In favour of certain exiles. Feb. 25. To appoint Epiphanius patriarch. To siispend Stephen, bishop of Larissa. Between the Catholics and Severians. To condemn certain heretic bishoiw. Against Origen. To depose Theodore of Csesareia. May 4 to Jun e 2. Fifth general council, against Origen and the three chapters. Wbich tried and acquitted Gregory of Antioch. In favour of the Monothelites. To confii-m the edict of Heraclius in favotir of the Monothelites. -1. Nov. 7 to Sept. 16. Sixth general council, against the Monothelites. To consider matters of discipline. By the Monothelites, .igainst the council of 680-1. Against the Monothelites, in favour of the council of 680-1. CON 730. Jan. 7. To depose St. German. 754. Feb. 10 to Aug. 8. Against image-worship. 786. Aug. 1. Dissolved, iu consequence of violent opposition. 806. To regulate the consecration of au ai-chi- mandrite. 809. Jan. Which declared the marriage of the emperor Constantine valid. 812. Nov. 1. To consider a proposed peace between the Bulgarians and the emperor Michael. 814. By Nicephorus, against the Iconoclasts. 815. By the Iconoclasts, who depose Nicephorus. 821. Wherein the Catholics refuse to confer with the Iconoclasts. 829. Against the use of images. 842. Feb. 19. Against the Icuuoclasts. 847. To depose the bishop of Syracuse. 858. To reinstate Ignatius in the patriarchy. 861. May 25. Which again deposed Ignatius, and decreed in favour of images. 867. Nov. 23. Which deposed Photius. 869. Oct. 5 to Feb. 28. Eighth general council, which anathematized the heretics. 879. Nov. to March 13. Concerning Photius, the Nicene Creed, and the general councils. 906. Jan. The patriarch Nicolas is deposed. 911. May. Whereby Nicolas is restored. 920. July. To heal schism. 931. Sept. 2. To receive the abdication of the patriarch Tryphon. 963. To confirm the marriage of the emperor Nicephorus Phocas. 1027. To consider donations to monasteries. 1029. Against the patriarch of Aatioch. 1054. June. Wherein the papal legates were anathe- matized. 1066. Against incestuous marriages. 1067. Against breach of promise of marriage. 1110. Against the heresy of the Bogomiles. 1140. May. To condemn the books of Constantine Chiysomele. 1143. Aug. 20. Against the ordination of two bishops. Oct. 1. Against Niphon, a monk. 1144. Feb. 2. Against Niphon. 1147. Feb. 26. To depose the patriarch Comas. 1157. Jan. 26. On the celebration of divine sei-vice. 1166. April 11. Concerning marriage, discipline, and certain doctrinal points. 1170. To reject a proposal to reunite the two churches. 1186. On the irregular election of certain bishops. 1222. On the differences between the Greek and Latin bishops of Cyprus. 1275. May 26. To elect John Veccus patriarch. 1277. April. To make a creed like that of Rome. July 16. To excommunicate those unwilling to reunite the two churches. 1280. May 3. On doctrinal matters. 1283. Jan. To condemn Veccus. Easter. To con- demn the promoters of the proposed union. 1285. On doctrinal points. 1297. To consider Athanasius's anathema of the emperor. 1299. To consider the marriage of Alexis, nephew of the emperor. 1341. June 11. On doctrinal points. 1345. Against the Palamites. 1347. To depose the patriarch John of Apri. 1450. Against the reunion of the churches. CoNSTELLATioifs, or groups of stars, are mentioned in the book of Job, written, according to the best authorities, by Moses, B.C. 1520. Aroturus, Orion, and Pleiades, are noticed Job, ix. 9, and again, with the addition of Mazzaroth, ch.~ xxxviii. 31 &32. Consuls. — On the expulsion of the kings, B.C. 509, two consuls were appointed, as the chief magistrates of the Roman republic. Their tenure of office was for one year only. 2A3 CON Decemvirs were appointed B.C. 451, three military tribunes B.C. 444, and a dictator obtained the chief authority b.c. 391. Al- though the direction of affairs was occasion- ally vested either in decemvirs, military tribunes, or a dictator, the consulship was the office generally adopted. After the appointment of an emperor, b.c. 31, it be- came a nominal dignity, and continued as such, with certain interruptions, until a.d. 642. Milan proclaimed itself a republic, and elected two consuls in 1107, and other Itahan cities immediately followed its example. The consulate was estabHshed in France by the influence of Bonaparte, Nov. 10, 1799. The new constitution was proclaimed Dec. 24, when three consiils were appointed, the chief authority being vested in one of them, called the First Consul. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le- brun, were the consuls named, and Aug. 4, 1802, the former was made first consul for life. The Consulate Avas, however, superseded by the Empire, May 18, 1804. Consuls, as the representatives of the commercial interests of England in foreign countries, were first officially appointed by Eichard III. in 1485, when Laurentio Strozzi, of Florence, was by patent of the king made consul and president of the English merchants in Italy. CoNTEACTOES. — By 22 Geo. III. c. 45, s. 1 (1782), government contractors are dis- quahfied from holding a seat in the House of Commons. A similar biU had passed the Commons in 1780, but was rejected by the Lords. The law was extended to Ireland by 41 Geo. III. c. 52, s. 4 (1801). Conventicles. — This term, derived from the Latin conventieuhim, an assembly, was, in the early period of Christianity, applied to a church. It was afterwards used to describe the meetings of heretics, and is, in this country, applied to the meeting-places of dissenters from the Established Church. By 35 Eliz. c. 1 (1593), persons attending any assembUes, conventicles, or meetings, under colour or pretence of any exercise of religion, were to be imprisoned until they conformed. If they did not do so in three months, they were to abjure the realm, and if they refused to do so, or returned after abjuration, they were to be hanged. It was enacted by the Conventicle Act (16 Chas. II c. 4), passed in 1664, that wherever five persons above those of the same household assembled in religious congregation, every one of them was liable to three months' im- prisonment, or a fine of five pounds for the first ofience : the penalty was doubled for a second, and increased to transportation for seven years, or a fine of £100, for the third. This act was only temporary, and a second Conventicle Act, in which the penalties were modified (22 Chas. II. c. 1), was passed in 1670. It was repealed by the Toleration Act (1 Wm. & Mary, c. 18), passed May 24, 1689. Convention Parliaments.— This term is applied to two parliaments, called in times of great emergency, without the usual authority of the Idng's wi-it. The first convention par- liament, summoned hj order of General Monk, met AprU 25, 1660, and having com- pleted the work of the Eestoration, was dis- solved by Charles II., Dec. 29 in the same year. The second, convened by William III., then Prince of Orange, met Tuesday, Jan. 22, 1689 (O.S.), and established "William and Mary on the throne of England. A bill to convert the convention into a parliament passed through both branches of the legis- lature, and received the royal assent Feb. 23, 1689. It was dissolved by William III. Feb. 6, 1690. CoifVEifTiON'S. (See Treaties.) Convents. (See Abbeys, &c.) Convicts. (See Teanspoetation.) Convocation, or a general assembly of the clergy of the kingdom, was summoned by the king's authority, for the purpose of assess- ing themselves in levies of taxes. The clergy assembled for this purpose in Anglo-Saxon times; but the first attempt to establish a convocation of this character by royal authority, was made by Edward I. in 1294 ; on Sept. 21 of which year Convocation met at Westminster by his order. The Convocation is divided into an Upper and a Lower House. Eichard III., on the petition of both houses of Convocation, reUeved them from the ju- risdiction of the secular courts, bv charter dated Feb. 23, 1484. It was deprived of the power of performing any act whatever with- out the king's license by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534) . This act was repealed by 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 8 (1554), and re-enacted by 1 EHz. c. 1 (1.559). By 16 & 17 Charles II. c. 1 (1665), the clergy, as well as the laity, were bound by the act, which was for the raising of a tax, and were discharged from the payment of subsidies levied in convo- cation. Its business was confined to the granting of subsidies, except in 1603 and 1640, and ceased to sit for business in 1717, untU revived for a formal sitting at the commencement of each session in 1854. Convolvulus. — The Canary convolvulus was introduced into England a.d. 1690, and the many-flowered convolvulus in 1779. They were both brought from the Canary Isles. CONVUIiSIONISTS, or CONVULSIONAEIES. — This sect of the Jansenists arose in 1730, and were so called, because they threw them- selves upon the ground and went into con- vulsions. An order for the imprisonment of these fanatics was issued in 1733. The dan- cers of the 14th century, and the jumpers of the 19th, indulged in similar extravagances. CoNWAT (Caernarvonshire), Conwt, or Abeeconwt. — One of the Welsh princes, founded a Cistercian monastery at Conway A.D. 1185. Edward I. built a castle at this an- cient town in 1283, and was besieged here by the Welsh in 1290. Eichard II. fled to this place in 1399. It was taken by the Parha- mentary army in 1646. The suspension- bridge, commenced by Telford in 1822, was completed by him in 1826. 2U COP CooKEET. — When Abraham entertained the three angels, he took a calf, had it dressed, and, with butter and milk, set it before his guests, B.C. 1897 (Gen. xviii. 6-8). Disraeh ( Curiosities of Literature, vol. ii. p. 246) remarks : "The numerous descrip- tions of ancient cookery which Athenseus has preserved, indicate an unrivalled dex- terity and refinement : and the ancients, indeed, appear to have raised the cuhnary art into a science, and dignified cooks into professors." Fitzstephen, the monk of Canterbury, who wrote during the reign of Henry II. and died in 1191, in his description of London says -. " There is in London upon the river's bank, a pubhc place of cookery, among the wines to be sold in the ships, and in the vrine cellars. There every day, ye may call for any dish of meat, roast, fried, or sodden. Fish both small and great ; or- dinary flesh for the poorer sort, and more dainty for the rich, as venison and fowl." And after some further remarks, adds : "This is the public cookery, and very con- venient for the state of a city, and belongs to it. Hence it is, we read in Plato's Gorgias, that next to the physician's art is the trade of cooks, the image and flattery of a fourth part of a city." The cooks having formed an ancient brotherhood, were in- corporated July 11, 1472, confirmed by Elizabeth, and again by James I., May 19, 1615. "This is the Poke of Cokery" was printed in London in 1500. CooPEE. — The art of the cooper is of great antiquity. The company of Coopers was incorporated a.d. 1501. C00E& (Hindostan), under the govern- ment of independent princes a.d. 1583, pre- served its freedom till 1779, when Hyder seized Beer Eajtndra, the heir, and excluded him from the succession. In 1787, however, he escaped from his prison, and recovered his hereditary possessions. He died in 1808, and bequeathed his dominions to his infant daughter, from whom they were wrested by Linga in 1810. In 1832 hostflities broke out between the rajah and the British government, in consequence of the protection aiforded by the latter to some pohtical fugitives, and an army was des- patched under Colonel Lindsay, which en- tered Mercarah, the capital, April 6. The rajah was deposed April 10, 1834. He was dispossessed of all his territories, which were permanently annexed to the British empire in India. Copenhagen (Denmark). — Absolon, bish- op of Eoeskilde, and afterwards archbishop of Lund, erected a castle here a.d. 1168. In 1254, Bishop Erlandsen of Eoeskilde granted certain rights to the town that had grovra up beneath the protection of the castle, and these were extended by King Eric in 1284. In 1443 Copenhagen was made the capital of Denmark. It has sufiered greatly from conflagrations, and was almost completely destroyed in 1795. Nelson captured the city April 2, 1801 ; and it surrendered, after three days' bombardment, Sept. 5, 1807. The COP Danish Royal Society was founded in 1742, and the Academy of Arts in 1754. The Casino was built in 1846. CoPEENiCAN System. — Hallam (Lit. Hist. pt. i. ch. ix.) says, "It appears to have been about 1507 that, after meditating on various schemes besides the Ptolemaic, Copernicus began to adopt and confirm : in writing, that of Pythagoras, as alone ca- pable of explaining the planetary motions I with that simplicity which gives a presump- ] tion of truth in the works of Nature." It was completed in 1530, and published at Nuremberg in 1543. Pope Paul V. con- demned it in 1616, but Pius VII. in 1818 re- pealed the prohibitory edicts against Gahleo and the Copernican system. Nicolas Coper- nicus was born at Thorn, Peb. 19, 1473, and died May 2, 1543. Copper. — This metal was known in the earliest times, and is frequently noticed in the Bible. Thus, the fetters with which Sam- son was bound (b.c. 1117) were in reality of this material (Judges, xvi. 21). Ezekiel (xxvii. 13, B.C. 588) speaks of Tyre as trading in vessels of brass or copper, and Ezra (viii. 27, B.C. 458) speaks of 'Hwo vessels of fine copper, precious as gold," which formed part of the treasure of the temple. The origin of the art of smelting and working copper was attributed by the Egyptians to Osiris. Cadmus conveyed it to Greece B.C. 1313. Cyprus and Ehodes were cele- brated as early manufactories of copper. It subsequently became one of the most im- portant metals known to the ancients. Copper-mines were worked in England A.D. 1189. They are first mentioned in Sweden in 1396, and in 1399 one was dis- covered in Shropshire. A mine of pure copper was discovered in Cumberland in 1561 ; but the art of working the metal made little progress till 1689, when it was carried on with success in Cornwall. It afterwards increased to a prodigious degree, and in 1721 employed 30,000 people. Copper was first used to sheathe ships in 1758, and the demand for it so much increased that its exportation was prohibited in 1780 by 20 Geo. III. c. 59, s. 1. In 1783 aU the ships of the royal navy were ordered to be sheathed. The Burra-Burra mines of South AustraHa, discovered about 1843, are per- haps the richest copper-mines in the world. Copper Monet. — The Eomans used cop- per as a circulating medium prior to the reign of Numa, B.C. 715, but it was notcoined, being measured by weight. The square "as" of copper was struck some time before Ser- vius TuUius, B.C. 578, and the circular "as" about B.C. 385. The first Greek copper money was that of JEropus, king of Mace- donia, struck B.C. 397. Copper never became a chief mediimi with the Greek?. Cimobe- line, king of Britain, is known to have coined copper about a.d. 40, as pieces still remain beariog his mark. It was made and circulated in Ireland in 1339, in France about 1580, and in Scotland before 1603. Copper tokens were coined in England in COR 1609, and patented in 1625 ; but the first real coinage was by Charles II., who failed in an attempt to establish a co|)per currency in 1665, but succeeded in 1672. In 17'^3 George I. granted a patent to Mr. "Wood to coin copper halfpence and farthings for Ire- land ; but the measure was very unpopular, and was so vehemently opposed by Dean Svnft, who published his Drapier letters in consequence, that it had to be abandoned. The English copper coinage was so defective in 1792, that a large ntunber of tradesmen's tokens were issued ; but these were super- seded in 1797 by the coinage of 5U0 tons of copper pence, struck by Mr. Boulton, at Soho. A new bronze coinage was issued in 1860 to supply the deficiency of copper money. Copper-Plate. (/See Engraving.) Copyright in Books was estabhshed by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709). Erom AprH 10, 1710, it was vested in the author for fourteen years. At the expiration of that term it was renewed for another fourteen years, if the author was then hving. The act was ex- tended to the whole of the United Kingdom by 41 Geo. III. c. 107 (July 2, 1801). By 54 Geo. III. c. 156 (July 29, 1814), the copy- right was to last for twenty-eight years certain, and for the remainder of the author's fife if he outHved that term. By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 45, passed July 1, 1842, the copyright was extended for the duration of the author's fife and seven years from the day of his death. In case the seven years expired before the book had been published forty -two years, the copyright was to endure until that period had elapsed. The copy- right of works pubhshed after the death of the author was also fixed at forty -two years. The privilege was extended to aU British colonies. Copyright in Designs for manufactures was fixed at three years by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, passed Aug. 10, 1842. It repealed all for- mer acts on the subject, and came into operation Sept. 1, 1842, and was extended to designs not ornamental, but having refer- ence to some purpose of utihty, by 6 & 7 Vict, c. 65, passed Aug. 22, 1843. The Board of Trade received authority to extend the copy- right in ornamental designs for an addi- tional term not exceeding three years, by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 104, passed Aug. 14, 1850. CoRBACH, (Battle,) fought between the French army and the allied Enghsh and Germans at this place, in WestphaUa, July 10, 1760. The former were victorious. The allied army was saved from a total ruin by a charge of British dragoons. CoRBiSDALE (Battle) . — The marquis of Montrose was defeated at this place, in Caith- ness, by the Covenanters, Saturday, April 27, 1650. The marquis, captured a few days after the battle, was put to death with " every circumstance of ignominy and cruelty," May 21. CoRCYRA. {See Corfu.) Cordeliers.— This minor order of Fran- ciscan or Grey Friars was founded by St. 245 COR Francis d'Assisi in 1223, and was sanctioned by Pope Honorius III. in a buU published Oct. 30 the same year. CoEDELiEES C£uB. — This society of repub- licans, formed at Paris in December 1790, re- ceived this name because their meetings were held in a chapel which had been built by the monastic order of the Cordehers. Danton was the first president, and amongst the more celebrated members, were Marat, CamiHe Desmoulins, Fabre d'Eglantine, Eobert, and Hebert. The Cordehers de- manded the abohtion of royalty in 1791. A most powerful body, assembled at this club, took part in the insurrection of Aug. 10, 1792. They clamoured for the death of the king in 1793, and, in conjunction with the Jacobins, conspired for the overthrow of the G-iron- dists in the same year. It was dissolved in 1794. Coed OVA (South America), the capital of a province of the same name, a member of the Argentine Confederation, was founded by Jerome Cabrera a.d. 1573. CoEDOVA (Spain), the Corduba of the Eo- mans, was founded by M. Claudius Mar- cellus, who wintered here B.C. 132. It was nearly destroyed by Caesar, iu consequence of its fidelity to Pompey, and when rebuilt, was peopled by the pauper gentry of Eome. Its erection into a bishopric occurred a.d. 264, and it fell under the Gothic sway in 572. The Moors seized it in 711, and made it the capital of their empire in Spain in 756. The great mosque was begun by Abderahman in 786. A fire which raged here for three days in 917, laid waste much of the city, but it was soon rebuilt more magnificently than ever. Sohman took the town in 1012, after a siege of about three years. In 1091 it fell into the hands of the Almoravides, who retained it till its capture by the Almohades in 1148. St. Ferdinand, king of Castile, took it June 30, 1235, and it has ever since been under Christian domination, although the Moors made a powerful effort to retake it in 1365. The French under General Dupont seized Cordova June 7, 1808, when the city was abandoned to pihage for three days, and the populace crueUy massacred. The town was again plundered in 1836 by the CarHsts under Gomez, who took possession Oct. 1, and carried off booty to the amoimt of £200,000. CoEDWAiSTEES. — Theuame by which shoe- makers were for some time called in this country. Stow says the term cordwaiuer or cobbler was not then a name of contempt for a man of less skill in that mystery, or only a mender, but for a maker and seller of that commodity. The cordwainers were incorporated in 1410, confirmed by Mary in 1558, by Ehzabethin 1562, and by James I. They built a new hall, which was opened Tuesday, July 23, 1577. {See Shoemakees.) CoEEA (Asia) is said to have been civHized by the Chinese about b.c. 1120. In 1692 a.d. it became subject to Japan ; but the Coreans having requested aid from China, the em- peror dehvered them from Japanese tyranny COE in 1698, and substituted his own dominion instead. Corea has since formed part of the Chinese empire. CoEEU (Ionian Sea). — This island, the ancient Corcyra, was colonized by the Corin- thians B.C. 734. The first sea-fight on record is said to have taken place between the fleets of Corcyra and of Corinth, B.C. 664. The two states were continually at war. The Corcj^reans defeated the Corinthian fleet off Cape Actium B.C. 435. The Spar- tans captured the island B.C. 303, and the Eomans b.c. 229. After passing through various vicissitudes, Corfu was taken by the Venetians a.d. 1386. The Turkish fleet was defeated by the Venetians near Corfu in July, 1716. The Turks returned, and after besieging the town of Corfu for forty-two days, retired Aug. 18, 1717. By the 5th article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the emperor of Germany allowed it to pass to the French. The aUied Turkish and Eussian forces wrested the island from the French March, 3, 1799 ; and this, vrith other islands, were formed into the repubhc of the Ionian Islands. Having again fallen into the hands of the French, they were recovered by the Enghsh in 1809, and placed under British protection in 1815. A con- ference respecting the affairs of Greece was held by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, and Eussia, at Corfu in 1828. C o E I i«r G A ( Hindostan ) . — The Enghsh took possession of this place, and estabhshed a factory in the neighbourhood, a.d. 1759. Coringa is subject to terrific inundations of the sea. One in May, 1787, swept away aU the houses, and destroyed nearly the entire population, besides extending far inland. The total loss of hfe was estimated at about 15,000 people, besides more than 100,000 head of cattle. A similar catastrophe happened in 1832. CoEi>'TH (Greece). — Some authors are of opinion that Corinth was originally the seat of a Phoenician colony. According to the traditional account, it was founded B.C. 1520, under the name of Ephyre, which was ex- changed for that of Corinth at a subsequent period. Sisyphus seized the place B.C. 1376, erected it into a kingdom, and founded the Isthmian games. The first event in its history that has been ascertained with any degree of accuracy is its conquest by the Dorians, B.C. 1074. Aletes was the first Dorian king, and the dynasty, which lasted 327 years, consisted of twelve monarchs. B.C. 925. Reign of Bacchis, a descendant of Aletes, His successors take the name of Bacchidas. 786. The Corinthians invent trii-emes. 745. The Corinthians depose theii- king Telestes and elect Automenes for prytanis, or annual magistrate. The annual prytanes govern for ninety years. 734. A colony of Corinthians, under Archias, lands in Sicily, and founds Syracuse. Chei-sicrates founds Corcyra. 664. Corcyra revolts, and defeats the Corinthiana in a naval engagement. J COE 655. Cypselus expels the Bacchidse, abolishes the digiiity of prytanis, and begius to reign at Corinth. 625. Reign of Periander, who reduces Corcyra to its old obedience, and encourages learning and the arts. 585. Death of Periander, who is succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus. 581. End of the Cypselian dynasty, and establish- ment of a republic. 457. War with the Athenians, who defeat the Corinthians in the Megarid. 435. The Corcyreans again defeat the Corinthians in some naval engagements, and captiu'e 395. Corinthian war begins ; Corinth, Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Thessaly being opposed to Sparta. 387. Peace of Antalcidas, which puts an end to the Corinthian war. 344. Timophanes attempts to establish a despotism at Corinth ; but is defeated, and mui-dered by his brother Timoleon. 338. Congi-ess at Corinth, which declares war against Persia, and appoints Philip of Macedon the Gtreek generalissimo. Corinth falls into the power of the Macedonians. 243. Aratus delivers Corinth from the Macedonian sway, and annexes it to the Achaean League. 228. First arrival of Koman ambassadors at Corinth. 223. The Achseans surrender Corinth to Antigonus Doson. 197. Battle of Cynoscephalae, after which Corinth is declared free, and reunited to the Achaean League. 146. Sack of Corinth by L. Mummius, who slaughters all the male inhabitants ; sells the women and children for slaves ; conveys the art-treasures of the city to Rome ; and, having abandoned it to pillage, destroys it by fire. 44. Corinth is restored by Julius Caesar. A.D. 363. The Isthmian games are celebrated under the emperor Julian. 396. It is taken by Alaric. 532. Justinian rebuilds the walls and fortifica- tions. 1146. It is plundered by Roger, king of Sicily. 1205. The Crusaders lay siege to it. 1209. It is besieged by GeoHrey Villehardoin. 1210. It is erected into an archbishopric about this year. 1247. It is taken by William Villehardoin, prince of Achaia. 1358. It is granted to Niccolo Acciaiuoli. 1422. It is ceded to the Venetians. 1453. The Turks seize it. 1687. It is taken by the Venetians. 1714. June 20. Retaken by the Tui'ks. 1822. Oct. 2. The Greeks captui-e the fortress. 1823. The city is taken by the Greeks, and added to their newly-formed kingdom. 1858. Feb. 21. The town destroyed by an earthquake. CoKiNTHiAN Oedee of architecture was invented by Callimachus b.c. 540. CoEiifTHiAifs (Epistles to the). — Two let- ters written by St. Paul to the church which he had founded at Corinth during his stay there in 51 and 52. The first epistle was written by St. Paul from Ephesus, in March, 55, and the second from Philippi, about October in the same year. CoEiNTHiAN Wae.— Corinth/ Athens, Ar- gos, Thessaly, and Thebes, entered into an alliance against the Spartans B.C. 395, and the war was prosecuted with great vigour, untU brought to a conclusion by the peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 387. Hostilities were, for COR the most part, waged on the territory, or in the vicinity of Corinth. Hence it was called the Corinthian war. CoEiOLi (Italy) was taken from the Latins by the Volscians, from whom it was wrested by the Romans B.C. 493. AH traces of the town had disappeared by B.C. 443. The story of Coriolanus in connection with this city is not considered authentic by Niebuhr and others. CoEK (Ireland) is said to owe its origin to St. Barr, who founded a cathedral andmonas- tery here in the beginning of the 7th century. {See CoEK, See op.) It was laid waste by the Danes a.d. 832. A fire destroyed the greater part of the town in 978, and it was again reduced to ashes during another Danish invasion in 1013. In 1172 it surrendered to Henry II., who established an English gar- rison ; but the Irish besieged it in 1182 and in 1185, and finally efi'ected its capture in 1195. King John granted Cork its first charter in 1185. The Franciscan monastery of Grey Friars was founded in 1214, and that of the Dominicans in 1229. This city was repre- sented in the Irish parliament in 1359. In 1493 the charter was forfeited, in consequence of the favourable reception given to Perkin Warbeck, but it was restored by James I. in 1609. In 1612 and 1622 fires destroyed great part of the city, and a flood swept away some public buildings and bridges in 1633. Cork was besieged in 1642, and in 1643 aU its Irish inhabitants were expelled. The parhamentary forces seized it in 1649, and dming the Protec- torate it suffered much oppression in conse- quence of its adherence to the royahst cause. James II. landed here in 1689, and in 1690 the forces of William III., under the earl of Marlborough, took the town after a spirited resistance. The North-Gate Bridge over the Lee was erected in 1712. The cathedral was taken dovm in 1725, in consequence of the injuriesithadsustained during Marlborough's siege ; but a new one was commenced on the original site in 1735. The Mansion-House was erected in 1767, the library was established in 1792, the house of correction built in 1818, and the city and county court-house was completed in 1835. Riots, caused by scarcity of food, broke out June 10, 1842, and Daniel O'Con- nell held a monster meeting in the neighbour- hood June 8, 1845. Queen Victoria landed here Aug. 3, 1849, and desired that the town should henceforward be called Queen's Town in consequence. In 1850 Cork and Dublin were united by railway, and an indus- trial exhibition was opened June 10, 1852. CoBK (See of). — This see was founded by St. Barr, or Finnbarr, about 606. In 1490 it was united to CloynebyPope Innocent VIII., and in 1586, May 17, the see of Ross was also added. Cloyne was separated from Cork and Ross between 1638 and 1660, and in 1678 Cork was again made distinct. The tliree sees were ordered to be permanently united by act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37, s. 32, passed Aug. 14, 1833, which came into operation at the death of Bishop Brinkley in 1835. CoEK-TEEE. — The bark of this tree, a kind 247 COK of oak, was used by the Greeks and Eomans for various purposes ; and amongst others, to make floats to their nets, anchor-buoys, swimming-jackets, and soles for their shoes^ Beckmann contends that the Eomans alsoused it to stop vessels of every kind. Cork was first used for this purpose in Europe on the iavention of glass bottles, in the loth century. The cork-tree was introduced into England from the south of Europe a.d. 1699. CoEW. — Jacob sent his ten sons into Egypt to buy corn (Gen. xlii.) during the great famine, about B.C. 1707. According to the Arundelian marbles, Ceres taught the art of sowing corn at Athens B.C. 2409, and sent her son Triptolemus into other cities to inculcate the same art. Corn was regularly distributed to the citizens of Eome, of Con- stantinople, and other towns, in ancient times. Greece was supplied mth corn from the countries bordering on the Black Sea in the time of Xerxes. Corn was imported to Eome from Sicily B.C. 486. CoEN ExcHAN&E. — The London Corn Ex- change was projected and opened a.d. 1747. Alterations were commenced in 1827, and the new building was opened June 24, 1828. CoEN Laws. — The exportation of corn from England, except in certain cases, was prohibited by 34 Edw. III. c. 20 (1361). Modifications of the law ensued, and in 1436 exportation was permitted by 15 Hen. VI. c. 2, provided the home price did not exceed 6s. 8d. per quarter. Dealers were first allowed to engross their com, i.e., to buy in one market with intent to sell at a profit in another, by 15 Chas. II. c. 7 (1663). The importation of corn, unless the price of wheat exceeded 6«. 8d. per quarter, that of rye 4s., and of barley 3s., was prohi- bited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1463), the pre- amble of the statute stating, ""V\Tiereas, the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm be daily grievously endamaged by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm, when corn of the grow- ing of this realm is at low price." Further regulations on the subject followed, and the importation of corn was heavily taxed by 22 Chas. II. c. 8 (1670), and also by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 12 (1689), which substi- tuted a bounty for the previous duty on exported corn. The rapid increase of popu- lation, however, and the extended commerce and manufactures of the country, demanded alterations in the regulations respecting im- portation ; and at length the act 13 Geo. III. c. 43 (1773) permitted foreign wheat to be imported on payment of a duty of 6^. per quarter, when the home price was not less than 48s. The same statute ordered the bounty on exportation to cease when corn was at or above 44s. These regulations were again modified by 31 Geo. III. c. 4 (1791), which increased the duties on im- ported corn. Mr. Eobinson's act, 55 Geo. III. c. 26 (March 23, 1815), removed all restric- tions on foreign corn imported in order to be warehoused, and permitted its importa- 248 COE tion for home consumption when at 80s. per quarter. This biU was very unpopular, and occasioned serious riots in London and Westminster, on the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th of March. By 3 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 1822), the importation price was reduced to 70s. per quarter, and for corn from British North America to 59s. per quarter. Mr. Canning's Com BiQ, proposed March 1, 1827, passed the House of Commons, but was rejected by the Lords. The following year the same principles were embodied in 9 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 1828), which is known as the SMding Scale, because the duty varied ; being 24s. 8d. when the home price was 64s. per quarter, 16s. 8d. when it was 69s., and Is. when it was at or above 73s. The second SMding Scale act (5 Vict. c. 14, April 29, 1842) amphfied this scale from £1 for under 51s. per quarter to Is. for 73s. Sir Eobert Peel's Com Importation BiU, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (June 26, 1846), reduced the duty on aU corn imported at 53s. per quarter"^to 4s., until Feb. 1, 1849, when the duty was permanently reduced to Is. per quarter on all grain imported, whatever the price might be. CoEJTWALL (England) is said to have been governed by a prince named Corineus (whence its name) as early as B.C. 1145. Vespasian is supposed to have been its Eoman conqueror, about a.d. 41 ; but little is known of its history till a much later period. Vortigem, earl of Cornwall, became king of Britain in 425, and his earldom formed part of the kingdom till about 460, when the Saxons murdered 300 of the British no- bility and compelled the rest to seek retire- ment in the mountainous wilds of Wales and Cornwall, where they re-estabUshed an inde- pendent kingdom. Arthur, who began to reign in 517, and ultimately extended his dominions far beyond their original limits, is the most celebrated of the Cornish sove- reigns. Cuthred, king of Wessex, annexed a portion of ComwaU to his territories in 753, and in 835 Egbert gained the whole kingdom at the battle of Hengstone HiU. Alfred erected Cornwall into an earldom before 901, and the earls continued in unin- terrupted succession from the old British kings of the country tiU 1066, when William the Conqueror substituted in their place his half-brother Eobert. The dignity remained in the royal family till the death of the last earl, Edmund, in 1300, when it reverted to the crown. In 1337 Edward III. created the Black Prince duke of Cornwall, and the title has since formed part of the style of the prince of Wales. In 1497 one Thomas Flam- mock incited the Cornishmen to rebeUion, and led them in arms to Blackheath, where they were defeated by Lord Daubeny, June 22, 1497. In June 1549 the county again rose against the imposition of the Protestant prayer-book, and the rebelhon was only quelled at the battle of Sampford Courtenay (q.v.). In 1595 the Spaniards made a descent on the Cornish coasts, and com- mitted several depredations. i COR CoEONATiON. — Justin II., who succeeded Justinian Nov. 15, 574 a.d., was the first emperor crowned with ceremony by the patriarch of Constantinople. Charlemagne adopted the custom, and was crowned by the pope, at Eome, Dec. 25, 800. Edward, crowned on Whitsunday, 902, is said to have been the first English monarch to adopt the ceremony. The custom for the queen to be crowned originated here before the Con- quest. The French queens were for a long time crowned at the abbey of St. Denis, near Paris. Kingston-on-Thames, London, Westminster, and Winchester, were chosen by dift'erent English kings, in early times, as the place of coronation. Edward the Con- fessor, who was crowned at Winchester, formally fixed the monastery founded by him at Westminster as the place for the ceremony. Coronation Banquet. — The feast usually held in Westminster HaU on the day of the coronation, was omitted by WilMam IV. on his coronation, Sept. 8, 1831, and has been since discontinued. CoEONATiON Oath. — The oath taken in Sweden before the conversion of the country to Christianity is stiU extant. It contains the name of Odin, and was accommodated to the Christian faith by Eric a.d. 1156. The Greek emperors in their coronation oath, which consisted of six articles, professed, amongst other things, their acceptance of the'Apostles' Creed and of the apostolical tra- ditions, confirmed the rights of the Church, and acknowledged the constitutions of the seven oecumenical councils. The oath of the kings of France was similar to that of Etheh-ed II., king of England. The oath taken by Ethelred II., who was crowned in 978, is still extant. The next of which a copy exists is the oath taken by Henry I. in 1100, and it agrees exactly with the former. The office used by King Ethelred appears to have been adopted by his successors down to the reign of Edward II., when some slight alterations were made. One of the articles of impeachment against Archbishop Laud was the charge of having altered the coronation oath for Charles I. By 1 WiU. & Mary, c. 6 (1689), a new coronation oath was framed, the former oath containing, according to this statute, " doubtful words and expressions with relation to ancient laws and constitutions now unknown." This was altered at the union with Scotland. CoKONATiON Stone. — " The legends of the old historians," says Taylor (Glory of Ee- gality, p. 53), "inform us that this is the very stone on which the patriarch Jacob laid his head in the plain of Luz ; that it was brought from Egypt into Spain, by Gathelus, the supposed founder of the Scottish nation; that it was thence transported into Ireland, * amongst other princehe iewells and regall moniunents,' by Simon Brech, who was crowned upon it about b . c . 700, and that it was thence carried to Scotland by King Fergus, B.C. 330." The real history is, that it was transferred from Ireland, to Scotland at an COR early period, and was placed in the abbey church of Scone in 850. The Scottish kings were crowned here until 1296, when Ed- fard I. carried it to England. It was agreed y the treaty of Northampton, in 1:328, that the stone should be returned to Scotland, but this was not done. It is fixed in a chair made of oak. CoRONEiA (Greece). — Agesilaus defeated the Thebans and their aUies in a plain near this city, B.C. 394. Several battles were fought in the vicinity. {See Ch^eoneia.) CoEONEE. — This office is of very ancient institution, and is said by Ducange to be pecuhar to the English. The laws of Mal- colm II., who began to reign a.d. 1004, contain many regulations respecting the authority of this officer in Scotland. The lord chief- justice of the Queen's Bench is the chief coroner in the realm ; but there are, besides, particular coroners for every county, who were first appointed in 1276 by the statutes of Westminster (4Edw. I. st. 2). Originally none but knights were permitted to hold the office ; but it has gradually become sufficient that a man possess landed property worth £20 per annum. Coroners are chosen for hfe ; but by 25 Geo. II. c. 29, s. 6, passed in 1752, extortion, neglect, or misbehaviour, are made reasons for removal. In case of sick- ness or other sufficient cause, coroners are allowed to act by deputy by 6 & 7 Vict, c. 83, s. 1, passed Aug. 22, 1843. CoEONET. — The exact period at which coronets were used by the different orders of the nobfiity is not known. Henry III.. granted them to earls, James I. to viscounts, and Charles II. to barons. Dukes and mar- quises also wear coronets. The coronet was originally a circlet or garland, worn as an ornament. Some authorities say it was not used by knights before the reign of Ed- ward III., and then indiscriminately by princes, dukes, earls, or knights. CoEPOEATiONS are of two kinds, aggregate or sole ; the first consisting of many persons united together into one society, and kept up . by a perpetual succession of members ; the second of one person only and his successors. The honour of their invention is attributed to the Romans, {See Municipal Coepoea- TIONS.) CoEPULENCE. — In Sparta, citizens who grew too fat were soundly whipped. Nau- chs, the son of Polytus, was brought before the Ephori, and his excessive corpulence was exposed to the pubhc. He was, moreover, threatened with perpetual banishment if he failed to reduce his body within reasonable dimensions. Sennertus mentions a man and a woman who weighed respectively 600 and 450 lb. Bright, of Essex, who died in 1750, weighed 588 lb. Daniel Lambert, who died June 21, 1809, weighed, a few days before his death, 52 stone 11 lb., or 739 lb. CoEPUS Cheisti. — This festival of the Romish church, in favour of the doctrine of transubstantiation and the adoration of the host, was first celebrated at Liege a.d. 1241, by the canons of St. Martin. Urban IV. pub- COR lished a bull in favour of it between 1262 and 1264 ; but it did not become general tmtil the order was repeated by Clement V. in 1311, and it was strictly enjoined by tbe council of Vienna, the 15tli general council, 1311 and 1312. It is celebrated on the Thurs- day after Trinity Sunday. Corpus Cheisti, or Beis'edict Colle&e (Cambridge), was founded a.d. 1351, by the brethren of the guilds of Corpus Christi and the Virgin Mary. The old building was replaced by a new one in 1823. The chapel was bmlt by Sir Nicholas Bacon in 1578. Corpus Cheisti College (Oxford) was founded by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- chester, A.D . 1516. An additional building was erected by Dr. Turner in 1706. CoEEESPONDiifG Society. — In 1794 two pohtical societies, established in 1791, at- tracted considerable attention in England. One of them was styled the Society for Con- stitutional Information, and the other, the most numerous, the Corresponding Society. The professed object of both was reform in the parhamentary representation of the people ; but they cherished designs of a dan- gerous character. The latter, in particular, denounced the war with France, and cor- responded extensively -svith the leading repub- licans in France. The London Corresponding Society and four other societies forwarded a sympathetic address to the French National Convention, bearing date Sept. 27, 1792. A proclamation against seditious meetings had been issued May 21, 1792, and in 1794 the secretaries to the two societies. Home Tooke and others, were arrested as guilty of trea- sonable practices, and committed to the Tower. The trials came on before a special commission at the Old Bailey, Oct. 25, and having in three cases resulted in an acquittal, the prosecution was abandoned. The Lon- don Corresponding Society held open-air meetings near Copenhagen House, Oct. 26, Nov. 13, and ia Marylebone Fields Dec. 9, 1795, and again in the fields near Copenhagen House, Nov. 12, 1796. Bills for the safety and preservation of his Majesty's person and fovernment, and to prevent seditious assem- Hes, were passed late in 1795. The London Corresponchng Society called a meeting in a field near St. Pancras, July 28, 1797, when their proceedings were interrupted by the authorities, and several of their leaders kept in custody until they procured bail. The mutiny at the Nore, Sept. 1, 1797, was stirred up by emissaries from these societies. Prompt measures were adopted by the government, and although the London Corresponding Society ceased to exist, its members formed other associations, which continued to create discontent during this critical period. CoEEUPTiBLES and Incoeeuptibles. — Two factions into which the Monophysite church at Alexandria was divided. Mosheim gives the following account of their origin. Julian of HaUcarnassus, in the year 519, maintained that "the divine nature had so insinuated itself into the body of Christ, from the very moment of conception, as to COR change its nature and render it incorrupt- ible." Hence the schism, which lasted many years, and even produced contentions that ended in bloodshed. C o E s I c A ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This island, called by the G-reeks Cymus, became the seat of a colony of Phocseans B.C. 564. They were expelled by the Tyrrhenians. The Romans attacked the inhabitants B.C. 259, but they were not finally subdued until b.c. 231. The Vandals overran Corsica a.d. 456, and it fell into the power of the Saracens in 852. In 1077 the pope ceded it to the Pisans, and in 1297 it was given to James II., of Aragon, by Boniface VIII. James, however, made no effort to secure it, and it remained in the hands of the Pisans tUl they were expelled by the Genoese in 1312. The French and Turks made an attempt to conquer the island in 1553, but it was finally secured to the G-enoese by the treaty of Cateau-Cam- bresis in 1559. A revolt broke out in 1730 ; and in 1755 General Paoli deUvered great part of the country from the Genoese yoke. Finding itself unable to reduce the inha- bitants to subjection, the repubhc of Genoa ceded Corsica to France by the treaty of Compiegne, Aug. 5, 1768. In 1793 Paoli renewed his efforts to hberate his coimtiy, and succeeded in delivering it from French domination. The Assembly unanimously voted the union of Corsica to the crown of Great Britain, June 8, 1794. Lord Minto ruled as viceroy tih 1796, when it was recap- tured by a French force under Gentili. Under the republic, Corsica formed the two departments of Golo and Liamone. In 1811 they were united into one. The British attempted its recapture in 1814. Since the peace of Paris, May 30, the same year, it has remained in undisturbed possession of France. CoETENUOVA (Battle). — Fought between the emperor Frederick II. and the Lombard League, at this place, near Milan, Nov. 27, 1237. The conflict was sustained with great vigour, but the Italians were at length de- feated. CoETES. — The name given to the national assembly in Spain and in Portugal. The commons were admitted by representation in the Cortes of Aragon a.d. 1133, and in the Cortes of Castile in 1169, or, according to some authorities, in 1160. The convocation of the states in Aragon was made annual, instead of biennial, in 1307. About ninety towns sent 192 representatives to the Cortes of Burgos in 1315 ; and fifty towns sent 126 to the Cortes of Madrid in 1391. The Spanish Cortes assembled at Cadiz in 1810, after a long interval, and opened Sept. 24. They drew up a constitution, which was finally accepted March 19, 1812. Ferdinand VII. suppressed the Cortes in May, 1814, but restored them, and took the oath of allegi- ance to the constitution of 1812, March 8, 1820. They were again suppressed Oct. 1, 1823, and a decree was issued for their re- storation April 13, 1834, and they reassembled July 24, in the same year. COE CoETiCELLA (Battle). — The tyrant Ecce- liao defeated the papal forces at this place, in Italy, Aug. 30, 1258. CoRTONA (Italy), the Corythus of Virgil (^n. iii. 167 ; vii. 206), is supposed to have been founded by the Umbrians, from whom it was wrested by the Pelasgians. Situated on a lofty hill between Arretium and Clusiiim, in an almost impregnable position, it was one of the most important cities of Etruria, and formed one of the twelve of the Etruscan confederation. It afterwards feU under the power of the Eomans, but the exact period when this happened has not been ascertained. The modern Cortona was one of the earhest bishoprics of the Christian church. The bishop of Arezzo claimed spiritual jurisdic- tion over it in the 13th century. This led to a war, and Cortona was taken and its castle destroyed A. D. 1258. It wassoJdto the Floren- tines in 1411, and has since remained in their possession. The Academia Etrusca, in this city, was estabhshed in 1726. CoEUNDTJM. — The identity of this mineral, long knovra under the name of adamantine spar, with the sapphire, pointed out by Pelletier and De Lametherie in 1787, was confirmed in an account read before the Royal Society of London, by Mr. Greville, June 7, 1798. CoETJNNA (Battle). — Soult having followed the British in their retreat from Spain, came up vrith them near this seaport town, on the night of the 13th of January, 1809. The English general. Sir John Moore, made preparations for the embarkation of the troops ; but the transports had not arrived, and he was compelled to give battle. The action commenced at two in the afternoon of the 16th, and though the Enghsh were at first reptilsed, by dint of great exertion, they defeated their opponents. Sir John Moore fell in the hour of victory; and Sir John Hope, on whom the command had devolved, succeeded in embarking the army during the night. The French army amounted to 20,000 and the English to about 14,000 men. The loss of the former was 2,000, and that of the latter nearly 1,000 in killed and wounded. Corunna is called by English sailors " The Groyne." CoETEE, or forced labour. — Turgot issued a decree for the abohtion of the system in France in 1775 ; but it was not carried out. It was, however, aboUshed in 1789. Baron Stern abohshed it in Prussia in October, 1807. CoEWEN (Battles). — Henry II. was de- feated near this town, in Wales, by Owen Gwynneth, a.d. 1165. Henry IV. sustained a reverse in the same locality from Glendower, in 1402. CoETGAUM (Battle). — A force consisting of 500 native infantry, 26 European artil- lerymen, and a small number of auxiliary horse, was assailed at this village, in Hin- dostan, Jan. 1, 1818, by the Peishwa, with an overwhelming force. The former main- tained its ground, and the Peishwa made a precipitate retreat. COS Cos (Archipelago), the capital of a small island of the same name, was destroyed by an earthquake, during the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 431-404. The island belongs to Turkey, and is now called Stanko, or Stanchio. CosA, or CossA (Italy).— This city of Etruria, received a Roman colony b.c. 273. CosENZA (Italy).— The ancient Consentia, the chief city of the Brutii. Alaric died in this city a.d. 410. The course of the Bu- sento, a small river that washes its walls, was diverted, and in its bed, the body of the hero, with the spoils and trophies of Rome, was interred, when the waters were restored to their natural channel. Consentia was destroyed by the Saracens in 988. It is the seat ot an archbishopric. Cossacks. — The origin of the Cossacks has occasioned much controversy. The generally received opinion is, that they are a native Russian race, intermixed with Cal- mucks and Tartars. They are divided into two principal classes, the Cossacks of the Don and the Cossacks of Little Russia. The latter are first mentioned in the 14th century, during the Polish invasion of Russia. They were not known by the name of Cossacks until 1516. Stephen Bathon, king of Poland, formed them into regiments, under the control of a hetman, or headraan, in 1592. They placed themselves under the protection of Russia in 1654, and revolted in 1708. The Cosacks of the Don entered the service of Russia in the 16th century. Tscherkask, their capital, destroyed by fire iu 1744, was rebuilt in 1805. CossiMBAZAE (Hiudostan) . — The East- India Company estabhshed a factory here A.D. 1706. SurajahDowlah seized it in June, 1756. CossovA (Battles). — The sultan Amurath defeated a combined army of Albanians, Dalmatians, Hungarians, and WaUachians, on the plains of Cossova, in Servia, in Sept, 1389. A Servian soldier, lying wounded on the field of battle, stabbed Amurath in the belly, and the wound proved mortal. Amu- rath II., one of his successors, defeated John Corvinus Huniades at the same place in 1448. The Turkish army amounted to more than 100,000, whilst Huniades could only muster 24,000 men. Costa Rica (South America) formed part of the kingdom of Guatemala, until the declaration of independence by the Spanish colonies in South America, a.d. 1821, when it was united to the Mexican kingdom of Iturbe. It formed one of the Central American Confederacy in 1823, and, on the dissolution of that confederacy, became an independent republic. A commercial treaty between England and Costa Rica was signed at San Jos^ Nov. 27, 1849, and ratifications were exchanged in London Feb. 20, 1850. It consists of sixteen articles. The rich gold- mines in the forest of Aguacate were first worked in 1821 . CosTEOMA (Russia), the capital of a pro- vince of the same name, was founded a.d. 251 COS 1152. The monastery of Ipatskoi, from which the founder of the Eomanoif dynasty- emerged in 1613, was estabhshed in 1330. Costroma is the seat of a bishopric. Costume. ((See Dress.) Cottage. — By 31 Eliz. c. 7, passed in 1589, no cottage was to be erected unless four acres of land were attached to it, and only one family was allowed to inhabit it. The act did not apply to towns or to places on the coast ; nor did it interfere with the erection of cottages for miners, or keepers in parks, forests, &e. It was repealed by 15 Geo. III. e. 32, passed in 1775. CoTTOS". — This useful material is obtained from the cotton-plant, which Linnaeus sub- divided into five species. It has been grown in India from time immemorial, and is men- tioned in the annals of Egypt. A.D. 1252. Cottou goods made in Persia. 1253. Flemish weavers make linen in England. 1328. A species of woollen goods, called " Man- chester cottons," made at Manchester by Flemish emigrants. 1368. Cotton manufHctured in China. 139it. Cotton (woollen) fii-st made at Kendal. 1497. First European manufacture of cotton goods attempted in Spain and Italy. 1590. Cotton cloth brought to London from Guinea. 1634. Linen trade commenced in Ii'eland. 1650. Very fine calicoes made^ at Calicut, in India. 1756. Cotton velvets first made in England. {See Cotton Tkade and Manueactuee. ) CoTTONiAN LiBSAET.— This coUcction was formed by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, who was born Jan. 22, 1570, and who died May 6, 1631. It was largely augmented by his son and grandson. In 1700 an act of parliament was passed for the better securing and pre- serving this hbrary in the name and family of the Cottons, for the benefit of the pubhc. The house was piu-chased for £4,500 in 1706. In 1730 the library was removed to Ash- burnham House, Westminster, and Oct. 23, 1731, it suffered greatly from a fire that broke out in the building. In 1757 the Cot- tonian library, with other collections, formed the commencement of the British Museum. The number of manuscript volumes con- tained in the hbrary before the fire was 958. Of these 114 were either destroyed or ren- dered useless, and 98 damaged. Cotton Teade and Manufactuee. — The first mention of the cotton trade of Great Britain occurs in Lewis Roberts' "Treasury of Trafl&c," published a.d. 1641, where Man- chester is named as receiving cotton-wool from Smyrna and Cyprus, and manufactur- ing it into "fustians, vermilhons, dimities, and other such stuffes." In 1660 all colonial cotton was ordered to be sent to England for manufacture, and in 1760 the annual value of the trade was only estimated at £200,000. A machine for spinning by rollers was patented by Messrs. Wyatt and Paul as early as 1738 ; but the inventors were unable to render it of practical utility, and it was 252 COU subsequently abandoned. The first great improvement in the manufacture was Har- greave's invention of the spinning-jenny, which was pex'fected in 1767. Sir Richard Arkwright's spinning-frame, patented in 1769 and improved and again patented in 1775, completely superseded the laborious process of spinning by hand. The mule-jenny was invented by Samuel Crompton in 1775, and was immediately substituted for the previous machine of Hargreave. The expiration of Arkwright's patent in 1785 gave new impe- tus to the ingenuity of inventors, and the power -loom, which was patented by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright in 1787, wonderfully increased the rate of manufacture. Impor- tation of the raw material from America commenced in 1791, when 189,316 lb. were received. The invention of Eh Whitney's machine for separating the wool from the seed, which was completed in 1793, added so much to the facihty of transportation, that in 1794 the amount received was 1,601,760 lb. The total amount exported from the United States since the beginning of the trade amounted, in 1858, to 1,118,624,0121b. In 18.57 the total value of the cotton goods exported from Great Britain amounted to £39,113,409, and the quantity of raw material consumed to 786,000,000 lb. Council, or Synod. — The chief authori- ties of the Church assembled in the 2nd cen- tury, in council or synod, to regulate eccle- siastical affairs. The council of Pergamus, in Asia, a.d. 152, is the first on record. {See General Councils.) Councils, in which persons assembled to dehberate on public affairs, existed in very early times. The Roman concilium was an assembly of the people from which the patri- cians were excluded. {See Pbivt Council, Town Council, &c.) Count.— This title, under its Latin equi- valent comes, dates from the reign of the emperor Augustus, who conferred it upon the senators who surrounded him most nearly. It was used in Spain about a.d. 650, and for a long period seems to have been of equal dignity with that of duke, no distinc- tion being made tUl 1297. During the Nor- man period in England, count and earl were titles of equal rank. Counties, or Shires. — Hume states that Alfred (a.d 871-901) divided all England into counties. The system certainly did not ori- ginate with him, as the shire-man is men- tinned in the laws of King Ina, who died in 727. Knights of the shire were first sum- moned to parUament in 1258. CouNTT-CouRTS. — Thcse useful tribunals for the recovery of debts under £20 were estabhshed by 9 & 10 Tict. c. 95 (Aug. 26, 1846), being "An act for the more easy recovery of small debts and demands in England." This act was amended by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 1, 1849), and the jurisdiction of the county-courts was extended to suits for sums not exceeding £50 in amount by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 61 j (Aug. 14, 1850). Some amendments were cou made in certain details relating to these courts by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 54 (June 30, 1852), by 17 Vict. c. 16 (June 2, 1854), by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 108 (July 29, 1856), and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 25, 1857). By 22 & 23 Vict, c. 57 (Aug. 13, 1859), tbe power of com- mittal vested in the county-court judges by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, ss. 98, 99, 100 (Aug. 26, 1846), was only to be exercised in cases in which credit had been obtained by fraud or breach of trust. England and Wales, ex- clusive of London, were divided into sixty districts, to be enlarged or diminished by the sovereign in councU ; and the courts are held in the most important towns in each district, once in every calendar naonth. For particulars respecting the county-courts that existed iu the Saxon period of English history, see Schyeemotes. CoTTEiEKS. — Xenophon says they were first employed by Cyrus. Herodotus (viii. 98) speaks of the Persian couriers, who travelled with great rapidity. They were stationed on the road, one man and one horse to each day's journey ; and by these messengers Xerxes sent the news of his defeat to Persia, B.C. 480. Gibbon bears testimony to the rapidity with which com- munication was carried on in the Eoman empire by the regular institution of posts. "Houses," he says (ch. ii.), "were every- where erected at the distance only of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses ; and by the help of these relays it was easy to travel an hundred miles in a day along the Eoman roads." The couriers could, therefore, travel at great speed. Prescott speaks of the Mexican couriers, who travelled with incredible swiftness. The Peruvian chasquis, or runners, carried government despatches at the rate of 150 miles a day. Prescott says it is remarkable that this important institution should have been known to both the Mexicans and the Peruvians, without any correspondence with one another, and that it should have been found among two barbarian nations of the New World, long before it was introduced among the civUized nations of Europe. CoTJELAND (Eussia) . — This province, com- posed of the old duchies of Courland and SemigaUia, the bishopric of Pilton, and Polangen, a district of Samogitra, was an- nexed to Eussia A.D. 1795. Courland was conquered by the Danes in 1218, and by the i knights of the Teutonic order in 1289. In ! 1561 it was rendered tributary to the king of j Poland, who erected it into a duchy, and invested the grand master of the order with the title of duke. TiU 1737 Courland was governed by hereditary dukes; but it was then agreed that the dignity should become elective. Numerous complications resulted; Eussian troops occupied the duchy in 1786, and the inhabitants ultimately petitioned the empress Catherine to unite their country to the Eussian empire, which was accom- plished March 18, 1795. Alexander liberated the serfs of Courland Sept. 24, 181S. COU CouET Baeon.— The court of civil juris- diction within a manor was anciently held once every three weeks, its chief business being the settlement of questions relative to the right of lands within the manor. By 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), its jurisdiction was limited to the right of recovery of rent, &c., and of deciding civil questions in which the damage did not exceed forty sliilhngs. Its operation was stUl further restricted by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 27, s. 36 (July 24, 1833), and it has now fallen into disuse, in con- sequence of the permission granted to lords of manors by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, s. 14 (Aug. 28, 1846), to surrender their right of holding these courts to the crown. It also bad juris- diction in criminal matters, and this, by 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), was limited to assaults, batteries, and smaller oifences, for which a fine of not more than twenty shiUijigs, and in default of payment one month's im- prisonment, might be inflicted. CoUET-LEETandVlEWOrFEAIirK-PLEDGE. — This court of record was established in the Anglo-Saxon period of our history, and it dealt with all crimes punished by the common law. Its original intent was to view the frank pledges, i.e., the freemen within the liberty, who, according to the institution of of King Alfred, were all mutually pledged for the good behaviour of each other. By 52 Hen. III. c. 10 (1267), prelates, peers, and clergymen were exempted from attend- ance at this court. A portion of the business of the court was transferred to Quarter Sessions by 1 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1461), and this statute materially reduced its functions. Cottet-Maetial. — During the Tudor supremacy, military causes were decided by courts of war, held at stated periods, under the presidency of the marshal of England. Courts-martial, as now constituted, were dis- tinguished into general andregimental in 1686, and their power regulated by the Mutiny Act, 2 Wm. III. c. 6 (1690). Naval courts- martial are regulated by 22 Geo. II. c. 33 (1749). CouET OF Eequests. {See Conscience, COTTETS OP.) CoTJETEAT (Belgium) was a municipial city in the 7th century. The fortifica- tions were built a.d. 1290, the castle in 1385, and the citadel in 1647. The battle of the Spurs, in which the French army, amounting to 47,000 men, was defeated by 20,000 Flemings, was fought near this place July 11, 1302. Courtray was captured by the French in 1643, 1646, 1667, 1683, and May 17, 1744. They obtained possession of it again towards the end of Jime, 1792, but were compelled to evacuate it on the 30th. General Beaulieu completely routed the French near this city in 1793. The church of Notre Dame was founded in 1238, and the Town-hall m 1526. The first cloth ma- nufacture in Flanders was commenced at Courtray in 1260. CouETS for the administration of justice are referred to in Exodus, xviii. 25 & 26, in which the measures adopted by Moses about 253 COTJ B.C. 1491, for tlie judicial government of the Israelites, are described. The ancient He- brews had two kinds of coiirts,— the great Sanhedrim, or great Consistory, and the Council, or Lesser Court. The court of the Areopagus is said! to have been established at Athens B.C. 1506. The Cretan courts of justice attributed to Minos, were celebrated. Suits in courts in this country were first regulated by the provisions of 43 Hen. III. (1259) The Irish law-courts were confirmed in their independent rights by 23 Greo. III. c. 28 (1783). CouTRAS (Battle) .—During the war of the three Henries in France, the Eoman Cath- olic army, led by the duke of Joyeuse, was defeated and almost annihilated near Coutras, in Perigord, Oct. 20, 1587, by the Huguenot forces, led by Henry of Navarre. CoTELOSTG (Hindostan) .— This fortified town was taken by stratagem by the French A.D. 1750. Clive besieged and captured it in September, 1752, when the fortifications were destroyed. Covenanters. — The Covenant, professing to be based upon a document which James VI. of Scotland had signed in 1580, was dravm up and pubHshed by the Four Tables in Edinburgh, March 1, 1638. Of the Four Tables, as they were called, one consisted of the nobility, another of gentry, another of ministers, and another of burgesses ; and in their hands the whole authority of the kingdom was vested. They elected a gen- eral assembly, which met at Glasgow Nov. 21, 1638, and abohshed episcopacy ; ordering that every person shoxild sign the Covenant on pain of excommunication. The Cove- nanters prepared for war, and though a treaty of peace was concluded June 18, 1639, they entered England Aug. 20, 1640. An agreement was signed at Kipon, Oct. 26, 1640, by which commissioners were to be appointed, to whom the settlement of the points in dispute were referred. This covenant, under the name of the Solemn League and Covenant, was received by the parliament at the assem- bly of divines, Sept. 25, 1643. It differed essentially from the Covenant of 1638, and according to HaUam (Eng. ch. x. pt. 1), " consisted in an oath to be subscribed by all sorts of persons in both kingdoms, where- by they bound themselves to preserve the reformed rehgion in the Church of Scotland, iu doctrine, worship, discipline, and govern- ment, according to the word of God and prac- tice of the best reformed churches ; and to endeavour to bring the churches of God in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction and uniformity in religion, confession of faith, form of church-government, directory for worship, and catechizing ; to endeavour, without respect of persons, the extirpation of popery, prelacy (that is, church-govern- ment by archbishops, bishops, their chan- cellors, and commissaries, deans and chap- ters, archdeacons, and all other ecclesiastical officers depending on that hierarchy), and whatsoever should be found contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godhness : 254 GOV to preserve the rights and privileges of the parliaments, and the hberties of the king- doms, and the king's person and authority, in the preservation and defence of the true religion and liberties of the kingdoms ; to endeavour the discovery of incendiaries and maUgnants, who hinder the reformation of religion, and divide the king from his people, that they may be brought to punishment ; finally, to assist and defend all such as should enter into this covenant and not suffer them- selves to be withdrawn from it, whether to revolt to the opposite party, or to give in to a detestable indifference or neutrality." This document was signed by members of both houses, and by civU and military ofl&cers. A large number of the beneficed clergy, whorefusedto subscribe, were ejected. Charles II. gave an unwUhng assent to it Aug. 16, 1650. A majority in the House of Commons ordered it to be burned by the common hangman. May 17, 1661. In the same year the Scottish parhament renounced the Covenant, and declared the king supreme. Heavy fines were imposed on many of the Covenanters. CovENT Garden, originally called Convent Garden, because it occupied the site of the garden and fields of a large convent or monastery. It was, with the lands, granted by Edward VI. to the duke of Somerset, and after his attainder was granted to John, earl of Bedford, by patent dated May, 1552. The square was formed about 1634 or 1635, from designs by Inigo Jones, and the church of St. Paul's was erected by the same archi- tect about 1632. Covent Garden was made a parish by an ordinance of Lords and Commons, Jan. 7, 1645 ; and the bounds of the parish were more clearly defined in 1660. Covent-Garden Market, which originated about 1656, at first consisted of a few tempo- rary sheds. In 1671 Charles II. made a grant of it to William, earl of Bedford, and from that time it gradually increased in importance. The present bvulding was erected by Mr. Fowler in 1830. Covent-Garden Theatre was opened by John Rich, the harlequin, Dec. 7, 1732; rebuilt by Henry Holland, 1792; and de- stroyed by fire Sept. 20, 1808. The first stone of the second theatre was laid by the prince of Wales Dec. 31, 1808, and the bmld- ing, designed by Sir Eobert Smirke, opened at increased prices Sept. 8, 1809. A riot ensued, known as the " Old Prices," or "O. P." riot, which lasted sixty-seven nights, and terminated in a compromise. During the years 1843-45, this theatre was leased by the members of the Anti-Com-Law League, and used for pubhc meetings. After having been altered and decorated by Mr. Albano, it was opened for Italian opera, April 6, 1847. This theatre was again burnt down March 5, 1856, during a bal masque. The present magnificent edifice, from the designs of Mr.E. M, Barry, was opened May 22, 1858. CovENTET ( Warwickshire ) . — Canute founded a nunnery here, which was burnt by the traitor Edric a.d. 1016. Leofric, earl of cov Mercia, who died in 1057, founded a monas- tery on the ruins of the old nunnery, and granted the town a charter of immunity from taxation, at the intercession of bis wife Godiva. Edward III. granted a charter of incorporation in 1344, and in 1355 the city was surrounded by walls. In 1404, Henry IV. held here the Parliamentum Indoctorum, or Parliament of Dunces, so called because lawyers were excluded from it. Henry VI. erected it into a separate county in 1451 ; and in 1459 a second parHament was held, which received the epithet of JParlia- mentum Diabolicum, because it passed at- tainders against the duke of York and his chief supporters. In 1607 an inundation destroyed 257 houses, and in 1641 Charles I. made an unsuccessful attempt to take the city by storm. The walls were destroyed in 1662 by order of Charles II. The manu- facture of silks and ribbons was introduced in 1685, and soon became the chief employ- ment of the inhabitants. In consequence of the commercial treaty with France, concluded at Paris Jan. 25, 1860, the Coventry weavers were thrown out of employment, and re- duced to great distress. Efforts to relieve them were made in the early part of 1861 ; and the proceeds of several musical per- formances, held in the more important English towns, were devoted to this object. CovENTKT Act. — Sir John Coventry, K.B. and M.P., was attacked in the streets of London, had his nose sht, and was other- wise maimed, Dee. 21, 1670, by Sir Thomas Sandys and other members of the royal guard. The attack was provoked by some remarks made by Sir John Coventry on the life led by Charles II., and is said to have been instigated by the duke of Monmouth. In consequence of this outrage, malicious wounding and maiming was made a capital offence by 22 & 23 Chas. II. c. 1, passed March 6, 1671, and the measure received the name of the Coventry Act. It was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 1, passed June 27, 1828. Coveeipauk: (Battle) . — CKve defeated the French at this town, near Arcot, in the Carnatic, March 3, 1752. Ckacow (Poland), the ancient capital of the country, was founded by Cracus, about A.D. 700. In 1146 it was taken by the re- bellious subjects of Uladislas II., and in 1189 was the scene of a council for the reform of the clergy. The Mongols ravaged it about 1240. It was besieged in 1279 by the discon- tented nobles of Lesko the Black, but opposed a gallant and successful resistance. The imiversity was founded in 1364 by Casimir III., and enlarged in 1401 by Ladislas Jagellon. In 1655 the city was taken by the Swedes under Charles Gustavus, and again in 1702 by Charles XII. Kosciusko dehvered it from the EussianS March 24, 1794, but it was seized by the Prussians June 15 ; and at the final partition of Poland, in 1795, was allotted to Austria. In 1809 it formed part of the duchy of Warsaw, but according to the provisions of the congress CRE of Vienna, subsequently became a republic under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, June 20, 1815. In Sept. 1831, it was occupied by 10,000 Russians ; and on Nov. 16, 1846, was seized by the emperor of Austria, to whom it has ever since belonged. A fire which broke out at noon, July 18, 1850, laid a large portion of the city in ruins. Ckakganobe (Hindostan). — According to a Jewish tradition, the descendants of those Jews who escaped, on the destruction of Jerusalem, obtained permission from the native sovereign to settle at this seaport, on the coast of Malabar, about a.d. 490. The Portuguese captured it in 1505, and the Dutch wrested it from them in 1663, and erected fortifications. Hyder obtained pos- session in 1780 ; but the Dutch recovered the place, which they sold to the rajah of Travancore, an aUy of the British govern- ment, in 1788. Tippoo having failed in an attempt to capture it, Dec. 29, 1789, was more successful in 1790, and the town feU on the 8th of May. The East-India Company's forces recovered it in 1791, and it was ceded to them by the treaty of peace, of which the preliminaries were signed Feb. 24, 1792, and the treaty itself March 17. CeANIOLOGT. {See PHEENOIiOGT.) Ceanoit (Battle). — The confederated Greeks were defeated by the Macedonians at Cranon during the Lamian war, B.C. 322. Ceaost (Battle).— An army of French, German, and English troops, commanded by the duke of Montpensier, was defeated near this city, in Anjou, in 1592, by the duke of Mereceur at the head of the Spanish troops and those of the League. Craonne (Battle). — A great battle was fought at this place, near Laon, in France, March 7, 1814, between the French under Ney and Victor, and the Prussians and Rus- sians led by Bliicher and Woronzoff. The former had 29,000, and the latter 21,000 men engaged; but the strength of the position counterbalanced this numerical superiority. The French retained possesion of the field of battle. There were, however, no trophies, and the losses on both sides were severe. Ckavant (Battle).— The earl of Salisbury defeated the aUied French and Scottish army at this place, near Auxerre, in Burgundy, July, 1423. Ceatfoed (Battle) . — Hengist defeated the Britons, led by Vortimer, near this place, in Kent, at that time called Creccanford, A.D. 457. Ceatons of various colours were used in France early in the 15th century. Cont^ crayons were invented in France in 1795, and named after their inventor, Conte. Ceeation op the WoEiD. — The learned Dr. Hales, in his great work entitled "A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy" (vol. i. p. 210), re- marks : " In every system of historical chronology, sacred and profane, the two grand ceras, of the Creation of the World, and of the Nativity of Christ, have been CEE usually adopted as standards, by reference to which all subordinate epochs, aeras, and periods have been adjusted." This author gives a list of 120 dates, commencing B.C. 6984, and terminating B.C. 3616, to which this event has been assigned by different authorities, and he admits that it might be swelled to 300. Dr. Hales places it at B c. 5411. The date commonly adopted is B.C. 4004; being that of Usher, Spanheim, Cahnet, Blair, &c., and the one used in the Enghsh Bible. The following are some of the prin- cipal variations : — .,,„„_ /MuUer, 6984 ^i°^^o^ 1 Strauchius, 6484 Indian chronology { i?^^^i,eords. 1^1 Babylonian chronology Bailly, 61-58 Chinese chronology Bailly, 6157 Diogenes Laertins Playfair, 6138 Egyptian chronology Bailly, 6081 Septuagint Abulfaragi, 5.586 Septuagint, Alexandrine Scaliger, 5508 Persian chronology Bailly, 5507 Chronicle of Axiun, Abyssinian Bruce, 5500 Jackson 5426 rPlayfair, 5555 T„„„„-, , „ J Jackson, 5481 J^^^P^'^ i Hales, 5402 LUniv. Hist. 4698 Hales 5411 Indian computation \ Megasthenes, 5369 Talmudists Petrus Alliacens, 5344 Septuagint, Vatican 5270 Bede Strauchius, 5199 Samaritan computation Scaliger, 4427 Samaritan text TJniv. Hist. 4305 Hebrew text 4161 Playfair ) ^„„ Walker / ^"'' Usher, English Bible, &c 4004 Kepler Playfair, 3993 Petavius 3984 Melancthi.n Playfair, 3964 Luther 3961 Lightfoot 3960 Cornelius a Lapide TTniv. Hist. 3951 Scaliger, Isaacson 3950 Strauchius 3049 Viilgar Jewish computation Strauchius, 3760 Kabbi Lipman Univ. Hist. 3616 Ceect (Battle) .—Edward III. landed at La Hogue, July 10, 1346, and ravaged the country on the left bank of the Seine, as far as Paris. On his return he halted at Crecy, a village near Abbeville, Aug. 25. King Philip of France, who followed with an im- mense army, came up with the English at this place, and the battle commenced about four in the afternoon of Saturday, Aug. 26. The French army amounted to 130,000, whilst Edward III. could only muster 36,800 men. The king divided this small force into three hnes. The first was commanded by the prince of Wales, the Black Prince, who distinguished himself greatly in that well- fought field, and the second by the earl of Arimdel. Edward himself led the third. After a severe struggle, the French were completely routed. They lost 30,000 of their infantry, 4,000 men-at-arms, 1,400 gentlemen, 1,200 knights, and several nobles ; whUst the kings of Bohemia and Majorca were slain in that fatal fray. The Enghsh loss did not 256 CRE amount to a hundred of all ranks. Hallam attributes the result to "the yeomen, who drew the bow with strong and steady arms, accustomed to use it in their native fields, and rendered fearless by personal compe- tence and civil freedom." Some continental writers attribute this extraordinary victory to the effect of cannon, which thev pretend was used by the Enghsh for the first time on this occasion. The statement is not sup- ported by satisfactory evidence. Credit Mobilieb. — This company was created by a decree Nov. 18, 1852. Its head quarters are in Paris, and its operations consist in the undertaking or origination of pubhc enterprises, such as railroads, canals, and mines. It is constituted on the limited hability principle. Ceeditoit (Devonshire). — Winfred suf- fered martyrdom here June 5, 354 a.d. A collegiate church was founded at this town in 905. In 909 it became the seat of a bishopric, which was removed to Exeter in 1050. Crediton has frequently suffered from exten- sive conflagrations, and in 1743 the greater part of the to^vn was destroyed. Creeds, as the standard and rule of faith, existed in the Primitive church. Bingham (Antiq. b. xvi. eh. 1, s. 1) says, "For as to fundamental articles of faith, the Church had then always collected or summed up out of Scripture m her creeds, the profession of which was ever esteemed both necessary on the one hand and sufficient on the other, in order to the admission of members into the Church by baptism ; and consequently both neces- sary and sufficient to keep men in the unity of the Church, so far as concerns the unity of faith generally required of all Christians to make tbem one body and one Church of behevers." The Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian, the most ancient creeds extant, are described under their respective heads. The Augsburg Confession was drawn up in 1530, and modified in 1579. Forty -two articles of the Church of England, afterwards reduced to thirty-nine, were drawn up in 1551. The creed of Pope Pius IV. was pro- mulgated in 1564. Mogila, metropohtan of Kiow, drew up the creed for the Russian branch of the Greek church in 1642. The Confession of the Westminster Assembly, passed in 1643, was ratified by act of parha- ment in 1690. Crema (Italy). — The emperor Frederick!, captured this town a.d. 1160, and having per- mitted the inhabitants to withdraw, aban- doned it to the flames. The town was much injured from the explosion of a powder- magazine and a fire that followed, April 13, 1768. In 1797 the inhabitants were incited by French emissaries to throw off the yoke of Venice, and declare in favour of the Cis- padane repubhc ; and it was made part of the Cisalpine republic by the treaty of Campo- Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. Ceemera (Italy). — On the banks of this small river, which flowed iato the Tiber near Eome, the 300 Fabii estabhshed a fortified post, and carried on hostilities against the CEE Veientes. They were surprised July 16, B.C. 477, and not one of the band escaped. CEEMOTfA (Italy), the capital of a province of the same name, was the seat of a Roman colony B.C. 221. The Gauls were defeated in a great battle under its walls B.C. 200, and it received a new colony B.C. 190. Cremona suffered during the civil wars. The van- quished legions of Vitellius, after his defeat by the generals of Vespasian, a.d. 69, having taken refuge here, carried the city by assault. It was given up to pillage, and completely destroyed. Though rebuilt by Vespasian, it did not recover its former prosperity, and was again destroyed by the Lombards a.d. 605. The inhabitants erected their city into a repubhc in 1107. It joined the Lombard League in 1176. The emperor Henry VII. imprisoned many of the inhabitants, abolished their privileges, and destroyed the ramparts of the city, in 1311. After this time it passed through the hands of several masters, and was ceded to Venice in 1428. Louis XII. took it in 1499, and bestowed it upon the Swiss, in return for their alliance. He obtained possession of it in 1509, and the inhabitants threw off the French yoke in 1512. The Venetians recovered it for France in 1515. It shared the varied fortimes of the ItaMan cities, submitted to Bonaparte in 1796, and its incorporation with the Cisalpine repubhc was recognized by the emperor Francis II. in the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. It was recovered by the allies in 1799, but the French regained possession in 1800. It was ceded to Austria at the set- tlement of Europe in 1814-15, and remained in its possession, with the exception of a short interval in 1848-49, until it was incor- porated vrith Sardinia by the treaty of Zu- rich, Nov. 10, 1859. Cremona is the seat of a bishopric. CRESOEifT. — Grideon took from Zebah and Zalmunna, kings of Midian, B.C. 1245, "orna- ments like the moon," that hung on their camels' necks (Judges, viii. 21 — 24). The Midianites were Ishmaelites, and it is there- fore probable that the Turks derived the use of the crescent, as one of their standards, from their ancestors, though some authorities state it was first used by them a.d. 1446, after the taking of Constantinople. Warburton (Crescent and the Cross) says, " The cres- cent was the symbol of the city of Byzantium, and was adopted by the Turks. This device is of ancient origin, as appears from several medals, and took its rise from an event thus related by a native of Byzantium. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, meeting vdth great difficulties in carrying on the siege of this city, set the workmen one dark night to undermine the walls. Luckily for the besieged, a young moon suddenly appearing, discovered the design, which ^accordingly miscarried ; in acknowledgement whereof the Byzantines erected a statue to Diana, and the crescent became the symbol of the state." Philip besieged Byzantium B.C. 340. Crescent (Orders of). — Charles I., king of If aples and SicHv, instituted an order of 257 CRI knighthood of the Crescent, a.d. 1268; Rene of Anjou instituted another in 1448 ; and the Sultan Selim established an order of the Crescent in 1801, in honour of the battle of Aboukir. Ceespy, (Treaty,) between Francis I. of France, and the emperor Charles V., was signed at this small town, near Meaux, in Valois, Sept. 18, 1544. They agreed, among other things, to restore all conquests made subsequent to the truce of Nice in 1539, and to join in making war against the Turks. Charles V. renounced his claim to Bur- gundy, and Francis I. renounced all pre- tensions to the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois. Ceest. — The custom of adopting the figure of some animal as a cognizance is of great antiquity. Herodotus (i. 171) attributes to the Carians the invention of crests for helmets, devices for shields, and handles for bucklers. Alexander the Great is said to have assumed a ram's head as his device, and Julius Csesar a star. Richard I. of England is believed to have been the first modern to revive the practice, as his image on a seal of the period is represented in a helmet adorned with a sprig of the planta-genista, or broom, from which the name of his family was derived. Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster, is represented with a crest before 1286 a.d., and Baron de Spencer, in 1296, adorned his horse with the same embellishment. These earlier crests were mostly plumes of feathers. In 1322, the earl of Leicester assumed a dragon as his cognizance. Edward III. originated the custom of conferring crests as military honours in 1333. Crete. {See Candia.) Ceeteldt (Battle). — Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the count of Clermont at the head of the French army, on this plain, near Cleves, June 23, 1758. Cricket. — Although a game with bat and baU, somewhat similar to the modern pas- time, was played in England as early as the 13th century, the name of cricket first occurs in the "Mysteries of Love and Eloquence," by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, pub- hshed A.D. 1685. Fosbroke states, that club- baU, a game played in the time of Edward III., was its ancestor. A match was played at Moulsey Hurst, between six unmarried and sis married women, Aug. 3, 1775. The former proved victorious. One of the fair cricketers scored seventeen runs. Crimea (Russia) was peopled originally by the Tauri. The Greeks formed settle- ments towards the middle of the 6th century B.C., and founded the Mttle kingdom of Bosphorus {q. v.) about b.c. 480. The Goths descended on its shores a.d. 250, and during the 4th century it submitted to the Huns, who were expelled by Justinian (527- 565). In 679 it was seized by the Chazars, and after various reverses of fortune, sub- mitted to the Tartars in 1237. In 1261 the Genoese obtained considerable trading pri- s CEI vileges, and ultimately seized the country; but, in 1475, Mohammed II. overthrew their power, and subnaitted the Crimea to the Turkish yoke. It afterwards existed for about three centuries as a dependency of the Sultan, under the nominal government of native khans. In 1696 it was invaded by the Kussians under Peter the Great, and again in 1736, under Count Munich, who defeated the Tartar forces sent against him, but failed to accompUsh any signal success. A third Russian army of 40,000 men, led by Dolgoruki, entered the Crimea July 26, 1770, and reduced the whole peninsula to subjection within a month; and in 1771 a new khan was chosen, who owed his eleva- tion to Russian influence. In 1783 the khan a dicated, and an imperial manifesto was issued, stating the intended incorporation of the Crimea with the Russian empire ; to accomplish which, more than 30,000 Tartars, of every age and sex, were massacred. The formal cession of the Crimea by Turkey did not take place till the peace of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1853-56, the Crimea was the scene of many of the principal operations. An army of 58,000 men, of whom 25,000 were Enghsh, 25,000 French, and 8,000 Turks, landed at Old Fort, twentv miles from Eupatoria, Sept. 14, 1854. The final evacuation of the Crimea by the aUies took place July 12, 1856. Crimeau- Medals. — The public distri- bution of these medals to the brave men who distinguished themselves in the Crimean campaign against Russia, was made by Queen Victoria in St. James's Park, May 18, 1855. Ceimisus (Battle).— Timoleon of Corinth, with an army of 11,000 men, defeated the Carthaginians, 70,000 strong, on the banks of the Crimisus or Crimissus, a river in Sicily, B.C. 339. Crinoline. {See Hoops.) Cripplegate. — An ancient gate of the city of London, is noticed under this name as early as a.d. 1016. It was so called from the cripples who congregated here to seek alms. For some time a part of the postern was used as a prison for debtors and trespassers. The gate was rebuilt by the brewers of London in 1244, and was repaired in 1663. The materials were sold for £91 in 1760, the purchaser agreeing to commence the work of demoUtion Sept. 1 in that year, and to clear away aU the rubbish within one month from that date. Ceissa. {See Cireha.) Croatia (Austria) . — This province of the Austrian empire, forming part of the ancient Pannonia, was incorporated with Illyria by Augustus. The Goths settled here a.d. 509, and the Crotians, a tribe of the Wends, in 640 ; and from them the country received its name. They conquered several neighbour- ing states, and erected Croatia into a king- dom iu the 10th century. It was incorporated with Hungary in 1100, and with that longdom passed under the Austrian rule. Ceockaeds. — Base coin imported into this 258 CEO country from Flanders, in large quantities, during the reign of Edward I. By 27 Edw. I.^ passed a.d. 1299, the circulation of this coin was prohibited under severe penalties. Ceockert-ware is supposed to have been invented by the Egyptians, who are said to have introduced it into Greece about B.C. 1490. In a hundred years from that time it was in general use. {See Eaethenwaee.) Cromlechs. — These ancient structures, found in diiferent parts of the island, are now believed to be sepulchral monuments, though an opinion long prevailed that they were heathen altars or temples. The most celebrated is the cromlech at Plaa Newydd, in the island of Anglesey. Ceonstadt (Russia). — This strongly for- tified seaport-town was founded by Peter the Great a.d. 1710. Menschikoff wrested the island, on which part of the fortifications stand, from the Swedes in 1703. It received the name of Cronstadt in 1721. Nelson fol- lowed the Russian fleet to Cronstadt in May, 1801. The alhed English and French fleets arrived off" Cronstadt the last week in Jxine, 1854, and returned June 1, 1855 ; but on neither occasion were the fortifications assailed. Cropeedt Bridge (Battle). — The royal troops defeated the Parliamentary army led by Sir WUham "Waller at this place, near Banbury, June 29, 1644. Crosby Hall, Bishopsgate, formerly called Crosby Place, was built about 1470 a.d., by Sir John Crosby, grocer and woolman, knighted by Edward IV. in 1471. It was built of stone and timber, very large and beautiful, and, according to Stow, "the highest at that time in London." Richard, duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., lodged here. Cross.— The sign of the cross was used by Christians in the sacrament of baptism in the 2nd century, and the cross was adopted as the standard of Christian warriors by Constantino the Great, who solemnly affirmed that he saw one two miles long shining in the heavens at mid-day, Oct. 26, 312 a.d. The cross on which our' Lord suffered is said to have been discovered by the empress Helena, mother of Constantine, a.d. 326. Three having been found buried beneath Calvary, the identity of the true cross was determnied by the miraculous cures it wrought on such sick people as touched it. This discovery is commemorated every 3rd of May, by the feast of the "Invention of the Cross." After this event images of the cross were erected on altars, which first took place about 340. In 614, Chosroes II., king of Persia, plun- dered Jerusalem and carried away the true cross, which was recovered \iy the emperor HeracUus, and restored to Calvary Sept. 14, 629. The festival of the " Exaltation of the Cross," held Sept. 14, is in memory of this event. The worship of crosses was estabhshed at the council of Nicaea, in Bithynia, in 786. During the Middle Ages crosses were erected to mark the site of any particular event. Thus Edward I. marked the spots on CRO which the bier of his queen, Eleanor, rested, on its way from Herdeby, in Lincoln, to Westminster, by building crosses over them. Eleanor died Nov. 28, 1291, and was buried Dec. 17. Cross (Maids of the). — This sisterhood was instituted A.D. 1625, atEoye, in Picardy, by four young women, who resolved to devote themselves to the education of poor girls. In 1636 they were compelled by perse- cution to remove to Paris, where their society was erected into a regular order by the archbishop in 1640, and confirmed by royal letters patent in 1642. Ceoss (Order of). — This order of ladies was founded by Eleonora de Gonzaga, a.d. 1668, to commemorate the miraculous pre- servation from fire of a gold cross containing relics of the true cross. It was confirmed by bull of Clement IX., July 27, 1668, and by the emperor Sept. 9. Ceoss-bow. {See Aebalist.) Ceossed, or Cboucheb Feiaes. — Originally three orders of friars were thus called, in England, Flanders, and Bohemia, all of whom claimed St. Cletus, a.d. 78, as the founder ; and St. Cyriacus, who was bishop of Jerusalem in 331, as the restorer of their fraternity. The rules and constitu- tion were granted in 1169 by Pope Alex- ander III.; but the blue robe and silver cross, which distinguished the order in later times, were not adopted till 1462. In 1568 Pius V. sought to restore the friars to their original sanctity of life by confirming and enlarging their privileges, but apparently with httle success, as the order was finally suppressed by Pope Alexander VII. in 1656. Ceotosta (Italy) . — This city was founded by a colony of Achseans b . c . 710. War having broken out between the inhabitants and the people of Sybaris, the latter were defeated in a great battle, and their city was de- stroyed B.C. 510. The elder Dionysius took Crotona B.C. 389, and Agathocles b.c. 299, and it afterwards fell under the power of Pyrrhus. The Eomans seized it B.C. 277. A colony of Romans was sent here B.C. 194. It suffered greatly during numerous wars, and the modern town of Cotrone, which occupies its site, is a place of no importance. Ceown. — The first mention of a king's crown is in 2 Sam. i. 10, which describes the delivery of Saul's crovra and bracelet to David, B.C. 1055. At first crowns were plain fillets, bound round the head, though that taken by David from the Ammonites B.C. 1038 (2 Sam. xii. 30), which weighed one talent, or 120 lb., and was adorned with precious stones, was doubtless of a diff"erent description. Tarquinius Priscus, B.C. 618, is said to have been the first Roman king who assumed a crown; but as a similar ornament was worn by his- oflEicers and magistrates, it cannot be considered a mark of royalty. The ordinary use of the modern crown commenced, according to Selden, with Constantine, whose reign began a.d. 306. Crowns were adopted by the Spanish sove- reigns about 580 ; by the kings of Lombardy, 259 CRO who wore iron crowns, about 590; and by the French kings in 768. Egebert, who be- came king of Kent in 786, is represented on his coins as crowned. The papal triple crown was originally a plain pointed cap. Pope Hormisdas added the first crown about 523, Boniface VIII. the second (1294^-1303), and John XXII. the third (1316—1334). Ceown and Hale-ceown. — The first com- mission for coining these pieces of money was signed by Edward VI. on the 1st Oct. 1551. CeownPoint (America). — G-eneralJohnson defeated the French near this fort, situated on Lake Champlain, Sept. 7, 1755 ; and they abandoned it in July, 1759. The fort was surprised by the revolted Americans in 1775. They evacuated it Oct. 13, 1776, after the signal defeat of their squadron on Lake Champlain. Ceows and Rooks. — In consequence of the depredations committed by these birds, an act (24 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed a.d. 1532, to compel every one, under penalty of a fine, to do his best to destroy them, and to render it incumbent on aU villages and country towns to provide and maintain nets for their capture. This statute was partially repealed in 1565, by 8 Eliz. c. 15. Ceotdon (Surrey), caUed in Domesday Book Croinedone, was given to Lanfranc soon after the Conquest. A palace buUt of timber was in existence a.d. 1278. Archbishop Parker entertained Elizabeth at the new palace of Croydon in 1575. It was converted into a factory in 1780. Archbishop Whitgift founded the hospital in 1596. The canal was commenced in 1801, and the railroad to London opened June 1, 1839. Ceotland ( Lincolnshire) . — Ethelbald, king of Mercia, founded a monastery on this island a.d. 716. The building was completed in 726. The Danes killed the abbot and plundered the monastery in 870. It was restored by King Edred in 948. The abbey was destroyed by fire in 1091, and re built in 1112. It was again burnt in 1142, and restored about 1170. Croyland was sup- pressed vrith the other monasteries at the Reformation, Ceoziee, the pastoral staff" of an arch- bishop, is distinguished by a cross, and must not be confounded with the staff of a bishop, which terminates in a shepherd's crook. The origin of the crozier is referred to the original staff of the Romans. It was adopted at a very early period in the Church's history, and is known to have been in use about the year 500. In the 12th century the crozier was appointed to be borne by metropohtans and patriarchs, which privilege was after- wards extended to all archbishops by Gre- gory IX. (1227—1241). A writer in Notes and Queries (ii. 313) states that a crozier was borne at the funerals of Brian Ouppa of Winton, a.d. 1662 ; Juxon of London, 1663 ; Frewen of York, 1664; Wren of Ely, 1667; CosinofDunelm, 1671; Trelawney of Winton, 1721 ; and Lindsay of Armagh, 1724. It is engraven on the monuments of Goodrich of S 2 CEO Ely, 1552 ; Magrath of Cashel, 1622 ; Hacket of' Liehfleld, 1670 ; Creggleton of WeUs, Lamplugh of York, 1691; Sheldon, 1677; Hoadley of Winton, and Porteus of Lon- don. Ceoziees (Order of ) .—These monks claim St. Cletus, who flourished a.d. 78, as the founder of their order. AH that is known with any eertmnty respecting the origin of the order, is that it was in existence in Italy when Alexander III. succeeded to the papacy in 1159. In 1211 Theodore of CeUes founded a similar order in Flanders, and in 1236 another estabhshment was formed at Prague, in Bohe- mia. All these orders have gradually become extinct. CEUcirisiON-, 'fastening to the cross,' was a mode of execution common to most nations of antiquity. The Jews are said to have practised it very early, and the death of Saul's sons, whom the Gibeonites hanged on a tree (2 Sam. xxi. 9, b.c. 1022), is instanced as a proof; but it can scarcely be considered satisfactory. It has long existed in China, was practised by the Carthaginians, and is mentioned as in use in the earhest period of Assyi'ian history. Amongst the Carthaginians all ranks were hable to cru- cifixion, but the Eomau law restricted it to slaves. Christ suffered this death Friday, April 15, A.D. 29. During the siege of Jeru- salem by Titus in 70, the Eomans crucified about 500 Jews daily, insomuch that Josephus assures us the soldiers were unable to find wood for the crosses, or crosses for the bodies. The emperor Constantiae abolished death by crucifixion in 325. Ceueltx to Animals. — The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was estabhshedin 1824. The laws on this subject were consohdated and amended by 5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 59 (Sept. 9, 1835), and the pro- Tisions of the act were extended to Ireland by 1 Vict. c. 66 (July 15, 1837). Ceusades. — These wars, for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Saracens, took place in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. The first Crusade was undertaken in conse- quence of the appeals of Peter the Hermit, who was so shocked at the barbarous treat- ment experienced by Christian pilgrims to the Holy Sepiilchre, that he resolved in 1093 to preach in favour of a war against the Mohammedan persecutors. A.D. 1095. Nov. 18 to 28. Pope Urban II. addresses the Couucil of Clei-mont on the sanctity of the entei-prise, and announces the first Crusade. 1096. During this year four abortive attempts are made to commence the Crusade^ by about 275,000 fanatics, neai'ly all of whom perish on the march. In August, the properly- organized force of Godfrey of Bouillon sets out. 1097. Harch. Godfrey crosses the Hellespont. May 8 to June 24. Siege and capture of Niccea, in Bithynia. Oct. 21. Siege of Antioch. 1098. Jime 3. Capture and sack of Antioch. June 28. The battle of Antioch is gained by the Chi-istiaus. 2G0 CEU 1099. June 7. The Christian anny, in number 40,000, invests Jerusalem. July 15. .Jeni- SJilem is taken, and the inhabitants are put to the sword. July 23. Godfi-ey is elecxed king of Jerusalem, and the first Ci-usade ends. 1146. Easter. St. Bernard preaches the second Crasiide, which is conducted by Louis VII. of Fi-ance, and Conrad II. of Gennany. 1148. Defeat of the Christians at the siege of Damascus. ^^ 1149. Conrad II. and Louis VIT. return to Europe. The end of the second Crusade. 1187. Oct. Jerusalem is recaptured by the infidels, under Saladin. 1188. Philip Augustus of France and Henry II. of England resolve on a third Crusade. 1189. The emperor Frederick Barbarossa joins the enterprise. Aug. Siege of Acre i^ commenced by Guy of Lusignan. 1191. March. Philip an-ives at Acre. June 8. Richard Coeur de Lion airives at Acre. July 12. Capture of Acre. 1192. Oct. 25. End of the third Crusade, and de- parture of Richard I. for England. 1195. Henry VI. of Germany undertakes the fourth Crusiide, at the instigation of Pope Caeles- tine III. 1197. The Crusade abandoned, in consequence of the death of the emperor. 1199. Inuoeeut IIL commissions Fulk of Nuilly to preach the fifth Crusade. 1202. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, undertakes the command of the expedition, which sets out soon after Easter. Nov. Capture of Zara by the Christians. 1203. Jtme 25 to July 18. Siege and capture of Con- stantiuoisle, and end of the fifth Crusade. 1216. The Gei-mans and Hungarians commence the sixth Crusade. 1218. May. The Crusaders besiege Damietta. 1219. Nov. 5. Captuie of Damietta. 1228. Aug. The tmperor Fiederick 11. sails from Brundisium, and arrives at Acre. 1229. Feb. 20. A truce is agi-eed upon between Frederick II. and the Sultan, for ten years and forty days, and Jenisalem is restored to the Chi-istians. 12.38. The Tm-ks seize Jerusalem. 1239. Thibaud, count of Champagne, commences the seventh Crusade. 1241. PJchard, earl of Cornwall, ransoms Jerusalem, and obtains a nominal surrender of Pales- tine to the Christians. 1244. Jerusalem is besieged and taken by the Koraa- mians. 1245. The eighth Ci-usade is determined on by the Council of Lyons. 1248. Aug. Louis IX. of France sails as leader of the Crusade. 1250. Louis IX. is made prisoner by the infidels at Mansourah. June. He is ransomed, and a ten years' truce is agreed upon. 1254. April. Loviis IX. returns to France. 1268. Louis IX. and Edward, prince of Wales, resolve to undertake a ninth Crusade. 1270. Departui-e of L.uis IX. Aug. Louis IX. dies of a pestilence at Carthage. 1271. April. PriQce Edward arrives at Acre. 1272. July. The Entrlish quit Palestine. 1291. May 18. The Mamelukes takes Acre ; thereby destroying all Christian power in Syria. CEirsTTJMEEiTTM (Italy), also called Crus- tmneria or Crustumium, was one of the Latin cities that took up arms against Eomulus, to avenge the rape of the Sabiae women, B.C. 750. After several conflicts, it was reduced to subjection to Eome, B.C. 499. Ceuzado. — Alfonso V. of Portugal first struck this gold coin, bearing the impression of a cross, about a.d. 1457, when Calixtus III. ordered a crusade against the infidels. CEY Crtophortjs. — This instrument, the frost- bearer, or carrier of cold, for freezing water l)y its own evaporation, was invented by Dr. Wolla^ton. The " Philosophical Trans- actions" for 1813- (p. 73) contam Dr. Wol- laston's account of the invention. Crtptogeaphy, or the art of secret writing, was practised at a very early period. {See Cipher.) Crystal Palace (Hyde Park). — The building committee appointed by the com- missioners, invited designs March 13, 1850, and reported upon iib3 plans, aU of which they rejected May 9. The oouLiact for the Crystal Palace was signed July 10. The first column was fixed Sept. 26, and the building was dehvered to the commissioners Feb. 3, 1851 . Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year, and its width 408, with an additional projection on the north side, 936 feet long by 48 wide. The central portion was 120 feet wide, by 64 high ; on either side of this was another portion, 72 feet wide, by 4i high ; and the north and south portions were 72 feet vfide, by 24 high. The transept was 72 feet in width and 108 in height. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres, nearly seven times as much as St. Paul' s Cathedral. There were three entrances, with eight pay -places to each, and 18 doors for exit. Four galleries, accessible by 10 double staircases, ran lengthways. The building contained 3,300 iron columns, 1,074 base pieces beneath the columns, and 3,500 girders. For the roof 17 acres of glass were required. There were also 1,500 vertical glazed sashes. The galleries and the floor contained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring, and the woodwork was estimated at 600,000 cubic feet. It was opened May 1, and closed Oct. 11, 1851. The entire budding was re- moved in 1852. {See Great ExHiBiTioif.) Crystal Palace (Sydenham). — At the close of the Great Exhibition of 1851, a com- pany was formed, in order to purchase the materials of the building, and to re-erect them on another site. This was registered as the Crystal Palace Company, May 17, 1852. Penge Park and the adjacent property, amounting to 200 acres, was soon after purchased. 1852. Aiig. 5. Mr. Laing, M.P., erects the first column of the new biiilding. 1853. Aug. 15. Twelve work)neii are killed by the faU of a scaffold. Dec. 31. Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins gives a dinner to twenty-four scientific men, in the body, of his model 1854. Feb. 28. The directors announce the intended opening of the Palace in May. June 10. The Palace is opened by the Queen. Oct. 28. MUitai-y musical fete, in aid of the Patriotic Fund. 1855. April 20. Visit of the emperor and empress of the French. Dec. 13. Extraordinary general meeting of the shareholders, who complain greatly of management. 1856. Jime 18. Fu-st complete display of the water- works. Nov. 1. Robson is sentenced to twenty years' transportation, for forgery and fraud on the Crystal Palace Company, to the amount of £28,000. cue 1857. June 15, 17, and 19. Preliminaiy performances take place in preparation for the Handel festival. Sept. 2. Tonic Sol-Fa concert, by 3,000 children. 1858. July 2. Second rehearsal for the Handel festival. 1859. June 20, 22, and 24. Handel festival. 18t)0. June 25, &c. Concerts by 3,000 Oi-pheonistes. July 9. Distribution of prizes to volunteers, for proficiency in rifle- shooting. 1861. Ffcb. 20 and 21. The north wing of the building is blown down. May 26. The Palace is opened to shareholders and their friends on Simday. Ctesiphom- (Assyria) .—The date of the foundation of this city, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and only a short distance from Seleucia, has not been ascertained. It was the favourite winter residence of the Parthian monarchs, and was sacked by the Eomans about A.D. 165. The emperor Severus took it by assault a.d. 198, and carried ofi" 100,000 captives. The Persians, defeated by the emperor Juhan, in June, 365, took refuge in Ctesiphon ; but the emperor would not under- take the siege. Omar sacked it in March, 637 ; and from this blow it never recovered. At this period it was known by the name of Madayu. {See Cufa.) Cuba (Atlantic). — This, the largest of the West-Indian islands, was discovered by Christopher Columbus, Oct. 28, 1492. It was named Juana, then Fernandina, and afterwards Santiago. The natives called it Cuba, which name has since come into general use. Columbus returned to the island April 29, 1494, and again in 1502. The first Spanish settlement was formed in 1511. They carried on continual war with the aboriginal inhabitants, who were almost exterminated by 1560. The cultivation of tobacco and the sugar-cane was introduced about 1580. Nearly the whole of the island was captured by the Enghsh in 1762 ; but it was restored to the Spaniards by the 19th article of the treaty of Paris, concluded Feb. 10, 1763. {See HAVANisrAH, &c.) Cub AN, or Kttb an (Kussia) . — The territory on the banks of the river Cuban was recognized as independent by the Kussians and Turks in 1774, but in 1783 the empress Catherine and Prince Potemldn added it to the Eussian empire. Cubit, the first measure of which we have any record. Noah was ordered to make the length of the ark 300 cubits, its breadth 50, and the height 30, B.C. 3468 (Gen. vi. 15). Authorities are divided respecting its length, which was probably about twenty inches. Cuckistg-Stgol, or Tumbrel, an instru- ment, invented for the punishment of scolds, by ducking them in the water, was in use in this country at a very early period. The churchwardens' and chamberlains' accounts at Kingston-upon-Thames for the year 1572 contain the foUowiug : — s. d. The making of the cucking-stool 8 Ironwork for the same 3 Timber for the same 7 6 Three brasses for the same and thi-ee wheels 4 10 261 cue The punislmient was administered in this town in April, 1745. The newspaper of the time thus chronicles the event : " Last week a woman that keeps the Queen's Head ale- house, at Kingston, in Surrey, was ordered by the court to be ducked for scolding, and was accordingly placed in the chair, and ducked in the river Thames, under Kingston Bridge, in the presence of two or three thousand people." Another woman was punished in the same manner at this place as late as 1801. Cucumber. — The Greeks and Eomans pickled the cucumber. It is said to have been common in England in the time of Edward III., and having been lost during the wars of the Eoses, was reintroduced in the reign of Henry VIII. CuDDALOEE (Hindostan). — This town was ceded by its native prince to the East-India Company a.d. 1681. They built a factory, which was extended and fortified in 1702. The French took it in 1758, and abandoned it on the approach of Coote in 1760. The French, assisted by Hyder, captured it April4, 17.-^2. The English failed in an attempt to retake it in 1783, but it was restored to them by treaty, March 11, 1784. CuFA (Assyria) .— " The name of Cufa," says Gibbon (ch. li.), "describes a habitation of reeds and earth." It was founded by Omar, after the sack of Ctesiphon, a.d. 637, and, in its construction, the ruins of that city were employed. It revolted against Othman in 656, and Ali was killed in the mosque of Cufa, Jan. 21, 661. CuiEASs. — This defence for the breast and back existed among the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, though its form was, of course, subject to many modifi- cations. Its modern name is derived from the French cuir or Latin cormm, both of which signify leather, because that was the mate- rial usually employed. Subsequently, rings and scales were added, and at length, cui- rasses were formed of sohd plates of iron and brass, which protected the body, from the neck to the girdle. These became general during the reign of Edward III. (1327-1377). Its use was revived in the English army in 1820. CuiEASSiEE. — Captain Cruso ("MOitarie Instructions for the Cavallrie," 1632) says : — *' This sort of Cavallrie is of late iavention, namely by the Germanes." Cuirassiers also formed part of the French army, and were retained when it was reorganized in 1791. CuiiDEES. — The name given to the mem- bers of a rehgious order, established in England, Ireland, and Scotland, in the early ages of the Church. The origin of the Culdees is assigned to the 5th century, and St. Patrick, whose mission to Ireland oc- curred in 432, is said to have been of the number. Columba, the apostle of the Piets, who landed in Scotland in 563, was also a Culdee ; and the same sect includes Columbamis, who introduced Christianity to the Burgundjans, Franks, and Swiss, in 590. The Culdees never acknowledged the papal CUM supremacy, and they possessed several seats of learning in Scotland. That of Melrose, which was one of the chief, was burnt by the Danes in 850. St. Andrews was so renowned, that King Constantine II. spent the last years of bis hie there, and died there in 943. The Culdees existed at Bardsey as late as 1188, and at lona until 1203. They flourished at Dimkeld until 1127, when King David I. converted their monastery into a cathedral, and took measures, by which the Culdees were gradually suppressed. CuLLODEX (Battle). — The duke of Cum- berland defeated the Pretender Charles Edward on this moor, near Inverness (0. S.) April 16, 1746. This victory entirely crushed the rebellion. Culm (Battle).— A battle was fought between the aUied Austrians, Prussians, and Russians, and the French, near Culm, in Prussia, Aug. 29 and 30, 1813. The French, who were defeated, lost, in the two days, 18,000 men, whilst the loss of the allies did not exceed 5,000. Sixty pieces of cannon, two eagles, and 300 ammunition-waggons, were captured from the French. CuLVERiN. — A culverin of 41b. calibre was made by the Moors a.d. 1132, and called Salamonica ; and several instruments of a similar kind were employed at the battle of Tongus in 1408. Hand culverins were intro- duced aboiit 1440. CuM^ (Italy). — This, the earliest Greek colony in Italy, is said by some authorities to have been founded B.C. 1050. It must, however, be referred to a later date. From about B.C. 700 to B.C. 4.50, it enjoyed the highest prosperity. It resisted an invasion of the Etruscans B.C. 522. Aristodemus obtained the supremacy B.C. 505, and was expelled by the nobles after he had exercised it about twenty years. Tarquinius Superbus, the exiled king of Rome, sought refuge at Cumse b. c. 496. Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, came to the aid of the Ciunseans, and defeated the Carthaginian and Tyrrhe- nian fleet B.C. 474. The Samnites captured Cumse B.C. 420, put the male inhabitants to death, and estabhshed a colony. It was admitted to the Roman franchise B.C. 338. Sylla retired to the neighbourhood of Cumae after his abdication, B.C. 79. Ifarses captured the town after a long siege, a.d. 553. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1538. Cumse was "also celebrated as the abode of the fabled Sibyl, and for a long time her supposed cave was shown to visitors. Justin Martyr saw it in the middle of the 2nd century. Cimiae was for some time the seat of a bishop. CuMANA (Venezuela), the capital of a province of the same name, is the oldest city founded by Europeans in South America. Diego Castellon commenced it a.d. 1523. It was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- quake in 1766. The inhabitants joined in the revolt against Spain, April 19, 1810. Cumberland is said to owe its name to the Cymbri or Cumbri, its aboriginal inhabitants. lu 945, Edmund, king of England, gave it to Malcolm I., of Scotland, on condition that the lattei' should assist him in his endeavours to repel hostile in- vasions, and in 1032 this arrangement vras confirmed by Canute. At the period of the Conquest, Malcolm II. aided the northern rebels in their opposition to Norman tyranny'; inconsequence of which, William I. led an army against him in 1072, and added Cumberland to his own territories, giving Malcolm some English towns as a compen- sation. The county remained an object of contention between the two kingdoms for some time, and was ravaged by the Scotch in 1091 and 1135 ; on which last occasion Stephen resigned his claim. Henry II. recovered it in 1157. Cumberland was finally annexed to England in 1237. The Border service was instituted by Edward I. in 1296, when Eobert de Chfford was made Lord Warden of the Marches, and appointed to guard the country against Scotch invasion, and to decide disputes between the people of both kingdoms. Edward Bruce ravaged Cumberland in 1315, and in 1322 his brother Eobert also entered the county, whence he returned with immense booty; and for a long period the whole border territory was the scene of continual marauding incursions. CuNAXA (Battle). — Cyrus the Younger was defeated and slain by Artaxerxes II., at this place, in Upper Asia, b.c. 401. CuNEKSDOBF (Battle). — Frederick II., of Prussia, attacked the allied Austrian and Eussian army at this place, near Frankfort, Aug. 12, 1759. The Prussians were at first successful, and a messenger was sent to Berhn, with the following message to the queen : — " Madam, we have driven the Eus- sians from their intrenchments. In two hours expect to hear of a glorious victory." Their opponents, however, renewed the con- test with great vigour, and the king was compelled to order a retreat, having lost 30,000 men in killed and wounded, and 200 pieces of artUlery. C TJ K A 9 o A ( Atlantic ) . — The Spaniards formed a settlement on this island, one of the Antilles, a.d. 1527. It was taken by the Dutch in 1634. The inhabitants having claimed the protection of England, the island and its dependencies surrendered to an English squadron Sept. 13, 1800. The island, restored by the 3rd article of the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802, was, on the renewal of the war, again captured by a British squadron, Jan. 1, 1807. Towards the end of August, 1814, England restored the island to the Dutch, in whose possession it has since remained. CuKFEW Bell. — The Couvre-feu, or Cur- few, was a signal for putting out fires and lights. William I. is said to have introduced it into England a.d. 1068, although it is pro- bable that he only enforced a regulation already in existence, as a similar custom at that time prevailed in Italy, France, Spain, and other countries. The severity, however, with which WiUiam I. enforced it, compelling the people to extinguish both fires and lights CUR when the curfew-beU rang at eight in the evening, caused the introduction of the custom to be attributed to him. In those early times, the fire was generally made in a hole in the middle of the floor, the smoke escaping through an aperture in the roof. When the beU tolled, the wood and embers were raked together, and the fire was extinguished. The curfew was modified by Henry I. in 1100. The Liber Albus con- tains regulations of the city of London, passed during the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III., by which persons were forbidden to wander about the city armed, after curfew. The practice of ringing the bell at eight o'clock is still kept up in many places in England. CuKiA MuEiA Islands (Indian Ocean), on the south coast of Arabia, were visited by Portuguese missionaries a.d. 1588; at which time the poptdation, only one of them being inhabited, consisted of a few savages, who subsisted on fish, which they dried in the sun. In 1819 they were invaded by the Wahabees, who destroyed their houses, IdUed their goats, and sold some of their children to slavery. The islands, five in number, were explored and described by Dr. Hulton in 1836. They are also called the Koorya Moorya Islands. Ctjkling. — This game is said to have been introduced into Scotland by the Flemish immigrants, at the commencement of the 16th century. Currants, or " raisins de Corinthe," were first introduced into this country in the 16th century, when they were called " Corinthes," from the part of Greece in which they are produced in the greatest abundance. An attempt was made in the reign of Henry VIII. to introduce the culture of this par- ticular vine in England. The duty on currants, which was very high, was reduced in 1834 and in 1844. Cureant-Tbee was first planted in England a.d. 1533. The hawthorn currant- tree was introduced from Canada in 1705. Curse op Scotland. — The reason why the nine of diamonds is called the curse of Scot- land, has been discussed in Notes and Queries. Amongst the reasons assigned are the fol- lowing : — Because the duke of Cumberland, after the battle of CuUoden, April 16, 1746, wrote upon the back of this card a very cruel and inhuman order for the destruction of the persons and property of the rebels. Because the armorial bearings of the earl of Stair, who was very unpoptdar in Scotland, on account of the part he took in promoting the Union in 1707, were so arranged as to re- semble the nine of diamonds. Because "curse of Scotland" is a corruption of " cross of Scotland," the allusion being to St. Andrew's cross, which is supposed to resemble the nine of diamonds. Because diamonds imply royalty, being ornaments to the imperial crown ; and every ninth king of Scotland has been a tyrant and a curse to his country. Because the heraldic bearmgs of the Dalrymple family are, on a saltire CUB azure, 7iine lozenges of the field ; tlie second Viscount Dalryniple and first earl of Stair being called the curse of Scotland, from the part he took in the massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Because it is the greatwinning card at comette, a game introduced into Scotland in 1538, by the French attendants of Mary of Lorraine, queen of James V., to the ruin of many Scotch families. Because the nine of diamonds is the pope in the game of Pope Joan, originally called Pope Juho, and said to have been played as early as the time of Queen Elizabeth. The latter explanation, from the anti-papal spirit displayed by the Scottish people, is beheved to be the true one. Ctiesitok Baeon. — Although the functions of this officer originated at the same time as the Exchequer, they did not give rise to a separate dignity till the reign of James I. The first mention of baron-eursitor occurs in May, 1610, when Thomas Caesar received the title. By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 99 (Aug. 29, 1833), many of the duties of this office were abolished. CuETATOis-E (Battle). — The Austrians, after a severely-contested action, defeated the Italian army at this village, between Mantua and Vicenza, May 29, 1848. CUEZOLA (Adriatic), the ancient Corcyra Nigra, so called from the dark colour of the pines that grow upon it, is said to have been colonized by the Cnidians. It was seized A.D. 997, by the Venetians, under the Doge Pietro Urseolo II., and in 1298 a Genoese defeated a Venetian fleet in its vicinity. In 1420 it was retaken by the Venetians, and in- corporated with the province of Venetian Dal- matia, and in 1485 it resisted the attempts of Frederick of Aragon for its capture. The Turkish corsair Uluz-Aii attacked Curzola in 1571, and the governor and garrison having fled, the women put on armour, and saved the place from pUlage. The Eussians twice seized Curzola in 1806. In 1807 it was ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit. The Enghsh obtained possession in 1813, and re- tained it till its cession to the Austrians, July 15, 1S15. CusHEE Pieces were invented by Eichard Leake, who was born a.d. 1629. He fought in the great sea-fight against Van Tromp in 1673, and died in 1696. Leake held the posi- tion of master-gunner of England and store- keeper of Woolwich. CtrsHiON-DANCE, also called Joan Sander- son, is a very old round dance. According to Fosbroke, in most ancient dances a man and a woman danced together, holding each other by the hand or arm, and a kiss was the established fee of the lady's partner. One of the characters in Heywood's play of "A Woman killed with Kindness," 1600, re- marks, "I have, erenow, deserved a cushion; caU for the Cushion-dance." Playford's " Dancing-Master," pubhshed in 1698, con- tains a description of this dance, usually in- troduced at weddings. Custom-house. — The business of the Customs was transacted, at Billingsgate CUT A.D. 979, but no building was especially devoted to this purpose till 1385. In 1559 a larger house was erected, which was destroyed during the Great Fire of 1666 ; and the new edifice, built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1668, was also burnt in 1718. It was rebuilt by Eipley soon after, and shared the fate of its predecessors Feb. 12, 1814. The fijst stone of a new custom-house had been laid in 1813, as the former building was found inadequate to the requirements of the times, and this was opened May 12, 1817. In 1825, owing to the defective man- ner in which the foundations had been laid, part of the new building fell in, when the whole central portion was taken down and restored by Mr. Smirke. The custom- house of Dubhn was completed in July, 1621, and rebuilt before 1661. In 1707 a new building was erected ; but as this was found to be unsafe in 1773, another was commenced in 1781, and completed in 1791. A dreadful fire, which broke out in the sugar and spirit stores, Aug. 10, 1833, destroyed 700 pim- cheons of spirit, 300 casks of tallow, and nearly 5,000 hogsheads of sugar. Customs were paid on vessels and goods at BiUingsgate, during the reign of Ethelred II., A.D. 979. They were granted to the king in 1274 by 3 Edw. I., and in 1282, the duty of collecting them was intrusted to foreigners. Queen Ehzabeth farmed them to Sir Thomas Smith, receiving at first £14,000, which sum was raised, in 1590, to £42,000, and after- wards to £50,000. In 1666, Charles II. farmed them for £390,000. In 1787 they were regulated by the Customs Consohdation Act (27 Geo. III. c. 13), which has been since amended, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 107 (Aug. 20, 1853), and 18 & 19 Vict. cc. 96 & 97 (A«g- 14, 1855). CusTos Beevium. — This office in the court of Queen's Bench and in the court of Common Pleas was abolished by 1 WiU. IV. c. 58 (July 23, 1830). CusTos EoTULOEUM, or keeper of the Eolls or records of the session of the peace, was ordered to be appointed under the sign manual, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1545), and 1 Will. & Mary, c. 21 (1689). CusTOZA (Battle). — Marshal Eadetsky defeated the Italians at this place, near Mantua, July 23, 1848. CuTCH (Hindostan) was an independent state A.D. 1582, and held possessions in Scinde and other neighbouring territories, all of which were lost by Eao Lacka, who suc- ceeded to power in 1751 . Futteh Mohammed, the general of the army, expelled the reign- ing prince in 1792, and was himself overthrown in 1802 ; after which Cutch became notorious as the seat of hordes of robbers, who were a source of constant annoyance to the adjoining provinces. Consequently, the East -India Company interfered in 1809, and compelled the government of Cutch to promise that the offfences complained of should be discontinued. In 1815 it became necessary to enforce this agreement by an appeal to arms; and the result was, that CUT another more stringent treaty was entered into in 1816. In 1819 the Rao was dethroned for misgovernment, and a regency was appointed until his infant heir should be able to rule. A secret but extensive trade in slave children was discovered and suppressed in 1835; and other improvements, such as the abolition of sutteeism and infanticide, have also resulted from British intercourse. CuTLEEY. — The manufacture of cutlery is an art of great antiquity. The precise period at wmch it was introduced into Great Britain is not known. Sheffield was famous for its steel manufactures in the 13th cen- tury, as Chaucer speaks of the " Sheffield thwytel," as a common article. Henry V. incorporated the London cutlers in 1417. The Sheffield artisans did not receive their charter tiU 1624. By 59 Geo. III. c. 7, s. 1, passed March 23, 1819, makers of wrought- steel cutlery obtained the privilege of mark- ing them with the figure of a hammer ; and by sec. 5, a penalty of ten pounds per dozen was imposed on all vendors of cutlery falsely stamped " London made." CuTTACK (Hindostan). — The Mohamme- dan writers, about 1212, mention this country under the name of Jagepore. It was con- quered and annexed to Bengal in 1592. The Mahrattas obtained possession of it in 1751, and it was ceded to the East-India Company by the second article of the treaty of Deo- gaum, Dec. 17, 1803. The capital of the district, also called Cuttack, sustained a celebrated siege in 1592. It was captured by the East-India Company's army Oct. 14, 1803. CtrxAB. — This strongly-fortified post, near Baza, in Spain, was taken from the Moors by the Spaniards in 1489. CuxHAVEif ( Germany ) . — This seaport town, belonging to Hamburg, was occupied by the Prussians in 1800. The French took possession in 1804, and evacuated it in 1813, when it was occupied by a British force. Cuzco (Peru), the capital of the Incas, said to have been founded by Manco Capac, in the 10th or 11th century, was entered by Pizarro Nov. 15, 1533. The siege of Cuzco commenced early in Eeb, 1536, when the city having caught fire in several places, was nearly consumed. The Peruvian army waged the conflict for more than five months, and withdrew in August. Prescott says : "It stood in a beautiful valley on an elevated region of the plateau, which, among the Alps, would have been buried in eternal snows, but which within the tropics enjoyed a genial and salubrious temperature. It was, moreover, the 'Holy City;' and the great temple of the Sun, to which pilgruns resorted from the furthest borders of the empire, was the most magnificent structure in the New World, and unsurpassed, probably, in the costliness of its decorations, by any buUding in the Old." CrAisroGEN- is a gaseous compound, dis- covered by Gay-Lussac in 1815. Ctclades (^gean Sea). — This group of twelve islands received this name because CYP they lay in a circle around Delos, the smallest of them. Artemidorus increased the number to fifteen. Originally inhabited by Carians, who were expelled' by Minos, they were afterwards colonized by lonians and Dorians. The Cyclades passed from Turkish rule, and were included in the new kingdom of Greece, formed in 1829. Cycle. — The Chinese cycle of sixty years, or 720 revolutions of the moon, was instituted by Hoang-ti, who flourished about 2660 B.C. ; and that of Cleostratus, who proposed a cycle of eight years, began about 532 b.c. The Metonic cycle was mvented by Meton of Athens about 432 b.c, and was super- seded by that of Cahppus, which commenced B.C. 330. Cydee is said to have been first made in Africa, and introduced by the Carthaginians into Spain, whence it passed into Normandy. In addition to the hereditary duty on cyder granted by 12 Charles II. c. 23, s. 4 (1660), a duty of 4s. per hogshead was levied by 13 Win. III. e. 5, s. 5 (1701), upon alley der and perry made in England. A duty of £4 per tnn on aU cyder and perry imported from foreign countries was imposed by 5 Will. & Mary, e. 7, s. 27 (1694), and continued for ninety-five years by 4 Anne, c. 6, s. 11 (1705). The duties having undergone various modifi- cations, were repealed by 1 Will. IV. e. 51 (July 16, 1830), from Oct. 10, 1830. Cynics. — These philosophers received this name on account of their snarhng disposition, or from the Cynosarges, a gymnasium in the suburbs of Athens, in which their founder Antisthenes, born B.C. 420, used to lecture. Diogenes, born b.c. 414, was one of the most celebrated of this sect. They were some- times called the School of Barkers, CYNOscEPHALiE (Battlcs). — Two battles were fought in this mountain-range in Thes- saly ; the first, B.C. 364, between the Thebans and Alexander of Pherse, when the former were victorious, though Pelopidas, their leader, was slain; and the second B.C. 197, in which the Roman consul Flaminius de- feated Phihp V. of Macedon. Cynossema (Sea-Fight). — The Athenians defeated Mmdarus and the Spartan fleet, off" Cynossema, on the coast of Caria, B.C. 411. Cypeess, said to be the Tezzah of Scrip- ture, is remarkable for its durabihty ; and on this account was used for statues of the gods and cases of mummies. The gates of St. Peter, at Rome, made of this wood, lasted 1,100 years. It was used for coffins. The common cypress is known to have been cul- tivated in England as early as a.d. 1551, and was probably introduced from Canada about 1548. The deciduous cypress was brought into this country from North America about 1640, and the cedar of Goa in 1683. A common age for the cypress on the American continent is 400 years. Cypeus (Knights of).— The order of the Sword, in Cyprus, was instituted by Guy de Lusignan towards the end of the 12th cen- tury. It nimibered 300 barons, and became extinct when the Turks took Cyprus in 1570. 265 CYP Ctpetjs (Mediterranean) . — TMs island was colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early period. It passed successively under the supremacy of the Syrians, the Grreeks, the Egyptians, and the Persians. On the death of Alexander the Great it was incorporated with Egypt. It was made a Roman province B.C. 58. Caesar gave it to Arsinoe and Ptolemy, the sister and brother of Cleopatra, B.C. 47. It was made an imperial province B.C. 27, but was given up to the senate B.C. 22. Paul and Barnabas visited the island A.D. 44 (Acts, siii. 4). The island was an independent province of the early Church, and was divided into thirteen, or, according to other authorities, fifteen dioceses. The Jews of Cyprus rebelled during the reign of Hadrian (a.d. 117-138), and massacred above 200,000 of the inhabitants. A coimcil was held in Cyprus in 399. The Saracens took possession of the island in 648, but soon after retired. Haroun al Eashid captured it about 803, and John Zimisces expelled the Saracens in 964. Eichard I. of England wrested the island from Alexis Comnenus in 1191 ; and at first ceded it to the Templars, but in 1192 bestowed it upon Guy of Lusig- nan. Cyprus was reduced to subjection by the Genoese in 1373, and feU under the power of the Venetians in the 15th century. Selim II. took it in August, 1571, and it has since remained in the possession of the Turks. The Turks massacred several thousands of the Christians in 1821. These outrages com- menced in May. Cyprus was not included in the new kingdom of Greece, formed in 1829. Cte, St. (France). — Louis XIV., at the instigation of Madame de Maintenon, in 1686, founded at this village, near Versailles, an institution for the education of 250 ladies of noble birth. Madame Maintenon died at this place in 1719. In 1793 it was converted into a military hospital. Napoleon I. trans- ferred the military school of Fontainebleau to St. Cyr in 1806. It is called the "Ecole speciale Mihtaire de St. Cyr." Ctee^taica (Africa), a district of Africa, which received this name from Cyrene, its chief city, and was also called Pentapohs, because it contained five principal cities, Apollonia, Arsinoe, Barce, Berenice or Hes- perus, and Cyrene. It was colonized by the people of Thera, under Battus, who founded Cyrene b . c . 631 . A republic was estabhshed in the middle of the 5th century. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, reduced it under subjection to Egypt B.C. 321. It became a Eoman pro- vince B.C. 74, and was united with Crete B.C. 67. The Saracens completed the con- quest of the country a.d. 647, and it is now inhabited by different Arab tribes. Cyrenaica was explored by Dr. Delia CeUa in 1817, and by Capt. Beechey, E.N., and H. W. Beechey, in 1821 and 1822. Cteenaics. — This ancient school of philo- sophers was thus named from Cyrene, the birthplace of the founder, Aristippus. He began to teach B.C. 365. They made pleasure the summum bonum. CZE Cteene, or CrEEN^. — The chief city of Cyrenaica, in A frica, was founded by Battus and his followers from Thera, B.C. 631. Seven kings of this race succeeded, and about B.C. 450 a repubhc was established. It was afterwards made subject to Egypt, and passed under the dominion of Eome, B.C. 74. The ruins of this town, called by the Turks Ghrennah, stiU exist. Cteicus (Asia Minor) is said to have been settled by some Pelasgi, driven from Thessaly by the lonians. At an early period it was subject to Athens, and having revolted, was reduced to submission B.C. 411. Min- darus, the Spartan admiral, was defeated in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, B.C. 410. It was ceded to Persia by the peace of Antal- cidas, B.C. 387. Mithridates failed in an attempt to take it B.C. 74; and the Romans made it a free city ; of which privilege it was deprived by Tiberius a.d. 37. Christianity was introduced at an early period, and it was made a bishop's see. The Goths ravaged the city a.d. 259, and Procopius seized it A.D. 365. The Mohammedan army besieging Constantinople went into winter quarters at this place in 668, and it soon after declined I in importance. In ancient times Cyzicus j was seated on an island of the same name ; - but an isthmus has gradually formed, and I what was formerly an island is now a pen- \ insula. j Cteoeedium, or Coettpedium (Battle). — 1 Lysimachus was defeated and slain at this j place, in Phrygia, by Seleucus, B.C. 281. C T T H E E A ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This island is celebrated as the place whence the worship of the Syrian goddess Aphrodite ! was introduced into Greece ; and is repre- sented, in the ancient mythological accounts, as the spot which received her when she rose from the foam of the sea. It was long dependent upon Argos, and then passed I imder the rule of Sparta. The Athenians ! under ISTicias seized it B.C. 424. It reverted [ to Sparta. The Athenians, under Conon, captured it B.C. 393. It is now called Cerigo, I and is one of the Ionian Islands. i CzAE. — Voltaire considers this title to have I been derived from the tzars or tchars of the kingdom of Cazan. It is«evidently of oriental j origin. Ivan III. was the first Eussian j monarch to assume the title. The eldest son is called czarowitz, and the empress czarina. CzAsiiATT (Battle). — The Austrians, led by Prince Charles of Lorraine, encountered the Prussians at this village, near Chotusitz, in Bohemia, about thirty -five miles from Prague, May 17, 1742 (O.S.). After a hard-fought battle they were compelled to retire, which they did in good order, carrying away four- teen standards, two pair of colours, and 1,000 prisoners. The Prussians took eighteen pieces of cannon, two pairs of colours and 1,200 prisoners. The Austrians had only gained the village of Czaslau, by a forced march, the night before the battle. CzEEisroviTZ (Austria). — This circle, for- merly a part of Moldavia, was ceded to DAC Austria by Turkey a.d. 1777, and annexed to Galicia in 1786. By the imperial patent of Dec. 31, 1851, it was constituted a crown land, under the name of Buckowina. The chief city, of the same name, is the seat of a Greek bishop. X). Dacca (Hindostan) became the capital of the eastern portion of Bengal a.b. 1608, and was confirmed as such by Meer Jumla, the general of Aurungzebe, in 1657. The town reached its greatest prosperity under the viceroyship of Shaista Khan, which terminated in 1689 ; since which period it suffered a gradual decline, till its opulence was partially restored by the establishment of provincial councils in 1774. A bank was established at Dacca in 1846, and the Seram- pore mission established a station in 1816. Dacia, including parts of Hungary, Tran- sylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessa- rabia, was originally peopled by the Getae, whom Alexander defeated b.c. 335. Lysi- machus conducted an expedition into the country B.C. 292. Their retreat having been cut off in the plains of Bessarabia, they were all made prisoners. Valerius Messala attacked the Dacians b.c. 34, and Augustus despatched Lentulus against them B.C. 10 ; but neither general achieved any striking success. Domitian sent a large force into Dacia under Cornehus Fuscus, a.d. 86, but the expedition proved a failure, owing to the determined valour of the Dacian leader Decebalus. A peace was agreed upon in the year 91, Donutian consenting to pay tribute to the barbarian monarch, and to acknowledge his regal rights ; and these humiliating terms seem to have been fulfilled till 101, when Trajan discontinued the payment, and invaded Dacia. After gaining many victories, he granted peace to Decebalus in 103, and assumed the title of Dacicus ; but war was renewed in 104. The final subjugation of the Daci, and the reduction of their territory to a Koman province, did not occur till the death of Decebalus, in 106. Hadrian, who took mea- sures to contract his empire ia 117, retained Dacia, and it remained a province of Kome until AureUan abandoned it to the Goths, 270. In 376 the Goths were expelled by the Huns, and in 379 Dacia was made part of the Eastern empire by Gratian. In 453 Ardaric, king of the Gepidae, seized the country, and in 566 it was conquered by a colony of Scythians. They were subdued by Charlemagne, and the Magyars overran Dacia in the 9th century. {See Hungabt.) Dadab (Battle).— The Brahoes, 5,000 strong, were defeated, ia an attack upon the British forces, near this town, in Beloochistan, Nov. 3, 1840. Daggeb. — Gregory of Tours, writing in the 6th century, mentions this weapon as part of the equipment of the Frankish sol- diery. It afterwards acquired the name Misericorde, "because," says Hewitt, "in DAL the last struggle of contending foes, the uphfted dagger compelled the discomfited fighter to cry for mercy." Under this title, it is mentioned in the Charter of Arras, a.d. 1221, and also by Guiart in 1302. Du GuescUn speaks of its use as a missile in 1368. Daghistak (Asia).— Peter the Great overran this province of the Caucasus, situated between the Euxine and the Cas- pian Sea, A.D. 1722. It was incorporated with Eussia, as part of the province of Georgia, in 1801 ; since which period the inhabitants have waged several contests to recover their independence. Dagtieeeeotype. — This process, by which the pictures of the camera lucida are ren- dered permanent, was invented by M. Daguerre, a.d. 1838. The method, described by M. Arago, at the meeting of the Academie des Sciences, Jan. 7, 1839, was afterwards greatly improved by other scientific men. (See Photogeapht.) Dahaea Massacee. — During the war in Algeria, the Ouled-Eiahs, a Kabyle tribe, pursued by a French army led by Colonel Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff, took refuge in the caverns of Dahara, June 18, 1845. The French surrounded the caverns, and failing to induce the Ouled-Eiahs to surrender, placed lighted faggots at the entrance. When the troops obtained ad- mission, June 20th, they found 500 dead bodies; and of 150 who remained ahve, but few recovered. Dahlia. — This flower is indigenous to Mexico, whence it was sent to Spain a.d. 1789. The marchioness of Bute introduced it into England the same year ; but the stock having become extinct. Lady Holland caused new plants to be imported in 1804. The present British stock is chiefly derived from a large assortment of plants brought from France in 1815. This flower received its name from the Swedish botanist Dahl. On the continent it is called Georginia. Dahomet (Africa) . — This negro kingdom was founded by Tacoodonon, chief of the Foys, A.D. 1625. It first came under the notice of Europeans early in the 18th century, when King Trudo, who began to reign in 1708, destroyed all the white settle- ments on the coast. In 1727 the kingdom of Whyda was conquered and annexed, and in 1772 the coiirt of the Idng of Dahomey was visited by Mr. Norris, who published a very interesting narrative of the cruel customs of the people. Daiwstadt (Battle).— The Eussians, 3,600 strong, were defeated at this place, in Fin- land, by a Swedish force, amounting to 2,200 men, June 28, 1789. Gustavus III., king of Sweden, served as a volunteer in this action. Dalmatia (Austria) revolted from lUyria, and became an independent state b.c. 180. C. Marcius Figulus invaded the country B.C. 156, and took Dehiunium, the capital, compelling the Dalmatians to purchase peace by the payment of an annual tribute. 267 DAM Another expedition was led against them B.C. 155j and the capital sustained such serious injury that the seat of government was transferred to Salona. L. CsecUius MeteUus headed a third invasion B.C. 119, and was rewarded for his success by a triumph and the surname of Dalmaticus. Gabinius commenced the fourth Dalmatian war B.C. 48, but he was defeated. Octavianus defeated the Dalmatians B.C. 35, and obtained the submission of the country, and its reduction into a Roman province, B.C. 34. Eevolts occurred b.c. 16 and 11, and it continued in a very unsettled state until its subjection by Tiberius, a.d. 9. Diocletian, on his abdica- tion, May 1, 305, retired to Dahnatia, which remained undisturbed till 461, when it was threatened by the Suevi, and saved by the valour of MarceUinus. The Heruli, under Odoacer, effected its conquest in 481 ; and it remained under Gothic sway tiU Justinian regained possession in 535. In 634 Herachus invited the Croats to dispossess the Avars, who had attained considerable power, and in five years Dalmatia was occupied by Croatian and Servian vassals of the empire. Chris- tianity was introduced in 640, and in 806 the country submitted to the Franks, who were expelled in 837 by Terpimir, who estabhshed the ducal authority. In 887 Dahnatia was plundered by the Narentines, and in 997 the Venetians gained some influence, which they lost in 1052. The Hungarians entered Dalmatia in 1091, and for some time after, its history is httle more than a record of struggles bet^veen these invaders and the Venetians. The latter ceded aU claim Feb. 18, 1358. The Turks invaded Dalmatia in 1500, and for 200 years the country was almost incessantly the seat of war. A peace was concluded in 1573, but war was renewed in 1596 ; and in 1646 Dalmatia was again invaded by an immense Turkish force. Peace was again concluded in 1669, but broken in 1685 ; renewed Jan. 26, 1698, again violated in 1714, till at length the peace of Passarowitz in 1718 restored tran- quillity to the country. By the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, Dalmatia was ceded to Austria, which power surrendered it to France by the treaty of Presburg Dec. 26, 1805. Under French dominion it was first incorporated with the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently, in 1810, with that of lUyria. In 1814 Dalmatia was restored to Austria, in whose possession it stiU remains. Damascus (Syi-ia) is first mentioned in the time of Abraham, b.c. 1912 (Gen. xiv. 15). It was taken by David B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. vui. 6) , and was the capital of Syria during the reign of Benhadad, B.C. 930 (2 Chron. xvi. 2). Jeroboam restored it to Israel B.C. 822, but Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, took it B.C. 740, and carried its inhabitants captive to Kir (2 Kings, xvi. 9). It after- wards remained subject to the Assyrians and Persians till B.C. 333, when it was taken by Parmenio, the general of Alexander the Great. The Romans xmder Pompey effected its capture B.C. 64. Paul eonunenced his ministry at Damascus a.d. 33 (Acts, ix. 19) ; 2GS da;jt and, according to some authorities, Ananias, by whom the Apostle was ordained, was the first bishop of the see. The city was taken from the Romans in Jan. 635, and by the Sara- cens, who made it the seat of their govern- ment, in 661. In 1006 it was taken by the Ghiznivites, who yielded it in 1075 to the Seljukian Turks. JSToureddin (1145—1174) added the kingdom of Damascus to that of Aleppo. The Crusaders laid siege to it in 1149, but without success ; and it was taken and sacked by Tamerlane, Jan. 23, 1401. In 1516 it was seized by SeHm I. and annexed to the Ottoman empire. In 1832 Damascus was taken by Ibrahim Pasha, and, by a fir- man, dated May 6, 1833, was granted to Mehemet Ah. In Feb. 1840, it was the scene of a cruel persecution of the Jews. Damascus was restored to Turkey at the conclusion of peace in 1841. Damask. — Rich stuffs of silk and Hnen were so called because they were originally manufactured at Damascus; whence the trade was carried to Venice, Genoa, and Lyons. In the 15th century most extrava- gant prices were given for superior quahties, the fashion of wearing it being adopted by Henry V. and Edward TV. Damask table- cloths were first imported from France in 1575. Damase Rose, so called from Damascus, was introduced into Europe a.d. 1573. It is stUl largely cultivated in Syria for the purpose of making otto of roses. Damianists, the followers of Damianus, the Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria, arose in the 6th century. They made a dis- tinction between the divine essence and the three persons in the Godhead. Damietxa (Egypt), near the site of the ancient Tamiathis, underwent several sieges during the Crusades. It was taken IS^ov. 5, 1219, but the infidels regained possession in 1221. Louis IX. captured it in June, 1249, and having been taken prisoner, purchased his freedom in 1250, by the surrender of the city to the Saracens, who soon afterwards ordered it to be destroyed. The modern town, erected four miles further from the sea, was fortified by Bonaparte in 1798. The French evacuated it in 1801. An Enghsh force took possession of Damietta in 1807. Dance of Death. — This subject, so popular with the artists of the Middle Ages, seems to have been first painted a.d. 1312, in the church of the Dominicans at Basle. The earhest printed work on the subject which bears a date is " La danse Macabre," pubhshed at Paris in 1485. Holbein's "Dance of Death" was first pubhshed at Lyons in 1538. It comprises forty-one cuts, each surmounted by a Latin text, and having underneath four French verses. A second edition of this work appeared in 1542, and it has since been frequently reprinted. Dakcees. — This sect arose at Aix-la- ChapeUe A.D. 1373, andspread through various parts of the Netherlands. Its members, of both sexes, hand in hand, danced furiously till they feU upon the ground. They were DAN the forerunners of the Convulsionists in France and the Jumpers in England and America. Dancing is said to have been invented by Athothus, the Egyptian Mercury. The Curetes introduced dancing to time B.C. 1534, and Miriam and the Israelitish women testi- fied their joy at their dehverance from the Egyptians by dancing to the sound of their timbrels, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xv. 20). David danced before the ark of God B.C. 1044 (2 Sam. vi. 14). JEschylus united dancing to the dramatic performances of the Greeks about B.C. 499, and pantomimic dances were introduced on the Eoman stage B.C. 22. Dancing was an ordinary recreation at the convivial meetings of the Greeks. Meursius mentions 184 kinds of dancing. Dancing was px'ohibited in a.d. 366 by the council of Laodicea. The Church Dance, which may stiU be seen on certain festivals in the cathedral at Seville, was stopped in France in the 11th century. Sir Christopher Hatton, afterwards lord chancellor, is said to have ingratiated himself with Queen Ehzabeth by his excellence in dancing. Danebrog (Order of Knighthood) . — Some authorities refer the institution of this order to the earhest period of the Danish kingdom, while others say it was founded by Valde- mar II., a.d. 1219, in commemoration of a miraculous standard which descended from heaven, and ralhed his troops when they were on the point of fleeing before the Livonian pagans. In the 15th century the order fell into decay, but it was revived by Christian V. Oct. 12, 1671, and received new statutes Dec. 1, 1693. The constitution of the order was extended by Frederick VI., who issued letters patent to that effect June 28, 1808. Danegelt, or Dane Monet, a tribute exacted by the Danes to secure the cessation of their invasions of England. It was first paid by Ethelred II., or the Unready, a.d. 991, on the advice of Siric, archbishop of Canter- bury, and consisted of 16,000 pounds of silver. Another levy of 24,000 pounds of silver was exacted in 1002, and it afterwards became a regular custom for the Anglo- Saxon kings to extort money from their subjects to bribe the Danes. Edward the Confessor abohshed the Danegelt in 1051. It was restored by WiUiam I. in 1068, and again suppressed at the councU held at Oxford by King Stephen in 1136. The last recorded payment of Danegelt took place in 1175. The citizens of London were reheved from the payment of this tax by the 5th article of Henry the First's charter. Danes. — The Scandinavian tribes who in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries, invaded many parts of the continent, and of England, were known xmder this general name. Their ravages in France and upon the continent of Europe are described under the article Northmen. 787. First appearance of tli.e Danes in England. 793. They pillage laadisfarne, and ravage North- umberland. DAN 794. The Danes are defeated at Wearmouth. 79-5. They land in Ireland. 832. They seize Sheppey Island. 833. They defeat Egbert at Charmouth. 835. Egbert defeats them at Hengstou, in Co:-n- wall. 837. The Danes are defeated at Southami>ton, but gain a victory on the isle of Portland. 84-5. They are defeated by Ethelv/ulf at the PaiTet. 851. They winter in Sheppey ; sail up the Thames with 350 ships ; plunder Canterliury and London ; and are defeated by Ethelwulf at Ockley, in Sui-rey. 853. They are victorious in Thanet. 860. They land at Southampton, and threaten Winchester ; but are diiven back by Osric and Ethelwulf. 867. They take York, which is defended by Ella and Osbert, who both fall in the battle. 869-70. They subdue East Anglia, and destroy the monastery of Barduey and the abbeys of Croyland, Coldingham, ai\d Ely. 871. They fight nine battles in the countiy south of the Tliames, and conclude peace with King Alfred. 874. They conquer Mercia. 875. Healfden invades Northumberland, and destroys Tynemouth and Liiidisfarue. Gutlirum and other chiefs seize Cam- bridge, where they winter. 876. They talse Wareham and Exeter, and con- clude a sec >nd treaty with Alfred. . of 120 vessels wrecked at Third treaty with Alfred, done at Exeter. 878. They compel Alfred to hide in Athelney. After six months, he collects his forces, defeats them at Etliandun, and persuades Guthrum to embrace Christianity. 881. The Danes land in Scotland. 884. They renew their attacks, and lay siege to Rochester, which is relieved by Alfred. 894. Alfred defeats Hastings at Farnham, Bam- fleet, and Chester. 896. Hastings leaves England. 897. Alfred defeats them near the Isle of Wight. 901. Ethelwold, son of Ethelred, is defeated iii a project to assume the crown, and compelled to seek refuge with the Northumbrian Danes, who elect him king. 911. The Danes suffer a great defeat at Wodensfield, from Edward, king of Wessex. 921. The Northumbrian Danes submit to Edward the Elder. 978. Tlie Danes are defeated by the Irish on Tara Hill. 981. A Danish fleet ravages Devon and Cornwall. 991. Another formidable invasion. They arH in- duced to retire on receiving £10,000 of tribute money. {See Daitegelt.) 992. They renew theii- attacks, and are defeated by Ethelred, in a naval engagement. 994. Sweyii is defeated in an attempt to take London. He ravages Essex, Kent, and the southern counties ; and receives £16,000, on condition of his quitting the country. 999. Four thousand Danes are slain at the battle of the Suck, in Ireland. 1002. Danish invasion bought off for £25,000. Ethelred orders the massacre of every Dane in England , which is perpetrated ou the eve of St. Bride's day, Nov. 13. 1003. SwejTi invades Enj:land, and plunder's Exeter and Wilton. 1005. He leaves England, in consequence of a famine. 1006. Another Danish invasion lays waste nearly all England. 1010. The I'anes burn Oxford and Cambridge, and obtain possession of sixteen English counties. 1011. They burn Canterbui-y, and carry away the archbishop, whom they mui-der the fol- lowing year. 1012 They receive £48,000 tribute, and disband their fleet. 269 DAN 1013. Sweyn takes London, and asserts his rule over the whole country north of Watling- street. 1014. The battle of Clontarf, in Ireland, is lost by the Danes. [See Ciontahf.) 1016. Canute, son and successor of Sweyn, gains many victories, and obtains from Edmund Ironside the cession of the northern half of England. 1018. Canute exacts a tribute of £80,000. 1047. An invading fleet lands at Sandwich. 1054 They fight against Macbeth, under Siward, earl of Northumberland. 1066. Sept. 25. They are defeated by Harold, at Stamford-bridge. 1069. The sons of Sweyn arrive, with 240 ships, in the Hiunber. They bum York, and slay more than 3,000 of its Norman de- Danewiske (Battle). — G-eneral Wrangel, at the head of 30,000 Prussians, defeated the Danes, 10,000 strong, after a struggle of eight hours' duration, at this place, near Schleswig, on Easter Sunday, April 23, 1848. Daihsh Ameeica. — The islands of St. Tho- mas, Santa Cruz or St. Croix, and St. John, which belong to Denmark, are described under their respective heads. Dantzic (Prussia), which existed as early as A.D. 970, was taken by Mestwin, duke of eastern Pomerania, in 1271, and by the Poles in 1294. In 1310 it fell imder the domina- tion of the Teutonic Order, who retained it till 1454, when it became a free town under Polish protection. In 1517 it was besieged by the Teutonic Knights ; and, in 1577, was taken by Stephen Batory, king of Poland, whose authority it had disputed. Charles Gustavus, of Sweden, invested John Casimir II. within its walls in 1656, but with- out success. In 1709 the plague committed great ravages amongst its population ; and, in 1734, it was besieged and taken by the Eussians and Saxons. At the second parti- tion of Poland, in 1793, Dantzic was assigned to Prussia. It was taken by the French May 20, 1807, and restored to its former mdependence by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. But though nominally independent, it was really subject to the French, who gar- risoned it, and retaiued it under their autho- rity unto they were expelled, after a long siege, by a Eussian and Prussian force under Alexander, duke of Wiirtemberg, Jan. 2, 1814 ; since which date it has been restored to Prussia. The city was much injured by the explosion of a powder-magazine Dec. 10, 1815. An inundation which occurred April 9, 1829, laid the whole city imder water, and destroyed many thousand houses and cattle, besides causing considerable loss of hfe. In July and September, 1831, Dantzic was visited by the cholera, which destroyed 1,028 lives. The prmcipal buildings are the cathe- dral, commenced in 1343, and finished in 1503 ; Trinity Chui-ch, founded in 1514 ; the Eath- haus in 1556 ; and the Hohe Thor iu 1588. Danube. — The ancient Danubius, or Ister, was crossed by Darius on his expedition into Scythia, b.c, 515; and by the Celtic bar- 270 DAE barians previous to their invasion of Greece, B.C. 280. Trajan buUt a fine stone bridge across it a.d. 103, which was destroyed by Hadrian in the year 120, lest it should en- able the northern barbarians to invade the Thracian provinces. Charlemagne formed a magnificent project, which was never carried out, of connecting the Ehine with the Danube by means of a canal. Steam navigation was estabhshed on the Danube in 1838, when the Austrian company was formed and incor- porated by the emperor. The Bavarian company was estabhshed in 1836. The navigation of the Danube was declared free from all impediment or toU by the 15th article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. Danubiak Pbincipalities. — Moldavia and Wallachia were united under the name of the " United Principahties of Moldavia and Wallachia," by the convention of Paris, signed Aug. 19, 1858. They were placed under the suzerainty of the sultan, but vdih power to carry on their ovm administration vrithout his interference, government being administered by a hospodar and elective assembly iu each principahty, and a central commission common to both principalities. {See Moldavia and Wallachia.) Daea (Mesopotamia) was founded by Anastasius, a.d. 505, as a bulwark against the Persians. It was frequently besieged, and was taken by Chosroes I. in 572. Dardanelles.— Xerxes threw a bridge of boats across this channel, anciently called the Hellespont, B.C. 481 . The bridge was destroyed by a stoi-m. In consequence of this disaster, the water received 300 lashes, and the next bridge remained secure. Alexander crossed the straits B.C. 334 with an army of about 35,000 men. The Saracens under Soliman, the son of Orchhan, crossed this channel A.D. 1360, and first erected the Mohammedan crescent in Europe. In 1465 Mohammed II. erected two forts to defend the passage, and in 1659 two more, named Sestos and Abydos, were added by Mohammed IV. The passage of the Dardanelles was effected by Admiral Sir Thomas Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807, in spite of the severe fire of the forts. He returned through the channel March 1 the same year, when the squadron sustained much injury, owing to the unfavourable weather and to the immense stone shot used by the enemy. The straits were also passed by the allied fleets of England and France at the commencement of the Eusso-Turkish war (q.v.), Oct. 14, 1853. By a secret article of the treaty of UnMar-Skelessi, between Eussia and Turkey, signed at Constantinople July 8, 1833, the latter power agreed to close the Dardanelles against vessels of war belonging to foreign powers. The ancient rule of excluding all ships of war in time of peace, confirmed in the convention signed at London, July 13, 1841, is recognized by the 10th article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. Daedanelles (Sea-fight) .—The Genoese defeated the Venetians, the Catalans, and DAE the Greeks in an engagement in the Darda- nelles, A.n. 1352. Daric, a Persian gold coin, struck by Darius the Mede, B.C. 538. The daric was originally coined at Babylon; whence its circulation extended over all the East, and even into Greece. The device was an archer in the act of drawing his bow. Dr. Bernard estimates the weight of the daric at 15 grs. more than our guinea. Specimens in the British Museum weigh 128'-1 and 128-6 grs. Hussey estimates its value at £1. Is. lOd. 1*76 farthing. There were also darics of silver. Dakiek (Central America) . — This isthmus was discovered by Columbus, who founded Porto Bello a.d. 1502. Vaseo Nunez de Bal- boa crossed it and discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sept. 25, 1513. A Spanish colony was established on the isthmus in 1510. Wilham Paterson, the originator of the Bank of England, first proposed to form what is known as the Scottish settlement at Darien in 1694. The company was incorporated by an act of parHament, to which the royal sanction was given June 26, 1695. Three ships and two tenders, having on board 1,200 men, besides women and children, left Leith July 26, 1698. They reached the isthmus Nov. 1. The chiefs of the expedition landed on the following day, and took formal gossession of the country, naming it New aledonia. They built a fort, which they called New St. Andrew, and soon became involved in a quarrel vrith the Spaniards, who regarded them as pirates and bucaneers. Disease committed terrible ravages amongst them, and those that remained aUve were compelled to embark in three vessels. More than half of them perished during the voyage to New York. A second expedition, con- sisting of four ships, with 1,300 men, that had left Edinburgh in August, 1699, did not reach the colony until four months after its abandonment. They built a new fort, and having been assailed by a Spanish fleet and army, concluded a treaty March 30, 1700, engaging to evacuate Darien in fourteen days. They embarked on the 11th of April. Two of the ships were lost, and only a small number of the colonists returned to their native land. In November, 1827, the isthmus was surveyed by Mr. Lloyd, acting under the orders of General Bolivar, with a view to ascertain the best route, either for a road or a canal, by which it might be traversed. Darling Eiver (AustraUa) wasdiscovered by Captain Sturt in 1829, and was named after the then governor of the colony. Darmstadt (Germany) was made a city A.D. 1330, and became the residence of the landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1567. The grand-ducal palace was commenced in 1568, and the town-hall was built in 1580. Darm- stadt has been the scene of two conven- tions : the first, between the grand-duke of Hesse -Darmstadt and Baden, was signed Oct. 5, 1806, and the second, between the grand-duke and Jerome Bonaparte, June 3, 1810. DAV Dartfokd (Kent) was either founded by the Romans, or built on the site of a former Roman town, as numerous remains of Roman furniture, houses, coffins, &c., are found in its vicinity. Ethelbert founded a nunnery here a.d. 604, which was ravaged by the Danes in 770. The marriage by proxy of Isabella, sister of Henry III., to Ferdinand II. of Germany, was solemnized in Dartford church in 1235. Edward III. held a great tourna- ment in the town in 1330, and founded the priory in 1349. Wat Tyler's insurrection broke out at Dartford in 1382. In 1538 the priory was abolished, and the house con- verted into a royal palace, and in 1576 the grammar-school was founded. Sir John Spilman erected the first paper -miU in England at Dartford in 1580. In 1780 a camp was formed at Dartford, and in 1790, 1795, and 1805, the powder-mills were blown up, causing, on each occasion, considerable loss of life. The infant-school and mechanics' institute were established in 1843. Dartmouth (Devon) was an important borough, market-town, and seaport at an early period. The crusading fleet assem- bled in its harbour a.d . 1190. The charter for a market and fair at Dartmouth was granted in 1226, and that by which the town was endowed with a corporation in 1342. In 1347 it was the third in the hst of seaports which furnished Edward III. with a fleet for the siege of Calais, and in 1377 it was attacked and nearly destroyed by a powerful French army. In 1404 it was again assailed by a French force under M. du Chastel, whose army was compelled to take flight, after losing its commander and many of the principal officers. During the Great Rebellion, Dart- mouth was twice taken ; by the Royalists under Prince Maurice in 1643, after a siege of a month's duration, and by the ParUa- mentary forces under Sir Thomas Fairfax, Jan. 18, 1646. The mechanics' institute was established in 1846. Dauphin, the title of the eldest son of the king of France, was first assumed by Charles (grandson of Philip VI.), afterwards Charles V., to whom the province of Dau- phiny was ceded by its sovereign, Hum- bert II., July 16, 1349. The title was per- manently attached to the eldest sons of the French kings by John II. in 1356, and was last used by Louis Antoine, who assimied it in September, 1824, on the accession of his father as Charles X. The dauphins quar- tered on their shields the arms of France and Dauphiny, and only yielded precedence to crovraed heads. Davidists, or David-Gregorians.— This sect was founded by David George, or Joris, the son of a market crier, who was born at Delft A.D. 1501. He joined the Anabaptists in 1534, when he began to have visions and revelations. He pubhshed his " Book of Wonders" in 1542. In 1544 he retired to Basel, in Switzerland, and hved in retire- ment there twelve years. He called himself the third David, another son of God, and held various heretical opinions. His followers 271 DAV existed in Holland till about a century after his death. "* Dayid's, St. (Wales). — The see at Caerleon was removed here by St. David before the year 546. In 810 the town was burnt, and in 904 and 906 it was taken and ravaged by the Danes. In 930, Sampson, the archbishop, removed to Dole, in Britanny, and the see became merely episcopal, although the bishops still exercised archiepiscopal autho- rity. In 981 the town was again pOlaged by Gothrit and Harold, and in 993 by the Danes, who slew the archbishop. The Saxons took it in 1011, and committed great devastation, and in 1020 it was destroyed by EHaf. About 1115 Bishop Bernard professed his subjection to the archbishop of Canterbury, and the see lost all archiepiscopal power. John of Gaunt founded a college here in 1365, of which only the chapel is now in existence. David's, St., Day. — The Welsh custom of wearing a leek in the cap on the 1st of March originated a.d. 540, when the Bri- tons, under Cadwallader, defeated the Sax- ons. St. David ordered the British warriors to wear a leek, that they might be known to each other ; whence the present custom is derived. Davis's Steaits (N"orth America) were discovered by Captain John Davis, Aug. 11, 1585, during his first voyage in quest of the north-west passage. Davy Lamp for hghting the miner, without risk from the explosion of fire- damp, was invented by Sir Humphry Davy, in 1816. j Deaco>"S were flLrst appointed by the Apostles to superintend the daily minis- tration to the poor, a.d. 31 (Acts, vi. 1 — 6). The original niimber was seven; viz., Stephen, PhQip, Prochorus, Xicanor, Timon, Par- menas, and!Xicolas. Deacons of the Church ! of England were prohibited from conse- i crating the Holy Communion by 13 & 14 I Chas. II. c. 4, s.'l4 (1662), under penalty of £100. DEACOTfESSES are of very early origin in the Christian church, as St. Paul (Eom. xvi. 1) speaks of Phebe as "a servant {CiaKOVOC, or deaconess) of the church which is at Cenchrea," a.d. 58. By a law in the Theo- : dosian Code, pubhshed a.d. 438, they were i to be widows who had had children and i were above 60 years old ; but instances were i not uncommon in which the office was tilled ' by virgins. Their duties were to baptize and catechise women, to attend the sick and martyrs in prison, and to superintend the ' behaviour of female worshippers at church, i It is doubtful when the office was discon- tinued; butthecouncilof Orange, Xov. 8, 44il, forbade any more deaconesses to be ordained; i which prohibition was repeated by the Coun- ' cil of Albon in 517, and the Coimcil of Orleans June 23, 533. The order did not, however, become extinct tUl the 11th century, and in the Greek church deaconesses continued as late as the end of the 12th century. j Deaf akd DuiiB. — The earhest legis- i 272 ' DEA lation for the deaf and dumb appears in the code of Justinian (a.d. 528), which declares persons bom thus, incapable of making a wiQ, manumitting a slave, and performing other civil offices. The Vene- rable Bede states that John, bishop of Hagulstad (Hexham), enabled a deaf man to talk in 685, and Rodolphus Agricola (1442 — 1485), states the capacity of those { bom deaf to receive instruction, and men- ! tions instances in which it had been success- l fully imparted. The art was first re- duced to a system by Jerome Cardan (1501 — 1576), and was successfully prac- tised by the Spanish Benedictine, Pedro de Ponce, who died in August, 1585. Jean Bonifacio published his work on the language of action in 1616, and John Bulwer's " Philocophus, or the Deafe and Dumbe Man's Friende," pubhshed in 1648, is pro- bably the earliest Enghsh work on the subject. Dr. WaUis announced his abihty to teach the deaf in 1653, and George Dal- garno's manual alphabet, the first pubhshed in England, appeared in 1680. The great French teachers of the deaf and dumb are the abbe de I'Epee (1712—1789), and the abbe Sicard (1742 — 1822), who laboured arduously and successfully to estabhsh an elFective system of instruction for their unfortunate pupils. The first school for the deaf and dimib was opened in Edinburgh about 1760, by Thomas Braidwood, who removed it to 'Hackney, London, in 1783. The London Asylum for poor deaf and dumb children was projected and estabhshed in 1792, by the Eev. John Townsend, who collected a considerable sum of money for the purpose. The duke of Gloucester laid the first stone of the new Asvlum in the Old Kent Eoad, July 11, 1807. The Asylum of Edinburgh was' founded in 1810 ; "that of Birmingham in 1812 ; of Claremont (Dubhn) in 1816 ; of Glasgow in 1819 ; of Manchester in 1823 ; and of Liverpool in 1825. Accord- ing to the census of 1851, Great Britain and Ireland contained 17,300 deaf and dumb persons, being in the proportion of 1 to 1,590 of the whole population. Dean Foeest (Gloucestershire) contained iron-mines at a veiy early period of English history, probably before the Eoman invasion. Its boundaries were defined by 20 Chas. II. c. 3 (1667) . The mine law courts, for the pro- tection of the free miners, &e., were abohshed in 1777, and the free miners have since lost many of their alleged rights. Eiots broke out here June 8, 18.31, in consequence of the opposition of the foresters to the inclosure of any part of the forest, when upwards of 2,000 men destroyed the fences, and indulged in other riotous proceedings. Death (punishment of). — Among the ancient Jews, stoning, burning, and cru- ciflLsion were the chief capital penalties. Draco, B.C. 621, endeavoured to repress crime among the Greeks, by visiting every olFence vrith death; but Solon, B.C. 594, limited the extreme sentence of the law to murder, and a few other heinous offences. DEA The Eomans inflicted it on murderers, traitors, violators of public morals, and vestals who broke their vows of chastity. The codes of Theodosius and Justinian, promulgated a.d. 438 and 528, were very mercifvd as regards capital punishment, which was chiefly confined to murder, treason, adultery, forgery (if committed by a slave) , and man-steaHng. Under the Anglo-Saxons, it was almost limited to theft, other offences, including murder, being dealt with by fines. William the Conqueror (1066—1087) abolished it altogether as a system, and substituted mutilation. Never- theless the first instance of decapitation for treason, in this country, occurred in his reign, Waltheof, earl of Northumbria, being beheaded at Winchester, May 31, 1076. Henry I. revived the capital penalty in certain kinds of theft in 1108, and in 1241, hanging, drawing, and quartering were first inflicted on a pirate named Maurice. The punishment of death subsequently became much more common, and in the time of Edward II. (1307—1327) was awarded to traitors, who were drawn and hanged; to murderers, robbers, and incendiaries, who were hanged ; to heretics, who were burned ; and to offenders against nature, who were buriedalive. By4 &5 Vict. c._56 (Juiie2, 1841), it is now limited to the crimes of treason, murder, unnatural offences, setting fire to the queen's ships or stores, injuring life with intent to murder, burglary accompanied with attempts to murder, robbery accom- panied with stabbing or wounding, setting fire to a dwelling-house having any person therein, setting fire to, casting away, or otherwise destroying ships with intent to murder, exhibiting false fights vsith intent to bring ships into danger, and piracy, accompanied with stabbing, &c. Death's Head, (Order of,) was founded by the duke of Wiirtemberg, a.d. 1652. It is for females only. Debtors. (See Bankeupts, Impeisom-- MENT FOR Debt, &c.) Deccan' (Hindostan). — The boundaries of this territory have varied greatly at different periods. The term is now usually applied to the southern portion of India, situated between the Nerbudda and Kustna rivers. Its first independent sovereign was Allah ud Deen, A.D. 1337 ; and in 1690 it was conquered by Aurungzebe, who divided it into six provinces. In 1717 Mzam ul Mulck wrested it from the Mongol sovereigns of Delhi, and rendered it subject to the Mahrattas, who maintained their ascendancy till 1818, when a large portion was ceded to the British. Deceleia (Greece) . — Thisplace, originally one of the twelve cities of Attica, was taken and fortified by the Lacedaemonians B.C. 413, and was retained by them tfll the end of the Peloponnesian war. December, so called from decern, ten, was the tenth month in the year of Romulus, B.C. 753; and became the twelfth, when ISTuma Pompilius placed the months of January and February before March, 273 DEC B.C. 713. During the reign of Commodua (a.d. 180 — 192) it was called Amazonius, in honour of the emperor's mistress Martia, who had been painted in the habit of an Amazon. Decemvirs. — The supreme council often, appointed at Rome b.c. 451, compiled their laws of the ten tables the same year, and at first governed so as to vrin the respect of their fellow-citizens. But, in the year B.C. 449, they were deposed, in consequence of the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards Virginia, and the consular government was restored. Decennalia. — These festivals were insti- tuted by the emperor Augustus, b.c. 24, in acknowledgment of the prosperity of his administration during the preceding ten years. They were continued by the em- perors every tenth year of their reign, with games, sacrifices, and largesses to the people. The last was celebrated by Theodosius II. A.D. 411. Decimal System was appHed by the French government to coinage, weights, and measures, in 1792. Sir John Wrottesley introduced it to the notice of Parfiament, Feb. 25, 1824, but no measures were adopted for testing its utihty, A committee of the House of Commons reported in favour of its adoption Aug. 1, 1853 ; and in Nov. 1854, a commission of inquiry was appointed, consisting of Lord Monteagle, Lord Over- stone, and Mr. Hubbard. The Decimal Association, formed in June, 1854, and the International Association, instituted at Paris in 1855, both labour for the introduction of the decimal system. DECiMATioiir was introduced among the Eomans as a military punishment by Appius Claudius, about B.C. 449, and continued in use tiR it was abolished by Theodosius, a.d. 383. Decimtts (Battle). — BeMsarius defeated the Vandals Sept. 14, 533 a.d., on a plain ten miles from Carthage, and on this ac- count the victory received the name of Decimus. Declaration- op Rights.— This declara- tion for vindicating and asserting the ancient rights and hberties of the subject was agreed to by the lords spiritual and temporal, and the Commons, Feb. 12, 1689 (O.S.). Itwas read before WiUiam, prince of Orange, at White- hall, and accepted by him Wednesday, Feb. 13 (O.S.). (/See Bill OF Rights.) Decretals, letters written by the popes to decide questions in ecclesiastical law. Pope Sericius wrote the first a.d. 385, to Himerius, bishop of Tarragona, in Spain. A series of forged decretals were written in France between the years 829 and 845, the aim of which was to exalt the episcopal dignity, and increase the power of the upper magnates of the Church. Gratian pubhshed a coUection of decretals in 1150, and Gre- gory IX. compiled five books of them, which were called the Pentateuch, in 1234, to which Boniface VIII. added a sixth in 129S. Cle- ment V. issued his five books, knowni as the T DED Clementines, in 1313, and John XXII. used them as the foundation of the canon law in 1317. This was the last authentic series of decretals. The later ones, called Extrava- gantes, have only been occasionally pre- served, and the latest of them was written by Sixtus IV. in 1483. DEDiCATioir OP Chtjeches. — We read in Exodus (xl. 33, B.C. 1490), that Moses dedicated the tabernacle iu the wilderness, and in 1 Kings (viii. 1—64, B.C. 1004), that Solomon devoted his temple to the service of God. The second temple was likewise dedicated, as we learn from Ezra (vi. 16, 17, B.C. 515). According to Biagham, the first authentic accounts of the consecration of Christian churches occur in the 4th century, when, in the words of Eusebius, "it was'a desirable sight to behold how the consecra- tions of the new-built churches and the feasts of the dedications were solemnized in every city." The church of Jerusalem, erected by Constantine on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, was consecrated by a fuU synod of bishops specially convened for the purpose, a.d. 335 ; and in 341 the church of Antioch was also dedicated by a great company of bishops summoned for that end. _ Deeds. — Among the Anglo-Saxons, when title-deeds were lost, new ones were pre- pared, from memory, of similar effect; an instance of which occurred a.d. 903. Deeds were not generally dated until the reign of Edward II., although the practice commenced in the time of Edward I. The indenture of deeds was rendered unneces- sary by 7 & 8 Yict. c. 76, s. 11 (Aug. 6, 1844). Dees (Hindostan) was fortified by Sooraj Mull, A.D. 1760. In 1776 it was taken by Nudjiff Khan, after a siege of twelve months. General Eraser defeated Holkar under its walls K'ov. 13, 1804; and Lord Lake took the fortress by storm Dec. 14 in the same year. Defamation.— By the laws of Lothaire, king of Kent (a.d. 673—684) , calumny and de- famation were visited by severe fines. Under Alfred, Edgar, and Canute, those who spread false reports forfeited their tongues, unless they paid the full amount of their mulct. The law respecting defamation of character was amended by 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 24, 1843) ; and the offence was removed from the jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical courts by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (June 26, 1855). Defence of the Eealm Act. — This act, "To make better provision for acquiring lands for the defence of the realm" (23 & 24 Vict. c. 112), was passed Aug. 28, 1860. Defewdek of the Faith. — Leo X. con- ferred the title of " Eidei Defensor" on Henry VIIL, as a mark of approval of his work against Luther, dedicated to that pontiff. The buU by which it was granted bears date Oct. 11, 1521, and the title was confirmed by 35 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1543). The title had, however, been assumed by the kings of England previous to the time 274 DEI of Henry VIII. Eichard II. used it in his proclamation against the opinions of Wycliffe, dated Westminster, July 3, 1382. Defenders, and Peep-o'day Boys, — • two Irish factions, the first being Roman Cathohcs, and the last Presbyterians, which originated July 4, 1784, near Market -hiU, in the county of Armagh. On Whit- Monday, 1785, seven hundred Protestants, known as the ]S"appagh fleet, met the De- fenders, who had assumed the title of the Bawn fleet, and were on the point of coming to an engagement, when they were induced to separate by some private gen- tlemen. In January, 1793, Ireland was much disturbed by the Defenders, who attacked the houses of Protestants. A battle was fought between these two factions Sept. 21, 1795, at the village called the Diamond ; in which forty - eight De- fenders were killed, and many more wounded. To commemorate this battle the first Orange lodge was formed. Degkadation. — In the Primitive Church this sentence was awarded to aU who were guilty of very flagitious crimes. In 767 it was executed upon the patriarch of Con- stantinople, who was compelled to leave the church backwards, and was stripped of his paUium, while an anathema was pronounced over him. By 23 Hen. VIII. c. 1, s. 6 (1531), clerks convicted of treason, murder, &c., were to suffer degradation. In chivalry, knights are degraded only for the most heinous offences. Instances occurred as early as 1322, and as late as 1621. The mode of execution was for the culprit's spurs to be hacked off his heels, his sword broken over his head, and himself announced to be "no longer knight, but a scoundrel-knave." Peers can only lose their nobihty by death or attainder ; "though one instance occurs in which parhament degraded a nobleman for poverty; viz. that of George Neville, duke of Bedford, who was degraded in 1477. Degrees of Geometry were first measured by Eratosthenes, who flourished B.C. 275 — 194. Hipparchus of Nice, B.C. 162, first determined the relative positions of places by means of their latitudes and longitudes. Degsastan, or Degstan (Battle). — Ethelfrith defeated the Scots at this place, by some supposed to be Dalston, in Cum- berland, A.D. 603. Deiea. — The conquests of Ida, in the North of England, were, on his death, divided into two states — Deira and Ber- nicia. Ella became king of the former a.d. 559. On his death, in 588, Deira was joined to Bernicia. Oswin seized Deira in 644, and was slaiu by Oswy, king of Bernicia, Aug. 20, 651. Deists. — This appellation was assumed ia France and Italy about the middle of the 16th century, by those who were sceptical in regard to Christianity, but acknowledged the existence of a God ; and they are men- tioned as a new sect in the preface to the second volume of Virot's " Instruction DEL DEL Chr^tienne," puMished in 1563. Among the earliest writers who erected deism into a system, must be classed Lord Herbert of Cherbury, whose work " De Veritate" ap- peared at Paris in 1624. Other eminent deists were Hobbes, who died in 1679 ; Toland, in 1722 ; Tindal, in 1733 ; Bohng- broke, in 1751 ; Hume, in 1776 ; Gibbon, in 1794; Paine, in 1809 ; and among foreigners, Voltaire, in 1778; Eousseau, in 1778; and Condorcet, in 1794. Delawaee (United States), so called from Lord De la War, governor of Virginia, who was the first to enter the bay, a.d. 1610. It was colonized by the Swedes in 1627; talcen by the Dutch in 1655 ; and seized by the English in 1664. In 1704 it was erected into a separate colony, which rank it main- tained till the separation from the mother country. Its constitution was formed in 1776, and amended in 1831. Delegates (Court of). — On the pro- hibition of appeals to the pope, the Court of Delegates was created to exer- cise the supreme appellate jurisdiction. It generally included the judges of the court of Westminster, and the doctors of the civil law, and was established by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1533). Its jurisdiction was aboUshed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92 (Aug. 7, 1832), which provided that all appeals formerly made to it should in future be laid before the sovereign in council ; and this act was amended by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 41, s. 3 (Aug. 14, 1833), which ordered aU such appeals to be referred to the judicial committee of the privy council. Delet (HoUand) was founded by Godfrey le Bossu, duke of Lower Lorraine, a.d. 1074. The new church was erected in 1381 ; and the town was much injured by a fire in 1536. Here Hugo Grotius was born, April 10, 1583 ; and WiUiam I., prince of Orange, assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, July 10, 1584. The Hotel de Ville was built in 1618. A mausoleum, erected in memory of WiUiam, in the new church, in 1620, is considered one of the finest objects in the town. Delft siiffered severely from the explosion of a powder-magazine in 1654. Delhi (Hindostan), the ancient capital of the Patau and Mongol empires, was an important city, governed by its own rajah, as early as a.d. 1008. In 1011 it was taken and pillaged by Sultan Mahmoud, of Ghuznee ; and in 1193, Cuttub ud Deen wrested it from the Hindoo princes, and founded the Patau, or Aifghan empire. Timour crossed the Indus, and captured Delhi, in 1398 ; and in 1525, Sultan Baber took the city, and abolished the Patau dynasty, establishing in its stead that of the Mongols. Akbar, the greatest of the Mongol emperors of Delhi, commenced his reign in 1556, and died in 1605. In 1735 the city was partially burnt by the Mahrattas, and soon afterwards, March 9, 1739, it was taken by Nadir Shah, who rendered its capture notorious by the 275 cruelty and rapacity with which it was effected. The Mahrattas obtained posses- sion of Delhi in 1770, and the Eohillas in 1788. The battle of Delhi was fought Sept. 11, 1803, between the French and Mahrattas, under Bourquin, and the English, under General Lake, and gained by the latter, who entered the city the following day. In Oct. 1804, it was besieged by Holkar, who was compelled to retire in spite of his superior force. From this period no event of im- portance occurs in the history of Delhi until May 11, 1857, when it was entered by fugitive rebel sepoys from Meerut, and made the head- quarters of the rebeUion. The English laid siege to it on the 8th of June, commenced the cannonade Sept. 11, and completed the capture Sept. 20. The king and his two sons were taken Sept. 21, and the latter were immediately shot by Lieut, Hodson. The English troops left Delhi in pursmt of the rebels Sept. 23. Delicate Investigation. — This inquiry into certain alleged improprieties on the part of Caroline Elizabeth, then princess of Wales, and afterwards queen of England, as wife of George IV., was conducted by a com- mission appointed by the king, May 29, 1806, and composed of Lords Spencer, Grenville, Erskine, and EUenborough. The chief pro- moters of the investigation were Sir John and Lady Douglas, who laid charges against the princess, of which the committee declared her innocent, although they condemned her for culpable levity of conduct. Sir John and Lady Douglas persisted in their asser- tions, and in March, 1813, the subject was much discussed in the House of Commons. The bin for the degradation of the queen was proposed by Lord Liverpool, and read for the first time, July 5, 1820. Its second reading took place Aug. 17, and the case was opened by the Attorney General in support of the biU, Aug. 19. Mr., after- wards Lord Brougham, commenced the defence, Oct. 3, and the Lords voted in favour of the third reading of the biU, Nov. 10. In consequence, however, of the strong feeling of the country in favour of the queen, and of the nearly equal state of opinion among the peers, the majority only amounting to 9, the bOl was abandoned on the motion of Lord Liverpool. Delinquents.— AU persons assuming powers not authorized by statute were, by the Long Parhament, in 1640, declared to be delinquents. On the 15th of Feb. 1641, the House of Commons ordered a person to be sent for as a delinquent for speaking scan- dalous words against a member ; and June 7 in the same year the House of Commons ordered, that when any man was sent for as a delinquent, and afterwards by order of the House was bailed, he should not on that account be discharged of arrest in other suits. Hume remarks, " This term was newly come into vogue, and expressed a degree or species of guilt not exactly known or ascertained." Many of the nobility and gentry, for exercising what they believed to T 2 DEL be the legal powers of magistracy, were involved in the crime of dehnquency. Delium (Battles) .—The Boeotians defeated the Athenians near the temple of Apollo, at Delium, B.C. 424. Socrates, and his pupU Alcibiades, took part in this battle. The troops of Antiochus of Syria defeated the Eomans at Dehum, B.C. 192. Delos (^gean Sea). — This island, one of the Cyclades, is said to have been the birth- place of Apollo, and was one of the chief seats of his worship. It was made the com- mon treasury of the states united against Persia, b.c. 477. The Athenians purified it by removing aU its tombs, &c., B.C. 426 ; and banished aU its inhabitants b.c. 422. About B.C. 146 it became important as a seat of commerce, but it subsequently lost all trade, and is now a mere heap of ruins. Delphi (Greece).— The celebrated temple and oracle of the Pythian ApoUo is said to have been founded by the Amphictyons B.C. 1263. It was destroyed by fire B.C. 548, and some accuse the Pisistratidae of having burnt it, but Herodotus (ii. 180) acquits them of any such intention. It was reljuilt by the Amphictyons, and decorated by the Alcmseonidge, who so enriched the new edifice that Xerxes sent an expedition in search of plunder, B.C. 480. The Persians, however, were compelled to retreat by the immense blocks of stone which were hurled upon them by supernatural means, according to the report of the priests. The Phocians seized the temple B.C. 357, and enriched themselves with its immense wealth, which amounted to 20,000 talents of gold and silver. Philip of Macedon restored it to the custody of the Amphictyons B.C. 346, and it remained undisturbed luitil attacked by the Gauls under Brennus, B.C. 279, when the enemy was a second time repelled by the overthrow of huge masses of rock. It was again plundered by Sylla, B.C. 82 ; and by Nero, who took from it 500 brazen statues, A.D. 67. The temple was suppressed by Theodosius, who died a.d. 395, and with it the existence of the town may be said to have ceased. Delphin" Classics. — This edition, sug- gested by the duke of Montausier, was prepared by order of Louis XLV. for the use of the Dauphin, whence the name {In usuni serenissimi Delphini). Hallam (Lit. Hist., vol. iv. pt. 4, ch. 1), says, — "The choice of authors as well as of editors was referred to Bishop Huet, who fixed the number of the former at forty." The first edition con- sisted of sixty-four volumes, all of which, with the exception of Ovid, issued at Lyons, were published at Paris. Florus and SaUust appeared in 1674, and Ausonius in 1730. Mr. Valpy commenced the repubhcation of the Delphin Classics in 1818, The editions are unequal in merit. Deluge. — The first mention of the Deluge occurs in Gen. vi. 7 — 22, which describes the directions received by Noah relative to the construction of the ark. The commencement of the flood is related Gen. vii. 10—12. The 276 DEN waters increased for forty days (v. 17) , and remained upon the earth 150 days (v. 24) , at the end of which time the ark rested on Mount Ararat (Gen. viii. 4). The follow- ing are some of the dates assigned to this event : — B.C. Septuagint 3246 Jackson 3170 Hale3 3155 Josephus 3146 Pei-sian 3103 CaliYuga 3102 Chinese 3000 Samaritan 29U8 Howai-d 2K98 Clinton 2482 Playfair 2352 ITsher and English Bible 2348 Marsham 2344 Petavius 2:i2i) Ii-ish 2296 Strauchius 2293 Hebrew 2288 Vvdgar Jewish ... 2104 Besides the general Deluge, there are others recorded by classical authors, of which the chief are those of Ogyges, about B.C. 1760, and Deucalion, B.C. 1504, the first of which was confined to Attica, and the latter to Thessaly. Dembewielkie (Battle). — The Poles de- feated the Russians with great slaughter at this place, near Warsaw, March 31, 1831. Demebaea and Essequibo (South America). — Colonies were planted on the banlcs of these rivers by the Dutch, about 1580. They were taken by the British under General Whyte, April 22, 1796 ; and restored to Holland, by the peace of Aiaiens, March 27, 1802. The English captured them again Sept. 20, 1803. By an agreement, signed Aug. 13, 1814, the Dutch surrendered these possessions to England. (See Guiana.) Demexkia. — The Athenians instituted an annual festival under this name in honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes, B.C. 307. Demmijt (Prussia). — This was an im- portant to-wn in the time of Charlemagne, and has sustained several sieges. The Swedes took the garrison prisoners a.d. 1757, and the Prussians regained possession in 1759. The French captured Demmin April 17, 1807. Detain- (Battle). — At this village, in Prance, Marshal Vihars, at the head of a French army, defeated the aUied Dutch and German troops, commanded by the earl of Albemarle, July 24, 1712. Prince Eugene, who by some writers is represented as having taken part in the action, was, by the admir- able strategy of Marshal ViUars, compelled to witness a defeat that he could not avert. Denaeius, the standard silver coin among the Eomans, was first coined B.C. 269. Its value amounted to ten bronze asses, or eight- pence halfpenny. About B.C. 216 its value was raised to sixteen asses, the as being reduced considerably in weight. Gold denarii were struck at Eome B.C. 206. Denis, St. (France). — A chapel in honour of St. Denis was founded at this place a.d. 250. Dagobert was buried here in 580. Dagobert I. founded the abbey in 613, and it has ever since been the place of sepulchre for the French monarchs. The first church was finished in 775, and the present edifice, commenced in 1130, was completed in 1281. DEN Abattle between the Eoman Catholics and the Huguenots was fought in its vicinity in 1567, ■\9^hen the latter were victorious. The abbey was suppressed in 1792. By a decree of the Convention, Aug. 6, 1793, the royal tombs were opened, but they were restored by Napoleon in 1806. Denmark, — The early history of this country is involved in obscurity. Some native writers give lists of its sovereigns from the time of Noah, while others are content vdth ascribing the foundation of the kingdom and the name of the country to Dan, whose reign, they say, began B.C. 1038. The first inhabitants were pro- bably the Cimbri or Cimmerians, who were supplanted by the Goths four or five centuries before the Christian aera. 1038. Alleged accession of Dan. 483. Reigu of Ruric Slingeband, during -which the events that form the basis of Shake- speare's " Hamlet" occurred. 70. Anlval of Odin. 40. Death of Skiold, usually reputed the founder of the monarchy. A.T). 794. Ragnar Lodbrog perishes in an attempt to invade Northumberland. 828. Harold T., the first Christian sovereign of Denmark, retires to a monastery. 912. Rollo, the Dane, obtains Normandy. 944. Harold II. assists the Normans against the French king, whom he conquers and makes prisoner. 991. Harold II. , famous for his prowess in war and his zealous adoption of Christianity, is assassinated by order of his son Sweyn. 1013. England submits to Sweyn. 1014. Accession of Canute the Great. 1028. Canute conquers Norway, which he governs simultaneously with England and Den- mark. 1042. Magnus, king of Norway, inherits the throne of Denmark. 1047. Separation of Norway and Denmark ; Sweyn II. ascending the throne of the latter country. 1087-1095. Reign of Olaf II., surnamed the Himgry, in consequence of a terrible famine which visited his kingdom. 1147. The sovereignty is divided between Canute V. and Sweyn III., who wage along and bloody civil war with each other. 1157. "Valdemar the Great succeeds to the imdivided throne. 1250. Murder of Eric VI. by his brother Abel. 1325. Christopher II. is expelled by his subjects. 1326. Aug. 15. Count Gerhard, of Hoi stein and Stormam, receives the duchy of South Jutland as an hereditary fief, with royal rights over the inhabitants of Sleswig. 1340. Valdemar IV. is elected king. 1397. June. The Union of Calmar. Margaret be- comes queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, which are united into one kingdom. 1440. Eric bestows Sleswig on Adolf, count of Holstein. 1448. Christian I. ascends the throne, and founds the Oldenburg dynasty. Sweden resumes its independence under Charles Knutson. 14-57. John Bengston, archbishop of Upsal, defeats Charles Knutson, and reunitt^s the three kingdoms under one monarch. 1464. Christian I. is made duke of Sleswig and count of Holstein. 1477. Christian I. relinquishes his efforts to main- tain the sovereignty of Sweden. 1481. May 2-2. Death of Christian I. He is succeeded on the Danish and Norwegian thrones by his sou John. A.D. 1497. 1523. 1525. 1620. 1652. 1726. 1728. 1761. 1772. 1773. 1784. 1786. 1795. 1810. 1813. DEN Nov. 19. Sweden submits to John. Deposition of Christian II. Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden, which he renders independent of Denmark and Norway. Frederick I. declares in favour of Luther- anism. On the death of Frederick I., the succession is disputed by the deposed Christian II. , Christian duke of Holstein, and Prince John of Holstein. The duke of Holstein succeeds as Christian III. Tranquebar, in Hindostan, is ceded to Den- mark. Instigated by the Dutch, Frederick III. seizes and sells twenty-two English vessels at anchor in the port of Copenhagen. Cromwell compels the Dutch to make reparation. Denmark is invaded by Charles Gustavus, of Sweden, who threatens Copenhagen, and receives Scania, Blenkiugen, Halland, Bornholm, Bahus, Janetland, Drontheim, and parts of Bremen and Rugen. Oct. The authority of the king is made abso- lute and hereditary. Acquisition of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. June 14. Peace of Stockholm, between Den- mark and Sweden. Rantzau is added to Denmark. A fire at Copenhagen lays the city in ruins, burning six churches, the university, with its library, the town-hall, many other public buildings, and 2,500 private houses. Ho!stein-Plon is added to Denmark. Jan. 16. Caroline Matilda, queen of Christian VII., is arrested on a charge of incon- tinence, and afterwards banished. April 28. Execution of Counts Struensee and Brandt, for implication in the queen's offence. Holstein - Gottorp is ceded to Denmark by Russia, in return for Oldenburg and Del- menhorst. March 28. Christian VII. having become insane, his sou, Prince Fi-ederick, is ap- pointed regent. Liberation of the serfs in Denmark. Establishment of tribunals of conciliation, to adjust law disputes by mediation instead of litigation. AprU. 2. Bombardment of Copenhagen by Lord Nelson, who destroys or captures seventeen sail of the line. The Danish loss is said to amount to 1,800 men. This victory puts an end to the Armed Neu- trality. The Danish poor-law comes into operation. Its provisions are, the maintenance of the destitute at the public cost, and the total prohibition of begging. The Danes sup- press the slave-trade. Sept. 9. Holstein is declared an integral part of the Danish monarchy, quite and for ever separate from the Germanic empire. Aug. 16. Copenhagen is invested by the British fleet under Admiral Gambler, and the army under Lord Cathcart. Sept. 2. Firing commences. Sept. 5. The town capitulates, and its fleet, consisting of 18 ships of the line, 15 frigates, 6 brigs, and 25 gun-boats, falls into the hands of the English. The conscription is introduced. Sept. 5. War is declared against Sweden. Dec. 16. Holstein is held by the allies. Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel. Denmark cedes Heli- goland to Great Britain, and Norway to Sweden, receiving in return Swedish Pomerania and Rtigen. June 4. Denmark cedes Pomerania and Riigen to Pi-ussia, receiving Lauenburg and a pecuniary compensation as indem- nity. June 8. The king joins the Germau Confederacy. Introduction of savings' banks. 277 DEN 1820. Introduction of system of mutual instruc- tion. 1824 June 16. Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at London. 1825. A violent storm breaks through the isthmus between the North Sea and the LsTnfiord, thereby making the north part of Jutland an island. 1831. Frederick VI. institutes provincial states. 1846. July 8. Christian VIII. issues a letter patent, declaring his undoubted right to the duchy of Sleswig, and his intention to submit his claim to Holstein for due consideration. 1848. Jan. 28. Frederick VII. publishes a new con- stitution, by which Sleswig, Holstein, and Denmark, are to be governed by " common states," elected alternately in the duchies and Denmark. March 24. Revolt of Sleswig and Holstein commences at Kiel. April 23 (Easter Sunday). The Prussians defeat the Danes, and take possession of Sleswig. May 1. Jutland is occupied by the Prussian forces. Aug. 26. Armistice for seven mouths i< signed at Mai mo. 1849. July 10. The armistice is renewed for six months. 18-50. July 2. Peace with Prussia is signed at Berlin. July 17. Danish troops enter Flensburg. July 2.5. The Danes conquer the trooiis of Sleswig -Holstein, at Idstedt. Aug. 17. Cession of the Danish possessions on the coast of Africa to Great Britain. Oct. 4. The Holsteiners, under General "Willisen, attack Friederichstadt, but are driven back. 1851. Jan, 11. Submission of the duchies to Den- mark, and reference of the matters in dispute to the arbitration of the Germanic Confederation. 1852. Feb. 18. The government of Holstein is assigned to the Danish minister, for Holstein - Lauenburg, by the German commissioners. The Prussian and Austrian troops leave the duchy. May 8. Inter- national treaty, relative to the succession of the crown of Denmark, is signed at London. 1855. Oct. 1. The Danish government sends des- patches to all the states interested in the question of the Sound dues, inviting them to confer with Denmark relative to a definite aiTangement. Oct. 2. The king publishes a new constitution. 18-57. March 14. Denmai-k agrees to abolish the Sound dues, on receiving a compensation equal to £3,386,2.58. 1858. Nov. 6. Great changes in the constitution of Holstein. 1859. July 14. Denmark is connected with Great Britain by submarine telegraph. 1860. May 3. The Prussian diet resolves to assist the duchies of Sleswig - Hosltein against Denmark. 1861. Jan. Preparations are made to resist the anticipated attack of Gei-many and Prussia. March. Holstein rejects the propositions of the Danish government. Apiil 8. The infantry is ordered to be doubled. April 27. The government delivers its fin 1 answer respecting Holstein, and refuses to make further concessions. July 27. About 500 Sleswigers, in favour of the rights of Denmark over Sleswig, visit Copenhagen- where they meet with an enthusiastic pubUc reception. SOVEEEIGNS OF DENMABK. DEO Died. B.C. Skiold 40 Fridleif 1 23 A.D. Frodel 35 IWdleifll 47 Havar 59 278 Died. A.D. Frode n 87 "Wermund the Sage 140 Olaf the Mild .... 190 Dan Mykillate .... 270 Frode III 310 HalfdanL 324 Died. A.D. Fridleif III 348 Frode TV 407 Ingild, or Ingel 436 Halfdanll 447 Frode V 460 Heke and Eoe 494 Frode VI 510 Rolf Kvake 522 Frode VII 548 Halfdan III 580 Euric Slyngebande 588 Ivar Vidiadme 647 Harold HUdetand 735 Sigurd Ring . . . . 750 Ragnar Lodbrog . . 794 Sigurd Snogoje .... 803 Hardi-canute .... 850 Eric 1 854 Eric II 883 Gorm the Old .... 941 Harold Blaatand . . 991 Sweyn 1014 Began to reign. A.D. Canute the Great. . 1015 to reign. A.D. Hardi-canute 1035 Magnus 1 1042 Sweyn II 1047 Harold III 1076 Canute IV 1080 Olaf II 1087 Eric III 1095 Nicholas 110-5 Eric IV 1134 Eric V 1137 Canute V. and Sweyn in 1147 Valdemai- I. (the Great) 1157 Canute VI 1182 Valdemar U 1202 Eric VI 1241 Abel 12.50 Christopher 1 1252 Eric VII 1259 EiicVIII 128o Christopher II 1320 (Interregnum) .... l:i34 Valdemai-lV 1340 Olaf in 1373 SOVEEEIGNS OF DENIIAKK, NOEWAY, AJfD SWEDEN. Began to Began to reign. reign. A.D. A.D. Margaret 1387 1 Christian 1 1443 Eric of Pomerauia 1412 John 1481 Christopher IIL .. 1439 1 Christian II 1513 SOVEEEIGNS OF DENMAEK AND NOEWAT. A.D. Frederick 1 1.523 1 Christian III 1539 Frederick II 1559 Christian IV 1588 Frederick III l(-48 Chz-istian V 1070 ±.D. Fi-ederick IV 1699 Christian VI 1730 Frederick V 174'BLAirE (Scotlaud), was erected into a bishopric about the year 1160. A battle (see Sheriff-muik) was fought near this town between the forces of the Pretender, under the earl of Mar, and those of George I., under the duke of Argyle, on Sunday, Nov. 13, 1715 (O.S.), in which both parties claimed the victory. DujfBAK (Scotland) was conferred upon the earl of jSTorthumberland in 1072 by Mal- colm Caenmore. In 1296, John Warren, earl of Surrey, defeated John Baliol, in a great battle fought here, which for the time decided the fate of Scotland as a conquest of Edward I. In 1567 its castle was demolished by order of parliament. CromweU gained a great victory over the Scottish army at this place, Sept. 3, 1650, killing 4,000, and taking 10,000 prisoners. Dttndalk (Ireland), seized by Edward Bruce in 1315, was the scene of his corona- tion as king of Ireland in 1317, and of his death in a battle fought vrith Lord Berming- bam, Oct. 5, 1318. In 1641 it was taken by Sir Phelim O'NeDl, who destroyed its castle and fortifications, and in 1642 it was stormed by Lord Moore and Sir Henry Tichbourne. It surrendered to Cromwell in 1649, and was occupied by the forces of William III., June 27, 1690. Dundee (Scotland). — Malcolm III., who reigned a.d . 1056 — 1093, built a palace here, in which he sometimes resided. It was made a royal burgh in 1210, and placed under the government of a constable in 129S. Edward Bruce took it in 1313. In 1544 the plague committed terrible ravages among its popu- I lation, and in 1641 Charles I. conferred upon 1 it the present charter. In 1645 it was be- I sieged and taken by the earl of Montrose, I and in 1651 was sacked by Monk, who mas- j sacred about 1,300 of its inhabitants. Queen 1 Victoria landed at Dundee in September, j 1844, in commemoration of which a magnifi- cent triumphal arch has been erected. Nine- I teen persons were killed by a boUer explosion at one of the linen-factories here, April 15, 1859. Dttnes, (Battle,) was fought near Dunkirk during the siege of that town by the com- bined armies of France and England, June 4 (14 N.S.), 1658. The Spaniards, who had advanced to the relief of Dunkirk, were totally defeated by the allied troops led by Turenne. DuNGAN-HiLL, (Battle,) fought at this place, in Ireland, between the Parliamentary army, under Colonel Michael Jones, and the Irish, under General Preston, Aug. 8, 1647. The numbers were nearly equal, and Jones gained a complete victory. DuNGENEss (Kent). — A French fleet of fourteen ships of the line anchored off this point Jan. 22, 1744, but sailed away on the approach of the English squadron com- manded by Sir John Norris, and was subse- quently scattered by a storm. Towards the end of the last century a lighthouse was erected on this cape, after the model of the Eddystone, and in 1807 a series of marteUo towers was commenced, to defend the coast between Dungeness and Folkestone. DuA'KELD (Scotland). — The Culdees had a monastery at this place, in Perthshire, as early as a.d. 729, which was erected into a I cathedral by David I. in 1127. Kenneth I. removed the remains of St. Columba to Dunkeld in 850. The present cathedral was j begun in 1330, and the charterhouse erected by Bishop Lauder in 1469. James VI. founded the grammar-school in 1567, and i the bridge over the Tay was built in 1809. ! DuNKEES, or Gehman Baptists. — This reUgious sect was founded in Germany by Alexander Mack about 1708. In 1723 they were driven by persecution to America, where they established themselves at Ger- mantown, and founded a church. Among I their doctrines may be mentioned vege- 1 tarianism, the necessity for good works, and the separation of the sexes. The origin of the name Dunkers is unknown. DxjifKiKK (France) was founded by Baldwin III., count of Flanders, about a.d. 960. It afterwards passed into the possession of the counts of Hainault, who sold it to its former lords in 1280. In 1388 it was burnt by the English, and in 1435 was transferred to the house of Luxemburg, whose right passed by marriage to the Bourbons in 1487. Early in the 16th century it was seized by j the Spaniards, who retained it till July 1558, when it was re-taken by the French. The ! duke of Parma re-annexed it to the Spanish j empire, in 1585. In 1646 it was taken by the freat Conde, and in 1652 was again seized y the Spaniards. Marshal Turenne retook it June 25, 1658, after the battle of Dunes (q.t^.), fought June 4, and gave it to the Enghsh, who had assisted him in its capture. Charles II. sold it to France for £500,000, Oct. 17, 1662. Louis XIV. increased its fortifications, which were sufficiently strong to resist a bombardment by the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland, July 26, 1694. By the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, it was agreed that all the military defences should be destroyed ; but these conditions were evaded, and the restriction was con- sequently renewed by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The enforcement of the order was, however, found impracticable. It was repealed by the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783, and the works have since been largely increased. The duke of York was defeated in an attempt to take Dunkirk, Sept. 7, 1793. The fortifications were greatly enlarged, and the port enfranchised in 1816. DuNMOW (Essex). — The priory was founded a.d. 1104, by Juga Baynard. The manor is held by a curious tenure, which has given the town notoriety beyond its real importance. The prior and canons were obliged to give a flitch of bacon to any couple who could swear, a year and a day after their wedding, that they had never quarrelled, or wished themselves unmarried again. It is unknown who originated this tenure, but probably it was one of the Fitz- Walters, the first of whom died in 1198. The flitch was claimed and awarded in 1445, 1467, 1510, 1701, 1751, on Thursday, July 19, 1855, and in 1860. In 1855 the ceremony was performed at G-reatDunmowTown Hall, as the lord of the manor refused to revive the custom. The happy candidates were Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, and the Chevaher de Chatelain and his lady. A similar custom prevailed in the manor of Wichnor, Staflbrd, where corn was given in addition to the flitch of bacon. DuNSiNAif E ( Battle) . — The army of the usurper Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane, in Perthshire, July 27, 1054, by Malcolm, the eldest son of the murdered Duncan, assisted })y an English force under Siward, earl of Northumberland. Macbeth escaped to Lan- phanauan, where he was slain in 1056. Dunstable (Bedfordshire) was founded by Henry I., and granted to a priory of Black canons, a.d. 1131. The corpse of Queen Eleanor rested here on its way from Lincolnshire to London in 1290, in con- sequence of which a cross was erected, which was pulled down during the Commonwealth. Cranmer opened a court here to consider the vahdity of Henry the Eighth's marriage with Catherine, May 10, 1533, and pro- nounced a divorce between them. May 23. The free school was founded in 1727. A large quantity of Roman copper coins of the reigns of Antoninus and Constantine was discovered here in 1770. DupPELif (Battle). — The Prussians and DUE Hanoverians endeavoured to drive the Danes from their position at Duppeln, June 5, 1848. The latter were compelled to retire, but the engagement was renewed the following day, when the Danes re-occu- pied the position they had abandoned the day before. DuppLiN-MooR (Battle). — The English forces under Edward Baliol defeated the Scotc hunder the earl of Mar, at this moor, in Perthshire, Aug. 11, 1332. The loss of the Scotch amounted to 13,000 men, while the Enghsh only lost two knights, thirty- three squires, with a few common soldiers. DuRANGO, or Gttadiana (Mexico). — This city was founded by Velasco in 1559, and erected into a bishop's see in 1620. Dukazzo, Dtkkachium, or Epibamnus (Albania). — This city, when founded by the Corcyrseans, B.C. 627, was called Epidamnus. It was seized by Glaucus, king of lUyria, B.C. 312. It was taken by the Iformans, under Eobert Guiscard, Feb. 8, 1082 ; and in 1216 withstood a siege by the Venetians, who efiected its capture in 1386. The sultan, Bajazet II., took it in 1500, and annexed it to the Turkish empire, of which it still forms a part. DttEEir (Prussia). — Several cohorts of the Ubii were defeated at this place, the ancient Marcodurum, by the Batavian chief Civilis, A.D. 70 ; and Charlemagne held diets here in 775 and 779, previous to his conflict with the Saxons. In 1543 it was besieged and taken by Charles V., and in 1642 was restored to Prussia by Duke Frederick Wfiham, who again surrendered it to the Imperialists the same year. The French seized it in 1794, and erected it into the capital of the depart- ment of Eoer ; but it was finally restored to Prussia in 1814. ' DuEHAM was founded by the monks of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, a.d. 995. In 1040, Duncan, king of Scotland, made an inefiectual attempt to capture it ; and in 1069 the inhabitants were so oppressed by Eobert Comyn, earl of Northumberland and governor of the city, that they rose in rebellion and slew him, vrith 700 of his fol- lowers, Jan. 28. It was to revenge this atro- city that William I. devastated the northern counties in the latter part of the same year. The castle was founded in 1072, and a riot against the authority of Bishop Walcher terminated in his murder by the infuriated inhabitants. May 14, 1080. In 1323 the walls were restored by Bishop Beaumont, and in 1424 the city was the scene of the marriage of James I., of Scotland, with Lady Jane Seymour. The plague raged here with great fury in 1416, 1589, and 1597. In 1633 it was the residence of Charles I., and in 1640 was taken by the Scotch. It sent two members to the House of Commons in 1675. The infirmary was founded in 1791, and the county gaol and court-house erected in 1809. The palatine jurisdiction of the county was transferred from the see (q. v.) to the crown, by 6 Will. IV. c. 19 (June 21, 1836). DUE DuEHAM (See of). — In 634, Aidan came from Scotland to Northumberland, at the solicitation of EJng Oswald, who estal.ilished him as bishop in Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, in 635. In 664 the see was merged in the diocese of York, but in 678 was again separated. In 875 the see was removed to Chester-le-Street, and in 995 was transferred to Durham. The see was suppressed by 7 Edw. VI. c. 17 (1553). It provided that two sees were to be established at Durham and ^Newcastle, and all the temporalities were granted to the duke of Northumberland. The deanery and twelve prebends were es- tabhshed by charter, dated May 12, 1541, which was confirmed by 1 Mary, s. 3, c. 3 (1553). ' Durham Lettee. — The pope having pub- lished a buU estabhshing a Eoman CathoUc hierarchy in England and Wales, Sept. 30, 1850, Lord John EusseU, who was then premier, addressed a letter on the subject to the bishop of Durham. In this letter, which bore date Nov. 4, he not only expressed the strongest indignation at the attempted aggression, but condemned as "unworthy sons of the Church of England," aU clergy- men who approved of "the honour paid to saints, the claim of infaUibUity for the Church, the superstitious use of the sign of the cross, the muttering of the Liturgy so as to dis- guise the language in which it is written, the recommendation of auricular confession, and the administration of penance and abso- lution." DuEHAM or Neville's Ceoss (Battle). — Plulippa, queen of Edward III., totally defeated the Scottish army under David II., and took the king prisoner, at Neville's Cross, near Durham, Oct, 17, 1346. The loss of the Scotch in this battle was estimated at 15,000. Dueham Univeesitt. — Oliver Cromwell signed a writ of privy seal for estabhsliing a university at Durham, May 15, 1657, which was suppressed at the Eestoration. The present institution was founded, with the consent of the bishop, by an act of chapter, Sept. 28, 1831, and parUament sanctioned the proposal by a private act (2 & 3 WiU. IV. e. 19) , which received the royal assent July 4, 1832. The university was opened Oct. 28, 1833, and its regulations were ap- proved by convocation, March 4, 1836. It was incorporated by royal charter, June 1, 1837, and the first degrees were conferred June 8. Durham Castle was devoted to the accommodation of the students by an order in council, dated Aug. 8, 1837. Bishop Hatfield's HaU was opened in 1846, and enlarged in 1849, and bishop Cosin's HaU was opened in 1857. Durham University held the same position as the other univer- sities in the Medical Act (21 & 22 Vict. c. 90 Aug. 2, 1858), and like them it elects a member of the General Council of Medical Education and Eegistration. DtJEEEKSTEiif (Battle). — A division of the French army under Marshal Mortier was attacked by the Eussians under Doctoroff, DWA while marching through a defile near this town of Lower Austria, Nov. 11, 1805. The Ereneh, though surroimded on all sides, fought with determined valour, and were at length rescued by the division of Du- pont, after losing 3,000 men and three stand- ards. DtJssELDOEE (Prussia). — Adolphus V., duke of Berg, raised this place from a village into a mumcipal town, a.d. 1288. The town-haU was built in 1567, and the bridge over the Ehrne in 1680. Carlstadt, the hand- somest part of the city, was founded by the elector, Charles Theodore, in 1786. In 1794, Diisseldorf was bombarded by the Ereneh, and, in 1802, the fortifications were de- stroyed by one of the articles of the treaty of LuneviUe. In 1806 the grand-duke of Berg fixed his residence here, and made it the seat of government, and in 1815 it was ceded to Prussia, together vrith the rest of the duchy. In 1829 it was made a free port. A famous picture-gallery, founded here in 1710, by the elector John William, was re- moved to Munich in 1805, but a native school of painting, established by Cornehus in 1828, still sustains the artistic reputation of the town. Dutch Ameeica. — The possessions of the Dutch in America, consisting of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, the islands of Cura9oa, St. Eustatius, and St. Martin, are noticed imder their respective designations. DuTLiN&EN (battle). — The Austrian army, under Generals Von Werth, Mercy, and Hatzfeld, defeated the French troops at this place in 1643. The vanquished lost many men in the action, and all their general officers were made prisoners. DuuMViEi, two patricians, first appointed in Eome by Tarquiniug Superbus, to take charge of the Sibylline books and consult them in times of pubhc difficulty, B.C. 520. They held their office for hfe, and were ex- empted from military service. The title was given to various authorities at Eome in cases where the functions of the office were vested in two persons. Dwaefs. — The custom of employing dwarfs to contribute to the amusement of the great is of high antiquity in the East, where the art of retarding human growth was successfully practised. This art passed into Greece B.C. 324, and from thence to Eome about a.d. 50. Domitian exhibited gladiatorial contests be- tween dwarfs and beautiful women in 81, and the Eoman ladies employed them as domestic servants. The passion for dwarfs reached its height in Europe during the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. of France (1515—1559). The last prince who kept them for his a^musement was Stanislaus, dydsie of Lorraine, whose favourite dwarf died in 1764. The following are some of the most famous dwarfs : — PMletus of Cos, bom B.C. 330, died B.C. 285. He ■was a poet and philosopher, and was so shoi-t or thin that he was jocularly sain to caiTy lead in the soles of his shoes, lest he should be blown away. DYE Alyi'ius. ^ philosopher of Alexandria, who flou- rished ill the Sth century. Jean d'Estrix, bona in 1557, was scarcely a yard high at the age of 35. Jeffrey Hudson, born in 1619, was 18 inches high at 7 years old, after which he did not grow till he was 30, when he attained the height of 3 feet 9 inches. In 1644 he attended Quoen Henrietta Maria to France ; and in 1682 was seized on suspicion of being Implicated in the popish plot, and imprisoned in the Q-atehouse, West- minster, where he died, aged 63. John Coan, born in 1728, when 22 yeai's old weighed 34 lb., including his clothes, and measured 38 inches when in his hat, wig, and shoes. Hopkin Hopkin, born in 1736, was only 13 lb. in weight, and 2 feet 7 inches in height, at the age of 15 years, when he exhibited all the infirmities of advanced old age. Borowlawski, a Polish gentleman, born in 1739, attained the height of 39 inches, and died, in England, Sept. 7, 1837. He was remarkable for the acuteness of his intellectual faculties, and had a sister so much shoi-ter than himself, that she could stand under his arm. Nicolas Ferry, or B6b6, was born in 1741, and lived at the court of Stanislaus, king of Poland, who was much attached to him. At the age of 15 he displayed symptoms of old age, and he was only 22 when he died, at which time he measured 33 inches. Anne Theresa Souvray, bom in 1746, was only 33 inches high at the age of 73 years, when she was remarkable for her gaiety and vigour. General Tom Thumb was brought to England in 1846, where he appeared at the Lyceum Theatre, March 16. Dyeing. — TMs art, which, originated in Asia with the Phoenicians, was practised by the Egyptians at a very early date, and ap- pears to have been introduced into Canaan before b.c. 1728 (Gen. xxxvii. 3). The Tyrian purple was known as early as B.C. 1500, and in Exodus xxxv. 23 (b.c. 1491), mention is made of blue, purple, scarlet, and of red skins of rams. On the decline of the Eoman empire, and the consequent decay of the arts in Europe, dyeing was neglected ; but in the 8th century some advance was made. In 1353 scarlet and a few other colours were dyed in England, and in 1429 the first book on the subject appeared in Yenice. Before 1643 English cloth was exported to Holland to be dyed, but in that year the whole process was performed in England. The art of dyeing cotton scarlet or crimson was discovered in 1779. Turkey red was introduced in 1785. The principal statute relating to the business of the dyer is 23 Geo. III. c. 15, passed in 1783, and entitled "The Act for Preventing Frauds and Abuses in the Dyeing Trade." A great number of new colouring materials have been discovered and rendered available for dyeing purposes since 1850. Dyeeachium. (See Dueazzo.) Eagle. — Xenophon states 'that the eagle was first used as a military ensign by the Persians. It was adopted as the sole standard of the Eoman legions in the second year of the consulate of Marius, B.C. 104. Gibbon (ch. i,) remarks — "The golden EAR eagle, which ghttered in the front of the legion, was the object of the fondest devotion of the Eoman troops." Though the double- headed eagle is said to have been introduced by Constantine I. (a.d. 306—337), its origin may with greater justice be attributed to Char- lemagne, who, A,D. 802, added the second head to the eagle, to denote that the empires of Eome and Germany were united under him. The Eoman eagle was adopted by Napoleon I . , and confirmed by Napoleon III . , as the standard of imperial France : Austria, Eussia, and Prussia use the double-headed eagle as their national ensign. Prescott states, on the authority of the Spanish annahsts, that a golden eagle with outspread wings, in the fashion of a Eoman signum, richly ornamented with emeralds and silver- work, was the great standard of the republic of Tlascala. Eagle. — A base coin of this denomination was current in Ireland about the year 1272, and was declared illegal by 27 Edw. I. stat. De falsa Monetd (1299). The American eagle of ten dollars, together with the half and quarter eagles, were first coined by order of an act of congress passed April 2, 1792. The value of the American eagle is £2. Is. of Enghsh money. Eagle (Orders of the). — The order of the White Eagle of Eussia was instituted by George OssOinsky, great chancellor of Po- land, and confirmed by Pope Urban VIII. in 1634. It was, however, soon suppressed, and its actual foundation only dates from 1713, when it was reconstituted by Au- gustus II., king of Poland. In 1831 this order was united with those of Eussia. The order of the Black Eagle was founded by Frederick I., of Prussia, on his coronation day, Jan. 17, 1701. The Golden Eagle was instituted at Wiirtemberg in 1702, and re- constituted in 1807. The order of the Eed Eagle, or of Sincerity, was founded in Prussia by George William, hereditary prince of Anspach and Bayreuth, in 1705 ; and reorganized July 13, 1734. In 1791 Frederick WiUiam II. erected this into the second Prussian order, and in 1810 it was again reconstituted. Eael. — Selden believes that this title, which originally signified a man of birth, was synonymous with the Saxon ethehng, and that it was apphed to ealdormen about a.d. 1020. In the reign of Edward the Confessor the whole kingdom was divided among five earls. The first English earl created after the Conquest was William Fitz-Osbern, made earl of Hereford in 1066. Sir John de Courcy, made earl of Ulster in 1181, is the first Irish earl. Previous to the creation of dukes in 1335, earls were the highest nobility in England : they now rank third, after mar- quisses. Originally earls had the third part of the profits arising from the pleas of the country. Their privileges, however, were much diminished by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1535). The title of countess was first borne by the wives of earls in the 9th century. Eael Maeischal oe Scotland. — Thisoffi- 301 EAE cer, whose duty was to command tlie Scottish cavalry, was always chosen from the Keith family, the founder of which obtained it at the battle of Barry, fought a.d. 1010, against the Danes. At first, the title was great marischal; James II. made it earl marischal before July 4, 1451. In 1593 the holder of the title founded the college at Aberdeen, which is called after him the Marischal College. The office became ex- tinct in 1716, owing to George Keith's participation in the rebellion of the earl of Eakl Marshal of England. — This, the eighth officer of state, is the only nobleman who bears the title of earl by virtue of his office. The title is of great antiquity. Eoger de Montgomery, marshal of the Norman army at the Conquest, is said to have been the first marshal of England. The first on record was in 1135. King Stephen conferred the office upon Gilbert de Clare, afterwards earl of Pembroke, in 1139. Originally the holders of it were merely styled lord marshals. The title of earl marshal was conferred upon Tho- mas, earl of N^ottingham, by special charter of Eichard II. signed Jan. 12, 1386. The duties of the office were allowed to be dis- charged by deputy by a grant of Charles II., signed Oct. 19, 1672. (See Chivalkt, Court of) Eae-eings are first mentioned in Gen. xiiv. 23 (b.c. 1857), when Jacob is said to have buried the idols of his house- hold, with the " ear-rings which were in their ears." They were worn by the ladies of Greece and Eome, and by males in Lydia. The Parisian ladies adopted them in the 13th century, but their use was not general till the 15th and 16th centuries ; when, Stubbes says, the ladies " are not ashamed to make holes in their ears, whereat they haug rings, and other jewels of gold and precious stones." English gentlemen also wore them in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Earthenware.— The art of the potter is probably one of the most ancient in exist- ence. It was introduced into Greece from Egypt, B.C. 1490, and was encouraged at Eome by Ifuma Pompilius, about B.C. 700. The funereal earthenware of the Greeks was manufactured until about a.d. 350. During the dark ages that succeeded the dechne of the Western empire, none but the coarsest of pottery was manufactured ; but a better kind was introduced into Spain by the Moors a.d. 711, and was thence taken to Italy by the Pisans in 1115. In the 13th century the ItaUans made earthenware overlaid with an opaque coloured glaze, which was considerably improved after 1300. Earthenware was manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in the 12th century, and French Palissy ware was invented by Bernard Palissy about 1556. The Germans invented a glaze for earthenware in 1278, and exported stoneware in the 16th century. The earliest specimens of native British ware consist of earthenware tiles of the 13th century. Pitchers and jugs were soon afterwards EAE introduced. Wedgwood's most important discoveries were made from 1760 to 1762. A duty of lOd. per lb., levied on all imported earthenware, by the "Additional Book of Bates " attached to 11 Geo. I. c. 7 (1724), was repealed by 15 Geo. III. c. 37 (1775). A duty of 50 per cent, on the value of imported earthenware was levied by 49 Geo. III. c. 98 (June 10, 1809). AH duties on imported earthenware were abolished by the Customs Amendment Act, 23 Vict, c. 22, s. 5 (May 15, 1S60). Earthquake. — No satisfactory account of the causes which produce this phenomenon has yet been given to the world. Humboldt remarks: "The phenomena of volcanoes, and those of earthquakes, have been con- sidered of late as the effects of voltaic elec- tricity, developed by a particular disposition of heterogeneous strata. It cannot be denied, that often, when violent shocks succeed each other within the space of a few hours, the electricity of the air sensibly increases at the instant the ground is most agitated ; but to explain this ]3heuomenon, it is un- necessary to recur to an hypothesis, which is in direct contradiction to everything hitherto observed respecting the structure of our planet, and the disposition of its strata." An earthquake, accompanied by thunder and lightning, occurred on Mount Sinai, on the 01 casion of the delivery of the law. (Exod. xix. 18). One in Central Italy, which swalloweil up a city, and produced Lake Ciminus in its place. In China. In Greece, especially in Euboea, which is con- verted into an island by an inundation of the sea. In the Peloponnesus. Helice is overwhelmed by the sea. A chasm opens in the Roman forum, into which Quintus Curtius voluntarily leaps. It afterwards forms a lake. A lake 72^ miles long by 12^ wide, formed in one night in the Japanese island Niphon. (about). The city Lysiniachia is destroyed. The Colossus of Rhodes overthrown. Eusebius places this catastrophe B.C. 105. In Palestine. 30,000 pei-sons perished. Thirteen cities of Asia Minor are overthrown. In Palestine and Bitbyiiia, on the occasion of the Crucifixion, the city of Nicaea was destroyed. In Misenum and its neighbourhood ; followed next day by the destruction of Hercula- neum auH Pompeii. Antioch destroyed ; and a violent earthquake felt in China. Severe shocks are felt in Nicopolis, Neocse- sareia, Hierapolis, Laodiceia, Nicomedia, and Syracuse. An earthijuake in Rome, Libya, and Asia Minor, is attended by an eclipse and ter- rible inundation.s of the sea. Ang 24. One in Asia Minor, Bithynia, and Macedonia, the effects of which are expe- rienced by 150 cities. Nov. or Dec. Mcomedia, in Bithynia, is de stroyed. July 21. An earthquake felt in the Roman world. One is felt throughout the civilized world. EAE EAR 494. Laodiceia, Hierapolis, aiid Tripoli, are de- stroyed. 526. Nov. 29. Autioch again reduced to ruius. 543. Sejit. 6. One is felt throughout the then known world. 553 or 555. Aug. 15. An earthquake at Constanti- nople and many other places ; shocks being felt even in Egypt. The city of Berytus is demolished. 557. Oct. 6 and Dec. 14. At Constantinople, where thousrtuds of the population perish. 684, More than 5j0,000 acres of land in the Japanese island Sikokf are swallowed up by the sea. 742. One of great violence in Egypt and Arabia. Its convulsions were observed at 600 places. 778. At Trevisa, in Italy, where 48 persons lost their lives. 794. One at Alexandria, which overthrows the Pharos. 801. April. In France, Gennauy, and Italy. 859. Upwards of 1,500 houses are overturned at Antioch. Laodiceia and other towns of Syria also suffer considerable injury. 893. An earthquake in India destroys 180,000 lives. 986. Oct. One at Constantinople. It is also felt throughout Greece. 1007. Deinar, in Irak, is overtui-ned, and 10,000 perfons are buried in the ruins. 3029. Half of Damascus is destroyed. 1040. Tabriz, in Persia, is reduced to ruins, and 50,000 of the inhabitants are destroyed. 1048. May 1. One is felt at Worcester, Derby, and other parts of England. 1089. Aug. 11. An earthquake is felt throughout England. 1115. Dec. Antioch, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and other towns in Syria, are greatly injured. 1139. Gansana, in Persia, is destroyed, and 100,000 persons are buried in its ruins. 1142. Dec. One is felt at Lincoln. 1158. Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, Aleppo, and 01 her Syrian towns, are reduced to ruins, and 20,000 lives lost. 1169. Feb. 4. Catania, and other towns of Sicily and Calabria, are ruined, and 15,000 per- sons kiUed. 1186. Sept. Throughout Europe, but especially in England, Calabria, and Sicily. 1218. In Franche ComtS a mountain opens, and engulfs 5,000 men. 1227. In France, towards the mouth of the Rhone ; 5,000 persons perish from the fall of rocks from the mountains. 1268. Sixty thousand persons are killed by an earth- quake in Cilicia 1274. Dec 25. An earthquake is felt thi-oughout England. 1318. Nov. 14. In England. The most violent recorded in that country. 1353. Jan. 1. One occurs at Borgd-San-Sepolcro and Modena, where 2,000 people perish. 1456. Dec. 5. Throughout Naples, where many towns are injured, and 60,000 lives lost. 1491. Oct. In the Archipelago. 5,000 persons perish in Cos. 1509. Sept. 14. At Constantinople 1,700 houses are overthrown, and some thousands of lives lost. 1531. Jan. 26. One in Spain, Portugal, &c. In Lisbon 1,500 huuses and all the churches were thrown down, and many persons buried in the ruins. 1580. April 6. In France, Belgium, and especially England. It was most violent at London and Dover. The bells at Westminster and other places were iriade to sound by the violence of the shock. 1596. JxUy 22. In Japan, where many cities were reduced to ruins. 1624 or 1628. An island of more than a league and a half long is raised near St. Michael, in the Azores. 1626. July 30. Thirty towns and villages are de- stroyed -in the provinces of Capitaiiata and La Puglia. Naples also suffers ; and 17,000 persons are killed. 1638. March 27. One hundred and eighty towns and villages of Calabria and Sicily are reduced to ruins. 1667. Schamaki is reduced to ruins, and 80,000 per- sons are buried. 1690. Oct. 17. At Dublin and Kilkenny in Ireland. 1692. June 7. Jamaica. At Port Koyal, three- fourths of the houses are overwhelmed by the sea, and 3,000 of the inhabitants lose their lives. 1693. In Sicily and Calabria, where 49 towns, many villages, and 972 churches or monasteries are reduced to i-uia.s, and 93,000 lives lost. 1703. Feb. 2. Aquileia is overthrown, and 5,000 lives lost. Jeddo, in Japan, is reduced to ruins, and 200,000 of the inhabitants are buried. 1708. Nov. 3. In Abruzzo, where 15,000 persons perish. 1716. May and June. A violent earthquake destroys 20,000 lives at Algiers. 1726. Sept. 1. A terrible earthquake at Palermo. Four churches, ten palaces, and 1,600 houses, are overthi'owu, and from 3,000 to 6,000 Uves lost. 1727. Tabriz, in Persia, is ruined, and 77,000 per- sons are overwhelmed. 1731. Nov. 30. In China. The first shock buries 100,000 persons in Pekin alone. 1732. Nov 29. Violent shocks in the kingdom of Naples. 1,940 persons are killed, and 1,455 wounded. 1746. Oct. 28. In Peru, where Callao, Cavallos, and other towns, are overwhelmed by the sea. 1750. Feb. 19. In London, and the country for seven mUes round. Several earthquakes occur at London this year. June 7. Two thousand persons perish in the island of Cerigo. 1752. July 29. A very violent one at Hadrianople and Constaiitiuople, where mosques and houses sustain considerable injury. 1754. Grand Cairo is destroyed, and 40,000 lives are lost. 1755. April 28. Quito is overthrown. June 7. Kas- chan,innorthern Persia, is reduced to ruins, and 40,000 persons killed. Nov. 1. The great earthquake of Lisbon, which was felt from Iceland on the north to Morocco on the south, and from Bohemia on the east to the West-India islands on the west. It took place at 9-40 a.m., and lasted several minutes, there being three principal shocks. In Lisbon 12,000 houses were overturned. The loss of life is variously estimated at from 20,000 to 50,000 persons. Faro, Setubal, and Cascaez, also sustained much inj Liry. In Spain, the towns which suffered most were Seville, Sr,. Lucar, Xeres, Couil, and Cadiz. In Morocco, 10 00i> people were swallowed up. Nov. 19. Mequinez, in Morocco, is completely ruined, and 25,000 Arabs are lost. 1759. Oct. 30. In Syria, where 20,000 persons perish in the valley of Baalbec alone. 1763. July 29. At Comorn, in Hungary, 1,500 houses are overturned. 1767. Aug. Onethousaud six hundred persons perish at Mirtinico. 1773. June 7. The city of St. Jago, in Guatemala, is buried. 5,000 or 8,000 families perish in the ruins. 1778. July 3. A very violent earthquake nearly destroys Smyrna. 1780. Feb. Tabriz, in Persia, sustains severe injuries. 1783. Feb. 5. Awful devastation in Calabria and Sicily, attended with great, loss of life. 1784. July 23. The city of Arsingham, in the pa- Bhalic of Erzeroum, is overthrown, and upwards of 5,000 lives lost. 303 EAR 1788. Aug. 12. At St. Lucia, in the West Indies, where 900 persons perish. 1789. Sept. 30. In Tuscany. Houses, men, and cattle are engulfed at Borgo-San-Sepolcro. 1793. Aprill. In Japan, near the volcano JUigigama, which throws forth torrents of water, de- stroying 53.000 persons. 1794. June 12. Throughout Campania, but espe- cially in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius, which bursts forth into active eruption, and overwhelms the city of Terre del Grecco, June 17. 1796. Feb. 26. In Asia Minor, where 1,500 persons perish. 1797. Feb. 4. Quito, in Peru, is overthrown, burying 40,000 persons in its ruins. Dec. 14. Cumana is destroyed. 1800. Sept. 26. One occurs at Constantinople. 1802. Oct. 23. A very widely- extended earthquake is felt at Cronstadt, St. Petersburg, Bucha- rest, Constantinople, &c. The shocks are most violent in the Danubian princi- palities. 1804. Jan. At Rotterdam, Haarlem, and other Dutch towns. 1805. Friday, July 26. A most destructive earth- quake throughout Calabria, La Puglia, and the Ten-a-di-La.voro. Six towns and villages destroyed and 20,000 persons killed. 1808. April 2. Very violent shocks in Piedmont and the valley of the Rhone. 1810. Aug. 11. The village of Las Casas, in the island of St. Michael, one of the Azores, disappears, and is supplied by a lake of boiling sulphm-ous water. 1812. March 26. Caraccas is totally destroyed by an earthquake. 1817. April. Chang-Ruh, in China, is overthrown, and 2,800 ijersons buried in its ruins. 1818. March. PhUippolis, in Turkey, a city of 30,000 inhabitants, is said to be entirely engulfed iu the earth. 1819. June 16. Severe shocks are experienced in the north of Hindostan. Bhooj , the capital of Cutch, is reduced to ruins, with the loss of 2,000 of its inhabitants. 1822. May 7. The town of Carthago, in Costa- Rica. Central America, quite overthrown. Aug. 10, 13, and Sept. 5. Aleppo is destroyed, and other towns injured, with the loss of 20,000 of their tuhabitiints. Nov. 19. The coast of Chili, for more than 100 miles, is permanently elevated by an earthquake. 1825. March 2 Algiers and BUda (an adjacent town) are severely injured. 7,000 persons perish. 1827. Sept. Fort Kolitaran, near Lahore, Hindos- tan, destroyed, with about, 1,000 persons. Nov. 16. Very destructive shocks in Co- lumbia, S. America. 1828. March 30. In Pern. Scarcely a house in Lima and Callao escapes injury. 1829. March 21. Avery disastrous earthquake occurs ui the province of Murcia, Spain, and is attended with fearful destruction of pro- perty and life. 1830. May 26 and 27. The city of Canton sustains severe shocks, which destroy between 6,000 and 7,000 of its population. 1835. Feb. 20. Concepcion, Santiago, and other to-rnis of ChUi, are reduced to ruins. Oct. 12. Castiglioue, in Calabria, is utterly de- stroyed, and 100 of its Innabitants are buried. 1837. Jan. 1. A terrible earthquake in Syria utterly rains the town of Saphit, and destroys 3,500 of its inhabitants, besides overwhelming entire villages. 1839. Jan. 11. Violent shocks are felt in the island of Martinique. 1840. Feb 14. A terribly destructive earthquake oc- curs in the island of Ternate. June 20 to July 28 (O.S.). The district of Mount Ararat, in Armenia, is devastated by violent earth- quakes, attended with great destruction of houses and life. 304 EAS 1840. Oct. 30. Violent shocks in Zante, where one village is completely overturned. 1842. May 7. Hayti and Cape Haytien are severely injured by two violent shocks. 1843. Feb. 8. Very -violent shocks occur in the West Indies. In Antigua alone, property to the amount of £100,000 is destroyed. The loss of life is inconsiderable. 1845. Feb. 8. Severe shocks in Java. April 7. The city of Mexico is much injured by some violent shocks. 1846. March 14. The most violent earthquake ever recorded in Norway. At Naiinstad five houses are overturned. 1847. Oct. 23. The cityofAtlixco,in Mexico, is com- pletely ruined, with the desti-uction of many of its inhabitants. 1851. Feb. 28. The islands of Rhodes and Maori are shaken. At the latter place, the Baba- Dagh mountain falls from a height of 2,050 feet, and the village of Ghedrack- Bugasi disappears, with all its inhabitants. AprU 2. Valparaiso and other towns in Chili experience severe shocks. Aug. 14. The towns of Melfi and Barile, in South Italy, are totally destroyed, with 1,000 of their inhabitants. 1853. July 15. The city of Cumana, in Venezuela, is destroyed, with 800 of its inhabitants. Aug. 18, and throughout the year. Nu- merous shocks occur in Greece, but more especially at Thebes, which suffers almost total destruction. 1854. April 6. San Salvador, in Central America, overwhelmed, with a fourth of its inha- bitants. 1855. Feb. 28. Broussa, the ancient capital of Asia Minor, is nearly destroyed. July 25 and 26. Some shocks are felt throughout Central Europe. Dec. 23. Jeddo is injured, and some towns in Nijihon are destroyed by an earth- quake. 1856. March 17. Great Sanghir, one of the Moluccas, is visited by a severe earthquake, which de- stroys 2,806 of its inhabitants. Oct. 12. The Mediterranean, especially Candia, severely visited. In Caudia alone, 4,000 houses and 1,600 people are destroyed. 1857. Dec. 16. A very destructive earthquake in Calabria destroys many towns, and causes the death of 10,000 pewons. 1858. Feb. 21.- Corinth is destroyed by an earth- quake. 1859. March 22. Quito is reduced to ruins. 1861. April. The city of Mendoza, in South America, U destroyed, more than 2,000 houses being overthrown. The number of lives lost is estimated at 7,000, and the damage to property at 35,000,000 francs. East Angles. — This Anglo-Saxon king- dom, which comprised Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, was founded by Uffa about A.D. 527, and became extinct at the death of Edmund the Martyr in 870. In 628 its king Eorpwald I. was converted to Christianity, and in 630 it was erected into a bishopric under Felix. In 673 the see was divided into Dunwich and Ehnham, which were re- imitedin 955, and in 1070 the see was removed to Thetford, whence it was transferred to Norwich in 1091. Eastek, the festival in commemoration of the Eesurrection, is so called from Eastre, or Eostre, a Saxon goddess, whose feast was anciently celebrated in the month of April. Some ascribe its institution to the Apostles, but the more general opinion is, that it was first observed by their immediate successors, about a.d. 68. The council of EAS Aries, in 314, decreed that the day of keeping this festival should be the Sunday after the fourteenth day of the March moon, and the council of Nice, in 325, confirmed this deci- sion. But, owing to the intricate calcula- tions this rule rendered necessary, disagree- ments in the time of celebration still con- tinued, and the Roman method was not estabhshed in France till 525, and in Britain and Ireland till about 800. The alteration of the calendar by Gregory XIII. in 1582 permanently fixed the first Sunday after the fuU moon immediately following the 21st of March, as the da}^ for observing this fes- tival. Offerings, oblations, &c., were col- lected at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and other particular occasions, before the reign of Edward VI. By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13 (1548), it was enacted that such offerings should thenceforth be collected at Easter. E ASTER IsiiAiSTD, orDAVis's Land (Pacific Ocean), was discovered by Davis in 1686. It was visited and named by Eoggewein, who thought it was a new discovery, April 6, 1722, and visited by Captain Cook, March 11, 1774. Eastern Empire. — Valentinian I. first divided the Roman empire in June 364 a.d., when Valens became emperor of the East. The final separation took place a.d. 395. Gibbon (ch. xxxii.) remarks, "The division of the Roman world between the sons of Theodosius marks the final estabHshment of the empire of the East, which, from the reign of Arcadius to the taking of Constan- tinople by the Turks, subsisted one thousand and fifty-eight years in a state of premature and perpetual decay." 364. The Eastern empire commences, under Valeus. 388. Theodosius I. defeats Maximus, the tyi-ant of the West, who is beheaded by the army. 394. Theodosius I. defeats the Gauls and Germans under Eugenius, who is slain. 395. It is definitively separated from the West, under the >outh Arcadius, who governs under the guardianship of Rufus. 408. Persecution of tue Pagans. 425. Schof'ls iif law are opened at Constantinople. 438. The Theouosian cude is published. 474. Leo TI., an infant, and Zeuo. are joint-empe- rors. Leo almost immediately dies, as is sup- posed, by poison. 478. Theodoric, son of Triarius, Invades the empire. 514. The Gothic general Vitalian lays siege to Constantinople. 529. The Justiuian code is published. 532. The Nika insurrection at Constantinople. 541. Justinian I. abolishes the consulship. 545. The I'urks enter Asia. 551. The Slavonians ravage TUyria, and penetrate almost as far as Constantinople. 553. The senate is abolished by Justinian I. 611. Chosroes II. of Persia conquers Syria. 617. Herat-lius abjures Christianity, and embrace?! paganism , in order to conciliate Chosroes II. 626. The Avaro besiege Constantinople, aod the Persians reach the Bosphorus. 627. Heraclius finally defeats Chosroes II., and recovera all his lost territories. 632. The Saracens invade the empire. 644. Rebellion and death of Valentinian. 668-675. The Saracens besiege Constantinople. EAS 678. The Bulgarians obtain the country now- called Bulgaria. 693. Loss of Armenia. 695-705. ExUe of the tyrant Justinian II., during which the empire is ruled by Leontius ana Tiberius Apsimar in succession. 711. The Bulgarians ravage the empire as far aa Constantinople. 716. Constantinople is besieged by the Saracens. 717. The emperor Theodosius III. abdicates, and retires to a monastery. He is succeeded by Leo III., the Isaurian. 739. The Greek provinces of the empire are in- vaded in three parts by the Saracens, who are defeated by Acronius. 770. Constantine IV. abolishes monasteries throughout the Eastern empire. 792. Constantine VI., the last emperor of the Isaurian dynasty, is blinded, by order of his mother Irene. 811. July 6. Nicephorus I. is defeated, and flain by the Bulgarians 820. Accession of Michael II., Ihe founder of the Amorian dynasty. 825. Dalmatia is taken from the em.pire by the Servians. 827. Loss of Sicily and Crete. 850. Bogoris, king of the Bulgarians, becomes a vassal of the empire. 867. Accession of Basil I., founder of the BasUian or Macedonian dynasty. 890. Southern Italy becomes subject to the Eastern empire. 928. Five emperors reign simultaneously. 1014. July 29. Great victory over the Bulgarians at Zetunium. 1018. Bulgaria is made a province of the empire. 1035. The empire is visited by famine, and ravaged by invaders. 1040. Restoration of Sicily, and loss of Seivia. 1057. Aug. 31. Michael VI. abdicates in favour of Isaac I. End of the Macedonian dynasty. 1123. Revolt of the Servians. 1144. Restoration of the senate., 1186. Revolt of the Bulgarains. 1195. Isaac II. is deposedand blinded by his brother, who ascends the throne as Alexius III. 1203. July 18. Siege and eajjture of Constantinople by the Crusaders, who restore Isaac, and make his son, Alexius IV., joint emperor with him. 1204. Jan. 28. Murder of Alexius IV., and acce.ssion of Alexius v., soon after which Isaac II. dies. The Crusaders again besiege Constan- tinople, put Alexius V. to death, and found the Latin fmpire of the East, of which Baldwin, count of Flanders, ascduds the throue May 9. 1208. Epii'us and ^tolia are erected into an inde- pendent state. 1261. July 25. Michael Palseologus restores the Greek empire to Constantiuople. 1277. An inva=!ion of Sicilians, Venetians, and French, is repelled. 1321. Civil war of the Andronici. 1328. May 24. Abdication of the elder Andronicus, who is succeeded by Andronicus III. 1353. The Turks enter Europe. 1867. The Mamelukes conquer Armenia. 1373. The treaty of Amurath, which limits the Eastern empire to Constantinople, Thes- salonica, part of the Morea, and a few islands 1390. The empire loses all its Greek possessions in Asia. 1396. Sept. 28. Battle of Nicopolis and massacre of 10,000 Christian prisoners by the Turks. 1400. Manuel II. surrenders part of Constantinople to Bujazet. 1448. On the death of John Palseologus II. the empire is claimed by his three brothers. Constantine XII. is elected. 14.53. May 29. Capture of Constantinople by Mo- humiued II., and extinction of the Eastern empire. X EAS EMTEEOES OP THE EAST. A.D. Valens 364 Theodosius I., the Great 379 Arcadius 395 Theodosius II. 408 Mareian 450 Leo I. 457 Leo II. and Zeno . . 474 Anastasius 1 491 Justin 1 518 Justinian L 527 Jusr.in IL 565 Tiberius II 578 Maurice 582 Phocas 602 HeracUus 610 Constantine III. . . 641 Constans II 641 Constantine TV. .. 668 Justinian 11 685 PhUippicus 711 Anastasius II 713 Tneodusins III 716 Leo III 718 Constantine V 741 Leo IV 775 Constantine VI. and Irene 780 Irene 792 Nicephorus 1 802 Stauracius 811 Michael 1 811 LeoV 813 Michael II 820 Theophilus 829 Michael in 842 BasUL, the Mace- donian 867 Leo VI 886 A.D. 911 976 1025 1034 Alexander and Con- stantine VII. . . Eomanus I., Chris- topher, Stephen, and Constantine VIII Constantine VII. alone Eomanus II Nicephorus II John Zimisces. Ba- sil TI.. and Con- stantine IX Basil II. and Con- stantine IX .... Constantine IX. . . Eomanus IIL Michael IV Michael V 1041 Zoe and Constan- tine X 1042 Theodora 1054 Michael VI 10.56 Isaac 1 1057 Constantine XI. . . 1059 Eudocia and Eo- manus III 1067 Michael VII.. An- dronicus I., and Constantine XII. 1071 Nicephorus III. . . 1078 Alexius 1 1081 John 1118 Manuel 1 1143 Alexius II 1180 Andronicus 1 1183 Isaac II 1185 Alexius IIL 1195 Isaac II. (restored) 1203 LATIM" EMPEEOES. Baldwin I. 1204 I Baldwin Henry 1206 | Peter of Courtenay 121 | Bohert of Cour- tenay 122 1 II. John of enne and Bri- BaJdwin 11. (alone) 1237 GEEEK EMPEEORS OF KICE. A.D. A.D. Theodore Lascaris I. 1204 I John Lascaris .... 1259 John DucasVataces 1222 Michael Palseologus 1260 Theodore LascarisII. 1255 | aEEEK EMPEEOES EESTOEED TO COlf- STANTIlfOPLE. Michael Palseologus 1261 I AndronicusII 1273 Ai.dronicus III. . . 1328 I John Palseologus I. 1341 John Cantacuzene 1347 A.D. John Palasologusl. (restored) 1355 Manuel II 1391 John PalKologus II. 1425 Constantine XII. . . 1448 East-Iitdia CoMPAifT. — Tlus celebrated association for the purpose of carrying on trade with the East Indies was formed in London a.d. 1599, and obtained its charter Dec. 31, 1600. In 163.5 a rival company was estabhshed by Sir William Courten and chartered by Charles I., but the two asso- ciations united in 164J9. In 1657, Cromwell renewed their charter, which was confirmed by Charles II. in 1661, and again in 1677. In 1694 the East-India trade was thrown open, but in 1698 a new company obtained a mono- poly, in exchange for a loan to government ECC of £2,000,000. In 1702, however, the old and new companies amalgamated, and formed the " United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies." In 1772 the company was compelled to apply for a loan, and in 1784 the Board of Control was erected by 24 Geo. III. c. 25, to regulate the civil and military government of the company's territories. By 53 Geo. III. c. 155, s. 7 (July 21, 1813), the importation of any goods but tea from any place except China was declared free to all British subjects, and the commercial character of the company was abohshed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1833) . The number of directors was reduced from twenty-four to eighteen by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 95 (Aug. 20, 1853), and the govern- ment of India was finally transferred from the comx^anv to the crown, by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106 (Aug."'2, 1858). The Dutch East-India Company was foi'med in 1595. Charles VI. founded an East-India Company at Ostendin 1719. It was dissolved in 1731. The Swedish East-India Company was formed in 1731 ; the French in 1740, and dissolved in 1770 ; and the Danish was formed in 1740. The Scotch East-India Company was estabhshed by an act of the Scottish parhament in 1695. East Indies. {See India.) Eastland Company. — This association was incorporated a.d. 1579 to trade to all places within the Sound except Narva. When the trade to Norway and Sweden was thrown open, this company dechned in importance. Ebionites. — A sect of Christian Jews founded at Bella, about a.d. 66, which attained importance in the 2nd century. They spread in the villages around Damas- cus, and had a church at Aleppo. Gibbon (ch. XV.) says : " The name of Nazarenes was deemed too honourable for these Christian Jews, and they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their tinder- standing, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous epithet of Ebionites." They beheved Christ to be a man, though endowed with divine power, and they maintained that the ceremonial law of Moses must be observed. The sect was still in existence in the 4th century. Ebeo. {See Tudela, Battle.) EoBATANA (Media). — This city is said to have been founded by Semiramis, though Herodotus mentions Dejoces as its founder. An account of the building of the city bv Arphaxad is given in the book of Judith (i. 2 — 4) . It was the summer residence of Cyrus and the succeeding kings of Persia. It is mentioned by Ezra xmder the name of Achmetha, and the modern Hamadan occu- pies its site. Eccentrics. — This convivial club, an off- shoot of the Brilliants, held its first meeting about May, 1800. Ecclesiastical Commission. — William IV. issued a commission of inquiry into the state of the Church of England, Feb. 4, 1835, which pubUshed its first report March 17. A new commission was issued June 6, and by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (Aug. 13, 1836) the ECC commissioners became a corporation, with I perpetual succession and a conunon seal. The constitution of this corporation was materially amended by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113 (Aug. 11, 1840), and 4 & 5 Vict, c, 39 (June 21, 1841). Ecclesiastical Courts. — Previous to the Conquest, all offences were tried in civil courts ; but in 1085 WUliam I. published a charter of separation, which estabhshed ecclesiastical courts. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12, s. 2 (1532), all ecclesiastical juris- diction was declared to be immediately from the crown. This act, repealed by 1 & 2 Mary, c. 8, s. 6 (1554), was revived by 1 Eliz. c. 1, s. 4 (1558). In July, 1830, a commission was appointed to inquire into their practice and jurisdiction, which recommended sundry im- portant changes in 1832. The Probate and Divorce Court, established by 20 & 21 Vict, c. 77, s. 3 (Aug, 25, 1857), aboHshed aUthe au- thority of the Ecclesiastical Courts in matters relating to wiUs, &c. Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. — In con- sequence of the papal buU of Sept. 30, 1850, by which an attempt was made to estabhsh a Eoman Catholic hierarchy in England, Lord John KusseU, then prime minister, in- troduced a measure into parliament Feb. 7, 1851, which was read for the third time and passed July 4. By this act (14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, Aug. 1, 1851), the papal brief was declared nuU and void, and a fine of £100 was imposed on aU such as should endeavour to carry it into effect. Ecu A (Spain), the ancient Astigi, cele- brated for an aqueduct completed by Abde- rahman III., a.d. 949. The Merines de- feated the Castihans near this town in 1275. EcKMXJHL (Battle). — At this place, in Bavaria, the Austrian army, under the archduke Charles, was defeated by the French, under Napoleon I. and Davoust, April 22, 1809. Eclectics, a sect of ancient philosophers, founded by Potamon of Alexandria, who is said by some authorities to have hved in the time of Augustus, and by others in the 2nd century. He persuaded his disciples not to join any of the existing schools of philo- sophy, but to select from each what seemed most conformable to true reason. Between A.D. 200 and 235 similar principles were taught in reference to Christianity by Am- monius Saccas, who founded the school of the New Platonists. Another sect of Eclectics arose in the 17th century. Eclipse, signifies "failure," namely of light. The Brahmins appear to have been the first astronomers who attained the power of cal- culating solar and lunar eclipses. In their great astronomical work the " Surya Sidd- hanta," it is stated that a total eclipse of the sun occurred Feb. 18, B.C. 3102^ and modern calculations have proved the assertion true. Next in order the Chinese calculated echpses, and based their entire chronology on their observations of these phenomena, which date from the year B.C. 2940. The Babylonian register of eclipses commenced 307 ECO in the year B.C. 2226. Hales says, " In the age of Thales, at least, the elements of the calculation of eclipses were known in Greece ; for Herodotus says that he foretold to the lonians the year of the remarlcable echpse that put an end to the battle between the Medes and Lydians." May 17. A total eclipse is recorded by the Persian historians. May 28. A total ecUipse, which had been pre- dicted by Thales, the Milesian, inteniipts a battle between the Medes and Lydians. March 14. The army of Xei-xes is alarmed by a total solar eclipse. An eclipse is observed at Athens. Aug. 15. The total eclipse of Agathocles. 1140. 1191. 1706. 1715. 1724. 1733. 1842. 1850, A total eclipse takes place at the death of Agrippina. June 6. An eclipse occurs soon after the siege of Nisibis. Idatius mentions an eclipse. March 19. An eclipse occurs during the march of Mauricius to Thrace. May 5. A total eclipse occurs at the death of Louis J. of France. Aug. 31. A total eclipse takes place during the battle of Stiklastad. A total eclipse is visible in England. June 22. A very remarkable eclipse is visible in England. A total eclipse is visible in the British isles. Another total eclipse is visible in the British islands. A total eclipse occurs, which is visible in the British islands. A total eclipse is visible in the south of Europe. May 3. A total eclipse takes place, during which the stars are visible at London iu the daytime. A total eclipse of the sun is visible in Ensfland. May 2. A total eclipse is visible in the north of Europe. The red appearances round the nioon, since known as Baily's beads, were first noticed on this occasion. June 16. A total eclipse is visible in North America. July 7. A total eclipse is visible in the south of Europe. Aug. 8. A total eclipse is observed by M. Kutczyeki in the Pacific Ocean. March 15. A great annular eclipse is visible in England. Sept. 7. A total ecliysrt is visible in South America, and observed by order of the Brazilian government. July 18. A total eclipse, visible in Spain, is observed by a party of Englisb. astro- nomers. EcNOMiTs (Sea-fight). — The Eoman fleet, consisting of 330 ships, commanded by the consuls L. Manhus and M. Attilius Eegulus, defeated the Carthaginian fleet, consisting of 350 ships, under the command of Hanno, off Ecnomus, near Agrigentum, in Sicily, B.C. 256. Some authorities contend that the Eoman fleet had sailed from Ecnomus, and that the encomiter took place at another part of the island, off Heracleia Minoa. Economists, a sect of philosophers, who first began to propagate their views in France about 1761, and endeavoured to estabhsh a system of government and social life Ibunded on a knowledge of human nature as it actually exists. Francis Quesnay, born in 1694, and M. de Gournay, in 1712, are the two great X 2 ECU founders of the school. The latter was made intendant of commerce in 1751, in Avhich capacity he strove vigorously to release mercantile men from the numerous restric- tions the legislature of the day imposed upon them. Quesnay's great work, Fhysiocratie, on, du Gouvernement le plus avantageux au genre humain, appeared m 1768. The first assembhes of the Economists were held in Madame de Pompadour's drawing-room. EcTTADOE (South America). — This country was discovered by Pizarro a.d. 1526, and it remained under Spanish rule until the rebel- hon of 1812. Its independence was secured in 1821, when it formed part of the republic of Colombia. On the disruption of the Colombian republic in 1831, Quito, with its associated provinces, assumed the rank of an independent repubhcan state, with the name of Ecuador or Equator. The naviga- tion of the rivers of this republic was de- clared free from aU dues for twenty years in 1853. Eddas, two ancient Scandinavian books, one of which is in verse and the other in prose. Some of the songs in the former probably existed as early as the 6th century, but the majority date from the 7th and 8th. In the 12th century they were written for the first time in Iceland by Saemund Sigf usson, who died in 1133, and in 1643 the MS. was discovered by Bishop Brynjolf Sveinsson. The prose Edda was written by Snorro Sturleson, who died in 1241. It contains the mythological history of Scandinavia, and was discovered in Iceland in 1628. Editions of the Eddas were pubUshed at Stockhohn in 1818. Eddtstone LiGHTHOtrsE. — The first Hght- house on the Eddystone, a narrow rock 14 miles from Plymouth, erected by Win- stanley in 1696, was destroyed by a violent tempest, Nov. 27, 1703. Its reconstruction was ordered by 4 & 5 Anne, c. 20 (1705), and completed by Mr. Rudyard in 1708. The new building was destroyed by fire in 1755. In 1757 Smeaton began the present Lighthouse, which he constructed on improved principles, and completed Oct. 9, 1759. In 1770 the upper portion, which was of wood, was burnt. It was reconstructed of stone in 1774, and the lighthouse has since remained uninjured. Edessa (Mesopotamia) is said to have been built by Nimrod, though Appian ascribes its foundation to Seleucus. It was taken by the emperor Trajan a.d. 102, and erected into a Eoman colony in 216, when Abgarus, its last sovereign, was sent in chains to Rome. In 260 it was the scene of a battle between the emperor Valerian and Sapor, king of Persia, in which the latter was vic- torious. Juhan confiscated the whole pro- perty of the church here, in consequence of the turbulence of the Arians, in 362, and in 489 its theological school was pulled down by the emperor Zeno. A destructive flood did considerable injury to the city in 525, in 611 it was taken by Chosroes II., king of Persia, and in 718 it was reduced to ruins by an EDI earthquake. Baldwin, count of Flanders, erected Edessa into a Christian principality in 1097, but in 1144 it was seized by the Mohammedans under Zenghis. From that time it gradually decHned, but has lately become important for its commerce, under the modern name of Orfah. Edgecotb (Battle). — During an insur- rection, Edward the Fourth's troops were defeated at tliis place, near Banbury, July 26, 1469. The queen's father and brother, and the earl of Pembroke, were captured in this encounter, and put to death by the rebels. Edgehill (Battle). — At this hill, near the village of Keinton, or Kineton, in War- wickshire, Charles I. and the royahst forces under Prince Rupert encountered the parhamentary troops of the earl of Essex, on Sunday, Oct. 23, 1642. It was the first great battle in the Civil "War, and proved very disastrous to both armies, though the losses were so nearly equal that neither could claim a decisive victory. Among the slain was the earl of Lindsay, who had led the king's infantry. Clarendon estimates the total number of kdUed at 5,000 men. Edict op jS"antes — This celebrated act of toleration, granted by Henry IV. of France to his Protestant subjects, April 13, 1598, confirmed aU their former privileges, removed every obstacle to their deriving benefit from the universities and public schools, and allowed them to establish places of worship throughout his kingdom. It was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and revoked by Louis XIV. Oct. 22, 1685. This arbitrary act drove from France about half a million Protestants, many of whom settled in England, and introduced various arts and manufactures not previously prac- tised in this country. Edicts. — The principal Roman laws so named are the Perpetual edict, prepared by Salvianus Julianus, and promulgated by the emperor Hadrian, a.d. 132, and the edict of Theodoric in 500. Edinbuegh (Scotland), the capital of Scotland, was founded in the 7th century, and was described as a considerable village in the 8th. During the earlier period of its history it was the scene of numerous contests. 626. A castle founded here by Edwin, king of Northumberland, is called Edwin's burgh ; whence some derive the name of the city. 685. It is taken by the Picts. 690. St. Cuthbert's church is founded. 956. Restored to Indulphus, king of Scotland. 1093. The town is besieged by Donaldbaue. 1128. Holyrood Abbey is founded by David I. In the charter for its foundation Edinburgh is first spoken of as a royal burgh. 1174. The castle is surrendered to the English to purchase the freedom of William tne Lion. 1215. The first parliament is held here by Alex- ander II. 1230. BlHckfiiars monastery is founded. 1296. The castle is taken by the English, under Edward I. 1313. The castle is recovered by the earl of Moray. 1329. A charter grants Leith to Ediubui-gh. EDI 1336. The English take refuge in Edinburgh, after the battle of Borough Muir. They are made prisoners by the earl oi Moray. 1359. St. Giles's cathedral church is built. 1401. Aug. Henry IV. invades Scotland, and bums Edinburgh. 1430. A monastery of Greyfriars is established by James I. 1437. Execution of the earl of Athol and two more, at Edinburgh, for the miirder of James I. 1447. Trinity fair is appointed by James II. 1450. The city is first fortified by a wall. 1477. Charter of James III. 1482. James III., having been protected from his rebellious nobles by the inhabitants of Edinburgh, erects their city into the me- tropolis of Scotland. 1508. Oct. 6. James IV. grants the city a charter. 1515. A serious skirmish, known as "Clear the causeway," takes place between the par- tisans of the various nobles, 250 of whom are slain. 1519. The High School is first mentioned. 1544 An English army lands at Koyston, takes Leith, and plunders Edinburgh. 1547. The English burn Leith. 1555. The streets are ordered to be lighted, owing to the frequent robberies. John Knox begins to preach at Edinburgh. 1560. July 6. A treaty between Elizabeth and the Scotch is concluded at Edinburgh. 1565. July 29. Marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lord Baiidey, in Holyrood House. 1566. March 9. Murder of David Rizzio. 1567. Feb. 10. The house in which Damley is re- siding is blown up by gunpowder, and the king killed. April 12. Trial and acquittal of the earl of Bothwell for the murder of the king. May 15. Man-iage of Maiy and the earl of Bothwell. 1568. Edinburgh is ravaged by the plague. 1571. The castle is besieged by the English. 1572. Nov. 24. Death of John Knox. 1574. The castle is repaired, and the halfmoon batteries are built. 1578. The first high school is built. 1581. Old College is founded by James VI. 1582. April 14. James VI. grants the college a charter of erection. 1584. Edinburgh is divided into four parishes. 1591. Canongai,e gaol built. 1596. Eiots in consequence of James the Sixth's interference with the Edinburgh clergy. 1603. March 24. James VI. leaves Edinburgh, to ascend the English throne as James I. 1610. Coaches are introduced into Edinburgh. 1618. April 9. James revisits Edinburgh. 1624. Feb. 12. Death of George Heriot, who leaves his large fortune to found an hospital, the first stone of which is laid July 1, 1628, and which is opened April 11, 1659. 1633. June 15. Charles I. visits Edinburgh. 1637. July 23. Sunday. Riot in St. Giles's church, in consequence of the introduction of the Liturgy. 1638. The Solemn League and Covenant is signed in the Greyfriars' churchyard. 1639. March 21. The Covenanters take the castle, which is recaptured by the marquis of Hamilton, June 22. 1640. Completion of Parliament-house. 1641. Charles^I. revisits Edinburgh, which is divided into six parishes. 1645. The plague rages with fearful violence. 1650. May 21. Execution of Montrose. Dec. 24. ■The castle surrenders to Oliver CromweO. 1661. Jan. 8. The Mercurms Caledonius, the first Edinburgh newspaper, is ijublished. May 27. Execution of the marquis of Argyle. 1677. In consequence of frequent fires, the town council orders all houses to be built of stone, and roofed with slate or tile. EDI 1681. Jan. 11. Riots among students of the uni- versity, in consequence of the magistrates having prohibited them from burning the pope's efligy. uct. The Merchants' Com- pany is incorporated by Charles I. 1685. June 30. Execution of the earl of Argyll. 1695. Bank of Scotland established at Edinburgh. 1700. Feb. 3. Sunday. Two hundred families are rendered houseless by a terrible fire in the Meal-market. 1718. May 7. The spire of the Greyfriars' church is destroyed by fire. 1727. The Royal Bank is founded. 1735. A theatre is erected by Allan Ramsay, in Carrubber's Close. 1736. Sept. 7. The Porteous riots (t. 16. Richard II. banishes the dukes of Hereford and Norfolk. 1399. Sept. 29. Monday. Abdication of Richard II. ^, 1400. Richard II. is put to death some time in the spring. 1401. Feb. 12. William Sawtre, a Lollard priest, is burnt for heresy. Owen Glendower's insurrection. 1402. Rebellion of the Percies. 1403. July 23. Battle of Shrewsbury, and defeat of the rebels. 1405. The archbishop of York, Lord Mowbray, and others, are frustrated in an attempt to stir up a rebellion in Northumberland. 1408. The Percies again rebel. Defeat and death of the earl of Nurthumberland, at the battle of Bramham Moor, Feb. 19. ^1414. Lollard insurrection, rmder Lord Cobham. V 1415. Aug. 14. Henry V. sets sail for France. Sept. 22. He captures Harfleur. Oct. 25. Henry V. defeats the French army at the battle of Agincourt. 1420. May 21. Treaty of Troyes, by which Heniy V. is declared heir to the French crown. June 2. Marriage of Henry V. with the princess Catherine of France. 1426. Oct. Serious disputes commence between the Lord Protector Gloucester and the bishop of Wiu'hester. 1431. May 30. Execution at Rouen of Joan of /' Arc. V 1446. April 22. Marriage of Heniy VI. and Mar- garet of Anjou. 1447. Feb. 23. Mysterious death of the duke of Gloucester. 14.50. Jack Cade's insurrection. 1455. May 22. Battle of St. Alban's, the first en- gagement in the Wars of the Roses. 1430. July 10. Battle of Northampton, when King Henry VI. is made prisoner by the Yorkists. Dec. 30. Battle of Wakefield, and death of / the duke of York. J 1461. March 4. Henry VI. is deposed by Edward IV. March 29. Battle of Towton {q. v.). 1464. May 1. Private marriage of Edward IV. and Lady Elizabeth Grey. May 8. Battle of Hexham, .and defeat and flight of Henry. 1439. Ttie earl of Warwick rebels against Edward. 1470. Oct. 3. Flight of Edward TV. Oct. 6. Restora- tion of Henry VI. 1471. March 14. Return of Edward IV. April 14. Battle of Barnet, and death of the earl of Warwick, with whom the hopes of the Lancastrians become extinct. May 4. Battle of Tewkesbury, where Margaret and her son. Prince Henry, are made prisoners, and the latter is mtu-dered. June. Mysterious death of Henry VI. in the Tower. 1478. Feb. 18. Death of the duke of Clarence in / the Tower. ■^ 1483. June 26. The duke of Gloucester usurps the throne of his young nephew Edward V., and ascends it as Richard TIL Aug. Ed- ward V. and the dtike of York are murdered in the Tower. 1485. Aug. 22 Battle of Bosworth Field, and death of Richard III., the last sovereign of the house of Plantagenet. 1486. Jan. 18. Marriage of Henry- VII. and Eliza- beth, daughter of Edward TV. 1487. Juue 16. Battle of Stoke, which ends the insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1492. Oct. 2. Henry VII. invades France, but with- di-aws his forces on receiving a ransom of 745.000 crowns 1499. Nov. 23. Execution of Perkin Warbeck. ENG 1.509. June 7. Marriageof Henry VII 1. to Catherine of Aragon, his brother Arthur's widow. 1510. Aug. 18. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1514. Aug. 5. Rise of Wolsey. He is created arch- bishop of York. 1520. June 7-24. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, on the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." 1521. Oct. 11. Papal bull, conferring on Henry VTIL the title of Defender of the Faith. 1529. Oct. 17. Fall of Wolsey. 1530. Nov. 29. Death of Wolsey at Leicester. 1533. Jan. 25. Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn. May 23. His former marriage with Catherine is declared null and void by Cranmer. 1534. Abolition of the papa) supremacy in England. 1535. Juue 22. Execution of Bishop Fisher. July 6. And of Sir Thomas More. 1536. May 19. Execution of Anne Bnleyn. May 20. Henry VIII. marries Lady Jane Seymour. 1537. Oi;t. 12. Birth of Edward VI. Oct. 24. Death of Jane Seymour. 1538. Suppression of the monasteries. 1539. Cruel statute of the " Six Articles," known as the Bloody Bill, which denounces burn- ing or hiinging against all who deny the doctrine of Trausubstantiation, &c. (31 Hen. VITI. c. 14). 1540. Jan. 6. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves, from whom he is divorced July 9. July 28. Execution of Cromwell, earl of Essex. Aug. 8. The king marries Lady Catherine Howard. 1542. Feb. 12. Execution of Catherine Howard. 1543. July 12 Henry VIII. maiTies Catherine Parr. 1547. Jan. 19. Execution of the earl of Surrey. Jan 28 Ded,th of Henry VIII., who is succeeded by Edward VI., under the pro- tectorship of the duke of Somerset. 1549. March 20. Execution of Lord Seymour, brother of the Lord Protector. June 9. An insurrection in favour of papacy breaks oiit in the west. Oct. 14. Disgrace of the Lord Protector Somerset. 1552. Jan. 22. Execution of the duke of Somerset. 1553. July 6. Death of Edward VI. July 10. Pro- clamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen. July 19. She relinquishes the title, aud Mary is proclaimed in London. 1554. Feb. 7. Suppression of Sir Thomas Wyatt's insurrection. Feb. 12. Execution of Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley. April 11. Execution of Sir T. Wyatt. July 25. Marriage of Maiy with Philip II. of Spain. Nov. 30. Cardinal Pole pro- nounces the country reconciled to the Church of Rome. 1555. Feb. 4. Mary's persecution of the Protestants commences with the burning of John Rogers. Feb. 9. Hooper is burnt. Oct. 16. Martyrdom of Ridley and Latimer. 1.556. March 21. Burning of Cranmer. 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, the last English pos- session in France. 1559. The reformed religion is restored by the Act of Uniformity (1 Eliz. c. 2). 1568. May 17. Maiy, queen of Scots, seeks shelter in England, and lands at Workiugton, in Cumberland. 1571. Pope Pius V. endeavours to incite the English to rebellion. 1581. Dec. 1 Execution of Campian, the Jesuit, and others, for conspii-acy. 1586. Sept. 20 aud 21. Execution of Babyngton and his accomplices. 1587. Feb. 8. Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, at Fotheringay Castle. 1588. Repulse of the Spanish Armada {q. v.). 1598. Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. 1601. Feb. 25. Execution of the earl of Essex. 1603. March 24. Death of Queen Elizabeth, and accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I., under whom the Scotch aud English crowns are united. y 2 E??"G 1604 Oct. 24. James I. assumes the title of king of of Great Britain. 160.5. Nov. 4. Discovery of the gunpowder plot. 1606. April 12. The present national flag of England is announced by royal proclamation. 1611. Mav 2. The present English translation ff the Bible is completed. May 22. James re- plenishes his exchequer by creating and selling the title of baronet. 1612. Nov. 6. Sudden death of Henry, piince of Wales. 1616. April 23. Death of Shakespeare. 1618. Oct. 29. Execution of Raleigh. 1621. May 3. Impeachment and disgrace of Lord Bacon. 162.5. June 13. Charles I. marries Princess Henrietta Maria, of France. 1626. April 9. Death of Lord Bacon. 1628. Aug. 23. Assassination of the duke of Buck- ingham by John Feltou. 3.634. Feb. Punishment of Pi-ynne and others for publishing "Histrio Mastix." Oct. 20. Writs for the collection of ship-money are issued. 1637. Dec. 6. Trial of John Hampden, which ter- minates the following year, June 12, seven of the judges deciding in favour of the king, and five in favour of Hampden. 1641. Feb. 26. Parliament annuls the judgment against Hampden by 16 Chas. I. c. 14. May 12. Execution of the earl of Strafford. 1642. Jan. 4. The king proceeds to the House of Commons, to seize in person five members accused of treason. Commencement of the civU war. Oct. 23. Battle of Edge- hill {g. v.). 1643. Jui.e 18. Battle of Chalgrave. John Hampden receives a wound, of which he dies. June 24. Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Sept. 25. The Solemn League and Covenant is approved by both houses of parliament. 1644. July 2. Battle of Mai-ston Moor. Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury. 1645. Jan. 10. Execution of Archbishop Laud. June 14. Battle of Naseby (q. v.). 1646. May 5. Charles I. seeks protection from the Scotch. Sept. 21. They sell him to the par- liament for £400,000. 1847. Jan. 30. The Scotch surrender the king to the parliamentary commissionpi-s. 1648. Dec. 6. "Pride's purge." Colonel Pride ex- pels the Presbyterian members of the House of Commons. About fifty Inde- pendents remain, who are known as the Kump Parliament. 1649. Jan. 20. Trial of Charles I. Jan. 27. He is sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Charles I. is executed. 1651. Sept. 3. Battle of Worcester {q. v.). 1653. April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Par- liament. Dec.l6. He is made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. 16.57. AprU 17. De.ith of Admiral Blake. 1658. Sept. 30. Death of Oliver Cromwell, who is succeeded by his son Richard. 1659. May 13. Richard CromweU resigns the title of Lord Protector. 1660. May 29. The Restoration. 1662. May 19. The Act of Uniformity (13 & 14 Chas. II. c. 4). May 20. Marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza. 1665. The Great Plague. 1666. Sept. 2 and 3. Wreat Fire of London. 1667. Dec. 18. Banishment of Lord Clarendon. 1674. Nov. 8. Death of John Milton. 1678. Aug. 12. Gates' fictitious " popish plot " is dis- closed by Tonge. Oct 17. Discovery of the body of Sir Edmundbxiry Godfrey. 1679. Mav 27. "Habeas Corpus" Act passed (31 Chas. II. c. 2). 1680. Dec. 29. Execution of Lord Stafford, the last victim of the pretended popish plot. 1683. June 12. Discovery of the Rye-house plot. July 21. Execution of Lord Russell. 324 A.D. 1689. 1685. 1602. 1694. 1701. 1707. 1708. 1710. 1713. 1714. 1715. 1716. 1720. 1722. 1737. 1747. 1751. 1756. 1757. 1760. 1761. 1763. 1765. 1771. 1772. ENG Dec. 7. Algernon Sydney is beheaded. June 20. The duke of Monmouth rebels against James II., and is proclaimed king at Taunton. July 6. Defeat of Monmoutli at the battle of Sedgeuioor. July 15. His execution. June 30. Acquittal of the seven bishops. Dec. 23. Abdication of James II. Feb. 13. William III. and Maiy are pro- claimed king and queen. July 1. Defeat of James II. at the battle of the Boyne. Commencement of the national debt. April 25. The Bank of England is incorporated. Dec. 28. Death of Queen Mary. Sept. 16. Death of James II., at St. Ger- mains. Mayl. England and Scotland are united under the title of Great Britain. Oct. 28. Death of Piince George of Denmark, husband of the queen. Mar. 23. Dr. Sacheverell is found guilty of high crimes and misdemeanours, and sentenced to suspension from his pastoral oflBce for three yeai-s, and to have his printed sermons burnt by the common hang- man. April 11. By the treaty of Utrecht, England acquires Gibraltar, Minorca, Nova Scotiii, Newfoundland, and Hud-.on's Bay. Aug. 1. Death of Queen Anne, and accession of the Hanoverian family, in the perooa of George I. Sept. 6. Rebellion in Scotland, in favour of the Pretender, breaks out under the earl of Mai-. Dec. 22. The Chevalier lands at Peterhead. Feb. 24. Execution of the earl of Derwent- water and Viscount Kenmure. Sept. 29. The South Sea bubble bursts. June 16. Death of the duke of Marlborough. George II. quarrels with his son Frederick, prince of Wales. Nov. 20. Death of Queen Caroline. June 16. BatUe of Dettingen, which is the last fight in which an English sovereign was personally engaged. July 25. The Young Pretender lands at Moidart, in Inveuess- shire. Sept. 17. He establishes himself at Holyrood House, Edinburgh. Sept. 21. He gains the battle of Prestonpans Dec. 4. His army pene- trates into England as far as Derby. Jan. 18. Prince Charles Edward gains the battle of Falkirk. April 16. He is totally defeated at CuUoden. Aug. 10. Executious of Kilmarnock and Balmerino. Aoril 9. Execution of Lord Lovat. March 20. Death of Frederick Louis, prince of Wales. Sept. 3. The New Style is introduced into Great Britain, Sept. 3 being accounted the 14th. May 1. Commencent of the Seven Years' war. March 14. Execution of Admiral Bjnng. June 23. Battle of Plassey, which reduces Bengal under English dominion. Conquest of Canada. Oct. 25. George II. dies, and is succeeded by his grandson, George III. Sei)t. 8. George III. marries the Princess Char- lotte Sophia, of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Sept. 22. Their coronation. Oct. 5. Tne elder Pitt resigns the office of secretary of state. Feb. 10. By the peace of Paris, England acquires Canada and Florida, and an end is put to the Seven Yeai-s' war. April 30. Arrest of Mr. Wilkes. March 22. The American Stamp Act is passed. Dec. 30. Death of the Pretender, at Rome. May 8. Establishment of the right to report parliamentary debates. April 1. Royal Mai-riage Act passed (12 Geo. IIL c. 2). ENG 1773. Commencement of the American revolt. 1778. April 7. Lord Chatham is seized -with a fit while speaking against the American ■war in the House of Lords. May 11. He dies. 1780. June 2-7. Lord George Gordon's anti-popeiy riots. 1781. Feb. 8. Lord George Gordon is tried, and acquitted. 1782. Nov. 30. A provisional treaty, acknowledging the independence of the United States, is signed at Paris. Dec. 5. The separa- tion is annouuced by the king in his speech on opening parliament. 1786. Aug. 2. Margaret Ivicholson, a maniac, attempts the king's life. 1788. Feb. 13. Burke opens the impeachment of Warren Hastings before the House of Lords. March 3. Death of Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, at Rome. Nov. 19. The public are informed of the mental indisposition of the king. 1789. Feb. 19. Recovery of the king, and abandon- ment of the regency bill. April 23. Public thanksgiving throughout the kingdom, in consequence. 1793. Feb. 11. War is declared against France. 1794. May 23. Suspension of the " Habeas Corpus" Act. Oct. 28 to Dec. 5. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thelwall, who are ac- quited. 1795. April 8. The prince of Wales marries Caroline of Brunswick. April 23. Acquittal of Warren Hastings. 1796. Jan. 7. Birth of the Princess Charlotte, daughter of the prince of Wales. 1797. Feb. 20. Commercial panic. Feb. 27. The Bank of England stops payment. July 29. Death of Edmund Burke. 1798. April 20. The " Habeas Corpus" Act is again suspended. May. A rebellion breaks out in Ireland. Aug. 1. Battle of the Kile {q. v.). 1800. May 15. James Hadfield fires at the king in Drury-Lane Theatre. ISOl. Jan. 1. Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland. April 2. Battle of Copen- hagen {q. v.). April 19. The " Habeas Cor- pus" Act is again suspended. 1802. March 25. Tne treaty of Amiens is concltided. 1803. May 18. War against France renewed, in con- sequence of Napoleon's asgressions. 1805. Oct. 21. Death of Lord Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar {g. v.). 1806. Jan. 23. Death of Mr. Pitt. April 29-Jtme 12. Trial and acquittal of Lord Melville. May 29. A privy council appointed to examine the charges against the princess of Wales. {See Delicate Iits'estigatiok.) Sept. 13. Death of Mr. Fox. 1807. March 23. Abolition of the slave-trade. 1809. Jan. 27 -March 17. Impeachment and ac- quittal of the duke of York. Oct. 25. Celebration throughout the kingdom of the jubilee of George III.'s reign. Nov. 25. Disastrous result of the Walcheren expe- dition. 1810. April 6. Arrest of Sir Francis Burdett. A riot is occasioned by an attempt to rescue him. June 21. He is set at liberty. Nov. 2. Death of the Princess Amelia, which so affects the king, that his reason is again shaken. 1811. Feb. 5. The regency of the prince of Wales commences. Nov. 14, &c. Luddite riots in the Midland covmiies. 1812. May 11. Assassination of Mr. Perceval, the premier, by Bellingham. June 18. The United States declare - war against En- gland. 1814. May 30. Peace with France is restored by the treaty of Paris. June 7. The emperor of Rus- sia and the king of Prussia visit England. Dec. 24. The treaty of Ghent is signed, by which peace is concluded with the United States. ENG 1815. Modification of the duties on com. June 18- Battle of Waterloo (q. v.). 1816. May 2. Marriage of the Princess Charlotte and Prince Leopold of ^axe-Coburg. July 7. Death of Sheridan. Dec. 2. Serious riots in London, which originate at a meeting held in Spa Fields. 1817. Jan. 28. The Prince Regent's life is attempted. Feb. 4. The " CTreen Bag" inquiry com- mences. (Spe Green BAfi.) Feb. 24. Suspen- sion of the " Habeas Corpus" Act. Sept. 22. Partial resumption of cash payments by the Bank of England. Nov. 6. Death of the Princess Charlotte. 1818. July 11. Marriages of the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., with the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, and of the duke of Kent with Victoiia Maria Louisa, daughter of the duke of Saxe-Coburg of Saalfeld. Nov. 17. Death of Queen Chajlotte, 1819. May 24. Birth of Queen Victoria. Aug. 16. Monster reform meeting in St. Peter's Fields, Manchester. It is dispersed by the military, and the affair is known as the battle of Peterloo. 1820. Jan. 23. Death of the duke of Kent. Jan. 29. Death of George III., aged 81. May 1. Execution of Thistlewood and his asso- ciates for participation in the Cato-street conspii'acy. Aug. 19 to Nov. 10. Trial of Queen Caroline. 1821. July 19. Coronation of George IV. Aug. 7. Death of Queen Caroline. Aug. 14. Riots on the occasion of her funeral procession to Harwich. The Bank resumes cash payments. 1824. AprU 19. Lord Byron dies at Missolonghi, in Greece. 1825. Dec. Commercial panics. 1827. Jan. 5. Death of the duke of York. Aug. 8. Death of George Canning, premier. 1829. April 13. The Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill is passed (10 Geo. IV. c. 7). Nov. 5. Political panic in London. 1830. Jime 26. Death of George IV. Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, at which Mr. Huskisson, M.P., is kUled. 1831. Sept. 9. Coronation of William IV. and Adelaide. Oct. 8. Reform riots in the Midland counties. Oct. 26. The cholera first appears in England at Sunderland. 1832. June 7. Passing of the Reform Bill (2 Will. IV. c. 45). June 19. The king is assaulted by Collins, at Ascot races. Sept. 21. Death of Sir Walter Scott. 1833. Aug. 28. Act for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies passed, and £20,000 ,000 voted to tne planters as indemnity (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 73). 1834. Aug. 1. The act for abolishing colonial slavery comes into operation. 1835. Sept. 9. The Municipal Corporations Act is passed (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76). 1837. June 30. Death of Wniiam IV. 1838. June 28. Coronation of Queen Victoria. The People's Charter is drawn up, and pub- lished this year. 1839. March. The Chinese war commences. {See China.) 1840. Jan. 10. The penny postage comes into opera- tion. Feb 10. Marriage of the Queen and Prince Albert of Saxe-Gotha. Jtme 10. The Queen's life is attempted by Edward Oxford. Nov. 21. Bii-th of the Princess Royal. 1841. Nov. 9. Bii-th of the prince of Wales 1842. Jan. 24. Visit of the king of Prussia. May 30. John Francis attempts to shojt the Queen. June 22. The income-tax is levied (5 & 6 Vict, c 35). July 3. John WilHam Bean presents a pistol at the Queen. 1843. April 21. Death of the duke of Sussex. Sept. 2 to 7. The Queen visits Louis Philippe, at the Chateau d'Eu. 325 ENG 1844. June 1 The emperor of Russia and king of Saxony visit England. Oct. 6. Visit of Louis Philippe, the fiist occasion on which a Freiich sovereign landed in England on a faiendly mission. 1845. Aug. 9. The Queen Tisits Germany. Nov. 30. The railway mania reaches its highest point. 1S46. March. Eailway panic. June 26. The corn- laws are repealed by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22. 1848. April 10. A moiister Chartist meeting is held on KenniDgton Common, London, to pre- sent to parliament a petition signed by nearly 2,000,000 pei-sons. 1849. May 19. William Hamilton fires at the Queen. Aug. 1. The Queen embarks for Ireland. Lee. 2. Death of Adelaide, queen dowager. 1850. May 27. Robert Pate assaults tbe Queen with a stick. July 2. Death of Sir Robert Peel. July 8. Death of the duke of Cam- brii^'ge. Aug. 21. The Q'leen visits Belgium. SppT. 30. The pope pubii-^hes a bull esta- blishing a Roman Catholic hierarchy in Eiigland. | 1851. MarcU 30. The census of the United Kingdom | is taken, i-nd the poptilation returned at i '27,6'c7,7iil persons. May 1. Opening of the | Great Exhibition in Hyde Park. 1852. Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. | Not. 18. His public funeral takes place at | an expense of £12,000. I 1853. June 16. Visit of the king and queen of Hanover to England. 1854. March 11. The Queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead. March 12. Treaty of aUiacce between Great Britain, France, aud Turkey, signed at Constantinople. March 28. War is dtclared against Russia, April 21). Fast-day in consequence of the war. June 2. Tne king of Port> gal visits England. June 10. Opening of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham by the Queen. Oct. 1. General thanksgiving observed throughout the kingdom, in consequence of the abun- dant harvest. 1855. Jan. 29. Parliament orders an inquiry into the conduct of the war, which occasions the resignation of the Aberdeen minis- try. Feb. 20. Death of Joseph Hvime. Feb. 23. Sebastopul Committee appointed. March 21. General fa^t-day, in conse- quence of the war. April 16 to 21. Visit of the emperor and empress of the French. May 18. Public distribution of Crimean medals, by her Majesty, in St. Jaraess Park. June 24 (Suodaj). Riots in Hyde Park, in consequence of popular opposition to the Sunday Trading Bill. June 28. Death of Lord Raglan. July 1. Visit of the king of the Belgians. Aug. 18 to 27. The Queen visits the emperor of the French. Sept. 10. News ai-rives of the fall of Sebas- topol. Sept. 15. Visit of Prince Frederick of Prussia. Sept. 30. General thanksgiving for the fall of Sebastopol. Nov. 30. Visit of the king of Sardinia. 1856. Jan. 17. Announcement made that Russia accepts the conditions of peace. March 30. A treaty of peace between Russia and the allies is signed at Paris. April 28. Peace is officially proclaimed. May 4. General thanksgiving, in consequence of the peace. May 29. Public celebration of the peace. Oct. Commencement of war with China. (SeeCsisA.) Nov. 1. War with Persia (q. v.). 1857. March 4. A treaty of peace with Persia is signed at Paris. AprU 11. First telegi-aphic intel- ligence of the Indian miittny. April 30. Death of the duchess of Gloucester. May 5. Opening of the Art Treasures Exhibition at Manchester. May 30. Visit of the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia. June 26. D''=tribution of Victoria crosses, by her Majesty, in Hyde Park. El^G 1357. Aug. 25. Meeting at the Mansion House, raise a relief fund for the sufferers by the Indian mutiny. Similar meetings are afterwards held throughout the country. Nov. 12. Suspension of the Bank Chaver Act, in consequence of the commercial crisis. 1858. Jan. 25. Marriage of the Piincess Royal to Pi-iuce Frederick William of Pru>sia. Feb. 8. Lord Palmerston introduces the Conspiracy to Mui-der BUI, in consequence of the attempted assassination of Louis Napoleon by Orsini, &c Feb. 19. It is rejected by the Commons, in consequence of which the Palmerston ca^iinet resigns. June 15. The Queen visits Biimingham {q. v.). June 28. Property qualification of members of parliament a'lclished by 21 Vict. c. 26. July 23. Jewish Disabilities Bill passed (21 & 22 Vict. c. 49). Aug. 2. Aci; for the better government of India passed (21 & 22 Vict. c. 106). Aug. 4. The Queen visits Cherbnurg (q. v.). Sept. 6. The Queen visits Leeds, to open the new Town-haU Nov. 1. Royal proclamation throughout India, announcing the in- corporation of that country with the British empire. 1859. May 1. General thanksgiving, in consequence of the suppression of the Indian mutiny. Oct. 17. The prince of Wales becomes a student at Oxford. Nuv. Many volui.teer rifle cori-s are formed about this time. Dec. 28. Death of Lord Macaulay. 1860. Jan. 23. The commercial tieaty with France is signed at Paris. March 7. The Queen holds a lerSe for othcers of the volunteer rifle coi-ps. June 23. The Queen re views 18,000 volunteers in Hyde Park. July 2. Important failures in the leather trade. Nov. 15. The prin« e of Wales returns fiom his visit to America. (.See Caijada and Uirrna) States.) 1861. March 16. Death of the duchcss of Kent. April 8. The census is taken. Aug. 9. The marriage contract between the Prince.'^s Alice and Prince Louis nf Hesse is signed at Osborne. Aug. 25. Fatal accidei.t iu Clayton tunnel, on the Brighton railroad. Sept. 2. Fatal collision on the Hampstead Junction railroad. Sept. 16. Post-oflice savings' banks opened. Oct. 31. Middle Temple librai-y inaugurated by the prince of Wales. SOVEEEIGNS OP ENGLAND. I i A.D. Egbert 827 EthelwtOf Feb. 837 Ethelbald II 857 Ethelbert 860 Ethelred 1 866 Alfred the Great . . 871 fidwai-d I., The El- der Oct. 901 Athelstan 925 Edmund 1 940 Edred 946 Edwy 955 Edgar 957 A.D. Edward II., the Martyr 975 Ethelred ir 979 Sweyn 1013 Canute the Great . . 1014 Ethelred II. (again) 1014 Edmund Ironside . . 1016 Canute (again) 1017 Harold 1 1035 Haidicanute 1040 Edwani the Con- fessor 1043 Harold II 1066 i A.D. A.D. WiUiam L Dec. 25, 1086 I Henry L . . Aug. 5, 1100 William II. Sep. 26, 1087 | Stephen .... Dec. 26, 1135 PLANTAGENEIS. A.D. Henry IL . . Dec. 19, 1154 Richard I. . .Sept. 3, 1189 John May 27, 1199 Henry in. Oct. 28, 1216 Edward L . .Nov. 20, 1272 Edward n. July 8, 1307 Edward III. Jan. 25, 1327 Richard II. June 22, 1377 ENG H0T7SE OF ZASCASrSR. A.D. A.D. Henry IV. Sept. 30, 1399 I Henry VL. .Sept. 1. 1422 Hemy V. . .May 21, 1413 | HOUSE OF YORK. A-D- Edward IV.March 4, 1461 Edward V. April 9, 1483 A.D. Kichard WL June26, 1483 HOUSE OF TDBOR. A.D. A.D. Henry VII. Aug. 22, 148-5 I Mary Jtdy 6, 1553 Henry V liL Apr. 22, 1509 Elizabeth . . Nov. 17, 1558 Edward VI. Jan. 28, 1547 | HOUSE OF STUART. A.D. A.D. James I. March 24, 1603 I James II. . .Feb. 6, 1685 Charles I. March 27, 1625 WilUam III. and Interregnum | Mary Feb. 13, 1689 Charles U. Jan. 30, 1649 ( Anne . . . .March 8, 1702 Restoration May 29, 1660 | HOUSE OF HAifOVER. George I. . .Aug. 1, 1714 I William IV. June26, 1830 George II. June 11, 1727 | Victoria ( Vivat George III. Oct. 25, 1760 1 Kegina ! ) June 20, 1837 George IV. Jan. 29, 1820 I THE EOTAI, FAMILY OF GREAT BPOTACf. The Queen. Alexandrina Victoria, bom May 24, 1819 ; married Feb. 10, 1840, to her cousin. The Prince Consort. Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emanuel, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, bom Aug. 26, 1819. Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Princess Eoyal, bom Nov. 21, 1840 ; married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Frederick WiUiam, of Prussia. Albert Edward, prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841. Alice Maud Mary, bom April 25, 1843. Alfred Ernest Albert, bom Aug. 6, 1844. Helena Augusta Victoria, bom May 25, 1846. Louisa Caroline Alberta, bom March 18, 1848. Arthur Wniiam Patrick Albert, bom May 1, 18.50. Leopold George Duncan Albert, bom April 7, 1853. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, bom April 14, 1857. ROYAL PRDfCES AND PRINCESSES. George Frederick, duke of Cumberland and king of Hanover, bom May 27, 1819 ; married, i Feb. 18, 1843, to Mary Alexandrina, daughter of ' the duke of Saxe-Altenburg. George William, duke of Camoridge, bom March 26, 1819. Augusta Caroline, bom July 19, 1822; manied, June 28, 1843, the hereaitary grand-duke of Meoklenburg-Strelitz. Mary Adelaide (Pi-jncess Mary of Cambridge), Nov. 27, 1833. England, ISTe-w. {See New England.) Englefield (Battle), or "The Field of the Angles," near Reading, celebrated as the scene of a disastrous defeat of the Danes by the Britons, led by Ethelwulf, ealdorman of Berkshire, a.d. 871. English Language. — HaU'am (Introd. to Lit., pt. 1, c. 1, s. 47) says: — "Nothing can be more difficult than to determine, except by an arbitrary line, the commencement of the Enghsh language." The Saxon Chro- nicle was continued tiU the death of Stephen ENG in 1154, though its language lost somewhat of its original purity during its later years. Layamon's translation of the French Brut romance, completed about 1200, exhibits further digressions from the primitive Saxon tongue; and some metrical hves of saints which were written about the year 1250, may be called the earhest specimens of Enghsh. The first dated document in the language is a proclamation of Henry III. of the year 1258, and the earhest Enghsh book is Sir John Mandeville's travels, written in 1356. By 36 Edw. III. e. 15 (1362), plead- ings in courts of law were ordered to be in Enghsh, and in 1536 the language was intro- duced into Ireland. The use of Enghsh in aU proceedings in Enghsh and Scotch law courts was rendered compulsory by 4 Geo. IL c. 26 (1731). Engkaving was practised at a very early date by the Egyptians, who used wooden stamps engraved with hieroglyphics for the purpose of marking their bricks. It is first mentioned by Moses, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviu. 9), where we read the Divine com- mand to "take two onyx stones, and grave on them the names of the children of Israel." Its revival in Europe dates from about the loth century. Engraving on diamonds is said to have been invented in 1500, though some refuse it an earher origin than 1564. Mezzotint engraving was invented by Colonel von Siegen, about 1643 ; engraving in colours by J. C. Le Blond, about 1725; in imitation of pencil, by Gihes des Marteaux, in 1756 ; and aquatinta engraving by Le Prince, about 1762. The property of en^avings was vested in the designer for fourteen years by 8 Geo. II. c. 13 (1735) ; which was amended by 7 Geo. III. c. 38 (1767). These acts proving ineffectual, persons infringing them were made hable to damages and double costs by 17 Geo. III. c. 57 (1777), and the provisions of aU three were extended to Ireland by 6 & 7 WiQ. IV. c. 59 (Aug. 13, 1836). Copyright was apphed to foreign engravings by 7 & 8 Yict. c. 12 (May 10, 1844) ; and the various statutes on the subject were explained by the Copyright Amendment Act, 15 & 16 Vict. c. 12 (May 28, 1852). Engeating on Coppee is said to have been practised in Germany about a.d. 1450. The invention is also claimed for the Itahan goldsmith Maso Finiguerra in 1460, though no plate exists of earher date than 1461. Andrea Mantegna (1430—1506) pro- duced many fine works in this branch of art. Engraving on Steel. — Some early prints by Albert Durer, dated 1515 and 1516, are beheved to be impressions from steel plates. This metal, however, was very rarely em- ployed by engravers : only one specimen, executed by Mr. J. T. Smith in 1805, being known until 1818, when Mr. C. Warren exhi- bited an impression from a soft steel plate to the Society of Arts. Bank notes are now printed by tms means. Engeating on Wood was practised by the Chinese as early as B.C. 1120. The pre- 'ENK cise date of its introduction into Europe is unknown. Some authorities state that a series of woodcuts illustrative of the career of Alexander the Great, was engraved by the two Cunio in 1285. This story is, how- ever, very doubtful; and, perhaps, the origin of the art may be traced to the wooden blocks used by notaries for stamping mono- grams in the 13th centuiy, and to the en- graved playing-cards which appeared in France about 1340. The earhest woodcut in existence represents St. Christopher with the infant Saviour, and is dated 1423. Many block-books exist of about the year 1430, but the art was not brought to great per- fection tiU the commencement of the 16th century. Albert Durer (1471 — 1523) ; Lucas of Leyden (1494^1533) ; Holbein, whose "Dance of Death" (q.v.) appeared at Lvons in 1538; Gerard Audran (1640—1703); WooUet ( 1735 — 1785 ) ; Thomas Bewick (1753—1828) ; Nesbit, bom in 1775 ; and Harvey, born in 1796, rank foremost among wood-engravers. Enkioping- (Battle). — At this place Albert I., king of Sweden, in 1365, defeated Haco of Norway, who had been elected king of Sweden m 1363. EifLiSTME>fT. — The enhstment of British subjects to serve in foreign armies was pro- hibited by 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (July 3, 1819). By 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 24 (Aug. 21, 1835), enlistment of sailors was hmited to five years ; and by 10 & 11 Yict. c. 37 (June 21, 1847), military service was restricted to ten years in the infantry, and twelve years in the cavalry, artillery, and marines. Eni^iskillen (Ireland) was not a place of much importance when taken by the Enghsh, a.d. 1602. In 1612 it was erected into a corporate town, and subsequently became an important asylum for the Pro- testants of Ulster. The inhabitants pro- claimed William and Mary, March 11, 1689; and, mustering to the number of 2,500 men, defeated 6,000 Jacobites under Macarthy, Lord Moncashel, at Newton Butler, July 30. The vohmteers who gained this battle and otherwise distinguished themselves in the war of the E evolution, are the origin of the Enniskillen dragoons. In 1776 the town gave its name to a viscount, who was made earl of Enniskillen in 1789. Enoch (Book of).— The original version of this apocryphal work, written in Chaldee or Hebrew, is lost, as well as the Greek translation. In 1821 Dr. Lawrence trans- lated the Ethiopic version, brought from Abyssinia by the traveller Bruce, at the end of the 18th century. Dr. Davidson supposed it to have been written about B.C. 40. Entail. — Wharton defines an estate-tail as " a freehold of inheritance, limited to a person and the heirs of his body general or special, male or female." The custom of confining the succession to property in this manner resulted from the desire of the nobi- hty to retain their possessions in their own families. It was commenced by the second 328 EPH statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. c. 1 (1285) . Owing to the inefficacy of attainders of treason when estates were protected by- entails, they were evaded in 1472 by a deci- sion that common recoveries should consti- tute a bar to an entaU. By 26 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1534), high treason confiscates entailed property to the crown ; and by 21 James I. c. 19, s. 12 (1623), entailed estates were per- mitted to be sold in cases of bankruptcy. This latter act was repealed by 6 Geo. IV, c. 16, s. 65 (May 2, 1825), which was again supplanted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 74, ss. 55 — 65 (Aug. 28, 1833), and 12 & 13 Vict. e. 106, s. 208 (Aug. 1,1849). Leases made by tenants in tail are regulated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 120 (July 29, 1856). Entomology. — Aldrovandus published a history of insectsin a.d. 1604, and Mouffet his "Theatrum Insectorum" in 1634; but no good description existed till the appearance of Swammerdam's " General History of In- sects," in 1669. In 1710 Ray's " Methodus Insectorum" was pubhshed, and in 1735 Linnaeus announced his classification. La- treiUe's " Precis des Caracteres des Insectes" appeared in 1797. The French Soci^te Eutomologique was estabhshed in 1832, and the Entomological Society of London in 1833. Entelop-es. — The practice of using enve- lopes for letters is supposed to have originated in France. Le Sage mentions them in " Gil Bias." An envelope attached to a letter, dated May 16, 1696, was found in the State Paper Office. Envelopes were not intro- duced for letters sent through the post till after 1839, as up to that period it was cus- tomary to charge double postage on paper inclosed in another paper. The penny postage system commenced Jan. 10, 1840; but the use of envelopes did not become general until May 6, 1840, when stamped and adhesive envelopes were introduced. In 1841 about half the letters which passed through the Post-office were in envelopes, and in 1850 300 out of every 336 were thus protected. HiU and De la Eue's ingenious machine for folding envelopes was patented March 17, 1845. EoLODicoN. — This musical instrument was invented by Eschenbach, in 1815, and an account of it was published at Leipsie in 1820. EooA, or MiDDLEBUBG (South Pacific), the most eastern of the Friendly Isles, was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, who gave it the name of Middleburg, Jan. 19, 1643. Ephesus (Asia Minor) was founded at a very early date, and first inhabited by the Carians and Leleges. It was burnt by the A m azons B.C. 1141, and rebuilt by the lonians, who entered Asia Minor under the leadership of Androclus, son of Codrus, B.C. 1045. Croe- sus, king of Lydia, seized Ephesus B.C. 559, and the temple of Artemis or Diana was erected B.C. 552. Ephesus surrendered to Cyrus B.C. 544, and remained under the Per- sian yoke until B.C. 501, when, with other EPH Ionian cities, it revolted, and regained its independence. The Athenian and Eretrian fleets remained here previous to their assault on Sardis, B.C. 499, and the Spartan general Lysander estabUshed his head-quarters in the city, and defeated the Athenians in a sea-fight fought in its vicinity, B.C. 407. The temple was burnt by an incendiary, B.C. 356, on the same day on which Alexander the Great was born. Its re-erection occupied 220 years, and the new bxiilding was regarded by the ancients as one of the seven wonders of the world. Ephesus was destroyed by an inun- dation B.C. 322 ; but Lysimachus rebuilt it on a more elevated site b.c. 300. The Romans gave this city to the king of Pergamum, B.C. 190, and on the formation of their province of Asia in B.C. 129, erected it into the capital. It was reduced to ruins by an earthquake A.D. 17. St. Paul preached here a.d. 56, and made so many converts that a riot was stirred up in 59 by Demetrius, the silversmith, in consequence of the decreased demand for silver shrines for the goddess Diana (Acts xix. 23-41). Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians was written in 61, and in 65 he ordained Timothy to be first bishop of the diocese. Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia. The temple of Diana was destroyed by the Goths, A.D. 262, and on the occasion of the third general council, in 431, the city was the scene of disgraceful ecclesiastical riots. Councils were held here in 196 ; 245 ; 401 ; 431, June 22 to July 31 (the third General Council) ; 449, and 476. Ephoei, magistrates instituted in Sparta by Theopompus, b.c. 757. They were five in number. Thirlwall (vol. i. c. ix. p. 4<07) says of them : — "The royal dignity was forced on all occasions to bow to them ; and as they could control the proceedings of the kings by their orders, could fine them for slight oflfences at their discretion, and could throw them into prison to await a trial on graver charges, so they alone, among aU the Spar- tans, kept their seats while the kings were passing, whereas it was not thought beneath the majesty of the kings to rise in honour of the ephors, and it was their acknowledged duty to attend, at least on the third summons, before the ephoral tribunal." Epictteeans. — This sect of philosophers was founded by Epicurus of Samos, who was bom B.C. 342. He estabhshed a school at Athens b.c. 306, and continued to teach until his death, which occurred B.C. 270. He inaintained that happiness is the object of hfe, a,ndthat it consists in the recollection or anticipation of sensual pleasures ; and as a future state would interfere with his doc- trines on this subject, he denied its existence altogether. Epidatjkus (Greece). — A congress con- voked at this town, Dec. 15, 1831, proclaimed the independence of Greece in 1822. Epigrams were originally inscriptions upon tombstones, on ofierings to the gods, &c., and were written by Arclulochus, who flourished B.C. 688, and Simonides, B.C. 500. The Latin poet Martial (a.d. 43—104) is EPI considered to have excelled all other writers in this species of composition. Epiphant.— This feast, celebrated Jan. 6, is said by Bingham (b. xi. c. vi. s. 7), to com- memorate "the day on which Christ was baptized and manifested to the world." It was first observed by the Gnostic followers of BasUides of Alexandria, who flourished about A.D. 125, and does not appear to have been celebrated by the church at large tiU long afterwards, as it is excluded from the list of feasts given by Origen (230) . Its observance as a separate feast commenced a.d. 813. Epirus (Greece) was originally peopled by Pelasgians, but very little is known of its early history. B.C. 1170. 340.' 276. 274. 273. 272. 219. 167. Arrival of Neoptolemus, or Pyrrims, son of Achilles. The Corinthians found the city of Ambracia. Accession of Alexander I., uucle to Alexander the Great. Alexander falls in battle in Italy. Pyrrhus, the greatest sovereign of Epirus establishes himself on the throne. He makes war against Demetrius, king of Macedonia. Demetrius invades Epirus. PyiThus invades Macedonia, and is expelled by Demetrius. Pyrrhus again invades Macedonia, where he reigns, conjointly with Lysimachus, for about seven months. Pyrrhus invades Italy, and gains a splendid victory over the Piomans. He gains the battle of Asculum, and conquers Sicily. He again invades Italy. He is defeated by the Romans, under Curiiis Dentatus, who expels him from Italy. He wrests Macedonia from Autigonus Gonatus. He is killed at Argos, by a tile thrown from a house-top. The Epirotes unite with Philip V. of Macedon. against the .^tolians. iEmilius Paulus destroys seventy towns of Epirus, and carries away 150,000 of the inhabitants as slaves. Augustus founds the city of Nicopolis, which becomes the Koman capital of Epirus. The Despotat of Epirus is founded by Michael I. Epirus is conquered by Stephen Duscian, king of Sei-via. It is invaded by Charles Tocco, count of Cephalonia, and duke of Leucadia. The Turks take Joannina and ^tolia. Epirus is annexed to the Ottoman empire. Jan. 28. The Epirotes rise in insurrection. June 18. The rebellion is suppressed. Epitaphs. — Pettigrew says of the custom of placing inscriptions upon tombs, that "the Egyptians may lay claim to be the earhest recorders of this description, by the writing of their names, their descent, their functions. See., upon their sarcophagi and coffins." Numerous epitaphs are found on Greek and Roman tombs, but the Saxons and Danes have left few memorials of this kind. Some interesting inscriptions of the latter part of the 7th century have, however, been discovered at Hartlepool. Epitaphs did not become general in England till the 11th century, when they were written in Latin, and chiefly inscribed upon the tombs 329 1431. 1466. 1854. EPI of kings and ecclesiastical dignitaries. In tlie 12th century Leonine verses were very gen- eral. French epitaphs were not used in France till the 13th century ; they were afterwards introduced into England^ where they continued in use till the 15th, after which time English epitaphs became general. Epithalamia, or Hxmes-eal HxMifS, composed to be chanted at weddings. Sappho, who flourished B.C. 596, and Stesi- chorus, B.C. 560, are celebrated for the beauty of their productions of this kind. Epsom (Surrey). — The mineral springs from which Epsom salts are extracted were discovered A. D. 1618. The parish church was rebuilt in 1824. Epitlowes. — Three priests appointed by the pontifices to superintend the feasts in the sacred games. They were instituted B.C. 196, andinthetuneof Sylla(B.c.88 — 79) were increased in number to seven. Equator. (See Ecuadoe.) ERASTiAJfS, the name given to those who adopted the views of Thomas Lieber, or Erastus, a German physician and divine, who was born a.d. 1523, and died in 1583. They formed a separate party ia the Assembly of Divines in 1643, and unsuccessfully advocated their peculiar views respecting the exclu- sively persuasive authority of the pastoral office, and the consequent impropriety of ecclesiastical excommunications, &c. Eepuet (Prussian Saxony), founded in the 5th centui'y, was, in the time of Charle- magne, one of the most important commer- cial towns of Germany. Its university was founded a.d. 1392, and is celebrated as having numbered Martin Luther among its students in 1501. In 1664 the town was taken by the French, who ceded it to the elector of Mayence in 1667. In 1803 it was annexed to Prussia, but was again taken by the French imder Murat, Oct. 15, 1806, when 14,000 Prussians, including Marshal MoUen- dorf and the prince of Orange, were made prisoners. Isapoleon Bonaparte and the emperor Alexander of Eussia had an in- terview here, Sept. 27, 1808. It result- ed in a letter which they addressed to George III., Oct. 12, desiring him to accede to offers of peace. A reply was sent Oct. 28, to the effect that England could only treat in concert with Sweden and Spain. Erfurt was restored to Prussia Jan. 6, 1814. Its university was suppressed in 1816. A German parliament assembled here March 20, 1850. Eeicsson's Patek-t. — A smaU vessel built to test the capabilities of Mr. Ericsson's screw propeller, first patented in 1833, in an experimental trip on the Thames, May 25, 1837, towed a ship of above 600 tons, at the rate of 4^ knots per hour, against the tide. In 1851 Mr. Ericsson changed the form of his engine and buUt another vessel of 1,000 tons, named after the inventor, to be propelled by hot air instead of steam. In her trial trip, in 1853, she is said to have equalled Mr. Ericsson's expectations; but she ulti- mately proved a failure, and never crossed ESC the Atlantic, for which she was specially designed. In 1855 the caloric engine was taken out of the Ericsson, and steam-engines were substituted. Eeie Canal, commenced a.d, 1817, was completed in 1824. Eelangem" (Bavaria). — The new town was foimded a.d. 1686 and its Protestant university in 1743. Eemia (Knights of). — This order of knights was instituted by Francis I., duke of Britanny, a.d. 1450. The order became extinct when Britanny was annexed to France in 1532. Eeeoad, or Eeouad (Hindostan). — The Enghsh reduced Erroad a.d. 1768, and Hyder Ah recovered it soon after. They regained possession in 1790, but it was again wrested from them the' same year by Tippoo Saib. It was, however, ceded to the East-India Company in 1799. Eeyx (Sicily) . — This city, near Drepanum, was celebrated for a temple of Venus, of which .(Eneas was said to be the founder. The Carthaginians were defeated by the Syracusans in a sea-fight off Eryx, b.c. 406. It maintained several sieges, was taken by Pyrrhus b.c. 277, and was destroyed by Hanulcar, who removed the inhabitants to Drepanum, b.c. 260. The town was after- wards restored, and was warmly contested between the Eomans and Carthaginians, Eezeeoum: (Asiatic Turkey). — This city was founded by Theodosius II. a.d. 415, and passed under the authority of the Sel- juks during the 11th century. In 1241 it was taken by the Mongols, by whom the inhabitants were either massacred or sold into slavery, and in 1517 it was seized by the Turks. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Persia and Turkey, July 28, 1823. The city was taken by the Russians under Count Paskiewitch, July 9, 1829. It was destroyed by an earthquake, which lasted from June 11 to July 17, 1859. Escheats. — Stephens (Com. b, ii. pt. 1, c. 12) says of the word escheat, that it is " originally French or Norman, in which language it signifies chance or accident ; but with us it is applied to the case where the tenant of lands in fee dies without having ahened them in his lifetime, or disposed of them by his last wiU and testament, and leaves no heir behind him to take them by descent, so that they result back, by a kind of reversion, to the original grantor or lord of the fee." By 13 & 14 Yict. c. 60 (Aug. 5, 1850), beneficiaries and mortgagors were protected from the ordinary law of escheat in the event of a trustee or mortgagee dying heirless and intestate. EscHENDTJK (Battle) .—Ethelred, with his brother Alfred, defeated the Danes in a great battle at Eschendun, or Eschedun, meaning "the hiU of the ash," a.d. 871. Some authorities believe Aston, in Berks, and others Ashendon, in Bucks, is meant. j EscoEiAL. — This ancient palace of the '• kings of Spain was erected by Phihp II., in J consequence of a vow made during the battle ESQ of St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557, that he would, if victorious, found a church, a monastery, and a palace. The thi-ee are said to be combined in the Escorial, dedicated to St. Lorenzo, on whose day the vow was made. In honour of the martyrdom of the saint, who was broiled to death Aug. 10, 261, the ground plan of the new edifice was designed m form of a gridiron. The first stone was laid April 23, 1563, and the building was completed Sept. 13, 1584. The library was added about 1580. A subterranean passage connecting the palace with an adjoining vil- lage, was added in 1770, for use during the hurricanes of winter, which are of astonishing fury. A French force under La Houssaye sacked the Escorial in December, 1808, and carried away a large quantity of valu- ables. EsQTJiMEAUx. — A tribe of savages, who are supposed to have been identical vdth the modern Esquimeaux, appeared in West Greenland a.d. 1349, and destroyed several of the Norwegian settlers. In 1733 the Esquimeaux were visited by some Moravian Brethren, who established a mission in Labrador in 1752 ; but the missionaries were compelled to return, in consequence of the ill-feeling of the natives. A second attempt, made in 1764, proved more suc- cessful. Hearne discovered Esquimeaux near the Polar Sea in 1772, and MacKenzie in 1789. EsQiriEE. — This title is of considerable antiquity, and, like armiger, scutifer, scuta- rius, and ecuyer, is derived from the shield, and other portions of the knight's arms which the esquire used to carry. Selden states that it was first used to express the next rank below a knight, about a.d. 850, and it is said to have been applied to other persons than attendants upon knights as early as 1245. Essays and Eeviews. — This volume, which created much controversy, was pub- lished in 1860, and quickly went through several editions. It contained the following essays: — "The Education of the World." By Frederick Temple, D.D. — " Bunsen's Biblical Researches." By Eowland Williams, D.D.— " On the Study of the Evidences of Christianity." By Baden PoweU, M.A. — "Stances Historiques de Geneve." — "The National Church." By Henry Bristow Wil- son, B.D. — "On the Mosaic Cosmogony," By C. W. Goodwin, M.A.— "Tendencies of EeHgious Thought in England, 1688—1750." By Mark Pattison, B.D.— "On the Inter- Sretation of Scripture." By Benjamin owett, M.A. EssECK, or EszEK (Austria), the capital of Slavonia, is bmlt on the site of the ancient Mursia or Mursa. The Turks defeated the Germans in a great battle at this place in 1537. The fortress, commenced a.d, 1712, was completed in 1719. EssENES, or EssENiANS. — A sect of as- cetics which sprung up amongst the Jews after the return from the Babylonish cap- tivity. They were also called Therapeutse. EST Some writers are of opinion that John the Baptist belonged to this sect. EssEQUiBO (South America). — Pinzon dis- covered this river A.D. 1499, and in 1580 the Dutch formed a settlement on its banks. This was captured by the Enghsh in 1796. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802. Hav- ing been recaptured Sept. 20, 1803, it was finally ceded to England by the convention signed with the Netherlands Aug. 13, 1814. (See British Guiana, Demeeaea, &c.) Essex (England) .—At the time of the Eo- man invasion, this county was in the posses- sion of the Trinobantes. Erchenwin, a.d. 527, estabhshed the Saxon kingdom of the name, which comprised Middlesex and part of Hertfordshire, and continued in existence until its incorporation with Wessex in 823. In 1381 the inhabitants rebelled under Wat Tyler to oppose the poll-tax ; and, in 1659, Mr. Thomas Fanshaw incited them to rise in behalf of Charles II. Previous to 1832 Essex returned two members to parliament, but the number was then increased to four. The earldom of Essex was created by Queen Elizabeth in favour of Walter Devereux in 1572. Essex CoifSPiEACT. — Eobert Devereux, second earl of Essex, having shown great want of judgment in his administration of Irish aifairs during his government in 1599, suddenly returned to England without orders, in September, and was confined to his own house, and denied the privileges of his rank and functions in consequence. He was restored to freedom, but not to royal favour, Aug. 26, 1600, and was induced by his secre- tary CufFe to conspire to remove his enemies from the royal councils. On Sunday, the 8th of February, 1601, he detained several of the council who were sent to question him, and was proclaimed a traitor, and com- pelled to surrender, after several lives had been lost in his defence. He and the earl of Southampton were arraigned for high treason, Feb. 19, and found gmlty. Essex was exe- cuted on Tower HiU, Feb. 25. EsTAPiES ( France ) . — Peace between France and England was concluded at this town Sept. 3, 1492. EsTE (House of). — In a Latin history of this house by Pignon, its origin is carried back as far as a.d. 418. Its most direct an- cestor is Albert Azzo II., who was born about 996. In 1071, Guelph IV. established his authority in Bavaria, and thus foimded the German branch of the fanaily, and in 1176 Azzo V. acquired Ferrara by marriage, and thus became chief of the Guelphs of Venetia. The town of Este was destroyed by Ezzelin in 1247. EsTHOiriA, or Estland (Eussia). — This province, conquered by the Danes a.d. 1220, was sold by Denmark to the Teutonic Knights in 1346, and was given up to Sweden by the peace of Oliva, May 3, 1660. Peter the Great captured it in 1710, and it was ceded to Eussia by the treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. It is sometimes called the province of Eevel (q. v.). 331 EST EsTEEMOZ (Battle). — The Portuguese defeated the Spaniards at this strongly-for- tified town, in Portugal, a.d. 1663. Etaitpes (France). — Clotaire II. was defeated near this ancient town, a.d. 604. The Northmen pillaged Etampes in 911. It suffered greatly during the religious wars. EiCHiifG. — the inventor of this art is not known, but it was very early practised by Albert Durer, whose print of the " Canon," A.D. 1518, is perhaps the first example of its employment. Parmegiano, who died in 1540, is regarded by some as the inrentor of etching. Henry Sehwanhard discovered the art of etching on glass a.d. 1670. ETHAifDUiTE (Battle).— Alfred defeated the Danes at Ethandune, supposed to be Eddington, near Westbury, a.d. 878. Ethee is thought to have been known in some form to Paracelsus, who flourished A.D. 1520 — 1541. Basil Valentine obtained it in the 14th century by distilling alcohol and sulphuric acid, and in 16S1 nitric ether ; was discovered by Kunkel. In Middleton' s ' "Women beware Women," printed in 1657, ' the following passage occurs : — " I'll imitate the pities of old svu-geons To this lost limb ; who, ere they show their axt. Cast one asleep, then cut the diseased pai-t." A ct iv. gc. 1. Its preparation was, however, forgotten, until rediscovered by iN'avier in 1742. Mtric ether was first analyzed by BouUay and Dumas in 1828. Hydratic, or, as it is incorrectly termed, sulphuric ether, was discovered by Gay-Lus- sac in 1734, and acetic ether by the Count de Lauragnais in 1759. Muriatic ether was first obtained by Gehlen in 1804, cenanthic ether by Liebig and Pelouze in 1836, and real sulphuric ether by WetheriU in 1S48. Ethiopia (Africa), the Cush of the Scrip- tures. The term was apphed to the exten- sive territories between the Eed Sea and the Atlantic, and in a more restricted sense to the kingdom of Meroe, B.C. 161.5. The Ethiopians establish themselves to the south of Egypt. / 941. Terah, king of Ethiopia, is defeated by Asa, at Mareshah. 769. Sebichns, or So, leads an immense army into Egypt, where he establishes an Ethiopian dynasty. 710. Tiihakah, king of Ethiopia, marches to the assistance of Hezekiah against Sennacheiib, hut returns, in consequence of the miia- culous destruction of the Assyrian army. 630. A great migration of warriors from Egypt to Ethiopia takes place. 600. Ethiopia is invaded by Psanmiis, king of Egypt. 524. Cambyses leads an army of 50,000 men into Ethiopia, all of whom are bui-ied beneath the burning sands of the desert. 225. Ptolemy Euergetes I. extends his power in Ethiopia. 22. Candace, queen of Ethiopia, is defeated by Petronius. Ethn-qlogt. — TMs science, which treats of the various races of mankind, owes its origin to the researches of Thunmann, ETR Schlaezer, Buhle, Klaproth, De Sacy, Eit- ter, &c. A society for its pursuit Avas estabhshed at Paris in 1839, and the Ethno- logical Society of London was founded by Dr. Ejng in 1843. Etox College (Buckinghamshire) was founded by Henry YI., as the " CoUege of the Blessed Marie of Eton by Wyndesore," Sept. 12, 1440. The charter was confirmed by act of parhament at Westminster, May 4, 1441. The original foundation was a provost, ten priests, four clerks, six choristers, twenty- five poor grammar-scholars, and a master to teach them, and the hke number of poor men. It now consists of a provost, seven feUows, two conducts, seven clerks, seventy king's scholars, ten lay clerks, ten choristers, and a number of inferior officers and ser- vants. The duke of Newcastle founded and endowed three scholarships of the annual value of £50 each in 1829, and Prince Albert instituted the annual prize of £50 for pro- moting the study of modern languages in 1842. Eton- Montem. — This triennial procession of the scholars of Eton CoUege is thus de- scribed by Lyson (Magna Britannia, i. 557) : — "The chief object of the celebrity is to col- lect money for salt, as the j)hrase is, from aU persons present, and it is exacted even from passengers travelling the road. The scholars who collect the money are called salt-bearers, and are dressed in rich silk habits. . . . This ceremony has been frequently honoured with the presence of his majesty (George III.) and the royal family, whose hberal contributions, added to those of many of the nobility and others who have been educated at Eton and purposely attend the meeting, have so far augmented the collections, that it has been known to amount to more than £800. The sum so collected is given to the senior scholar who is going off to Cambridge, for his sup- port at the university." The date of the institution of this practice is not known, but it is of very early origin. At first it was celebrated on the 6th of December; but in 1758 it was transferred to Whit-Tuesday. The ceremony was finally abohshed May 25, 1847. Etetjeia. — Bvthe 5th article of the treaty of LuneviUe, Feb. 9, 1801, the duchy of Tuscany was raised into the kingdom of Etntria, and bestowed upon Louis, son of the duke of Parma, who began to exercise authority July 21 in the same year. Napo- leon I. suppressed this kingdom, adding it to the kingdom of Italy in 1807. Eteueia (Staffordshire). — This vUlage, manufactory, and mansion, were founded by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, the eminent im- prover of British pottery, in 1771. His death occurred here in 1795. Etedeia, or TusciA (Italy), the modern Tuscany. 800. The EtiTiscans settle in Campania. 538. They unite with the Carthaginians in an ex- pedition against the PhocEean coloniats of Corsica. EU 522. They attack Cumae. 506. Defeat of Porsenna at Aricia, by the Greeks and Komans. 474. Hieron of Syi-acuse defeats an Etruscan fleet. 453. The Syracusans ravage the coasts of Etruria. 396. The Komans capture Veu. 384. Dionysius of Syracuse invades Etruria. 351. The Etrus-cans conclude a forty years' truce with the Romans. 310. Ou the expiration of the truce, they sustain a serious defeat at the Vadiainnian Lake. 295. They are again defeated at Sentinum, in Umbria. 283. The Romans are again victorious at the Vadi- monian Lake. 265. Etruria is finally reduced to a Roman pro- vince. 89. The Etruscans receive the Roman franchise. 41. Etruscan nationality is extinguished by the capture of Perugia. EtT (France) . — This town was burned by Louis XI. to save it from the English, a.d. 1475, and was nevei* restored. In 1578 the duke of Guise rebuilt the castle, which Louis Philippe improTcd and extended in 1821. Here the monarch received Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Sept. 2, 1843. A series of grand entertainments were given, and the royal guests returned to England Sept. 7, 1843. EuBCEA (^gean Sea). — This island was invaded by the Athenians, who defeated the inhabitants of its chief city, Chalcis, and estabhshed a colony of 4,000 of their own countrymen, B.C. 506. The city of Eretria was destroyed by the Persians b.c. 490, and the island soon afterwards became subject to the Athenians. It revolted b.c. 445 and 411, and was in each case speedily reduced to tranqmUity ; but after the battle of Chse- roneia, b.c. 338, it was seized by Phihp of Macedon, whose descendants retained pos- session of it till the Romans restored it to independence, b.c. 194. An insurrection against the Turks broke out in Euboea in 1822. [See Negeopont.) Etjchabist. {See Suppeb of the Loed.) EucHiTES, or MESSAiiAiirs. — This sect, says Bingham (Antiq. iv. b. xi. c. 2, s. 5), «' were so called from the Greek word svxV) prayer, and Messalians from the Syriac word metsalach, which is much of the same signification, because they resolved all reli- gion into prayer," They arose in the 4th century. Eugubian, or EtTGTJBiifB Tables. — These tablets of brass were dug up between Cor- tona and Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium, a.d. 1444. The number of the tablets is seven, of which five contain Umbric inscriptions mixed with Etruscan, and two contain Latin inscriptions. They are generally ascribed to the 4th century B.C. EuxoiiiA^-s.— The followers of Eunomius, who was made bishop of Cyzicus a.d. 360, were so called. They adopted the extreme tenets of Arianism. Theodosius I. published edicts against them in 394, by which they were forbidden to appoint bishops, and were declared incapable of inheriting property or making a will. EuPATOEiAj or KosLov (Crimea), the EVA ancient PompeiopoUs. The mosque of Devlet-Ghiri-Khan was built a.d. 1552. This town was taken by the Russians in 1726 and 1771. On the commencement of the Crimean war, it was occupied by the allied forces, Sept. 14, 1854, who re- pelled an attack of the Cossacks, Oct. 11. Omer Pasha defended it against a Russian force under General Chruleff, Feb. 17, 1855, and it was finally restored to the Russians May 31, 1856. EuBOPE. — The Phoenicians founded colo- nies in Europe between the 12th and 8th centuries B.C. The earhest notice of this quarter of the globe is foimd in the writings of the Greeks, who began to form settle- ments in the south of Europe in the 6th century B.C. ErETMEDOif (Battle). — Near this river of Asia Minor, Cimon, sonof Mihtiades, defeated I a Persian fleet of 350 vessels, 200 of which ; he captured, B.C. 466. He also encountered the land forces of the Persians on the banks I of this river later the same day, and com- I pletely routed them. I Eustace, St. (Battle). — The rebels were i defeated at this place, in Lower Canada, I Dec. 14, 1837. The insurgents laid down their arms, and their leaders took to flight. ; EusTATixjs, St. ( West Indies), one of ] the Leeward islands, was colonized early in the 17th century by the Dutch, to whom it now belongs. It was taken and retaken several times during the 17th and 18th centuries. Admiral Rodnev cap- ' tured it Feb. 3, 1781. The French took it Nov. 26 in the same year. The English regained possession, and the island was finally transferred to the Dutch by the con- i vention with Great Britain, signed at London ; Aug. 13, 1814. I EuTAW Spein-gs (Battle) . — The Americans j were defeated by the English in a severely- I contested action at Eutaw Springs, in South I Carolina, Sept. 8, 1781. The American army j consisted of 4,000 men, and the English force was greatly superior in point of ntun- bers. Etjttchians, the disciples of Eutyches, abbot of Constantinople, who began to pul - i Ush his views respecting the nature of Christ j A.D. 446. He taught that after his incarna- I tion the Saviour only possessed one nature, I compoimded of Godhead and manhood. This doctrine was condemned by the council of Constantinople in 448, and Eutyches was deprived of his office ; but the council of Ephesus in 449 declared him orthodox, and reinstated him in his dignity. His doctrines were, however, again condemned by the fourth general council, held at Chalcedon Oct. 8, 451. Evangelical Alliance. — ^A conference was held at Liverpool in October, 1845, to consider the possibility of imiting all branches of the Christian church into one grand con- federacy. Two meetings were held at the same town on the 16th of December following, to consider the proposed alliance, and a con- ference, composed of members from aU parts 333 EVA EXC of the United Kingdom and several foreign countries, met at Freemasons' Hall, London, under the presidency of Sir Culling Eardley Smith, Aug. 19 to Sept. 2, 1846, when nine propositions were adopted as the basis of the union. Evangelists. — This term, formerly applied to all writers or preachers of the G-ospel, is now generally confined to the writers of the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Matthew's gospel is assigned by different authorities to various dates between a.d. 38 and a.d. 64; Mark's to A.D.65; Luke's to a.d, 63; and John's to A.D. 97. Evesham (Battle). — Near this town, in Worcestershire, Prince Edward, after- wards Edward I. defeated the Enghsh barons under De Montfort, and released his father Henry III., who had been kept in captivity since the battle of Lewes. De Montfort and his son Henry were both killed in the battle, which was fought Aug. 4, 1265. {See Baeons' War.) Evil Mat-Dat. (/See APPBE^'■TICES.) ExAECH.— An officer first appointed by Justinian I. as the representative in peace and war of the emperor of the Eomans, a.d. 553. Narses, the first exarch, administered the entire kingdom of Italy, but the jurisdiction of his successors in the office was limited to the province of Eavenna (q. v.). Exchange. (5'ce Burse.) Exchequer (Comptroller-General of the) . —On the suppression of the offices of auditor, tellers of the exchequer, and clerk of the pells, by 4Will. IV. e. 15, s. 1 (May 22, 1834), the same act provided for the discharge of their respective functions by creating a comptroller-general, with a regular staff of clerks and assistants. Exchequer (Court of).— This court was appointed by William I. a.d. 1079, to take cognizance of matters connected with the revenue. It also exercised jurisdiction over common-plea suits until a separate court was erected for their decision by Magna Charta, in 1215. (/See Common Pleas.) The name was derived from the table at which its sittings were held, which is described as " a four- cornered board, about ten feet long and five feet broad, fitted in manner of a table to sit about ; on every side whereof is a standing ledge, or border, four fingers broad. Upon this board is laid a cloth, bought in Easter term, which is of a black colour, rowed with strekes, distant about a foot or a span." On the squares of this chequered cloth counters were placed, to assist in making the needful computations. Barons of the exchequer were first appointed July 6, 1234, and chief barons March 8, 1312. By 9 Edw. III. st. 1, e. 5 (1335), justices of assize, &c. were ordered to send aU their records to this court annu- ally at Miehaehnas, and by 31 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 12 (1357), the lord chancellor and lord treasurer were authorized to examine its erroneous judgments. (See Exchequee Chambee.) By 5 Vict, e, 5, s. 1 (Oct. 6, 1841), the jurisdiction of the exchequer was transferred to the court of Chancery. The office of cursitor baron of the exchequer was abohshed by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 86 (July 29, 1856), and the practice and procedure on the revenue side of the court was amended by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 21, s. 9, et seq. (Aug. 13, 1859). By 6 Anne, c. 26 (1707), a court of exchequer was estabhshed in Scotland, which was abohshed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. e, 54 (June 23, 1832). CHIEF BABONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 1312. 1329. 1329. 1337. 1344. 1345. 1345. 1350. 1362. 1365. 1374. 1375. 1380. 1400. 1413. 1419. 1423. 1436. 1448. 1462. 1471. 1479. 1483. 148«. 1513. 1522. 1526. 1529. 1545. 1552. 1553. 1558. 1559. 1.577. 1577. 1578. 1593. 1604 1607. 1625. 1631. 1644. 1648. 1655. 1658. 1660. 1671. 1676. 1695. 1714. 1716. 1722. 1723. 1725. 1726. 1730. 1738. 1740. 1742. 3772. 1777. 1787. 1793. March 8. Walter de Norwich. Feb. 22. John de Stonore. Dec. 19. Henry le Scrope. March 20. Robert de Sadinpton. July 2. William de Sharesbiill.! Nov. 10. John de Stonford. Dec. 8. Robert de Sadington (again). Apiil 7. Gervase de WUtord. Feb. 12. WiUiam de Skipwith. Oct. 29. Thomas de Lovielowe. Feb. 3. William Tank. Nov. 12. He'.ry de Asty. Dec. 6. Robert de f lessington. Nov. 5. John Gary. April 24 Thomas Pynchebek. May 12. John Cassy. Nov. 15. John Cokayn. May 2. William Lasiugby. Nov. 4. William Babiugton. May 5 John Juvu. Feb. 9. John Fray. May 2. Peter Arderue. Sept. 10. Sir Richard Illingworth. May 22. Sir Thomas Ui-swyke. April 3. Sir William Nottingham. June 15. Humphrey Starkey. Oct. 29. William Hody. Jan. 8. John Scott. Feb. 8. John Fitz-.Tames. Jan. 24. Richard Broke. May 12. Richard Lyster. Nov. 11. Roger Cholmley. May 21. Henry Bradshaw. Sept. 1. David Brook. March 2. Clement Heigbam. Jan. 22. Sir Edward Saunders. Jan. 24 Sir Robert Bell. Oct. 12. Sir John JeflErey. Nov. 17. Sir Roger Manwood. Sir William Periram. Oct. 27. Sir Thomas Fleming. June 25. Six Lawrence Tanfield. May 10. Sir John Walter. Jan. 10. Sir Humphrey Davenport. Jan. 25. Sir Richard Lane. Oct. 12. John Wilde. May 28. WiUiam Steele. June 26. Sir Thomas Widdringtou. Jan. 17. John WUde (again). Juuel. Sir Orlando Bridgman. Nov. 7. Matthew Hale. May 23. Sir Edward Turner. April 12. William Montague. April 21. Sir Edward Atkins. AprU 17. Sir Robert Atkyns. June 10. Sir Edward Wai-d. Nov. 20. Sir- Samuel Dodd. June 10. Sir Thomas Bury. May 4 Sir James Montague. Nov. 16. Sir Robert Eyi-e. June 1. Sir Jeffrey Gilbert. Oct. 22. Sir Thomas Peugelley. April 28. Sir James Reynolds. July 8. Sir John Comyns. Nov. 28. Sir Edmund Probyn. Dec. 4. Sir Thomas Parker. Oct. 28. Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. Nov. 29. Sir John Skynner. Jan. 26. Sir James I^re. Feb. 14 Sir Archibald Macdonald. EXC 1814. Sir Alexander Thompson. 1817. April 22. Sir KicUard Eichards. 1824. Jan. 31. Sii- William Alexander. 1831. John, Baron Lyndhurst. 1834. Dec. Sir James Scarlett, afterwards Baron Abinger. 1844. Sir Frederick Pollock, CHIEF BAEONS FOR lEELAITI), SINCE THE EEVOLITTIOir. A.D. 1703. 1706, 1707, 1714, 1715. 1722. 1725. 1730. 1741. 1757. 1766. 1777. 1782 1838. 1840. 1846. Dec. 5. Sir John Hely. May 10. Robert Doyne. Dec. 27. Nehemiah Donnellan. June 25. Kichard Freeman. June 12. Robert Kochfort. Oct. 14. Joseph Deane. June 16. Geffrey Gilbert. June 9. Bernard Hale. Sept. 2. Thomas Dalton. Sept. 29. Thomas Marlay Dec. 21. John Bowes. March 11. Edward WUles. Sept. 5. Anthony Foster. July 3. James Dennis, afterwards Baron Tracton. July 2. Walter Hussey Burgh. Nov. 29. Barry Yelverton, afterwards Viscount Avonmore. Oct. 5. standish O'Grady, afterwards Viscount Guillamore. Jan. 6. Henry Joy. July 20. Stephen Woulfe. Feb. 11. Maziere Brady. Sept. 1. David Richard Pigot. ExcHEQUEE (Tellers of the).— These offi- cers existed as early as a.d. 1189, in which year they were ten in number, though they were afterwards reduced to four. Thev were aboHshed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 15, s. 1 (May 22, 1834). ExcHEQXJEE Bills first appeared a.d, 1696, since which time they have been issued annually. Their first circulation by the Bant of England was in 1706, Double- day (".Financial History of England," p. 77) defines them as "nothing more than pro- missory notes due at certain dates, and bearing interest, issued by government when in want of money." ExcHEQTJEE Chambee. — TMs court was erected by 31 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 12 (1357), to discuss questions which other courts find doubtful, and to serve as a tribunal of appeal from the court of Exchequer. By 27 Eliz. c. 8 (1585), its jurisdiction was extended over erroneous judgments in the court of King's Bench, and it was confirmed and further regulated by 31 Ehz. c. 1 (1589). The con- stitution of this court was again altered by 11 Geo. lY. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70, s. 8 (July 23, 1830). Excise, or a duty levied upon articles of consumption, produced within the state in which the tax is levied, was introduced at Eome by Augustus, after the civil wars, B.C. 28. Gibbon says it seldom exceeded one per cent, that it was temporarily reduced one half by Tiberius, after the annexation of Cappadoeia, a.d. 15, and that it was alto- gether abolished by CaJigula (a.d. 37 — 41). An attempt, made in 1626, to introduce excise duties into England, proved unsuc- cessful. The Long Parliament levied the first EXC excise duties in England, May 16, 1643. Wines, ale, beer, cider, perry, and tobacco were the articles taxed. By 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), excise duties were levied as part of the revenues of the crown. The malt duty was first levied in 1695. A large num- ber of articles on which excise was formerly levied are now exempted. The old Excise Office was built on the site of Gresham College in 1774. In 1823, the Irish and Scotch Boards of Excise were incorporated with the Enghsh establishment. The Board of Excise was incorporated vrith that of Stamps and Taxes, under the name of Board of Inland Eevenue, by 12 Vict. c. 1 (Feb. 27, 1849). Exclusion Bill. — The first Exclusion bill committed in the House of Commons, May 21, 1679, by 207 against 128, was lost by the dissolution of that parliament, May 27. A second measure " for securing the Protestant religion by disabling James, duke of York, to inherit the imperial crown of this realm," passed the House of Commons Nov. 11, 1680; and was rejected in the House of Lords, on the motion for its first reading, ISTov. 15. Charles II. sent a message to the Commons, refusing to pass a biU of exclu- sion, Jan. 7, 1681. In the new parhament summoned to meet at Oxford, March 21, 1681, the Commons ordered, March 28, that the bill for excluding James, duke of York, was to be read a third time the next day. Charles II. at once dissolved the parliament, stating, "as we are not likely to have a good end, when the divi- sions at the beginning are such." Excommunication-, as an ecclesiastical punishment, is of two kinds, the major or greater, and the less. The major excommu- cation is also called anathema (g-. u.). The lesser excommunication consisted in exclu- ding persons from the participation of the Eucharist, and prayers of the faithful. The following are the most celebrated instances in which excommunication has been pro- nounced by the popes. When levied against an entire state, it is termed an interdict. 535. Baroniiis asserts that Agapetus threatened to put France under an interdict, b-cause of a murder committed by King Olotatre. This account is rejected as a fable. 998. Gregoiy V. excommunicates Robert, king of France. 1077. Gregory VIT. excommunicates the emperor Henry IV. {See Caitossa.) 1160. Interdicts are said, by some authorities, to have become frequent from the time of Alexander III. 1208. March 23. Innocent III. places England under an interdict, which is removed Dec. 6, 1213. 1227. Gregory IX. excommunicates the emperor Fi-ederick II. The excommunication is repeated in 1228, and the ban is removed in 1229. 1239. Gregory IX. again excommunicates the em- peror Frederick II. 1245. July 17. The emperor Frederick II. is ex- communicated at the 13th General CouncU at Lyons. 1510. Julius II. excommunicates Louis Xn. of France. EXC A.D. 1538. Dec. 17. Paul III. publishes a bull, dated Aug. 31, 1535, excommunicating and de- posing Henry VIII. of England. 1.559. Paul IV. denies the right of Elizabeth to the English crown. 1570. April 25. Pius V. publishes a bull declaring Elizabeth of England an usurper. 1860. March 29. Pius IX. excommunicates all pei-sons concerned in the rebellion, inva- sion, and usurpation of the Romagna. This seutence includes Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia.! ExcTTESiON" Teaiks Were first started in England on Easter-Monday, April 8, 1844. EXE Executions. — In 1039 the executioner is mentioned as a person of exalted rank, and even now the sheriff is nominally the finisher of the law by virtue of his office. Harrison's " Description of Great Britain," printed in 1577, states that 72,000 rogues and thieves suffered death in the reign of Henry VIII. that is, about 2,000 a year. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 4 (June 27, 1828), the tune for the execution of a murderer was fixed for the next day but one from that on which he received sentence. This was repealed by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c.30 (July 14, 1836). Place of Execution. 1700. Aug. 22 1701. May 23 1716. Feb. 24 1718. May 21 1724. Nov. 16 1739. April 10 1746. Aug. 18 1747. April 9 1759. Aug. 16 1760. May 5 1761. April 4 1761. Dec. 15 1767. Sept. 14 1774. Nov. 30 1776. Jan. 17 1777. June 27 1779. April 19 1781. April 2 1795. Aug. 3 1797. June 30 1797. Dec. 11 1798. June 7 1800. April 1802. Jan. 28 1803. Jan. 18 1803. Feb. 21 1803. Sept. 3 1803. Sept. 20 1806. AprU 8 1807. Feb. 23 1808. March 7 1808. Oct. 2 1811. June 24 1812. May 18 1813. Aug. 22 1813. Sept. 18 1815. April 8 1816. Aug. 29 1817. March 12 1817. July 1817. Nov. 7 1818. Aug. 3 r 1820. May 1^ 1820. July 31 1821. July 18 1823. July 28 1824. Jan. 9 1824. Nov. 30 1825. June 20 1826. March 20 1827. Jan. 2 1827. Jan. 26 Eev. T. Hunter Captain Kidd Lord Derwentwater John Price, the hangman John Sheppard Richard Tuipin Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino . . T ord Lovat Eugene Aram Lord Ferrers Theodore Gardelle John M'Naughton Mrs. Brownrigg John Rann,rt/?«« Sixteen-string Jack Daniel and Robert Perreau Rev. Dr. Dodd Rev. James Hackman John Donellan Lewis Jeremiah Abershaw Richard Parker Mrs. Phipoe James O'Coigley Richard Ferguson, alias Galloping ") Dick / Joseph Wall, Esq George Foster Colonel Despard and others John Hatfield Robei-t Emmett Richard Patch Haggerty and HoUoway Thomas Simmons Major Campbell R. Armitage and C. Thomas John Belltngham Philip Nicholson Michael M'llvena Joseph Blackburn, Esq Jeremiah Grant John Cashman Patrick Devan Jeremiah Brandreth, &c Charles Hussey Thistlewood "] Ings I Brunt ^ Davidson Tidd J James Nesbett David Haggart Philip Stoflfel and Charles Keppel . . John Thurtell Henry Fauntleroy William Probert John Diggles Charles T. White John Peele Murder Piracy High treason Murder House-breaking Horse-stealing High treason Ditto Murder Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Highway robbery Forgery Ditto Murder Ditto Ditto Mutiny Murder High treason Highway robbeiy Murder Ditto High treason Forgery High treason Murder Ditto Ditto Ditto (duel) Forgery Murder Ditto Unlawfully perform- 1 ing the marriage > ceremony ; Forgery Burglaiy Felony Murder High treason Murder 1 High treason, Cato I Street conspiracy . . f Murder Ditto Ditto Ditto Forgery Horse-stealing Mui-der Arson Forgery Edinburgh. Execution Dock. Tower Hill. Bunhill Row. Tyburn. York. Tower HiU. Ditto. York. Tyburn. Haymarket. Strabaue. Tybum. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Warwick. Kennington Common. The Sandwich, oflf Sheerness. Newgate. Pennenden Heath. Aylesbury. Old Bailey. Ditto. Horsemonger Lane. Carlisle. Dublin. Horsemonger Lane. Old Bailey.* Hei-tford. Armagh. Old BaUey. Ditto. Pennenden Heath. York. Maryborough. Skinner Street. WUd Goose Lodge, Ireland. Derby. Pennenden Heath. Old BaUey. Pennenden Heath. Edinburgh. Horsemonger Lane. Hertford. Old BaUey. Ditto. Manchester. Old Bailey. Pennenden Heath. * At this execution more than forty people lost their lives from the excessive crowding. EXE EXE Date. Name. Crime. Place of Execution. 1827. Sept. 1 1828. Aug. 11 1828. Dec. 8 Joshua Slade Murder ... Huntingdon. Bury St. Edmunds. Old Bailey. Edinburgh. Old BaUey. Monmouth. Hor.-emonger Lane. Chelmsford. Pennenden Heath. Ditto. Old Bailpy. Ditto. Ditto. Leicester. Horsemonger Lane. Bristol. Old BaUey. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Shrewsbury. Old BaUey. Dublin. Old Bailey. Stafford. Nottingham.* Old Bailey. Aylesbury. Old BaUey. Ditto. Ditto. Norwich. Derby. Bury St. Edmunds. York. Norwich. Lewes. Horsemonger Lane. Newcastle. Chelmsford. Edinburgh. Monaghan. Old BaUey. Ditto. Stafford. York. Old BaUey. Maidstone. Ditto. Chelmsford. Cardiff. Liverpool. Old BaUey. WiHcn. Paisley. Old BaUey. Ditto. Twuton. Liverpool. Horsemonger Laae. Old BaUey. Taunton. Chester. Maidstone. Ditto Forgery Murder Joseph Hvmton 1829. April 13 1829. April 29 1830. Jan. 11 1830. Aug. 2 1830. Dec. 24 1831. July 29 1831. Dec. 5 1832. Jan. 8 1832. July 9 1832. Aug. 10 1834 Nov 25 Ditto Burglary Murder Captain Moir .... H. and W. Packman and J. Dyke . . Bishop and Williams Ditto Elizabeth Ross Ditto Murder and arson Murder Ditto James Cook Mosele.y and Garside 1835. April 15 1837. March 7 1837. May 2 Ditto . .. Ditto Ditto Ditto Attempted murder .. 1840. July 6 1841. Api-il 3 1841. Nov. 15 1842. Feb. 5 1842. July 4 1844 Jan 13 P. B. Coui-voisier JosiahMister John Delahunt Cooper Sarah Westwood Ditto Ditto 1844. Aug. 7 1845 March 24 Ditto 1845. April 28 tfidH Timp 9 Thomas Hocker Ditto Ditto . Ditto Ditto 1846. April 4 1847. April 1 1847. ApiH 17 ;i848. Jan. 8 1849. Apiil 21 1849. Aug. 21 Samuel Yarham. Catharine Foster Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto . . . Mary Anne Geering Ditto Ditto ... 1850. Aug. 24 Patrick Foi'bes Ditto 1854. Jan. 25 1854. April 9 Ditto Ditto Ditto 1856 March 31 William Bonsfield 1856. Aug. 9 William Dove Ditto 1857. July 6 1857. July 23 1857. July 25 1857. Sept. 11 1857 Nov 16 Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Michael Crawley Ditto Ditto 1858 Jan 14 Ditto 1858. April 26 1858. Aug. 24 Thomas B Bucknell Ditto Ditto D tto 1860. Sept. 4 William G. Youngman 1861. Api-il 5 1861. Aug. 27 1861. Sept. 19 The brothers Wedmore Ditto Attempt to murder .. Murder Martin Doyle * Twelve persons were killed, and upwards of twenty serio\isly injured, from the excessive crowding at this execution. ExECTJTOEs were appointed in Greece and Eome. They are often mentioned in Anglo- Saxon wills. Mention is made in the Eotuli Pari, of the executors of the wiU of Bishop John of Kyrkeby, a.b. 1290. ExETEB (Devonshire). — This city is pro- bably one of the oldest in England, some authorities ascribing its foundation to Cori- nseus, nephew of the mythic Brutus, b.c. 1100, while others state that it was built by Vespasian a.d. 49. But as it was anciently 337 called by British names, such as Pancair, the chief city ; Caer-Iso, the city of the Iso or Exe ; and Caer-Kydh, the city of the red soil, it was most probably settled by the Britons previous to the Koman invasion. B.C. 54. Eougemont Castle is said to have been founded by JiUius Caesar this year. A.D. 633. Penda, king of Mercia. besieges Exeter. 868. Ethelred founds a monastery here; EXE 876. The Danes winter in Exeter. 894. Alfred compels the Danes to raise the siege of the city. 918. Edward the Elder holds a witenagemot at Exeter. 932. Athelstan founds a monastery. 1003. It is totally destroyed by Sweyn, king of Denmark. 1050. Edward the Confessor and his queen Edith visit Exeter, and found a cathedral. 1067. The inhabitants rebel against WUliam the Conqueror, who besieges and takes the city. 1112. The cathedral is founded by Bishop Warle- wast. 1140. The city surrenders to King Stephen, after a siege of three months, during (^hich the cathedral was demolished. 1200. The city is incorporated. 1239. The priory of St. John the Baptist is founded. 1250. A bridge is built over the Exe. 1280. Bishop Linvil rebuilds the cathedral. 1286. Edward I. and his queen hold their Christmas revels here. 1354. The first recorder is elected. 1357. The inhabitants entertain the Black Prince and King John of France, after the battle of Poitiers. 1463. Nine aldermen are appointed by Edward IV. 1469. Exeter is besieged by the Yorkists, under Sir Hugh Cotu-tt-nay. 1497. Perkin Warbeck lays siege to Exeter. 1536. Aug. 3. Exeter is erected into a separate county. 1549. July 2. It is besieged by the Cornish rebels, who are compelled to withdraw Aug. 6, which day is still observed as an annual festival. 1555. The tlrst chamber:ain of the city is elected. 1588. Elizabeth grants the city "Semper fidelis" as its m.tto, for its fidelity during the Spanish invasion. 1593. The Guildhall is erocted. 1643. Sept. 5. The royalists, under Prince Maurice, take Exeter. 1646. April 9. The city surrenders to Sir Thomas Fairfax. 1688. Nov. 8. William TIT. makes his public entry into Exeter. 1696. William III. establishes a mint here. 1725. The Topsham canal is completed. 1738. Oct. 18. The duke of Marlborough reviews the troops here. 1770. A new bridge is commenced, which is de- stroyed by a flood in 1775. 1773. The castle is partially demolished, and the assize-hall built. 1778. Exe bridge is opened. 1789. Aug. George TIT. visits Exeter. 1796. The gaol is buUt. 1801. St. Thomas's Lunatic Asylum is founded. 1807. The Bridewell is founded. 1813. The Devon and Exeter Institution is founded. 1817. Exeter is first lighted with gas. 1819. The city prison is erected. 1820. The Royal Subscription-rooms are built. 1821. The public baths are opened. 1825. The Mechanics' Institute is established. 1835. TheWestern market i s buUt, the Athenaeum in- stituted, and the water-works are completed, 1838. July. The Eastern market is opened. 3844. May 1. The Bristol and Exeter railway is opened. 1847. The Polytechnic Institution is founded. April 27. A destructive fire occurs. May 14. A seriuus food riot takes place. 1848. May 5. The South Devon railway is opened. 1849. The post-office is erected. ExETEB (See of). — On the erection of the see of Winchester, a.d. 660, its ecclesiastical jurisdiction extended over all the west of England; but in 705 Devon and Cornwall were formed into the separate diocese of EXH Sherborne. In 909 Edward the Elder created the sees of Wells, Cornwall, and Devonshire, the two latter of which were united in 1040, and in 1050 the see was transferred from Crediton to Exeter. The SciUy Isles were declared within this diocese July 30, 1838, ExETEE Change (London) is mentioned as a recent erection by De Laune in "The Present State of London, &c.," published in 1681. It was designed for the use of mil- liners, hosiers, &c. ; but did not answer; in consequence of which it was subsequently used as a menagerie by Mr. Cross. The elephant " Chunee " was shot here in March, 1826, and the old building was pulled down in 1829. New Exeter Change, otherwise Wellington Arcade, was completed in 1845, from the designs of Mr. Sydney Smirke. Exeteb College (Oxford).— This college was founded a.d. 1314, by Walter of Staple- don, bishop of Exeter, by whom it was called Stapledon Hall. Two new fellowships for the diocese of Salisbury were added in 1404 by Edmimd Stafford, bishop of Exeter, from whom the college received its present name, and in 1565 Sir WiUiam Petre added eight fellowships. Charles I. founded a fellowship for the islands of Jersey and Guernsey in 1636, and in 1770 Mrs. Shiers bequeathed certain rents, which were devoted to the purpose of forming two additional fel- lowships for Hereford and Surrey. These arrangements were amended by 17 & 18 Vict, c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854). Exeter Hall (London). — This building was erected in the Strand by Gandy Deering, during the years 1830 and 1831. It was in- tended for public meetings on religious and charitable matters ; but has since been used as a concert-room for sacred music. A series of Sunday evening services was commenced here by clergymen of the Church of England, under the sanction of the bishop of London, May 24, 1857 ; but it was discontinued in consequence of the opposition of the in- cumbent of the parish, Nov. 6. The Dis- senters commenced a similar course Nov. 22. A very large meeting of the Sons of the Phoenix, a body of teetotallers, formed into societies called lodges, like those of benefit societies, was held here Nov. 9, 1859. Exhibition. — The idea of collecting ob- jects of iadustrial manufacture first occurred to the marquis d'Aveze, a.d. 1797; but he was imable to carry it out until 1798, when he opened what is termed in France an " expo- sition" of French goods. The undertaking proved so successful that the idea was adopted by the French government, and sumlar col- lections were exhibited in 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, and since then every five years. A similar exhibition was onened at Ghent in 1820, at BerHn in 1834, and at Vienna iu 1835. This led to the idea of a ' general exhibition, in which different nations ! appeared as competitors. The first on this extended scale was the Great Exhibition I {q. v.), held in London in 1851. EXI A.D. A.D. At Cork 1852 1 At Calcutta . .... 18.>5 At Dulilin 1853 At Manchester .... ia57 At Paris 1855 | At Florence 1801 Exiles (Battle). — The Austrians and Sar- dinians defeated the French and Spaniards at this place, near Mont Cenis, July 19, 1747. The French republican army failed in an attack upon the fort of Exiles in 1794. Exodus of the Israehtes from Egypt occurred, according to the best authorities, B.C. 1491. The Exodus, the second of the five books of Moses, contains a full account of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. ExoEciSTS, or persons who professed to possess the art of expelling evil spirits, existed in very ancient times, both among heathen and Christian nations. They were constituted an order in the Church towards the end of the 3rd century, when exorcism was added to baptism. ExTKEME Ukction. — This ceremony of anointing persons on the point of death with oil, originated in the 7th century. In the 10th century the clergy contended that if it did not benefit the body it was of great service to the soul, and this doctrine was generally accepted in the 12th century. Eugenius IV., at the council of Florence (a.d. 1439—1442), decreed it to be a sacrament. This was con- firmed by the council of Trent (1545—1563). Eylatt (Battle). — Napoleon I. defeated the Eussian army under Benningsen at this Prussian town, Feb. 8, 1807. The action was commenced by Augereau, whose division was defeated with immense slaughter ; but ISTapo- leon coming to the rescue, the fortunes of the day were retrieved, and the Eussians compelled to retire to Konigsberg. The loss of life was unusually great, though from the discrepancy in the reports it is difficult to arrive at a positive conclusion. Alison (ch. xliv. s. 74) says: "On the side of the Eussians twenty-five thousand had fallen, of whom above seven thousand were already no more ; on that of the French upwards of thirty thousand were killed or wounded, and nearly ten thousand had left their colours, under pretence of attending to the wounded, and did not make their appearance for several days afterwards." Fabiano, St. (Battle).— John of Anjou, during his invasion of JSTaples, defeated Alex- ander Sforza and the count of Urbino, the fenerals of Ferdinand I., in a hotly-contested attle at St. Fabiano, July 1, 1460. Factory.— The first fire-proof cotton factory was erected at Belper by the Messrs. Strutt in 1797. By the Factorv Act (3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 103, Aug. 29, 1833), persons under eighteen years of age, and women, were prohibited from working more than twelve hours a day ; and the employment of children imder nine years was altogether abohshed. This Act was amended by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 15 (June 6, 1844), which ordered FAX that all machinery should be guarded to prevent accidents ; that eight, not nine, yea,rs should be the earliest age at which children could work in factories ; that their hours of labour should not exceed six hours and a half a day ; and that they should attend school daily. These acts were amended by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 29 (June 8, 1847), and by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 54 (Aug. 5, 1850). Faenza (Italy), the ancient Faventia, was the scene of the defeat of Carbo and Norbanus by MeteUus, b.c. 82. It sub- mitted to the emperor Frederick II. a.d. 1162. Frederick III. captured it, after an obstinate siege, in 1240. Eodolph I. con- firmed the pope in its possession in 1275. The Bolognese seized it in 1282, and its walls were restored in 1286. Caesar Borgia wrested it from the Manfredi in 1501, and it soon after passed into the possession of Venice (1504). The papal aTithorities recovered it in 1509, and it submitted to the French in 1512. It was, however, restored to the popes, and was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia in 1859. F^sxTL^ (Italy), the modern Fiesole, was devastated during the social war, b.c. 90 and 89. Belisarius captured it after a long siege a.d. 539, and the Florentines are said to have destroyed it a.d. 1010. Faielop Oak (Essex). — This celebrated oak, which formerly existed in Hainault Forest, was so old that, according to Mr. GUpin, " the traditions of the country traced it halfway up the Christian tera." About the year 1728, Mr. Day, of Wapping, com- menced the custom of dining here every year with a party of friends. Other parties j joined him in these annual picnics, until at I length the company became so numerous that I the gathering assumed the character of a j regular fair, recurring the first Friday in I July. Mr. Day died in 1767, and was j buried in a cofim made of wood from his favourite oak. In 1805 the tree was acci- I dentally set on fire. The trunk and most j of the principal branches were seriously injured, and in 1820 it was blown down. The trunk of this celebrated oak measured 36 feet in girth, and its branches covered an area of 300 feet in circumference. Faiks were established in Italy about A.D. 500, and at Aix-la-Chapelle and Troyes about 800. Alfred the Great introduced them into England in 886, and in 960 they were estabhshed in Flanders. Fairs for the sale of slaves were common throughout Germany and the north of Europe about 1000 ; and in 1071 they were encouraged in England by Wfiliam the Conqueror. By 2 Edw. III. c. 15 (1328) , it was enacted that the duration of fairs shoiild always be declared at their commencement ; and by 5 Edw. III. c. 5 (1331), any trader carrying on business after the stipulated time was to forfeit double the value of the goods sold. Dis- putes at fairs were adjusted at the courts of Pie-poudre, or dusty-foot, which were regulated by 17 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1477). The z 2 FAI PAN time for holding fairs was specified by 27 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1443), whieli prohibited them on certatn feast-days, and on all Sundays except the four in harrest time. This ex- ception was repealed by 13 Vict. c. 23 (June 10, 1850). Faisans. — Thisisland, in the river Bidassoa, that separates France from Spain, was the scene of conferences for peace between Philip IV. and Louis XIV. ia 1659. The result was the peace of the Pyrenees, signed Nov. 7, 1659. From this circumstance the place was also called the Isle of the Con- ferences. Faith awd Chaeitt (Knights of). — Estabhshed in France, to suppress public robberies, about a.d. 1230. They were approved by Gregory IX. Falaise (France). — Celebrated as the ancient seat of the dukes of Normandy. WiUiam I. was bom here a.d. 1027, and a statue was erected to his memory Oct. 26, 1851. Falaise received its charter from Philip Augustus in 1207. Prince Arthur was imprisoned at Falaise, whence he was re- moved to Eouen in 1202. Falczi, or Peuth (Peace of) . — Peter the Great having invaded Moldavia, a.d. 1711, with a force of 38,000 men, was surrounded by a Turkish army of 200,000 men at Falczi, on the Pruth, and reduced to despair. The empress Catherine, who was with him, re- stored his confidence, and negotiations were commenced between the two powers, which resulted in the signing of this peace, July 10, 1711. Its chief conditions were the sur- render by the czar of the fortress of Azof, the dismantling of his newly-built castles near the Turkish frontier, and an engage- ment on his part not to interfere ia the affairs of Poland or of the Cossacks. Falebii (Italy). — Its inhabitants joined the Fidenates and Veientes against Home, B.C. 437. CamiUus took the city B.C. 394. They made war against Eome B.C. 356 and B.C. 293. The city was taken and destroyed by the Eomans b.c. 241. Falebkian Wine, so called from Falemus Ager, the district in which it was produced. This district was ravaged by the Carthaginians B.C. 217. Some writers suppose that a town named Faleria once existed in this part, though no evidence of the fact has been adduced. The best Falemian wine was that produced at the village of Faustianum. Falkiopikg (Battle).— Margaret, queen of Norway and Denmark, called the Semiramis of the "North, defeated Albert of Sweden at this place a.d. 1389. Falkibk (Battles). — The Scottish army under Sir WiUiam Wallace was surprised by the Enghsh, under Edward I., in the forest of Falkirk, in Stirlingshire, July 22, 1298. As Wallace was doubtful of the fidelity of some of his troops, he wished to avoid an action ; but finding it impossible, he chose an advan- tageous position. Just as the two armies joined, his heavy cavalry fled without striking a blow, and he was completely defeated, with the loss of at least 15,000 men. The royalist forces, tmder General Hawley, were defeated at Falkirk Muir by the Scotch, under Prince Charles Edward, Jan. 17, 1746. The EngHsh loss amounted to less than 400 in killed and wounded, and that of the Scotch to about 120. Falkland Islands (South Atlantic Ocean). — Although it is sometimes asserted that these islands were descried by Amerigo Vespucci, A.D. 1502, they were in truth discovered by Davis, a.d. 1592. In 1594, Hawkins explored their northern shores, and in 1690 they were visited by Strong, who anchored in Falkland Sound, to which he gave its name. M. de Bougainville arrived here Feb. 3, 1764, and planted a French settlement March 17 ; and Commodore Byron discovered Port Egmont in 1766, and took possession of the country by the name of Falkland's Islands. In 1767 the French ceded their claim to the Spaniards, who expelled the British in 1770, but were com- pelled to admit their right to the sovereignty of the islands by treaty, Jan. 22, 1771. As no attempts were made to establish an Enghsh settlement, the republic of Buenos Ayres planted a colony at Port Louis In 1820. This was destroyed by the Americans in 1831, and in 1S33 was erected into a British station. In 1840 the government sent out a colony to Port Louis. It was removed to another situation in 1844. Falmouth (Cornwall) was originally called Smithick. In 1613, Sir John KiUigrew formed the project of erecting a town here, which received its charter and present name from Charles II. in 1661. In 1670, Sir Peter KUhgrew built a new quay, which greatly added to the commercial importance of the town ; and in 1688 its prosperity was increased by the establishment of the post-office packet to Lisbon and the West Indies. The hospital for disabled seamen was founded in 1750, and the gaol in 1831. Queen Victoria visited Falmouth Aug. 28, 1843. Famagosta, or Fama&tjsta. — ^This town, in the island of Cyprus, was taken by the Genoese a,d. 1373, and by the Turks Aug. 1, 1571. Famaks (Battle). — The allied army at- tacked the intrenched camp of the French at Famars, near Valenciennes, May 23, 1793. The French, who suffered considerably, re- tired during the night. FAauLY Compact, between the Bour- bons of France and Spain (Louis XV. and Charles III.), was concluded at Paris, Aug. 15, 1761. It was, in fact, a defensive and offensive aUiance between France and Spain. Ferdinand FV., king of Naples, ac- ceded to the aUiance. Familt of Love. {See Agap.zemone.) Famines. {See Index.) Fan. — Pharaoh is represented surrounded by his fan-bearers on the walls of the tombs of Thebes. Fans of peacock's feathers were made in Greece in the 5th century B.C., and are mentioned in one of the tragedies of Euripides. The custom of using fans was introduced into England during the reign of Henry VIII., and in 1523 they were carried in winter as FAN well as in summer. The ladies had prodigious fans, with handles half a yard long, and with these they often administered correction to their daughters. During the 16th and 17th centuries they were used by gentlemen. Sir Edward Coke rode the circuit with one of these large fans. Folding fans were ratro- dueed in the beginning of the 17th century. Fang (Battle). — The Alemanni defeated the Eomans near this town, the ancient Fanum Fortunae, in Umbria, a.d. 270. Fakce. — One of the earliest extant is in German, called the " Apotheosis of Pope Joan," and was written about a.d. 1480. The French farce of "Maitre Patehn" was first printed in 1490. Faemers-Genebai,, or Fermiers Gene- EAUX. — This company, which farmed cer- tain branches of the revenue in France under the old monarchy, was formed A.D- 1728, The system was abolished in 1789. Farnham (Surrey). — In 860 this town was bestowed upon the bishops of Winchester by Ethelbald, king of Wessex, and in 893 Alfred defeated the Danes in its neighbour- hood. Waverley Abbey was built by Gtfford, bishop of Winchester, in 1128. The castle, which was founded by Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester (1129—1171), was taken by Louis the dauphin in 1216, and demolished by Henry III. In December, 1642, it was seized by the Parliamentary forces and again destroyed ; but Bishop Morley commenced its re-erection in 1662. Farnham is cele- brated as the birthplace of William Cobbett, March, 1762. Until about 1790 it exercised the rights of a borough. Farnovians.— The followers of Stanislaus Farnowski (Famovius), who separated from the Unitarians a.d. 1568. The sect became extinct on the death of Farnowski in 1615. Faroe, or Feeoe Islands (North Sea). — This group, discovered by the Norwegians between a.d. 858 — 868, now belongs to Den- mark. FAREiNGDOir Market (London) . — The corporation were empowered by act of par- liament in 1824, to remove the Fleet Market {q. V.) and erect a new one in its place. This was opened Nov. 20, 1829, under the name of Farriagdon Market. Farthing. — This coin existed among the Anglo-Saxons, though no specimen remains. Farthings were first coined roimd a.d. 1210, when King John ordered a large number to be struck for use in England and Ireland. In 1279 they were called Lundrenses, and \mtil the reign of Edward VI. were made of silver. The want of a small coinage sub- sequently led to the manufacture and issue, by private persons, of leaden farthing tokens, which were suppressed by a royal procla- mation, May 19, 1613. A few copper farthings were struck in 1665, but they were not issued tUl 1672. Tin farthings were coined by WiUiam II. and Mary in 1690, Half- farthings were first struck in 1843. Farthingale, or Verdingale. — This hooped petticoat, to which the modern cri- FEA • noline bears a strong resemblance, was introduced into England in the reign of Ehzabeth. It was superseded by the hoop, which went out of fashion about 1820. I Fasts. — Moses fasted forty days and forty nights on Mount Horeb (Exodus xxiv. 18, and Deut. ix. 9),b.c. 1491, and abstinence was one rule for observing the day of atone- ment (Lev. xxiii. 26-32), B.C. 1490. In con- sequence of the preaching of Jonah, the king I of Nineveh proclaimed a solemn fast for I both man and beast (Jonah iii. 5-9), B.C. 787, i and Joel ordered a fast, in which even un- i weaned infants should participate (Joel ii. j 15-17), B.C. 787. Our Saviour fasted forty days and forty nights (Matt. iv. 2), a.d. 26, ' and Barnabas and Saul were ordained to the ' ministry with fasting (Acts xui. 2), a.d. 45, Mosheim, writing ot the first century, says : ' "Of any solemn public fasts, except only on the anniversary day of Christ's crucifixion, there is no mention in the most ancient times. Gradually, however, stated days of fasting were introduced; first by custom, after- wards by legal sanction. Whether any- thing of this nature occurred in the first cen- tury, and what days were devoted to fasting, we have not the means of deciding." The custom of fasting every Wednesday and Friday became general about 111, and the Quadragesimal fast, or Lent {q. v.), was appointed about 136. The custom of holding special fasts was introduced before 173, and the fasting system in general was fully estabhshed in 222. — For important special fasts, see England. Fatimites. {See Shiites.) Fatal (Atlantic), one of the Azores, was captured by Sir Walter Kaleigh a.d. 1597. Feasts and Festivals. — The principal feasts of the ancient Jews were the Passover, instituted B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii. 43-49) ; the feast of Weeks or Pentecost, b.c. 1491 (Exod. xxxiv. 22) ; of Trumpets, B.C. 1490 (Lev. xxiii. 24-25) ; of Tabernacles, B.C. 1490 (Lev. xxiii. 39-43) ; and the Jubilee, B.C. 1490 (Lev. XXV. 10-13). The love-feasts of the primitive Christians were instituted about A.D. 35 ; and Easter, Ascension, and Whit- suntide are believed to have been observed since 68. Mamertus, bishop of Vienne, instituted the solemn processions called Eogations in 469 ; the feast of the Purifi- cation was established about 526. Boni- face IV. instituted the festival of AH Saints in 611, and the Greek Church founded the festival of Orthodoxy in 842. Urban IV. instituted the feast of Corpus Domini, in favour of the doctrine of transubstantiation, in 1264, and Boniface VIII. founded jubilees in 1300. The festival of the Holy Trinity was first observed in 1320, that of the Spear and Nails in 1354, and the feast of the Visi- tation in 1389. The council of Basel con- firmed the festival of the Inomaculate Con- ception in 1431, and the feast of the Trans- figuration was generally observed in 1456, though it was founded much earlier. In 1643 Urban VIII. published abuU to diminish the number of festivals, and in 1745 Benedict 341 FEA PER XIV. sanctioned the celebration of the feast of the Seven Joys of the Virgin Mary. Feathers. — Sir H. N. Nicolas is of opinion that the prince of Wales' feathers and the mottoes, " Ich Dien" and " Sou- mont" were derived from the house of Hainault, possibly from the comte of Ostre- vant, the appanage of the eldest sons of the counts of that province. Febkuaet, the second month of the year, was, with January, added to the calendar about B.C. 700, by Numa, who placed January at the beginning, and Feb- ruary at the end of the year. The decemvirs placed February next to January, B.C. 452. Its name is supposed to be derived from the ancient Eomau festival Februa. Feciaies. — The heralds of ancient Rome, whose duty it was to declare war and pro- claim peace. On the occasion of a dispute with another power, they made three appeals, with an interval of ten days between each, and if the matter was not then adjusted, they declared war by throwing a bloody javelin into the enemy's territory. They were in- stituted by JSTuma Pompilius (b.c. 716 — 673), and received a code and laws from Ancus Martius (b.c. 640—616). Feejee, or Fiji Islands (Pacific), were discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman in 164^3, and named by him Prince William's Islands. They have been the scene of some success- ful missionary labours during the present century. Fehebellin- (Battle).— The Swedes were defeated by the Germans at this place, in Brandenburg, a.d. 1675. Feldkikch. — The French, under Massena and Ovidinot, failed in several attempts to wrest this town, in the Grisons, from the Austrians, in March, 1799. It fell into the hands of the French in 1800. Feiicing. — In consequence of the dis- orders perpetrated by proficients in this art in the reign of Edward I., aU the fencmg- schools in London were ordered to be closed by 13 Edw. I. st. 5 (1285). The old system of cutting in fencing was supplanted by the rapier-thrust in Italy before 1553, and the new method was introduced into England in 1578. Feee-Champenoise (Battle).— The Aus- trians, under Prince Schwartzenberg, at- tacked and defeated the French divisions of marshals Marmont, Mortier, and Arrighi, at this place, in France, March 25, 1314. The French loss amounted to 5,000 kiUed and 10,000 prisoners, among whom were the gene- rals Pachtod and Aruey. Fekentinum (Italy). — The Volscians took refuge in this to'wn after their defeat by the Romans, B.C. 413. It was afterwards given to the Hernicians. The Romans captured it B.C. 361, and Hannibal ravaged the territory B.C. 211. The modern town, called Feren- tino, was the scene of a meeting between the emperor Frederick II., Pope Hono- rius III., and other rulers, in March, a.d. 1223, in favour of the fifth crusade. Feei.sion of Roussillon, Cerdagne, Alsace, and Piguerol. 1661. March 9. Death of Canllnal Mazarin, after which the king flinpeuses with a prime minister, aud Colbert is appoiuted minister of finance. 1667. Louis XIV. declares war against Spain, and invadi-s Belgium. 1668. Louis XIV. surrenders Franche-Comt6, and acquires Lille, Tournay, and other towns in Flanders. 1672. Louis XrV. declares war against Holland. 1678. Sept. 17. By the peace of Nimeguen, France obtains Franche-Comt^, and several im- portant towns, together with Freiburg, in Germany. 1681. Strasburg, and Casale, in Lombardy, are an- nexed to France. 1683. Pept. 6. Death of Colbert. 1684. Louis XIV. is privately married to Madame de Maintenon about this vear. 1685. Oct. 22. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1689. War is declared with England. 1695. Thecurrency isaltered, a capitation tax levied, and patents of nobility sold, to supply the deficiencies of the exchequer. 1697. Sept. 20. Peace is restored by the treaty of Ryswick. 170L Sept. 7. The grand alliance is formed against France, and the war of the Spanish suc- cetsion commences. 1704 Au^. 13. The French are defeated by Marl- borough, at Blenheim. 1706. May 12. The Freuch are defeated at Ea- millies. 1709. A severe fiamine occurs throughout France. 354 FRA 1713. April 11. By the treaty of Utrecht, France cedes to England Newfoundland and Hud- sou's Bay. 1714. Lettres de cachet become general. 1715. Sept. 1. Death of Louis XIV., who is suc- ceeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV., under the regency of the duke of Orleans. 1716. John Law establishes the Mississippi Bank. 1720. The Mississippi scheme proves a failtire. 1722. Oct. 25. Coronation of Louis XV. 1725. Sept. 4. Louis XV. marries Maria Luziuska, daughter of Stanislaus, king of Poland. 1733. Louis XV. declares war against Austria, on behalf of his lather - in - law, the king of Poland. 1739. A severe famine occurs in France. 1743. June 16 (O.S ). George II. defeats the French at the battle of Dettingen. 1746. Ma<1ame P.impadour attains great influence over the king. 1748. Oct. :7 (O.S.). The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Dec. 10. The young Pretender is expelled from France. 1756. France enters into alliance with Austria against England, and the Seven Years' war commences. 1757. Damiens attempts the king's life. March 28. He is executed with shocking barbarity. 1762. The Jesuits are secularized, ana their property confiscated. 1763. Feb. 10. By the peace of Paris, France cedes Canada and Nova Scotia to England. 1764 Death of Madame Pompadour, aud abolition of the order of the Je>uits. 1766. Lorraine is united to France. 1768. C!or.-ica is uuited to France. 1769. Madame du Barri becomes the king's mis- tress. 1770. May 30. Marriage of the dauphin aud Marie Antoinette. 1771. The parliament is banished, and six "superior courts " are established in its stead. 1774 May 10. Death of Louis XV., who is succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI. Dec. 12. The parliament is re-established. 1776. May 12. Ttirgot is dismissed rrom ofiice. 1777. July 2. Necker becomes minister of finance. 1778. Louis XVI. declares war against England, in aid of the North-American colonies. 1779. An army of 40.000 men is assembled in Britaniiy lor the inviision of England. 1780. Torture is abolished. 1781. May 23. Resignation of Necker. 1783. Sept. 3. The peace of Versailles puts an end to the war with England. 178-5. The diamond necklace afiair (q.v.). The guillotine is introduced. 1787. Feb. 22. The Assembly of Notables meets. I he king and parliament disagree respect- ing the collection of taxes. 1788. Necker is recalled. Nov. 9. The second As- sembly of the Notables meets. 1789. May 5. The States-general assemble at Ver- sailles. June 17. The States-general assmne the title of the National Assembly. July 14 The Bastille is stormed and destroyed. Aug. 13. The Assembly adopts the decla- ration of the " Rights of Man." Oct. 5 and 6. The i)eople attack the palace at Versailles, !.nd compel the king and queen to go to Paris. Oct. 16. The title " king of France " is altered to ' ' king of the French." Nov. 2. The property of the clergy is con- fiscated. Dec 22. France is divided into eighty-three departments. 1790. Feb. 4 The king and queen visit the Assembly, and agree to the revolution. March 16. Lettres de cachet are abolished. June 20. Hereditary nobility and titles of honour are abolished. July 14 The king swears fidelity to the new constitution at the fete in the Champ de Mare. Sept. 4 Final dismissal and flight of Necker. Nov. 27. The Assembly publishes decrees for the humiliation of the clergy. FRA A.I>. 1791. March 18. Territorial primngeniture is abo- lished. April 2. Death of Mirabeau. June 20. The rrjyal family escape froin Paris by night, but are arrested at Varennes, June 22. June 25. They are imprisoned in the Tuileries. Sept. 14. Louis XVI. assents to the National Constitution. Sept. 29. Dissolution of the constituent National Assembly. Oct. 1. The Legislative Assem- bly meets. 1792. April 20. War is declared against Austria. June 20. The mob attack the Tuileries. June. Prussia, Austria, and Holland unite against France. Aug. 10. The mob storm the Tuileries, massacre the Swiss guards, and imprison the royal family in the Temple. Sept. 2 to 5. The royalist prisoners iu Paris, amounting to about 5.000, are massacred, the princess de Lamballe being of the number. Sept. 20. The National Convention assembles, and abolishes roy- alty. Sept. 22. The PYench republic is founded. Nov. 12. The debate en the trial of the king is opened in the Convention, and concludes Dec. 3. Dec. 15. Flanders is annexed to France. 1793. Jan. 19. Louis XVI. is sentenced to death. Jan. 21. He is executed. Feb. 1. War is declai-ed against England, Spain, and Holland. March 10. The royalists of La Vendue rise in insun ectiou. March 25. Robespierre and his coUengues are invested with dictatorial authority. May 31. The Reign of Terror commences. July 13. Charlotte Corday Hssassinates Marat. Aug. 23. Napoleon first distinguishes himJ self at the siege of Toulon. Oct. 14. Trial of the queen. Oct. 16. She is executed. Nov. 6. PhUip Egalit6, duke of Orleans, is beheaded. Nov. 8. Madame Roland is beheaded. Nov. 24. The revolutionary calendar is adopted by the Convention. Dec. 12. The uisiurection in La Vendue is 1794. March 24. The leaders of the Cordeliers Club are executed. April 5. Danton and his col- leagues are guillotined. May 10. Madame Eli- zabeth, sister of Louis XVI., is executed. June 7. Robespierre celebrates the festival of the God of Nature, and acts as high pries'.. July 27. The revolution of the »th Thermidor, and fall of Robespierre. July 28. Robespierre, St. Just, and seventy of their partisans, are guillotined, which terminates the Reign of Ttrror. Sept. 8. The National Convention orders the closing of the Jacobin clubs. 1795. April 5. Peace is concluded with Prussia at Basel. June 9. Louis XVII. dies in prison in the Temple. Oct. 5. A rebellion of 30,000 royalists against the Convention is suppressed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Oct. 28. The CouncU of the Ancients and of the Five Hundred hold their first meetings. The Directory is esta- blished. 1796. April 9. Napoleon commences his Italian victories. Nov. 15-17. He completes the conquest of Italy at the battle of Areola. 1797. May 20. Pichegru heads a conspiracy to re- store the Bourbons. Sept. 4. A revolution in favour of the Directory takes place in Paris. Dec. 10. Napoleon returns to Paris, where he is received with magnificent fStes as " the Pacificator." 1798. Jan. 4. All English merchandise in France is confiscated. May 20. Napoleon embai-ks for Egypt. 1799. June 22. England, Russia, Germany, Turkey, Portugal, and Naples, form the second coalition against France. Nov. 10. The Directory is dissolved, and the consular government established. Dec. 13. Napoleon is chosen first consul. 355 FRA 1800. June 14. Napoleon gains the battle of Ma- rengo (q. v.). Dec. 24. His life is attempted by means of an infernal machine. 1801. Feb. 9. The tre-ity of LunevUle restores peace with Austria. Sept. 11. The Roman Catholic religion is re-ebtablished. Oct. 8. Peace with Russia. Oct. 9. Peace with Turkey. 1802. March 25. Peace with England is restored by the treaty of Amiens. May 18. The Legion of Honour is instituted. Aug. 2. Bona- parte is appointed first consul for life. 1803. March 13. Bonaparte publicly insults Lord Whitworth, the English ambassador. May 16. War is declared against England. 1804. Jan. 15. A new civil code is adopted. Feb. 16. The Georges conspiracy is discovered. March 20. Execution oftheduked'Enghein. May 18. Napoleon is proclaimed emperor of the French. Dec. 2. He is crowned by the pope at Notre Dame. 1805. May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned king of Italy at Milan. June 4. Genoa is annexed to France. Aug. 9. England, Russia, Naples, and Austria, form the third coalition against Pi-auc. Sept. 26. The French iTivade Germany. Oct. 21. The French fleet is nearly annihilated at Trafalgiir (q.v.). Dec. 2. Napoleon I. gains the battle of Austerlitz. Dec. 26. The Venetian states and Dalmatia are annexed to France by the treatv of Presburg. 1806. July 12. The Confederation of the Rhine is formed. Oct. 6. England, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, form the fourth coalition against France. Oct. 8. Prussia de>-lares war. Oct. 14. Napoleon I. gains the battle of Jena (q. v.). 1807. Feb. 8. The French are victorious at Eylau (q. v.). June 26. Napoleon I. has an interview with the emperor of Russia. July 9. The peace of Tilsit is signed. 1808. May 5. Charles TV., king of Spain, is com- pelled to abdicate in favour of Napoleon, which leads to the Peninsular war. (See Spain.) 1809. April 6. England and Austria form the fifth coalition against France. June 10. Napo- leon I. is excommunicated. Oct. 14. Peace with Austria is restored by the treaty of Vienna. Dec. 15. Napoleon I. is divorced from liis wife Josephine. 1810. April 1. Napoleon I. marries Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. July 9. Holland is incorporated with the French empire. 1811. March 20. The empress gives birth to a son, who receives the title of king of Borne. 1812. June 22 to Dec. 19. Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia. (See Russia.) 1813. March 16. Russia and Pi-ussia form the sixth coalition against France. Oct. 7. Wel- lington crosses the Bidasoa, and enters France. Dec. 31. Napoleon I. dissolves the Legislative Council. 1814. March 30. Paris sui-renders to the allies. April 4. Napoleon I. abdicates in favour of his son. May 3. The B.mrhons are restored in the person of Louis XVIII. May 4. N^.poleon I. aiTives in Elba. 1815. March 1. Napoleon I. suddenly returns from Klba, and lands at Cannes, with 1,000 men. March 15. Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, form a new alliance against Napoleon. March 19. Louis XVIII. leaves Paris. March 29. Napuleon I. abolishes the slave trade. Junel. Napoleon I. promulgates a new constitution. June 12. He leaves Paris to take the command of his forces. June 15. He invades Belgium. June 18. And is totally overthrown at the battle of Waterloo (q. v. ). June 22. He again ab- dicates iu favour of his son. July 3. He attempts to embaik for America. July 6. Louis XVIII. returns to Paris. 2 A 2 1815. 1324 1827. 1829. 1830. 1833, 18:i4 1835 18:?9, 1840. ERA July 1.5. Napoleon I. seeks refuge with Captain Maitland, of the BeUerophon. Aug. 8. He is ti'ansferred to the Xorfhu-inberJand, at Torbay, and seut to St. Helena. Oct. 16. He arrives at St. Helena. Dec. 7. Execution of Marshal STey. Jan. 12. The allied sovereigns issue a decree, excluding the family of Bonaparte for ever from the throne of France. Feb. 13. The duke de Berri is assassinated. May 5. Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena. Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII., who is s-ac- ceeded by his brother, Charles X. April 30. The National Guard is disbanded. Nov, 5. The Chamber of Deputies is dis- solved, and sevenry-six new peers created. Aug. 8. The Polignac administration com- nienses. 3Iay 19. The Chamber of Deputies is dis- solved. July 2.5. Royal ordinances are issued respecting the system of electing the Chamber of Deputies. They are pub- lished in the Monitsur of the 26th, and create great dissatisfaction. July '27. The streets are barricaded, and the revolu- tion comiaences. July 28. Pai-is is de- clared in a state of siege, and the fighting continues till the 30th. July 31. The royal family flee from St, Cloud, and the duke of Orleans accepts the lieutenaucy-generaUhip of the kingdom, Aug. 2. Charles X. an- nounces his abdication. Aug. 7. The crown is offered to the duke of Orleans, who ascends the thi-one as Louis Philippe I. Aug. 17. Charles X.seeltsrefnge in England. Dec. 21. The Chamber of Peers pronounces a sentence of imprisonment for life agjiinat the prince of Polignac and some other mem- bers of his ministry. Feb. 14 and 15. Riots in Palis, Feb. 26. The criminal law is reformed. July 31. A law is passed to prohibit the assembling of the National Guard, unless by authority. Dec. 28. The hereditaiy peerage decree is repealed. March 28. The cholera appears in Paris, and rages in France with terrific fury for several months. July 22. Death of the duke of Eeichstadt, son of Napoleon Bonaparte and Maria Louisa, at Schonbrunn. Nov. 19. The king's life is attempted. Aug. 14. The Court of Delegates is abolished. May 20. Death of Lafayette. July 28. Marshal Mortier and others are assassinated with an infernal muichine by Fieschi, whose object was to kUl the king. June 25. Louis Alibaud attempts the king's life. Oct. 29. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, afterwards the emperor Napoleon III., attempts to create an tusurrection at Strasburg. Nov. 6. Death of Charles X., the ex-king. Nov. 23. Prince Polienac is released from prison. Dec. 27. Meunier attempts the king's life. May 9. An amnesty for political offenders is published. May 17. Death of Talleyrand. July 12. War with Mexic"^. May 11. An insurrection occurs in Paris. . March 1. Thiers becomes minister of foreign affaii-s. May 12. The Chambers order the removal of the remains of ]S apoleon I. from St.. Helena to France. Aug. 6. Louis Nai)o- leon makes a descent upon Boulogne. Oct. 6. Louis Napoleon is sentenced to imprison- ment for life. Oct. 15. The king's life is at- tempted by Darm&s. Oct. 29. M. Guizot accepts the portfolio of foreign affairs. Dec. 15. The remains of Napoleon I. are solemnly re-iiiterred in the H6tel des Inva- 1841. Sept. 13. Attempted due d'Aumale. 356 assassination of the A.D. 1842. 1844. I&i6. 1847. 1848, FEA July 13. Death of the duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, in consequence of a fall from his carriage. Sept. 2—7. The Queen of England visits the French royal family at the Chateau d'En. Sept. 6. Peace with Morocco. Apiil 16. Lecompte makes an attempt upon the king's life. May 25. Louis Napoleon escapes from the fortress of Ham. July 29. Joseph Henri attempts the king's life. Oct. 16, &c. Fearful inundations of the Loire and Khone destroy an lmmen:e amount of proi>erty. Dec. 18. Death of Maria Louisa, widow of Napoleon Bonap.-u-te, Dec. 21, Abd-el- Kader is surrendered to the French, Feb. 21. A great reform banquet is prohibited by proclamation on the eve of its celebi-a- tion. Feb. 22, &c. The Revolmiou com- mences, Paris being in a state of frightful anarchy. Feb. 24. Lonis Philippe abdi- cates, and, with his family, escapes from Paris. Feb. 26. A republic is proclaimed. March 3. The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaveu. March 4. The victims of the revolution are buried with great public solemnity. May 4. The National Assembly is opened. May 7. The government is intrusted to an executive commission, elected by the National Assembly. May 15. The mob attack the National Assembly. May 30. Louis Philippe and his family are condemned to perpetual banishment. June 13. Louis Napoleon is elected a mem- ber of the National Assembly. June 23. The Red Republicans rise in insurrection in Paris. June 24. Pai-is is declared in a state of siege, and all executive power is intrusted to General Cavaignac. June 25. The left bank of the Seine is cleai-ed of the insurgents. June 26. The archbishop of Paris is mortally wotmded while adminis- tering consolation to the dying, and com- parative order is at length restored. June 28. General Cavaignac is made pre- sident of the Council. July 6. Solemn funeral of the victims of the late insur- rection. Sept. 26. Louis Napoleon takes his seat for the department of I'Yonue iu the National Assembly. Oct. 19. Paris is delivered from its state of siege. Nov. 12. » The Constitution is solemnly published in I'aris, and throughout France. Hec. 20. Louis Napoleon is declared the president- elect of the French republic. Jan. 29. An intended insurrection of the Red Republicans is prevented. Aug. 22. The Universal Peace Congress assembles at Paris. May 16. The French ambassador is recalled from England. Aug. 26. The ex-king, Louis Phmppe, dies at Claremont, in England. Jan. 10. General Changamier loses the com- mand of the National Guard. Sept. 27. Telegraph communication is established with England. Oct. 19. Death of the duchess d'AngoulSme, daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. Nov. 4. The president proposes to restore uuiversiil suffi-age. Kov. 13. The National Asseinbly reject the president's proposition. Nov. 26. Death of Mai-sbal Soult. Dec. 2. The coup-d'6tat. The president dissolves the Legislative Assembly, establishes universal suffrage, proposes the election of a presi- dent for ten years, and declares Paris in a state of siege. Thiei-s, Changamier, Ca- vaignac, Lamoricifire, and about 180 of the National Assembly, are arrested. Dec. 12. The president aj^points a consultative coin- mission. Dec. 20 and 21. Voting for the election of a president for ten years takes place throughout France. FEA IS5-2. Jan. L The Moniteur announces the result of the votes to be that the nation desires louis Napoleon to continue the govern- ment on the principles he laid down Dec. 2, 1851. He is accordingly installed at Notre Dame, and takes up his official residence in the Tuileries. Jan. 7. The motto ■' Liberty, Fraternity, Egalit^." is ordered to be erased throughout France. Jan. 9. Generals Changamier, LamoriciSre, and others, are set at liberty in Belgium, •with instructions not to return to France. Jan. 10. Eighty-three members of the late Legislative Assembly are banished, and 575 persons are transported to Cayenne for having opposed the coup-d'etat. Jan, 15. The prince presi'ient promulgates a new constitution. Jan. 23. The property of the Orleans famUy is annexed to the state. Jan. 25. Titles of nobility are re- stored. Feb. 3. The official statement as to the election of deputies to the Legislative Assembly is published in the Moniteur. Feb. 17. The prince president abolishes aU national holidays, except the birthday of the emperor Napoleon (Aug. 15). March 28, The departments are released from martial law. March 29. The legis- lative chambers assemble. March 30. A presidential decree authorizes the erection of a permanent Crystal Palace in Paris. May 10. The prince president distributes eagles to the army. July 1. A plot for the assassination of the president is discovered at Paris. July 19. The prince president visits Strasburg. Aug. 8. Thiers and othtr exiles are permitted to retirm to France, Sept. 13. The senate petition" for the re-estabUshment of the " hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte family." Sept. 19. The prince presiuent visits Lyons to inaug^urate a statue of the emperor Napoleon. Sept. 23. The police at Mar- seilles seize an infernal machine designed to destroy the prince president. Sept. 27. The prince president visits Toulon, and orders the enlargement of the fortifications. Oct. 7. He visits Bordeaux. Oct. 16. He releases Abd-el-Kader. Nov. 4 He announces his intention of restoring the empire. Nov. 7. The senate calls upon the president to assume the title of emperor. Nov. 12. A protest from the count de Chambord against the empire appears in the Paris papers. Nov. 21 and 22. The votes of the nation are taken as to the restoration of the empire. Dec. 1. The Corps LSgislatif declares the result of the voting :— Ayes, 7,864,189; noes, 253,145; null, 63,32(>. The prince president accepts the empire, and assumes the title of Napoleon IIL Dec. 2. He is proclaimed in Paris. 1853. Jan. 29. The emperor manles Eug6nie de Montijo, duchess of Teba. Feb. 4 The Moniteur announces the pardon of 4,312 political offenders. Aug. 21. The emperor and empress visit Dieppe. Oct. 2. Denth of Frangois Arago. Nov. 7. Thirty-three persons are tried on the charge of plotiimr to assassinate the emperor : ten of the accused are transported for life, and the rest sentenced to various imprisonments. Nov. 20. The two branches ot the Bouibons are reconciled. 1854. Feb 6. The Kussian ambassador leaves Paris. March 12, A treaty of allinnce with England and Turkey is signed at Constan- tinople. March 27. iTauce declares war against Russia. July 12. The emperor reviews the troops at Boulogne. Sept. 3. The emperor visits Bouiogne, where he entertains the kings of Belgium and Portugal, and Prince Albert. ^Sept, 29. Death of Marshal &t. Ainaud, FRA AprU 17—21, The emperor and empress visit England. April 28, Pianori tires at tbn emperor. May 15. Opening of the Paris exhibition. Aug, 18 — 27. The Queen and Prince Albert visit France. Sept. 8. Belle- marre attempts the emperor's life. Dec. 29. The Imperial Guard enter Paris. March 16. Birth of the prince imi)erial, in conseyuence of which the emptror par- dons more than 1,000 political offenders, March 30. Peace is concluded with Russia. June 1. Disastrous inundations occur in the south of France, Jan, 3. Assassination of the archbishop of Paris. March 5. A conference assembles at Paris to settle the Keufchatel difficulty. (See Necfchateu) April 20. The grand- duke Constantine of Ruesia visits the emperor. July 16. Death of Beranger. Aug. 7. The Italians. Tibaldi, GriUi, and Bartolotti, are tried for plotting against the lifeof the emperor. Aug. 8. Theemperorand empress visit England, Sept. 15. The em- I)eror meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- gardt. Oct. 28. Death of General Cavaignac Jam. 14. Oi-sini, Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, and others, fail in an attempt to atsassinate the emperor and empress with hand-grenades. Both were uninjured, but five persons in the crowd were killed, and sixty woxmded. Feb. 1. The emperor appoints the empress r-gent in the event of his death during the minority of the prtuce imperiaL Feb. 24. Numerous arrests take place in consequence of an apprehended insurrection. Feb. 25. Orsini, &c., are tried at Paris : Orsini, Fieri, and Rudio are condemned to die. March 13. Execution of Oisiui and Pieri, Rudio receives a commutation of sentence. April 15. Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, arrives in London as French ambassador. May 22 to Aug. 19. A con- ference meets at Paris to adjust the organi- zation of the Danubian principalities. Aug, 4 MUd 5. Queen Victoria meets the emperor at Cherbourg (q. v.). Oct. 9. A treaty cf friendship is concluded with Japan. Nov. 2. Death of Count Esterhazy. Nov. 24 Trial and condemnation of the count de Monta- lembert. Dec. 21. The count is partially acquitted by the court of appeal, Jan. 1, The emperor addresses some ominous words to the Austrian ambassador. Jan. 30. Marriage of Prince Napoleon and the Princess CiotUde of Savoy. AprU 23. The French army leaves Paris for Italy May 2. The French ambassador quits Vienna. May 3. The emperor declares war against Austria. May 4. The Austrian ambas- sador leaves Paris. May 10. The emperor leaves Paris to assume the command of the army in Italy, the empress having been appointed regent dui-ing his absence. May 20. The French and Sardinians gain the battle of Montebello. May 30. They triumph at Palestro. June 4. At Magenta. June 8. At Malegnano. The emperor en- ters Milan the same day. June 24 The Austrians are defeated at Solferino. July 8. An armistice is agreed upon. July 11. The emperors of France and Austria meet at ViUafranca, and conclude the preliminax-its of a treaty of peace the next day. July 16. The emperor returns to Paris. Aug. 14. Tlie army recently engaged in Italy makes its solemn entiy into Paris. Aug. 16. The emijeror publishes an amnesty tc. French- men in imprisonment or exile for political offences. Nov. 10. The treaty of Zurich is signed. Dec. 31. In a letter to the pope, the emperor insists upon the ces- sion of the Romagna. Jan. 5. The emperor annomiees his intention of relieving commerce iionx many existing restrictions. 357 FKA I860. Jan. 'Xi. The treaty of commerce with Great Britain is si^ed at Paris. Jan. 29. VCnivers, the oi-gaii of the Ultramontane pai-ty, is sup- pressed hy the emiieror. Feb. 2.5. In a des- patCM to the French ambassador at Turin, the anjiexation of Savoy and Nice to France is sixiken of as gec^raphically necessary. March 10. Publication of the commejcial treaty with England. March 21. The emperor receives a deputation from Savoy. March 24. The treaty of cession of Savoy and Nice is signed at Turin. .Tune 14. The French government takes formal pos- sesi>ion of the ceded provinces. June 24. Death of Prince Jerome Napoleon Bona- parte. Aug. 4. A French force is sent to Syria to protect the Christians against the Mohammedans. Aug. 2.5. The emperor writes to Count PersigDV, French embas- sador in London, to repudiate any hostile designs against England. Nov. 14. The empress visits England privately. 1S61. Feb. 2. A treaty is signed at Paris with the prince of Monaco, for the cession o' Men- tone and Roquebrune to France. Feb. 15. The pamphlet " Fi-ance, Kome, and ItAly," is published. March 7. A treaty of botindary is concluded with Sardinia. Apiil 6. A treaty for the protection of literary and artistic property is concluded with Eussia. April 29. A cummercial treaty is concluded with Tm-key. May 1. A treaty of commerce, and for the protec- tion of literary and artistic property, is concluded with Belgium. Jvme 11. The iloniteur announces the intention of France to preserve strict neutrality in the American civil war. June 23. The em- peror recognizes Tictor Emanuel of Sar- dinia as king of Italy. SOVEKEIGNS OF FRANCE. FEA MEP.OVI>-GLLSS. A.T>. 418. Pharamond. 428. Clodinn. 447. Merovseus. 4-58. Childeric I. 481. Clovis. ("Thierry I. (Austrasia or Metz). -,, J Clodomir (Orleans). ^^^- 1 Childebert I. (Paris). LClotaire I. (Soissors or Neustria). 534 Theodebert I. (iletz). .548. Theodebald (Metz). 558. Clotaire I. (king of all France). rCaribert (Paris). -^, J &ontran (Orleans and Burgundy). ^^- 1 Chilperic I. (Soissons). LSieebert (Austrasia). 575. Childebert II. (Au^'trasia). 593. Ditto (Btu-gundy). 584. Clotaire n. (Soissons). 613. Ditto (king of all France). .„. rThierryll. (Burgundy). '^'•^- \ 1 heodebert II. (Austrasia.). 28. Dagobert I. „.^ f Sigebert II. (Austrasia). oao. -^ QjQyjg jj (Soissons and Burgundy). 656. Clovis II. (king of all Fi-ance). »»„ f Clotaire III. (Soissons and Burgundy). **"•(. Childeric TI. (Austrasia). 670. Childeric II. (king of aU France). _„ f Dagobert II. (AustrasL-i). D/.1. j Thierry III. (Soissons and Burgundy). 691. Clovis III. (Neustria and Burgundy). 695. Childebert III. ., 711. Dagobert III. 71.5. Chilneric TI. 717. Clotaire TV. „ „ 720. Thierry IV. 737. TntejTegnum „ „ 742. Childeric III. „ „ 358 CAROLDfCIAHS. A.D. 752. Pepin the Short. 768. Charlemagne. 814. Louis I., le Dfibonnaire. 840. Charies II., the Bald. 877. Louis IL, the Stammerer. 879. Louis III. and Carloman. 882. Carloman (alone). 884. Charles the Fat (emperor). 887. Eudes. 89a Charles m., the Simple. 922 Robert. 923. Eodolph, or Raoul. 9:}6. Louis IV., d'outremer. 954. Lotaire. 984. Louis v., le FainSant, or Indolent. C.\PEnAl.-S. A.D. 987. Hugh Capet. 996. Robert. 1031. Henry I. 1060. PhiUp L 1108. Louis VI., the Fat. 1137. Louis VII., the Y^ung. 1180. Philip II. (Augustus). 1223. Louis VIIL, the Lion. 1226. Louis IX. (St. Louis). 1270. PhUip III., the Bold. 1285. Philip rv^., the Fair. 1314. Louis X., the Headstrong (Hutin). 1316. John I. 1316. PhUip v., the Long. 1322. Charles VII., the Fair. HOtrSK OF VAL0I3. A.D. 1328. Philip VL, de Valois. i:i50. John IL, the Good. 1364. Charles V., the Wise. 1380. Charles VI. 1422. Charles VII. 1461. Louis XL 1483. Ch.-.rles VIIL 1498. Louis XII. 1515. Frnncis I. 1547 Henry IX. 1559 Francis IT. 1.560 Charles IX. 1374. Henry III. 1 HOtJSE OF BOrRBOlT. A.D. 1589. Henry IV. 1610. Louis XTIL, the Just. 164;J. Ix)uis XIV., le Grand. 1715. Louis XV., the Well beloved. 1774. Lonis XVI. 1793. Louis XVIL (merely nominally a king). THE EEPUBLIC. 1792. 179.5. 1799. A.D. 1804. 1814. 1815. Convention. Direct© y. Cousulatt-. THE EMFIRE. Napoleon I. I ouis XVni. (king). Napoleon (a^ain). HOTTSE OF BOTJKBOiT AGAIX. Louis XVIIL Charles X. HOUSE OF ORUEANS. Louis Philippe L Republic. THE KSCPIKE KKTORFD. Napoleon III. (Charles LooL ). FEA FsAKCHE-CoMTB (France) . — This ancient province, conquered by the Franks a.d. 534, formed part of the duchy of Burgundy. It was bestowed on Philip II. of Spain on his marriage with Isabella, daughter of Henry II. of France, in 1559. Louis XIV. conquered it in 1668 and in 1674, and it was ceded to France by Spain, by the treaty of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678. Fkanchise. — A royal privilege, or branch of the king's prerogative, subsisting in the hands of a subject, was of various kinds, and existed from a very early date. Charlemagne made capitulars, a.d. 779, securing the fran- chise of churches. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429) the franchise was conferred upon forty-shilling freeholders. Franciscans, called also Grey or Minor Friars, were mendicant friars, founded by St. Francis, a.d. 1208. Pope Innocent III. in 1210, the council of the Lateran in 1215, and Honorius III. in 1223, approved the order. The first general chapter of the order was held at Assisi in 1216. In 1228 a dispute, which lasted till 1259, arose between the Dominicans and the Franciscans, con- cerning the dignity and preference of their respective orders. Gregory X. made it one of the four orders, to which he reduced the mendicants in 1274. The Franciscans came to England in 1219. Fbanekee (Holland). — The imiversity, founded in this town a.d. 1585, was converted into an Athenaeum in 1815. FEAWKENHAUSEif (Battle). — Miinzer and his followers, who raised an insurrection in Thuringia, were defeated at this town, in Germany, a.d. 1525. The old town was de- stroyed by fire in 1833. Feankenthal (Germany) was founded by some Flemish Protestants, a.d. 1562. It has been frequently assailed. The French captured it iu 1792. The Austrians took it 2S"ov. 12, 1795. Fran KEOET (T^Torth Ajnerica) , the capital of the state of Kentucky, was founded in 1786, and made the seat of government in 1792. Feankfoet-on-the-Maine ( Germany ), was founded by the Franks in the 5th century. Charlemagne had a palace in this city, which was surrounded with walls by Louis I., A.D. 838. It was made the capital of the Eastern Franks in 843. Frederick II. was elected at Frankfort in 1152. From that time it became the place of election for the emperors, and the Golden Bull con- firmed it in the possession of the privilege in 1536. Frankfort was made a free city in 1154. Frederick of Prussia signed a treaty with the Empire, France, and Sweden, at this city. May 13, 1744. The French cap- tured it Jan. 2, 1759, and again in 179:i ; but the Prussians wrested it from them Dec. 2 in the same year. It was bombarded by the French July 12, and surrendered July 16, 1796. It formed part of the Con- federation of the Ehine in 1806. Napoleon Bonaparte erected Frankfort, and some of ■ the surrounding territory, into a duchy in j 1810. By the congress of Vienna, in 1815, i FEA it was made one of the four free cities of Germany, and the seat of the Germanic diet. It was made a free port in 1831. The Con- stituent Assembly, elected in 1848, held its sittings at Frankfort. They were transferred to Stuttgardt, May 30, 1849. Councils were held here a.d. 794, 853, 1001, 1007 (Feb. 2), 1234, and 1409. Fbankeoet-on-the-Oder (Prussia). — Three periodical fairs, instituted at this town a.d. 1253, are much frequented. Its uni- versity, founded in 1506, was removed to Breslau in 1811. The Eussians and Austrians took Frankfort Aug. 3, 1759 ; the Prussians, however, regained possession Aug. 12. Franking. — The privilege of receiving and sending letters free of postage was claimed by the House of Commons a.d. 1660. A warrant was soon after issued to the post- master-general, granting the privilege to the weight of two ounces. This was confirmed by 4 Geo. III. c. 24 (1764). The privilege of franking was regulated by acts passed in 1764, 1765, and 1795, and by 1 Vict. c. 35 (July 12, 1837) . By the third clause of 2 & 3 Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 17, 1839), the Treasury had power to suspend the privilege of frank- ing, which ceased altogether on the intro- duction of the penny postage, Jan. 10, 1840. Franklin's Expeditions. — Sir John FrankMnmade three expeditions to the Arctic regions previous to that in the Erebus and Terror. As heutenant in command of the Trent, he, in company with Captain Buchan of the Dorothea, left England for Spitzbergen April 25, 1818. They arrived at their des- tination May 26, and returned to England the following October. On the 23rd of May, 1819, Captain Franklin sailed from Graves- end for America, in order to conduct a land expedition in search of the north-west passage. He set out in sledges from the Hudson's Bay Company's station at Cum- berland House, Jan. 19, 1820, and arrived at "Winter Lake Aug. 20, whce he remained during the severe weather ten months. On July 21, 1821, the party embarked on the Polar Sea, and Aug. 22 they commenced their return journey to England. Captain Franklin sailed from Liverpool to undertake a second land expedition, Feb. 16, 1825, and arrived at Fort Chipewyan in July. The party separated into two divisions, July 3, 1826, but reunited Sept. 21, and the expe- dition returned to England Sept. 26, 1827. He received the honour of knightood, April 20, 1829. Sir John Frankhn's last expedition in the Erebus and Terror sailed from Sheerness May 26, 1845. The last despatch home was written July 12, and the ships were seen for the last time by the Prince of Wales whaler, July 26. From information afterwards collected by Captain M'Chntock, of the Fox, an account of whose expedition is appended, it appears that the two ships were beset with ice Sept. 12, 1846. On the 24th of May, 1847, a party of six men under Lieutenant Gore left the ships, at which time all was going on weU. bir 359 FKA John Franklin died the 11th of June following, and the ships were abandoned April 22, 1848. The officers and crew, in number 105 men, landed April 25, and on the 26th they intended to start for Back's Fish Eiver. This is the latest inteUigence obtained respecting this ill-fated expedition. ]S"o anxiety was felt respecting the vessels until the close of 1847, but numerous expedi- tions were subsequently despatched, an ac- count of which is given in the following table. The case of Sir John Franklin, and his officers and crew, was officially pronounced hope- less, and their names were removed from the "Navy List," March 13, 1854. 1848. Jan. 1. The Plover, Commander Moore, sails from Sheerness, with orders to proceed to Behring's Strait, and meet the Herald,, Captain Kellett. She leaches the Sand- wich Islands Aug. 22, and is joined by the Herald at Chamisso Island, July 15, 1849. The two ships are joined by the Nancy Dawson yacht, July 18, and despatch a boat expedition, under Lieutenant PuUen, July 25.— 18-50. Aug. 5. They see the In- vestigator. The Herald returu ed to England in 1851 ; and the Plover, after long arctic service, was sold, at San Francisco, not being seaworthy, Nov. 9, 1854, the crew arriving in England April 8, 1855. 1848. March 25. Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae leave Liverpool to conduct a land-expedi- tion. They arrive at New York April 10, and enter the estuary of the Mackenzie river Aug. 3. Dr. Rae was despatched, witli a party of eight men, to attempt to reach Wollaston Lauil, May 1, 1849 ; but in con- sequence of excessive ice, he was unable to accomplish this object. Sir John Rich- ardson arrived at Liverpool Nov. 6, 1849 ; and in May, 1851, Dr. Rae succeeded in exploring the shores of Wollaston. On the 21st of August he discovered a fragment of a flagstaff, supposed to have belonged to the missing party ; and in 1852 he returned to Englaua. 1848. Jxme 12. Sir James Hops {Enterprise) and Captain Bird (Investigator) leave England. They fail in an attempt to get to the west- ward of Leopold Island, and return to Englaad Nov. 3, 1849. 1«49. May 16. The North Star, Mr. Saundei-s, master, sails with provisions for Barrow's Strait. He returns to Eugland Sept. 28 1850. 1350. Jan. 10. The Enterprise and Investigator, under Captains CoUinson and M'Clure, sail from the Thames, and leave Plymouth Jan. 20. April 19. The two vessels are parted by stress of weather. July 29. The Investigator crosses the Arctic circle. Aug. 5. The Investigator is seen by the Plover. Aug. 29. The Enterprise is com- pelled by the ice to steer southward, and winter at Hong-kong. Sept. 7. M'Clure takes possession of Baring Island. Oct. 26. He discovers the north-west passage". July 10, 1851. The Enterprise leaves Port Clarence for the North. Sept. 26, 1852. She reaches Cambridge Bay, Wollaston Land, and winters there.— 1853. April 6. Lieutenant Pim, of the Resolute, brings assistance to the Investigator, which is abandoned the following June 3, the crew being received on board the Resolute a.nd. Intrepid.— 1854. April 14. The crew of the Investigator proceed on foot to Beechey Island. Sept. 6. They reach Disco, on the coast of Greenland, and arrive in England Sept. 28. The Enterprise returns May 6. 1855. FEA 1850. April 13. Captain Penny, of the Lady FranUin, and Captain Stewart, of the SojJhia, sail from Aberdeen. They return in Sept. 1851. 1850. April 20. Sir- John Ross, in the FtUx, and Commander Phillips, in the Mary, sail from Loch Regan, the expense of the extJe- dition being defrayed by public subscrip- tion. They return Sept. 25, 1851. 1850. May 4. Captain Austin's expedition sails from Greeuhithe. It consists of the Resolute, Captain Austin ; tne Assistance, Captain Ommaney ; the Intrepid, Lieutenant Osboru ; and the Pioneer, Lieutenant Cator. The Resolute and Assistance re- tm-n to England in the latter part of September, 1851. 1850. May 23. The American expedition, the Advance a.ndi the /fwcitc, under lieutenant De Haven and Dr. Kane, sails from New York. The expense of this undertaking was sustained by Mr. Griunell, a wealthy American merchant. They fell in with some relics of the Erebus and Terror, 1850. June 5. The Prince Albert, Captain Forsyth, sails from Aberdeen. Lady Franklin hav- ing equipped the expedition. It retm-us Oct. 1. 1851. May 22. The Prince Albert is again fitted up by Lady Franklin, and siiils from Aberdeen, under the command of Mr. Kennedy and Lieutenant Bellot, of the French navy. After wintering in Prince Regent's Inlet, they return Oct. 9, 1852. 1851. Sept. 27. Lieutenant Pim proposed to conduct an expe ition through Siberia to the mouth of the river Kolyma, and to explore the north coasts of Asia; but the idea was ab.mdoned iu consequence of the repre- sentations of the Ru.-sian government 1852. April l.j. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, viz., the Assistance, Sii' E. Belcher; the Resolute, Captain Kellett ; the North Star, CaiJtaiu PuUen ; the Intrepid, Captain M'Cliutock; and the Pioneer, Cai/taiu Osborn, sailed from Woolwich, with the double object of searching or the Franklin expedition and for the Enterprise and Investigator, which had been absent since 18.50. They arrive at their- winter quarters, in Northumberland Sound, Aug. 18. The Resolute and hitrepid were abandoned May 14, 1854, and the Assistance and Pioneer Aug. 25 ; the whole of the officers and crews being transferred to the North Star. Sir E. Belcher and Captain Kellett returned to England in the PJicenix, which arrived Sept. 28. The Resolute was discovered drifting in the ice, by Captain Buddiuirton, of the U.S. whaler George -Henry, Sept. 10, 1855. The British government having relinquished all claim to the vessel, il was purchased by Congress for 40,000 dollars, and feut as a present to the Queen. She reached Spithead, under the care of Cap- tain Hartstein, of the U.S. navy, by whom she was foimally presented to her Majesty, Dec. 16, 1856. 1852. July 4. The Isabel, Captain Inglefield, saUs from Woolwich. She explores 600 miles of new coast without success, and returns Nov. 4. 1853. Apiil 8. The Isabel again saUs for Behring's Strait, under Mr. Kennedy, late of the Prince Albert. She reaches Valparaiso, where the officer and crew disagree, and the expedition is abandoned. 1853. May 19. The Phcenix, Captain Inglefield, and Lieutenant Bellot as a volunteer, and the Breadalbane transport, saU from Sheerness. They reach Beechey Island Aug. 8 ; Lieu- tenant Bellot meets his death by accident FEA 18a3. Aug. 18. The expedition returns Oct. 4, with news of Sir Edward Belcher's expedition and of the missing Investi%gator. 1853. May 30. The American ship Advance, com- manded by Dr. Kane, sails from New York. She returns Oct. 11, 1855. 1854. May 6. The Phasnix, Captain Inglefield, again sails to Beechey Island. She retiirns to Cork Sept. 28, with Sir Edward Belcher and Captain Kellett on board. 1855. June 1. The United States despatch the Release and Arctic, under Lieutenant Hartstein, in aid of Dr. Kane's expedit- ion. 1857. July 2. Lady Franklin despatches the steam yacht Fox, Captain M'Clintock, from Aber- deen. She reaches Beechey Island Aug. 11, 1858, and the crew divide into two parties, one of which is commanded by Captain M'Clintock and the other by Lieutenant Hobson, April 2. 1859. Mr. Hobson dis- covered the record of the fate of the Franklin expedition in a cairn at Point Victory, May 6 ; and the vessel com- menced her homeward voyage Aug. 9, arriving at Portsmouth Sept. 21. 1860. May 29. Mr. Hall, of Cincinnati, sails from New London, Connecticut, U.S., with the Intention of searching to the north of Fury and Hecla Strait for fui-tiier traces of the Franklin expedition. 1860. July 7. Dr. Hayes starts from America for Smith's Sound. Fkawk-pledgt). — On the establishment of decennaries by Alfred the Great, about a.d. 890, each member was required to pledge his word for the right conduct of all ffis feilow-members. This pledge was called frank-pledge. Courts for the view of frank- pledge were held annuahy, and regulated by the statute for view of frank-pledge, ISEdw. II. (1325). Feanks. — This tribe was formed about A.D. 240 by the Chauci, Cherusci, and Catti, who dwelt on the banks of the Lower Ehine and the Weser, and united under the title of Franks, or free men. They invaded Gaul in 256, and for twelve years ravaged that country and Spain, extending their incur- sions as far as the opposite continent of Africa. Probus drove them back into their native marshes in 277 ; but their influence gradually increased, and after the death of Constantine, in 337, they constituted a powerful faction at the imperial court. In 358 they again invaded Gaul, and were defeated by Juhan, who permitted them to estabUsh a colony in Brabant, or Taxandria. In 418 they again invaded Gaul, where, under their leader Pharamond, they founded the modern kingdom of France. {See France.) Frascati (Italy). — This town was founded near the ancient Tusculum, destroyed a.d. 1191. The church of San Eocco was built in 1309, and the new cathedral in 1700. The first bishop of the see was consecrated a.d. 269. Featbicelli, or Little -Beetheen, a branch of the Franciscans that arose in Italy towards the end of the 13th century. They were, according to Milman, bound to the Ccelestinians by the closest ties. By some authors they have been confounded FEE with the Beghards, to whom the name FratriceUi, oi FratercaH, was apphed as a term of reproach. Fraudulent Trustees Act.— By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54 (Aug. 17, 1857), trustees or bankers who fraudulently dispose of pro- perty, or keep false accounts, or wiltully destroy books or other documents, or pub- lish false statements, are declared guilty of misdemeanour, and rendered liable to penal servitude for three years. The provisions of the act were not extended to Scotland. Fraustadt (Battle) . — The Swedes defeated an allied German and Eussian army at Fraustadt Feb. 12, 1705. Feedeeicia (Jutland). — This town was founded by Frederick III. of Denmark, a.d. 1615. The Danes defeated the Sleswig in- surgents near this fortress. May 3, 1849. Feedeeickshall, or Fredeeickshald (Norway). — Charles XII. of Sweden was killed whilst besieging the castle of Frederick- stein, in this town, Dec. 11, 1718. The death of the king led to the immediate raising of the siege. Feedeeigkshamm (Finland). — The Eus- sians wrested this fortress from the Swedes A.D. 1742. Gustavus III. of Sweden, who failed in an attempt to capture it in 1788, stormed its defences, destroyed the docks, timber, and stores, in 1790. A treaty of peace between Eussia and Sweden was con- cluded at this town Sept. 17, 1809. Feee Chuech oe Scotland. — In con- sequence of the opposition of a large por- tion of the Scotch to the right of patrons to nominate whom they pleased to vacant livings, a large body seceded from the Kirk, May 18, 1843, and founded the Free Church of Scotland. At first the infant church endured much privation, in consequence of the general opposition of the landed pro- prietors to the movement ; but a subscrip- tion of £366,719. 14s. Zd. was raised, and on the meeting of the General Assembly in May, 1844, the society was declared in a very prosperous condition. In 1845 £100,000 were collected for the erection of manses for the seceding clergy ; and in 1846 a coUege was founded by Dr. Chalmers, who died in 1847. In 1853 there were about 850 Free Church congregations in Scotland. Free Companies. — Bands of discharged soldiers, who ravaged France after the con- clusion of the peace of Bretigny, May 8, 1360. Bertrand du Gueschn, born in Britanny A,D. 1314, put himself at their head, and led them against Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, whom he dethroned in 1365, placing Henry, count of Trastamara, on the throne. Edward the Black Prince recalled the free companies, defeated Henry at Najara, April 3, 1367, and restored Peter the Cruel, who was, however, defeated March 14, 1369, and slain by Henry of Trastamara March 23, Freeholders were exempted from dis- trainment on account of their freeholds by 52 Hen. II. c. 22 (1267) ; and they were protected from the councils of the lords, which had usurped the functions of the law 361 PEE of the land, by 15 Eieh. II. c. 12 (1391). By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), electors for parliament were compelled to possess land to the amount of forty shillings per annum, and 19 Geo. II. 0. 28 (1746), rendered a similar qualification necessary in the case of electors of boroughs. Electors in Ireland are obhged to possess a freehold estate of £10 a year, by 10 Geo. IV. 0.8 (April 13, 1829). Feeemantle (Australia). — This town, on Swan river, was founded in 1830. Feeemasonrt. — The members of this order claim for it the highest antiquity; some asserting that it is coeval with the human race, and was introduced into Egypt by Mizraim, grandson of Noah ; others that it originated at the building of Solomon's temple, B.C. 1011 ; and others that it arose from the Eleusinian mysteries (q.v.). The Rev. G. Ohver, in his " Antiquities of Freemasonry," styles St. John the grand patron of the order. England was almost the first country to encourage modem Free- masonry, it having been introduced about A.D. 676. The grand lodge at York was formed in 926, and the members of the fraternity are beheved to have contributed materially to the erection of the beautiful Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages. In 1140 the order appeared in Scotland ; and in 1424 it was prohibited in England by 3 Hen. VI. e. 1. It is supposed to have been introduced into France during the 16th century. The grand lodge of England was founded in 1717, and in 1734 a misunder- standing arose between it and the grand lodge of York, which resulted in a division of the order. The first French lodge was formed in 1725 ; in 1729 the order was introduced mto the East Indies, and in 1730 into America. The grand lodge of Ireland was also estabhshed in 1730. In j 1731 a lodge was erected at the Hague ; in 1735 the first German lodge was instituted ; in 1736 the grand lodge of Scotland was established, and a lodge founded at the Cape of Good Hope ; in 1738 one was , planted at Brunswick ; and in 1749 the j order appeared in Bohemia. The pope published a bull of excommunication against | Freemasons in 1738. The meetings of the ; order were sanctioned by 39 Geo. III. c. 79, j ss. 5—7 (July 12, 1799), and by 57 Geo. III. ! c. 19, s. 26 (March 31, 1817). Freemasons' i Hall, London, was founded May 1, 1775, | and opened May 23, 1776. The tavern was erected in 1786, and the charity for female children established in 1788. Feeemasons' Hall (London) was opened May 23, 1776. Free-Will Islands (Pacific), three in number, were discovered by Carteret a.d. 1767. Fregosi. (See Adoeni.) Freibeeg (Saxony). — The discovery of silver-mines in the neighbourhood during the 12th century, raised this city into impor- tance. It was long the residence of the Saxon princes. The Mining Academy was opened in 1767. Frederick II. of Prussia j FEB defeated the Austrian and Saxon army near this town in 1745. (See Hohenfeeibeeg.) Feeibtjeg, Feeybueg, or Feibueg (Switzerland). — The capital of a canton of the same name, was built a.d. 1179. Frei- burg became a sovereign canton in 1481. The form of government was remodelled in 1830. The canton joined the Sonderbund in May, 1846, and the town was taken by the confederate troops Nov. 13, 1847. The suspension-bridge was erected in 1834. This town must not be confounded with a place of the same name in Baden. Fee JUS (France) , the ancient Forum Julii, was made the seat of a Roman colony by Julius Csesar. A Roman navy was, under the emperors, stationed at this port. An action between a French squadron and some Enghsh ships took place near Frejus Bay, July 13, 1795, when three English vessels sutfered some damage, and the French 74, the Alcide, took fire. Napoleon disembarked at this port Oct. 9, 1799, on his return from Egypt. He arrived here April 27, 1814, and embarked the following day for Elba. French America. — The French possess a portion of Guiana, Guadaloupe, Mar- tinique, and some smaller islands in America. Feench Language. — The French lan- guage is, according to Hallam, one of the principal of " many dialects deviating from each other in the gradual corruption of the Latin, once universally spoken by the sub- jects of Rome in her western provinces." Latin seems to have been the vulgar tongue as late as about a.d. 670 ; but by the middle of the 8th century, a rustic dialect was esta- bhshed, which was ordered to be used in the explanation of homiUes, by the council of Tours, in 813. The earUest written record of this language is the oath of Louis of Germany and Charles the Bald, in 842. The earhest poem extant in this dialect is a fragment on Boetius, supposed to have been written about 1000. French became the language of the Enghsh court after the Conquest, in 1066, but its use in law pleadings was discontinued in 1362. Frenchtown (Canada), having been seized by the Americans, Jan. 22, 1813, was re- captured by General Proctor Jan. 24. The Americans, who had lost 300 men, surren- dered prisoners of war. Fresco Painting was practised by the Egyptians and the Greeks at a very early period. The art was revived in Italy during the 14th century, and carried to great per- fection. Having fallen into disuse, it was restored by some Germans in 1816. Feetheen (Battle). — Ceauhn's brother Cutha was killed in a battle with the Britons at this place, near Stroud, in Gloucestershire, a.d. 584. Ceauhn gained the victory, and committed great ravages. Fretville. — A treaty was concluded be- tween Henry II. of England and Louis VII. of France at this town, between Chartres and Tours, July 21, 1170. Becket, who was in the neighbourhood, held a conference FRI with Henry II., with whom he was reconciled July 22, 1170. Feiars Observant, Franciscans, who pretended to follow the rules of their founder more strictly than others, arose in the 13th century. They received permission to hve detached from the rest of the brethren a.d. 1368. Friday, the sixth day of the week, is said to be named after Frea, or Friga, the wife of Odin, in Scandinavian mythology. Friedland (Battle). — The French, com- manded by Napoleon I., defeated the Rus- sian and Prussian army in a great battle at this town, on the Alle, in Prussia, Jime 14, 1807. Friedwald treaty was concluded be- tween France and the Protestant princes of Germany, Oct. 5, 1551. Friendly Islands (Pacific), also called Tongan Islands, consisting of three groups, containing more than 150 islands, were dis- covered by Tasman, in January, 1643. Captain Cook gave them the name of the Friendly Islands in 1773, on account of the kind reception which he experienced from the inhabitants. Missionaries were first sent to these islands in 1797. {See Ton&a.) Friendly Societies. — These institutions are of very early origin, and were general among the Anglo-Saxons, though the date at which they originated is not known. One was founded in London in 1715, which was, perhaps, the earliest modern friendly society, and they soon made such progress that 16,000 societies are said to have existed between June 19, 1829, and Sept. 30, 1852. They were first brought under legislative control by 33 Geo. HI. c. 54 (June 21, 1793), which is known as Mr. Rose's Act. Many statutes were subsequently enacted. They were all repealed by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 63 (July 23, 1855), and 21 & 22 Vict. e. 101 (Aug. 2, 1858), which are the laws now in force respecting friendly societies. Friends oe God arose in the 14th cen- tury in Germany and Switzerland. Mihnan (Lat. Christ, b. xiv. ch. 7) describes them thus : — " In aU the great cities rose a secret unorganized brotherhood, bound together only by silent unfelt sympathies, — the Friends of God. This appellation was a secession, a tacit revolt, an assumption of superiority. God was not to be worshipped in the church alone, with the clergy alone, with the monks alone, in the ritual, even in the sacraments ; he was within, in the heart, in the life. This, and kindred brotherhoods, embraced all orders, — priests, monks, friars, nobles, burghers, peasants. They had their pro- phets and prophetesses ; above all, their preachers." Friends of the People. — An association under this name was formed in London in the spring of 1792. Its object was to obtain a reform m the representation of the people, and it included amongst its members, ac- cording to a contemporary authority, some of "the most conspicuous characters, among the merchants and literary men, throughout FRU the kingdom." A debate on the subject followed in the House of Commons, April 30, 1792. A similar society was formed in Edinburgh. Friesland, or East Friesland (Han- over). — This territory, occupied by the ancient Frisians, was divided into East and West Friesland in the 13th century. It became a fief of the empire in 1657. Prussia obtained possession in 1744. It was wrested from her by France, and transferred to Holland in 1807. In 1810 it was made a province of France. The French were ex- pelled by the allied armies in 1813, and East Friesland was allotted to Hanover in 1815. Friesland, or Vriesland (Holland), called West Friesland, to distinguish it from a province of the same name in Germany, forms part of the country occupied by the ancient Frisians. It was made one of the United Provinces a.d. 1581, and became a province of Holland in 1609. Feobisher Strait was discovered by Sir Martin Frobisher, Aug. 11, 1576. Frondeues and Mazarins. — The arbi- trary acts of Mazarin provoked opposition in France, and those who supported the min- ister were called Mazarins, and those who supported the Parhaments who opposed him were called Frondeurs, or Shngers. The name by which they were compared to the scholars, who fought with sHngs in the ditches of Paris, and took to flight on the approach of the watch, was given to them in derision. The struggle between these parties led to civil strife, called the war of the Fronde, which lasted from 1648 to 1652. Frozen Ocean. — This term is applied to the Polar Seas. In 1636 the Russians ascertained that they washed the northern shores of Asia. Wrangel explored the hinits of the Frozen Ocean in 1821. Fruit. — The following table contains a hst of the principal fruits, and the date of their introduction into this country. Almond-tree Apple (Chinese) JDitto (custard) Ditto (osage) Apricot Cherry Ditto (Chinese) Ditto (Flemish, or ") Kentish) j Ditto (Cornelian) . . . . Ditto (Tartarian) Currant (hawthorn) . . Egg-plant Fig Ditto (Botany Bay) . . Lemon Lime (American) ... . . Melon (musk) Ditto (water) Mulberry (common) . . Ditto (paper) Introduced into England from Barhary China N. America . . Ditto China Flanders | Austria Russia Canada Africa Italy N. S. Wales . . N. America . . . . Jamaica Italy Ditto Japan In 1548 „ 1780 „ 1736 „ 1818 „ 1524 About 200 1819 Temp. Hen. V in. In 1596 „ 1794 „ 1705 „ 1597 „ 1525 „ 1789 Beforel648 „ 1752 In 1570 ,. 1597 Beforel548 „ 1751 ■6ti6 FUC Mulberry (red) Ditto (white) Nectiirine , Olive Ditto (Cape) , Ditto (laurel -leaved), Bitto (sweet-scented) Ditto (wave-leaved) , Orange Ditto (mock) Peach Pears Ppar (snowy) Pineapple Plums Plum (date) Ditto (Pishamin) . . . Pomegranate Quince (common) Ditto (Japan) Easpbeny (floweiing) . Ditto (Virginian) . . . Strawberry (Chili) . . . Ditto (Oriental) . . . . Tomato Vine Walnut (black) Ditto (common) Introduced into England from N. America. China Cape of Good Madeira China . . Cape . . . • In 1648 „ 1730 : „ 1784 ! „ 1771 I „ 1730 „ 1595 Betbrel5rEEALissiMO.— Cardinal Eichelieu is said to have been the first person to bear this title, which he did on taking the com- mand of a French army in Italy, a.d. 1629. GrENEEAi/ Waeeants, not Specifying any particular persons, were declared illegal, Friday, May 6, 1763. John Wilkes had been arrested on a general warrant, Saturday, April 30, 1763. Having obtained an ac- quittal, he brought forward the subject in the House of Commons, and commenced an action against Eobert Wood, under-secretary of state, for having seized his papers. This was tried Dec. 6, 1763, and resulted in a verdict in favour of John Wilkes, with £1,000 damages. Geneva (Switzerland) is mentioned by Caesar as a town of the Allobroges, B.C. 58. 200 (about). Geneva is made a bishopric. 426. Geneva is taken by the Burgundians, who make it their capital. 5H. It is seized by the Franks. 1285. The citizens conclude an alliauee with the count of Savoy. 1387. Bi-hop F*bri grMits the town a charter. 1417. It is rendered subject to the duke of Savoy. 1499. Louis XII. and PhUibert II., duke of Savoy, sign a treaty at Geneva. 1515. Nov. 7. Francis I. and eight of the Swiss cantons conclude a treaty at Geneva. The other cantons accede to it in 1516. 1519. The inhabitants conclude a treaty with Frei- burg and Berne. 1524. The Genevese shake off the yoke of Savoy. 1-535. The Calvinists expel the bishop, who retii'es to Annecy, in Savoy. 1536. Calvin settles here. Geneva becomes a re- public in alliance with Berne. 1553. Michael Servetus is burnt, at Geneva, for heresy. 1584. It forms an alliance with the Swiss cantons. 1602. The duke of Savoy faUs in an attempt to etfefit its capture. 1603. Henry IV., of France, acknowledges its inde- pendence 1712. A general assembly is convened, but without important results. 1738. The republic adopts a regular constitution. 1770. An insuriection is suporessed. 1781. Delay in the publicatioi' of a new code of laws creates great dissatisfaction. 1788. March. A rebellion breaks out, and the inha- bitants admit foreign troops into the city. Sept. One thousand of the inhabitants petition the Irish government for per- mission to settle in Ireland, which is granted, and 50,000i. are voted to enable them to do so. 1783. July. A deputation arrives in Waterford to found New Geneva ; but after 30,000?. have been expended, the whole scheme is sud- denly abandoBsd. 372 GEN 1789. The inhabitants compel the magistrates to extend their privUeges. 1794. July. A revolution takes place, and the gen- try are executed, exUed, or imprisoned. 1798. AprU. Geneva is annexed to the French republic. 1814. Geneva is restored to Switzerland, of which it becomes a c-mton. 1834. Feb. 5. Some Polish refugees excite the lower ordei-s of Geneva to aid them in a rebellion against the Sardinians. 1846. It is disturbed by insui-gents, who obtain an alteration of the constitution, which be- comes more democratic. 1849. The fortifications are destroyed. 1860. March 30. A band of from fifty to eighty persons set out from GJeneva in order to plant the Swiss flag at Thonon and Evian. They are arrested, and carried back to Geneva. Genevieve, St. (Missouri), was founded in 1755. Gennet (Order of). — This, the first order of chivalry estabhshed in France, was founded by Charles of Aquitaine, in mem- ory of his victory over the Moors at Tours, A.D. 726. It was named Gennet, or Wood Marten, because numbers of these animals were found in the camp of the invaders. Genoa (Italy), the ancient Genua, is said to have been founded about B.C. 707. It was the chief maritime city of the Ligures, and at the beginning of the second Punic war, B.C. 218, was in aUiance with Eome. Mago, the Carthaginian, seized it B.C. 205, and reduced it to ruins ; but it was rebuilt by Sp. Lucretius, b.c. 203. The cathedral is founded. A bishop of Genoa is present at the council of AquUeia. Genoa is seized by the Lombards. It is pillaged by the Saracens. The cathedral is rebuUt. War is declared against Pisa. It is governed by consuls, who hold their office for a year at a time. The see is made archi'-piscopal. The Genoese take Minorca from the Moors. The administration is intrusted to a Podesta. The town is governed by a captain. .Doria and Spinola usurp the govemmtut, and assume the titles of Captains of Liberty. They defeat the Pisans at the navsil battle of Melovia. They destroy Porto Pisano. War is declared against Venice. They conclude an advantageous peace with 641. 936. 985. 1119. 1122. 1133. 1146. 1190. 12.57. 1270. 1290. 1293. 1299. 1339. The citizens appoint Simon Boccanegro doge for life. 1344. The nobles depose Boccanegro, and elect Giovanni da Murta. 1346. The Genoese defeat the Venetians near Con- stantinople. 1350. The republic is again at war with Venice. 1356. Boccanegro is re-appointed doge. 1381. They again make peace with Venice. 1391. The Genoese place themselves under the pro- tection of Charles VI. of France, who puts them under the rule of Marshal Boucicaut. 1399. They seek assistance from the marquis of Montferrat. 1407. The Bank of St. George is founded. 1421. The duke of Milan is invited to superintend their govei-nment. 1458. They place themselves under the protection of Charles VII. of France. GEN 1461. March 9. The Genoese expel the French governor and ganison. 1464. Louis XI. resolves to have nothing to do with so troublesome a dependency, and the re- public passes under the sway of the duke of Milan. 1475. Genoa is invaded by the Turks. 1499. It is again subjected to the French. 1507. An insurrection of the inhabitants is sup- pressed by Bayard. 1528. Andrew Boria opposes Francis T., and obtains a new constitution, the chief power being in the hands of a doge, elected biennially. 1547. Jan. 2. Louis Fiesco fails h) a conspiracy against Andrew Doria. The lighthouse is erected this year. 1684. Genoa is bombarded by the French, and the doge comes to Versailles to render sub- mission to Lotiis XrV. 1730. Corsica revolts. 1745. Sept. 26. G«noa is bombarded by Admiral Kowley. 1746. Nov. 9. It surrenders to Charles Emanuel, king of Sardinia, and the Austrians, who arc expelled by the citizens Dec. 10. 1747. March 31. The Austrians renew the siege, which they finally abandon June 10. 1768. Corsica is ceded to France. 1777. The palace of the doge is destroyed by fire. 1796. Genoa is occupied by the French. 1797. June 14. The republic assumes the title of the Ligurian Republic. 1800. Massena is besieged in Genoa by the English and Austrians, who compel him to evacuate it Jime 4 1805. June 4. G«uoa is incorporated with the French empire. 1812. The university is founded. 1814. April 18. Genoa suiTenon to various powers. Aug. 11. Francis II. of Gtermany assumes the title of emperor of Austria. Napoleon I. erects Bavaria and Wiirtemberg into independent kingdoms. July 12. The Confederation of the Rhine is formed. Aug. 18. Napoleon forms the kingdom of Westphalia. Dec. 15. The Germanic empire is dissolved. March 16. Hanover is annexed to Westphalia. Dec. 13. The whole of the north of Ger- many, from the Wesel to LUbeck, is annexed to France. The Tugendbund, a secret society against the French, is formed in Germany this year. Jan. 1. Hamburg is annexed to France. The war of German independence com- mences. Nov. 1. The congress of Vienna assembles. May 25. The congress of Vienna closes, having restored the German states to independence, though they are united by a federal league. Juue 8. The Genoanic Confederation is formed. A year of great commercial depression in Germany. Revolutions in Brunswick, Belgium, and Saxony {q. v.). Death of the poet Goethe. Jan. Insurrections occur in Argovia and Soleure. Popular agitation in He?se-Gassel, Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover, where various con- cessions are made to the people. March 31. A congi-ess assembles at Frankfort. May 18. The German parliamentassembles. July 12. The Arctiduke John of Austria is elected vicar of the empire. Aug. 4. The Frank- fort diet abolishes capital punishment. March 28. The king of Pinissia is elected emperor of Germany. April 3. He de- clines to accept the title. May 14 The Prussian deputies are recalled from the Frankfort assembly. May 30. Part of the assembly removes from Frankfort to Stutt- gardt. Sept. 30. Prussia and Austria con- clude a treaty for the temporary establish- ment of a central government. Nov. 12. Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with the German states. Feb. 27. The treaty of Munich is signed, by which Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, and Austria, agree to a revision of the Ger- man Confederation. March 20. The parlia- ment assembles at Erfurt, 378 1851. 1854. May 10. The diet assembles at Frankfort. June 7. Hesse-Cassel refuses to send a re- presentative to th« college of princes at Erfurt. June 20. Hesse- Darmstadt with- draws from the Prussian league. July 19. Austria proposes the convocation of the federal assembly. Sept. 2. It assembles at Fi-ankfort. Nov. 1. Austria invades Hesse- Cassel {g v.). Dec. 23. A conference on German affairs is opened at Dresden. May 15. The Dresden conferences conclude their sessions with a resolution to restore the old Frankfort diet. Jan. 13 and April 9. Protocols are signed between the western powers and the German states. Jan. 15. Conferences respecting the adoption of a general comiLercia' code by the Ger- man states are opened at Nuremberg. July 17. A meeting of the democratic and constitutional parties is held at Eisenach, where it is proposed to revise the consti- tution of the confederation, and appoint a central power under the direction of Prussia. Auk. 14. Another meeting is held at Eisenach. Sept. 13. Prussia dis- sents from the proposition. Sept. 16. An association is founded at Frankfort for the furtherance of the Eisenach plan. Nov. 3. The government of Baden suggests the establishment of a federal tribunal for the settlement of disputes between the Germanic states. Jan. 29. Deatb of Ernest Maui'ice Amdt. March 54. Ihe diet opposes Piussia re- specting the constitution of Hesse-Caaae). April 29 to May 17. A solemn coimcil of German ecclesiastics is held at Cologne. June 16. The German princes have an interview with the emt)le was the first place that received Napoleon I. on his return from Elba in March, 1814, and here the emperor issued three decrees. An attempt at insurrection was suppressed May 4, 1816; and disturbances occurred Dee. 18, 1831. Grenville Administration was formed soon after the dissolution of the Bute Ad- ministration, April 8, 1763, George Grenville becoming fii-st lord of the Treasury and chancellor of the Exchequer, April 16, 1763. The cabinet was thus constituted : — Treasury and Chancellor- "I-,, ~ ship of the Exchequer ;^- GrenviUe. ( Lord Henley, created Earl Lord Chancellor < oi' Northington May 19. I 1764. GEE President of the Council. .Earl Granville. Pvivy Seal Duke of Marlborough. Principal Secretaries of) Earl of Sandwich and State J- Earl of Halifax. Admiralty Earl of Egmont. Secretary at War Mr. Ellis. Ordnance Marcxuis of Granby. The duke of Bedford took Earl GranviUe's place as president of the council Sept. 2, 1763. This ministry was dissolved in July, 1765. {See Eockingham (First) Adminis- tration.) Gresham College (London). — This in- stitution was founded by Sir Thomas Gresham, who gave the Eoyal Exchange to the corporation of London and the Mercers' Company, on the condition that they instituted a series of lectures on divinity, civil law, astronomy, music, geo- metry, rhetoric, and physic, May 24, 1575. He died Nov. 21, 1579, and the lectures commenced in his house, which he be- queathed for the purpose, in June, 1597. The first Gresham College was pulled dovni in 1768, and the site used for the Excise Ofiice. The lectures were dehvered in a room over the Eoyal Exchange, untU the present college was opened, Nov. 2, 1843. The Eoyal Society held its meetings at this institution from 1662 to 1710. Gretna Green (Scotland). — This village, in Dumfriesshire, at a short distance from the English frontier, was long notorious for irregular marriages. The Fleet marriages having been declared Ulegal in 1754, runaway lovers repaired to Scotland, and a celebrated Fleet parson advertised his removal to Gretna. He was succeeded by an old soldier named Gordon, who in his" turn was followed by Joseph Paisley, called " the blacksmith," originally a weaver, and at one time a tobacconist. He died in 1814. By 19 & 20 Vict. c. 196 (July 29, 1856), Gretna Green and Border marriages were abolished. It provided that, after Dec. 31, 1856, "no irregular marriage contracted in Scotland by declaration, acknowledgment, or cere- mony, vrill be valid, unless one of the parties has his or her residence in Scotland, or had hved therein for twenty-one days next pre- ceding such marriage ; any law, custom, or usage to the contrary notwithstanding." Grey Administration was formed soon after the resignation of the Wellington Administration, Nov, 16, 1830, The cabinet consisted of Treasury Earl Grey. Lord Chancellor Lord Brougham. President of the Council . .Marquis of Lansdowne. Privy Seal Lord Durham. Chancellor of Exchequer . .Viscount Althorp. Home Secretary Viscount Melbourne. Foreign Secretary Viscoimt Palmerston. Colonial Secretary Viscount Goderich. Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bart. Board of Control Mr. C. Grant. Board of Trade Lord Auckland. Postmaster-General Duke of Richmond. Chancellor of the Duchy 1 t « .q -Er„ii„„ j of Lancaster "^ | Lord Holland. Without office Earl of Carlisle. The Hon. E. G. S. Stanley, afterwards earl 395 of Derby, as chief secretary of Ireland, and Lord John Eussell, as paymaster of the forces, were made members of the cabinet. Having been defeated on an amendment to their Eeform Bill in the House of Lords, this cabinet resigned, May 9, 1832. The Opposition refused to form an administration, and the Grey cabinet was restored. The Hon. E. Gr. S. Stanley became colonial secretary March 28, 1833, Sir John Hob- house taking his place as chief secretary for Ireland ; and Viscount Goderich, afterwards earl of Ripon, succeeded Lord Durham as privy seal, April 3, 1833. This ministry was dissolved July 9, 1834. {Ses Melboxjene Administeation.) GEETTOWif, or San Juan de Nicabagtja (Central America) . — This town, which was originally founded by the Spaniards, was de- clared a free port under its present title, Jan. 1, 1851. It was bombarded by a United States ship of war in 1854, iu retaliation for an alleged insult to the American consul. Geisoxs (Switzerland) . — In May, 1424, the abbot and lords of Upper Ehsetiamet the deputies of the Swiss valleys, and the towns of Itantz and Tusis, near the village of Trons, and there formed a league, which received the name of the Grey League, or the League of the Grisous, from the colour of the smocks worn by the deputies. Gradually the name extended to the district and its inhabitants, who formed an aUiance with the Swiss can- tons in 1497. In 1499 they defeated the troops of the emperor Maximilian at Mal- sheraid, and in 1512 they took possession of Valtehne, Chiavenua, and Bormio, south of the Alps. The Grisons received the Refor- mation early. In 1603 they formed an alli- ance with Venice for the protection of Valteline against the Spaniards ; but in 1620 the natives of that province rebelled against them, and the territory feU into the hands of Spaia. A forced treaty was concluded in 1622, by which Valteline and Bormio were surrendered, and the independence of the Grisons annihilated ; but in September the in- habitants rose in arms, and compelled the Spaniards to retire. Valtehne was restored to the Grisons in 1639. In 1797 the Itahan pro- vinces were again wrested from them by If apoleon, and in March, 1799, their country was overrun by the French. The Grisons became a canton of Smtzerland by the Act of Mediation in 1803. Geoats were first ordered to be coined A.D. 1227 and 1249. Their proper value was fourpence, but the term was occasionally apphed to coins of different worth. Thus Stow, imder the year 1504, speaks of " a groat, the value of which was \M." Half-groats were first coined in 1351. The modern four- penny piece was struck in the reign of WiUiam IV. Geocees' Compastt (London). — The ori- ginal ittle of this company was " Pepperers," who are mentioned as a separate fraternity in the time of Henry II., though the guild probably originated at a much earHer date. The present company was founded June 12, GEO 1345, and the name " grocers," which first appears in a petition of the Commons in 1361, was not adopted by them till 1376. The meaning of the term is somewhat disputed, though it is most probably a contracted form of "engrossers," the name apphed to dealers in any ware, who by monopoly or other means, contrived to raise the price of their goods The haU was founded May 8, 1427, and the company received its first patent of confirmation in 1429. The great fire of 1666 seriously damaged the hall, which was restored in 1668-9, by Sir John Cutler. In 1681 it was again in ruins, and was renovated by Sir John Moore, and in 1694 it was let to the Bank of England. The present hall was built in 1802, and repaired in 1827. Geochow (Battle).— The Poles defeated the Russians at this place, near Warsaw, after an obstinate contest that lasted two days, Feb. 19 and 20, 1831. The Russians lost 7,000 and the Poles only 2,000 men. Geodno (Poland). — This town is of ancient and uncertain origin. In 1184 it suffered considerably from a fire, and in 1283 was taken by the Teutonic knights. The Prus- sians made a futile attempt at its capture in 1306. Grodno was a seat of the Pohsh diet from 1673 to 1752. In 1708 it was taken by Charles XII., and in 1753 the greater part was destroyed by fire. The Russians seized it in 1792, and erected it into the chief town of Lithuania in 1795. It has since been made the chief town of a province of the same name. Geog. — Admiral Edward Vernon, after the reduction of Porto BeUo, Nov. 21, 1739, introduced the use of rum-and-water amongst his crew. " In bad weather," according to Mr. Vaux (Notes and Queries, i. p. 52) " he was in the habit of walking the deck in a rough grogram cloak, and thence had obtained the nickname of Old Crrog in the service. This is, I beheve, the origin of the name^ro^, apphed oinginaUy to rM»»-and- water." GEONiNGEif (Holland). — This town was founded towards the latter part of the 6th century, and possessed some conmiercial influence in the 9th century, when it was seized and destroyed by the JS^orthmen. In 1110 the town was rebuilt, and subsequently formed part of the Spanish dominions. In 1576 it was incorporated with the United Provinces, but it afterwards fell again into the hands of the Spaniards, from whom it was finally wrested by Prince Maurice in 1594. The citadel was erected in 1607, and the university founded in 1614. In 1678 Groningen repelled a siege by the elector of Cologne and bishop of Munster. The in- stitution for the deaf and dumb was foimded in 1790, and the town-hall in 1793. In 1795 it was seized by the French, under General Macdonald. The Hotel de VOle was buUt in 1810. Geoss-Beeeen (Battle) . — Bemadotte, commanding an allied army, defeated Napo- leon I. and the Saxons at this place, near Berlin, Aug. 23, 1813. GEO Gross GiOGAN (Prussia).— The Prussians took this city, on the Oder, a.d. 1741. The French invested it in October, 1806, and it surrendered early in December. The allies blockaded it Aug. 17, 1813, and it capitulated April 10, 1814. Geub Street (London) was inhabited, be- fore the discovery of printing, by text-writers, who wrote all sorts of books then in use. John Foxe, the martyrologist, John Speed, the his- torian, and other authors, resided in Grub Street. Memoirs of the Society of Grub Street appeared in 1737. Its name was changed to that of Milton Street in 1830. Guadalajara (Spain).— A corruption of Guidalhichara or Guadalaruaca, the name bestowed upon this town by the Moors, who captured it a.d. 714. GuADALOTTPE (West Indies). — This island was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1493. In 1635 it was seized by the French, and on Jan, 29, 1759, was taken by the English, who restored it in 1763. It was again seized by them in 1794 and Feb. 5, 1810, when it was proposed to cede it to Sweden ; but at the peace of 1814 it was restored to France. The EngUsh again captured it Aug. 10, 1815, and it was ultimately and finally restored to France July 23, 1816. Guadaloupe suffered severely from an earthquake in 1843. GuADix (Spain) . — This is said to have been the seat of the first bishopric erected in Spain. Ferdinand of Castile captured it in December, 1489. Gu ALICE, or Gw ALICE (Hiudostau). — This town was under the government of rajahs as early as a.d. 1008. In 1197 it was taken by the Mohammedans, and in 1235 submitted to Altumsh, king of Delhi . In 1519 it was taken by Ibrahim Lodi, the last Patau emperor of Delhi, and in 1543 it was surrendered to Shere Khan, the Affghan. Gualior was taken by the British, under Major Popham, Aug. 3, 1780. In 1784 it was seized by Madhajee Scindia, and in 1803 a treaty was concluded, by which it was to be surrendered to the British. As this treaty was not observed, the town was again invested by the Enghsh under Sir Henry White, who effected its capture Feb. 5, 1804. In 1805 it was again ceded to Scindia ; but it was recaptured by the English under Sir Hugh Gough, Dec. 29, 1843. Guam, or Guahon. — One of the Ladrones, discovered by the Portuguese Fernando Magellan, a.d. 1521. GuAis'C. — Prescott maintains that the Peruvians made great use of this valuable manure before Peru was visited by the Spaniards. Herrera refers to it in a work published in 1601, and in another pubhshed in 1609. It was described by Ulloa in 1748, and first brought to Europe by Humboldt in 1804. It is chiefly ob- tained from the Chincha and Lobos islands, situated off the coast of Pferu. In 1839 the sole right to ship guano for nine years was sold to a private firm by the Peru- vian and Bolivian governments; but the contract was cancelled by the government of GUE Peru in 1841. The monopoly has, however, been recently revived. Guano was dis- covered on the island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, in 1843, and by the next year the whole stock was exhausted. Large deposits of this manure were discovered in Van Diemen's Land in April, 1861. GuAEDS. — The celebrated Scotch guards of the kings of France were enrolled by Charles VII. a.d. 1453. The English yeomen of the guard were instituted by Henry VII. in 1485. The four troops of horse-guards were enrolled in 1660, 1661, 1693, and 1702 ; the foot-guards in 1660, — the second regiment is the celebrated Coldstream Guards (q. v.) ; the horse grenadier guards in 1693 and 1702. The French National Guard was instituted in 1789, the Imperial guard in 1804, and the Garde Mobile in 1848. Guards' Club (London). — This club is re- stricted to officers of the household troops. The house, designed by Mr. Henry Harrison, was commenced in 1848. GuASTALLA (Italy). — This Italian duchy passed into the hands of the dukes of Mantua a.d. 1677, and in 1746 fell under the dominion of Austria. In 1748 it was ceded to the duke of Parma by the treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, and in 1796 was incorporated with the Italian repubhc by Napoleon. In 1815 it formed a portion of the appanage of the empress Maria Louisa, and in 1847 was ceded to the duke of Modena. The battle of Guastalla was fought near the chief town of the above duchy, between the French and Sardinian forces under Charles Emanuel III., and the Austrians, Sept. 19, 1734, when the latter were defeated. Guatemala (Central America). — This country was discovered by the Spaniards a.d. 1502. In 1524 they founded the town of Old Guatemala, or Guatemala-la-Vieja, which was overthrown by earthquakes in 1541 and 1773. After the latter disaster, the town of New Guatemala was founded in 1776, and the old town was rebuilt in 1799. In 1821 the colony revolted from Spain, and became a federal republic in 1823. Its limits were diminished in 1839 by the seces- sion .of Honduras, and in 1846 each of the states forming the confederation adopted an independent government. Guatemala is governed according to the constitution of Oct. 19, 1851, by a president and legislative chamber. The bishopric of Guatemala was estabhshed in 1533. Guebees, Paesees, or Fiee-Woe- SHIPPERS. — The Guebres of Persia, and the Parsees of Bombay, are descended from the fire-worshippers of antiquity, a sect which arose about B.C. 2120, and was suppressed by the Greeks about B.C. 330. It was re- stored by Ardeschir Badekhan a.d. 225, and again proscribed by the Mohammedans in 652, when Yezdijud III. was deposed and slain. A large number of his subjects emi- grated to Gujerat, in India, where they were known as Parsees, cr Persians. The modern Guebres are chiefly confined to the city of Yezd, in Persia. 397 GUE GuELDEELAND (Holland) . — This duchy was sold to Charles I., duke of Burgundy, A.D. 1472, and reverted to the empire as an escheated fief in 1503. In 1528 it was held by its duke as a fief of Brabant and Holland, and in 1538 the succession was settled on the duke of Cleves. In 1579 it took part in the Union of Utrecht, and in 1672 submitted to the French, who evacuated its borders the following year. It was re-admitted to the Union in 1674, and received an amended con- stitution in 1748. GuBLPHic Ordee.— This Hanoverian order of knighthood was founded by the Prince Kegent, Aug. 12, 1815. The statutes were amended May 20, 1841. GuELPHS. (See Ghibellines.) GuEBAUDE (France). — After the cele- brated battle of Auray, fought Sept. 29, 1364, between the forces of the two pre- tenders for the duchy of Britanny, John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, in which the latter was slain, a treaty was concluded at Gueraude, by the intervention of Charles V., April 12, 1365. It left Montfort in quiet possession of the duchy, which was to revert to the widow of Charles of Blois in case Montfort died without heirs. Guernsey (Enghsh Channel). — This is- land was called Holy Island in the 10th century, owing to the numerous monks who inhabited it. In 1035 it was shared between NigeUius, or Neel, viscount of St. Sauveur, and Earl Kobert of Iformandy. Cornet Castle was founded about 1204, and St. Peter's Church consecrated in 1312, Queen EUzabeth founded Elizabeth's CoUege in 1563, and Fort George was commenced in 1775. The French have made numerous efibrts to take Guernsey, the last of which occurred in 1780. GuEux, or "Beggaes," was the name contemptuously applied by the count of Barlaimont to the confederate nobles of the Low Countries, who presented a re- monstrance against the Inquisition to the governess Margaret, April 5, 1566, and was adopted by them as the name of their party the same evening. In 1568 they defeated the Spaniards at Heiliger Lee, but later in the year were themselves compelled, by the duke of Alva, to disband their forces. In 1570 they petitioned the diet of Spires against the cruelties of the Spaniards, and, in 1571, were refused asylum in Denmark, Sweden, and England. In 1572 they again proved "victorious, and seized Briel and Flushing. Kammekens, Middleburg, and Arnemuyden also surrendered to them in the two follow- ing years. The celebrated WiUiam, prince of Orange, was a member of this party. There were also the Wild Gueux, a band of Dutch Protestants di-iven into outlawry and plunder by Alva, in 1568, and the Water Gueux, apartyof privateers, who commenced their ravages in 1569. Gtjiana, or GrxAifA (S. America). — This country was discovered by Columbus, in August, 1498, and visited by Yincent Pinzon in 1500. The first town, St. Thomas, of GUI Guiana, was founded by Diego de Ordaa in 1531, and the Dutch established their set- tlement of New Zealand in 1580. Sir Walter Kaleigh visited Guiana in 1595, and commenced his exploration of the country, in the hope of discovering rich gold-mines in 1617. Slave labour was in- troduced into the country in 1621. The three colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, were united and first called British Guiana in 1803. (See Beebice, Demeeaea, and Esseqtjibo.) Dutch Guiana. (See Sueinam.) Feench Gui- ana. — The first French settlements in Guiana were formed in 1604. In 1809 their colony was seized by the English and Portuguese, who restored it to France in 1815. GuiENNE, or GuTENNE (Fraucc). — This province, situated to the north of Gascony, with which it is often confounded, comprised part of Aquitania, which name, according to some authorities, became corrupted into Guienne. Bordeaux was its capital. W^hat was termed the duchy of Guienne passed into the possession of the English, May 20, 1259, A.D. The French seized it in 1293, and it became the subject of many struggles, until it finally came into the possession of France in 1453. Guildfoed (Surrey) is first men- tioned in the wiU of Alfred the Great, who bequeathed it to his neighbour Athel- wald. In 1036 it was the scene of the mur- der of the Norman friends of the Saxon atheling Alfred, by order of Godwin, earl of Kent ; and, in 1216, its castle was taken by the French dauphin Louis. The town re- ceived its charter of incorporation from Edward III., in 1337. The Koyal Grammar- school was founded in 1509, and Archbishop Abbot's Hospital in 1619. The market-house was erected in 1758, the prison finished in 1822, and the Guildford Institution founded in 1844. Guildhall (London) was founded A.D. 1411, and the kitchen was erected ia 1501. It suflTered much from the great fire of 1666, but was rebuilt in 1669, though the King -street front was not restored till 1789. The statues of Gog and Magog were set up in the haU in 1708. The alhed sovereigns were entertained here at a civic banquet, June 18, 1814, and the emperor and empress of the French received a similar compliment, April 19, 1855. Guilds. — Enghsh guilds were originally political in their nature, arising from the Anglo-Saxon custom of frank -pledges. Trade guilds existed as early as the time of Athelstan (a.d. 925 — 941), one of the earliest being the GHlda Theutonicorum, or Steelyard Merchants, who were established in England before 967. The Knigten guild existed in the reign of Edgar (957 — 975), and received a charter of Edward the Confessor (1041 — 1066). These are the most important of the ancient guilds, though there were many others. The substitution of the term livery company for that of guild was made in the reign of Edward III. GUI GtriLtOTiNE. — This instrument of decapita- tion was invented in 1785, by Joseph Ignace Gxiillotin, a celebrated French physician. It was first employed April 25, 1792. The inventor was himself condemned to suffer by this machine, butwas dehveredby the counter- revolution of 9 Thermido-r (July 27), 1794. GuiMAEAENS (Portugal), founded B.C. 500, was made the capital of Portugal a.d. 1107. Guinea (Africa) .—This name is apphed to the whole west coast of Africa between Cape Verga on the north, to Cape Negro on the south. It was first discovered by the Por- tuguese A.D. 1446, but the whole coast was not completely explored till 1484. The Eng- lish first traded with Guinea in 1530. They renewed their attempts in 1553, but the ad- venturers died from the unhealthy climate, without effecting any negotiations. A second expedition was, however, equipped in 1554, which met with better success, and in 1588 a company was chartered by Queen EHzabeth for the sole object of trading to this country. Guineas. — So caUedbecause they were ori- ginally made of gold brought from the coast of Guinea. Guineas and half-guineas were first struck a.d. 1663, the device being an ele- phant, to signify the country whence the gold was brought. Quarter- guineas were first coined in 1718. The last coinage of guineas took place in 1813. The value of this coin has varied considerably at different periods. When first struck it passed for 20s. ; but in 1695 its worth had increased to 30s. It was reduced to 25s. March 25, 1696, and to 22s. the following 10th of AprU. Its value was finally fixed at 21s., by a proclamation of Dec. 22, 1717. The guinea was gradually withdrawn after the introduction of sove- reigns in 1817. GuiNE&ATE (Battle). — Henry VIII., at the head of an English army, defeated the French at this place, in Artois, Aug. 16, 1513. The enemy fied with such precipitation that it is usually called the Battle of the Spurs. GuiSNES, or GuiNES (France). — It was near this town, in Picardy, that Henry YIII. and Francis I. met in 1520, at the celebrated Field of the Cloth of Gold {q.v.) GuLisTAN. — This peace between Persia and Eussia was concluded Oct. 12, 1813. Persia ceded to Eussia a number of governments in the Caspian Sea, and the whole of Daghistan, at the same time renouncing all claims to Georgia, Mingrelia, and other provinces. GuMBiNNEN (Prussia). — Frederick Wil- liam I. erected this small village into a town A.D. 1732. Gun. — The Armstrong gun, invented by Sir WiUiam Armstrong, was adopted by the British artillery service, Feb. 26, 1859. {See Artillery, Cannon, &c.) Gun- Cotton.— In 1846 Schonbein exhi- bited specimens of this material to the Bri- tish Association at Southampton ; but the method of its preparation was not published tiU the enrolment of the patent in April, 1847. It was found inapplicable to military and mining purposes, owing to its habihty to GUT spontaneous combustion, but has proved of great service in photography. {See Collo- dion.) Gunpowder. — This substance was known to the Chinese at a very early period. It appears to have been employed against Alexander the Great by some Hindoo tribes, B.C. 355, and to have been applied to military purposes in China a.d. 85. It is described in an Arabic MS. of the year 1249, and also in the works of Eoger Bacon (1270), who is regarded by some as the author of the in- vention, though other authorities ascribe it to the German monk Barthold Schwartz, in 1320. Its exportation from England was pro- hibited by Henry V. in 1414, and in 1625 its manufactvire was monopolized by Charles I. Eestrictions as to the quantity manufactured at a time, or stored in one place, were im- posed by 12 Geo. III. c. 61 (1772), which prohibited dealers from keeping a stock of more than 200 lb. Gunpowder Plot. — This conspiracy of the papists, to destroy the king, lords, and commons, while assembled in parliament, by means of gunpowder, was contrived by Eobert Catesby in the spring of 1604. He was joined by Thomas Winter, who, on the 22nd of April, secured the co-operation of Guy Fawkes, a native of Yorkshire, and a soldier of fortune. In furtherance of his scheme, Catesby hired a house close to the old palace of Westminster, and began to mine under the palace Dec, 11. They were, however, compelled to relinquish their mining ; but hearing that a cellar under the house was to let, Catesby hired it, March 25, 1605. Thirty barrels and two hogs- heads of gunpowder were concealed here under sticks and fagots. Everything was now prepared for the execution of the plot, which was arranged for Nov. 5, on which day parliament was to be re-opened, when an anonymous letter sent to Lord Monteagle, Oct. 26, "to warn him, led to the disclosure of the whole affair. This letter was laid before James I., Nov. 1, and he at once inferred that the threatened danger was from gunpowder, and ordered that the cellars beneath the parliament house should be searched. This was done on the evening of the 4th, when Fawkes was discovered in charge of the vault, with dark lantern and matches, ready to fire the mine. The other conspirators fled to Holbeach House, in Worcestershire, where they were attacked Nov. 8. Catesby, Percy, and the two Wrights, fell sword in hand, and the others were made prisoners. Their trial commen- ced Jan. 27, 1606, and on the 30th, Digby, Eobert Winter, Grant, and Bates, were executed in St. Paul's Churchyard. Thomas Winter, Eookwood, Keys, and Guy Fawkes, suffered in Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on the 31st ; Henry Garnet, the Jesuit, was tried March 28, and executed at St. Paul's as an accessory. May 3. GuTTA Percha. — The properties of this Malayan tree were known to the natives of Malacca and the neighboui-ing countries, long before they were discovered by Europeans. The tree was first described by Doctor Mont- gomerie, of Bengal, in 1842^ and in 1843 Doctor D'Ahneida exhibited a specimen of its inspissated juice to the Eoyal Society of Arts. Gut's Hospital (London). — This insti- tution was founded a. d. 1722, by Mr. Thomas Guy, bookseller, who devoted £18,793. 16s. Id. to the erection of the building, and £219,499. Os. 4d. to its endowment. His statue was erected in the court Feb. 11, 1734. The front of the building was new-faced in 1778, and in 1829 its funds were increased by a legacy of £196,115, bequeathed by Mr. Hunt, of Petersham. GtmnasitjM. — According to Plato, the Lacedaemonians established the first gymna- sium, and during the classical sera, every important town possessed a similar institu- tion, where the young practised racing, leaping, wresthng, boxing, &c. Solon com- piled a code of laws especially for the regu- lation of gymnasia, about B.C. 594. The first French gymnasium, for the instruction of the army in physical exercises, was founded at Paris a.d. 1818. Gymnastics. — By a decree of the French minister of pubhc instruction, of March 13, 1854, gymnastics foiia a regular branch of instruction in all the royal colleges of the empire. Gtmnosophitje. — This was the name given by the Greeks to a sect of Hradoo philo- sophers who were remarkable for the asceti- cism of their manners and doctrines. They wore no clothing, taught the transmigration of the soul, and exhibited the most surprising contempt of death. Calanus burnt himself to death in the presence of Alexander the Great, about e.g. 325. Gypsies were for a long period supposed to be of Egyptian origin, their very name j being a corruption of the word Egj'ptians ; but it is now generally beheved that they are the descendants of some Hindoo Pariahs who were exiled from their country by Tamerlane at the commencement of the 15th century. They first appeared in Europe, in the Danubian provinces, in 1417. In 1418 they are found in Switzerland, and in 1422 in Italy. They appeared in France ia 1427, in Spain in 1447, ia England about 1512, and in Sweden in 1514. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10 (1530) , they were ordered to quit the country, and severe ordinances were also issued against them by 1 & 2 PhU. & Mary, c. 4 (1554), and 5 EHz. c. 20 (1562), which made their continuance in England for more than a month a capital felony. In 1560 they were expelled from France, and ia 1591 from Spain ; but, ia spite of aU legislative enact- ments, they stiU exist in all the countries of Europe. The oppressive statutes against them in this country were repealed by 23 Geo. III. e. 51 (1783), by 1 Geo. IV. c. 116 (July 25, 1820), and by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 64 (July 21, 1856) . Mr. Borrow commenced the translation of the Bible into the Eommany dialect (the language of the gypsies) ia 1836. 400 HAC Gteoscope. — This instrument for exhi- biting the peculiarities of rotatory motion, was invented by Fessel, of Cologne, and described by Foucault to the Academy of Paris in September, 1852. The principle of its action was discovered by Frisi as early as 1750. It has been applied to the illustration of the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis, and has been improved by professors Pliicker and Wheatstone. 131. Haaelem, or Haeblem (Holland). — This town existed in the time of Theodore I., count of Holland, who began to reign A.D. 913. The church of St. Bavon was erected by Albert of Bavaria in 1372. Haarlem is famous for its memorable siege by the Spaniards, under the duke of Alva. It lasted from December, 1572, to July, 1573, when the town surrendered. The great organ of Haarlem was built by Christian Miiller, of Amsterdam, in 1738. It stands in the church of St. Bavon, and is considered one of the finest instruments in the world. An industrial exhibition was opened at this town July 4, 1825. The Lake of Haarlem was drained between the years 1849 and 1851. Habeas Coepus. — A writ at com- mon law, issued for various purposes con- nected with the detention of prisoners. By 2 Hen. V. st. 1, c. 2 (1414), there was no liberation under such a writ when the prisoner was confined on judgment at another's suit. Felons and murderers were allowed to be tried in the counties where their ofiences were committed, by 6 Hen. VIII. c. 6 (1514). The celebrated Habeas Corpus Act, 31 Charles II. c. 2 (May 27, 1677), specifies the modes of obtaining this writ, and renders the deten- tion of an English subject for any con- siderable time, Olegal, unless the law has pronounced the detention just. This act cannot be suspended, except by authority of parhament, which is never exerted for the purpose but at periods of great pubhc danger. Habeedashees' Company (London) was incorporated a.d. 1447, and received their coat of arms Ifov. 8, 1570. The original hall and laws of the association were destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666, in consequence of which the present hall was erected in 1667. New rules were adopted in 1675. Habsbueg (Switzerland). — This castle, the seat of the ancestors of the house of Austria, was fovmded a.d. 1020. It was destroyed in 1415. The ruins were visited by the emperor Francis, I. in 1815. Hackney Coaches. — The first vehicle of this kind was introduced at London a.d. 1625. Captaia Baily placed four hackney coaches, to ply for hire, at the Maypole, in the Strand, in 1634. Their number was subsequently increased, and all restric- tions on this poiat were removed by 1 &. 2 HAD IIAI Will. IV. c. 22, s. 9 (Sept. 22, 1831). The regulations respecting hackney coaches are embodied in 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (June 28, 1853), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 127 (Aug. 20, 1853). The Lost-and-Found Office, for recovery of goods left in hackney coaches, was established by 55 Geo. III. c. 159, s. 9 (July 11, 1815). HADDiifGTON (Scotland) was created a burgh by David I., who reigned a.d. 1124 — 1153. It was destroyed by John, king of England, in January, 1216, and, having been rebuilt, was againburned inl244. Edward III. burned it in 1355. The English took posses- sion of Haddington in 1544, and again in 1548, and were compelled to retire in October, 1549. Hadeianople (Battles). — The most cele- brated was fought July 3, 323 a.d., between Constantine and Licinius, during the civil wars that followed the abdication of Diocle- tian, in which the latter was defeated. It was in this action that Constantine is said to have thrown himself into the river Hebrus with only twelve horsemen, and to have vanquished an army of 150,000 men. Near this city Valens was defeated by the Goths, with immense slaughter, Aug. 9, 378. Gibbon says this battle, in which, the em- peror Valens perished, " equalled in actual loss, and far surpassed in the fatal conse- quences, the misfortune which Rome had formerly sustained in the fields of Cannae." Hadkiaitople (European Turkey). — This city is referred to by ancient authors under the name of Uscudama. It received its present title from the emperor Hadrian, by whom it was restored and raised to con- siderable splendour. It was the scene of a great victory gained by Constantine over his rival Licinius, July 3, 323 a.d., and of the defeat of the Romans by the Goths, and ■ - " - " Vale ■ by the year, but surrendered to the Btdgarians in the death of the emperor Valens, Aug. 9, 378 It withstood a siege by the Goths the 813. Hadrianople was erected into a bishop ric by Constantine I, Its first bishop died in 340. Frederick I., emperor of Germany, stormed it in 1190, and it was taken by the Turks, under Amurath I., in 1360. In 1366 it became the capital of the Ottoman empire, which rank it retained until the capture of Constantinople by the Mohammedans in 1453. The Russians effected an entry into Hadrianople Aug. 20, 1829, and retained possession tiU. Sept. 14, when the treaty of Hadrianople was signed. By this treaty the Danubian principaUties were restored to the Porte, and confirmed in aU privileges granted by former treaties. Russia received free right of commerce throughout the Turkish empire, with Hberty to pass the Dardanelles ; and Turkey agreed to pay 1,500,000 Dutch ducats as indemnity for the expenses of the war, and 10,000,000 ducats as compensation for losses sustained by Russian merchants. The city suffered severely froiii the plague in 1836 and 1837. The Turks caU it Edreneh, and it is generally known under the name of Adrianople. Hadkian's Wall.— The Roman fortifica- 401 tion, of which some remains still exist, extended from the Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne, and consisted of a stone wall and parallel earthen rampart, about sixty feet apart. Spartianus declares that Hadrian built a wall eighty miles long, di- viding the Romans from the barbarians, and that Severus constructed a wall across the island. The generally received opinion, there- fore, is, that Hadrian buUt the earthen ram- part (a.d. 121), and that Severus, to strengthen it, constructed the stone wall (208 — 210). Mr. Bruce, in his work on the Roman wall, contends that both the earthen rampart and the stone wall were constructed by Hadrian, and that though Severus may have repaired this fortification, he buUt no wall himself. This is also called the Picts' wall. Ha&ue (Holland). — The Binnenhof, or court of Holland, was founded a.d. 1249. The town originated in the erection of a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland in 1250. In 1528 it was pillaged by Maerten van Rossum, and in 1580 was the scene of the abjuration of Spanish supremacy by the States-general, and was made the residence of the stadtholder, and the centre of govern- ment. The cannon-foundry was estabHshed in 1668. In 1672 the brothers Cornehus and John De Witt were hterally torn to pieces by the enraged populace. The city was seized by the French, and the stadtholder compelled to take refuge in England, Jan. 19, 1795. In 1806, Napoleon I. transferred the title of capital to Amsterdam; but the government was restored to the Hague on its evacuation by the French in 1813. Seve- ral important treaties have been signed at the Hague; viz., between England, France, aud Holland, to maintain the balance of the North, May 21, 1559; between Holland and Portugal, May.7, 1669 ; and between Holland, the emperor, and Brandenburg, against France, July 25, 1672. A twenty years' truce was signed here June 29, 1684. The Hague congress of Christian princes against French encroachments met in 1690 and 1691. The Grand Alliance was renewed here in 1696, and the Triple Alliance in 1717. A treaty was concluded at the Hague with the French, May 16, 1795. Hailexbtjbt College (Hertfordshire ) was founded by the East-India Company for the education of cadets. The first stone was laid May 12, 1806, and in April, 1809, the building was completed. The coUege was closed in 1859. Hainatjlt (Belgium) was governed by a regular succession of counts from the time of Regnier I., who began to reign about 860. In 1436 it passed into the hands of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and by the treaties of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659, and of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678, part was ceded to France, and now forms the province of French Hainault. In 1793 the rest of the territory was surrendered to France, and formed into the department of Jemmapes . In 1814 it was allotted to the Low Countries, and in 1830 was incorporated with Belgium. 2 D HAI HAL Hainatjlt Foeest (Essex). — This wood, ■which owed its chief celebrity Co the Fairlop oak {q. ■!;.), was disafforested by 14 & 15 Vict, c. 43 (Aug. 1,1851). Hair. — The Egyptians shaved the head, but the Greeks and Romans esteemed the hair of such honour that it was offered to the gods in gratitude for escape from shipwreck. Curl- ing with irons was practised by females among the Greeks and Eomans, and by both sexes among the Phrygians. The early Greek Christians offered the hair to God. Long hair was esteemed by the Goths ; but the English of the 9th and 10th centuries wore it short. The Danes and Normans wore it long ; but in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, it was cut short. Wigs became common in the 17th century. Strange fashions of dressing ladies' hair in the 18th century, began about 1760, moderated towards 1790, and had nearly de- clined before 1800. Haie-powdek. — Gold dust was occasion- ally used by the ancients for this purpose, but the usual expedient was to dye the hair. Powder is said to have been introduced by Mary of Medicis ; itis mentioned by L'Etoile A.D. 1593. The hair -powder tax was proposed by Mr. Pitt, and levied by 35 Geo, III. c, 49 (April 30, 1795). HAKiiTJXT's Island (Polar Seas) was dis- covered by Baffin a.d. 1616. Haklutt Society, named after Richard Hakluyt, celebrated for his labours in col- lecting the materials for a history of British voyages and discoveries, was instituted Dec, 15, 1846, Halbeetstadt (Saxony) was the seat of a bishop a.d. 814. The cathedral, com- menced in 1235, was completed in 1491. The diet of Halbertstadt elected Otho IV. empe- ror in 1208. It was annexed to Branden- burg by the treaty of Munster, in 1643. The French captured Halbertstadt in January, 1758, It was ceded to France in 1807, and was afterwards restored to Prussia at the peace of 1814-15. Haliaktus (Battle). — Lysander was slain in this battle, fought between a confederacy of Grecian states and Laced^mon, B.C. 395. Halic AEXASSUS ( Asia Minor) .—This town of Caria was of Dorian origin, and is famous as the birthplace of Herodotus, B.C. 484. The celebrated tomb of Mausolus was erected B.C. 353, and the city was taken by Alexander the Great B.C. 334. Halicamassus was a bishopric in the primitive church, and sent a bishop to the coimcU of Chalcedon, a.d. 451. The site of the ancient town was discovered in 1839 by Lieutenant Brock, and many in- teresting sculptures have been disinterred, and deposited in the British Museum. Halidou-, or Halidovtu- Hill (Battle). — Edward III. defeated the Scottish forces at this place, near Berwick, July 19, 1333. Halifax (K"ova Scotia) . — This town was settled A.D. 1749, by adventurers from Bug- land, who named it after the earl of Halifax, first commissioner of trade and plantations. It was declared a free port in 1817. The col- lege was founded in 1820. 4D2 Halifax (Yorkshire) is first named in a grant of the 12th century, and was a seat of the woollen manufacture as early as 1414. In 1443 the town only nttmbered thirteen houses, which hadincreased in 1540 to 520. The free grammar-school was founded by Queen Ehzaljeth in 1583. Archbishop TiUotson was born here in 1630. Halifax was anciently re- markable for possessing the right of executing any thief who stole property of the value of thirteen pence halfpenny within its hmita. The instrument used in the execution re- sembled the guillotine, and the town pos- sessed and exercised this right from about 1280 to 1650; after which there is no re- cord of its use. The Piece-hall was erected in 1779, Trinity Church in 1795, the gaol in 1828, the infirmary in 1836, and the general cemetery was estabHshed in 1837. The Peo- ple's Park was presented to the town by F, Crossley, and opened in August, 18.57, Halifax ADMiifisTEATioif . — Immediately after the accession of George I. the treasury was placed in commission, Avith Lord, after- wards the earl of Halifax, at the head (Oct. 5, 1714) . The office of lord high treasurer has not been revived. The ministry was thus constituted : — Treasury , .Lord Halifax. _ , -_, ,, /Lord, afterwards Earl Lord ChanceUor \ Cowper. President of the Coxmcil . .Earl of Nottingham. _ . „ , f Earl, afterwards Marquis PnvySeal \ of Wharton. Chancellor of Exchequer. .Sir R. Onslow, Bart. Principal Secretaries of P^^stanhop™^d Lo'^ ^***^ I Townshend. Admiralty Earl of Oxford. Secretary at War Mr. Pulteney. Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. Paymaster-General • • • • { ^^.Sr""'' ^" ^^ Hallam states that Lord Townshend was the actual prime minister. The marquis of Wharton died April 12, and the earl of Halifax May 19, 1715. {See Caelisle Ad- MINISTEATION.) Halle (Saxony). — This Prussian town was founded in the 9th century, and was erected into a city by Otho II. in 981. St. Ulrich's church was bmlt in 1339, and the cathedral founded in 1520. The univer- sity was established in 1694, and the orphan- house in 1698. A battle was fought here between the French and Prussians, Oct. 17, 1806. The latter were defeated, and the town was seized by the French, who retained it till 1814, when it was restored to Prussia. In 1815 the university was imited to that of Wittenberg, and the building for the incor- porated institution was erected in the suburbs of HaUe in 1834. A treaty between the Protestant princes of the German empire was concluded here ia 1610. Hallelitjah Victoey. — This name was given to a victory gained by some newly- baptized Britons over their enemies, a.d. 429, because they commenced the struggle with loud cries of " Hallelujah," Germauus, bishop of Auxerre, was their leader on this occasion. HAL HAN Hallet's Comet. — This comet is memo- rable as having established the periodical return of certain of those bodies. Halley was led to form this idea from observing the comet in 1682, and comparing its oi'bit with those of the comets of 1531 and 1607, which he found identical. He conse- quently inferred that the three' comets were only three appearances of the same body, and announced this opinion in 1705, and having convinced himself of the truth of his theory by laborious calculations, he pre- dicted that it would again appear in 1759, which proved to be the case. The mean period this comet takes in accomplishing its orbital revolution is 76*1 years. Halts, (Battle,) between the Medes and Lydians, on the banks of this river, in Asia Minor, was interrupted by the eclipse of Thales. The years B.C. 603 and 601 are assigned by some as the date of this eclipse ; but Airy has proved it to have occurred May 28, B.C. 584, which is consequently the day of the battle. Ham (France). — This fortress, on the Somme, was built by the count of St. Pol, A.D. 1470. It was the prison of the unpopu- lar ministers of Charles X. in 1830, and of Louis Napoleon in 1840, after his attempt upon Boulogne. He effected his escape May 25, 1846. Hamadanites. — ^Arabian princes of the tribe of Hamadan, who ruled over Meso- potamia from A. D. 892 to 1001. Hambtteg (Germany). — This free city was founded by Charlemagne, a.d. 809, and speedily attained great influence on account of its commerce. In 1241 it concluded a treaty with Liibeck, which subsequently be- came the basis of the Hanseatic League, and in 1269 it received the right to frame its own laws and enforce their execution. A pro- vincial council of ecclesiastics met here in 1406. The town extended its borders to the right bank of the Alster in 1500, adopted the Eeformation in 1535, and in 1618 was released from its former subjection to the dukes of Holstein. The bank was founded in 1619, and the church of St. Michael in 1751. In 1768 the city was finally released from all subjection to the house of Holstein, and in 1770 the emperor confirmed its right to the rank of a free city. In 1799 the Irish rebel Napper Tandy was sur- rendered to the British government by the Hamburghers, and in 1801 the city was occupied by the Danes. In 1802 all the Hanoverian property in Hamburg was sur- rendered to the city, which suffered severely, in consequence of the blockade of the Elbe, in 1803. French troops occupied Hamburg from 1806 to 1809, and in 1811 it was an- nexed to France as capital of the depart- ment of Bouches-d' Elbe. The French re- linquished Hamburg in 1813 ; it regained its old constitution May 26, 1814, and joined the Germanic Confederation June 8, 1815. The gymnasium was founded iu 1840. A terrible fire, which broke out May 5, 1842, destroyed 2,000 houses and property to the 4£>3 amount of £7,000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1848, and in 1851 the city was occupied by an Austrian force. An in- undation of the Elbe laid the greater part of the city under water, Jan. 1, 1855. A com- mercial panic occurred in 1857. The As- sembly adopted a constitution based on the parliamentary system, with representative government, the members of which are elected by popular suffrage, Aug. 11, 1859. Hammeesmith (Middlesex). — This village is first noticed in the early part of the reign of Henry VII. The church was founded a.d. 1631. In 1656, Hammersmith was the scene of Miles Syndercomb's conspiracy against CromweU. The suspension-bridge was founded by the duke of Sussex, May 7, 1825, and opened to the public Oct. 6, 1827. The parish of Hammersmith was separated from that of Fulham in 1834. Hampdek Clubs. — Associations imder this name were formed throughout the country a.d. 1816. Their professed object was parliamentary reform. A report of a committee of both houses, presented Feb. 9, 1817, declared these clubs to be revolu- tionary. Hampton- Cottet (Middlesex) was built by Cardinal Wolsey, and presented by him to Henry VIII. a.d. 1526. Edward VI. was born here, Oct. 12, 1537 j and his mother, Jane Seymour, died here the following Oct. 24. The ecclesiastical conference between the presbyterian and episcopal clergy assembled at Hampton Court, Jan. 14 to 18, 1606, and Charles I. was detained a prisoner from August 24 to Nov. 11, 1647. The grand front of the palace was commenced by Sir Christopher Wren in 1690, and completed in 1694. George I. fitted up the hall as a theatre in 1718. The celebrated vine was planted in 1769, and the public were per- mitted to -visit the place in Nov. 1838. Hanapee Office. — An obsolete de- partment of the Chancery Court, which derived its name from the practice of keep- ing writs in a hamper or basket, " in Hana- perio." The emoluments of this office were granted by Charles II. to Lord George Fitz- roy and his male descendants, or, fafimg such issue, to the earl of Southampton and his male descendants, or to the earl of Euston, afterwards the duke of Grafton, these noble- men being the king's sons by the duchess of Cleveland. The Hanaper Office was abohshed by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. 10, 1842). Hanaf (Germany), in Hesse-Cassel, was erected into a town a.d. 1303, and the terri- tory of which it is the capital was made a county in 1429. It was fortified in 1528, and received a large addition to its population in 1593, in consequence of the numerous Flemish Protestant refugees. The new town was founded about 1600. Hanau was besieged for nine months by the Imperialists, under General Lamboi, who was compelled to re- tire June 13, 1636. Numerous French Pro- testants settled there in 1685. In 1736 the county was divided between Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, but soon passed under 2 D 2 tlie exclusive power of the former. It was erected into a priacipality in 1803, seized by tlie French in 1806, united to the duchy of Frankfort in 1809, and ultimately restored to Hesse in 1813. The battle of Hanau, between JSTapoleon I., with about 70,000 men, and the Austrian and Bavarian army, under General Wrede, was gaiaed by the former, Oct. 30, 1813. The loss was very severe on both sides. Handel Commemorations. — The first musical festival in memory of this composer commenced in Westminster Abbey a.d. 1784, the centenary of his birth. It lasted five days. The second day's performance was held at the Pantheon, and the receipts amounted to 11,842 guineas. Similar festivals were held on various occasions ; and another on a large scale took place in Westminster Abbey, June 24, 26, 28, and July 1, 1834. A com- memorative festival took place at the Crystal Palace June 20, 22, and 24, 1859. The chorus and band numbered 3,158 performers, the audience 81,260 persons, and the receipts amounted to about £30,000. Two rehearsals had been beld at the same place, June 15, 17, and 19,1857 ; and July 2, 1858. The total num- ber of visitors at the three days of the first performance was 48,418, while on the last occasion nearly 20,000 persons attended. Handkeechiefs were unknown to the Greeks, but were used by the Anglo-Saxons, and during the Middle Ages. Laced hand- kerchiefs came iato fashion in the reign of Queen EHzabeth. Hanging. — This punishment is mentioned as the sentence of thieves, in a charter of the reign of Edgar (a.d. 959—974). The pirate Wilham Marsh, executed in 1242, was the first person who was hanged, drawn, and quartered. The term "dravm" meant that the criminal was drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution. The old custom of hanging the bodies of criminals in chains was aboHshed by 4 & 5 Will, IV. c. 26 (July 25, 1834). \ J > Hango (Finland).— Peter the Great gained his first naval victory over the Swedes off this village, in Finland, July 27, 1714. Here the Eussians fired on an EngHsh flag of truce, killiag six men, and wounding several more, June 5, 1855. Hanovee ( Germany ) was given to Her- mann Billing by Otho the Great a.d. 970, and passed into the possession of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, in 1107. A.D. 1533. 1641. 1692. 1714. 1780. 1795. Lutheranism is adopted. The city of Hanover becomes the capitaL Hanover is made an electorate. The elector succeeds to the English throne as George I. The waUs of the city are leveUed. Hanover is includ ed in the convention between France and Prussia, for the neutrality of the North of Germany. 1801. April 3. It is occupied by the Prussians. 18ti2. The bishopric of Osnaburg is annexed. 1803. Napoleon Bonaparte seizes Hanover. 1805. France cedes it to Prussia. 1807. It is agaia seized by the Fi-ench. 1810. Part of the country is annexed to Westphalia. 1813. It is restored to its rightful elector, George III. 1814 Oct. 12. Hanover is erected into a, kingdom. 4M HAN 1815. Part of Lauenbnrg is ceded to Pi-ussia, in ex- change for East Friesland and Harlingen. 1816. Nov. The duke of Cambridge is appointed lieutenant-governor. 1819. A new constitution is formed, on the model of the English. 1821. Oct. 8. George IV. visits Hanover. 1833. A new constitution is adopted, which confers more influence ou the people. 1837. June 20. In consequence of the law of Hanover limiting the royal succession to male descendants, Ernest, duke of Cum- berland, becomes king on the death of WUUam IV. 1846. The great Arsenal is built in the city of Hanover. 1848. The king abolishes the censorship of the press, and grants a new constitution. 1851. The new theatre at Hanover is erected. 1855. May 20. The king abolishes free institutions, by order of the federal diet. 1857. Dec. 31. Some of the jewels brought by George II. to England, in 1714, are restored to Hanover. Their value is estimated at £100,000. 1858. Dec. 13. Submarine telegraphic oommttnica- tion is opened with England. 1861. Jime 12. The Stade dues are abolished. ELECTOES OP HANOTBE. A.D. 1692. Fmest-Augustus. 1693. George Louis (George I. of England). 1727. George Augustus (George 11.). 1760. George WilUam Frederick (G«orge III.). 1814. George William Frederick. 1820. George Augustus Frederick (George IV.). 1830. William Henry (WUliam IV.). 1837. Ernest Augustus (duke of Cumberland). 1851. George V. Hanoveeian StrccESSiON. — Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England, married Frederick V. elector palatine, a.d. 1613. Her daughter Sophia was born in 1630, and married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover, inl658. By the Act of Settlement, 13 Wm. III. c. 6 (1701), she was declared the next heir to the EngHsh throne after the de- scendants of William III. and of Queen Anne. Sophia died May 28 (O.S.), 1714, and on the death of Anne without issue, Aug. 1, 1814, her son, George Louis, elector of Hanover, suc- ceeded to the EngUsh throne as George I. Hanseatic League. — This imion of Ger- man seaport towns was instituted about A.D. 1140, for the protection of their com- mercial interests, although the actual signing of the league did not take place till 1241, Henry III. conferred several immunities on this association in 1266, and in 1348 it pos- sessed sufficient power to carry on a suc- cessful war with Denmark respecting the Soimd dues. The League attained its great- est power about 1370, when it numbered 64 confederate and 44 aUied cities. In 1448 they were at war with England, but had their privileges in that country restored in 1474. They were, however, finally abo- Hshed by Queen EHzabeth in 1578. In 1601 the Dutch supplanted them in the Medi- terranean, and in 1630 their commerce was seriously injured by the invasion of Germany by the Swedes under 'Gustavus Adolphus. HAR The maritime law of this league was not published in a complete form till 1614, when its power had already begun to decline. In 1624 it originated maritime insurance companies, and in 1723 opened its ports to foreign commerce. The only towns still retaining the title of Hanse towns, are Bremen, Ham- burg, and Liibeck. The merchants of the Hanse towns were called Hansards. Haebouks.— The improvement of har- bours, docks, and piers, is regulated by 10 Vict, c. 27 (May 11, 1847). Habfleuk, also called Harefleot (France). — Henry V. of England laid siege to this place in August, 1415, and captured it Sept. 22. It was retaken by the French in 1431, was stormed by the English in 1440, and was recaptured by the French in 1450. Louis XI. placed Harfleur at the disposal of the earl of Warwick ia May, 1470, and EngUsh vessels saUiag thence, assailed the merchant shipping of the Netherlands. The steeple of the church of Harfleur was built by Henry V. in 1416, in memory of the battle of Agincourt. Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., sailed from Harfleur Aug. 1, 1485, for the purpose of wresting the English crown from Richard III. Haelaw (Battle). — Donald, lord of the Isles, obtained some aid from Henry TV. of England, and endeavoured to make him- self independent of the Scottish crown. He was defeated in a severe battle at this place, near Aberdeen, July 24, 1411, and afterwards made subnaission. Hableian Libeaet. — This collection of MSS. and pamphlets was formed by Mr. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, who died May 21, 1724. It was purchased from his trustees for £10,000, by the government, who received authority from 26 Geo. II. c. 22 (1753), and it is now in the British Museum. The " Harleian Miscellany," a collection of the most interesting documents and tracts in the Harleian Library, first appeared in 1744. Another edition was issued in 1808. HAELEQTJiif. — The account given by Menage that this term is derived from a celebrated Italian actor, who appeared at Paris in the reign of Henry III. (a.d. 1547 — 1589), and received the name of Harlequino, or Little Harlay, from his constant attend- ance at the house of M. de Harlay, is incorrect, as the word was in use before that period. Dr. Clarke, who traces its origin to classical times, says that Harlequin is Mercury. Harley (Loed Oxfoed's) Administea- liON. — Godolphin was dismissed Aug. 8, 17] 0, the treasury being put in conajnission, with Lord Powlett at its head, and Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, was made chan- cellor of the exchequer, Aug. 10, 1710, and lord high treasurer May 29, 1711. Lord Cowper resigned the great seal Sept. 25, 1710, and it was placed in commission until Oct. 19, when Sir Simon, afterwards Lord Harcourt, was made lord keeper, becoming lord-chan- cellor April 7, 1713. Harley^s associates were Lord, afterwards Earl Dartmouth, and Mr. HAR St. John, afterwards Viscount St. John and Bohngbroke, secretaries of state. Earl Dart- mouth, on accepting the privy seal in 1713, was replaced by Mr. Bromley. The Hon. G. Gran- ville (afterwards Lord Lansdowne) became secretary at war Sept. 28, 1810 : he was suc- ceeded June 28, 1712, by Sir WiUiam Wynd- ham, Bart., who was followed by Mr. Francis Gwyn, Aug. 21, 1713. Sir Wilham became chancellor of the exchequer Nov. 1, 1713. Dr. Robinson, bishop of Bristol, and after- wards of London, became lord privy seal April 23, 1711. The chancellorship of the exchequer was given to Hon. Mr. Benson, afterwards Lord Biagley, June 14, 1711. Oxford and Bohngbroke quarrelled, and the former was dismissed July 27, 1714. [See ShEEWSBUEX ADMINISTEATIOIf.) Haemonica. — Musical glasses are men- tioned in a work published at Nuremberg a.d. 1651. The instrument was improved by Franklin in 1760. It first became known at Paris in 1765. John Stein invented a stringed harmonica ia 1788. Haemonists . — This religious sect was formed by the brothers George and Frede- rick Rapp, who emigrated from Wiirtemberg to the United States in 1803, when they founded the town of Harmony, in Pennsyl- vania. In 1815 they built New Harmony, in Indiana, which was purchased by Robert Owen in 1824, in which year the Harmonists removed to a new settlement, which they named Economy. Community of property and the absence of marriage are the distin- guishing features of this sect. Haeijess. — The invention of harness has been ascribed to Erichthonius, kingof Athens, B.C. 1487. In the Middle Ages white harness was much used. Haep. — Jubal is said to have been "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ," Gen. iv. 21 (b.c. 3204). The harp was common in Egypt as early as B.C. 1500, and the instrument was introduced into Ireland at an early date. The Saxons and other northern barbarians possessed it when they first came into contact with the civilized in- habitants of Europe in the 5th century, and the Welsh are said to have used a harp of twenty-six notes in the 6th century. Erard's pedal harp was patented in 1794, and his double-action harp in 1808. Haepee's Feeet (Virginia). — This village is the seat of a large state armoury, estabMshed a.d. 1798, which was destroyed by the Federal commissioners to prevent it from faUing into the hands of the Con- federate states, April 18, 1861. It was the scene of the negro insurrection under Cap- tain John Brown, Oct. 17, 1859. Haeponullt (Hindostan).— The rajah of Harponully became tributary to Hyder Ali A.D. 1774, and to Tippoo in 1786. On the faU of Seringapatam, in 1799, Harponully fell into the hands of the Nizam, by whom it was assigned to the East-India Company in 1800. . , Habeisbtteg (Pennsylvania).— The capital was founded a.d. L785. It was incorporated 405 HAR in 1808, and made tte chief town of Penn- sylvania in 1812. Haeeo&ate, or HAEEOweATE (York- shire). — The "Old Spa," a chalybeate spring, in High Harrowgate, discovered in 1571 by Captain Shngsby, was surrounded by a terrace in 1656. The waters from the "sulphur wells" of Low Harrowgate were used both internally and externally before 1700. The " Crescent water" was discovered in 1783, and the Cheltenham water in 1819. The first inn was built at Harrowgate in 1687. Haeeow-oit-the-Hili, (Middlesex). — Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury, pur- chased Harrow, then called Herges, and other lands, a.d. 822, for the purpose of restoring them to the church of Canterbury. The town, given in 1543 by Archbishop Cran- mer to Henry VIII., in exchange for other lands, was granted by him to Sir Edward, afterwards Lord I^orth, in 1546, and it continued in his family until 1630. The free school was founded in 1585 by John Lyon. A great part of the building was destroyed by fire Oct. 22, 1838. Haetfoed (Connecticut). — This town, originally established by the Dutch a.d. 1633, received its name from a colony of EngUsh who settled there in 1635. It was incorpo- rated as a city in 1784. Haetwell ( Buckinghamshire ) . — The principal manor was bestowed by William the Conqueror on his natural son, WiUiam Peverell. Henry II. seized the estate in 1155. Louis XVIII. of France resided in the manor-house of HartweU from 1809 until the restoration in 1814. Haeuspices. — Priests in ancient Rome, instituted by Eomulus about B.C. 750. They pretended to foretell future events by in- specting the entrails of animals. When abolished by Constantine I., a.d. 836, their number amounted to seventy. Haewich (Essex). — The Danes were de- feated by the vLnglo-Saxons in a naval battle oif Harwich, a.d. 885. The town received a charter from Edward II. in 1318 ; this, after having been confirmed by several sovereigns, was extended in 1604. Isabel, queen of Edward II., landed here in 1326 with her son. Prince Edward. Edward III. sailed from Harwich in 1340, and gained an important victory over the French fleet off Sluys. The duke of York defeated the Dutch fleet near Harwich June 3, 1665. The Dutch lost twenty-four ships, and 3,000 men were made prisoners. Hastebtbeck (Battle). — The French de- feated an allied army of British, Dutch, and Hanoverians at Hastenbeck, July 25, 1757. Hastings (Battle). — ^WiUiam of Nor- mandy sailed from St. Valery Sept. 26, 1066, and arrived at Pevensey Sept. 28. His army, amounting to 60,000 men, landed and formed a camp at Hastings. Harold II., having marched to the north to encounter the Norwegians, whom he defeated at Stam- ford Bridge, Sept. 25, hastened to the south, and arrived in sight of the invader Oct. 13. 406 HAT The battle was fought at a place then called Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, Satur- day, Oct. 14, when, after an obstinate strug- gle, which lasted from sunrise to sunset, Harold II. was slain, and the Normans re- mained masters of the field. In 1067 William T. founded an abbey near the place where the victory was gained. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and is known as Battle Abbey. HASTiifGS (Sussex) was known by this name, at least as early as a.d. 780. Athel- stan established a mint here in 925. It was burnt by the French in August, 1377. The town-haU, buUt in 1700, was rebiult in 1823. HASUifFiOED (Sea-fight). — Harold Har- fager, of Norway, defeated the Vikingri, A.D. 875. Hat, as an article of man's attire, was in- vented at Paris, by a Swiss, a.d. 1404. Hats were fashionable in France in the latter part of the reign of Charles VI., who died in 1422. Charles VII. is reported to have worn a white felt hat at his entry into Eouen in 1449. The pope of Rome was in the habit of sending "blessed hats" to princes and com- manders of armies who deserved the grati- tude of the Roman Catholic church. These hats were of violet silk, lined with ermine, and embroidered with gold and jewels. They were blessed by the pope, in solemn con- clave, on Christmas-eve. The last hat of this description was given to General Daun, after the capture of Hochkirch in 1758. The crowns of the hats worn at the commence- ment of the 18th century were round. The Jews of Spain were formerly compelled to wear yellow hats. In many towns of Ger- many, bankrupts had to wear green and yellow hats. Hats were first manufactured in London by Spaniards in 1510 ; and came into fashion, and were taxed in 1785. The tax was repealed in 1811. Hatelet-Field (Battle). — Henry IV. de- feated the Percies, who had risen in arms against him, at this place, about three miles from Shrewsbury, July 23, 1403. Henry Percy (Hotspur) was killed in this action, sometimes called the battle of Shrewsbury. Hatfield (Hertford). — A council was held here Sept. 17, 680, against the Mono- thehtes, at which Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, presided. Hatfield, in the 10th century, was granted by Edgar to the abbey of Ely, and when the latter was made a bishop's see, in the reign of Henry I., the manor-house became one of the residences of the bishop, and was on that account called Bishop's Hatfield. EHzabeth, who afterwards purchased it, was kept prisoner at Hatfield from 1555 tiU her accession in 1558. The left wing of the old palace was burned to the ground Nov. 27, 1835, and the dowager marchioness of Salisbury perished in the flames. Hateas (Hindostan). — This town, ceded to the East-India Company by Dowlet Eowe Seindia, a.d. 1803, was besieged and taken by the British, March 1, 1817. Since its subjec- tion to the English, its prosperity has mate- rially increased. HAT Hats. {See Caps and Hats.) Hattemists. — The followers of Pontian van Hattem, an enthusiast, who spread his peculiar doctrines in Zealand, towards the end of the 17th century. Havana (Cuba).— This city, founded a.d. 1511, by Diego Velasquez, was taken by a French pirate in 1536. It was afterwards repeatedly seized by the Bucaneers. The university was founded in 1728 . The Enghsh took Havana Aug. 14, 1762, and restored it to Spain the following year. Havana was probably erected into a bishopric soon after its foundation, as its second bishop died in 1528. In 1795 the remains of Columbus were removed from the cathedral of St. Domingo, where they had been deposited in 1536, to the cathedral at Havana. Three hundred and fifty houses were destroyed by a fire which broke out in this town Feb. 10, 1828. Havee de GrEACE (France). — A fishing village converted into a town by Louis VII. A.D. 1509. Francis I. fortified it, commenced the port, and gave it the name of Francis- copolis. It was placed in the hands of Queen Ehzabeth by the Hugenots m 1562. It was besieged by the constable de Montmorency, who captured it June 28, 1563; anditwas bom- barded by the English in 1678, in July, 1694, in 1759, 1794, and 1795. Captain Ohver, of the Melpomene, made fruitless attempts to destroy the French fleet off this town, July 23 and Aug. 1, 1804. The town was injured by the shot fired into it on the occasion. In 1852 statues of Bernardin de St. Pierre and Casimir Delavigne, who were natives of the town, were erected; and in August, 1854, Havre was made the capital of the new de- partment of Seine-Maritime. The old ram- parts were removed in 1856, and, since 1858, two large forts have been erected on the heights above the town. Hawkees and Pedlaes. — These itinerant merchants first appeared in England about A.D. 1330. They are classed with rogues and vagabonds by 39 EHz. c. 4 (1597), and were first compelled to obtain a license by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 27 (1698). The annual duty, fixed at £4 by 50 Geo. III. e. 41 (June 2, 1810), was made payable to the commis- sioners of stamps by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22, 8.75 (Sept. 22, 1831). Hawking and FALCONEy. — The Greeks obtained from India and Thrace their first knowledge of fowhng with birds of prey. Gibbon (ch. xlv.) remarks : " This favourite amusement of our ancestors was introduced by the barbarians into the Koman provinces." The art, common in Italy, is mentioned in the Koman laws, and in writings of the 4th and 5th centuries. Ecclesiastics were prohibited from fowling by the council of Agda, A.D. 506, and by Charlemagne in 769. A charter was granted by Beornwulf, king of the Mercians, to the abbey of Abingdon in 821, prohibiting persons from carrying hawks on the lands of the monks. The emperor Henry is said to have been called the Fowler, from having been found luring his hawk when his election to the empire HAY was announced to him in 919. Falconry was carried to great perfection in the 12th century. Steahng hawks was made felony by 37 Edw. III. Before the close of the 17th century falconry was utterly neglected. Demetrius, physician to Michael VIII. (Pa- laeologus) in 1270, is one of the oldest writers on falconry. His book was first printed at Paris in 1612. Hatmakket Theatee (London) was first erected a.d. 1702, on the site of the King's Head inn. It was rebuilt and made a theatre royal in 1767. Fifteen persons were killed, Feb, 3, 1794, by a crowd rushing into the pit. The tailors of London created a riot here in 1805 on account of a farce, supposed to be insulting to that trade. The existing edifice was commenced in 1820, and opened Jidy 4, 1821. Hayti, or Haiti (West Indies). — This is- land, which forms one of the Leeward group, was discovered by Columbus in December, 1492, and named by him Hispaniola. It was afterwards called St. Domingo, which was finally changed to its native tilie, Hayti, in 1803. 1495. Hayti is conquered by the Spaniards. 1496. St. Domingo is founded. 1586. The island is attacked by Drake. 1630. The western coast is seized by the French. 1665. The French appoint a governor. 1697. Sept. 20. The island is guaranteed to the French by the treaty of Ryswick. 1722. The negroes rebel. 1791. They again revolt. 1793. The French abolish slavery in the island. Sept. 19. An English force arrives to pro- tect the whites. 1795. July 22. Spain, by the treaty of Basel, sur- renders her possessions la Hayti to the French. 1798. The British and French troops evacuate the island. 1801. July 1. The negroes declare themselves inde- pendent. 1802. Jan. The French invade Hayti, which they reduce to subjection, and compel the negro general, Toussant-Louvertuxe, to sur- render, May 3. 1803. The negroes expel the French, and declaxe the island independent. 1804. The negro Dessalines is proclaimed emperor as James T. 1806. Oct. 17. James I. is assassinated by his sub- jects, who place his lieutenant, Christophe, at the head of affairs. 1811. June 2. Christophe and his wife are crowned king and queen, Petion retaining the pre- sidentship of half the island. 1818. Death of Petion, who is succeeded by Boyer. 1820. Oct. 6. The troops revolt. Oct. 8. King Christophe commits suicide. 1822. Boyer becomes president of the whole island. 18'.i5. April 17. France recognizes the independence of Hayti. 1839. Dec. 23. The republic accedes to the conven- tions of Nov 30, 1831, and March 22, 1833, between Great Britain and France, for the suppression of the slave trade. 1843. Boyer is overthrown. 1849. Aug. 26. Pi-esident Soulouque proclaims Hayti an empire, and assumes the title of Faustin I. 1852. April 18. Faustin I. is crowned at Port-au- Piince. 1855. Dec. 10. Faustin is repulsed by the troops of St. Domingo, and threatened with revolu- tion by his own subjects. 407 HEA HEL 1858. Dec. 22. Faustin is deposed. Dec. 23. A republic is proclaimed under the presideucy of Oeffrard. 1861. March 18. Hayti is declared to be united to Spain. ■^ Heaeth-Moh-et (Tax).— Fumagre or faage, vulgarly called smoke-farthings, were, according to Domesday Book, paid for every chimney in the house. Edward the Black Prince, after his French victories, imposed a tax of one florin on every hearth in his French dominions. The tax was first esta- bUshed, by sanction of parHament, by 13 & 14 Charles II. c, 10 (1662). It was repealed by 1 Will. & Mary, sess. 1, c. 10 (1689). Heat, or Caloeic. — Little was known as to the phenomena of heat, till Dr. Black dehvered his chemical lectures at Glasgow in 1757. He discovered the doctrine of latent heat, which he pubhcly announced April 23, 1762. Dr. (afterwards Sir William) Herschel announced the substantiaMty of heat May 15 and Nov. 6, 1800 ; and, in 1802, his experi- ments were repeated and confirmed by Sir Henry Euglefield. The next important dis- coveries were made by Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Leshe, who pubhshed his theory of the radiation of heat in 1804, which was brought to greater perfection in 1813, by Delaroche, of Geneva. Hebkews, (Epistle to the,) was written by St. Paul, according to the best bibhcal critics, A.D. 61 or 62. Some writers refer it to A.D. 58. The letter was probably intended for the church at Alexandria, for in the Eoman catalogues, from the end of the 2nd century, it is described under the title of " Epistola ad Alexandrinos." Hebrides (Scotland). — These islands, long subject to the kings of Norway, became independent a.d. 1089. In 1153, Somerled, lord of these isles, invaded the mainland, and attempted to dethrone Malcolm IT. Having been defeated, he was MUed in a second attempt made in 1163. They were ceded to Scotland in 1266. Magnus, their last independent chief, died in 1265, and they were held by chieftains ia vassalage to the king of Scotland until 1346, when their ruler, John of Isle orlslay, assumed the title of "Lord of the Isles." James V. brought them under the dominion of Scotland. In 1748, the abolition of aU heritable jurisdic- tions put an end to the power of the chief- tains of the Isles. Dr. Johnson visited these islands in 1773. Hecatomb, or the Sacrifice of One Hun- dred Oxen, is supposed to have originated in each of the hundred cities of Lycaonia sending a bullock for the general sacrifice, or in each of the hundred cities of Pelopon- nesus making a similar contribution to« ards a sacrifice to avert the plague. Pythagoras (B.C. 555 — 497) is said to have offered a hecatomb on discovering the 47th proposi- tion of the first book of Euclid. Hecla (Iceland). — Forty-three eruptions of this volcano are on record since a.d. 900. Of these five were simultaneous, or nearly so, with eruptions of Vesuvius, four with eruptions of ^tna, and one with an erup- tion both of ^tna and Vesuvius. An erup- tion that commenced in June, 1784, lasted until May, 1785. Sir Joseph Banks visited Hecla ia 1772, and Sir George Mackenzie in 1810. Hedglet Moob (Battle).— Lord Mont- acute, brother of the earl of Warwick, at the head of a Yorkist army, defeated Queen Margaret at this place, near Wooler, April 25, 1464. Hbgiea. — This sera dates from the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, which happened during the night of Thursday, July 15, A.D. 622. The sera conamences July 16. Heidei,bee& (Baden), but a village A.D. 1225, was enlarged by Eobert, count palatine, in 1362. It was plundered by the Bavarians in 1622. The Swedes captured it in 1633, and they retained possession tiU the peace of Westphalia in 1648. It was sacked by Turenne in 1674, and ravaged by the French in 1689 and 1693. The electors re- moved their residence to Manheim in 1719. Heidelberg was ceded to the grand-duchy of Baden in 1802. Its university, the most ancient in Germany except that of Prague, was founded in 1386. The famous Heidel- berg tun was constructed in 1751. It is the largest wine-cask in existence, measuring 36 feet long and 24 feet high, with a capacity of 800 hogsheads, or 283,200 bottles. It has re- mained empty since 1769. Heilbeonn- (Wiirtemberg) was founded by Charlemagne a.d. 805, and came under the dominion of the see of Wurzburg in 1225. It was raised to the rank of a free imperial city in 1360, and was taken by storm in the War of the Peasants, 1528. The Pro- testant League of Germany was formed here in 1594, and a treaty between Sweden and the Protestant states of Germany was con- cluded here in March, 1633. It was made over to the king of Wiirtemberg in 1803. Heili&ee Lee (Battle). — The Spaniards were defeated by Louis of Nassau and the Dutch patriots near the monastery of Hei- hger Lee, or the " Holy Lion," May 23, 1568. Heldee (Holland) . — The Dutch admiral Van Tromp was killed off the Helder Point, A.D. 1653. The Enghsh, having captured the Dutch fleet, Aug. 30, 1799, took possession of Helder. They retired in October of the same year. Helena, St. (Atlantic), was discovered May 21, 1502, by Juan de Nova Castella, a Portuguese. It was occupied by the Dutch, some time after 1610. They removed their colony to the Cape of Good Hope in 1651, when St. Helena fell into the possession of the Enghsh. The Dutch captured it in 1665 and in 1673, and on both occasions were speedily expelled. Charles II. granted it to the Enghsh East -India Company in 1673. In 1815 it was made the abode of the emperor Napoleon I., who landed on the island Oct. 16, 1815, and resided there until his HEL death, May 5, 1821. His remains were re- moved to France in 1840. Helga (Battle).— The Swedes and Nor- wegians defeated Canute near this river, in Denmark, a.d. 1025. Helieb, St. (Jersey), was founded by the Normans, a.d. 837. The parish church was bmlt in 1341. Fort Kegent was commenced in 1550, and completed in 1806. Ehzabeth Castle, erected in 1586, received great addi- tions in 1636. The Court-house was built in 1647. St. Heher was surprised by the French, Jan. 6, 1781. The harbour pier was completed in 1819. Queen Victoria visited St. Heher, Aug. 28, 1846, and again Aug. 13, 18.59. Heligoland (North Sea). — This island was a dependency of the duchy of Holstein, until captured by the English, Sept. 5, 1807. It was definitively assigned to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, and ceased to be occupied as a military post in 1821. Heliometeb was first suggested by Eaemer about a.d. 1678, and was described by Savary in 1743. Bouguer constructed his hehometer in 1748. It was improved by Dollond in 1753, and by Kamsden in 1777. Heliopolis. {See Baalbec.) Hellenists. — Jewish colonists who settled in Egypt, after the destruction of the king- dom of Judah, about b.c. 606. Their num- ber was increased by the Jewish colomes planted by Alexander, B.C. 336. Hellespont. {See Dardanelles.) Hell-eike Clubs. — Three secret associa- tions under this name, to which about forty persons, of both sexes, belonged, existed in London a.d. 1721. Their tendencies and mummeries were believed to be simdar to those of the Mohocks, forbidden, under high Senalties, in 1711. A royal proclamation, ated April 28, 1721, interdicted such asso- ciations. Helmets were worn by the ancient Egyp- tians and Assyrians, and by the Greeks, Eomans, and Etruscans. The Britons did not use them before the Eoman invasion, and they were rare among the Franks and Germans. The Anglo-Saxons wore foui'- cornered pyramidal hehnets of leather, and the Danes, conical protections of metal, which also formed part of the armour of the Saxon nobles at Hastings. The nasal- piece was added in the 10th century, and cylindrical flat-topped helmets were intro- duced in the 12th, the earliest specimen being one worn by Charles the Good of Flanders, a.d. 1122. Fan crests became general in the 13th century ; the round- topped hehn came into fashion about 1270 ; and the sugarloaf-shaped helmet about 1280. Bell-shaped and broad-brimmed hel- mets were sometimes worn in the 14th century, though they never became general. In the 15th century hehnets of cuir bouilli and wicker-work were worn by archers ; and in the 16th century the close helmet, or burgonet, was introduced, and mask-visors of grotesque design were in vogue. An attempt was made during the reign of HEN Charles II. to invent a head-covering an- swering the double purpose of a helmet and a hat. Helmstadt (Brunswick). — A university was founded here a.d. 1576. It was sup- pressed by Jerome Bonaparte in 1809. Helots. — The inhabitants of the town of Helos, in Laconia, captured by the Spartans B.C. 700. They were employed either as do- mestic slaves, cultivators of the land, or in the public works ; and, being cruelly treated, often rose in rebeUion. This was the case during the great earthquake b.c. 464, and in the Peloponnesian war B.C. 420. The term was afterwards applied to aU captives con- demned to servitude. Helsingborg (Battle). — The Swedes de- feated the Danes at this town, in Sweden, March 10, 1709. A convention between Great Britain and Sweden was concluded here Aug. 31, 1805. Helsingeoes (Kussia), built by Gusta- vus I. m the 16th century. The Kussians burned it in 1728 and in 1741. It was ceded to Kussia in 1809, and they made it the capital ofFinlandinl819. Helvetian Kepttblic. — The title of the government estabhshed in Switzerland by its French conquerors in April, 1798. {See Swit- zerland.) Helvetii. — This Celtic tribe inhabited the country now called Switzerland, and under their leader Divico defeated L. Cassius Lon- ginus, and compelled his army to pass under the yoke, B.C. 107. Orgetorix led them into Gaiil B.C. 61, and they were totally defeated and cruelly massacred by Julius Caesar on the banks of the Saone, B.C. 58. Helvoetsluys (Holland). — WUliam, prince of Orange, sailed from this port for England, Oct. 19, 1688. It was taken by the French in January, 1795, and was evacuated by them Dec. 5, 1813. Hemp. — This plant has been grown in Ben- gal from the earliest ages, and was woven into cloth by the ancient inhabitants of Thrace. It was introduced into this country about A.D. 1139. Its cultivation was ordered by 24 Hen. VIII. e. 4 (1582) . Its growth in the North American colonies was encouraged by 3 & 4 Anne, c. 10 (1703) . Heneet Isle, about ten miles from Bom- bay, was seized by Sevajee in 1679. It was a rendezvous for pirates about 1790. Hengstone Hill, or Hengestdown (Battle) . — Egbert defeated the Northmen at this place, in Cornwall, a.d. 835. Hennebon (France). — The succession to Britanny was disputed by Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI., king of France, and John de Montfort, a.d. 1341. Charles of Blois besieged De Montfort' s wife Jane, in the town of Hennebon, in 1342. This heroic woman was on the point of surrendering the town, when the English fleet, conveying reinforcements under Sir Walter Manny, entered the harbour. Henoticon, or Edict of Union, was pub- Hshed by the Greek emperor Zeno a.d. 482, for the purpose of reconciling the rival 409 HEN clittrclies of Alexandria and Constantinople. Felix III. condemned it in 4S3, and it was reTokedby Justinl. in518. {See Acacians.) HENKiCAifS. — The followers of Henry, a monk and hermit, who attempted to effect a reform amongst the clergy in the 12th cen- tury. He quitted Switzerland, travelled through Bordeaux and Poitou, and arrived at Toulouse in 1147. Eugenius III. con- demned his views at the council of Eheims, March 21, 1148, and committed Henry to prison, where he died. . Heket the Eiest, the youngest son of Wilham I., was born at Selby, in Yorkshire, in 1068. He was chosen king at Winchester, Aug. 3, and crowned at Westminster, Stm- day, Aug. 5, 1100. He married Maud, daughter of Malcohn, king of Scotland, Nov. 11, 1100. She bore him a son and a daughter, — William, duke of Normandy, who perished by shipwreck, Nov. 25, 1120, and Maud, married to Henry V., emperor of Germany, Jan. 7, 1111, and, after his death (May 22, 1125), to Geoffrey of Anjou, Aug. 26, 1127. She received homage as fu- ture queen, Dec. 25, 1126, and contested the crown with Stephen. Henry the First's queen, Maud, died at Westminster, May 1, 1118 ; and Feb. 2, 1121, he married Adelais of Louvain, who survived him, leaving no issue. Henry died at Rouen, Sunday, Dec. 1, 1135. He was surnamed Beauclerc. Heijet the Second, the eldest son of Geoffrey of Anjou, and Maud, daughter of Henry I., was bom at Mans, in Maine, March, 1133. He was crowned at West- minster, Dec. 19, 1154. He married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII., Whitsunday, May 18, 1152. They had five sons and three daughters, — WiUiam, bom in 1152, and died in 1156; Henry, bom Feb. 28, 1155, died June 11, 1183 ; Matilda, born in 1156, married to Henry the Lion, of Saxony, in 1168, and died June 28, 1189; Eichard (see Richard I.); Geoffrey, born Sept. 23, 1158, killed at a tour- nament Aug. 19, 1186; Eleanor, bom in 1162, married to Alfonso III., of Castile, in 1170, and died Oct. 31, 1214 ; Joanna, born in Octo- ber, 1165, and died in September, 1199 ; and John {q. v.), afterwards king. Henry II. died at Chinon, July 6, 1189. He was surnamed Fitz-Empress. Henkt the Third, eldest son of King John and Isabella, was born at Winchester, Oct. 1, 1207; was crowned at Gloucester, Friday, Oct. 28, 1216. He married Eleanor of Provence, Jan. 14, 1236, by whom he had six sons and three daughters. Of these, five, namely, Robert, John, William, Henry, and Catherine, died young. Edward {see Ed- ward I.) was born June 18, 1239 ; Margaret was born in 1241, married to Alexander I. of Scotland, Dec. 26, 1251, and died in 1275 ; Beatrice was bom in 1242, and died in 1275; and Edmund was born in 1245, created earl of Lancaster, and died in 1296. Henry III. died at Westminster, Wednes- day, Nov. 16, 1272, and was buried in the abbey, Nov. 20. In 1286 his wddow Eleanor became a nun at Amesbury, where she died 410 HEN June 24, 1291. Henry III. was surnamed Winchester from the place of his birth. Henry the Fourth, the only son of John of Gaunt, was born at BoUngbroke in 1366, was acknowledged king on Tuesday, Sept. 30, 1399. In 1380 he married Mary de Bohun, by whom he had four sons and two daughters ; namely, Henry V. {q. v.) ; Thomas, born in 1389, created duke of Clarence iu 1412, and was killed at Baug^, March 22, 1421 ; John, bom in 1390, created duke of Bedford in 1415, and died Sept. 14, 1435 ; Humphrey, bom in 1391, created duke of Gloucester in 1414, and died in February, 1447 ; Blanche, bora in 1392, and died May 22, 1409 ; and Philippa, born in 1393, married to Eric XIII. of Denmark, and died Jan. 5, 1430. Henry's first wife, Mary, died in 1394, and Henry married Joan of Navarre, vridow of John V. of Britanny, April 3, 1402. The marriage was celebrated at Winchester, Feb. 26, 1403. She had no children, and survived the king, dying in 1437. Henry IV. died at Westmin- ster, Monday, March 20, 1413. He was sur- named Bolingbroke. Henry the Fifth, the eldest son of Henry IV. and his wife Mary, was born at Monmouth, Aug. 9, 1388. He ascended the throne March 21, and was crowned at West- minster, April 9, 1413, and married Cathe- rine of France, June 2, 1420. She bore him one child, Henry VI. (q. v.), and survived her husband, who died atBois Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422. He was surnamed Monmouth. Henry the Sixth, the only son of Henry V. and Catherine of France, was born at Windsor on Dec. 6, 1421, proclaimed king Sept. 1, 1422, and crowned at Paris Dec. 17, 1431. He married Margaret of Anjou, April 22, 1445, They had one son, Edward, bom Oct. 13, 1453, was killed at Tewkesbury, Saturday, May 4, 1471. Henry was deposed March 4, 1461 ; restored Oct. 9, 1470 ; and again deposed April 14, 1471 . From that time he was kept in the Tower, where he was probably put to death in June of the same year. His queen, Margaret, survived him, and died in penuiy at Dampierre, Aug. 25, 1481. Henry was surnamed Windsor. Henry the Seventh, son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset, was bom at Pembroke Castle, Jan. 21, 1456. He was proclaimed king after the victory on Bosworth Field, Aug. 22, 1485, and was erovmed Oct. 30. He married Ehzabeth of York, Jan. 18, 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster, that had long contested the right to the crown. They had three sons and four daughters, of whom Edmund, Ehzabeth, and Catherine died in infancy. Their other children were Arthur, born at Winchester Sept. 20, 1486, married Catherine of Aragon Nov. 14, 1501, and died April 2, 1502 ; Margaret, bom Nov. 29, 1489, and died in 1541 ; Henry, who became king {see Henry VIII) ; and Mary, bom in 1498, married to Louis XII. of France Oct. 9, 1514, and died June 25, 1533. Ehzabeth died HEN Feb. 11, 1503. Henry VII. died at Eieh- mond, April 21, 1509. Henet the Eighth, the second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born at Greenwich June 28, 1491 ; succeeded to the throne April 22, 1509 ; and was crowned at Westminster June 24, in the same year. He married Catherine of Aragon, his brother Arthur's widow, June 7, 1509. The marriage was pronounced null and void May 23, 1533. Henry had married Anne Boleyn in January, 1533, and this union was declared lawful May 28, 1533. Anne's marriage was set aside May 17, and she was executed May 19, the king marrying Jane Seymour May 20, 1536. Jane Seymour died Oct. 24, 1537, and Henry married Anne of Cleves Jan. 6, 1540. This marriage was pronounced invalid July 10 ; abrogated by parliament July 24 ; and Henry married Catherine Howard July 28, 1540. She was executed Feb. 12, 1542 ; and Henry married Catherine Parr, a widow, July 10, 1543. She survived him, dying in Sept. 1548. In addition to children who died in infancy, Henry had, by Catherine of Aragon, Mary {q. v.) ; by Anne Boleyn, Ehzabeth {q.v.) ; and by Jane Seymour, Edward {see Edwabd VI.). Henry died at Westminster, Friday, Jan. 28, 1547. Heptarchy. — This word, which signifies the government of seven rulers, is applied to the divisions of England under the Saxons. The first Saxon monarchy in England was that of Kent, founded a.d. 455. The erec- tion of Sussex into a kingdom in 491, es- tablished the Duwrchy, which became a Triarchy, on the foundation of Wessex in 519. The commencement of the states of Essex and East Angles, in 527, made it a Fentarchy, which became a Sexwrchy when Ida founded Bernicia, in 547, and a Hep- tarchy on the estabhshment of the British kingdom of Deira, in 559. An eighth state, Mercia, formed in 586, constituted the Oc- tarchy, which continued tiU 670, when the union of Deira and Bernicia into the single kingdom of Northumbria, restored the Heptarchy. The seven kingdoms were gra- dually united into one by Egbert and his successors . (ASeeBEiTANjs^iA and En gland . ) Heeacleia (Magna Grsecia) was founded B.C. 432. The Eomans were defeated near this city by P3rrrhus, b.c. 280. Heeacleia, or Minoa (Sicily), — Little is known concerning the early history of this town, which was repeopled by the Dorians B.C. 510. It was an important place during the first and second Punic wars. Heeacleia Pontica (Asia Minor) was founded by the Megarians, B.C. 986. The inhabitants suppUed the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon with vessels to carry them back to Cyzicus, b.c 401. The repubhcan government of the city was overthrown by Clearchus b.c. 380. Heracleia furnished succour to Ptolemy, against Antigonus, B.C. 307. The Koman consul AureMus Cotta sacked and plundered the city b.c. 74, Heeacleonites. — A Gnostic sect, the HER followers of Heraeleon, a pupil of Valentin, that arose in the 2nd century. Heeaclid^, the descendants of Hercules, who, after his death, b.c. 1209, were expelled from the Peloponnesus, and took refuge in Attica. The return of the Herachdae, b.c, 1104, forms a celebrated epoch in ancient chronology, as marking the transition from the heroic or fabulous ages to the period of authentic history. Heealdey. — The origin of heraldry has been claimed for the Egyptians, Greeks, and other ancient nations, but it is of much later date, and probably arose from the devices painted on German banners. Blazonry was introduced by the French, whether in the time of the Merovingians, who became extinct in 754, or in the 9th or 10th century, is un- certain. Family bearings were estabhshed among the kings of the Heptarchy. He- raldry, as a science, was not introduced into England till 1147 ; crests were borne about 1286. Heralds, as now established, were instituted by Richard III. in 1483, and were incorporated March 2, 1483. Heealds' College (London). — This insti- tution was incorporated by letters patent of Richard III., dated March 2, 1484. Queen Mary gave Derby House for the purposes of the college, July 18, 1554 ; and this being de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, the present edifice in Doctors' Commons was erected by Sir Christopher Wren in 1683. The college consists of the three kings-at-arms, viz., Gar- ter, Clarencieux, and Norroy ; of sis heralds, — Lancaster, Somerset, Richmond, Windsor, York, and Chester ; and of four pursuivants, —Rouge Croix, Blue Mantle, PortcuUis, and Rouge Dragon. He EAT (Affghanistan) in the time of Alexander was the capital of an extensive province. From a.d. 1150 to 1220 it was the residence of the Gourides. This city was taken from the Persians by the Affghans in 1715. It was retaken by Nadir Shah in 1731 ; and recovered by the Afl'ghans in 1749. The Persians attacked it in 1833 and 1838, without success. It was surrendered to the Persian general Sultan Murad Mirza by Issa Khan, after a long siege, Oct. 26, 1856. The Persian troops evacuated it July 27, 1857. Heecttlam-eum (Italy). — This ancient city of Campania had Hercules for its reputed founder, and was undoubtedly of great anti- quity. It suffered severely from an earth- quake A.D. 63, and was entirely overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Aug. 24, A.D. 79. A second settlement, formed near the site of the buried city, met with a similar fate A.D. 472. Even the situation of Her- culaneum was forgotten. In 1709 some fragments of statues, &c., were discovered in sinking a well, and in 1738 the theatre was discovered and explored by Colonel Alcubier. A description of the city was pubhshed by the Academy of Naples, at the expense of the government, under the title of " Antichita diEreolano" (1757-92). Hebefoed (Herefordshire) was the seat HER of a bishop a.d. 676. A cathedral was built here in 825, rebuilt in 1030, and destroyed by Griffin, when he piUaged the city, in 1055. The present edifice was commenced in 1079. The town was pillaged by the Welsh, under Griffin, Oct. 24, 1055, and was taken by King Stephen ia 1141. The parhamentary troops captured it in 1643. It was incorpo- rated Oct. 9, 1189, and its last charter is dated June 14, 1697. Heretics. — St. Augustine defines heretics as those "who, when they are reproved for their unsound opinions, contumaciously re- sist, and, instead of correcting their per- nicious and damnable doctrines, persist in the defence of them, and leave the Church and become her enemies." In the primitive Church they were not regarded as Chris- tians : marriages between them and the orthodox were prohibited in 366 by the council of Laodicea ; and the Theodosian Code, promulgated in 438, deprived them of the benefit of sanctuary. The most im- portant heretical sects will be found under their respective titles. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1533), oflFences against the see of Rome do not constitute heresy. All former statutes on the subject were repealed by 1 EHz. c. 1 (1558), which rendered it an ecclesiastical offence, only to be judged in ecclesiastical courts. The burning of heretics was abo- lished by 29 Charles II. c. 9 (1676). Persons relapsing from Christianity into a behef in more than one God, or a denial of the sacred Scriptures, were rendered hable to sundry civil disabilities, and, on persistence in the offence, to imprisonment for three years, by 9 & 10 WiU. III. 0. 32 Heemanitstadt (Transylvania) was founded by the Saxons, a.d. 1160. The Austrians were defeated near this town by the Hungarians, Jan. 21, 1849. The Eus- sians occupied this town July 21, 1849, were diiven out Aug. 5, and regained posses- sion, having defeated the Hungarians with much slaughter, Aug. 6. Heeodians, mentioned by Matthew (xxiii. 16) and Mark (iii. 6, xii. 13), are be- lieved to have been the adherents of Herod the Great, appointed governor of Galilee by Antipater b . c . 47 . After he had obtained the throne, B.C. 40, he gained numerous par- tisans among the Jews, and they were pro- bably formed into a sect at his death, B.C. 4 (March 13) . Dr. Martin Luther tran- slated the word 'Rpwhavoi into " Diener des Herodes," servants of Herod. They were a political party rather than a rehgioua sect. Heeeeea (Battle).— The Carhsts defeated the queen's troops near this place, inAragon, August 24, 1837. Heeeis-g Eisheet.— The Scotch were extensively engaged in this fishery in the 9th century a.d., and the Dutch first practised it in 1164. By the Statute of Herrings, Edw. III. St. 2 (1357), the sale of the fish at sea was prohibited, and the trade was placed under the control of the chancellor and 412 treasurer. This statute mentions Yarmouth as the great seat of the herring fishery. The method of curing the fish with salt was in- vented by Beukels, a Dutchman, who died in 1397. The Society of the Free British Fishery was incorporated in 1749 for the regulation of the herring fisheries, and a s imil ar com- pany was formed in 1786, but neither met with much success, in spite of the extrava- gant bounties granted for their encourage- ment. By 48 Geo. III. c. 110 (June 25, 1808) commissioners were appointed, whose business was to superintend the cleansing, packing, &c. of the herrings, and in 1830 the bounties were discontinued. Heeeings, (Battle of), fought at Eoveroy, near Orleans, Feb. 12, 1429, between the Enghsh and the French, the latter being defeated. The French endeavoured to cut off a convoy of provisions for the army besieging Orleans, and for this reason the action was called the battle of Herrings. Heetfoed (Hertfordshire). — A castle was buQt here in the reign of King Alfred. A council was held at Hertford, Sept. 24, 673. Edward the Elder erected another castle in 909, which was granted by Edward III. to John of Gaimt in 1345. The earliest authenticated charter of Hertford was granted by Ehzabeth, in 1588 ; and that by which it is governed was granted in 1680. Heetfoed College (Oxford). — Hertford Hall was in existence in the reign of Edward I. and in 1312 was conveyed to Walter Staple- ton, bishop of Exeter. It became a depend- ency of Exeter College ; was re-estabhshed in 1710, and was raised into a perpetual college by royal charter, Aug. 27, 1740. It was dissolved in 1818. Hebijli. — This Teutonic tribe, from the coast of the Baltic, descended the Danube to the Black Sea, a.d. 200, and sailed through the Hellespont, in 500 ships, in 262, when they began plundering the cities of Greece, burning, among others, the famous temple of the goddess Diana at Ephesus. They were met near Athens by Dexippus, who routed them in 267. They again wandered northward, invaded Italy, and overthrew the Western empire in 476. The Lon- gobardi almost destroyed them in 512, and their name is mentioned for the last time in history at the defeat and death of Teias by IS" arses, in March, 553. Heezegovina, or Heetsek (European Turkey) . — This province, which originally formed part of Croatia, was incorporated with Bosnia a.d. 1326. It was seized by the Turks in 1463. It was formally ceded to the porte by Austria at the peace of Car- lovritz, Jan. 26, 1699, and was overrun by a band of Montenegrins in October, 1855. Hesse (Germany). — This country was originally peopled by the Catti. In the time of Clovis it formed part of Thuringia, but in A.D. 902 was \mder the government of a covint of Hesse. It afterwards passed by marriage into the possession of Louis I. of Thuringia (1130-1140), and on the extinction of his male descendants in 1247, was erected HES into a distinct landgraviate under Henry the Infant, whose claims were finally established in 1263. In 1292 it became a principality of the empire, and in 1458 was divided into Upper and Lower Hesse, the whole country again becoming united under the landgrave of Lower Hesse in 1500, On the death of PhiHp I. in 1567, Hesse was divided between his four sons, who founded the houses of Cassel, Marburg, Eheinfels, and Darmstadt. The house of Eheinfels becoming extinct in 1583, and that of Marburg in 1604, the famihes of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darm- stadt became the sole rulers of the country. {See Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Daemstadt.) Hesse-Cassel (Germany) . — This state was erected on the death of Philip the Mag- nanimous, of Hesse, a.d, 1567. In 1628 the houses of Hesse-Rottenburg and Hesse- Rheinfeis were founded by the brothers of William V. of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1655, Phihp, third son of William VI., founded the line of Hesse-Philipsthal. Hesse-Cassel was made an electorate in 1803 ; in 1806 it was occupied by the French, and in 1807 was incorporated with the kingdom of Westpha- lia. It was re-elected into an electorate in 1813. Popular insurrections in 1830 and 1848 procured important concessions from the elector, who joined the Prussian union in 1849, and seceded from it in 1850. The constitution was again modified in 1852, and again in 1860, the alterations taking efiect from July 1. Hesse-Dakmstadt (Germany). — This state was separated from Hesse on the death of Philip I., A.D. 1567. In 1801 Louis X. was compelled to cede several districts on the left bank of the Rhine, for which he received in exchange the duchy of Westphaha, &c. In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt became a grand- duchy. The grand-duke joined the alliance against France in 1813, and ceded West- phaha and other territories to Prussia in 1815. Important political reforms were introduced in 1820 and 1848, most of which were withdrawn in 1850. Hesse-Darm- stadt joined the Austrian league, which assembled at Frankfort in 1850, under the name of the Ancient German Diet. Hesse-Homburg- (Germany). — This state was founded in 1596 by Frederick, son of George I. of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1806 it was put in subjection to Hesse-Darmstadt, but it regained its independence in 1815, and received the lordship of Merssenheim. The landgrave of Hesse-Homburg was the only minor prince of Germany who refused to adopt the constitution of the empire in 1849. Hestchasts, or HESTCHIST.S. (See Bablaamites.) Hexham (BTorthumberland) was erected into a bishopric a.d. 675, which was extinct in 810. In the 9th century this town suffered much from the Danes, and was taken and pillaged by the Scotch in 1296 and 1346. A battle was fought here between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians, in which the latter were totally defeated, May 8, 1464. HIL Elizabeth founded a free grammar-school here in 1598. HiEEACiANS, or HiEKACiTES.— The follow- ers of Hierax, an Egyptian bishop of Leon- topolis, who taught towards the close of the 3rd century. He was an ascetic. HiEBOGLTPHics, hterally "sacred en- gravings or sculpture," are believed to be the oldest mode of writing known to mankind. The invention is usually attributedto Athotes, B.C. 2122. The simplestform of hieroglyphics, the phonetic, continued in general use in Egypt till the time of the 22nd dynasty, or about B.C. 1000, when the hieratic character was introduced. This was employed tOl the com- mencement of the 28th dynasty, about B.C. 800, when a new form, the demotic, came into use. It was employed till the Christian sera, when it was finally superseded by the modern Coptic. At the time of Clement of Alex- andria, A.D. 211, hieroglyphics had passed into the condition of a dead language. The last notice of them is by Horus Apollo, of Phenebetis, a.d. 500. Subsequently all know- ledge of hieroglyphics totally disappeared, tOl the discovery by M. Boussard, in 1799, of the Rosetta stone, a tablet bearing a de- cree in honour of Ptolemy Epiphanes, issued B.C. 196, gave a clue to their interpretation. The Rosetta inscriptions were partly de- ciphered by SUvestre de Sacy in 1801, by Akerblad in 1802, by Champollion le Jeune in 1814, and principally by Your^ in 1817-18. Champollion published his Grammar of Hieroglyphics in 1836, and his Dictionary in 1841. High Commission Cotjet. — This tribunal was established by 1 Ehz. c. 1, s. 18 (1559), to exercise jurisdiction in matters of an ecclesiastical nature. It sat for the last time at St. Paul's, Oct. 22, 1640, and was finally abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 11, s. 3 (1641). James II. attempted to revive it. HiGHKESs. — This title, borneby Henry VIT. and Henry VIII., was rehnquished towards the end of the latter' s reign for the style of "your majesty." It was conferred on the prince of Orange by Louis XIV. in 1644. The prince of Conde was the first to assume the title of Serene Highness. High Teeason^.— The highest offence known in this country, is defined and regu- lated by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2 (1350). By 7 & 8 Wfil. III. c. 3 (1695), persons accused thereof were to be prosecuted within three years of the alleged offence, unless it was a plot to assassinate the sovereign. Trials for this crime are conducted in the same form as trials for murder by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 93 (July 28, 1800). The pun- ishment for high treason, according to 54 Geo. III. c. 146 (July 27, 1814), is drawing on a hurdle, hanging, and quartering, which may be commuted to simple decapitation if the sovereign pleases. Petty treason hav- ing been abolished by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 2 (June 27, 1828), the term high is not now used, the offence simply being styled treason. Hildesheim (Hanover). — A bishopric, 1 founded at Else a.d. 812, was removed to ' 413 HIM HOH Hildesheim a.d. 822. The cathedral was founded in 818. It was secularized, and taken possession of by the king of Prussia, in 1803. It was iacorporated with the king- dom of Westphalia in 1807, and annexed to the kingdom of Hanover ia 1813, the annex- ations having been confirmed by the Con- gress of Vienna in 1814-15. HiMEEA (SicUy) was founded by a colony from Zancle, b.c. 648. A great battle was fought near the city, between the Cartha- ginians and the Sicilians, the latter beiag victorious, B.C. 480. Some new colonists, of Doric extraction, arrived here B.C. 476. It was razed to the ground by the Cartha- ginians, B.C. 408. Many of the inhabitants returned, and founded a new city near the site of Himera, B.C. 405. Agathocles was defeated at Himera b,c. 310. [See Thebii^.) HiNDOSTAN, or HiNDrsTAN, signifying, in the Persian language, the country of the Hindoos, has been applied by geographers to that part of India called the Peninsula within the Ganges, extending from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya mountains. {See India.) HiEA (Chaldea). — This ancient city, which is now known as Medschid Ali, was founded by the Arabs a.d. 190. It was destroyed by Saad Ben Abi Vacas in 639, and has never regained its former importance. Gibbon (ch. h.) says that " Hira was the seat of a race of kings who had embraced the Christian rehgion, and reigned above 600 years under the shadow of the throne of Persia." HiSTOEIOGBAPHEE EOTAL. — This office was revived by Charles II. a.d. 1660, in fa- favour of James Howell. In 1685 Bernard Andreas was historiographer to Henry VII. HiSTOET. — Bacon divides human learning into history, poetry, and philosophy. Oral tradition was the mode in which historical facts were at first transmitted from one generation to another. The Old Testament is the earhest historical work in existence. Herodotus, born B.C. 484, and called the "father of history," is the earhest classical historian. With reference to the period at which Ancient history terminates and Mo- dern history commences, a writer in Black- vjood (vol. xxxii. p. 790, note) remarks, — •' It has repeatedly been made a question at what sera we are to date the transition from ancient to modern history. This question merits a separate dissertation. Meantime, it is sufficient to say in this place that Justinian in the 6th century will unani- mously be referred to the ancient division ; Charlemagne in the 8th to the modem. These, then, are two hmits fixed in each direction ; and somewhere between them must lie the frontier hne. JS'ow the sera of Mohammed in the 7th century is evidently the exact and perfect hue of demarcation ; not only as pretty nearly bisecting the debate- able ground, but also because the rise of the Mohammedan power, as operating so power- fully upon the Christian kingdoms of the 414 south, and through them upon the whole of Christendom, at that time beginning to mould themselves and to imite, marks in the most eminent sense the beginning of a new sera." HiTTiTES. — This nation was descended from Cheth, or Heth, the second son of Canaan, B.C. 3200. "Uriah the Hittite" was one of the thirty composing Da%-id'8 body-guard, b. c. 1048. The Egyptian annals refer to a very powerful con- federacy of Hittites in the valley of the Orontes, with whom Sether I. waged war, B.C. 1340, and whose capital, Ketesh, near Emesa, he conquered. Solomon compelled them to pay tribute about B.C. 1000 (1 Kings ix. 20). HOBAET-Towir (Austraha), the capital of Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, was founded in 1804. It was thrown open to free settlers in 1819. HocHKiECHEN" (Battlcs) . — The Austrians defeated Frederick II. of Prussia at this place, in Saxony, Oct. 14, 1758. Jf apoleon I. gained a victory here over an alhed Eussian and Prussian force May 22, 1813. HocHST (Battle). — The imperialists de- feated Christian I. of Brunswick at this place, near Mayence, June 20, 1622. The Austrians defeated the French at the same place Oct. 11, 1795. HocHSTADT (Battles). — The emperor Henry IV. was defeated in the plains of Hochstadt a.d. 1081. The French and Bavarians defeated the imperialists here Sept. 18, 1703. HoHENBUEG (Battle). — The emperor, Henry IV. of Germany, defeated the re- beUious Saxons in this battle, fought June 9, 1075. HoHENFEEiBrsG (Battle). — Frederick II, of Prussia defeated the Austrians under Prince Charles, at this village of Silesia, June 4, 1745. HoHEifLiNDEif (Battle) . — The French and Bavarians defeated an Austrian army at this village, in Bavaria, Dec. 3, 1800. The former lost 9,000, and the latter 18,000 men in the battle. The French and Bavarians took 97 pieces of cannon and 7,000 prisoners. HoHENLiNDEN CoKTENTiON was Con- cluded Sept. 28, 1800, between Austria and France. The fortresses of PhUipsburg, TJhn, and Ingoldstadt were given as se- cvirities to ^Napoleon Bonaparte, and a suspension of arms for forty-five days, com- mencing Sept. 21, was agreed upon. HoHENSTAUFEif. — The foimder of this house was Frederick von Biiren, who lived about A.D. 1040. His son fought vahantly imder the emperor Charles IV. in the battle of Merseburg, 1080, and received the hand of the emperor's daughter Agnes, together with the dukedom of Swabia, in 1081. Conrad, his grandson, was elected emperor of Germany Feb. 22, 1138. Conrad was succeeded as emperor by his nephew, Frederick I., sumamed Barbarossa, 1152- 90; and the imperial throne was occupied by his son and grandson till 1254. The sole HOH and last survivor of the Hohenstaufen race, Conradin, tried to regain the family heritage ; but having been defeated in the battles of Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266, andof Tagliacozzo, Aug. 23, 1268, he was made prisoner and be- headed at Naples, Oct. 29, 1268. HoHENZOLLEBN. — This, the royal house of Prussia, was founded by Count Thassilo, who built the castle of ZoUem, afterwards called Hohenzollern (High-Zollern) , a.d. 800. The castle was greatly enlarged by Frederick, the first count of Zollern, in 980. Frederick III. gained the title of prince and the government of Nuremberg in 1273. In the 16th century the house separated into two branches, the younger of which subsequently became kings of Prussia, while the elder remained princes of Hohenzollern. Frederick VI., of the younger Hue, received the province of Brandenburg from the emperor in 1411 ; his successor acquired the territory of Prussia in 1560. Another Frederick made himself king of Prussia January 18, 1701. The principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen, for many centuries in the pos- session of the elder line, were united with Prussia by treaty, March 20, 1850. Holland. — This country was, in the time of the Romans, inhabited by a warlike tribe, called the Batavi. 692. Hollaud is invaded by Pepin Heiistal, mayor of the palace to Dagobert IT. of Austrasia. 735. The country becomes ti-ibutary to Frame. 913. Accession of Theodore I., first count of Hol- land. 983. The county is made hereditary. 1010. It is invaded by the Normans. 1151. The Hollanders establish large colonies south of the Elbe. 1291. Florence V., count of Holland, claims the throne of Scotland. 1299. The county is transferred to the family of Hainault. 1304. Guy of Flanders seizes Zealand and North Holland, from which he is expelled by the young prince "William. 1349. Rise of the Kabbeljauwen and " Hoeks," the former term designating nobles, who sup- port William, and the latter the people and citizens, who espouse the cause of his mother Margaret. 1359. The Kabbeljauwen rebel, are besieged in Delft, and defeated by Albert, heir to the county. 1390. Aug. 21. The Hoeks uaurder Alice van Poel- geest, Albert's mistress. 1418. Marriage of the Countess Jacobawith John of Brabant. Rotterdam and South Holland are surrendered to John of Bavaria. 1421. Jacoba and John of Brabant obtain a divorce. Holland suffers from an inundation. 1422. Jacoba marries Humphrey, duke of Gloii- cester. 1434. Holland passes tinder the power of Philip of Burgundy. 1451. Ghent revolts against the government of Philip. 1477. Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian of Austria, which brings Holland under Austrian dominion. 1488. The Hoeks invade Holland. 1490. They are expelled. 1491. Holland is the scene of serious civil strife, kno^vn as the " Bread-and-Cheese war." 1497. Fi-iesland is conferred on Alneit of Saxony. 1510. Holland is involved in a war with the Hanse Towns. HOL AD. 1516. The Reformation takes place in Holland. 1520. Charles "V. introduces important innovations in the constitution. 1522. Friesland is finally annexed to Holland. 1549. Philip, heir to the county, faUs in an attempt to introduce the Inquisition. 1565. The Inquisition is established in Holland. 1566. The nobles foiiu the confederacy of the " Gueux," or beggars. 1567. The reformed worship is suppressed. 1568. The prince of Orange is outlawed. June 5. Execution of Egmond and Horn, by order of the duke of Alva. 1570. Holland is visited by a terrible inundation, which destroys 20,000 people in Friezland alone. 1572* The country revolts Tznder William, prince of Orange. 1575. The sovereignty of the countiy is offered to Queen Elizabeth. 1576. The north and south provinces are united against Spain by the I'aeiflcation of Ghent. 1579. Jan. 23. The northern provinces sign the Union of Utrecht. 1580. The States abjure their allegiance to Spain. 1582. May 18. John Jaceguy fires at and wounds the prince of Orange. 1584. July 10. Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian, assassinates the prince of Orange at Delft. Prince Maui-ice is appointed stadtholder. 1585. The States conclude a treaty with Queen Elizabeth, who appoints the earl of Lei- cester her governor-general in the Nether- lands. 1586. The States disagi-ee with Leicester. Sept. 22. Death of Sir Philip Sydney, at the battle of Zutpheu. 1.587. Leicester is recalled to England. 1594 The States stand sponsors to the eldest son of James VI. of Scotland, and incur the severe displeasure of Queen Elizabeth in consequence. 1595. The Dutch besin to trade to the East Indies and despatch expeditions in quest of a north-west passage. The Dutch E^st-India Company is founded. 1598. Philip III. of Spain sui-renders the Spanish Netherlands to the Archduke Albert and the Infanta Isabella. 1600. Prince Maurice invades Flanders. 1609. April 9. Spain acknowledges the indepen- dence of the States, and concludes a truce for twelve years. 1610. Rise of the Ai-minians and Gomarists. 1614. The States promulgate the " Resolution for the Peace of the Church" of Grotius. 1618. Maurice changes the government of the Dutch towns. Nov. 13. The Synod of Dort assem- bles. 1619. May 13. Execution of John Barneveldt. 1621. War is renewed with Spain. The Dutch West- India Company is foimded. 1623. Feb. 6. The sons of Barneveldt and others are defeated in a plot to assassinate Maurice. 1625. Death of Maurice, who Is succeeded by his brother Fi-ederick Henry. 1628. The Admiral Peter Peterson Heyn captures the Spanish silver fleet, and acquires booty to the amount of twelve million florins. 1637. The "Tulipomania" originates. 1639. Oct. 21. Van Tromp blockades the Spanish fleet in the Downs. 1641. May 1. The son of the prince of Orange marries the princess royal of England. 1648. Jan. 31. The States conclude a peace with Spain, and are recognized by the Em-opean princes as an independent republic. 1650. The dignity of the stadtholder is suspended. 1652. War is declared against England, hostilities being chiefly caiTied on at sea. The re- nowned Van Tromp sails through the Channel with a broom at hl'i mast-head, to show his intention to sweep away the English, Nov. 29. 415 HOL 1653. Aug. 10. The Dutch fleet is defeated at the mouth of the Meuse, by General Monk, and Van Tromp is mortally wounded in the action. 1654. Peace is concluded. 1658. The States assist the Danes agarost the king of Sweden. 1665. The English again declare war. 1666. Jvxxe 11 to 14. Monk and De Ruyter fight a furious but indecisive naval battle ofl:"lhe North Foreiaud. July 25. Pi-ince Rupert and Monk defeat De Ruyter off the Fore- land. 1667. The "Perpetual Edict" is passed, which abolishes the stadtholdership. 1668. Jan. IB. The triple alliance of the States, England, and Sweden against Frtmce, is signed at the Hague. 1670. Charles II. withdraws from the aUiauce, and agrees with Louis XrV. to declare war against Holland. 1672. April 7. England and France declare war, and Holland is invaded by 120,000 Fi-ench, under Cond6 and Turenne, who seize most of the important towns. The Perpetual Edict is revoked, and William, prince of Orange, made stadtholder. Aug. 22. Cor- nelius and John De Witt are assassinated by the mob. The Dutch aiTest the progi-ess of the French by opening the sluices, and putting the countiy in inundation. 1673. Tlie French evacuate the Provinces. 1674. Feb. 9. The treaty of Westminster restores peace with England. 1676. April 29. De Ru>ter is killed in a naval en- gagement with the French off Sicily. 1677. Nov. 4. The prince of Orange marries the Princess Mary, the daughter of the duke of York. 1678. Sept. 17. The peace of Nimeguen restores peace with France. 1688. Nov. 5. The prince of Orange lands at Torbay. 1689. Feb. 13. He ascends the English throne as William III. The French declare war against Holland. 1697. Sept. 20. The treaty of Eyswick restores peace with France. 1701. The fortresses of the Netherlands are gar- risoned by French troops. 1702. March 8. Death of the stadtholder, whose office is again suspended, and the govern- ment ai'ministered by Heiusius. May 15. Holland, England, and Germany declare war against Prance. 1708. The Netherlands are invaded by 100,000 French, under the dukes of Vend6me and Burgimdy. 1713. April 11. Peace is restored by the treaty of Utrecht. 1720. Death of Heinsius. 1742. The Dutch assist Maria Theresa. 1747. The French invade Dutch Flanders. The stadtholdership is revived, and conferred upon the prince of Orange. 1748. Oct. 18. The peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe restores tranquillity to the Provinces. 1763. A commercial i)anic occurs in Holland. 1780. England declares war against Holland. 1783. Peace is concluded. 1786. Disagreements arise between the stadtholder and the States. 1787. Civil war devastates the cotmtry. 1793. The French National Convention declares war against England and the stadtholder, and sends an army into Holland. 1794 The duke of York an-ives with an English force, for the defence of the country from the French, but withdraws without accom- plishing any great results. The Dutch con- stitution is revolutionized this year. 1795. Jan 27. The Batavian republic is organized, and closely allied with France. 1797. Oct. 11. Lord Duncan defeats the Dutch at CamperdowD {q. v.). 1799. Aug. 28. The Dutch fleet at the Texel sur- renders to Vice-Admiral Mitchel. 416 HOL 1801. The constitution is remodelled, and a kind of upper house added to the legislature. 1805. April. Fi-ance changes the form of govern- ment, and places Schimmelpenninck, as Grand Pensionary, at the head of afl«irs. 1806. June 5. Royalty is established by Bonaparte, in favour of his brother Louis. 1809. Jvily 28. The Walcheren expedition sails from England. The English evacuate the island Dec. 23, having cost £20,000,000, and half the men being lost or ill. 1810. July 1. Louis abdicates in favour cf his eldest son. July 9. Napoleon annexes the country to France. 1813. Nov. 15. A revolution breaks out in Holland, and the French authorities are dismissed. Nov. 30. The prince of Orange lands in Holland, where he is proclaimed sovereign prince. 1814. March 28. A free constitution is agreed to by the prince and people. Aug. 1. The ten. provinces of Belgium are annexed to Hol- land. 1815. Feb. 23. Austria cedes most of her Belgian possessions to the prince, who assumes the regal title March 16. 1817. May 8 The Roman Catholic bishops protest against the mode of instruction prescribed for the universities. 1825. Great distress is occasioned by inundations. 1830. Independence of Belgium (q. v.). 1831. Aug. 4. War commences with Belgium. 1837. Oct. 12. Death of the queen. 1840. Oct. 7. King William 1. abdicates. 184:j. Dec. 12. Death of the ex-king. 1843. July 24. William II. visits England. 1848. Exteusive reformation is effected in the ad- ministration. 1853. The pope endeavours to introduce a Roman Catholic hierarchy. 1854. Free trade is, to a great extent, adopted. 1856. Jan. 30. A treaty is concluded with Japan. 1861. Jan. and Feb. About 30,000 of the Dutch peasantry are rendered destitute by exten- sive inundations. ErLEES OF HOLLAND. A.D. Theodore 1 913 Theodore n 924 Arnold 988 Theodore III 993 Theodore IV 1039 Florence 1 1049 Theodore V 1061 Florence TI lOiil Theodore VI 1121 Florence III 1157 Theodore VII 1191 Ada 1203 WUliam 1 1203 Florence IV 1224 William II 1235 Florence V 1256 A.D. John 1 1296 John II 1299 William III 1304 William IV 1337 Margaret ^. 1345 William V 1356 Albei-t 1359 William A1 1404 Jacoba 1417 Philip the Good, of Burgundy 1434 Chai-les 1 1467 Mary 1477 Philip II 1482 Charles II 1506 Philip III 1555 STADTHOUJEES. A.D. A.D. William I., of Orange, I Maurice 1584 surnamed the Taci- Frederick Henry . . 1623 turn 1559 i WiUiam 11 1647 REPUBLIC. A.D. John de Witt, grand pensionary 1650 STADTHOLDER. A.D. WilUam ni 1672 ■REPXTBIAC. A.D. Heinsius 1702-1720 HOL ST^lDTHOLDEKS. A.D. A.D. WiUiam IV 1747 | William V. 1751 BEPUBUC. A.D. Schimmelpenninck, grand pensionary 1805 kuTGDOM OF HOIXAM). A.D. A.D. Louis Bonapai-te . . 1806 I William II 1840 (United to France) 1810 William III. 1849 William 1 1815 | Holm (Battle) .—The Danes were de- feated at Holm, in Kent, a.d.'902. By some authorities the date of the action is referred to 904, HoLMBY (Northamptonshire). — The Scot- tish army having delivered Charles I. to the English commissioners, Jan. 30, 1647, he was conducted under a guard to Holmby. From this place the king was removed June 4, 1647, and conveyed to Childersley, near Cambridge. HoLMFiRTH (Yorkshire) . — During a heavy flood, the Biberry reservoir, at Holmiirth, near Huddersfield, burst at half-past twelve in the morning, Feb. 5, 1852. Between 90 and 100 persons perished, and the damage to property was estimated at £600,000. HoLSTEiK (G-ermany). — Charlemagne wrested this country from its Saxon inha- bitants, and erected it into the margraviate ot Nordalbingia, about a.d. 811. It was conferred upon Adolphus, count of Schauen- burg, by the emperor Conrad II. in 1030, and in 1106 or 1110 was permanently erected into a county under his descendant Adol- phus I., by Lothaire, duke of Saxony. It was for many years harassed by Danish invaders, who were finally expelled in 1237, and in 1326 it received the duchy of South Jutland as an hereditary fief. The house of Schauenburg becoming extinct in 1459, the States elected Christian of Oldenburg, king of Denmark, for count, March 3, 1460. In 1474 Holstein was erected into a duchy, and in 1544 it was divided between the king of Denmark and Adolphus of Holstein-Gottorp, whose duchy was again divided, on the death of Christian Albert in 1695, Vietween his sons Frederick IV., who succeeded as duke of Holstein, and Christian Augustus, first duke of Holstein-Eutin, In 1751 the house of Holstein-Eutin succeeded to the throne of Sweden, and in 1762 to that of Eussia, the grand-duke of Eussia being also duke of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1773 the graud-duke of Eussia ceded aU his possessions in Holstein to the king of Denmark, and the whole duchy has ever since been an appanage of the Danish crown. On the dissolution of the German empire in 1806, Holstein was incorporated with Denmark, and in 1813 it was taken by the Swedes, who restored it in 1814. Provincial states for the government of Sleswig and Holstein were appointed by a law of May 28, 1831. In 1839 ill-feeling arose between the duchies and Denmark, in reference to the Danish succession, and 417 HOL this dissatisfaction was increased in 1844, by the demand of the German inhabitants of Sleswig to be united with Holstein, while the Danes desired union with Denmark. The Provincial States appealed to the Ger- manic diet, Aug. 3, 1846, and the revolution, of which the object was the separation of the duchies from Denmark, commenced at Kiel, March 24, 1848. The general assembly of the States met at Eendsburg, April 3, and voted the annexation of the duchies to the German Confederation, and a Prussian force entered Holstein April 6, to assist in carrying this proposition into eifect. The result was the Sleswig-Holstein war, which continued tUl the end of 1850, when the duchies ten- dered their submission to Denmark. The provincial diets were restored Jan. 28, 1852. HoLSTBiK - GLtrcKSBUEG- ( Germany ) . — This duchy was founded by Philip, son of John the Young, duke of Holstein-Sonder- burg, in 1622. The dukes of Holstein- Gliicksburg became extinct on the death of Frederick Henry, March 13, 1779. HoLSTEiBT - GoTTOKP. — This duchy was founded a.d. 1544, by Adolphus IX., son of Frederick, duke of Holstein, and was go- verned by its own dukes until it was ceded to Denmark by Paul Petro^vitz, Nov. 16, 1773. HoLSTEiif - Plow. — This branch of the ducal family of Holstein was founded a.d. 1622, by Joachim Ernest, son of John the Young, dulce of Holstein- Sonderburg, and became extinct on the death of Frederick Charles without male issue, Oct. 10, 1761. Holy Alliance. — This celebrated com- pact, between the emperors of Eussia and Austria and the king of Prussia, was signed at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815. It expressed the intention of the contracting sovereigns to continue in the bonds of Christian union, and recoimnended their subjects to "fortify themselves daily in the principles and ex- ercise of the duties which the divine Saviour has taught men," as the only means of securing lasting and real happiness. The duke of Wellington dechned to sign this compact. Holy Bbotheehood, or the Sakta Hebmandad, an association for the main- tenance of the public peace and the pro- tection of property, was instituted at Aragon about the middle of the 13th century, and fully organized a.d. 1488. It was established in Castile in 1282. A similar league was entered into by the cities of Castile and Leon in 1295. Kindred associations were organized in various parts of Spain at subsequent periods. The Hermandad in Valencia raised an insur- rection there in 1520-21. Holy Coat of Treves, said to be the coat mentioned in John xix. 23, which Christ wore at his crucifixion, a.d. 29. A holy coat is said to have existed in Galatia ill 580 ; another in Jerusalem in 589 j another at Oviedo in 800 ; another in 899 at Santiago de ComposteUa ; another in 1014 at Ghent j another in 1066 at London ; another in 1115 at Mayence j 2 £ HOL another in 1217 at Bremen; and another in 1513 at Treves. This last-named coat was declared to be the true garment of Christ by an apostolic decree of Pope Leo X., dated Feb. 1, 1514. Another holy coat appeared at Argenteuil, in France, and Pope Gregory XVI., Aug. 22, 1843, declared this garment to be the one worn at the crucitixion. Bishop Arnoldi of Treves ex- hibited in 1844 the coat kept in his cathedral to an immense concourse of people, and this act provoked much controversy in the Eoman Catholic church. Holyhead (Anglesey) . — A religious house is said to have been erected here by Maelgwyn in the latter part of the 6th century. The " college " was probably built by Hwfa ap Cynddelw, a contemporary of Owen Gwynedd, who began his reign A.D. 1137. A school was founded in 1745 ; baths, and an assembly-room, were intro- duced in 1770. An act was passed in 1809 for erecting a pier and improving the har- bour; and it was made the chief packetr station for Ireland in 1830. HoiiT Island, or Lindisfaene. — The see of Lindisfarne was founded in this smaU island a.d. 634. The Danes assailed the church in the year 787, and destroyed it Jan. 8, 794. The island was invaded by Malcolm III., king of Scotland, in 1061. The castle was taken by adherents of the Pretender in 1715, aud it was dismantled in 1819. Holt League, formed Oct. 4, 1511, by Pope Julius II. with King Ferdinand and the Tenetian republic, to protect the ter- ritorities and to maintain the authority of the Eomish church, and to expel the French from Italy. The emperor Maximilian and Henry VIII. of England afterwai'ds acceded to it. Ferdinand concluded the truce of Orthes with Louis XII. of France, April 1, 1513, and thus broke up the league. The Holy League of Castile was formed at Avila in July, 1521. {See CoGifAC, League). Holt Places (Palestine) .—The first of these, the church of the Holy Sepulchre, built upon Mount Calvary, was founded by the empress Helena, mother of the emperor Constantine the Great, a.d. 326. The church i was partly destroyed by the Persians in 614. I It was rebuilt, and various "Holy Places" | were added by Modestus, superior of the con- } vent of Theodosius, in 630. The structures, again destroyed by Hakim in 1010, were re- built in 1043. The holy places were occupied 1 by the crusaders in 1099 ; again burnt by the | Saracens in 1244, and re-erected in 1292. On the 12th October, 1808, a fire broke out in i the chapel of the Armenians, and destroyed i nearly the whole of the sacred edifices. I After long negotiations with the Porte, per- mission was given to erect a new chm-ch, which was consecrated in 1810. A feax'ful tragedy occurred at the church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1834, when nearly five hundred people, pilgrims to the Holy Fii-e, were crushed to death. The guardianship of the Holv Places has long been a matter of dis- 418 HOM pute between the Greek and Latin churches ; Eussia espousing the cause of the former, and France that of the latter. In 1690 the Holy Sepulchre was allotted to the Latins, and a treaty on the subject was signed be- tween France and the Porte in 1740. A serious outbreak occurred at Jerusalem in 1759 between the followers of the rival churches, and an imperial edict was soon after issued placing the holy sanctuaries under the protection of the Greek church. France and Russia interfered in 1819, and in 1820 the French commissioner sent to inquire drew up a hst of the Holy Places. The French government made certain demands May 28, 1850, and most of these were on the point of being conceded in 1851, when Nicholas, emperor of Russia, required from the sultan of Turkey a strict adherence to the status quo ante. Negotiations were carried on for some time, and the other European powers oifered their mediation : but the emperor of Russia thought this a favourable opportunity to attempt the overthrow of the Turkish dominion, and his ambassador quitted Constantinople May 21, 1853. HoLTEOOD (Edinburgh) . — The abbey and palace were founded a.d. 1128, by David I. of Scotland. In 1607, John BothweU, com- mendator of this place, was advanced to the peerage under the title of Lord Holyrood- house. The abbey was destroyed by the duke of Somerset in 1547, and nothing left standing but the body of the church, which, in its turn, was plundered and despoiled by the mob in 1688. Rizzio was murdered in one of the apartments of the palace, March 9, 1566. Charles I. was crowned here June 18, 1633. In 1768 the roof fell. The existing palace of Holyrood was designed by Sir William Bruce in 1669. The French royal family took up their residence here in 1796; and Queen Victoria held a court at Holyrood, Aug. 30, 1850. Holt Sepulchre (Order of the) . — This military order is said to have been founded by St. James, a.d. 69, to guard the Holy Sepulchre against unbelievers. Other au- thorities date its origin from the time of Helena, mother of Constantine I., about 326, and others from the reign of Godfrey of Bouillon as king of Jerusalem (1099 — 1100). It was most probably instituted by Pope Alexander VI. in 1496. It was re-con- structed by Louis XVIII., Aug. 19, 1814. Holt Watee. — The custom of sprinkling churches, &c., with consecrated water is traced by some to the time of the Apostles. It is referred toby Pope Alexander I. (a.d, 109 — 119) in such a manner as to infer that it was then an established custom. Holtwell (Wales), named after the well of St. Winifred. The parish church was founded in 1769. The Holywell Level, or great lead-mine, was opened in 1773. HoMEEiD^, or Sons of Homes, were numerous in the island of Chios, and in Asia Minor, b.c. 1000. Lycurgus, on his journey to Asia, is said to have received from this famous fraternity the first fragments of the poet's HOM works, which were introduced into Greece B.C. 890. Pisistratus and Hipparchus col- lected the rest b.c. 580. Ho ME BITES. — In the middle of the 4th century a.d., the princes of the Axumites joined to their titles that of king of the Homerites, an Abyssinian colony in Yemen. They entered into an alliance with Jus- tinian I., for the protection of the Chris- tians in Arabia, a.d. 531. The kingdom lasted sixty-seven years. HoMiLDON Hill (Battle). — Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, inflicted a humiliating defeat upon the Scots (who had invaded England in July), at HomUdon HOI, near Wooler, Sept. 14, 1402. The earl of Douglas and several Scottish nobles were taken pri- soners. Homilies. — The practice of compiling homilies commenced a.d. 796, when Charle- magne ordered Paulus Diaconus and Alcuin to discourse upon the New Testament. The famous " Homilarium" of Charlemagne was made pubhc in 809. The English Book of Homilies was brought out in two parts ; the first, containing twelve homilies, pubhshed in 1547, by Cranmer, in the reign of Ed- ward VI. ; and the second by order of Convocation, in 1563, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. HoMCEOPATHT. — This system of medicine was first advocated by Dr. Samuel Hahne- mann, A.D, 1796. His " Matiere Medicale Pure " was published in 1820, and his ' ' Theory of Chronic Diseases and their Eemedies" in 1829. He died at Paris, July 12, 843, aged 88. HOMOIOUSIANS AND HOMOOITSIAWS. — The former of these terms was applied to the Arians, and the latter to the orthodox party, at the council of Nice, June 19 to Aug. 25, 325. The Arian war-cry at the council of Seleucia, Sept. 27, 359, was Homoiousion. HoNDSCHooTE (Battle). — The Erench de- feated an Austrian and Dutch force at this place, Sept. 8, 1793. HoNDUEAS (America) was discovered by Columbus A.D. 1502. British settlers first established themselves here in 1643. Having extended as far as the river Behze, they were attacked by the Spaniards in 1659, 1678, 1718, and 1754. The result was a treaty of peace in 1763, by which the colonists were allowed to remain. The Spaniards made another attempt to expel the British settlers in 1779, and having captured several, sent them to the Havana, where they were confined till 1782. In 1784 Great Britain obtained certain rights, and the territory of Belize was declared a British colony. The Spaniards assailed it, but without success, Sept. 3 and 10, 1798. The present constitution was voted in 1853. HoKDUKAS (America). — This republic formed part of the Spanish kingdom of Gua- temala, until A.D. 1821, when its inhabitants received their independence, and, with other American states, entered into a confederacy. The union was dissolved in 1839, and Hon- duras became an independent state. Great 419 HOO Britain ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras by treaty in 1860. Honeymoon.— The practice of distinguish- ing the first month after marriage by this title probably arose from an old custom of drinking methegUn, a beverage made of honey, for thirty days after a nuptial cere- mony. HoNFLEUB (France).— This town of Nor- mandy was taken from the English by Charles VII. a.d. 1440, and in 1562 was seized by the Calvinists, who were compelled to quit it the same year by the duke of Aumale. HoNG-KoNff (China). — This group of rocky islands, situated at the mouth of the Canton river, about 100 miles from the city of Canton, was ceded to Great Britain Jan. 20, 1841, and formal possession was taken Jan. 26. HostiHties having been renewed, it was ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain by the treaty of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842, Hong-kong was regularly constituted a British colony June 26, 1843. (See Victoria.) HONI SOIT QUI MAL T PENSE, "Evilbe tO him that evil thinks," the motto of the order of the Garter, is said to have had its origin in an exclamation made by Edward III. on picking up a garter belonging to the coun- tess of Salisbury, at a ball, a.d. 1349. HoNiTON (Devonshire). — The parish church was founded a.d. 1482, by Courtenay, bishop of Exeter. Assizes were held here in 1590, when seventeen criminals were exe- cuted. The lace manufactory flourished as early as 1630. Fairfax entered Honiton vrith his army, Oct. 14, 1645. The new parish church, commenced in 1835, was completed in April, 1838. HoNOLtTLU, or HoNOErBU (Pacific), the chief tovni of the Sandvrich Islands, was first visited by Captain Cook, February, 1779. A missionary station was estabMshed here in 1820. A treaty of friendship between Queen Victoria and the king of the Sand- wich islands was signed at Honolulu, July 10, 1851. Hood. — The length of the monastic hood was regulated by a council at Aix-la- Chapelle, a.d. 817. A dispute respecting its proper form caused great dissensions among the Cordeliers, and divided them into two parties in the 13th century. The weaker party was expelled from the con- vents by force of arms in 1314. It was condemned by John XXII., and four of its adherents were burned by the Inqui- sition at Marseilles in 1318. Bishops and canons were forbidden by the council of Paris, March 9 — 14, 1347, to wear hoods of silk or velvet. Hoops are mentioned as portions of ladies' dress by Gosson, a.d. 1596. They were first called fardingales, which appear to have been of smaller proportions. In a scarce book, entitled "The London Trades- man," published in 1747, the following occurs : " Some vriU have it that Semiramis wore one of them in her famous expedition, 2 E 2 HOP and some other antiquaries will have us believe the queen of Sheba was dressed in one full five yards in circumference, at her first interview with Solomon." Crino- line made of horsehair, brought into fashion in 1855, is the modern hooped petticoat. Hops. — The comnaon account that hops were first brought to England a.d. 1524 is incorrect, as they were cultivated in this country during the 15th century. The term hop-grounds first occurs in the statute- book in 1552. In 1603 the cultivation of hops had become general. HoRATii and CuRiATii.— The Albanshaving invaded Eome b.c. 670, it was resolved to decide the contest by a battle between three champions on each side. Three twin brothers having been found in both armies, the Eo- mans named the Horatii and the Albans the Curiatii, the issue of the struggle was in- trusted to them, and the Curiatii having been vanquished in the fight which followed, Alba was forthwith united to Rome. Horn.— Athenaeus (xi. c. 51) mentions the use of horns as drinkrng-cups as a very ancient custom. The exportation of horns from Great Britain was prohibited by 4 Edw. IV. c. 8 (1464). This act was re- pealed by 1 James I. c. 25, s. 44 (1604). The Homers were incorporatedby Charles II. Jan. 12, 1638. Hornbooks, consisting of a single sheet of paper mounted on wood and protected by a transparent sheet of horn, were formerly extensively used in the education of children. Such books were very common in the Ehza- bethan period; but as they had no dates attached to them, it is impossible to give a precise account of their use. HoRNCASTLE (Battle). — Sir Thomas Fair- fax and Oliver CromweU defeated the royahst forces at Horncastle a.d. 1643. Hornpipe. — This dance is believed to be identical with the moyiocheros of the ancient Greeks. It derives its name from having been danced by the ancient Britons to the music of the "Welsh pib-com, or hornpipe. Horns were used at a very early period as musical instruments, and were employed by the Jews in the proclamation of the jubilee. Chromatic horns were first made in Ger- many early in the 18th century, and horns on which it was possible to play in all keys were introduced into England by the Mes- sings in 1740. The instrument was much improved in 1772 by S]Dandau. Horse-Guards. — The royal regiment of horse-guards was raised by Charles II. A.D. 1661. It fitrst mustered in Tothill Fields, Westminster, Feb. 16, 1661, and was first under fire in the Monmouth in- surrection, July 4-8, 1685. On the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, the regiment was sent against him, met the prince's army at Axminster Wov. 13, was repulsed, and many of the officers and soldiers went over to the enemy. The regiment was re-organized by "William III. Dee. 17, 1688. The Horse Guards, West- minster, was built in 1758. HOS Horsemanship. — This art probably ori- ginated with the Egyptians, who are the earhest known possessors of horses, B.C. 1706 (Gen. xlvii. 17). It passed from them to the Phoenicians, by whom it was imparted to the Greeks before the institution of the OljTnpic games, B.C. 1450, as chariot and horse-races constituted a prominent feature of those festivals. Gibbon mentions the Scythians as consummate masters of the equestrian art, and adds that it was com- monly believed that it was their custom "to eat, to drink, and even to sleep, without dismounting from their steeds." The rise of modern horsemanship depended greatly on the tournaments of the Middle Ages, which became common soon after the accession of Charles the Bald, a.d. 840. The present mode of shoeing horses was introduced into this country by the I^ormans at the time of the Conquest. Several statutes have been passed for the improvement of the breed of horses, the first of which was 27 Hen. VIII. c. 6 (1535). Horse-steahng was made a capital oifence, without benefit of clergy, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 8, s. 2 (1545) ; and the penaltv was commuted to transportation by 2 & 3 "\Vill. IV. c. 62 (July 11, 1832). The first horse-tax was imposed by 24 Geo. III. c. 31 (1784). HoRTENSiAN Law. — This law, which con- ferred legislative power upon the plebeians of Rome, was passed B.C. 286. HoRTicuLTURAi/ SOCIETIES. — The Horti- cultural Society of London was founded A.D. 1804, and incorporated by royal charter in 1809 ; the Edinburgh society was founded in 1809, and the Dublin society in 1816. The Transactions of the London society were first published in 1812, and their gardens at Chis\vick were commenced in 1822. The orchard and great part of the gardens were completed in 1824, and the arboretum was finished in 1825. The annual exhibitions were instituted in 1831, when only fruit was exhibited. In 1833 the show was extended to flowers. The new gardens of the society at Kensington were opened by Prince Albert, June 5, 1861. The Royal Society of Horticulture of Paris was founded June 11, 1827. Hospitallers, or Order op St. John OF Jerusalem. — This celebrated military order originated in a monastery, chapel, and hospital, founded at Jerusalem by some merchants of Amalphi, a.d. 1048. In 1099 the hospital received increased territories from Godfrey de Bouillon, who transferred its government from the monks to his knights. In 1100 they established a house at ClerkenweU, London, and in 1113 were confirmed as a spiritual order by Pope Pascal II. The Hospitallers greatly distin- guished themselves in the crusades, especially at Jerusalem in 1152, Ascalon in 1153, and Hittin in 1187. In 1308 their order was united with that of St. Samson of Jerusalem. They conquered Rhodes Aug. 15, 1309, and from their settlement in that island are some- times called the Knights of Rhodes. Their HOS wealth was much increased in 1311 by the addition of the possessions of the suppressed Templars, which were granted them by the council of Vienna. In 1321 they defeated the Turks in a great naval battle, and in 1341 took Smyrna. They took Alexandria in 1365, and in 1480 compelled Mohammed II, to retreat from Khodes, which he had be- sieged with 100,000 men and 160 ships. In 1485 the possessions of the dissolved orders of the Sacred Tomb and of St. Lazarus were bestowed upon, the Hospitallers. In 1522 they were compelled to quit Khodes by SoH- man II., who besieged their garrison of 600 knights and 4,500 soldiers, with a force of 140,000 men and 400 vessels, and in 1530 they were allowed to settle in Malta by the emperor Charles V. Hence they are often spoken of as the Knights of Malta. The order was suppressed in England by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1540), and lost aU its privileges in France, Sept. 19, 1792. In 1798 it was expelled from Malta by the French, and has never recovered its political impor- tance. Hospitals. — Institutions similar to Chelsea Hospital, for the support of decayed soldiers, were known at Eome, where they were called Meritoria. The first hospital of celebrity was established at Csesareia by the emperor Valens, between the years a.d. 370—380. St. Ephraim, who died in 381, or St. Fabiola, in 400, is the reputed founder of infirmaries supported by voluntary con- tributions. A foundling hospital was insti- tuted at Milan in 787, and an hospital for orphans at Constantinople in 1090. The most important hospitals are mentioned under the places where they are situated. St. Bartholomew's, Bethlehem, St. Thomas, Christ's Hospital, and Bridewell, are known as the five Eoyal Hospitals, which were united for purposes of administration in 1557, and placed under the care of the Cor- poration, but vrith a distinct government, by 22 Geo. III. c. 77 (1782). The following is a list of the London hospitals, with the date of their foundation. Foimded. A.D. St. Bartholomew's . , 1122 Bethlehem (for lunatics) 1547 St. Thomas's 1553 Westminster 1719 Guy's 1722 St. George's 1733 London 1740 Middlesex 1745 Small Pox 1746 Spanish and Portuguese Jews' 1747 British Lying-in 1749 City of London Lying-in 1750 St. Luke's (for lunatics) 1751 Queen Charlotte's Lyiug-in 1752 General Lyiug-rn 1765 Fever 1803 London Ophthalmia (Moorflelds) 1804 Westminster Ophthalmic , 1816 Charing-Cross 1818 Dreadnought (ship hospital for saUors) 1821 Queen Adelaide's Lying-in 1824 Royal Free (Gray 's-Inn Lane) 1828 University College 1833 St. Mark's I835 Orthopaedic 1838 HOU Founded. A.D. King's College 1839 Consumption ( Brompton) 1841 For diseases of the skin 1841 Central London Ophthalmic (Gray's-Inn") to>.j Eoad) J" ■^**<* St. Mary's (Paddington) 1843 Women's. . . 1843 German (Dalston) 1843 Free, for women and children 1847 Samaritan Free 1847 City of London (for diseases of the chest) . . 1848 London Homoeopathic 1849 Hahnemann 1850 For incurables 1850 Cancer ■ 1851 For sick children 1851 Great Northern 1856 Host (Elevation of the). — The date at which the custom of elevating the elements of the Eucharist previous to distribution was introduced, has given rise to considerable controversy. Some authorities assert that it originated in the 4th century, some that it was unknown till the 12th, while others fix its commencement a.d. 1201. The cus- tom of ringing a beU during the elevation was introduced in 1228, and the miracle of I the bleeding host is said to have occurred i in 1290. HoTTEM-TOTS. — This African race, the aboriginal population of the southern por- tions of Africa, first became known to Euro- peans A.D. 1493, and was very numerous when the Dutch began to form their settlements at the Cape, Their number has, however, been much reduced by the small-pox, which committed fearful ravages in 1713, and from other causes. Missionaries were first sent to them in 1736. A revolt of the Hottentots, which broke out in June, 1851, was promptly suppressed by General Somerset. HousE-DuTT. — A tax of two shiUings was levied upon all houses, except cottages, by 7 Will. III. c. 18 (1695). It was raised to three shillings, and frequently varied, until repealed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 39. It was reimposed, in place of the window-tax, by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (July 24, 1851), House of Commons. — The earliest in- stance of the assembly of knights, citizens, and burgesses as members of parhament, oc- curred Jan. 20, 1265, the parliament of 1258 having been exclusively composed of barons. They were not again summoned tiU the par- liament of Kov. 12, 1294, and were esta- blished as a necessary part of the legislature by the declaratory statute of York, in 1322, Various statutes have been passed to regu- late the amoxmt of property necessary to enable a man to sit in the House of Com- mons, aU of which were repealed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 26 (June 28, 1858). The House of Commons has frequently changed its place of assembly. Our earliest knowledge on this point is that the parhament of April 30, 1343, met in the Painted Chamber, Westminster. In 1376 the Chapter-house is mentioned as the usual meeting-place, and in 1547 Edward VI. granted St. Stephen's chapel for the purpose. This building was destroyed by fire Oct. 16, 1834u and the Commons took possession of 421 HOU their new house Nov. 4, 1852. The following table exhibits the number of representatives now composing the House of Commons : — ENGLAND AND WALES. Knights of shires Citizens and burgesses SCOTLAND. Knights of the shii-es . , Citizens and burgesses Knights of shires 64 Citizens and burgesses 41 Total of the United Kingdom 105 654 House op Loeds. — The bishops and arch- bishops of England have composed a portion of the great council of the nation from the time of the Saxons, and they, with the barons, formed the king's council from the Conquest to the reign of John. The personal privilege of the peers was determined in 1341. The House of Lords was abohshed by the Long Parliament, Feb. 6, 1649, but constituted part of the first parhament after the Eestoration, April 25, 1660. The House of Lords has had various places of assembly. The first record on the subject states that in 1343 it met in the "\\Tiite Chamber, Westminster. The Painted Chamber was also a frequent place of assembly. Its place of meeting is first styled the "House of Lords" in 1543. The old palace of Westminster having been de- stroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834, the present Houses of Parhament were erected in its stead. The peers took possession of their new house April 15, 1847. The number of members in the House of Lords is always liable to increase, owing to the royal prero- gative of creating new peerages. The fol- lowing is a pretty correct statement of its present numbers : — LOEDS SPIEITUAL. Archbishops 2 Bishops 24 Irish representative bishoxJs.. .. 4 30 LOEDS TEMPOEAL. Diikes of the royal blood 2 Dukes 20 Marquises 21 Earls 109 Viscounts 23 Barons 210 Representative peeis of Scotland 16 Representative peers of Ireland 28 429 Total of House of Peers 459 HoiTSES OF Paeliament, or New Palace OP Westminstee. — The earlier parhaments met in various places, chiefly at Westminster, but occasionaUy in provincial towns. The original buildings where the business of the HUE Lords and Commons was transacted, were destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834. The first stone of the new building was laid AprU 27, 1840. The House of Lords was opened April 15, 1847, and the House of Commons Nov. 4, 1852. Big Ben, the bell for the clock tower, was cast Aug. 6, 1856, and proved a failure. The Victoria Tower was completed in 1857. Sir Charles Barry, the architect of the New Palace of Westminster, died May 12, 1860. HuAEiNA (Battle). — Pizarro, with 480 men and 85 horse, defeated Centeno at the head of 1,000 foot and 250 cavalry, on the plains of Huarina, in Peru, Oct. 26, 1547. HuBEETSBUEG (Saxouy). — The castle was built A.D. 1721, by prince Augustus of Saxony, afterwards elector Augustus III. The peace of Hubertsburg, which terminated the Seven Years' war, was signed here Feb. 15, 1763. A separate act, in accordance with the 20th article of the treaty of Hubertsburg, between the empress and the king of Prussia, was signed at Dresden March 12, and at Berlin March 20, 1763. Hudson (New York). — This city was founded by settlers from Ehode Island and Massachusetts a.d. 1784, and received ita charter of incorporation in 1785. Hudson's Bat (North America). — The sea was discovered by Sebastian Cabot A.D. 1512, and was rediscovered by Hudson, from whom it derives its name, in 1610. The Hudson's Bay territory was first explored by adventurers from Canada. Prince Rupert sent a vessel with colonists to the territory in 1668. Charles II. incorporated the Hudson's Bay Company, May 2, 1670. A rival associa- tion, called the North- West Company, was formed out of several smaller ones in 1787. The two companies were united in 1821. An extended license for trading over the continent east of the Rocky Mountains was given to the company May 13, 1838. The EngHsh govern- ment granted Yancouver Island to the Hud- son's Bay Company in August, 1848. Hue and Cey. — This mode of creating alarm was in use among the Romans. Caesar speaks of a case, e.g. 50, in which an alarm was carried 160 miles in 16 hours. The hue and cry, a legal mode of procuring the arrest of off'enders, was introduced into England at an early period, and by 13 Edw. I. c. 4 (1285), the hundred in which the offence was committed was held hable until the felon was caught. By 27 EUz. c. 13 (1585), the hue and cry was ordered to be effected by both horsemen and footmen ; and by 8 Geo. II. c. 16 (1735), constables, &c., refusing or neglecting to make hue and cry were to pay a fine of £5. The Highland mode of raising the hue and cry, called the cross tarric, or fiery cross, was carried 32 miles in three hours in 1745. The "Hue and Cry," issued three times a week by the Pohce Court, was first pubhshed early in the 18th century. H u E s c A ( Spain ) , the ancient Osca, a town of the Hergetes, is mentioned by Strabo, under the name of Heoscan. Sertorius founded a school here b.c. 77. Pedro I. of HUG Aragon took it, after his victory over the Moors at Alcoraza, a.d. 1096. The imiver- sity was founded in 1354. Huguenots. — This was the name given to the French Protestants in the 16th century. Its etymology is unknown, some deriving it from Hugues, a noted Calvinist of Geneva, and others from the German eidgenossen, confederates. They were first persecuted in France in 1559, and in 1561 they received the name Huguenots, and resorted to arms for protection. A large number of them were barbarously slaughtered at Vassy, March 1, 1562. The massacre of St. Bar- tholomew (q.v.) occurred Aug. 24, 1572. In 1598 they were protected by the Edict of Ifantes (q.v.), and received additional religious hberty by the Pacification of Msmes, July 14, 1629. Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, and the Huguenots were unable to enjoy free exercise of their religion tiU the National Assembly restored freedom of conscience, Aug. 24, 1789. Hull, or KiKGSTOKr-UPON-HuLL (York- shire). — In a grant made by Matilda Camin to the monks of Melza, a.d. 1160, HuUis de- scribed as the " Wyk of MytonI" Edward I. bought it from the monks in 1293, and called the place "King's town upon Hull." Ed- ward I. visited the town May 26, 1300. It was ordered to be made a fortress, by a charter of Edward II., in 1322. The walls were repaired and strengthened by Sir Michael de la Pole in 1377. iThe free grammar- school was founded 1482, and the first hos- pital was erected in 1517. The town was taken by HaUam, "the pilgrim of grace," 1537. The merchants of Hull embarked in the whale-fishery in 1598. Lister's alms- houses were founded in 1642, the old dock was built 1775, and the first stone of the new dock was laid Oct. 19, 1775 : it was opened Sept. 22, 1778. The Marine Hospi- tal was established in 1787 ; the new water- works were erected by the corporation in 1831, and the Hull and Selby railway was opened July 1, 1840. HuLSEAN Lectuees. — Sermous upon the evidences of Christianity, or the difficulties of Holy Scripture, were instituted by the vrin of the Kev. J. Hulse, who died in 1790. The funds were inadequate until 1820, when the Eev. C. Benson dehvered the first course. HuMAifE Society (Royal). — This society, instituted for the recovery of persons from drowning, was founded in London, by Drs. Hawes, FothergiU, and Cogan, a.d. 1774. In 1851 there were 221 depots for drags, &c. in connection with this institution. A Humane Society was established in Holland in 1767. HuMiLiATi, a pecuhar order of monks, founded by a number of Italian noblemen a.b. 1134. They subjected themselves to the rule of St. Benedict, and their statutes were re- vived in 1151, and confirmedby Innocent III. in 1200. Females were admitted to this order in 1325. A considerable laxity of HUN discipline having arisen, Pius V. suppressed the society in 1571. Hundreds.— The precise nature of the division of a country into hundreds is not known; it existed in Germany at a very early date, and was established among the Franks in the 6th century. Alfred the Great (870—900) is said to have introduced the hundred system into this country. All statutes relating to men composing a hun- dred were repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27 (June 21, 1827) ; and hundreders are rendered liable for damages committed by rioters by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 21, 1827). HuNGAET. — This coxmtry includes part of the ancient provinces of Dacia and Panno- nia. The Eomans, under Octavianus, mst invade Pannonia. The country is reduced to a Eoman province hy Tiberius. The Goths establish themselves in Hungary. It is invaded by the Vandals. The Huns defeat the Goths on the Dniester. They establish their supremacy in Hungai-y. On the death of Attila, it is seized by the 275. 337. 376. 433. 453. 500. It passes into the power of the Lombards. 568 The Avars expel the Lombards. 793. Hungaiy is conrjuered by Charlemagne, and united to the Western empire. 889. The Maygars, or Hungarians, establish them- selves in Hungary, under their prince Arpad. 934 The Hungarians are defeated by Henry the Fowler, emperor of Germany. 955. They are subdued by Otho the Great, at Augs- burg. 1000. Stephen I. embraces Christianity, and receives the title of king. 1061. Hungaiy is ravaged by the Poles. 1139. Bela II. has his eyes put out, by order of his uncle Coloman. 1162. The king is seized by the usui-pers Ladislaus and Stephen. 1222. Andrew II. publishes the charter known as the Golden Bull of Hungary. 1235 to 1245. The Tartars ravage the country. 1290. Ladislaus III. is assassinated. 1348. Louis the Great invades Naples. 1370. L ieges and takes Bangalore. May 14. Comwallis de- feats Tippoo at the battle of Arikera. 1792. March 26. Peace is concluded with Tippoo, who surrenders his two eldest sons as hostages. 1793. Courts for civil and criminal causes, and circuits, are appointed, and judges' fees abolished. Pondicherry is again taken by the English. 1794. March 29. Tippoo's sons axe restored. 1798. Allahabad is ceded to the British. 1799. May 4. Death of Tippoo, at the storming of Seringapatam (q. v.). June 22. The parti- tion of Mysore take" place. Oct. 25. The rajah of Tanjore surrenders aU his power to the British. 1800. May 13. The nabob of Surat resigns his govemment to the English. Oct. 12. The Nizam cedes all his possession in Mysore to the British. 1801. Nov. 14. Rohilcand and the Dooab are ceded to the English by the subahdar of Oude. 1802. March 25. Pondicherry is restored to France by the treaty of Amiens. June 4. The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to the British. Dec. 31. By the treaty of Bassein, the Peishwa cedes a large extent of territory to the British, au'l agrees to hold no intercourse with otht-r foreigner.s. 1803. Aug. 3. The Mahratta, war commences against Dowlut Rao Scindia and the raja,li of Berar. Sept. 12. Genei'al Lake enteis Delhi. Sept. 23. Sir Arthui- WeUesley gains the battle of Assaye (q. v.). Oct. 17. Lake takes Agra. Nov. 1. He defeats the Mahratta.s, at the battle of Laswaree. Dec. 17. Peace is concluded with the rajah of Beriir, who cedes Cuttack to the British, g*^ liec. 30. Peace with Scindia, who sur- rendei-s Baroach, Ahmednuggur, and his foi-ts in the Dooab. 1812. 1813. 1814. 1815. 1822. 1824. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. Feb. 27. The treaty of Boorhanpore is con- cluded with Scindia. April 16. War is declared against Holkar. Oct. 8. Holkar lays siege to Delhi, but is compelled to retire.' Oct. 25. AU Holkar's possessions in the Deucan are subdued by the British. Nov. 14. Deatu of General Frazer, at the battle of Deig, in which he defeats Holkar. April 10. The rajah of Bhurtpore cedes por- tions of territoi-y to the English. April 15. Holkar joins Scindia. Oct. 5. Death of Lord Comwallis. Dec. 24. Peace is con- cluded with Holkar, who renounces his claims to the districts north of the Chum- bul. and to Bundelcund. Jan. 31. A mutiny breaks out among the troops stationed at Yellore. 800 Sepoys are executed. War commences with Travancore. Dec. 31. The Travancore army is defeated by Colonel Hamilton. Feb. 25. All the lines of Ti-avancore are stormed by the British, and the war is ended. Aug. 23. A mutiny is quelled at Seringapatam. The Pindan-ies shake oflf the Mahratta autho- rity, and assert their independence. July 1. The India trade is thrown open by 53 Geo. IIL c. 155. Nov. 1. War is declared against Nepaul. April 27. The whole of Kemaoon is ceded to the British. Dec. 2. The treaty of Segoulee ends the Nepaulese war. June 13. The Mahratta confederacy is dis- solved, and Ahmednuggur and other places are ceded to the British. Dec. 21. bir T. Hislop defeats Holkar at the battle of Mehudpore. The Pindarrie war commences this year. Jan. 6. Peace is concluded with Holkar. May. Conclusion of the Pindarrie war. June 3. The Peishwa surrenders to the English, abdicates his throne, and relin- quishes all claim to the Deccan. The vizier of Oude throws off his allegiance to the Mongol ruler, and establishes an independent govemment. Dec. 12. A treaty is concluded between the English and the Nizam. The Bui-mese war commences. May 11. The British take Rangoon. Nov. 1. A mutiny breaks ont at Barrackpore. Aug. 16 to Dec. 9. The Enterprise performs the first steam voyage to India. Dec. 1-5. The Burmese are defeated near Prome. Jan. 18. The British take Bhurtpore. Feb. 24. Peace with Burmah is restored by the treaty of Yandaboo. Deo. A decree for the abolition of sutteeism is ptttilished. Mar;hl9. The Bombay papers first mention the elevation of native Hindoos to the magistracy. April 10. The rajah of Coorg is deposed. Aug. 1. Slavei-y is abolished in the East Indies. Oct. 1. The Affghau war commences. (.See AFFGHA2f Wak and Cabul.) April 21. The English army occupies Kandahar. July 23. Ghuznee is stormed by Sir J. Keane. Oct. 11. Cabul is evacuated, and the Affghan war concluded. Feb. 17. Sir Charles Napier defeats the Ameers of Scinde at the battle of Meauee. Dec. 29. The Gu.alior ten-itory is invaded and sub- dued by the British. May 24. Sir C. Napier i-onvenes a great meeting of Beloochee chiefs at Hyderabad. A revo- lution occurs at Lahore. Feb. 22. The Danish possessions in India are pmchased by the British. Dec. 18. The British defeat the Sikhs at the battle of Moodkee. Dec. 21 and 22. The Sikhs are defeated at Ferozeshah. Jan. 28. The Sikhs sustain a severe defeat at Aliwal (q. v.). IXD 1846. Feb. 10. They are defeated at Sobraon (g'.w.). Feb. 22. Sir Hugh Gough takes foi-mal possession of Lahore. March 9. Peace is restored by the treaty of Lahore. 1847. Jan. The vizier Lall Singh is deposed from the government of Lahore. 1848. April 18. Death of Mr. Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, in a skirmish with the troops of Dewau Moolraj. June 18. The army of Moolraj is defeated by Lieu- tenant Edwardes. at the battle of Kennyree. Sept. 22. General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan. Nov. 2. Lord Gough expels the enemy from Ramnuggur. Dec. 3. The Sikhs are defeated by Major-General Thack- well, at Vyseerabad. 1849. Jan. 2. The town of Mooltan is taken by the English. Jan. 13. The Sikhs are defeated at Chillianwallah (q.v.). Jan. 22. The citadel of Mooltan surrenders, and Moolraj is taken prisoner. Feb. 21. The Sikhs are defeated at Goojerat {q. v.). March 7. Sir Charles Napier becomes commander - in - chief in India. March 14. The entire Sikh army surrenders unconditionally. March 29. The governor- general announces the annexation of the Punjaub. July. Moolraj is tried for the murder of Mr. Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson. He is convicted, and sentenced to death. Sept. The sentence is commuted to transportation for life. 1850. Feb. 27. The 66th Bengal native infantry is disbanded for mutiny. May 25. The Nepaulese embassy arrives in England. July 2. Sir Charles Napier resigns the ofllce of commander-in-chief. 1851. Jan. 28. Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of the Mah- rattas, dies at Bithoor. The continuance of his pension is refused to his nephew Nana Sahib. Oct. 29. Disputes having occurred with the Burmese empire, a British fleet arrives at Rangoon. 1852. Jan. 4. The British force the passage of the Ii-awaddy. April 5. Martaban is stormed. April 14. General Goodwin storms and takes Rangoon. June 4. Pegu is taken, but is shortly afterwards evacuated. July 9. Prome is taken. Oct. 10. Prome is again taken. Nov. 21. Pegu is recaptured. Dec. 3. The Burmese invest Pegu, which is relieved by the British. Dec. 30. Annexation of Pegu to the Anglo-Indian empire. 18-53. June 30. End of the Burmese war. Aug. 20. A new In<1ia Bill is passed (16 & 17 Vict. c. 95). Dec. 11. Death of the rajah of Nagpore, and annexation of his territories to the British possessions. 18-56. Feb. 7. Annexation of Dude. 1857. Jan. 24 to May 6. Mutiny of the native regiments at Ban-a'kpore, Berhampore, Lucknow, and Meerut. May 10. Mu- tiny at Meerut. May 11. The mutineers establish theii- head - quar-ters at Delhi. May 12. They proclaim the king of Delhi emperor. May 20. General Anson marches with a British force for Delhi, and dies of cholera at Kurnaul, May 27. May 30. Four regiments mutiny at Lucknow. June 6. The mutiny reaches Allahabad. June 8. Sir H. Barnard succeeds General Anson at Delhi. June 21. Death of Sir Hugh Wheeler at Cawupore. June 26. The British at Cawnpore surrender to Nana Sahib, by whom they are nearly all murdered the following day. July 1. The rebels commence the siege of Lucknow. July 4. Death of Sir Henry Lawrence. July 5. Death of Sir H. Barnard. July 17. General Havelock enters Cawnpore. Jul y 1 9. He defeats Nana Sahib at Bithoor. Aug. 10. General Nicholson arrives before Delhi. Aug. 14. Sir Colui Campbell ai-rives at Cal- cutta. Sept. 14 to 20. Stoi-ming and capture of Delhi by General Wilson. 433 m-D 1857. Sept. 21. Lieutenant Hodson kills the son.s of thekingof Delhi. Sept. 2,5. Havelock relieves the Europeans besieged at Lucknow. Oct. 10. General Greathed defeats the Agra contingent near Agi-a. Nov. 3. Sir Colin Campbell arrives at Cawnpore. Jiov. 17. Outram, Havelock, and Campbell meet at Lucknow, and entirely dislodge the enemy. Nov. 22. The British evacuate Lucknow. Nov. 25. Death of Sir Henry Havelock at Alum Bagh. Nov. 27. General Windham sustains a defeat from the Gualior rebels near Cawnpore. Dec. 6. Sir Colin defeats the rebels at Cawnpore. 1858. Jan. 2. Sir Colin defeats the rebels at Futteghur. Jan. 6. Jung Bahadoor cap- tures Goruckpore. Jan. 23. General Ro- berts takes Awah, in Rajpootana. Jan. 28. Sia- Hugh Rose captui-es the fort of Ratghur. Feb. 11. Sir Colin leaves Cawapore and advances to L'lcknow. March 8. The siege commences. March 19. Capture of Luck- now. March 30. General Roberts takes Kotah. April 2. Sir- H. Rose t^kes Jhansi. April 19. General Whitlock defeats the rebels at Bandar. April 27. Death of Sir William Peel at Cawnpore. May 7. Bareilly is seized by the British. May 8. Sir H. Rose takes Kooch. May 23. He captures Calpee. June 1. The rebels seize Gualior. June 19. Gualior is recaptured by Sir H. Rose. July 14. General Grant defeats the rebels at Kotara. Sept. 1. The government of the East-India Company terminates. Sept. 2. Two disarmed na- tive regiments rebel at Mooltan, and are desti-oyed. Sept. 5. General Roberts de- feats the Paoree rebels. Sept. 15. General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee at Beora. Oct. The rebels sustain numerous severe defeats. Nov. 1. The Queen is pro- claimed sovereign of India, Lord Canning receiving the title of vicei-oy. Nov. 3. General Wetherall defeats the rebels at Rampur-Kupia, in Oude. Nov. 24. Lord Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell) defeats the mutineers near Futtehpur. Dec. 1. Tantia Topee is defeated at Tschota-TJdeypur. Dec. 5. Death of General Jacob. Dec. 17. Sir R. Napier defeats Perozeshah n(>ar Ramonde. Dec. 27. The British destroy Musjidia. L859. Jan. 1. The Punjaub is erected into a pre- sidency. Jan. 25. The pacification of Oude is announced. April 2. Maun Singh sur- renders. April 7. Tantia Topee is taken prisoner. AprU 18. Execution of Tantia Topee at Seepree. A public thanksgiving is held for the suppression of the mu- tiny. July 1. The soldiers in the army of the Company are allowed either to retire from the service or to re-enlist in the queen's service, with a tresh bounty. About 10,000 men quit the service. 1860. Nov. 13. Execution of William Johnson, of the 5th European regiment, for mutiny. 1861. Jan. Large subscriptions are raised in England to relieve a famine in the north-west of India. April 8. The Scinde railway is opened as far as Kotree. LIST OF HINDOO DYNASTIES. B.C. A.U. House of Ghazni . . 977 I The Seiad suprem- House of Ghor .... 118 acy 1414 A.D. I House of Lodi .... 1450 Slave kings 1206 1 Houseof Teim\ir (or House of Khilii.... 1288 Mogul dynasty) 1526 House of Toghlak 1321 j MOGUL EMPEEOES OP INDIA. Baber 1.526 I 'Shir Shah 1540 Humayun 1531 | Selim Shah Sur 1545 2 F IKD Mohammed Shah Sur AdiU 1553 Htimayuii (again) 1555 Akbar 1556 Jehaugir 1605 Shah Jehan 1627 Aurungzebe 165S Bahadur Shah .... 1707 Jehandar Shah .... 1712 Ferokhir 1713 Mohammed Shah.. 1719 Ahmed Shah 1748 Alamgir 1754 Shah Jehan ...... 1756 Shah Allnm 1761 A.D. 1772. 1785. 1786. 1793. 1798. 1798. 1805. 1805. 1807. 1813. 1823. 1823. 1828. 1842. 1844 1844. GOVEBNOES-GEH-EEAIi OP INDIA. April 13. Warren Hastings. Feb. 1. Sir John Macpherson. Sept. 12. Marquis of CornwaUis. Oct. 28. Sir John Shore. April 6. Sir Alured Clarke. May 17. Marquis of WeUesley. July 30. Marquis Com-waUis (again). Oct. 10. Su- George Hilaa-o Barlow. July 31. Lord Minto. Oct. 4. Marquis of Hastings. Jan. 13. Hon. John Adam. Aug. 1. Lord Amherst. March 13. Hon. Wniiam Butterworth Bayley. July 4. Lord Bentinck. March 20. Sir C. T. (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe March 4. Lord Auckland. Feb. 28. Lord Ellenborough. June 15. WiHiam Wnberforce Bird. July 23. Sir Henry (afterwards Viscount) Hardinge. 1848. Jan. 12. Earl of Dalhousie. 18.55. Aug. 2. Viscount Canning. 1862. Jan. Lord Elgin. Indiana (United States), separated in 1809 from Illinois, with which, from 1800, it formed a territorial government, and was admitted into the Union as an independent state in December, 1816. Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana, was founded in 1821. Indian Council. — This council for the government of India, erected by 21 & 22 Yict. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858), to supersede the Board of Control, consists of fifteen members, eight of whom are appointed by the Queen, and seven by the directors of the East-India Company. They receive an annual salary of £1,200, retain their office during good behaviour, and are not permitted to sit in parhament. The fljst meeting of this coimcil was held in 1858. India-etjbbee, or Caoittchoitc, was first brought to Europe by M. de la Condamine, A.D. 1733. An account of the substance, as used by the natives of South America, was presented by him to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1736. A further report was given in 1761, by Messrs. Herissent and Maequer, to the French government, and by its order M. Grossart made several successful expe- riments, the results of which were pubhshed in 1768. The first allusion to the subject in English literature is by Joseph Priestley, in a work printed in 1770, in which India-rubber is recommended as good for "wiping from paper the marks of a black-lead pencil." The substance came into more general notice some ten years after, when it was sold in the shape of bottles, at the rate of about a guinea the ounce. Macintosh succeeded in dissolviag India-rubber, and applying it to waterproof clothing. The first patent ob- tained by him for these celebrated " Macin- 434 IND toshes" bears date 1823. Barnard took out a patent for caoutchoucine in 1833. The sulphm'ation of caoutchouc, a valuable inven- tion, is due to G-oodyear, who took out a patent for the same in 1839. Indiction. — This term was originally ap- plied to a tribute of com exacted by the Eomans every fifteen years ; but it was after- wards used to denote the period at which the payments were made. The institution of indictions dates at the earhest from the time of Constantine I., a.d. 312; but the first instance of their use is mentioned in the Theodosian code, under the reign of Constantius, who died in 361. The papal court adopted computation by indictions about 800, the comm encement of the first indiction being referred to Jan. 1, 313. Indigo.— Beckmann is strongly inchned to beheve that what Dioscorides calls indicon, and Pliny and Vitruvius indicum, is our in- digo. Muratori speaks of a treaty in Latin, A.D. 1193, between the people of Bologna and Ferrara, in which indicum is mentioned as an article on which duty must be paid. Marco Polo met with it in Asia, a.d. 1285, and pubhshed a description of the plant and its uses after his return to Europe in 1298. An act was passed ia the reign of EMzabeth, authorizing searchers to burn indigo in all dye-houses and other places where it could be discovered. This act remained in force till the time of Charles II. Indigo was so httle known on the continent that some proprietors of mines in the Hartz mountains obtained authority in 1705 to dig for the article in the hills near Halbertstadt. Its use was prohibited in Languedoc in 1598. The cultivation of indigo commenced in Carolina in 1747. I N D o E E ( Hindostan ) . — Mulhar Eao Holkar obtained a grant of the territory of Indore a.d. 1733. The town of Indore was founded by Aha Baee, a.d. 1767. A great battle was fought here Oct. 14, 1801, when Holkar was defeated by Scindia, a powerful Mahratta chieftain, who destroyed Indore, Murray captured the town, which had been restored, Aug. 24, 1804. By the treaty of Mundesore, Jan. 18, 1818, the British ex- tended their protection to Holkar, the ruler of Indore. Indulgence. — According to Bingham, anciently an indulgence was no more than the power which every bishop had of mode- rating the canonical punishments which, in course of penance, were inflicted upon sin- ners, and not any pretended power of dehver- ing souls from the pains of purgatory, by virtue of a stock of merits, or works of supererogation, of which the Pope is become the sole dispenser. Valentinian coromenced the practice of granting, on Easter Sunday, a genera] release to all except the worst criminals, a.d. 367. This act of grace was continued by the emperors, and called their indulgence. The papal system of indulgences originated with Pope Gregory VII. in 1077, and they were granted by the council of Clermont to the Crusaders Nov. 18—28, 1095. IND The)' were sold publicly in all parts of Europe on the occasion of the jubilee in 1300. The doctrine of indulgences was made an article of faith by Clement VII. in 1343. Indulgences were farmed out for fifteen years to Tetzel in 1502. The Tax-book of Indulgences was published at Rome in 1514. Luther denounced the traffic Oct. 31, 1517. The council of Trent framed a new law of indulgences, Jan. 13, 1546. Industrial Schools.— The first attempt to ititroduce these institutions into this country was made at Norwood by Mr. Aubin, A.D. 1836. The Industrial Schools Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 48, for the care and education of poor children, was passed Aug. 17, 1857. INFANTICIDE. — This practice was per- mitted in ancient Greece and Rome, but was checked by the progress of Christianity. It prevailed to a frightful extent in India and the Pacific archipelagos ; but it is be- coming extinct, owing to the benign influence of Christianity. In 315 Constantine I. took a forcible step for its suppression, by pro- viding for the maintenance of children whose parents were too poor to support them; but it was not treated as murder till the reign of Valentinian (364—375). By 21 James I. c. 27 (1623), the concealment of the death of an illegitimate child was made legal proof that it had been murdered. This law was repealed by 43 Geo. III. c, 58 (June 24, 1803). Inpan-tet. — The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Persians, amongst ancient nations, de- voted considerable attention to the formation of their infantry. Cyrus (b.c. 559 — 529) clothed his foot-soldiers in armour. The Greek phalanx and the Roman legion first came into collision at the battle of Heracleia, B.C. 280. On the decline of the Roman em- pire, the barbarians relied principally upon their infantry. The Franks borrowed the square, employed with such success at the battle of Tours, a.d. 732, from the Romans. The Anglo-Saxon forces were composed chiefly of infantry. During the Middle Ages, infantry was tsut little used. Louis VI. (a.d. 1108—1137) formed the communal militia in France, and his example was followed by Frederick I. (1152—1190) of Germany, and Henry II. (1154^1189) of England. This led to the gradual re-esta- bhshment of infantry as the chief arm in war. The battle of Bovines, July 27, 1214, was the first entirely decided by modern in- fantry, and led to the estabhshment of this force in aU the states of Europe. Infantry was for some time composed of irregular bands ; and Charles VII. of France was the first to organize a standing army, in 1444. Francis I. increased this army to the num- ber of 12,000. The battles of Biberach, Oct. 2, 1796, and of Caldiero, Oct. 29 and 30, 1806, were fought solely by infantry. Infant-Schools.— The first establishment of this kind was opened by James Buchanan at New Lanark, a.d. 1815, Mr. Robert Owen providing the means for the imdertaking. 435 IXG Mr. (afterwards Lord) Brougham and Lord Lansdowne introduced them at London in 1819, and the success achieved by Mr. Wilderspin in their management, led to their general adoption throughout the kingdom. The Home and Colonial Infant- School Society was founded in 1836. Infernal Machine, an apparatus filled with gunpowder or other explosive materials for the destruction of human life and pro- perty. The Itahan engineer Federico GianibeUi was the first to employ these engines, which he did at the siege of Antwerp by the Spaniards, 1585. In modern times, infernal machines have been repeatedly em- ployed, especially in France, for the purpose of assassination. The most celebrated in- stances of this kind are, the attack upon Na- poleon Bonaparte, Dec. 24, 1800; that upon Louis-Philippe, July 28, 1835 ; and one upon Napoleon III. and his empress, Jan. 14, 1858. The Russians employed infernal machines against the British fleet in the Baltic in 1854 and 1855. Infirmaries. — These institutions were unknown before the Christian sera. Julian, observing the charitable institutions of the Christians, founded similar estabUshments for the sick poor, which were called Xenodochia. The clergy were the first to estabhsh houses for the reception of the sick. Fabiola, a Roman lady, a friend of St. Jerome, established one at Rome in the 5th century. (See Hospitals.) Influenza, an epidemic catarrh, which first appeared in Europe a.d. 1510. Visi- tations occurred in 1557 and 1580. It raged with great severity in England, and especially in London, in 1729, 1803, 1831, 1833, 1836, and 1847. It broke out in Cape-Town, Africa, in 1836. Informers. — The custom of paying a portion of a fine imposed for an offence, to the person by whom the offender has been exposed, has created the business of common informers. They were very numerous in Greece and Rome, and much discouraged by Titus (a.d. 79—81) and Trajan (98— 117). By 18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576) and 27 EHz. c. 10 (1584), informers were compelled to appear in person, and if they withdrew the action, were condemned to pay the costs. For compounding without permission of the court, they were to stand in the pillory two hours, pay a fine of £10, and be in- capacitated from suing in future. By 31 Eliz. c. 5 (1589), no prosecution can take place on information, in cases where the penalty is divided between the informer and the crown, when a year has elapsed since the commission of the offence. An act to prevent malicious informations in the court of King's Bench was passed in 1692 (4 & 5 Will. & Mary, c. 18). Infralapsarians. (See Calvinism.) Ingoldstadt (Bavaria). — This strongly- fortified town has been frequently besieged. By the 13th secret article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the emperor agreed to surrender Ingoldstadt and other 2 F 3 ING German fortresses. The Tmiversity, -where the celebrated Dr. Faustus studied, was founded in 1472, and in 1800 was transferred to Landshut. Ingoue (Battle). — Omer Pasha, at the head of a Turkish army, passed this river, in Asia Minor, 'Noy. 6, 1855, and assailed a j strong Eussian force. The latter was de- | feated with the loss of 1,250 in killed and wounded. The Turks lost about 400 men. Iif GEiA (European Eussia) . — This province was invaded by the Poles a.d. 1579, and bv the Swedes a.d. 1609. Peter the Great invaded it in 1703, and it was ceded by Sweden to Eussia at the peace of N'ystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. Ink. — The ink used by the ancients was of a viscid nature, being chiefly composed of ivory-black and gum. A varnish of wax was also employed, especially in the 9th century a.d. The Anglo-Saxon black inks of the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries are remarkable for their excellence. Gold and silver inks were sometimes employed, and red ink is very common for capital letters, &c., though no MS. is entirely written with it. Indian ink was first made in China about A.D. 800, and was first perfumed abovit 1100. Sympathetic inks were known to the ancients, and a method of secret correspondence is mentioned by Ovid in the Art of Love, B.C. 2. Inks of this character were invented by Peter Borel in 1653, Le Mort in 1684, and Waitz in 1705. The French Academy of Sciences appointed a commission for the discovery ofanindehble ink, which pubhshed two receipts for the purpose. May 30, 1831. Inkermann (Battle). — During the Cri- mean war, the Eussians, nearly 50,000 strong, assailed the weakest part of the English position facing the harbour of Balaclava and the caverns of Inkermann, ISTov. 5, 1854. For six hours, 8,000 British troops encoun- tered at various points, and resisted, the as- sault of this overwhelming force. The French came to the support of the English, and the Eussians were driven back with great slaughter. The Enghsh loss amounted to 3,000, and that of the French to 1,726 men. The Eussians lost about 12,000 in killed and woTmded. Inland Eevenue. (See Excise.) Inns were established in Egypt b.c. 1707. Herodotus ascribes the introduction of inns to the Lydians. They existed among the Eomans, who frequently used the chequers as a sign. The city of Herculaneum is said to have contained 900 pubHc-houses. Tibe- rius (a.d. 14 — 37) prohibited innkeepers from selling any baker's goods, and Nero (54—68) restricted them to the sale of boiled vegetables. By 27 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 3 (1353) , commissioners were appointed to inquire into impositions by innkeepers, and by 11 Hen. IV. e. 2 (1409), innkeepers were pro- hibited from being officers in the customs. The latter act was enforced by 20 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1442). Inns of Couet and Chanceet. — Accor- ding to Pearse (Inns of Court and Chancery, 436 INQ p. 51), "the inns of court are voluntary societies, for ages submitting to government analogous to that of other seminaries of learning." They are four in number; viz., the Inner and Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn, and they have apper- taining to them the nine inns of Chancery ; viz., Clement's Inn, Clifford's Inn, Lyon's Inn, New Inn, Fumival's Inn, Thavies' Inn, Symond's Inn, Barnard's Inn, and Staple's Inn iq^v.). Innspetjck, or Innsbetjck (Austria), the capital of the Tyrol, a very ancient city, was taken by Maurice of Saxony in 1552, by the Bavarians in 1703 ; but they were driven out in a few days, and the French took it in 1805, and ceded it to Bavaria. The French and Bavarians were expelled April 15, 1809. They regained possession May 19, 1809, and were expelled, after a desperate battle around the city. May 29. Innsprtick once more fell into the hands of the French and Bavarians in July, 1809, but was rescued Aug. 12, 1809. The emperor Leopold I. founded a university at Innspi-iick a.d. 1672, and the palace was erected by Maria Theresa in 1770. Inoculation for smaU-pox was introduced into England from Turkey, about a.d. 1721, by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. It was tried as an experiment on seven condemned criminals, who submitted to the operation on condition that their fives should be spared if they survived. The royal family were inoculated in 1726, and the practice was afterwards generally adopted. On the ! discovery of vaccination {q.v.),it was aban- t doned, and was finaUy prohibited by 3 & 4 1 Vict. c. 29, s. 8 (July 23, 1840). I Inquisition. — This ecclesiastical tribunal dates from the mission of Pierre de Castelnau against the Albigenses a.d. 1204. In 1215 I St. Dominic was appointed the first inqui- j sitor-general by the fourth Lateran council, • and in 1233 the so-caUed Holy Office received a definite constitution from Pope Gregory IX. Sicily received the Inquisition in 1224, Aragon in 1233, Venice in 1249, France iu 1255, and Castile and Leon in 1290. The modern I Inquisition was formed in Castile by a bull dated Nov. 1, 1478. The tribunal was erected in September, 1480, and commenced its operations at Seville, under the inqui- sitor-general Torquemada, Jan. 2, 1481. It was firmly estabhshed in Spain by two bulls of Sixtus IV., Aug. 2 and Oct. 17, 1483. i In 154-dustriai, Exhi- BrriON.) July 3. The magistrates disperse a great Tenant-right meeting at Warring- ton. July 14. Religious riots occur at Belfast. July 22. The Six-mile Bridge affair. {See Six-mile Bmdge.) Sept. 10. A meeting for the establishment of religious equality in Ireland is held at Dublin, by Irish members of parliament. 1853. June 9. The convict Mitchell escapes from Van Diemen's Land. June 28. The income- tax is extended to Ireland by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 34. Aug. 29. The Queen visits Ireland. Oct. 4. The Tenant-right League holds a conference at Dublin. Nov. 2. Serions floods occur in the south of Ireland. Ex- tensive emigi-ation from D-eland takes place this year. 1854. Feb. 26. Smith O'Brien receives a pardon, but is not permitted to return to the United Kingdom. Sept. 15. A railway train, in which a party of Orangemen is travelling from Londonderry to Euniskillen, is thrown off the line by obstructions placed there for the purpose : fortunately but few casu- alties are occasioned. 185.5. Numerous murders occur this year. 1856. May 3. Smith O'Brien receives a full pardon. July 7. Mutiny of the Tipperary militia. 1857. Sept. Religious riots again occur at Belfast. 1858. Aug. 8. Riots in Ealkenny, against the use of machine labour in agriculture. Sept. Destructive inundations occui- in many parts of Ireland. Dec. 12. Several an-ests of persons suspected of being members of the Phosnix Society take place at Belfast. Numerous assassinations and outrages occur this year. 1859. March 7. Baron Poerio and other Neapolitan refugees arrive in Ireland. March 29. Religious riots in Galway. Sept. Religious revivals are common in the north of Ireland. 1861. April 8. The census is taken, and the popu- lation returned at 5,764,543 persons. Aug. 22 to 29. The Queen and Prince Albert visit Ireland. liOEDS-LIETTTENANT. During the earKer periods of its subjee- tion to English rule, Ireland was governed by officers of various titles, and most fre- quently by a lord chief justice. The fol- lowing is a Kst of the lords-Meutenant : — 1185. Sept. John de Coui-cy, earl of Ulster. 1252. Eaward, prince of Wales, afterwards Ed- ward I. 1308. Jime 16. Pierce de Gaveston, earl of Corn- wall. 1329. March 1. James Botiller, earl of Ormond. 1331. June 3. Sir Anthony Lacy. 1361. July 1. Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1369. June 20. Sir William de Windsor. 1380. Jan. 24. Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 1382. Jan. 24. Roger Mortimer, earl of March. 1383. Phmp de Courtney. 1384. Dec. Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford (never went to Ireland). 1389. Aug. 1. Sir John Stanley. 441 lEE 1393. July. Thomas, duke of Gloucester (never went to Ireland). 1395. July 4. Eoger Mortimer, earl of March. 1398. Oct. 7. Thomas Holland, duke of Surrey. 1399. Dec. 10. Sii- John Stanley. 1401. Nov. 13. Thomas, duke of Lancaster. 1413. Sept. 25. Sir John Stanley. 1414 Nov. 10. Sir John Talbot. 1420. Feb. 10. James Butler, earl of Ormond. 1423. May 9. Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 1427. Aug. 1. Sii- John de Grey. 1429. Jan. Sir- John Sutton, Lord Dudley. 1432. Sir- Thomas Stanley. 1438. Lionel, Lord Wells (never went to Ireland). 1443. James Butler, earl of Shrews Otut- 1446. John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. 1449. July 5. flichard Phintagenet, duke of York. 1453. May 1. James Butler, earl of Ormond. 1459. Richard, duke of York (again). 1462. Feb. 28. George, duke of Clarence. 1478. Prince George, son of Edward IV. 1478. May 5. Eichard, duke of York. 1483. Prince Edward. 1484. John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485. Jasper of Hatfield, earl of Pembroke and duke of Bedford. 1494. Sept. 11. Henry, duke of York, afterwards Henry VIII. 1496. Aug. 6. Gerald, earl of Kildare. 1498. Prince Henry (again). 1520. Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 1529. June 22. Henry Fitzi-oy, duke of Richmond. 1560. May 6. Thomas, earl of Sussex. 1599. March 12. Robert Devereujc, earl of Essex. 1603. April 25. Sir Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy. 1640. Jan. 13. Thomas Wentworth, earl of Straflbrd. 1641. May 12. Robert Sidney, earl of Leicester. 1643. Nov. 17. James Butler, marquis of Ormond. 1647. April 15. Philip Sidney, Lord Lisle. 1648. Sept. 27. James, marquis of Ormond (again). 1649. Aug. 14. Oliver Cromwell. 1658. Oct. 6. Henry Cromwell. 1660. June. George Monk, duke of Albemarle. 1662. Feb. 21. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1669. May 3. John Roberts, baron of Truro. 1670. Feb. 4. John, Lord Berkeley. 1672. May 21. Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677. May 24. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1685. Oct. 1. Henry Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 1686. Feb. 11. Richai-d Talbot, earl of Tyrconuel. 1690. Sept. 4. Henry, Lord Sydney. 169.5. May 3. Henry, Lord Capel. 1700. Dec. 28. Lawrence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703. Feb. 19. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707. April 30. Thomas Herbert, earl of Pembroke. 1708. Dec. 4. Thomas, Earl Wharton. 1710. Oct. 26. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1713. Sept. 22. Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury. 1714. Sept. 21. Charles Spencer, earl of Sunderland (never went to Ireland). 1717. Feb. 13. Charles, Viscount Townshend (never went to Ireland). 1717. AprU 27. Charles, duke of Bolton. 1720. June 18. Charles Fitzroy, duke of Grafton. 1724. May 6. John, Lord Cartaret. 1730. June 23. Lionel Cranfield Sackville, duke of Dorset. 1737. April 9. William Cavendish, duke of Devon- shii'e. 1745. Jan. 3. Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of Chesterfield. 1747. Sept. 13. William, earl of Harrington. 1750. Dec. 15. Lionel Cranfield SackviUe, daike of Dorset. 1755. April 2. William, Lord Cavendish. 1757, Jan. 3. John Russell, duke of Bedford. 1761. April 3. George Dunk, earl of Halifax. 1763. April 27. Sir Hugh Smithson Percy, after- wards earl of Northumberland. 1765. Jime 5. Thomas, Viscount Weymouth (never went to Ireland). 1765. Aug. 7. Francis Seymom-, earl of Hertford. 1766. Oct. 6. George WiUiam Harvey, earl of Bristol (never went to Ireland). 1767. Aug. 19. George, Lord Viscount Townshend. 442 lEO AJ). 1772. Oct. 30. Simon, Earl Harcourt. 1777. Jan. 25. John Hobart, earl of Buckingham. 1780. Dec. 23. Frederick Howard, earl of Carlisle. 1782. AprU 14. William Henry Cavendish Bentinck, duke of Portland. 1782. Sept. 15. George, Earl Temple. 1783. June 3. Robert Harley, earl of Northington. 1784. June 3. Charles Mamiers, duke of Rutland. 1787. Dec. 16. George, marquis of Buckingham^ late Earl Temple (again). 1790. Jan. 5. John Fane, earl of Westmoreland. 1795. Jan. 4 WUliam, Earl Fitzwilliam. 1795. March 3. John Jeflries Pratt, Earl Camden. 1798. June 20. Charles, Marquis ComwaUis. 1801. May 25. Philip Yorke, earl of Hardwicke. 1806. March 28. John Bussell, duke of Bedford. 1807. AprU 19. Charles Lenox, duke of Richmond. 1813. Aug. 26. Earl Whitworth. 1817. Oct. 9. Earl Talbot. 1821. Dec. 19. Marquis WeUesley. 1828. March 1. Marquis of Anglesea. 1829. March 6. Duke of Northumberland. 1830. Dec. 23. Marquis of Anglesea (agaui). 1833. Sept. 26. Marquis WeUesley (again). 1834. Dec. 29. Earl of Haddington. ' 1835. April 23. Marquis of Normanby. 1839. AprU 3. Earl Fortescue. 1841. Sept. 15. Earl de Grey. 1844 July 26. Baron Heytesbury. 1846. July 11. Earl of Bessborough. 1847. May 26. Earl of Clarendon. 1852. Feb. 27. Earl of Eglinton. 1853. Jan. 4. Earl of St. Gennans. 1855. Feb. 28. Earl of Carlisle. 1858. March 12. Earl of EgUnton (again). 1859. June 18. Earl of Carlisle (again). Ieidittm:.— This metal was discovered by Mr. Smitlison Tennant, a.d. 1803. lEOif. — Tubal Cain is spoken of as the "instructor of every artificer in brass or iron," B.C. 3204 (Gen. iv. 22). The manu- facture of the metal was practised by the Egyptians about B.C. 1706, and the ore was discovered on Mount Ida, by the Dactyli, about B.C. 1406. The Komans were ac- quainted with iron at an early date, and derived large quantities from Elba and Spain. Its manufacture was encouraged by them iu Britain, where iron-mines were ia operation B.C. 54. Bath became the great centre of the British manufacture about A.D. 120. The exportation of iron was prohibited by 28 Edw. III. c. 5 (1354), and the importation of manufactured iron goods which could be made at home waa restricted by 1 Eich. III. c. 12 (1483) . In consequence of the destruction of forests to obtain fuel for the manufacture, the erec- tion of iron-works was restricted by 23 Eliz. c. 5 (1581) . Lord Dudley obtained a patent for carrying on the manufacture with coal instead of wood in 1619 ; but owing to the opposition of other iron-masters, and the indifference of the government, he was unable to bring his invention to perfec- tion, and at his death it was forgotten. It was revived and successfully introduced at Colebrook Dale by Darby in 1713. Cort's patent for rolling iron was dated Jan. 17, 1783, and for puddling, Eeb. 13, 1784. The hot-blast was discovered by NeUson in 1827. Bessemer's process for convert- ing crude iron into manufactured iron and steel without fuel, created great sensation in 1856, but did not fulfil the expectations lEO of its inventor. The following table exhibits the total produce of the various English iron- mines in 1858 : — South Staflfordshire and Worcestershire . . 597,809 Durham 265,184 Yorkshire (North Ridiiig) 189,320 North Staffordshii-e 135,308 Derbyshire 131.577 Shropshire 101,016 Yorkshire (West Riding) 85,936 Northumberland 45,312 Cumberland 26,264 Gloucestershii-e 23,530 Northamptonshire 9,750 Lancashire 2,840 Wiltshire and Somerset 2,040 Scotland 925,500 South Wales 886,478 North Wales 28,150 3,456,014 Ikon Cage. — Louis XI. vras betrayed at Peronne, Oct. 10, 1468, by the Cardinal de la Balue, whom he had raised from a low condition, to Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and was compelled to sign an ignominious treaty, Oct. 14. On discovering his treachery, in 1469, Louis XI. coniined him for ten years in an iron cage eight feet square, in the Chateau d'Ouzain, near Blois. This piin- ishment was at that time common in Spain and Italy. For Bajazet'a confinement in a similar manner, see Angoea. iKOif Ceown of Lombaedy consisted of a band of gold, set with jewels and a thin circle of iron, which was said to have been made from a nail of the Holy Cross, given by Pope Gregory I. ; was first used in the coronation of Agilulph, king of the Lom- bards, A.D. 591, and afterwards in the coro- nation of Charlemagne in 774. It was used at the coronation of thirty-four sovereigns. Napoleon I. was crowned at Milan with this crown. May 26, 1805, when he instituted the order of the Iron Crown. It ceased in 1814, but was renewed by the emperor Francis of Austria, Feb. 12, 1816. Ieon- Mask, (the Man with the,) was a mysterious state prisoner in France, who always wore a black velvet mask, which completely concealed his face. He was at first coimned at Pignerol in 1662 or 1666 ; he was removed to Exelles in 1681 ; to the island of St. Marguerite in 1687 ; and finally, in 1698, to the Bastille, where he died Nov. 19, 1703. He was everywhere attended by M. de St. Mars ; and although the slight- est attempt on his part to reveal his real name would have met with instant death, he was uniformly treated with the greatest courtesy and indulgence. Various attempts have been made to ascertain the identity of the man with the iron mask, but without success. Some afifirm that ,he was the duke of Vernandois, a natural brother of the dauphin. Voltaire pubhshed an aceoimt of him in 1751. In 1759 it was announced that he was the dulce of Beaufort ; and in 1768 St. Foix suggested that he was the duke of Monmouth, who had been executed in ISA England. In 1770 he was identified with Count Mathioli, secretary to the duke of Mantua ; and shortly afterwards he was reported to be an illegitimate son of Anne of Austria by Cardinal Mazarin or the duke of Buckingham. The last theory on the subject appeared in 1837, and suggested that he was the statesman Foucquet, whose death was beheved to have occurred just before the mysterious prisoner arrived at Pignerol. He has also been considered as a twin brother of Louis XIV. Ieonmongers' Company. — This, the tenth of the twelve chief companies of London, was incorporated by Edward IV. a.d. 1463. The hall was erected from the designs of Thomas Holden in 1748. Ieok Ships.— In 1833 and 1834 two iron steamers were built by Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, for passenger traffic on the Humber ; and in 1836 iron-shipbuilding yards were opened at Millwall, on the Thames. In 1837 the General Steam Navigation Com- pany started the Hainbow, an iron vessel built by Mr. Laird, of Deptford, and the material has since been adopted in the construction of ships, and generally steam Ieeigation. — Brande states, " It is as old as human civilization, and some of the first machines which we read of in history are those for raising water from the Nile for irrigating the lands on its banks." So celebrated was Egypt for its fertility, that Abraham during a famine went there to procure corn, B.C. 1920 (Gen. xii. 10). The Spaniards were surprised at the canals and subterraneous aqueducts on a large scale which they found in Peru when they con- quered it in the 17th century. {See Canals, &c.) Iextk (Battle). — The British Auxihary Legion defeated the Carhst forces at this town, in Spain, May 17, 1837. Irun was captured and pillaged. Ievingites. — This sect was founded by the Kev. Edward Irving, who was born A.D. 1792, and joined the Scotch church in 1819. In 1821 he removed to London, and created a great sensation by his preaching at Cross Street, Hatton Garden ; and in 1825 he pubhshed " Babylon Foredoomed," and appeared as the founder of a new theological school. The first utterances of the "unknown tongue" in London were heard in 1830 ; and in 1833 Mr. Irving was expelled from the Scottish church for he- resy. He immediately established a church in Newman Street, and died Dec. 8, 1834. In 1835 the sect numbered seven congrega- tions in London ; and in 1838 the apostles, as certain of the new hierarchy were called, visited the continent vrith a view of diffus- ing their doctrines. The Hturgy of the sect was framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1847 ; and in 1852 Ughted candles and incense were prescribed as essential parts of the ritual. The church in Gordon Square was erected in 1853. Isabella (Hayti) .—Christopher Columbus ISA founded tMs city, named after the queen of Spain, A.D. 1493. It was abandoned when St. Domingo rose to importance. Isabella, St. (Order of). — This order of knighthood was founded by Ferdinand Vll. of Spain, March 24, 1815, and put xmder the patronage of St. Isabella of Portugal. IsAUEiA (Asia Minor) . — This country was invaded by the Eomans b.c. 78, and reduced to submission. The inhabitants afforded an asylum to the emperor Zeno during his exile from Constantinople, a.d. 475, and rebelled against Anastasius I. ia 493. Isauria was conquered by the Saracens in 650, but it was recovered by Leo III., the Iconoclast, who foimded the Isaurian dynasty of eastern em- perors, which lasted from 717 to 797. IscHiA (Mediterranean Sea) . — This island, which belongs to Naples, was colonized at a very early period by Eretrian and Chalcidian settlers, and by the SyracusansB.c. 474; but it was deserted in consequence of a violent eruption of Mount Epopeus, B.C. 470. Ischia was seized by the Saracens a.d. 813 and 847. It was sacked by the troops of Pisa in 1135, became the seat of a bishopric before 1179, and was taken by the emperor Heury VI. in 1191. The last volcanic eruption took place in 1302. In 1495 Ferdinand II. sought refuge here from his rival Charles YIII. ; and, in 1544, the island was plundered by the pirate Barbarossa. The duke of Guise seized it in 1647 ; and it was taken by the Enghsh and Si- cilians in 1807. Ischia suffered severely from an earthquake Feb. 2, 1828. IsEENiA (Battle). — The Neapolitan forces were defeated by the Sardinians under Cial- dini, at this place, the ancient ^sernia, in South Italy, Oct. 17, 1860. Isle op Maw (Irish Channel) was governed by a succession of Norwegian kings, a.d. 1092 till A.D. 1264, and was invaded by Alexander III., king of Scotland, in 1266, and the con- quest by the Scots was completed in 1270. They ruled it until 1290, when the inhabitants claimed the protection of Edward I., who immediately took possession. It was reco- vered by the Scots, under Eobert Bruce, in 1332, and reconquered by the earl of Shaftes- bury in 1340. Henry lY . granted it to Sir John Stanley in 1403. James I. bestowed it upon WOham, sixth earl of Derby, in 1610. It fell, iu 1736, by inheritance, to James, second duke of Athol, who sold it for £70,000 to the British government, in 1765. A further sum of £133,000 was paid to the Athol family in dis- charge of revenue, in January, 1829. Isle of Palms (Pacific Ocean). — This island, situated in Choco Bay, was discovered by Pizarro a.d. 1527. Isle oe Pines (Pacific Ocean). — The French took possession of this small island A.D. 1853. Isles, (See of the,) which comprised the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, was erected a.d. 360, Amphibalus being the first bishop. lona {q. v.) was the seat of the bishopric, and the priests formed an important section of the church of the Culdees (q. v.)' This see, with the other Scotch bishoprics, was sup- 444 ISE pressed on the abolition of prelacy in Scot- land, July 19, 1689. Argyle and the isles were united into a distinct post-revolution bishopric in September, 1847. Islington (London). — This large parish is mentioned in Domesday -book as the vil- lage of Isendone. It was the scene of the arrest of Henry VI. by the earl of Warvrick A.D. 1465, and was frequently visited by Henry VIII., who pubhshed a proclamation for the preservation of the game here, July 8, 1545. Queen Elizabeth also frequently visited the village. In 1666 its fields afforded shelter to about 200,000 persons, who were rendered houseless by the Great Fire. The first stone of St. Mary's Church was laid Aug. 28, 1751, and that of the New Independent College at Highbury, June 28, 1825. The Ishngton Literary and Scientific Society was esta- bhshed in February, 1833, and the building founded April 10, 1837. The new cattle- market was opened Jan. 9, 1849. The fii'st stone of the new buildings was laid March, 1854, and they were opened June 13, 1855. IsLT (Battle) .—The French defeated the army of the emperor of Morocco at My, Aug. 14, 1844. Ismail (Moldavia). — This strongly-forti- fied town was taken by the Eussians Aug. 6, 1770; Suwarrow stormed it Dec. 22, 1790, when a barbarous massacre of the inhabitants was perpetrated ; and it was again taken by the Eussians Sept. 26, 1809. It was finally ceded to Eussia at the peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. It was ceded to Moldavia by the 20th and 21st articles of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. The Eussians blew up the fortifications before retiring. Ispahan, or Isfahan (Persia), formerly the capital, was taken by Timour a.d. 1387. The Turks captured it in 1547. Shah Abbas made it the capital of Persia in 1590. The Affghans seized it in 1722 ; it was retaken by Nadir Shah in 1727, and ceased to be the residence of the kings of Persia in 1794. Ispahan was devastated by an earthquake July 11, 1853. IsEAEL. — On the revolt of the ten tribes (1 Kings xii. 1 — 19), B.C. 975, the Jevrish territory was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The kingdom of Israel lasted from b.c. 975 imtil the captivity of the ten tribes, B.C. 721. Some authorities assign the revolt of the ten tribes to B.C. 990. {See Jews and Judah.) 974. Jeroboam I. sets \ip golden calves at Dan and Bethel (1 Kings xii. 28, 29). 956. Ahijah denounces Jeroboam (1 Kings xiv. 7, &c.). 953. Nadab is slain (1 Kings xv. 27). 940. The king of Syria invades Israel (2 Chron. xvi. 4). 929. Confusion prevails in Israel (1 Kings xvi. 9-20). 918. Jericho is rebuilt (1 Kings xvL 34). 910. Elijah destroys the priests of Baal (1 Kings xviii. 40). 901. Miraculous defeat of the Sviians (1 Kings xx.). 895. Elijah is translated (2 Kings ii. 11). 894 EUsha heals Naaman (2 Kings v. 14). 893. Elisha performs various miracles. ISS 892. The king of Syria besieges Samaria (2 Kings vi. 24). 891. Elisha restores the Shunamite's son (2 Kings iv. 32—35). 885. Hazael kills the king of Syria (2 Kings viii.lS). 862. Jonah goes to Nineveh {Jonah i. 2 ; ii. 2 — 4). 849. Israel is oppressed by the king of Syria {2 Kings xiii. 3). 842. Israel is delivered from the Syrian oppression (2 Kings xiii. 5). 838. Death of Elisha. Moabite invasion. 822. Jeroboam TI. restores th9 coasts of Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). 793. Amos denounces the wickedness of Israel and other nations. 784. Death of Jeroboam IT., followed by an inter- regnum of eleven years' duration. 771. Pul, king of Assyiia, assails Israel (2 Kings XV. 19). 740. Tiglath-Pileser carries off several Israelitish tribes into captivity (2 Kings xv. 29). 725. The captivity of the ten tribes is predicted. 723. Samaria is besieged by Salmaneser (2 Kings xviii. 9). 721. The ten tribes are carried into captivity in Assyria (2 Kings xvil- 6). KINGS OP ISEAEIi. Authorized Version of Clinton. "Winer. Bng. Bible. B.C. B.C. B.C. Jeroboam I. ... 975 976 975 Nadab 954 953 955 954 954 Baasha 9.53 Elah 930 929 929 918 930 930 930 919 Zimri 928 Ahab 918 Ahaziah 898 896 897 Jehoram 896 Jehu 884 856 855 884 Jehoahaz 856 Jehoash 841 840 Jeroboam II 825 823 825 1st Interregnum Zachariah 773 771 772 Shallum 772 770 771 Menahem 772 770 771 Pekahiah 761 759 760 Pekah 759 757 758 2nd Interregnum Hoshea 730 730 729 Samaria taken .. 721 721 721 Issus (Battles). — Alexander the Great defeated the Persians, led by Darius, near this city, in CQicia, in October, b.c. 333. Arrian states that 110,000 Persians fell in this battle. The emperor Severus defeated Niger at the same place a.d. 194. Hera- chus pitched his camp on this spot a.d. 622. IsTALiF (Affghanistan) . — This town was captured and destroyed by an EngUsh army Sept. 29, 1842. Isthmian- Games are said to have been instituted by Sisyphus, brother of Athamas, king of Corinth, B.C. 1326, and re-organized by Theseus, b.c. 1234. They were held regularly every third year from b.c. 584, and in the Isthmian solemnities, B.C. 228, the Komans were privileged to take a part. They were discontinued after the destruction of Corinth by Lucius Mummius, B.C. 146, and were re- established by Julius Caesar B.C. 60. They ITA finally ceased after the sack of Corinth by Alaric, king of the Goths, a.d. 396. IsTEiA, or HiSTEiA.— The inhabitants of this Adriatic peninsula are referred to by Livy as having been engaged in piracy, b.c. 301. Their territory was invaded without success by the consul M. Claudius MarceUus, B.C. 183 ; but it was reduced to subjection by C. Claudius, b.c. 177. Istria subsequently passed under the domination of the Heruli, A.D. 476 ; of the Ostrogoths in 489 ; of the Greek empire in 522 ; of the Lombards in 751 ; and of Charlemagne in 774. In 997 it formed a league with the towns of Dalmatia against the pirates of IJiTarenta ; and in 1420 it was annexed to the territories of the Venetian republic. It was annexed to Austria by the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797 ; formed part of the kingdom of Italy in 1806 ; was declared an integral portion of the French empire by the treaty of Schcenbrunn, Oct. 10, 1809 ; and was ultimately restored to Austria by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814, and the congress of Vienna in 1815. Italian Eepttblic. — This title was given to the Cisalpine EepubUc, Jan. 25, 1802, when Napoleon Bonaparte was elected pre- sident for ten years. A new kingdom of Italy was erected March 18, 1805. Italy. — The etymology of the name Italia is very doubtful, some authorities deriving it from a mythical (Enotrian or Pelasgic chief called Italus, and others from an old Greek word signifying an ox, and applied to the country to indicate the numerous herds of cattle by which it was tenanted. Originally only the southern point of the peninsida was so distinguished. The mythic reign of Saturn is said to com- mence about this year. A colony of Arcadians, under CEnotrus, settle in Italy, and found the state of ODnotria, or Magna Grsecia (q. v.). A Pelasglan colony crosses from Greece into Italy. Evander conducts a band of Arcadian colo- nists into Italy. Reign of Latinus in Italy. JEneas arilves in Italy, and founds the city of Laviuium, which he makes his capital. Ascanius builds Alba Longa (q. v.). Tiberinus, king of Alba Longa, being defeated on the banks of the river Albula, drowns himself in its stream, which is named Tiber in consequence. April 21. Romulus founds Rome (q. v.). 1240. 1181. Odoacer abolishes the "Western empire, and founds the Gothic kingdom of Italy. The Lombards appear in Italy. The Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, seize Italy. March 5. Assassination of Odoacer. Justinian lays claim to Italy, and declares war against Theodatus, its Gothic sove- reign. The Franks appear in Italy. Italy is subjected to the Eastern empire by Belisarius. The Goths rcTOlt under Totila. July. Totila is defeated and slain by Narses at Tagina. Narses completes the overthrow of the Gothic monarchy in Italy, and establishes the exarchate of Ravenna. 445 ITA 570. Alboin founds the kingdom of the Lombards. {See LOMBAEDY.) 684 The Frank.s invade Italy, but are repelled by Antharis, king of the Lombards. 595. The Lombards besiege Rome, and commit great ravages. 600. Italy Is overrun by the Slaves and Avari. 663. Constans II., emperor of the East, invades Italy, and is defeated by Grimoald, of Lomhardy. 697. The Venetian republic is founded under its first doge. {See Venice.) 728. A religious revolt in favour of image woi-ship and against Leo the Iconoclast, breaks out in Italy. 752. The exarchate of Kavenna terminates. 756. Pepin annexes Eavenna to the see of Eome. 774. Charlemagne invades Italy, and overthrows the kint»dom of the Lombards. 800. Dec. 25. Charlemagne is crowned emperor of the West, at Eome. 818. Italy revolts from Louis le D6bonnaire, but is reduced to subjection. 843. By the treaty of Verdun, Italy is allotted to Lothaire, emperor of the West. 846. The Saracens invade Italy and sack Eome. 875. Dec. 25. On the death of Louis II. the empire of the West reveits to Charles the Bald, king of Fi-ance. 899. Italy suffers severely from Moslem and Hun- garian invaders. 921. Eodoiph II. of Burgundy invades Italy. 928. Italy is delivered from the Hungarians by payment of a ransom of ten bushels of sUver. 9.51. Otho of Germany invades Italy. 962. Feb. 2. Otho is crowned emperor of the West, Germany and Italy being united under one sovereign. 982. July 13. Apulia and Calabria are restored to the Eastern empire by the battle of Basien- tello. 1016. Italy is invaded by the Normans. 1053. The Normans receive Calabria and Apiilia as afief oftheHoly See. 1058. Robert Guiscard expels the Moors from Italy. 1073. The dispute respecting papal investitures commences. (See Geksiaity.) 1081. Henry IV. of Germany invades Italy, and overnms Tuscany. 1090. Henry again invades Italy, and takes Mantua. 1107. Milan becomes a republic. 1110. Henry V. of Germany invades Italy with an ai-my of 30,000 men, to enforce his claim to the investitiu-e of the pope. 1115. Matilda of Tuscany bequeaths her territories to the pope. 1122. The dispute concerning the investiture ter- minates. 1132. The emperor Lothaire invades Italy. 1137. Eoger, king of Sicily, is expelled from Italy. 1154. Oct. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) invades Italy. 1167. The cities of Lombardy foi-m a league against Frederick I. 1176. May 29. Frederick I. is defeated by the Lom- bard confederacy at Legnano. 1183. The independence of the Lombard cities is secured by the peace of Constance. 1190. Henry VI. of Germany invades Italy in pursuit of his designs on Sicily. 1204. The feuds of the Guelphs and GhibeUines are intro'luced into Italy. 1210. War commences between Venice and Genoa. 1220. Frederick IT. of Gennany becomes king of Italy, and fixes the capital of his kingdom at Naples. 1236. War again commences between the emperor and the Lombard league. 1250. Dec. 13. Death of Frederick II. at Fiorenzuola, in Apulia. 1251. Rise of the Medici family. 1266. Feb. 26. Manfred, king of Sicily, is defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou at the battle of Grandella, near Benevento. 446 ITA A.D. 1268. Conradin is defeated by Charles at the battle of Taghocozzo. 1277. The Visconti establish their supremacy in Milan. 1282. March 30. The Sicilian Vespers {q. v.). 1296. Rise of the Neri and Bianchi factions at Florence. 1305. The pope removes from Rome to Avignon, in France. 1310. The emperor , Henry VII. visits Italy, and establishes his supremacy in Lombardy. 1321. Death of the poet Dante. 1328. The house of Gonzaga obtains the signiory of Mantua. 1330. John of Bohemia, conducts an expedition into Italy. 1336. The Italian condottieri, or free companies of hired poldiers, are first formed. 1339. The Orsini and Colouna factions rage at Rome, and the Genoese elect their fii'st doge. 1354. Charles IV. visits Italy. 1361. Italy is overrun by the free-lances, who are thrown out of employment by the peace of Bretigny. 1370. Lucca becomes an independent republic. 1374. Death of Petrarch. The States of the Church rebel against the pope. 1375. Death of Boccaccio. 1377. Jan. 17. The seat of the papacy is restored to Rome. 1373. The papal schism commences. 1403. The republic of Pisa commences. 1426. The wars between Milan and Venice com- mence. 1447. Extinction of the Visconti. 1454. Nearly the whole of Italy is involved in war. 1464. Aug. 1. Death of Cosmo de Medici. 1465. Peace prevails throughout Italy, Florence taking the lead in trade and commerce. 1471. The Italian states form a league against the Turks. 1472. The Turks enter Italy. 1477. The Turks again invade Italy. 1482. Italy is ravaged by a general war, provoked by the pope. 1492. Death of lyorenzo de Medici. 1494. Charles VIII. of France invades Italy. 1495. The emperor, the pope, Spain, Venice, and Milan, form the league of Venice against Charles VIII. of France, who is compelled to evacuate Italy. 1496. The emperor Maximilian leads an army into Italy. 1499. Louis XTI. invades Italy, and obtains tem- porary possession of Milan. 1508. The league of Cambray is signed against Venice. Maximilian again invades Italy. 1510. Venice submits to the pope, after having lost all her Italian territories, and the league of Cambray is dissolved. 1515. Francis I. of Frauce invades Italy, and gains the battle of Marignano (g. v.), Sept. 14. 1517. General peace is restored to Italy. 1519. Charles V. and Francis I. wage war in Italy. 1523. The Italian league is formed against Francis I. 1525. Feb. 24. Francis I. is made prisoner at the battle of Pavia {q. v.). 1527. Death of Maehiavelli. 1530. Charles V. completes the subjection of Italy, and is crowned emperor at Bologna, Feb. 22. 1535. Italy is again the theatre of war between France and Spain. 1544. The French are expelled from Italy by the peace of Crespy. 1559. The peace of Cateau-Cambresis restores tran- quillity to Italy. 1595. Death of Torquato Tasso. 1616. The "Spanish Triumvirate" rules in Italy, Venice being in the power of Bedein.ar, Lombardy of Toledo, and Naples of Ossuna. 1627. The war of the Mantuan succession com- mences. 1631. April 6. Peace is restored by the treaty of Chierasco, ITA 1642. Death of Galileo. 1701. The French seize the Milanese, and commence the war of the Spanish Succession in Italy. 1702. Philip of Spain obtains the Spanish posses- sions in Italy. 1706. Sept. 7. The French, being compelled to raise the siege of Turin, evacuate Lombardy and surrender Naples. 1713. April 11. The country undergoes a division by the treaty of Utrecht, which also termi- nates the war of the Spanish Succession. 1720. Feb. 17. By the peace of London, Sardinia is ceded to Savoy, and Sicily is annexed to Naples, under the emperor of Austria. 1733. The French, Spaniards, and Sardinians, are at war with the Austrians, in Italy, repect- ing the Polish succession. 1737. Extinction of the Medici. 1741. The Spaniards invade Italy under Montemar. 1748. Oct. 18. The treaty of Aix-la-Chape.lle annexes Milan to the territories of the house of Austria, and restores the Italian conquests of France. 1793. Jan. 13. Nice is annexed to France. Sept. 3. Naples declares war against France. 1796. Bonaparte invades Italy, and founds the Cispatlane republic. Dec. 4. 1797. Oct. 17. The treaty of Camoo-Pormio is signed. Venice is divided between France and Austria, and the Cisalpine republic is acknowledged. 1798. The French agaia invade Italy, and imprison the pope, Feb. 23. 1799. The Russians, under Suwarrow, gain many victories over the French in Italy. 1800. May 31. Bonaparte, with 36,000 men, crosses the Alps into Italy, enters Milan June 2, and gains the gi'eat victory of Marengo {q. v.), June 14. 1802. Jan. 25. The Cisalpine republic is remodelled as the Italian republic, under the presi- dency of Napoleon. 1805. May 26. Napoleon is crowned king of Italy at Milan. Dec. 26. France obtains the Aus- trian-Venetian territories by the treaty of Presburg. 1810. Italy is ravaged by a pestilence. 1814. April 4. Dissolution of the kingdom of Italy. 1831. Feb. An insurrection breaks out in Central Italy. 1833. The "Young Italy" party excites several insurrections. 1847. The whole country is the scene of agitations in favour of liberal and constitutional government. 1848. March 18. Lombardy revolts against the Austrians. March 22. Venice joins the insurrection. March 23. The king of Sar- dinia joins the coalition against Austria. April 29. The pope declares war against Austria. June 29. Lombardy is annexed to Sardinia. 1849. March 23. The Sardinians are defeated by the Austrians at the battle of Novara, in consequence of which Lombardy is restored to Austria. 1859. Feb. 5. The Sardinian government borrows 50,000,000 francs to secure the country against the expected attacks of Austria. April 23. An Austrian envoy demands the disarmament of Sardinia. April 26. Sardinia refuses, and the Austrians immediately ci;oss the Ticino. April 27. Victor Emanuel declares war against Austria, and a revohition is effected at Florence. May 3. A revolution occurs in Parma. May 12. The emperor Napoleon III. arrives at Genoa to assijme the command of his army against Austria. Battle of Montebello, May 20 ; of Palestro, May 31 ; of Magenta, June 4; and of Malegnano, June 8. (See these battles.) June 8. Louis Napoleon and Victor Emanuel enter Milan, and proclaim the annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia. ITA 1859. June 11. The Austrian army crosses the Adda, and enters the Quadrilateral. June 13. A revolution in favour of Victor Emanuel breaks out at Modena. June 20. The pon- tifical troops take Perugia, and massacre the inhabitants. June 24. The battle of Solferino {q.v.). July 1. The allies cross the Mincio. July 8. An armistice is agreed to. July 11. A truce is signed at Villafranca. July 13. Tuscany protests against the treaty of Villafranca. Aug. 1. The allied armies cross the Mincio. Aug. 16. Tuscany de- clares in favour of a united kingdom of Italy under the sceptre of Victor Ema- nuel. Aug. 20. A treaty of alliance be- tween Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Legations, is signed at Florence, and the national assemblies of Modena and Tus- cany declare in favour of annexation to Sardinia. Sept. 3. A majority of the Parmese vote in favour of annexing that duchy to Sardinia. Sept. 7. The assembly of the Komagna vote for the separation of that province from the tem- poral sovereignty of the pope. Oct. 31. The new kingdom of Italy is divided into seventeen provinces. Nov. 10. The treaty of Zurich is signed, which ends the Italian war. Nov. 18. Garibaldi announces his withdrawal from the service, and recom- mends the Italians to support Victor Emantiel. 1860. Jan. 16. Count Cavour undertakes the forma- tion of a new ministry. Feb. 25. The French government demands from Sardinia the cession of Savoy. March 11 and 12. Tuscany and the Komagna vote in favour of their annexation to Sardinia. March 24. Savoy and Nice are ceded to France by a treaty signed at Turin. April 4. Revolution com- mences in Sicily (q. v.). May 5. Garibaldi embarks at Genoa for Sicily. May 18. The Sardinian government protests against the Sicilian expedition. June 8. The French troops evacuate Upper Italy. Aug. 3. Victor Emanuel is proclaimed king of Italy in Sicily. Aug. 11. The revolu- tionary forces land in Calabria. Aug. 17. Insurrection commences at Naples [q. v.). Sept. 8. Garibaldi enters Naples. Sept. 9. Victor Emanuel is proclaimed king of Italy at Naples. Sept. 12. The Sardinians take Pesaro. Sept. 14. They take Perugia. Oct. 1. Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the battle of the Voltumo. Oct. 17. The first engagement between the Sardinian and Neapolitan troops takes place at Isemia {q.v.). Oct. 21. The Neapolitans vote in favour of the annexation of their country to the Sardinian states. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel enters Naples. Nov. 9. Garibaldi retires to his private residence on the island of Caprera. Nov. 27. Gari- baldi's army is disbanded. 1861. Feb. 14. The Sardinians under Cialdini take Gaeta (q. v.). Feb. 18. The first Italian par- liament is opened at Turin. Feb. 26. The parliament enacts that Victor Emanuel should assume the title of " King of Italy." March 30. Lord John Russell announces the recognition of the kingdom of Italy by the British government. June 6. Death of Covmt Cavour. June 12. He is suc- ceeded at the head of afikirs by Baron Eicasoli. June 24. Napoleon III. re- cognizes Victor Emanuel as king of Italy. Sept. 15. Victor Emanuel opens an exhibition of Italian industry at Florence. (See GrENOA, Lombaedt, Mh-aw, Modetta, Naples, Paema, Eome, Sardinia, Sicilt, TtrscANT, Venice, &c.) 4A7 ITC KINGS OF ITALTi Odoacer Theodoric Athalaric Theodatus Vitiges Hildibald Eraric TotUa Teias* Alboin Clepho Autharis Agiltilph Adaloald Arioald Rotharis Eodoald Aribert I Bei-tharit and Go- debert Grimoald Bertharit (agaui) . . CuBibert Lxiitpert Eagimbert A..D. Aiibertn 701 Ansprand 712 Luitprand 712 HUdebrand 744 Katchis 744 Astolph 749 Didier 756 Lothatre 1 840 Lotiis II 855 Charles the Bald . . 875 Carloman 877 Charles the Fat.... 879 Berenger 1 888 Guy, with Berenger 889 Lambert, ditto 894 Louis of Aiies, ditto 900 Eodolph of Bui'- gundy, ditto 921 Hugh, count of Pro- vence 926 Lothaire TI 947 Berenger II 950 Otho I. (Italy is an- nexed to the Ger- man empii-e) .... 962 MODKttN KJITGDOM OF HAIT. A.D. Napoleon Bonaparte 1805-1814 Victor Emanuel Feb. 26, 1861 Itchingpoed (Treaty). — Edward the Elder concluded a peace with the Danes at Itehingford, a.d. 906. Ithaca (Ionian Isles). — This small island is chiefly famous as having been the king- dom of Ulysses (B.C. 1215), whose feats at the siege of Troy, and subsequent adven- tures, form so large a portion of the Homeric poems. It became subject to the Tarentines A.D. 1207, to the Venetians in 1215, to the French in 1797, and in 1815 was placed under the protection of Great Britain, with the other Ionian Islands (q.v.). IvoET. — This substance has been used for ornamental purposes from the earliest periods. It was known to the Jews in the time of Solomon (1 Kings x. 22), B.C. 1000, and is often mentioned by Homer. Phidias (B.C. 440) was famous for his ivory statues plated with gold. IvET (Battle).— Henry IV. of France defeated the forces of the League, led by the duke of Mayenne, at this village, near Evreux, March 4, 1590. J"_ Jaca, or Jacca (Spain), belonged to the Vascones in the time of Ptolemy. It was taken from the Moors a.d. 795. The ancient fortress, captured by the French ra 1809, was wrested from them by the Enghsh in 1814. It was unsuccessfiilly assailed by the revolutionary forces in September, 1822. * Teias was killed in 553, and Italy remained under the government of Narses until the establish- ment of the Lombard kingdom by Alboin. 448 JAC Jack Ketch. — A writer in Notes and Queries (2nd series, i. 72) refers for the origin of this cognomen to the following extract from Lloyd's MS. Collections in the British Museum : — "The manor of Tyburn was formerly held by Eichard Jaquett, where felons were for a long time executed; from whence we have Jack Ketch." Jacgbibt, or Breton Club (Paris). — One of the numerous pohtical associations that came into existence just before the first French revolution. The members at first styled themselves " Friends of the Con- stitution." When they met at VersaUles, they received the name of the Breton Club, from the fact that the deputies from Britanny took the lead in their proceedings. In October, 1789, the sittings of the club were trans- ferred to the monastery of the Jacobin friars at Paris, when the pubUe were first admitted to its conferences. In 1790 this club in- creased rapidly in numbers ; in 1791 the funeral of Mtrabeau was attended by 1,800 of its members ; and in 1792 it wielded a pernicious iafluence over the government, and assumed the title "The Society of the Friends of Liberty and Equahty." It was suppressed after the fall of Eobespierre in 1794. Jacobins. — This name, generally applied to the advocates of extreme democratical opinions, took its origin from the members of the Breton, or Jacobin Club, formed in Paris A.D. 1789. Jacobites. — This term was first used to describe a party in England which adhered to the cause of James II. after the revolu- tion of 1688, aud afterwards to those who continued to maintain sentiments of loyalty towards the house of Stuart, and sought to secure the restoration of that family to the Enghsh throne. The unsuccessful rebellions of 1715 and 1745 in Scotland were brought about by the agency of the Jacobites. A Jacobite plot, in which Atterbury, bishop of Kochester, was concerned, was discovered in 1723. Jacobites (Ecclesiastical History). — A Christian sect which arose during the 5th century, and maiatained that Christ had but one nature. They were thus named from Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa, and apostle of the East, who restored the sect about a.d. 545. From this man, Mosheim remarks, as the second father of the sect, all the Monophysites in the East are called Jacobites. Baradaeus died in 578. A small section of the Jacobites joined the Eoman CathoKcs in the 17th century, but the majority remained firm in the faith of their ancestors. Eiddle enumerates amongst the remains of oriental sects or Christian communities existing in 1837, the Syrian Jacobites living under their patriarch at Antioch. Eoger of Wendover mentions a new sect of preachers called "Jacobites," because they imitated the hfe of the apos- tles, who sprang up a.d. 1198, under the auspices of Pope Innocent III. They were mendicants, and suffered great privations. i JAC Mosheim believes the sect ceased to exist soon after the council of Lyons, in 1274. Jacob, St., (Battle,) was fought at this hamlet, near Basle, a.d. 1444, when the Swiss defeated a French force of superior numbers. Jacquaed Loom, for weaving figured fabrics, is named after its inventor, Joseph Marie Jacquard, who was born at Lyons, July 7, 1752, and died Aug. 7, 1834. He first conceived the idea of the loom in 1790, and in Sept. 1801, the jury of the exhibition of products of industry awarded him a bronze medal. In the same year he secured a ten years' patent for his loom. A net- making machine which he devised also brought him a gold medal, awarded at Paris in February, 1804. EngHsh manufacturers have recently effected important improve- ments on the Jacquard loom. Jacquerie, so called from the cant phrase Jacques Bonhomme, apphed to the pea- santry, was a terrible insurrection of this class against the nobles, that broke out in France, May 21, 1358. Many thousands of the unhappy insurgents were slaughtered, and the insurrection was speedily sup- Jaen (Spain), supposed to be the ancient Aurgi, is the capital of a province which nearly coincides with the Moorish kingdom of Jaen. It was captured, after a long siege, by Ferdinand, in 1243. The French general Cassagne captured and sacked Jaen in June, 1808. Its cathedral was erected in 1525, on the site of a Moorish mosque demolished in 1492. A new road to Granada was com- pleted in 1828. Jaffa, or Yafpa (Syria). — This fortified town, the ancient Joppa, was probably founded by the PhcEnicians, about B.C. 1400. It was made a bishopric by Constantine I., A.D. 332 ; was captured by the caliph Omar in 636, and by the Crusaders in 1099. It was the scene of a great battle between the Saracens and King Baldwin of Jerusalem in 1102. Eichard Coeur de Lion encamped here in 1191. Saladin attacked Jafi"a, July 26, 1192. He was compelled to retire, but gained possession of the town in 1198. It was retaken, and strongly fortified by Louis IX. of France, in 1252. The Mameluke sultan Bibars took it in 1267. Bonaparte invested Jaffa March 4, 1799, and tOok it by storm March 7. Four thousand prisoners were put to death March 10, 1799. Mehemet Ah obtained possession of the city in 1832; but it was restored to the Turks in 1840. It suffered greatly from an earthquake Jan. 21, 1837, and again July 17, 1845. Jaicza (Bosnia) . — This important fortress having fallen into the hands of the Turks, was wrested from them in December, 1463, by Matthias, after a siege of three months. It was retaken by the Turks in 1528. Jalxtla (Battle).— The Saracens defeated the Persians in this battle, fought a.d. 637. Jamaica (West Indies).— This, the largest of the British West-Indian islands, was dis- covered by Columbus, May 3, 1494, and called by him St. Jago, after the patron saint of 449 JAM Spain. Jamaica, the Indian name, signifies the Isle of Springs. 1509. The first Spanish settlement is established by John de Esquibal. 1597. Jan. 29. Sir Anthony Shirley, commander of an English squadron, cajjtures the island. 1655. May 3. The English, under Admiral Penn and General Venables, wrest Jamaica from the Spaniards. 1661. Charles II. places the island under a governor and a council of twelve, appointed by the crown. 1670. Spain recognizes the right of the English to Jamaica, by the treaty of Madfid. 1674. About 1.200 colonists from Surinam settle in the island. 1692. June 7. An earthquake destroys Port Eoyal, the capital, and occasions great destruction of life and property. 1722. Aug. 28. A hm-ricane devastates the island. 1728. The Magna Charta of Jamaica is passed. 1734. Another hurricane does great damage. 1738. The Maroons, a tribe formed of runaway slaves, obtain permission to form a settle- ment in the north of the island. 1745. Feb. 2. About 900 negro slaves are detected in a conspiracy to destroy all the white inhabitants of the island. 1795. The Maroons revolt, and are not reduced to subjection till March 21, 1796. 1807. The slave trade is abolished. 1815. Oct. A hurricane occasions gi-eat destruction of property and life, about 1,000 persons perishing in consequence. 1819. The island is devastated by a hiu'ricane. 1825. The bishopric of Jamaica is established. 1831. Dec. 22. An alarming insurrection of the negroes breaks out, and the island is placed under martial law. 1846. Another huiTicane. 1850. The cholera carries off about 40,000 of the population. 1856. The constitution is remodelled. James, (Epistle of,) is generally beheved to have been written by St. James the Just, bishop of Jerusalem, about a.d. 62. James, St. (Order), or the Order of St. James of the Sword, was instituted A.D. 1170, by Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Galicia. It was confirmed by the pope in 1175. The order undertook to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception in 1652. A branch of this order, admitting aU the rules of the original order, excepting that of chastity, was estabhshed by Denys, king of Portugal, in 1288. It was confirmed by Pope Innocent VIII, in 1486. James's (St.) Hall (London), designed by Owen Jones, consists of one large hall, 140 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 60 feet high, with two smaller halls, each 60 feet square and 25 feet high. It was opened to the pubhe with a concert, in aid of the Middlesex Hospital, March 25, 1858. James's (St.) Palace (London), stands on the spot formerly occupied by an hospital for female lepers, founded by Gislebert, abbot of Westminster, a.d. 1100. Henry VIII. ordered the hospital to be pulled down in 1530, and a mansion to be erected. It was finished in 1536. James I. presented it to his son Henry, prince of Wales, in 1612. Charles I. was kept a prisoner here for three days previous to his execution, Jan. 27-30, 1649. It was made a royal residence after 2 G JAM tlie destruction of Whiteliall Palace by fire, Jan. 4, 1698. It was partly destroyed by a conflagration Jan. 21, 1809. James's (St.) Park (London) was first inclosed and drained by Henry VIII. in 1530. Rosamond's Pond was fiUed up ia July, 1770. A great display of fireworks took place in the park Aug. 1, 1814. Two pieces of cannon were placed here as trophies in 1816. Gas-lamps were first introduced into the park in 1822, and the " Chinese Bridge " was demolished in 1827. James's (St.) Theatee (London) was con- structed by Beazley, architect, for Braham, the celebrated singer, and opened in Dec. 1835. James the Fiest, the only child of Lord Damley and Mary queen of Scots, was born at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566. He was pro- claimed king of Scotland, under the title of James YI., July 24, 1567, and was proclaimed king of England March 24, 1603. He mar- ried Anne, daughter of Frederick II. of Den- mark, ia 1590, and they were both cro^-ned at Westminster July 25, 1603. They had three sons and two daughters ; tIz., Henry, born Feb. 19, 1593, and died Nov. 6, 1612 ; Ehzabeth, born Aug. 19, 1596, married to the elector-palatine Feb. 14, 1613, and died Feb. 13, 1662 ; Charles (see Chakles I.), and Eobert and Mary, who died in infancy. The queen died March 1, 1619, and James I. died at Theobalds, near Cheshunt, Sunday, March 27, 1625. James the SECOifD, the second son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at St. James's, Oct. 15, 1633; ascended the Enghsh throne on the death of Charles II., Feb. 6, 1685 ; and was crowned April 23. Whilst duke of York he married, first, Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon. She died March 31, 1671 ; and Sept. 30 (JST.S.), 1673, James married Mary d'Este, who out- liyed him, dying May 7, 1718. His family by his iii-stwife consisted of four sons, who "died in infancy, and two daughters, Mary (see William III. and Maey) and Anne (q.v.). His second wife bore liim five daughters, who died young, and one son, James Francis Ed- ward, or the Chevalier de St. George, known as the Pretender. James II. fled from White- haU Dec. 11, 1688. The throne was declared vacant Jan. 28, 1689, and WUliam III. and Mary became king and queen Feb. 13. The latest instrmnent of his reign entered on the patent roUs is dated Dec. 7, 188S. James II. died at St. Germain's, Sept. 6, 1701, and was bm-ied in the Benedictine monastery at Paris. Jane (Queen of England). — Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen against her wiU, July 10, 1553, Edward VI. having bestowed the crown upon her by letters patent, June 21, 1553. Her reign commenced July 6, the day on which Edward VI. died. She relin- quished the title Jiolv 19. She was condemned to death Nov. 13, 1553, and beheaded Feb. 12, 1554. The earhest public document of her reign that has been discovered bears date July 9, and the latest July IS. jAifESTiLLE (United States), founded A.D. 450 JAN- 1836, made the chief town of Eock cotmty in 1839, and was incorporated in 1853. Janista, or Joan NINA (Albania), supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Dodona (q. v.), was taken by the Normans a.d. 1082. The Turks captured it in 1432. The Alba- nians made an unsuccessful revolt in 1611. Ah Pasha, the Lion of Janina, made it his capital, and, on being pressed by the Turks, ordered it to be set on fiure, when it was almost entirely destroyed. Ali himself, who had retired, to the citadel, surrendered on a promise of pardon, in January, 1822. An intimation having been given to him that the sultan intended to put him to death, a des- perate contest ensued, in which Ah was slain, Feb. 5, 1822. Janissaeies, literally 'new troops.'— Turkish infantry was organized by Sultan Orcan, a.d. 1329, remodelled by Amurath I. in 1360, and increased to the number of 100,000 by Amurath II. in 1372. The corps was at first composed of 1,000 Christian children taken from their parents, compelled to em- brace the faith of Mohammed, and trained as soldiers. After a time, the Janissaries be- came masters of the empire; deposed Baja- zet II. in 1512 ; procured the death of Amu- rath III. in 1595 ; dethroned and executed Ormanll. in 1618 ; his successor, Mustapha I., in 1622; and strangled Ibrahim in 1649. Mustapha II. was deposed by them in 1695, Ahmed III. in 1705, SeUm III. in 1789, and Mustapha IV. in 1807. At last, after long and powerful efforts. Sultan Mahmoud II. succeeded in mastering the Janissaries, June 15, 1826, when 15,000 of them were killed in the streets of Constantinople. By an impe- rial firman of June 16, 1826, the institution of the Janissaries was abohshed. Jan Maten (Arctic Sea) . — This island was discovered by the Dutch navigator whose name it bears, a.d. 1611. Janowitz (Battle). — A Swedish army, commanded by Torstenson, defeated the Im- periahsts at this place, in Bavaria, March 16, 1645. The latter lost 8,000 men. Jansenists, the followers of Cornelius Jansen, or Jansenius, born 1585, at the village of Aequoi, near Leerdam, Holland. He was appointed, professor of theology at the university of Louvain in 1630, and made bishop of Ypres in 1636. He had scarcely finished his famous work " Augustinus," the labour of twenty-two years, when he died. May 6, 1638. The book was pubhshed by Libertus Fromont, at Louvain, in 1640, and created an extraordinary sensation. The Jesuits at once attaekedthe "Augustinus," which defended the doctrine of free grace, and the book was interdicted by the In- quisition in 1641, and by Urban VIII. in 1642. The Jansenist doctrines prevailed in many parts of France and Holland ; the inmates of Port Eoyal {q. v.), a female con- vent near Paris, became celebrated for the ardour with which they took up the cause. The Jansenists became very numerous, and Clement IX. was compelled to sign a com- promise with the party in 1668, commonly JAU called the " Peace of Clement IX." Fresh disturbances arose in France after the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, and the Jansenists were excommunicated by the bull (termed Unigenitua) of Clement XI., Sept. 1713. The buU metwith great opposition in Holland and France ; led to an increase of Jansenism, and the establishment, in Hol- land, of a rehgious party called the " Pupils of St. Augustine," presided over, since 1723, by the archbishop of Utrecht and the bishops of Haarlem and Deventer. Leo XII. re- vived the old dispute by excommunicating, in 1825, the newly-elected archbishop of Utrecht and the bishop of Deventer. Jaktjaet, the first month of the year, was introduced into the Eoman calendar by Numa, about B.C. 700. By 24 Geo. II. c. 23 (1751), the commencement of the legal year in this country was changed from< March 25 to Jan. 1. It was called Wolf-monath by the Anglo-Saxons. Jakus. — This temple in ancient Eome, the gates of which were kept open in time of war, and closed in time of peace, is said to have been founded by Komulus. The gates were shut eight times ; namely, in the reign of Numa, B.C. 71-4 j at the end of the first Punic war, B.C. 235; after the battle of Actium, B.C. 30; after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25 ; at the general peace under Augus- tus, B.C. 5; under Nero, A. D. 58 ; under Ves- pasian, A.D. 71 ; and under Grordian, a.d. 241. Jap AS" (Asia). — According to the native annals, the first emperor of Japan ascended the throne B.C. 660. Gold was discovered in the country a.d. 749 ; and in 1788 some invaders landed, and maintained themselves in Japan for eighteen years. The Mongol Tartars assailed Japan, and this invasion was first made known in Europe by Marco Polo, whose travels were published in 1298. He speaks of it under the name of Zipangu. It was accidentally discovered by the Portu- guese in 1542, one of their ships having been driven upon the coast in a storm. They obtained permission to bring an annual cargo of goods to the port of Bungo. The Jesuit Xavier landed in Japan in August, 1549. An embassy of Japanese Christians appeared before the pope at Kome in 1585. The native Christians were persecuted in 1590 and 1597. A Dutch crew, piloted by Wil- liam Adams, an Englishman, anchored in the harbour of Bungo, April 12, 1600, and soon after their first factory was esta- blished at Firando. A cruel persecution against the native Christians broke out in 1612, which continued tOl 1622, when a wholesale massacre ensued. A royal pro- clamation, issued in 1637, banished the Portuguese from the country, and prohib- ited all intercourse with foreigners. Com- munication was opened with Japan by the English, June 11, 1613 (see Jeddo), and they obtained certain commercial privileges, which were modified in 1616, restricting trade to the port of Firando. In 1623 the Enghsh withdrew from the country. The Russians, in 1804 and in 1811, made unsuccessful JEA attempts to open trade with Japan, and in 1818 a similar attempt by the English failed. On the 8th of March, 1854, the Americans succeeded in negotiating a treaty of com- merce. The treaty of Jeddo (q.v.), signed Aug. 26, 1858, secured important privileges to England. Japanning. — This method of embellishing articles by coating them with a particular kind of varnish, was introduced into Europe from Japan ; whence the name. Jabnac (Battle). — The Huguenots were defeated at this tovra, in France, by Henry of Anjou, March 13, 1569. The priuce of Conde fell in this battle. Jasmine. — The common jasmine was im- ported into Great Britain from Circassia, before a.d. 1548. The Catalonian jasmine was introduced into this country from the East Indies in 1629, and the yellow Indian jasmine was brought from Madeira in 1656. The jasmine-flowered chironia was brought from the Cape of Good Hope in 1812. Jasst, or Yassy (Moldavia), the ancient Jassiorum Munieipium, the capital of the province, founded by the emperor Trajan, about A.D. 105, was conquered by the Turks in 1538, stormed by the Tartars in 1659, and dehvered by John Sobieski in 1686. The Russians took it in 1739 and in 1769, but on each occasion restored it to its native princes. A great fire destroyed part of the town, as well as the castle built by Trajan, in 1783. The Austrians occupied the place in 1788 ; and on Jan. 9, 1792, peace was concluded here between Russia and Turkey. The Russians again occupied the town from 1807 to 1812. The city revolted in March, 1821, and was sacked by the Janissaries Aug. 10, 1822. Two extensive conflagrations destroyed portions of the town in July, 1821, and August, 1827. The Russians occupied it in 1828, and quitted it May 11, 1834. Jaucoukt (Battle). — Louis III. of France defeated the Danes at this place, on the Somme, a.d. 881. Java (Indian Archipelago). — This island is spoken of by Marco Polo, a.d. 1298, although it had not been visited by that adventurous traveller. The Portuguese suc- ceeded in forming several settlements on the island in 1511. The Dutch made their first appearance in 1595, building a fort on the site of the present city of Batavia in 1610. They founded a church in 1621. At Bantam, in 1619, the English erected a factory, which was one of their first possessions in the East Indies. A landing having been eflfeeted Aug. 4, 1811, the island was taken from the Dutch, Aug. 26, by an English force, under Sir Samuel Auchmuty and General "VVetheraU. It was restored Aug. 13, 1814. Jean de Luz (France). — The marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, infanta of Spain, was celebrated at this frontier town of the south of France a.d. 1660. In August, 1813, the French, under Marshal Soult, took up their position in front of this town, and erected strong fortifications. Lord Wellington resolved to attack them, 2 6-2 JED which he did Nov. 10, and had many hours of hard fighting. Sir Kowland Hill directed the movements of the British right, and Marshal Beresford those of the centre ; and the next morning the French were compelled to retire beyond the Nivelle. During the conflict the English made 1,400 prisoners, and took 51 pieces of cannon and six tumbrils of ammunition. Jedda, Jeddah, or Djidda (Arabia). — This town, the port of Mecca, visited by Bruce in 1796, was taken from the Wahabees by Mehemet Ah, a.d. 1811. The Moham- medans attacked the Christian residents of this town June 15, 1858, and murdered upwards of twenty, including the Enghsh vice-consul and the "wife of the French consul. The Cyclops, Captain Pullen, an- chored before the town July 23, and thirty- six hours were granted for the execution of justice on the perpetrators of the out- rage. IS'o satisfaction having been afi"orded. Captain Pullen bombarded the town on the 25th and 26th, when he acceded to the request of the Turkish governor to withhold further hostihties imtll instructions were received from the Porte. On the 2nd of August the necessary firman arrived from the sultan, and eleven of the criminals were surrendered and executed. {See Djidda.) Jeddo (Japan), also written Jedo and Yedo, the capital of the empire, was visited by a company of Jesuit missionaries from Goa, led by the famous Francis Xavier, A.D. 1549. Captain Saris, of the Clone, bearing a letter and presents from James I., was received at the court of Jeddo in July, 1613. In 1818 the captain of a small Enghsh brig entered the bay, but was compelled to leave without receiving a cargo ; and an .American ship was fired upon from the shore in 1831. On the 8th of March, 1854, the Americans succeeded in efiecting a com- mercial treaty. Jeddo, (Treaty,) was negotiated by Lord Elgin, and signed at Jeddo Aug. 26, 1858. By this treaty the ports of Hakodadi, Kanagawa, and Nagasaki were to be opened to British subjects on and from July 1, 1859 ; Nee-e- gataon and from Jan. 1, 1860; and Hiogo on and from Jan. 1, 1863. For purposes of trade it was also stipulated that British subjects should be allowed to reside at Jeddo after Jan. 1, 1862, and at Osacea after Jan. 1, 1863. Jelalabad (Aifghanistan) was taken by the British in 1839. Sir Eobert Sale, ^vith a few hundred troops, defended it against a numerous Aff'ghan force from November, 1841, to April, 1842. The fortifications were destroyed, by order of General Pollock, in 1842. Jemattlabad (Hindostan), formerly called Narasingha Augad}', a town containing a fortress of great natural strength built by Tippoo Saib, was taken by the Enghsh in 1797. Jemmapes (Battle). — Dumouriez, at the head of a French army, defeated the Aus- trians at this village, in Belgium, Nov. 6, 1792. The battle was warmly contested. 452 JEE Jena (Battle). — The left of a large Prussian army was defeated at Auerstadt by the French, Oct. 14, 1806, whilst the centre and right on the same day sustained a reverse from another portion of the French army at Jena. This battle sometimes goes by the name of Auerstadt, and sometimes by that of Jena. Jena (Germany) . — This town, in the duchy of Saxe-Weimar, is celebrated for its uni- versity, founded in 1547 by the elector John Frederick of Saxony. It was opened Feb. 2, 1558. Jena was the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Jena from 1672 to 1690, and of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach from 1690 to 1741. Jenneeian Institution (London) was founded in 1803. It was absorbed in the National Vaccine Estabhshment, foimded in 1808. Jer&eaux (Battle). — The French, led by Joan d'Arc, wrested this town from the earl of Suffolk, who was taken prisoner, June 12, 1429. Jebicho (Palestine), the first city which fell into the hands of the Israehtes on their entrance into the Holy Land, was taken by Joshua (vi. 20) B.C. 1451. About B.C. 918, or 530 years after this event, Jericho was rebuilt by Hiel, the Bethehte (1 Kings xvi. 34) . Vespasian re- duced the city a.d. 68. Henry VIII. is said to have had a retreat called Jericho, at Blackmore, near Chelmsford. Hence the origin of the term "gone to Jericho." Jeeset (English Channel), originally called Stugia, was taken by the Normans about A.D. 850, and was united to the crown of England by WiUiam I. in 1066. King John visited the island in 1205. Mont OrgueH Castle, seized by the French in 1461, was retaken by the Enghsh in 1467. Jersey was taken by the Parhamentarians in December, 1651, A French force seized it Jan. 4, 1781, but were made prisoners of war Jan. 6. Queen Victoria visited Jersey in 1846, and opened the Victoria College Sept. 29, 1852. Jerusalem (Latin kingdom). — This king- dom was foimded by the Crusaders at the close of the first Crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon was elected the first king, July 23, 1099. In 1104 Baldwin I. effected the con- quest of Acre. He took Sidon, with the assistance of Sivard, prince of Norway, in 1115 ; and in July, 1124, Tyre submitted to his arms. Saladin defeated the Latins at the great battle of Tiberias, fought in July, 1187, and recaptured Jerusalem from the Christians the following October. Conrad de Montserrat claimed the kingdom on his marriage vrith Isabella, daughter of Ahneric, in 1190, but he was assassinated hx 1192, during the preparations for his corona- tion, and the succession devolved upon Henry of Champagne. On the death of Ahneric of Lusignan, in 1206, Mary, daughter of Conrad and Isabella, was the nearest heir, and she was accordingly married to John of Brienne, who assumed the sovereignty in 1206. In 1229 he was compelled to abdicate by Frederick II. o; 1 JEE Germany. Jerusalem was taken by the Mameluke sultan Bibars in 1260, and the last remnant of the kingdom was absorbed in 1291. LATIN- KINGS OF JERUSALEM, A.D. 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon. 1100. Baldwin I. 1118. Baldwin II. C 1131. Fulk, count of Anjou. 1144. Baldwin III. 1162. Almeric. 1173. Baldwin IV. 1185. Baldwin V. 1186. Guy of Lusignan. 1192. Henry, count of Champagne. 1197. Altneric of Lusignan. 1206. John of Biienne. 1229. Frederick II., emperor of Germany. Jerusalem, or Hieeosolyma (Palestine) . — There is some probability that this is the Salem, a city of Sechem, of which Melchize- dek was king and priest (Gen. xiv. 18), b.c. 1913. The name Jerusalem is first mentioned Josh. X. 1. The city was not finally wrested from the Canaanites tUl B.C. 1049, when David made it the capital of his kingdom, and called it " the City of David." 1011. Solomon prepares to build the temple. 1004. Completion and dedication of the temple. 970. Shishak, king of Egypt, sacks Jerusalem. 884. Jerusalem is sacked by the Philistines and Arabs in the reign of Jehoram. 808. The inhabitants are put to the sword by the Israelites, after their victory at Beth- 710, , The city is invested by the army of Senna- cherib, king of Assyria, in the reign of Hezekiah, and ia miraculously delivered, the angel of the Lord sla3^ng, in the camp of the besiegers, 185,000 men in one night. Taken by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, after the battle of Megeddo. He held it two years. Pharaoh Necho dethrones King Jehoahaz, and lays Jerusalem under tribute of a hundred talents of silver and one talent of gold. The dethroned monarch is carried into Egypt, where he dies. , Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, takes Jerusalem, and plunders the temple, carry- ing away the sacred vessels, together with the king and several thousands of his sub- jects. He raises Zedekiah, Jehoaiakim's brother, to the regal dignity. , Zedekiah rebels against the king of Babylon, who besieges Jerusalem, but raises the siege on the approach of the army of Pharaoh, king of Egypt. . The Chaldean army renews its attack on the city, and carries it by storm. Zedekiah, who takes to flight, is pursued, and cap- tured ; his two sons are slain, and his own eyes put out. The temple, after having been pillaged, is burned to the ground ; the whole city is destroyed, and the people carried captive to Babylon. . Cyrus issues a proclamation for the return of the captive Jews, who immediately proceed to the rebuilding of the temple. . The second temple is finished, and is dedi- cated. . Nehemiah rebuilds the wills of Jerusalem. . It is visited by Alexander the Great. . Ptolemy Soter captures Jerusalem. . Jerusalem is annexed, by treaty, to Egypt. . The walls of the city are razed by Antiochus Epiphanes, who sets up a statue of Jupiter in the temple. From this period the daily sacrifice is discontinued. JES 63. It IS taken by Pompey ; and the Jews pass ' t A 4 m^^ " *^® dominion of the Romans. 44. The walls are rebuilt by Antipater, father of f Herod the Great. A.D. 70. Sept. 8. It is taken by the Romans, under * Titus, the temple and city being razed to f the ground. 130. The emperor Hadrian rebuilds the city, when i it receives the name of ^lia Capitoliua. 335. The church of the Holy Sepulchre is founded by Constantine. 614. The Persians, under Chosroes II., take the city. 637. It surrendei-s to the Saracens, after a long siege. 1076. It is taken by the Turks. 1098. Passes under the sway of the Egyptian caliphs. 1099. July 15. After a siege of forty days, the Christian crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, take it by storm. July 23. Godfrey of Bouillon is elected king. 1187. Oct. 2. The city is taken by Saladin. 1228. Delivered to the Christians by treaty. The emperor Frederick II. enters the city. 1243. Jerusalem is taken and piUaged by the Cariz- mians. 1517. The Ottomans gain possession of the city. 1832. It is rendered subject to the pasha of Egypt. 1841. Passes under the protection of the Turkish government. Nov. 7. The Rev. M. S. Alexander is consecrated bishop of England and Ireland in Jerusalem, by the Arch- bishop of Canterbury. The Queen, by license, assigns to his jurisdiction Syria, Chaldsea, Egypt, and Abyssinia ; and the new bishopric is placed under the pro- tection of England and Prussia. Jestee, or Fool. — The fool, according to Nares, was the inmate of every opulent house ; but the rural jester or clown seems to have been pecuhar to the country families. The clown in Shakespeare is generally taken for a licensed jester or domestic fool. The king's jester or fool was a member of the EngHsh court at a very early period. On this subject Douce remarks : " With respect to the antiquity of this custom in our own country, there is reason to suppose that it existed even during the period of Saxon his- tory ; but we are quite certain of the fact in the reign of WiUiam the Conqueror. An al- most contemporary historian, Maitre Wace, has left us a curious account of the preser- vation of William's life, when he was only duke of Normandy, by his fool Eoles. Men- tion is made in. Domesday Book of ' Berdic joculator regis.' " The allowance of cloth and a hst of the articles of clothing allowed to WiUiam, Henry the Fifth's fool, is given in Eymer's "Fcedera." In 1652 the long's fool is described as wearing a long coat and a gold chain. Douce considers it probable that Muckle John, the fool of Charles I. and the successor of Archee Armstrong, was the last regular personage of the kind. The Lord Mayor's state fool was compelled on Lord Mayor's day to leap, clothes and all, into a large bowl of custard. The patent of crea- tion of the Order of Fools, dated at Cleves, Nov. 12, 1381, is still in existence. The last mention of this order occurs in some verses pubhshed at Strasburg in 1520. The custom also existed on the other side of the Atlantic, 453 JES as the Peruvian and Mexican monarchs had their jesters. The Spanish conquerors had this officer in their train. Prescott speaks of Velasquez's jester as "a mad fellow, his jester, one of those crack-brained wits — half wit, half fool — who formed in those days a common appendage to every great man's establishment." Jesuits. — This society was founded by Ignatius Loyola, at tlie chapel of St. Mary, Montmartre, Paris, Aug. 16, 1534, and was coufirmed by a bull of Paul III., Sept. 27, lo4<0. The order was made independent of all civil and ecclesiastical supervision by a bull dated Oct. 18, 154S. Jesuit colleges were established at Antwerp and at Louvain in 1552, and Ignatius Loyola died July 31, 1556. The Jesuits received permission to settle in Prance, Sept. 15, 1561; were banished from France, Jan. 8, 1595 ; and were allowed to return, Jan. 2, 1604. A decree banishing the Jesuits from England was issued ]S'ov. 15, 1602. The university of Tyrnau, Austria, the first high school of the Jesuits, was opened 'Not. 13, 1635. A French edict was issued against the Jesuits Sept. 2, 1716, and they were banished from Portugal Sept. 3, 1759. The Jesuit seminaries at Rome were dissolved Sept. 17, 1772, and the order was put down by a bull of Clement XIY., July 21, 1773. They wex'e expelled from Austria, Oct. 1, 1773. The Jesuits were re-organized by Pius VII., Aug. 7, 1814, and a decree for their admission into Spain was issued May 29, 1815. They were expelled from Kussia, March 25, 1820, and from Switzer- land, Oct. 1, 1847. Jesuit's Bark. (See Bare:.) Jesus Colle&e (Cambridge) was founded A.D. 1496, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. The building previous to that time had been used for the nunnery of St. Eadegund, founded by Malcohn IV. of Scotland. Jesus College (Oxford). — Queen Eliza- beth, on the petition of Hugh ap Rice, or Price, granted a charter of foundation for this college, June 27, 1571. The inner quad- rangle was completed in 1676. Jewellery, or the setting of precious stones, is an art of very ancient origin. Jewish JErx. — The Jews now date from the creation of the world, which they con- sider to have occurred 3760 years and three months before the commencement of the Christian asra. According to some autho- rities, they used the sera of the Seleucidse after they became subject to the kings of Sjria, and only abandoned it in the 15th century. Jewish Disabilities Bill. — Mr. Robert Grant's bill for releasing the Jews from their civil disabilities was rejected by the Lords Aug. 1, 1833 ; another, introduced by Lord John Russell, after passing the Commons May 4, 1848, met with a similar fate May 25. A third received the sanction of the lower house July 3, 1851, but was also thrown out by the Lords July 17. A similar bill passed the Commons April 15, 1853, and was again re- jected April 29 ; and after having been again 4:54 JEW approved by the Commons, was defeated by the Lords July 10, 1857. By 21 & 22 Vict, c. 49 (JiUy 22, 1858), the House of Commons was empowered to modify the oaths in such a manner that they might be taken by Jews; a-nd by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 6, 1860), the words " upon the faith of a Chris- tian" were expunged permanently in the case of Jewish members. Jews. — Strictly speaking, this term can only be appKed to the subjects of the kings of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes ; but in itsusual acceptation it refers to the whole race of Abraham. 1996. 1921. 1872. 1856. 1836. 1821. 1760. 1728. 1718. 1706. 1571. 1491. 14.51. 1405. 1343. 3330. 1285. 12.52. 1245. 1187. 1169. 1156. 1136. 1143. 1116. 1095. 1093. 1081, 1063, 1060, 1048, 1040, 1027. 1017 1015. Birth of Abraham. Abraham, by divine command, settles in Canaan. God makes a covenant with Abiaham. The covenant is renewed. Bii-th of Isaac. The sacrifice of Isaac is prevented by divine interposition. Marriage of Is^ac and Eebekah. Birth of Esau and Jacob. Death of Abraham. Jacob is blessed instead of Esau. Joseph is sold into Egypt. Joseph interprets the dreams of the butler and the baker. Jacob and his family remove to Egypt, and settle in Goshen. Birth of Moses. The exodus of the Jews from Egypt is effected. The Jews enter Canaan, under the leadership of Joshua. They become subject to Mesopotamia. They are subject to Eglon, king of Moab. Ehud restores them to freedom. They are in servitude to Jabin, king of Canaan. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaanites, under Sisera, and restore the Israelites to independence. They are again enslaved by the Midianites, Amalekites, and other Eastern tribes. Gideon effects their deliverance. The Ammonites subdue the Jewish territory. Jephtha expels them. The Philistines reduce the Jews to slavery. Samson releases theiu. Samuel is called by the Lord. The Jews are again subjected by the Philis- tines. Saul is elected king. Saul is victorioiis over the Philistinea. Birth of David. David prevails over Goliath. David is compelled, by the jealousy of Saul, to take refuge in Gath. Death of Saul, and accession of David as king of Judah. David is acknowledged by all Israel. David wages war against the Philistines, and recovers the ark, which had been left in their hands. Birth of Solomon. The rebellion of Absalom and Sheba. David numbers the people. Adonijah rebels. Death of David, and acces- sion of Solomon. immences the erection of the temple. The temple is completed. Visit of the queen of Sheba to Solomon. Death of Solnmon. Revolt of the ten tribes, and division of the Jewish territory into the kingdoms of Isi-ael and Judah (q. v.). THE BABTLOITISH CAPTIVITY. 603. Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's first dream, and the golden image is set up. 1014. Solomon JEW Jehoiachiu from cap- 561. Evilmerodach tivity. 539. Daniel intei-prets the handwriting on the wall to Belshazzar, who is defeated and slain by Darius the Mede the same night. 530. Decree of Cyrus for the restoration of the Jews, who, under Zerubbabel, return from captivity. 535. Foundation of the second temple. 516. The second temple is completed. 515. The second temple is dedicated. 463. Artaxerxes stops the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 458. He mariTles the Jewess Esther. 457. Ezra is despatched to Judea. 444. Nehemiah commences his twelve years' governorship of Judea, during which he rebuilds Jerusalem, and fortifies it with walls. 420. The Old Testament canon ends this year. THE JEWS T7NDES THE GEEEK EMPIEE. BO. 332. Alexander the Great, while on his march to attacks Jerusalem, is encountered by a pro- cession, led by Jaddua, the high-priest, and is impressed with so strong a sentiment of respect, that he enters the city, and per- forms a solemn sacrifice to the God of the Jews. 320. Jerusalem is stormed, and taken by Ptolemy Soter. 312. Antigonus wrests Judea from the power of Ptolemy. 277. The Septuagint translation of the Scriptm-es is made by order of Ptolemy Philadeli^hus. 216. Ptolemy Philopator massacres between 40,000 and 60,000 Jews in Alexandria. 203. Antiochus the Great, of Syria, besieges Phoe- nicia and Judea. 200. The sect of the Sadducees is fonned. 199. Phoenicia and Judea are recovered by the Egyptian general Scopas. 198. Antiochus defeats Scopas, and takes the whole of Palestine from Egypt. 170. Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, takes Jerusalem by assault, and massacres 40,000 of the inhabitants. 168. Apollonius, general of Antiochus, takes Jeru- salem, fortifies the city of David, and causes the temple to be dedicated to Jupiter Olympius. 165. Judas Maccabeus commences his insurrection against the Syrians. 163. Antiochus Eupator appoints Judas governor. 160. Judas concludes the first treaty between the Jews and the Romans. 156. The Syrians withdraw their claim to the obedience of the Jews, who are left at peace. 144. Jonathan, prince of the Jews and high-priest, is taken prisoner by Ti-yphon, at Ptolemais, and put to death. 130. John Hyrcanus subdues the Idujnseans, and compels them to adopt the Jewish faith. 107. Hyi-canus's son Aristobulus assumes the title of king. 95. The Pharisees provoke an insuiTection against Alexander Jannaans. 70. Aristobulus II. deposes his brother Hyrcanus. 63. The Romans, under Pompey, take Jerusalem, and restore Hyi-canus to the throne as a tributary prince. THE JEWS UlfDES THE EOMANS. B.C. 57. Alexander, the eldest son of Aristobulus II., collects an army, and ravages the country. 54. Crassus plunders the temple, to obtain treasure for the Parthian war. 49. The deposed Aiistobulus is poisoned by the friends of Pompey. 42. MaiTiage of Herod and Mariamne, grand- daughter of Hyrcanus, the Jewish high- priest. JEW 40. The Parthians, under Pacorus, invade Judea, and restore Antigonus to the kingdom of his father Aristobulus. The Roman senate proclaims Herod king the same year. 37. The Romans, under Herod and Socius, take Jerusalem, and cTOelly massacre mxmbers of the inhabitants. 31. A dreadful earthquake destroys 30,000 persons in Judea. 29. Herod puts his wife Mariamne to death. 17. Herod commences the re-erection of the temple. 4. Friday, April 5. The Nativity, four years be- fore the incorrect common computation. A.D. 6. Augustus makes the whole kingdom into the Roman province of Judea. 25. Pontius Pilate is appointed procurator of Judea. 26. John the Baptist preaches to the Jews. 27. Baptism of Christ. 30. The Passion and Ascension of the Saviour. 44. Judea is desolated by famine. 65. The Jews revolt « gainst the Romans. 68. Vespasian invades Judea. 70. Titus destroys Jerusalem. 1,100,000 Jews are said to have perished during the sie^e, and 97,000 to have been carried into captivity. So. The Jews refuse to pay a tax for the re- building of the temple of Jupiter Capi- tolinus. 115, The Jews of Cyrene, Egypt, and Cyprus, rebel against the Romans. 130. Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem, which he calls JElia Capitoliua. The Jews rebel in con- sequence. 135. The war is concluded, and the Jews are banished from Juriea, and cease to possess a national existence. SUBSEQUENT HISTOEY OP THE JEWS. A.D. 202. They are severely persecuted by Septimius Severus. 315. Constantino I. forbids them to persecute Jewish converts to Christianity. 429. Theodosius II. prohibits them from erecting synagogues. 612. The Jews in Spain undergo cruel persecutions. 623. Mohammed expels them from Medina. 712. They assist the Moors in the conquest of Spain. 740. A Jewish kingdom is said to be established on the shores of the Caspian. 750. Some Jews settle in England at this date. 847. The Jews in the East ai-e persecuted by Sultan Motavakel. 1096. The Crusaders, on their march to Palestine, massacre about 17,000 European Jews, at Treves, Cologne, and other Gei-man cities. 1180. Philip Augustus banishes them from France. 1189. Sept. 3. Vast numbers are murdered in England at the coronation of Richard I. 1215. The Council of Lateran orders all Jews throughout Chi-istendom to adopt the costume called the Kouelle. 1269. English Jews are prohibited from possessing freehold property. 1290. Edward I. orders their expulsion from England. 1391. The Spanish Jews undergo severe per- secution, and about 200,000 submit to baptism. 1394. Charles VT. expels them from Prance. 1492. The Jews are expelled from Spain. 1505. All Jewish children in Portugal under four- teen years of age are ordered to be given up by their parents, and educated as Christians. 1753. A bQl for the naturalization of Jews in England is passed ; but it is repealed the following year. 1782. An edict for their limited toleration is issued in Austria. 455 JEW 1791. Jews axe admitted as citizens of France, with equal rights as Christians. 1796. The Jews are declared free citizens of the Batavian republic. 1806. Napoleon I. assembles a sanhedrim at Paris, and coDfers certain civil privileges on the 1809. The Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews is founded at London. 1812. Jews are admitted to civil rights in Prussia. 1814. Jews are admitted as magistratea in Denmark. 1835. Oct. 1. Ml-. Salomons is elected sheriff of London. 1837. Nov. 9. Moses Mon+eflore receives the honour of knighthood from the Queen, being the first example of a Jewish knight. 1840. Feb. 1. The Jews are persecvited at Damascus. 1846. Aug. 18. Jews are placed upon tbe same footing as Protestant dissenrers, with respect to their places of worship, schools, &c., by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 59, s. 2. 1852. Sept. 3. The Jews are persecuted at Stockholm. 1855. Sept. 29. Alderman Salomons is elected Lord Mayor of London, being the first Jew that has filled the oflBce. {See Jewish Disabilities Bill.) KINGS OE THE JEWS. 109.5. Saul. 1055. David (Judah). 1053. Ditto (all Israel). 1015. Solomon. 975. The Jewish territory is divided into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel (q. v. I. Hales gives the following list of kings and rulers : — BABTLOMAH DTNASTY. Nebuchadnezzar 586 I Eviknerodach 561 | MEDIAU AITD PERSLAif DTTTASTT. B.C. Darius the Mede . . 553 Cyi-us the Persian . . 551 Cambyses 529 Darius Hystaspes . . 521 Xerxes Artaxerxes Longi- manus, or Ahas- JEWISH HIGH-PRIESTS. Eliashib 420 I Jonathan, or John . Joiada, or Judas. ... 413 | Jaddua, or Jaddus . 2IACEDO-GKECIA2T DYNASTY. B.C. Onias 321 I Simon H Simon the Just 300 Onias III Eleazer 291 Jesus, or Jason . . . , Manasses 276 Onias, or Menelaus Onias II 250 1 ASAMONEAN- PRDTCES. B.C. Judas Maccabeus . . 163 Jonathan 160 Simon 143 John Hyrcanus I. . . 136 Aristobulus I. and Antigonus 106 Alexander nseus Alexandra . . . . Hyrcanus II. . . Aristobulus II. KOaiAlT DYNASTY. B.C. Hyrcanus EL (again) 63 | Antigonus IDtniOEAir KUTG. Eerod the Great 456 JOH Haep, or Jews' -Teump. — This mu- sical instrument, deriving its name from a " corruption of the French jeu frompe, toy- trumpet, is mentioned in a rare black-letter book, called " IS'ewes from Scotland," a.d. 1-591, where it is related that one G-eilles Duncan, a servant-girl celebrated for her performance upon this instrument, played before King James YI. of Scotland. One M. Eulenstein excited considerable interest by performing on sixteen of these instru- ments at the Eoyal Institution, and various pubhc concerts. Fools used to play upon the Jews' -harp, to amuse the guests at taverns. It is also called Jaws' -harp, which Douce maintains to be its proper name, because played upon between the jaws. Jhansi (Hindostan). — This province be- came connected by treaty with the East-India Company a.d. 1804, and was made a tributary province in 1817. It was ceded to the British government in 1854. JiONPOOE, or JoANPOOE (Hindostan), the chief town of a district bearing the same name, which came into possession of the British a.d. 1775. The fort is of great strength, and was built in 1370 by the sultan of Delhi. On the sacking of Delhi by the triumphant hordes of Tamerlane in 1398, Jionpoor passed from under the royal sway, but was again annexed to the empire in 1478. In 1570, having become much dilapidated, the fort was put into a state of thorough re- pair by the governor of Bengal. Jo ACHiMiTES. — This heretical sect, founded by Joachim, abbot of Flora, in Calabria, was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215, and by the council of Aries in 1260, or 1261. The Joachimites were a branch of the Fra- ticeUi, or Spirituahsts. Joachim, St. (Order of) .—This equestrian order of Franconia was founded a.d. 1755, by an association of yovmger members of the German aristocracy. It was originally named the " Order of Defenders of the Honour of Divine Providence," and received its present title in 1785. Lord Nelson was admitted into this order April 3, 1802. JoHif (king of England), the youngest child and the fifth son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford Dec. 24, 1166, and was crowned at West- minster May 27 (Ascension-day), 1199. He divorced his wife Isabel, the earl of Gloucester's daughter, in order to marry Isabel of Angouleme, who was crowned at Westminster, Oct. 8, 1200. By his second wife he had two sons and three daughters ; namely, Henry, afterwards king, and Eichard, duke of Cornwall, who was born in 1209, and died in 1271 . His daughters were Joan, mar- ried to Alexander II. of Scotland ; Eleanora, to the earl of Pembroke, and afterwards to Simon of Montfort ; and Isabel, to the em- peror Frederick II. John died at Newark Oct. 19, 1216, and was buried at Worcester. John's, St. (IN ewfoundland), the chief town of the island, was fortified by Queen Eliza- beth A.D. 1583, when she formally claimed its sovereignty. The French were" repulsed ia I JOH attacks upon St. John's in 1705, 1708, and 1762. On the last occasion they obtained possession of St. John's. The garrison ca- pitulated to an Enghsh force Sept. 18, 1762. The town sujffered considerably from fires, in 1815, 1817, 1818, and June 9, 1846. On the last-mentioned occasion the town was almost entirely destroyed. John's (St.) College (Cambridge) was founded in 1511, in pursuance of the wiU of Margaret, countess of Kichmond, who died in 1509. John's (St.) College (Oxford). — ^King Henry VIII. granted St. Bernard's College, an educational establishment of the Cister- cians, founded in the time of Henry VI., to Christ Church, Oxford; and Sir Thomas White, a Muscovy merchant, twice lord mayor of London, purchased it in 1555, and founded St. John's College, March 5, 1557. Archbishop Laud added a second quadrangle, commenced in 1631 and completed in 1635, from a design by Inigo Jones. Johnston, or St. John's Town (Battle). — ■ Aymer de Valence defeated Bruce, who had incited the Scottish people to rebel against England, at this place, in Scotland, July 22, 1306. Johobe (Malacca), the capital of an independent state of the same name, was founded by some refugees from the town of Malacca, which was captured by the Por- tuguese A.D. 1511. In 1608 the new prin- eipahty was conquered by the Portuguese, and in 1613 it passed into the power of the sultan of Acheen. Joint -Stock Companies Acts, — The registration, incorporation, and general management of joint -stock companies were regulated by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 110 (Sept. 5, 1844), which was amended by 10 & 11 Vict. e. 78 (July 22, 1847). The Companies Clauses Consohdation Act, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 16 (May 8, 1845), united into one act certain provisions usually inserted in acts with respect to the constitution of joint-stock companies. The dissolution and winding up of the aiFairs of companies were facilitated by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 45 (Aug. 14, 1848), which was amended by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 1, 1849). The Limited Liability Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 133 (Aug. 14, 1855), enabled all joint- stock companies with a capital divided into shares of not less than £10 each, to obtain a, certificate of complete registration with limited Mability upon certain stated con- ditions. The laws relating to aU joint- stock companies, except those formed for purposes of banking and insurance, were consolidated and amended by the Joint- Stock Companies Act, 19 & 20 Vict. e. 47 (July 14, 1856), which was again amended by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 14 (July 13, 1857), and by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 60 (July 23, 1858). JoNKOPiNG, (Treaty,) was concluded between Sweden and Denmark, at this town, in Sweden, Dec. 10, 1809. JouENAL DES Savants. — This Celebrated French review, estabhshed by Denis de Sallo, Jan. 5, 1665, was suspended in 1792. JUD It was re-estabhshed in 1797; again sus- pended in 1802 ; and resuscitated, with an annual subsidy of 25,000 francs, by Louis XVIII. in 1816. Journals of the Hottse op Commons. — The official record of the proceedings of this department of the legislative body com- menced Nov. 8, 1547. They were not kept with any degree of regularity until 1607. Journals op the House op Lords. — The record of the business in the House of Lords was commenced a.d. 1509. It was first ordered to be printed in 1767. Juan Fernandez (Pacific) . — This island was discovered by Juan Fernandez, a Spa- nish navigator, a.d. 1567. Alexander Selkirk having quarrelled with his captain in a bu- caneering expedition, was set on shore here in September, 1704. He remained in soh- tude four years and four months, and was rescued by an Enghsh vessel in February, 1709. He arrived in England in 1711, and an account of his extraordinary adventures is said to have given Daniel Defoe the idea of the story of " Eobinson Crusoe," of which the first edition appeared in two volumes in 1719. In 1750 the Spaniards formed a colony here, and it was soon after- wards destroyed by an earthquake. Jubilee. — The Jews celebrated a jubilee every fifty years (Lev. xxv. 8), B.C. 1490. A jubilee once a century, for granting plenary indulgences, was first estabhshed by Boni- face VIII. A.D, 1300, Clement VI., in 1350, reduced the period of the jubilee to fifty years; Urban VI., in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-five years; and Sixtus IV., in 1475, reduced the term to twenty -five years. It has been observed with great regularity by the popes. The centenary of the Reformation was celebrated in Germany by a Protestant jubilee in 1617. The Shakespeare Jubilee was held at Strat- ford-upon-Avon, Sept. 6, 1769. A jubilee was celebrated in England at the commence- ment of the fiftieth year of George the Third's reign, Oct. 25, 1809. The close of the revolutionary war was celebrated in England by a jubilee, Aug, 1, 1814. Judah. — On the revolt of the ten tribes (1 Kings xii. 1 — 19), B.C. 975, the Jewish territory was divided into the kingdoms of Israel (q.v.) and Judah. The kingdom of Judah lasted from B.C. 975 to b,c, 606. {See Jews.) Rehoboam, king of Judah. Shishak, king of Egypt, invades Judah and plunders Jerusalem (1 Kings xiv. 25). Asa abolishes idolatry (1 Kings xv. 12). Asa defeats the Eihiopians (2 Chron. xiv. 9-12). Asa induces the people to enter into a covenant with God (2 Chron. xv. 12). Asa obtains the aid of the king of Syria against Baasha (1 Kings xv. 16-20). Jehoshaphat joins Ahab against the Syi-ians. Jehoshaphat defeats a combined army of Ammonites, Moabites, and Syrians (2 Chron XX. 22). Ahaziah is slain at Jezreel (2 Chron. xx. 9), Queen Athaliah is slain (2 Kings xi. 20). 457 JUD 856. Joash gives orders for the repairs of the temple (2 Kings xii. 4). 840. Joash is kUled by his servants (2 Kings xii. 21). 827. Aniaziah invades the Edomites, and slays ten thousand iu Mount Seir (2 Kings xiv. 7). 70-5. Uzziah becomes a leper (2 Kings xv. 5). 7-58. Isaiah begins to prophesy. 742. Pekah, king of Isi-ael, and Rezin, king of Syria, invade Judah (2 Kings xvi. 5). 741. Pekah ravages Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 6). 726. Hezekiah effects a reformation. 713. Sennacherib invades Judah for the first time (2 Kings xviii. 13). 712. Ambassadors from Babylon arrive in Judah. (2 Kings XX. 12 — 13). 710. Sennacherib invades Judah for the second time. By divine interposition 18-3,000 of ! his soldiers perish in one night, and the I invaders retire (2 Kings xviii. 17, &c. ). I 678. The king of Babylon places different nations j in ^maria, and expels the Israelites (2 Kings xvii. 24). 643. Slanasseh is taken prisoner, and carried to Babylon, by the king of Assyria (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11). 624. Josiah effects a reformation la religion (2 K'ngs xxii.). 623. Josiah celebrates a solemn passover (2 Kings xxiii 21). 609. Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews, and the destruction of Jerusalem. 606. Jeremiah predicts the seventy years' captivity. Fii-st reading of the Roll. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, takes Jerusalem and carries off several of the Jews into captivity in Babylon (2 Kiogs xxiv. and xxv.). 605. Second reading of the EolL 599. More captives caiTied into Babylon. 597. Duration of the captivity and the restoration predicted. KINGS OF JUDAH. Authorized Version of Clinton. Winer. Eng. Bible. B.C. B.C. B.C. 975 976 975 Abijah 9-58 953 914 959 956 915 9.57 Asa 955 Jehoshaphat 914 Jeboram 892 891 889 Ahaziah 885 884 885 Athaliah 884 883 884 Jehoash 878 877 878 Amaziah 837 838 Uzziah, or Aza- 1 riah ; 810 808 809 Jotham 758 756 758 Ahaz 742 726 741 726 741 Hezekiah 725 Manasseh 698 697 696 Amon 643 641 610 642 640 609 641 639 Jehoahaz 609 Jehoiachim 610 609 609 Jehoiachin, or 1 Coniah / 599 598 598 Zedekiah 599 598 598 Jerusalem de- \ stroyed j 588 587 586 Jttdenbteg, (Armistice,) for six days, was signed at this place, tlie ancient Idunum, be- tween tlie French and the Austrians, April 7, 1797. The preliminaries of peace were signed at Leoben April 17, and this led to the treaty of Campo-Formio, concluded Oct. 17. m JUL Judges were appointed by God to rule over the people of Israel (Judges ii. 16) B.C. 1405. Joshua and the elders ruled from B.C. 1451 to B.C. 1095. The govemment by judges lasted from B.C. 1405 to B.C. 1095 ; or, accord- ing to Hales, from B.C. 1564 to B.C. 1110. Judges of Assize. (-See Assize Couets.) Judicial Committee op the Pkity Council, composed of the lord president, the lord chancellor, and such members of the privy council as from time to time hold certain high judicial offices, was instituted by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 183-3). It is a court of appeal in ecclesiastical and mari- time causes. JuGGEEU-ATH, or the 'Lord of the World,' the name of a celebrated temple at Jugger- nath, in the province of Cuttack, India, com- pleted A.D. 1198. It came into the possession of the British in 1803. A pilgrim-tax, insti- tuted by Sir George Barlow in 1806, was repealed by Lord Auckland in 1839. The allovrance made by the East-India Company to the temple was "discontinued in June, 1851. Jugglers, adepts in the art of juggling, existed as early as B.C. 1491, when Pharaoh's magicians imitated the miracles ^Derformed by Aaron (Exod. vii. ) . The Chiuese and the Aztecs took great deHght iu witnessing the performances of jugglers. The practice of the art was attended with considerable danger in former times. A horse which had been taught to perform a number of tricks, was QODclemned to the flames and actually burnt at Lisbon, a.d. 1601. In 1739 a juggler in Poland was tortured until he confessed that he was a sorcerer, and was then hanged. JuGUETHiNE Wae was Waged by the Eoman repubhe against Jugurtha, king of N'umidia, B.C. 111. The consul Calphurnius, in the first year of the war, concluded a peace with Jugurtha, on condition that he should submit to Rome. It was not observed, and, B.C. 109, Aula having been defeated, entered into a treaty which the Eoman government disavowed. The struggle was conducted on the part of the Romans by the famous Caius Marius. Jugurtha was killed, and his do- minions made a Roman province, B.C. 106. Julian- Peeiod was first properly ex- plained by Joseph Justus Scahger, in his " De Emendatione Temporum," published at Paris A.D. 1583, and at Geneva in 1629. ScaUger corrected certain inaccuracies in that work in his "Thesaurus Temporum," &c. The period consists of 7980 years. It commenced B.C. 4714, and will close a.d. 3266. HaUam says that Scahger was very proud of the invention, of which he confesses himself imable to perceive the great advan- tage. JiJLiCH, or Juliees (Prussia), the ancient Juliacum, so called from its supposed founder Julius Caesar, was, with the adjoining terri- tory, made a duchy a.d . 1356. On the extinc- tion of the ducal Hne in 1609, Maurice of K^assau seized the duchy. Several sovereigns laid claim to it, and Juliers was taken by the Spaniards in 1622. It was allotted to the count palatine of Ifeuburg by the peace of JUL the Pyrenees, N'ov. 7, 1659. The French seized it, and annexed it to France in 1794, and it was ceded to Prussia in 1815. July. — This month, which is now the seventh, was with the Eomans the fifth month of the year, being called QuintiUs. Mark Antony (b.c. 49 — a. d. 31) changed its name to Juhus, after Csesar, who was born in this month. The Anglo-Saxons called it Msed-monath, or "mead-month," because the meads were then in bloom. Jumpers. — This sect, akin to the Dancers of the 14th century, arose among the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, about a.d. 1760. They received their name from their habit of jumping during the celebration of their rehgious rites. June was the fourth month in the old Eoman calendar. Numa (b c. 716 — 672) gave it the sixth place, which it has since retained. JuNiOB University Cltjb (London) was built A.D. 1837, Sydney Smirke being the architect. JuNius's Letters were published in the Public Advertiser under the signature of " Ju- nius." The first letter appeared Jan. 21, 1769, and the last, making the sixty-ninth, in Jan. 1772. The first authorized edition, printed under the author's inspection, was pubHshed in London, March 3, 1772, and was issued vnth an index and a table of contents in March, 1773. The question of the authorship of these celebrated pohtical letters has excited considerable controversy. They have been attributed to various persons, and the ques- tion remains undecided. JuNONiA. — These festivals, in honour of Juno, were instituted at Eome B.C. 4<30. The chief, called the Matronalia, was ob- served on the 1st day of March. Jury. — Trial by twelve compurgators, which was of canonical origin, existed in Anglo-Saxon times, and only resembled what is now known as trial by jury in the number of persons sworn. Under the name of Wager of Law, it continued to be the law of England until abolished by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c, 42 (Aug. 14, 1833). Traces of trial by jury are found in the reigns of WiUiam I. and II., Henry I., and Stephen ; but it was not fully estabhshed until the reign of Henry II. Trial by jury was first adopted in criminal cases in the reign of John (a.d. 1189—1199), and was the established mode of dealing vsdth them at the end of the 13th century. Witnesses were ex- amined, and evidence was first laid before juries, in the reign of Henry VI. (a.d. 1422 — 1461) ; but this change was not fully carried out tiU the time of Edward VL ([a.d. 1547—1553). The laws respecting juries were remodelled by 6 Geo. IV. c. 50 (June 22, 1825). Jury Court (Scotland) was estabhshed as subsidiary to the Court of Session by 55 Geo. III. c. 42 (1815). Improvements were introduced into these courts, which were made a permanent part of the judicial establishment of Scotland, by 69 Geo. Ill, JtT c. 35 (1819). This court, as a separate tri- bunal, was abohshed by 1 Will. IV. c. 69 (July 23, 1830). Justices in Eyre, or Itinerant Justices, the judicial representatives of the royal au- thority, were regularly estabhshed by the parhament held at Northampton Jan. 26, 1176. They received a delegated power from the aularegia, and made their circuit round the kingdom once in seven years. By the 12th article of Magna Charta, in 1215, they were ordered to be sent into the country once a year. {See Assize.) Justices of the Peace. — Conservators (q. V.) of the peace received this title when, by 34 Edw. III. c. 1 (1360), the power of trying felonies was intrusted to them. From an entry in the Harleian MSS., it appears that the countess of Eiehmond, mother of Henry VII., was a justice of the peace. The form of the commission by which justices of the peace are appointed, was settled by the judges in 1590. The jurisdiction of justices at quarter sessions is defined by 6 & 6 Vict. c. 38 (June 30, 1842). The office is noticed in Scotland in the act of 1587. Justiciar of Scotland. — Geoffrey of MalevQle, in the reign of Malcolm IV. (a.d. 1153 — 1165), is the first person holding this office of whom any record remains. Justiciars. — These high officers were first appointed in the time of William I., and six, ad audiendum clamores populi in Curia Segis, were appointed at a parhament held by Henry II. at Windsor, in April, 1179. Justiciary (Chief), or Grand Justi- ciary. — An officer who acted as president of the Curia Eegis, or King's Court, in the absence of the king, was fijst appointed by William I. Henry III. made Hubert de Burgh chief justiciary for hfe about a.d. 1227. The last who held the office was PhiHp Basset, appointed during the reign of Henry III. (a.d. 1216—1272). Justinian Code. — This ' comijilation of Eoman laws, ordered to be made by the emperor Justinian I., was promulgated April 7, 528 a.d. A revised edition was issued Nov. 16, 534. Just, or Yust, St. (Spain). — This cele- brated monastery of the order of St. Jerome was founded by two hermits from Placeutia, A.D. 1404, and confirmed by a papal buU in 1408. It is remarkable as the retreat of the emperor Charles V. after his abdication of the crown. He arrived here Wednesday, Feb. 3, 1557, and died Sept. 21, 1558. The monastery was, in consequence, honoured with the title of royal. Its privileges were confirmed in 1562 by Phihp II., who sojourned here for two days in 1570. It was repaired by Phihp IV, in 1638 ; but was pillaged and burned by a party of Soult's foragers, Aug. 9, 1809. The destruction thus com- menced was continued by the church re- formers of Cuacos, who stole what the French had spared, July 4, 1821, and was completed by the monastic sequestrations of 1835. JtJTEEBOCK (Prussia), — At this town JUT Tetzel commeneed tlie sale of papal indul- gences A.D. 1517. A conference was held at Jiiterbock in 1523, by the German Lutheran princes, to adopt measures against the eifects of the Edict of Worms. This conference resulted in the League of Torgau (1526). The Swedish general Torstenson defeated the Austrians under GaUas at this place iu 1644. Jutland (Denmark). — This peninsula was the cradle of the Danes and N"orthmen, whose ravages were for so long the terror of Europe. During the 10th and 11th centuries the entire surface was covered with forests. The Jutes, who established themselves in Kent and Hampshire, came from Jutland. It was overrun by WaUenstein a.d. 1627, and re- stored to Denmark by the treaty of Liibeck in 1630. The allies occupied the south of Jutland in 1813, and an armistice was con- cluded with Denmark Dec. 15, 1813. This led to a treaty between Denmark and Great Britain and Sweden, concluded at Kiel Jan. 14, 1814. KABBEtJAtrWETT AND HOEKS, OT HOOKS, the former signifying the Cod-fish party, and the latter the Fish-hooks, were two factions that arose iu the Netherlands about 1347, soon after the death of William IV., " dividing," as the historian remarks, " noble against noble, city against city, father against son, for some hundred and fifty years, without foundation upon any abstract or intelligible principle." In the end, the Kabbeljauwen represented the city, or municipal faction, and the Hoeks the nobles, who were to catch and control them. The Hoeks were defeated ia a naval action July 21, 1490, by the fleet of the Kabbeljauwen, commanded by Jan von Egmont. Kagtjl (Battle).— The Eussians defeated the Turks in a great battle on the left bank of the river Kagul, or Kabul, Aug. 1, 1770. Kainlt (Battle).— The Eussians, after a severe struggle, defeated the Turks in the plaiu of Kainly, near Erzeroum, July 1, 1829. Kaiseeslatjteett (Germany). — The castle of this very ancient town was built by Frederick I. (Barbarossa), who reigned from A.D. 1152— 1190. The French, under Hoche, failed in an attack upon the aUied army near this town, Nov. 28, 1793. A French army was defeatedhere by MoUendorf, May 24, 1794, with a loss of 3,000 men and several pieces of cannon. Kalaeat (WaUachia). — At the commence- ment of the Eussian war, a Turkish force of 12,000 men took possession of this town, Oct. 28, 1853. An attempt made to dislodge them by a corps of Eussians, 20,000 strong, led to the spirited engagement of Citate, in which the Turks were victorious, Jan. 6, 1854. They fortified the town, and main- tained their position tiU Austria entered the Principalities, by virtue of a treaty signed June 14, 1854. KAN Kaleidoscope. — This optical instrument was invented in 1814 by Sir David Brewster, and patented by him in 1817. Kalisch (Poland) was founded in the 7th century, and its citadel was built by Casimir III., who reigned a.d. 1333—1370. Here the Eussians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706 ; and the Eussians defeated the Saxon infantry, commanded by Eeynier, Feb. 13, 1813. The latter victory was fol- lowed by the " Treaty of Kalisch" between Eussia and Prussia, signed Feb. 28, 1813. A secret convention between the Austrian and Saxon commanders, to allow the troops of the latter a passage through the imperial territories, was concluded at this place about the end of March, 1813. A conference was held at Kalisch between the emperor of Eussia and the king of Prussia, in October, 1835. Kalka (Battle).— The Mongols defeated the Eussians and the Cumans on the banks of this river, June 16, 1224. Kalttnga Fokt (Hindostan) was unsuc- cessfully attacked by the British under Major-General Gillespie, who fell in the assault, Oct. 31, 1814. A second storming party under Colonel Mawby also failed, Nov. 27, and the fort was evacuated by the Nepaulese garrison on the 30th. These events occurred during what is termed the Ghoorka war. Kamineieck or Kaminietz (European Eussia). — This town was founded by the sons of Olgherd, a.d. 1331, and was erected into a city in 1374. In 1672 it was seized by the Turks, to whom it was ceded in 1676. They surrendered it to the Poles in 1699. The Eussians took it in 1793, and demoHshed the fortifications in 1812 ; but they have since i| been rebuilt. Kamtschatka (Siberia) was discovered by some Eussians, who had been wrecked upon the coast, a.d. 1649. The Cossacks penetrated into the country in 1690, and the Eussians took possession in 1696, though they did not succeed in subjugating the inhabitants until 1706. Behring ascertained that it was a peninsula in 1728. Kandahae ( Afighanistan ), though said by some authorities to have been founded by Lohrasp, a Persian Mng, who flourished at a very early period, is generally sup- posed to have been founded by Alexander the Great, diiring his campaigns in Asia, B.C. 334 — 323. In the beginning of the 11th century it was held by the AiFghan tribes, from whom it was taken by the Sultan Mahmoud of Ghiznee. Zenghis EJian seized it towards the commencement of the 13th century, and Timour in the 14th. In 1507 the emperor Baber took it; but beingunable to retain possession, he again laid siege to it in 1521, and effected its capture after a determined resistance. In 1625 it fell tmder the power of Shah Abbas the Great, from whom it was recovered in 1649. In 1747 it was taken by Ahmed Shah, who made it the capital of Aflghanistan. The seat of govern- ment was, however, transferred to Cabul iu 1774. During the Aft'ghan war, a British force occupied the town from 1839 to 1842. Kandy (Ceylon) was captured by Eajah Singha I., a.d. 1582. In February, 1803, it was seized by the British, who evacuated it June 24, after a most disastrous occupation. Kandy was once more conquered by the English, Feb. 14, 1815, and soon after ceded to Great Britain. (See Ceylon.) Kangaeoo Island (Gulf St. Vincent) was discovered by FHnders, a.d. 1802, and thus named by him from the numbers of kangaroos seen sporting about in every open spot. KAif&RAH (Punjaub), an important for- tress, taken a.d. 1010 by Mahmoud of Ghiznee, and recaptured in 1043 by the rajah of Delhi. It came into the possession of England on the annexation of the Punjaub in 1849. Kanoge (Hindostan).— This town in the province of Agra was anciently a place of great importance, and the capital of a pow- erful empire. Kajahs of Kanoge are men- tioned as early as a.d. 1008. It was con- quered by Mahmoud of Ghiznee in 1018, but did not long remain in his possession. It has lost aU its ancient renown, and is now notorious for the shelter its ruins afford to robbers and other criminals. Kansas (North America) formed part of Louisiana, purchased by the United States government from France, a.d. 1803. Kansas was erected into a territory in 1854, and ad- mitted into the Union fts an independent state in 1856. A convention to frame a con- stitution for the new state met in September, 1857. A resolution to appoint a committee to investigate certain charges against Presi- dent Buchanan, of having used bribes and other influence in order to insure the success of a bill legalizing slavery in this state, was adopted by the House of Kepresentatives, March 5, 1860. Kapolna (Battle). — The Austrians de- feated the Hungarians in a series of en- counters near Kapolna, Feb. 26 and 27, 1849. Karegites, or Chaeegites. — A Moham- medan sect, which repudiated the authority of Ali, A.D. 657. They were reduced to sub- mission in 659. Three of their number entered into another conspiracy against Ali, who was stabbed by one of them in a mosque at Cufa, and died two days afterwards, Jan. 21, 661. The term Karegite, deserter, or rebel, was apphed to all who revolted from the lawful Imam. Kaknak (Egypt).— Nothing certain is known respecting the foundation of this temple, which contains sculptures, vdth in- scriptions, for the most part of the time of Eameses III., b.c. 1200. The great hall, however, is ascertained to' have been built by Sethee I., b.c. 1340. Fragments have been found bearing the name of Sesor- tasen I., b.c. 2080. Kaks (Asiatic Turkey) .—Once the capital of the Chorzene district, in Armenia, the residence of the Bagratid princes, a.d. 928— KEN 961. It was exchanged by them in 1064, and has since been known linder the name of Kars. It contains a castle, built by Amu- rath III., A.D. 1586, and besieged in 1735 by Nadir Shah, who, after cutting off a Turkish army of 100,000 men, abandoned the en- terprise. The Russians blockaded the town for a few months in 1806. Paskiewitch laid siege to it July 7, 1828, and captured it July 15. The Turkish garrison, commanded by General Williams, held out gallantly against the investing army of Russia from June 16, 1855, tiU compelled by a famine to capitulate, Nov. 25. The general assault made by the Russians Sept. 29 was repulsed. Kars was restored to the Turks by the third article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. Kashgae, or Cashgae (China), anciently called Sule, existed before the Christian sera, and after exchanging rulers several times, was conquered by the Chinese a.d. 1759, Marco Polo visited it about a.d. 1275. Katzbach (Battle). — Blucher defeated the French, commanded by Ney, on the banks of the Katzbach, Aug. 26, 1813. Keeling, or Cocos Islands (Indian Ocean), were discovered by Keeling in 1609. Kehl ( Germany ) was captured by the French, under Marshal ViUars, March 9, 1703, and by the Duke de Berwick in Decem- ber, 1733. Moreau surprised the fort June 23, 1796. The Austrians attempted to recover it by a coup de main, but failed, Sept. 18, 1796. After a siege of fifty days, the French surrendered to the imperial general, Jan. 9, 1797. Kehl was again given up to the French, April 21, 1797, and, by a decree of the senate, was annexed to the French empire, Jan. 21, 1807. It was finally restored to Baden by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. Kelat, or Khelat (Beloochistan). — This strongly-fortified tovm was stormed by the English on Nov. 13, 1839. The khan and several of his chiefs fell in the struggle. It was left under the care of a garrison of native troops, who surrendered, after a defence of three days' duration, to Meer Nusseer Khan, July 27, 1840. The Beloo- chees having plundered the town, abandoned it, and the British troops regained posses- sion Nov. 3, 1840. Kemaoon, Kumaon (Hindostan). — The whole of this district was ceded to the East- India Company by the convention of Almo- rah, April 27, 1815. Kemmendine (Burmah). — This fortified post was captured by the British troops June 10, 1824, during the Burmese war. The Burmese failed in an attempt to recap- ture the place, Dec. 1 in the same year. Kenilwoeth Castle ( Warvdckshire) . — This celebrated castle was buUt about 1123 by Geoffrey de Chnton, on land granted for the purpose by Henry I. In 1172 it was garrisoned by Henry II. against his rebel- lious sons ; and in 1253 was bestowed for life upon Simon of Montfort, earl of Lei- cester. After the battle of Evesham (g, v.), 461 KEX Kenilwortli was held by Montfort's second son, Simon, and was taken by Henry III. after a six montlis' siege. In 1286 Eoger Mortimer held a great chivalric meeting or *' roTind table " in this castle, which was enlarged by John of Gaunt in 1391. In 1414 Henry V. kept his Lent here, and received a present of tennis-balls from the French dauphin ; and Queen Elizabeth was entertained here with great magnificence by Eobert Dudley, earl of Leicester, ia 1575. She arrived July 9, and prolonged her visit for seventeen days. The decline of Keml- worth commenced during the civil wars, when it was given by Cromwell to some of his officers, by whom it was dismantled. It is now in ruins. Ket^net (Battle). — The Danes defeated Ethelred II. at Kennet, a.d. 1006. Ethelred retired into Shropshire, and assembled the witan, when it was determined to make a truce with the invaders to give them food and pay tribute. In the foUowiug year 36,000 pounds of gold were paid. KENJfiiTGTGJf Common (Surrey). — On this common, near London, Jemmy 'Dawson was hanged, drawn, and quartered, July 30, 1746. The Chartists, headed by Feargus O'Connor, held a memorable meeting here, April 10, 1848, which proved a complete failure as far as the objects of its projectors were concerned. Kennington Common was ordered to be inclosed and converted into a public pleasure-ground by 15 & 16 Vict, c. 29 (June 17, 1852). Kensal-Geeen Cemetehy (London). — The cemetery at this place, on the Harrow Eoad, was laid out by a joint-stock company incorporated by act of Parliament in 1831. It was opened Jan 31, 1832, and consecrated JS'ov. 2. Kensingtoh- Palace and Gabdens (London). — From the Close EoU, temp. Edward I., it appears that a council was held Aug. 23, 1302, "in the king's cham- ber at Kensington." Kensington House was the seat of Heneage Finch, earl of IS'ottiagham, whose son sold it to King WOliam III. soon after his accession, and he converted it into a royal palace. Queen Victoria was born here May 24, 1819, and held her first coimcil here in 1836. The Serpentine was formed between the years 1730 and 1733, and the bridge over it, which separates the gardens from Hyde Park, was erected from the designs of Eennie in 1826. Kent (England), on the coast of which Caesar lauded B.C. 55, was erected into a kingdom by Heugist, a.d. 455. Ethelbert, its king, A.D. 568 — 616, was the first Chris- tian monarch ia England. It was united to Wessex in 824. Alfred made it a county in 886. Kent (Loss of the).— The Kent, East- Indiaman, 1,400 tons burden, carrying troops and passengers, amounting with the crew to 637 souls, left the Downs in the middle of February, 1825, and after experiencing much bad weather in the Bay of Biscay, took fire 462 KET March 1. The flames spread with frightful rapidity, owing to the violence of the gale, and all on board were in expectation of perishing, when they were rescued by the Cambria, Captain Cook, bound for Mexico. Out of the whole number of people on board, 554 were saved, and the ill-fated vessel blew up at two o'clock on the morning of the 2nd of March. Kentish Petition, drawn up at the as- sizes at Maidstone, April 29, 1701, and signed by the grand jury, several magistrates, and freeholders, was presented to the House of Commons May 8. The petitioners besought that assembly to " drop their disputes, have regard to the voice of the people, and change their loyal addresses into bills of supply," The House refused to entertain the petition, and imprisoned WUham Cole- pepper and four other persons who had presented it. This act provoked a memo- rial, which charged the Commons, under fifteen points, -nith tyranny and oppression. A new parhament, which met Dec. 30, 1701, again committed Colepepper to prison, and passed resolutions in answer to the Kentish Petition, Feb. 26, 1702. Kentitckt (North America) was first visited by Europeans a.d. 1767, and settled in 1775. It originally formed part of Vir- ginia. A division took place in 1790, when its first constitution was framed, and Ken- tucky was admitted into the Union as an independent state in 1792. A new consti- tution was drawn up in 1799, and another ia 1850. Keeaites. — Some Tartar tribes who were converted to Christianity in the early part of the 11th century. Their princes were known under the title of Prester John. Keebestee. {See Coebisdale.) Keeesztes (Battle). — Mohammed III. de- feated the Germans in the plain of Keresztea A.D. 1596. Keeguelen Land. {See Desolation" Island.) Keetch (Crimea), on the site of the ancient Pantieapseum, became a Milesian settlement about b.c. 500. Panticapaeum was the capital of the kingdom of Bosporus {q.v.). It was annexed to the Eoman em- pire B.C. 50. The Huns seized it a.d. 375, and the Genoese in 1280. They were com- pelled to abandon it by the Turks in 1473. These were displaced by the Eussians in 1771, to whom the place was formally ceded in 1774. An expedition against the peninsula of Kertch was despatched from the Crimea by the allied forces of France and England, May 23, 1855. Kertch surrendered May 25, and was restored to Eussla by the 4th article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. Kertch is still called Bospor amongst the inhabitants of the Crimea. Ket's iNsrEBECTiON, SO caUcd from its leader, a tanner by trade, broke out at Wy- mondham, in Norfolk, in July, 1549. The insurgents having defeated a force sent against them, were dispersed by the earl of Warwick, Aug. 27. WiUiam Ket, or Knight, KEW KID the leader, and his brother Eobert, with other ringleaders, were tried at Westminster Nov. 23, and were soon after executed. Kew House (Surrey) was made a royal residence by Frederick, prince of Wales (son of George 11.), who took it upon a lease from the Cappel family, a.d. 1730. He began to form the pleasure-grounds, then containing 270 acres, and dying here March 20, 1751, the work was completed by his widow, Augusta, princess of Wales. George III. purchased Kew House about 1789. It was afterwards pulled down, and the furniture, &c., removed to Kew Palace (q. v.). Kew Palace akd Gaedens (Surrey). — This small red brick bmlding is of the date of James I. or Charles I. Queen Charlotte purchased it a.d. 1781. William Alton was appointed manager of the botanical garden of Kew in 1759, and the pleasure and Mtchen gardens were also placed under his care in 1783. He pubhshed his "Hortus Kewensis, or a Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the Eoyal Botanical Garden of Kew," in 1789. Dr. HiU had pubhshed a catalogue of the plants in the exotic garden of Kew, in 1768. Sir William Chambers erected the old stove in 1760, and the orangery in 1761. The pagoda, commenced in 1761, was completed in 1762. A greenhouse for Cape plants was buUt in 1788, and another, for the vegetable productions of New Holland, was added in 1792. The former has been pulled down; but the latter, greatly improved, is known as the Austrahan House. The conservatory was transferred here from Buckingham House in 1836. A committee was appointed in 1838, to inquire into the management, &c., of the Eoyal Botanical Gardens, and the report was presented in May, 1840. The gardens, pleasure-grounds, &c., were trans- ferred to the management of the Commis- sioners of Woods and Forests, and in 1841 were thi'own open to the pubhc. The orna- mented gateway was erected in 1845-6. In 1841 the orange-trees were removed to Ken- sington Palace from the orangery, which was considerably improved in 1842. The palm- house was finished in 1848. A wooden bridge built over the Thames at Kew in 1759, was replaced by the stone bridge in 1783. Sir W. J. Hooker, who effected great improve- ments in these gardens, published a popular guide in 1847. The small work has gone through several editions, and from it much of the foregoing information is derived. Keys. (See Locks.) Khandesh, or Cakdeish (Hmdostan), was an independent sovereignty from the early part of the 15th century tiH it was conquered by Akbar, towards the close of the 16th century. A famine, which carried off an immense number of the population, occvirred in 1803. It was 'annexed by the British government in 1818, although not finally tranquillized tiU 1825. Khaet (Battles). — The Eussians were defeated by the Turks under the walls of this town, in Asia Minor, July 19, 1829. Paslde- witch advanced ^vith another army, and de- feated the Turks at the same place, Aug. 20, 1829. i- » & > Khaetoum, or Khaetum (Egypt), the capital of Nubia, consisted only of a few huts until 1821. It was made the seat of the government for Beledes-Sudan, when that district became an Egyptian province, A.D. 1822. An inundation occurred here in 1850. Khiva (Asia) formed part of the ancient Kharazm, or Chorasmia, a country inhabited by the Chorasmii. The Chinese reduced them to subjection in the 2nd century of the Christian aera, and the Persians in the 8rd. It was erected into an independent kingdom, called Kharizm, in the 10th century, and was subdued by Zenghis Khan in 1218. Tamer- lane conquered it in 1379. The state under- went various changes ; was invaded by the Uzbeg Tartars, who succeeded in establishing themselves about the beginning of the 16th century. The Eussians sent an expedition, 6,000 strong, against Khiva in 1839. They suffered a defeat in October; numbers perished in the snow, and only a few re- turned to Eussia. Khoi (Battle).— The Turks, led by Selim I., were defeated by Shah Ismael in this plain, near a fortified town of the same name, in Persia, a.d. 1514. Khoeassan (Persia), or Country of the Sun, was invaded by the Saracens, who over- threw the Sassanides dynasty, a.d. 641. Taher revolted, and estabUshed his sway in 827 ; Tamerlane conquered it in 1383 ; Ismael, defeating Shakibek, took possession of it in 1510; and it became a Persian province in 1768. Khybeb Pass (Affghanistan) . — By this route Alexander the Great, Tamerlane, Nadir Shah, and other conquerors, pene- trated into India, of which it has been termed the iron gate. The passage was forced by Colonel Wade, July 26, 1839. Keane's army retreated through it in 1840. Brigadier Wild, on his way to the rehef of Jelalabad, assailed the key of the pass Jan. 15, 1842; but for want of additional support was obhged to retire on Jan. 23. Major-General PoUock entered the pass April 5, and the rear of the force emerged from it April 14. The British army, after the subjugation of the Affghan chiefs, re- tired through this pass in October, 1842. Khyepoee (Hindostan). — By the treaty of Kiyrpore, between the East-India Com- pany and the ameers of Scinde, signed April 20, 1832, a free passage up the Indus and other rivers was secured to British ships. The ameer of Khyrpore ceded the place by treaty in 1838, and it was annexed by the British March 24, 1843. A commission to investigate an alleged forgery of certain documents by the ameer Ali Miirad, found him guilty of the act, Jan. 5, 1853. KiDDEEMiNSTEE (Worcestershire) was represented in parhament a.d. 1300. The privilege, subsequently lost, was restored by the Eeform Bill, June 7, 1832. It was incorporated by royal charter in 1637. KIE Kief, Kiev, or Kiow (European Eussia), tlie chief town of a government of the same name, is of great antiquity, and was a flourishing place during the 9th and 10th centuries. It was made a prineipahty in 1157, annexed to Poland in 1386, and ceded in perpetuity to Eussia in 1686. The cathe- dral of St. Sophia was founded a.d. 1037, the Greek Academy, the oldest in Eussia, in 1588, and the university in 1834. Kief was conquered several times by the Poles and Tartars, and was finally ceded to Eussia in 1686. The celebrated fair is held annually in January. Kiel (Denmark) , the capital of Holstein, joined the Hanseatic League A.n. 1300. Its Tiniversity was founded in 1665. It was, with the duchy of Holstein, exchanged for other places by Eussia in 1773. An insurrection in favour of the independence of Sleswig and Holstein occurred here, and a provisional government was formed March 24, 1848. Kiel (Treaty) . — Concluded between Den- mark, Sweden, and Great Britain, at this town, Jan. 14, 1814. Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, while the latter gave up Pome- rania and the isle of Eugen. Heligoland was assigned to England, and the king of Sweden engaged to use his best efforts to obtain for Denmark an equivalent for Nor- way at the general peace. The three con- tracting powers also entered into engage- ments for the prosecution of the war agaiast Napoleon I. Kieest, or Quieect-sue-Oise (France). ^Councils were held here in Apiil or May, 849 A.D. ; in 853 ; Feb. 25, 857 ; and m March, 858. The nobles of France obtaiaed from Charles the Bald an edict, rendering here- ditary all fiefs, earldoms, and duchies, at a diet 'held at Kiersy, June 14r— 16, 877. HaUam remarks that in this reign the Church took the ascendant in national councils. KiLciTLLEM- (Battle). — General Dundas was defeated in an endeavour to dislodge the Irish rebels from their position at tins place, in Kildare, on the morning of May 24, 1798. In consequence of their success, the insurgents immediately took up a position between KilcuUen and Naas, and attempted to intercept Dundas in his retreat. The English army having received reinforce- ments, the rebels were defeated in this second engagement, with the loss of about 300 men. KiLDAEE (Bishopric) . — Thislrishbishopric was founded early in the 6th century, and was originally governed by archbishops. The first bishop was St. Conlaeth, who died May 3, 519. By the Church Temporalties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the see was annexed to Dublin. KiLDAEE (Ireland). — The abbey of St. Bridget, one of the oldest in Ireland, was founded about the 5th century. The *' sacred fire," extinguished for a short time in 1220, was kept burning till the Eeformation. The town was taken by the marquis of Ormond in June, 1649; and 464 KIL the Irish rebels were defeated at Kildare, May 29, 1798. KiLEEK-OEA (Bishopric). — ^No trustworthy account of the foundation of this small dio- cese exists. The first bishop of whom any record has been preserved is Christian, who died in 1254. From 1606 to 1617 Kilfenora was held by the bishop of Limerick. In 1661 it was united to the archbishopric of Tuam, and formed part of that diocese till 1742, when it was held by the bishop of Clonfert. In 1752 it was annexed to KiUaloe. KiLiMAN DJAKO (Africa). — This, the highest mountain in Africa, was discovered by Dr. Krapf, a missionary, in April, 1848. Kilkenny (Ireland) became the site of an English settlement shortly after Eichard de Clare landed in Ireland," a.d. 1170. A cathedral was founded in the 12th century, and the town grew up around it. A castle in course of erection was destroyed in 1193, and the present edifice was founded in 1195. Par- Haments were frequently held here. The duke of Clarence held one in February, 1366, when severe enactments were made against the Anglo-Irish, and the Brehon law was suppressed. Kilkenny was surrounded by waUs in 1400, and was made a city in 1609. It was taken by Cromwell, March 28, 1650. William III. entered Kilkenny after the bat- tle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. The precep- tory of St. John was founded in 1211, and the Dominican or Black Abbey in 1225. The grammar-school, founded in the 16th century, was endowed by the duke of Ormond in 1684. The episcopal palace was enlarged in 1735, and the St. James's Asylum was endowed in 1803. Disturbances, "which broke out in Kilkenny in April, 1833, were speedily sup- pressed. KiLLALA (Bishopric). — This Irish bishopric was founded by St. Patrick some time be- tween the years 434 and 441. In 1607 the see of Achonry was annexed to KiUala, and by the Church Temporalties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the united sees were added to the archbishopric of Tuam. KiLLALA (Mayo). — A French expedition arrived in the Bay of Killala Aug. 22, 1798. They landed 1,150 men, with four field-pieces, and arms, ammunition, and equipments, for distribution amongst the dissaffected. They reached BaUina on the 24th; and defeated a force sent against them at Castlebar {q. v.) on the 27th. They wer$ surroimded at Bal- linamuck {q. v.) Sept. 8. KiLLALOE (Bishopric). — The cathedral of this diocese was founded during the 7th cen- tury, and the first bishop was St. Flannan, the date of whose consecration is not known. About the year 1195 the sees of Eoscrea and Inis-Cathay were annexed to KiUaloe, and in 1752 the bishopric of Kilfenora was also united. Bv the Church Temporalties Act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the sees of Clonfert and Kilmacduagh were united to those of KiUaloe and Kilfenora. KiLLALOE (Ireland), an ancient town, long the capital of the O'Briens of Tho- KIL Km mond, who built a bridge here across the Shannon, a.d. 1054. Near this place Sars- iield intercepted the artillery belonging to the royal army, destined for the siege of Limerick in 1691, The cathedral was rebuilt about 1160. KiLLiECRANKiE ( Battle ) . — Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, having erected the standard of James II. in Scotland, at- tacked and defeated the forces of Wilham III. in the pass of KiUiecrankie, near Blair Athol, July 17, 1689 (O.S.). Dundee, however, re- ceived a mortal wound and his death, and his followers dispersed. KiLMACDUA&H (Bishopric). — The see was founded by Colman MacDuagh, about A.D. 620. During the first five or six centu- ries of its existence, the succession of its bishops is exceedingly indefinite. It was annexed to Clonfert in 1602, and the two sees were added to Killaloe by the Church Tem- poralties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833.) KiLMAiiTHAM Hospital (Dublin). — This institution, for the maintenance of old and disabled soldiers, was founded by charter, A.D. 1680, and completed in three years, at an expense of £23,559. The chapel was con- secrated in 1686. The abolition of this insti- tution was proposed in 1833 ; but objections having been made by the inhabitants of Dub- lin, the project was abandoned. KiLMALLocK ( Ireland ). — St. MaUoch is said to have founded an abbey at this place, in Limerick, in the 6th century. During the 13th century a Dominican abbey was erected. In 1598 Kihnallock was besieged by the Irish, and reheved by the earl of Ormond. Several battles were fought in its vicinity in 1641 and 1642. KiLMOKE (Bishopric). — This is one of the most modern of the Irish bishoprics. It was originally located at Brefny, and Bishop Hugh O'Finn, the earliest on record, died in 1136. The see was transferred to Kilmore in 1454, and in 1660 was united with Ardagh. It was again separated in 1742, and remained distinct, until it was permanently united to Ardagh by the Church Temporalties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). The union was eflfected in 1839. KiLRxrsH (Battle). — The marquis of Ormond, lord-heutenant of Ireland, defeated the Irish, taking aU their baggage and ammu- nition, at Kilrush, in April, 1642. Kilsyth (Battle). — Montrose defeated the Covenanters at this place, in Stirling, Aug. 15, 1645. KiNBURX (Eussia) was attacked by a force of 5,000 Turks, commanded by Kap- Pasha, who were totally defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, June 28, 1788. The combined French and English fleets bombarded it Oct. 17, 1855, , and compelled the garrison to surrender.' It was re- stored to Russia by the fourth article of, the treaty of Paris, signed March 30, 1856. Kinder Garteh". — ^This system of educa- tion for childi-en was introduced by Frede- rick Froebel, who was engaged to teach it 465 at Hamburg by Ronge in 1849, In 1851 it was introduced into England by Madame Ronge, who established a Kinder Garten, or children's garden, at Hampstead. The " Practical Guide to the English Kinder Garten" was published in 1855. Great prominence is given in this system to the pastimes of the young, in which modeUing, drawing, and singing are introduced, and corporal punishment is altogether excluded. KiNGT. — This title, under different forms of orthography, exists amongst most of the northern nations of Europe. The old Latin title rex, a ruler, is the parent of the Itahan re, the Spanish rey, and the French roi. The I EngUsh word king is derived from the Teu- I tonic. By some writers the origin of the I kingly office is derived from Adam, who i "governed or commanded all mankind as long as he lived." Nimrod was the founder of the earliest postdiluvian kingdoms, namely those of Babylon and Assyria, about b.c. 2247. Gibbon affirms that from the earliest period of history the sovereigns of Asia were known by the title of Basileus, or king. He also states that of the whole series of Roman princes in any age of the empire, Hanniba- hanus alone was distinguished by the title of king. This nephew of Constautine I., made king of Pontus a.d. 335, was assas- sinated by his cousins in 337. King- at-Arms.— England is placed under the heraldic jurisdiction of Clarencieux and Norroy, the two provincial kings-at-arms, and of Garter, who takes precedence of the other two indignity and importance. Clarencieux king-at-arms comprehends in his jurisdiction the whole of England south of the Trent, and Norroy presides over the districts north of that river. Clarencieux received his title from Lionel, son of Edward III., and duke of Clarence, and Norroy from his being the north king. The precise year in which they were instituted is unknown, but they were probably founded by Edward III. The office of Garter king-at-arms was created by Henry V. in 1417. Ireland is under the heraldic jurisdiction of Ulster king-at- arms, whose dignity was instituted by Ed- ward VI. Feb. 2, 1553. In Scotland, the Lyon king-at-arms is an officer of great antiquity. King George's or Nootka Sound (Aus- tralia), discovered by the Spaniards about A.D. 1774, was visited in 1778 by Captain Cook, who changed the name of the coast from Nootka to King George's Sound. The Spaniards in 1791 recognized the right of England to the possession of King George's Sound ; and Vancouver arrived here in April, 1792, having been sent by the En- ghsh government to receive from the Spa- niards the restitution of the territory, which he was to explore and survey. A settlement formed upon its shores in 1826 was trans- ferred to Swan River in 1830. Its capacious harbour is much frequented by whalers, and is used as a coaling station for steam-ships. King Henry's College. — {See Christ- church.) 2 H KIN KiwG OF EifGLAina. — Egbert is usually believed to have assumed the title of king of England a.d. 827 ; but Sharon Turner regards Athelstan as the earliest prince vrho bore that title, which he states was instituted in 934. The plural number, as referring to the Idng, was first adopted by Kichard I. after his coronation, Sept. 3, 1189. John added the title of " Lord of Ireland ; " and in 1337 Edward III. assumed that of " King of France." Henry VIII. received the title of " His Most Christian Majesty " from Pope Julius II. in 1513. He changed the title of "Lord of Ireland" into "King of Ireland" in 1542. The kingly office was abolished by the Long Parliament, March 17, 1649 ; but the regnal years of Charles II. are always computed from the date of his father's death. The title of " King of France " was relinquished Jan. 1, 1801, when the royal style was proclaimed to be " Georgius Tertius, Dei gratia Britan- niarum Rex, Fidei Defensor," or George the Third, by the grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith. Queen Victoria was proclaimed throughout British India by the title of " Victoria, by the grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia, Queen, Defender of the Faith," Nov. 1, 1858. King op Italy.— After the reign of Charlemagne, the title " King of Italy" was borne by the heirs to the imperial throne of the Western empire. It was conferred upon Victor Emanuel II. of Sardinia, with the style of " Victor Emanuel II., by the grace of God and by the will of the people, King of Italy, &c.," by the ItaUan parlia- ment, March 17, 1861. King op the Feench. — This, the original title of the French sovereigns, was changed into " King of France " by Philip Augustus (a.d. 1179—1223). The National Assembly ordered the old style to be resumed, Oct. 16, 1789, and abolished royalty Sept. 20, 1792. Louis XVIII. revived the royal title, as King of France, in 1814 ; and Louis Philippe accepted the title of " King of the French " Aug. 9, 1830. Eovalty was abohshed in France Feb. 26, 1848 ; and Napoleon III. restored the title of emperor, Dec. 2, 1852. King of the Romans. — The emperor Henry II. assumed this title previous to his coronation, a.d. 1014, and was the first reigning prince of Italy or Germany to bear the title. It was borne for many years by the heirs of the emperors of Germany, and was first conferred upon Henry III.'s eldest son in 1055. Napoleon I. conferred the title of king of Rome upon his son, March 20, 1811. Kings (Books of). — The two books of Kings, which originally formed only one book in the Hebrew, are supposed to have been written by Ezra before B.C. 444. King's College. {See Aberdeen.) King's College (Cambridge) was founded KIN by Henry VI., a.d. 1441. The first stone of the celebrated chapel was laid in Septem- ber, 1447. Henry VII. gave £5,000 towards the completion of the building in 1508, and his executors, under a power conferred by his wiU, gave a further sum of £5,000 in 1513. The exterior was completed in July, 1515, and the painted windows were designed in 1526. The screen and stalls were completed in 1534. Gibbs erected the Fellows' building in 1724. The new buildings were commenced in 1824, and finished in 1828. King's College (London). — The first steps for the foimdation of this educational estabhshment were taken at a meeting over which the duke of WeUington presided, June 21, 1828. The announcement that government had granted the ground origin- ally intended for the east wing of Somerset House for the site of the institution, free of expense for a thousand years, was made May 16, 1829. The charter of incorporation bears date Aug. 14, 1829 ; and the building, from designs by Smirke, was opened in 1831. Mr. Marsden left the college a library, consisting of about 3,000 volumes, in 1835. King's College Hospital (London) was founded a.d. 1839. King's County (Ireland) formed part of a large extent of territory, known, amongst other names, under that of the kingdom of Offaly, or east and west Glenmallery, was confiscated to the crown by 3 & 4 PhU. & Mary, c. 2 (1556). One portion was named Queen's County, in honour of Queen Mary, and the other King's County, in honour of her husband Phihp. The native chieftains struggled against this settlement, and were subdued in 1600. Many of them took part in the revolt of 1641. King's Evil. — Touching for this disease is alleged to have been first practised by Edward the Confessor, who reigned from A.D. 1043 to 1066, and Evelyn, in his Diary, July 6, 1660, records that King Charles II. began to touch for the evil, "according to custom." A notice was issued May 14, 1661, that " his sacred majesty would continue the healing of his people during the month of May, and then give over till Michaelmas." In White's " Coronations of the Kings of France," it is related that Louis XVI. inunediately after his coronation at Rheims, in 1775, touched 2,400 individuals, who were sufi'ering from this disease, and healed them. Queen Anne was the last English monarch who touched for the evil, 1702 — 1714, Charles Edward touched a female child for the king's evil at Holyrood House, in October, 1745. The office for the ceremony appeared in the Litany as late as 1719. The Jacobites contended that the power of cure did not descend to Mary, William, or Anne. King's (or Queen's) Bench (England), one of the superior courts of common law, received its name from the fact that for- merly the sovereign presided in person, though he was never empowered to determine causes except by the mouth of his judges. By KIN 28 Edw. I. c. 5 (1300), it was made a move- able eoiirt, attendant on the king's person, but it has seldom been held anywhere except at Westminster. During the Interregnum it was styled the Upper Bench. The Bail Court was erected as a branch of this court by 11 Geo. IV. & 1 WiU. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 1830). CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING'S (OB queen's) bench IN ENGLAND. A.D. 1268. March 8. Robert de Brus. 1274. Ealph de Heugham. 1290. Gilbert de Thomtou. 1296. Koger de Brabazou. 1316. WiUiam Inge. 1317. June 15. Henry le Serope. 1323. Hervey de Staunton. 1324. Geoffrey le Scrojje. 1329. May 1. Robert de Malberthorp. 1329. Oct. 28. Henry le Sorope (again). 1330. Dec. 19. Geoffrey le Serope (again). 1332. March 28. Richard de WiiUghby. 1332. Sept. 20. Geoffrey le Serope (again). 1333. Sept. 10. Richard de WUughby (again). 1334. Geoffrey le Serope (againr. 1338. Oct. Richard de Wilughby (again). 1340. July 24 Robert Parning. 1341. Jan. 8. WiUiam Set. 1346. Nov. 26. William de Thoi-pe. 1350. Oct. 26. William de Shareshull. 1357. July 5. Thomas de Setone. 1361. May 24. Henry Green. 1365. Oct. 29. John Kuyvet. 1372. July 15. John de Cavendish. 1381. July 22. Robert Tresilian. 1388. Jan. 31. Walter de Clopton. 1400 . Nov. 15. Sir William Gascoigne. 1413- March 29. Wi'liam Hankford. 1424. Jan. 21. Sir William Cheyne. 1439. Jan. 20. Sir John Juyn. 1440. April 13. Sir John Hody. 1442. Jan. 25. Sir John Fortescue. 1461. May 13. John Markham. 1469. Jan. 23. Thomas Billing. 1481. May 7. William Husee. 1495. Nov. 24. John Fineux. 1526. Jan. 23. John Fitz-James. 1539. Jan. 21. Edward Montagu. 1545. Nov. 9. Richard Lyster. 1552. March 21. Roger Cholmley. 1553. Oct. 4. Sir Thomas Biomley. 1555. June 11. Sir William Fortroan. 1557. May 8. Sir Ed was d Saunders. 1559. Jan. 22. Sir Robert C^tlin. 1574. Nov. 8. Sir Christopher Wray. 1592. June 2. Sir John Popham. 1607. June 25. Sir Thomas Fleeming. 1613. Oct. 25. Sir Edward Coke. 1616. Nov. 16. Sir Heniy Montagu. 1621. Jan. 29. Sir James Ley. 1625. Jan. 26. Sir Rauulphe Crew. 1627. Feb. 5. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 1631. Oct. 24 Sir Thomas Richardson. 1635. April 14. Sir John Bramston. 1642. Oct. 10. Sir Robert Heath. 1648. Oct. 12. Hei.ry RoUe. 1655. June 15. John Glynne. 1660. Jan. Richard Newdigate. 1660. Oct. 23. Sir Robert Fuster. 1663. Oct. 19. Sir Robert Hyde. 1665. Nov. 22. Sir John Kelynge. 1671. May 18. Sir Matthew Hale. 1676. May 12. Sir Richard Kaynsford. 1678. May 31. Sir WUliam Scroggs. 1681. AprU 11. Sir Francis PemUsrton. 1683. Jan. 22 Sir Edmund Saunders. 1683. Sept. 29. Sir Geoige, afterwards Lord Jeffreys. 1685. Oct. 22. Sir Edward Herbert. 1687. AprU 21. Sir Robert Wright. 1689. April 17. Sir John Holt. 1710. March 16. Sir Thomas Parker (earl of Mac- clesfield). 487 A.D. 1718. 1724 1733. 1737. 1754 1756. 1802. 1818. KIN May 19. Sir John Pratt. Feb. 28. Sir Robert, afterwards Lord Raymond. Oct 27. Sir PhUip Yorke, afterwards earl of Hardwicke. June 14. Sir William Lee. April 20. Sir Dudley Ryder. Oct. 24. William Murray, Lord Mansfield, afterwards earl of Mansfield. June 9. Lloyd, Lord Keuyon. April 17. Edward Law, Lord Ellenborough. Nov. 2. Sir Charles Abbot, afterwards Baron Tenterden. Nov. 8. Sir Thomas Denman, afterwards Lord Denman. March. Lord Campbell. June. Sir Alexander Cockbum. King's (or Queen's) Bench (Ireland), was established by Edward I. towards the close of the 13th century. CHIEF JUSTICES OP THE KING'S (oE queen's) BENCH IN lEELAND, SINCB THE CLOSE OF THE 17tH CENTUET. A.D. 1695. Sir Richard Pyne. 1709. Alan Brodiick. 1711. July 5. Sir Richard Cox. 1714. Oct. 14. William Whitshed. 1727. April 3. John Rogerson. 1741. Dec. 29. Thomas Marlay. 1751. Aug. 27. St. George Caulfield. 1760. July 31. Warden Flood. 1764 Aug. 24. John Gore, afterwards Earl Annaly. 1784. April 2J. John Scott, afterwards earl of Clonmel. 1798. June 13. Arthur Wolfe, afterwards Lord Kilwarden. 1803. Sept. 12. William Downes, afterwards Viscount Downes. 1822. Feb. 14. Charles Kendal Bushe. 1841. Nov. 10. Edward Pennefather. 1846. Jan. 23. Francis Blackburne. 1852. March 1. Thomas Lefroy. King's (or Queen's) Bench Peison. — This debtor's prison is said to have been the gaol to which Judge Gascoigne committed Prince Henry in the reign of Henry TV. The office of marshal of the King's Bench was sold to a company of proprietors by the earl of Eadnor, Sept. 20, 1718, for £10,500. The prison was bmlt in 1751, enlarged in 1776, and burnt by the mob during the Gordon riots (q.v.) in 1780. The pre- sent building was erected in 1781. A fire broke out in this prison July 13, 1799, and was not extinguished until several apartments had been destroyed. The freedom of prisoners to live anywhere within the rules of this prison was abolished in 1835. By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 22 (May 31, 1842) , the Eleet and Marshalsea prisons were consolidated with the King's Bench, and the three received the name of the Queen's Prison. King's (or Queen's) Counsel. — The ap- pointment of this officer, beyond the usual law officers of the crown, is beheved to have originated dui-ing the reign of Queen Eliza- beth. A warrant of James I., dated April 21, 1603, speaks of Francis Bacon as " one of the learned counceU to the late queen, our sister, by special commandment," and con- firms him in the office ; and a patent exists of Aug. 25, 1604, by which he was formally appointed. 2 H 2 kin- King's Speech. — The iBrst speech from the throne is said to have been delivered by Henry I., a.d. 1107. KiNGSTOir (Canada) was settled a.d. 1783 by the Dutch, who gave it the name of Esopas. It was incorporated in 1838. The seat of the government was transferred from Kingston to Toronto in 1844. Kingston (Jamaica) was bnilt a.d. 1693, in consequence of the destruction by an earthquake of Port Eoyal in 1692. It was nearly destroyed by fire, !Feb. 8, 1782 ; and the cholera carried off about one-eighth of the population in 1850. The railroad from Kingston to Spanish-town was opened in 1845. KiK-GSTON--osr -Thames (Surrey) was the abode of royalty in the Anglo-Saxon period ; and between a.d. 902 and 979, seven kings were crowned at this place. The stone on which this ceremony was performed is still preserved. King John granted the town its first charter in 1199. In the reigns of Edward II. and III. (1307—1377) it re- turned members to parHament, a privilege it has not since enjoyed. Queen Ebza- beth's free grammar-school was founded in 1561. The bridge over the Thames was erected in 1827 ; the town-hall in 1838. Miss Burdett Coutts built a district church here in 1845. Kingstown (Ireland) was called Duuleary prior to the embarkation of George lY. for England, Sept, 3, 1821, when it received its present name in honour of that event. The construction of the harbour was commenced in 1817, from designs by Eennie, at a cost of nearly £800,000. It was connected with Dubhn by railway Dec. 17, 1834, and with Dalkey by atmospheric railway March 29, 1844. Queen Victoria embarked at this port, on her return from Ii-eland, in August, 1849. KiNSALE (Ireland). — This town, in the county of Cork, is a place of considerable antiquity. Sir John de Courcey erected a castle on the Old Head of Kinsale in the 12th century ; and iu 1380 the English fleet defeated the combined naval forces of France and Spain in the harbour. A Spanish force landed here Sept. 23, 1601, and seized the town on behalf of the Roman CathoUc rebels ; but it was besieged by the English and recaptured, Dec. 28. In March, 1689, Kinsale was garrisoned by the French and Irish forces of James II., who held it tiU the end of 1690, when it surrendered to General Churchill, afterwards duke of Marl- borough. The prosperity of Kinsale has been in a declining condition since the peace of 1814. KiNTEiSHi (Battle). — The Eussians de- feated the Turks near this place, in the province of Erivan, March 15, 1829. KiOGE (Sea-fights).— In the bay of Kioge, on the coast of the island of Zealand, the Swedish fleet was defeated by a combined Dutch and Danish fleet, a.d. 1676. From the fact that the action took place near Bornhohn, it is often called by that name. 468 KIS A Swedish fleet having assailed a Danish fleet here, Oct. 4, 1710, one Danish ship of ninety guns blew up, and two of the Swedish flag-ships grounded on a sandbank, and \^ ere abandoned. The Swedish fleet re- tired Oct. 7. Kipzak, or Kapzak (Asia). — This plain, supposed to be the primitive seat of the Cossacks, was conquered by Toushi, son of Zengis Khan, a.d. 1219 ; and Baton estab- lished the Golden Horde in 1234. KiECHDENEEEN (Battlcs). — The French were defeated by the allies at this village in Germany, July 15, 1761. The first attack was made upon the EngUsh, commanded by the marquis of Granby, and both leader and men displayed extraordinary gallantry. The combat was renewed on the following day, when the French were again defeated. The French lost 5,000 and the allies only 1,500 men in killed and wounded. These combats are sometimes mentioned under the name of the battle of ViUiugshausen. KiRCHHOLM (Battle).— Sigismund, king of Poland, defeated the Swedes at Kirchhobn, A.D. 1605. KiEKCALDT (Fifeshire). — This town was the seat of an ancient establishment of the Culdees. It was erected into a royal burgh A.D. 1334, when it was rendered subject to the abbot of DunfermHne and his successors. It became independent in 1450, and received a charter from Charles I. in 1644. KissENGEN (Bavaria).— The importance of this fashionable watering-place arose from the patronage of Louis, king of Bavaria (a.d. 1825—1848). The celebrated artesian weU, 2,000 feet deep, commenced in 1832, was completed in 1852. Kissing, as a rehgious act, was practised in the time of the patriarch Job, B.C. 2130, who protests (Job xxxi. 26) that he had not kissed his hand to the sun or to the moon. This mark of devotion was paid to Baal (1 Kings xix. 18), B.C. 910. It passed to the Greeks, and from them to the Eomans. Dr. Winsemius declares that the custom was unknown in England till the Princess Eowena, daughter of R engist, king of Fries- land, pressed herhpsto the cup, and saluted Vortigern with a "httle kiss," a.d. 449. From a passage in Eveh'n's Diary, it appears that men kissed each other in the streets of London towards the end of the 17th century. The Spanish conquerors found the custom prevalent in the Isew '\'\ orld. Kiss of Peace. — The osculum pads, or the solemn kiss of peace, was anciently given by the faithfid one to the other, as a testi- mony of theii- cordial love and affection. After the priest had given the salutation of peace, the deacon ordered them to salute one another with a holy kiss. It was also given before the Eucharist, until the 12th or 13th century, when the Pax (q. v.) was introduced. Towards the end of the 3rd century, the kiss of peace was given in bap- tism. It is said to have been omitted at the coronation of Stephen, a.d. 1135. Henry II. of England refused to give Becket the kiss KIT KNI consider that Pharaoh conferred the honour of knighthood upon Joseph when he put his ring on his finger and invested him in robes of dignity (G-en. xli. 42), b.c. 1715; but there is no evidence of the existence of any such institution until Eomulus estab- Hshed the equestrian order at Eome, about B.C. 753. Modern knighthood did not ori- ginate in this order, but in the tenure which compelled feudal vassals to hold their lands by furnishing armed men for the service of the sovereign, the obligation to furnish one soldier constituting one knight's fee. The earUest mode of conferring the honour of knighthood in England was the consecration of the novitiate's sword by the priest at the altar. The first knight created by the stroke of a sword was Athelstan, who was dubbed by Alfred the Great, a.d. 900. The chivalric element was not introduced into knighthood until the period of the crusades, when devo- tion to (xod and the fair sex became the chief characteristics of all good knights. Ecclesiastics were prohibited from conferring knighthood by a synod held in 1102. In the reigns of Edward YI. and Elizabeth, aU persons possessed of lands yielding a yearly income of £40 were compelled to receive knighthood or pay a fine ; and in 1626 Charles I. recruited his exhausted exchequer by reviving this obsolete custom. The compensation exacted from those knights who declined to perform military service was abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 20 (1640), and the service itself was abolished by 12 Charles II, c. 24 (1660). The following is a hst of the various orders of knighthood, the principal of which are noticed under their respective titles : — A.D. Albert (Saxony) 1850 Albert the Bear (Anlialt Coethen) 1382 Alcantara (Spain) H56 Alexander Newsky (Eussia) 1722 Andrew, St. (Russia) 1698 Anne, St. (Russia) 1735 Annunciada (Sardinia) 1355 Antony, St. (Austria) 1382 Antony, St. (Palestine) 370 Apostolic Order of St. Stephen (Hungary) .... 1764 Avis, St. Benedict of (Portugal) 1147 Band, or Scarf (Spain) 1330 Bath (England) before 1204. Revived 1725 Bavarian Crown (Bavaria) 1808 Bear (Austria) 1213 Bee (France) 1703 Belgian Lion (Holland) 1815 Black Eagle (Prussia) 1701 Blood of Our Savioui- (Austria) 1608 Bourbon (Prance) 1370 Brician (Sweden) 1366 Broom Flower 1234 Burgundian Cross (Palestine) 1535 Calatrava (Spain! 1158 Catherine, St. (Russia) 1714 Catherine of Sinai, St. (Palestine) 1063 Charles III. (Spain) 1771 Charles XIII. (Sweden and Norway) 1811 Charles Frederick (Baden) 1807 Chase-horn (Wiirtemberg) 1702 Christ (France) 1206 Christ (Portugal) 1317 Concord (Prussia) 1660 Constantine (Two Sicilies) 1190 Cordon Jaune (France) 1606 Crescent 1288 and 1448 Cross 1668 of peace, at that time the usual pledge of reconciliation, in 1169. Kit-Cat Club (London). — This celebrated association was formed about a.d. 1700, and held its first meetings at a small house in Shire Lane. It originally consisted of thirty- uine noblemen and gentlemen distinguished for the warmth of their attachment to the house of Hanover. The duke of Marlbo- rough, Sir Kobert Walpole, Addison, Garth, and many famous men of the period, were enrolled on its list of members. The club is said to derive its name from Christopher Katt, a pastrycook, at whose house the members dined. KiTTS, St. {See Christopher's, St.) Klagenptjet (lEyria), the capital of Carinthia, belonged to the crown till a.d. 1518, when Maximihan I. transferred it to the states of Carinthia, for the purpose of erecting a fortress. The House of Assembly was built in 1391. At various times the city has suffered from extensive fires. Those which occurred in 1535, 1723, and 1796, were very destructive. The place was taken by the French, March 29, 1797, and on the 30th Napoleon made it his head-quarters. A skirmish took place here between Chastellar and the Italian general Eusca, in Jtme, 1809. Klausenbueg (Transylvania), the capital, called Colosvar or Kolosvar by the Hun- garians, is believed to have been founded by the Eomans, and by them named Claudia, whence its modern Latin appellation of Clau- diopolis. A colony of Saxons settled here and enlarged the town a.d. 1178. The cathe- dral was built in fulfilment of a vow by King Sigismund, 1399. Matthias Corvinus Huni- ades, king of Hungary, was born here in 1443. On a lofty eminence stands the cita- del, erected in 1721. KifEELEBS. — A third order of catechumens was distinguished by this name by the coun- cil of Neocsesareia, a.d. 314 or 315, and other councUs. Amongst the penitents was an order of kneelers or prostrators. Kneeling was practised as the ordinary posture of devotion from the earliest times. Amongst the primitive Christians, on the Lord's day, aU prayers were performed standing, but on other days some were said standing, some kneehng. Knight Eeeantkt is described by a writer in the " Enclyclopsedia Britannica" (vii. 536) as " a practical caricature of chivalry, which, by bringing it into contempt, exposed it to ridicule, and thus sealed the doom of an institution which, with all its follies, ab- surdities, and vices, has conferred essential benefits upon mankind." Cervantes wrote "Don Quixote," of which the first part was pubUshed in 1605 and the second in 1615, in ridicule of knight errantry. Knighthood. — The institution of knight- hood originated in the honour anciently bestowed upon svieh as excelled in horse- manship. Hence the Latin, French, Itahan, Spanish, and Dutch words for the English knight are aU derived from terms which signify ' horse.' Some zealous antiquarians Kiri K^v'I Cross of the South (Brazil) 18a2 Crown of Wiiitemberg (Wiu'tembeig) 1818 Crown Royal (Fi ance) 802 Danebrog (De-nmark) 1219 De la Calza (Venice) 1400 Da la Scama (Spain) 1320 Dog and Cock (France) 500 D"ve (Spain) 1379 Dragon overthrown (Anstiia) 1418 Ducal House of Peter Fi-ederick Louis (Olden- burg) 1838 Elephant (Denmark) 1458 Elizabeth Theresa (Austria) 1750 Eimine (France) 1450 Faustin, St. (Hay ti) 1849 Ferdinand, St. (Spain) 1811 Ferdinand, St. (Two Sicilies) 1800 Fidelity (Denmark) 1732 Fools (German empire) 1381 Francis (Two Sicilies) 1829 FVancis Joseph (Austria) 1849 Garter (England) 1344 Generosity (Piussia) 1665 Gennet (France) 726 George, St. (Bavaria) 1729 George, St. (Hanover) 1839 George, St. (Lucca) : 1833 George, St. (Russia) 1769 George of the Reunion, St. (T^vo Sicilies) . . 1819 Gerion, St. (Austria) 1190 German Integrity (Saxe-Gotha) 1690 Golden Fleece (Austria) 1429 Golden Lion 1785 Golden Shield (France) 1363 Golden Spurs (Papal States) 1559 Gregory the Great, St. (Papal States) 1831 Guelphic Order (Hanover) 1815 Henry the Lion (Brunswick) 1834 Henry, St. (Saxony) 1739 Hermmgilde, St. (Spain) 1814 Holy Ghost (France) 1579 Holy Sepulchre (Turkey) 1496 Hubert, St. (Bavaria) 1444 Iron Cro-mi (Austria) 1805 Iron Cross (Prussia) 1813 Iron Helmet (Hesse) 1814 Isabella the Catholic (Spain) 1815 James, St. (Holland) 1290 James of CumposteUa, St. (Spain) 1175 Januarius, St. (Two Sicilies) 1738 Jesus Christ (Papal States) 1320 Jesus and Mary (Papal States) 1615 John, St. (Prussia) 1319 Joseph, St. (Tuscany) 1807 Knot (Naples) 1351 Lady of Mercy (Spain) 1218 Lamb of God (Sweden) 1564 Legion of Honour (France) 1802 Leopold (Austria) , 1808 Leopold (Belgium) 1832 Lily of Aragon (Spain) 1410 Ijly of Navarre (Spain) About 1050 Lion and tbe Sun (Pema) 1808 Lion of Zachringen (Baden) 1812 Loretto (Papal States) 1587 Louis (Hesse) ] 807 Louis, St. (Lucca) 1836 Madonna of Guadaloupe (Mexico) 1853 Malte, St. John of (Austiia) 1043 Maria Theresa (Austria) 1757 Mary Magdalene, St. (France) 1614 Maurice and Lazarus, St. (Sardinia) 1572 Maximilian (Bavaria) 1853 Maximilian Joseph (Bavaria) 1806 Medjidie (Turkey) 1852 Merciful Brethren of the Holy Ghost (Papal States) * Merit (Prussia) 1740 Merit (Saxony) 1815 Michael, St. (Bavaria) 1693 Michael and George, St. (England) 1818 Military Merit (Hesse) 1769 Military Merit (Russia) 1792 MUitary Merit (Tuscany) 1841 MUitary Merit (Wurtemberg) 1759 Neighbourly Love (Austria) 1708 470 A.D. ■ Nichan (Tunis) * Nichani-Iftihar (Turkey) 1831 Nicolas, St. (Naples) 1382 Noble Passion (Gei-man empire) 1704 Oaken Crown (Luxemburg) 1841 Oak of Navarre (Spain) 722 Olaf, St. (Norway) 1847 Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vicosa (Portugal) 1818 Our Lady of Montesa (Spain) 1317 Patrick, St. (Bavaria) * Patrick. St. (England) 1783 Pedro (Brazil) 1826 Peter and Paul, St. (Papal States) 1520 Pius (Papal States) 1847 Polai Star 1743 Porcupine (France) 1393 Red Eagle (Prussia) 1734 Redeemer (Greece) 1833 Rosary of Toledo (Spain) 1212 Rose (BrazU) 1829 Koyal Louis (Bavaria) 1827 Rue Crown (Saxony) 1807 Rupert (German empire) 170I Saviour of the World (Sweden) 1561 Savoy (Sardinia) 1815 Saxe-Ernest (Saxe-Gotha) 1825 Seraphim (Sweden and Norway) 1280 Ship (France) 1269 Sincerity (Prussia) 1705 Stanislaus, St. (Russia) 1765 Star (France) 1022 Star (Sicily) 135I Stephen, St. (Tuscany) 1562 Swan (Prussia) 1449 Sword (Sweden and Norway) 1523 Sword in uyprus (Sardinia) About 1200 Sword-Bearers (Poland) . . 1200 Templars (Palestine) 1119 Teutonic Order (Austria) 1191 Thistle (Scotland) 809 Tower and Sword (Portugal) 1459 TruxiUo (Spain) Before 1227 Vasa (Sweden and Norway) 1776 Vii-gtn Mary (Papal States) 1233 White Cross (Tuscany) 1814 White Eagle (Russia) 1634 White Falcon (Saxe- Weimaa) 1732 WiUiam (Holland) 1815 Wing of St. Michael (Portugal) 1172 Wolodomir, St. (Russia) 1782 Knight-Mabshal. — Tke earl-marslial of England (q.v.) had a knight under him called the Knight- Marshal. In ordinances made by Henry VIII. at Eltham, a.d. 1526, directions were laid down for his attendance at court, &e, EJNiGHTS (Female). — Besides the orders of knighthood bestowed on men, there are several instituted for the honour of meri- torious ladies. The following table exhibits a list of these, the most imjDortant of which are noticed under their titles : — A.D. Amaranta (Sweden) 1645 Anne, St. (Bavaria) 1784 Catherine, St. (Russia) 1714 Cordelifere (France) 1498 Death's Head itioi Elizabeth, St. (Palatine) 1766 iFabela, St. (Portugal) 1801 Louisa (Prussia) 1814 Maria Louisa (Spain) 1792 Neighbourly Love (Austria) 1662 Slaves to Virtue (Austria) 1662 Staiiy Cross (Austria) 1668 Theresa (Bavaria) 1827 Ulrica, St. (Sweden) 1734 Kkights of the Eouin) Table. — This KNI order is said to have been founded by King Arthur, a British prince, who was probably killed at the battle of Camelon, a.d. 542. Edward III., anxious to revive it, offered free conduct to persons from various parts of Europe, desirous of attending a solemn festival of the Eound Table, to be held at Windsor a.d. 1344. Philip VI., king of France, prohibited his subjects from at- tending, and announced his intention of holding a Bound Table at Paris. From this originated the order of the Garter (q.v.). Kkights of the Shiee. — The representa- tives in parliament of the English counties were first summoned about a.d. 1254, in the reign of Henry III., and in a more regular form Jan. 20, 1265. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2 (1432), amended by 14 Geo. III. c. 58 (1774), knights of the shire were to be elected by persons possessing a freehold to the value of forty shillings by the year vrithin the county. Knitting. — The art of knitting is said to have been invented during the 16th century. The French stocking -knitters were incor- porated into a guild Aug. 26, 1.527 ; and Queen Elizabeth received a present of a pair of black silk stockings in 1561, which gave her such satisfaction that she refused to wear any other kind. The first knitted woollen stockings in England were worked by Wilham Kider in 1664 ; and in 1577 the art of knitting seems to have been common throughout all England. Knives were, according to Anderson, first made in England a.d. 1563. Fosbroke states that towards the end of the 16th century they formed part of the accoutre- ments, and were worn by European women at the girdle. The Anglo-Saxons and the Normans carried about with them the met- sisx, or eating-knife. An Egyptian knife, with blade of copper, has been found in the catacombs of Sacarruh. Know-nothings. — This political party of the United States published its " Platform of Principles" June 15, 1855. Its distin- guishing features were the approval of sla- very and hostility to the Koman CathoUc church. KoLiN (Battle). — The Prussians under Fredei*ick the Great sustained a signal defeat from the Austrians under Marshal Daun, at this town, in Bohemia, June 18, 1757. KoNGSBEEG ( Norway ),— The silver- mines in the neighbourhood, for which this town is celebrated, were discovered a.d. 1623. KoNiGSBEHG (Prussia). — This city was founded a.d. 1255 by the knights of the Teu- tonic order, at the suggestion of Premislaus II. of Bohemia. The royal castle was erected in 1257, and the cathedral commenced in 1332. In 1365 it joined the Hanseatic League, and in 1525 became the residence of the Prussian dukes, and the capital of the duchy. The university, founded in 1544, by the margrave Albert, is called the Alber- KOR tine in consequence. Konigsberg was sur- rounded by walls in 1626, and the citadel of Fredericksburg was built in 1657. The elector Frederick III. was crowned king of Prussia at this place in 1701. The plague raged here with great fury in 1709, and much damage was done by fires in 1764, 1769, 1775, and 1811. The Eussians entered Konigsberg in triumph, Jan. 16, 1758, and the French seized it in 1807, and it was again fortified in 1843. The coronation of WiUiam I. of Prussia was celebrated here with great magnificence, Oct. 18, 1861. KoNiGSHOFEN, (Battle,) was fought at this place, in Germany, June 2, 1525, during the Peasant war, when the peasantry were de- feated by the imperial troops, and perished in great numbers. KoNiGSTEiN (Germany) was surrendered to the Prussians, after a blockade of some months, March 9, 1793. For about three months in 1849, the king of Saxony sought refuge here, on account of the revolutionary tendencies of his subjects. The fortress is considered impregnable, and at its foot stands the camp of Pirna (q.v.). KooM (Persia) was built by the Saracens about the beginning of the 9th centuiy. The Affghans destroyed it in 1722. It was at one time celebrated for its manufactures of sUk. KoKAN. — This word, signifying in the ori- ginal Arabic, ' that which ought to be read,' is the name given to the bible of the Moham- medans, which was prepared by Mohammed about A.D. 612, and collected and published by his successor Abubeker in 634. The divine authority of the book was denied by Djeab Ibn-Dirhem in 740, and by other heretics in 826 ; in consequence of which Haroun II. prohibited aU discussion on the subject in 842. The first Latin translation of the Koran was made in 1143. Hinckelmann pubhshed the Arabic text in 1696. Sale's English Koran appeared in 1734, and Savary's French version in 1753. Fliiegel's stereo- typed edition was published at Leipsic in 1834. — The work contains 114 chapters and 6,000 verses, and its contents are divided into the three general heads of precepts, histories, and admonitions. KoRDOEAN (Central Africa). — This district of the jSigritia, long tributary to the king of Sennaar, was taken in the latter half of the 18th century, by the king of Dar-Fur, from whom it was wrested by Mehemet Ali in 1820. Mehemet AU was confirmed in the possession of Kordofanby a firman issued by the sultan Feb. 13, 1841. KoKEiSH. — This cebebrated Arabian tribe was descended from Fihr, born about 200, and was elevated to importance by Kussai, born about 400. The custody of the Caaba, (q.v.) was usurped by the Koreishites in 400, and Mohammed was born a member of the tribe in 569. In 613 he was vigorously op- posed in his religious reformation by Ms fellow Koreishites, and a war resulted, which terminated in the total defeat of his oppo- nents ia 630. Miknan says the KoreisBte 471 KOE KUS tril^e was a kind of hierarchy, esercisiag religious supremacy. KoEifEUBUEG, (Treaty,) was concluded between Frederick III. , emperor of Germany, and Matthias, king of Bohemia, Dec. 1, 1477. Frederick agreed to invest him with the crown, and to pay 100,000 ducats towards the expenses of the war against Ladislaus VI. KosLiK, or CosLiN (Prussia), the an- cient Cholin, destroyed by fire a.d. 1718, was restored by Frederick William I. KosLov. [See Eupatobia.) KoTAH (Hindostan).— A treaty was con- cluded between the state of Kotah and the East-India Company, relative to the suc- cession, A.D. 1817. Kotah was the scene of the murder of Major Burton, of the 40th Bengal infantry, on the 15th of October, 1857, during the mutiny, when his two sons also were put to death, and the Residency was plundered and bxirned. On the 30th March, 1858, General Roberts assaulted the town of Kotah with complete success, and compara- tively trifling loss. KoTEiAH (Battle). — Lieutenant Marshall, at the head of 900 sepoys and 60 horse, defeated 4,000 Beloochees, posted among the hiUs of Kotriah, in Scinde, Dec. 1, 1840, KouLEFTSCHA (Battle). — The Russians, after a desperate contest, in which victory wavered from one side to the other, defeated the Turks in the valley of Kouleftscha, June 11, 1829. KotrsADAC (Battle).— The Mongols defeat- ed the sultan of Iconiimi at Kousadac, a.d. 1244. KouTCHorK -Kainaedji ( Bulgaria ) . — A treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey was concluded at this village, on the Danube, July 10, 1774 (O.S.). It was confirmed by the leaders of the armies, July 15. By an edict of Catherine II., March 19, 1775 (O.S.), fixing a day of thanksgiving for the re-establishment of peace, the ratifications were said to have been exchanged at Con- stantinople Jan. 13, 1775 (O.S.). The Crimea was declared independent, and the free navigation of the Black Sea guaranteed. It is often called the treaty of Kainardji. KowNO (Russia) was reached by the in- vading army of iN'apoleon I., June" 23, 1812, and taken possession of by the advanced guard the following morning. The Russian commander Platoif captured 3,000 French soldiers here Dec. 12, and the miserable remnant of the " Grand Army" commenced their retreat from this point Dec. 13. Keajota (Wallachia).— The Russians suf- fered a defeat from the Turks near this town, Sept. 26, 1828. Here their army commenced its retreat from Turkey, April 24, 1854. KEASJfoi (Battle). — The Russians gained an important victory over the French army under Xapoleon I., near thistovra, in Russia, Nov. 17, 1812. No less than 6,000 prisoners fell into the hands of the conquerors, toge- ther with part of the emperor's archives. KEEMiyi>' (Moscow) was erected as a ! palace by the gz-and-duke of Russia a.d. 1 472 ' I 1367, and fortified in 1492. Napoleon I. 1 reached the new palace, built in 1743, Sept. 14, 1812. He remained here till the j 16th, when the conflagration reached the ! Kremlin, and it was soon reduced to ashes. Another palace was bmlt upon its site in 1816. Keetjtznach (Prussia). — This tovra was stormed by Gustavus Adolphus a.d. 1632. The French drove the Austrians from this I place Nov. 30, 1795. j KsoiA, or Keoja (European Turkey). — Amurath II. led two expeditions on a large scale against this town a.d. 1449 and 1450, and they were both unsuccessful. The Turks were repulsed in another attempt in 1477. By a treaty signed Jan. 26, 1479, the Vene- tians ceded Kroia to the Turks. Keotzka (Battle). — The Austrians were defeated by the Turks at this place July 22, 1739. I KuifOBiTZA (Battle). — John Huniades \ defeated the Turks at this place, in the j Balkan, Dec. 24, 1443. ' Ktjedistan (Asia) . — The ancient Cordyene or Gordyene, a district inhabited by the wan- dering tribes of the Carduchi. Originally subject to Persia, it was, in the time of Alex- ander the Great, annexed to Syria. The Parthians conquered it in the 3rd century before Christ. Lucullus passed the winter here b.c. 68, and Pompey annexed it to Rome B.C. 64. It again passed under the dominion of the kings of Persia, from whom : it was wrested by Galerius, a.d. 298. It was restored to Chosroes by Jovian, by the treaty I of July, 363, and it afterwards" fell to the ' caliphs of Bagdad. In 1258 Kurdistan was j conquered by the Mongols, and in 1388 by the Tartars under Tamerlane. The greater i portion of the country was conquered by the j Turks in 1515, Persia retaining only about a j fourth. The Kurds remained in a state of 1 insubordination. They massacred the Nes- torian Christians in 1846, destroying sixty- ' seven towns and villages. The sultan dis- I patched an armj into Kurdistan in 1846, ! when the murderers of the Christians were punished, and the country was reduced to subjection. Ktjeile Isles (Pacific Ocean). — This group of twenty-six islands was first dis- I covered by the Russians, a.d. 1713. Five of the islands were known in 1720, and the dis- I covery of the whole archipelago was com- I pleted in 1778. Captain Golownin, of the Russian navy, was sent to survey them in 1811. The Russians formed a settlement on one of them, called Urup, in 1828, and the three southernmost islands of the group are occupied by the Japanese. KuEEACHEE (Hindostau) . — This seaport town of Scinde was bombarded and taken by the British, Feb. 3, 1839. It is celebrated for its pearl-fishery. Ktjsteix, or Ctjsteis- (Prussia). — This strongly -fortified town, on the Oder, was besieged Aug. 15, and burnt by the Russians Aug. 22, 1758. The battle of Zorndorf, near Kustrin, was fought between the Prussians LAA and the Russians Aug. 25, 1758. It lasted from nine in the morning until seven at night, and neither side could boast of having obtained a victory. The town was speedily rebxiilt by Frederick the Great. It was taken by the French in 1806, and occupied by them till March 30, 1814, when it sur- rendered to the aUies. The fortifications have been considerably strengthened since the peace of 1815. Xj. Laaland, or LoLLAND (Sea-fight). — The combined Dutch and Swedish squadrons defeated the Danes off this island in the Baltic, A.D. 1644. Labento (Battle). — The Greeks sustained a defeat from the IS'ormans, near_this river, in Italy, a.d. 1041. Labour (Festival of). — The annual cele- bration of this festival was fixed in the French Revolutionary calender of 1793 to take place on the 19th of September. Laboueers are defined as servants in agri- culture or manufactures, not hving within the master's house. The Statute of La- bourers, 25 Edw. III. St. 1 (1350), made various regulations respecting wages, and the penalties incurred by refractory servants, and prohibited labourers from moving from one county to another under pain of im- prisonment. HaUam (Middle Ages, ch. ix. pt. 2) remarks on this subject : " The Statute of Labourers in 1350 fixed the wages of reapers during harvest at threepence a day without diet, equal to five shillings at pre- sent; that of 23 Hen. VI. c. 12, in 1444, fixed the reapers' wages at fivepence and those of conunon workmen in building at three- pence-halfpenny, equal to 6«. 8d. and 4s. 8d.; that of 11 Hen. VII. c. 22, in 1496, leaves the wages of labourers in harvest as before, but rather increases those of ordinary work- men. The yearly wages of a chief hind or shepherd by the act of 1444 were £1. 4s., equivalent to about £20 ; those of a common servant in husbandry IBs. 4id., with meat and drink : they were somewhat augmented by the statute of 1496." The same writer comes to the conclusion, that the labouring classes, especially those engaged in agriculture, were better provided with the means of subsist- ence in the reign of Edward III. or of Henry VI. than they are at present. Con- spiracies of workmen to increase their wages or interfere with the prescribed hours of work, were made punishable by fines and the pUlory, by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15 (1548). Statutes relating to hiring, wages, keeping, &c., of labourers, were amended by 5 Eliz. c. 4 (1562), which prohibited masters from discharging their servants, or servants from quitting their employers until the term of service agreed upon had expired. It also plased the regulation of the amount of wages in the hands of the justices, sheriffs, mayors, &c., and compelled employers and employed to abide by the appointed rates under severe LAC penalties. In harvest time artificers were compelled to work, under pain of the stocks, and single women aged between twelve and forty years were at aU times hable to be sent to service. The Labourers' DweUings Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 1.32 (Aug. 14, 1855), was passed to faeihtate the erection of healthy and convenient houses for the working classes by pubhc companies. Labrador (North America) was dis- covered A.D. 1497, by Sebastian Cabot. Cortereal, a Portuguese, was the first who landed here, in 1500. The Moravians formed a settlement in 1771, with a view of Chris- tianizing the natives. Martin Frobisher, in 1576, was the first Enghshman who made a voyage to Labrador. L A B TJ A K ( Indian Archipelago ) . — This island was ceded to the Enghsh government in 1846, and Sir James Brooke took posses- sion Oct. 28, 1848. Laburnum, or Golden" Chain Tree, was brought to tins country from the Alps before A.D. 1596. Labyrinth of Arsinoe, near Lake Moeris, in Egypt, said to have been constructed by the Imigs of Egypt, consisted of 3,000 cham- bers. Herodotus states that it was used as a burial-place for the kings of Egypt. Lep- sius explored it in June, 1843.- — The laby- rinth of Crete, near Cnosus, the retreat of the fabled Minotaur, is ascribed to Daedalus. The labyrinth of Lemnos, described by Pliny, was said to have been supported by 150 columns. Dr. Hunt in vain endeavoured to find some trace of this labyrinth in 1801. The labyrinth near Chisrum, in Etruria, now Chiusi, is supposed by some authorities to be the tomb of Porsenna, who Hved B.C. 508. The labyrinth at Hampton was erected in the 17th century. Laccadive Islands (Indian Ocean) were discovered by Vasco de Gama, a.d. 1499. Lace. — Beckmann is of opinion that lace worked by the needle is much older than that made by knitting. The art probably originated in Italy. The importation of lace into England was prohibited by a French law in 1483. Beckmann asserts that the knitting of lace is a German invention, due to Barbara Uttmann, of St. Annaberg, and that it was found out before 1561. The oldest pattern-book for making point-lace appeared at Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1568. It was written by Nicholas Basseus. Some Flemish refugees introduced the manufacture of piUow-lace into Buckinghamshire about 1626. Hammond, a framework knitter of Nottingham, first attempted to apply the stocking-frame to lace-making in 1768, and after undergoing various improvements, the process was brought to perfection by John Heathcoate, who patented his bobbin-net machine in 1809. Jacquard's apparatus was applied to it in 1839. Frost introduced the point machine in 1777. Morley's double locker machine was brought out in 1824. LACEDiEMON (Greece) . — The ancient name of Laconia, and of its capital city, Sparta LAC LAK Laconia, or Laconica (Greece). — This country was originally inhabited by the Le- leges, whose kingdom was founded about B.C. 1516. Accordingto tradition, Laeedaemon, the king of Laconia, married Sparta, the daughter of his predecessor, b.c. 1490, and founded a city, which he named after his wife, while his kingdom was known by his own name. The Dorians of Sparta had made themselves masters of the whole of Laconia by the middle of the 8th century. They waged war against the Dorians in Messenia from B.C. 743 to 724, and from B.C. 685 to 668, and the country was annexed to Laconia. {See Spaeta.) Lacteal Vessels. — Gaspar AseUius, pro- fessor of anatomy at Pavia, in dissecting a dog, July 23, 1622, discovered these vessels. He announced the fact in 1627. John Wes- ling gave the first delineation of the lacteals from the human subject in 1634. Pecquet discovered the common trunk of the lacteals and lym.phatics in 1647; and Jolyff'e, an EngHsh anatomist, discovered the distinc- tion between the lacteals and the lym- phatics in 1650, and published his discovery in 1652. Ladae (Asia). — This province of Thibet was seized by Gholab Singh, ruler of Cash- mere, A.D. 1835, and still forms part of his dominions. Lade (Sea-fight). — The Persians defeated the lonians off this island, near Miletus, B.C. 494. Ladeone, or MAEiANifE Islands (Pacific Ocean). — This group was discovered by Magelhaens, a.d. 1520. The Spaniards formed a settlement in the middle of the 17th cen- tury. Anson visited them in 1742. Lady. — The title properly belongs to the wives of knights and of all superior degrees except the wives of bishops. The term is derived from the Saxon Mcb/ dig, loaf-day, because it was foi'merly the custom for the mistress of the manor to distribute bread to her poorer neighbours at stated intervals. Fosbroke (Antiq.) remarks : " The ladies of knights and baronets were called Domince (whence Dame as a title of honour), and also MilifisscB, Knightesses, being sometimes so created by knights by a blow upon the back with a sword, and the usual cere- monies. (See Women.) Lady -Day, or The AififTiifCiATioif. — The 25th of March, the day on which the festival of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary is held by the Church, received the name of Lady-Day in consequence of its being sacred to Our Lady. The feast is of great antiquity, dating, according to some authorities, from a.d. 350, and according to others, from the 7th century. Lady-Day was anciently considered the fil'st day of the year. The 1st of January was adopted as the beginning of the year in France in 1564, in Scotland in 1599, and in England in 1752. Laffeldt, or Val (Battle) . — Marshal Saxe defeated the allied Enghsh, Dutch, and Aus- trian army at this village, in Holland, July 2, 474 1747. The allied army lost 6,000 men and sixteen gims, whilst the loss of the French amounted to 10,000 men. Louis XV., who- witnessed the battle, remai'ked : " The Enghsh have not only paid all, but fought aU." La Featta (Battle). — The Pisans were defeated by the Sicilians in this battle, A.D. 1135. Lagos (Africa). — This stronghold of the slave-trade was bombarded by a British squadron Dec. 26 and 27, 1851. The forces landed and took possession of the town, which had been deserted by the enemy, Dec. 28, 1851. Lagos (Sea-fight).— The Enghsh fleet, commanded by Admiral Boscawen, defeated the French fleet, with great loss, in this bay, near the seaport of the same name, in Portugal, Aug. 18, 1759. Lagosta (Adriatic). — An English force of 300 men landed on this small island, then in possession of the French, Jan. 21, 1813. They made preparations to besiege the enemy's principal fort, which capitulated Jan. 29, when the whole island was sur- rendered to the Enghsh. La Hogite (France). — Edward III. landed at this place, near Cherbourg, July 10, 1346. A combined Dutch and Enghsh fleet engaged the French fleet, commanded by Tourville, off La Hogue, May 19, 1692. The enemy escaped in a fog, but chase was given, and the conflict was renewed May 21, when nearly the whole of the French squadron was destroyed. Lahoee (Hindostan), the capital of the Punjaub, was taken by Sultan Baber, and became the residence of its Mohammedan conquerors a.d. 1520. It was captured in 1756, by "Jassa the Kalal," as he styled himself on a medal struck in conmiemoration ' of the event ; and by Shah Zeman, king of ! Cabul, in 1798, who bestowed it upon his bro- ther Eunjeet Singh, in 1799. A present of i horses from King WilHam IV. arrived here Jidy 17, 1831. A revolution occurred at I Lahore in 1844. A brigade of British troops, I under the command of Sir Hugh Gough, 1 occupied the citadel Feb. 22, 1846, and a I treaty, placing the Punjaub under Enghsh ! protection, was signed March 9, 1846. It was, with the Punjaub, annexed to British India, March 9, 1849. During the mutiny, Major Spencer and two native officers were murdered here in July, 1857. La Jaulnais (Treaty). — The repubhcans and the royalists in La Vendee entered into a treaty at La Jaulnais, for the termination of the civil war, and the pacification of the west of France, in 1795. Lake Eegillus (Battle). — Fought be- tween the Latins and the Eomans, according to the traditional account, B.C. 499, the for- mer being defeated. The exiled Tarquin was in the Latin army. Castor and Pollux, the Dioscuri, were represented in the popu- lar lays of Eome as appearing fighting in the Eoman ranks, under the form of two gigantic youths, mounted on white steeds. This LAM battle terminates the mythical pei-iod in the history of Kome. Lambeth Articles, nine in number, of an iiltra-Calvinistic character, were drawn up by Archbishop Whitgift, Nov. 10, 1595. He sought to impose them on the Church of England. They were suppressed by order of Queen Ehzabeth, and so well was the injunction executed that, for many years a copy of them could not be obtained. They were brought forward and rejected at the Hampton Court conferences, Jan. 14, 15, and 16, 1604 ; but the Irish church adopted them in 1615. Lambeth Palace (London) was built by Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury, A.D. 1200, the property having come into possession of the see in 1197. Archbishop Boniface made considerable additions to it in 1250, and the Lollards Tower was built by Bishop Chicheley about 1443. The insur- rectionists, headed by Wat Tyler, entered the palace, killing the archbishop, Simon of Sudbury, and Sir Kobert Hales, June 13, 1381. Burglars effected an entrance Aug. 8, 1823. In 1833 Archbishop Howley made extensive improvements and additions, at a cost of £55,000. Lamego (Portugal), the ancient Lama- cum, or Lameca, was wrested from the Moors by Ferdinand of Castile, a.d. 1038. The cortes of Portugal assembled here in 1143, The Portuguese rebels captured it Dec. 3, 1826. Lamian Wab. — ^Athens, in allianee with other Greek states, made war upon An- tipater, governor of Macedon, B.C. 323. He fled to the city of Lamia, in Thessaly, where he was besieged by the allies, whom he finally defeated at the battle of Cranon, B.C. 322. Lammas-Dat. — The 1st of August is so denominated, but the origin of the term is involved in obscurity. It is the day of the feast of St. Peter ad Vincula, or St. Peter in bonds, which was instituted a.d. 317, and, according to some authorities, received its title from the Divine commission to Peter, " Feed my lambs." Others state that it is a corruption of the Saxon Loaf-mass, because an annual feast was then celebrated to re- turn thanks for the first-fruits of corn. Lammas-day is one of the four cross quar- ter-days of the year, Whitsimtide being the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the third, and Candlemas the fourth. La Molinella (Battle). — A sanguinary but undecisive battle was fought near La Molinella, between some Florentine exiles, assisted by the Venetians, and the Floren- tines, July 25, 1467. Lampedusa (Mediterranean). — This small island, the ancient Lopadussa, was made a state prison by the king of Naples a.d. 1843. Lampeteb (Wales). — the college of St. David, at Lampeter, Cardiganshire, for theological students, founded on the site of an ancient castle, by Bishop Burgess, a.d. 1822, was erected in 1827, and incorporated in 1828. A supplementary charter, granting LAN- power to confer the degree of B.D., was ob- tained in August, 1852. Lamps are said to have been invented by the Egyptians ; and Herodotus notices a feast of lamps held annually in Egypt. The Jews made use of lamps in public festivals and reUgious ceremonies. The Greeks and Eomans made them of terra-cotta, bronze, and also of gold and silver. They were kept burning in sepulchres, a practice adopted by the Christians, and which gave I'ise to the fiction respecting perpetual lamps. Num- bers of lamps, of rich and elaborate work- manship, have been found in the ruins of Herculaneum, destroyed Aug. 24, a.d. 79. In the 14th century they were made of glass, and were much used in England. They were introduced into Ireland in 1375. The Ar- gand lamp was invented in 1789, and an endless variety has since sprung into ex- istence. Lawaek (Scotland) was the site of a Eoman encampment, of which traces are still to be found. Here the states of the reahn were convoked by King Kenneth, A.D. 978. It was a royal burgh when Mal- colm II. came to the throne, a.d. 1003. The Covenanters pubMshed their testimony at Lanark in 1682. Lancashiee (England). — The south of Lancashire is said to have been inhabited by the Segantii, or Setantii, i.e. " dwellers in the country of water." It formed part of Northumberland from a.d. 547 to 926. It contains several traces of Eoman roads and stations. The successors of Wilham, earl of Ferrers, who took the title of earl of Derby, held the office of lords of the coimty tiU 1265, when their lands were forfeited and bestowed upon Edmund, son of Henry III., who became first earl of Lancaster. Eiots occurred in many parts of Lancashire in the spring of 1826. Lancaster (Duchy of). -r- The dukedom of Lancaster was created by Edward III., in favour of Henry Plantagenet, March 6, 1351, and was bestowed upon his son, John of Gaunt, Nov. 13, 1362. It was made a county palatine. The duke was to have jura regalia, and power to pardon treasons or outlawries, and make justices of the peace and justices of assize within the county. The lordship of Eipon was an- nexed to it by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 16 (1645) ; and the revenue having dechned, other lands were annexed to it by 2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 20 (1555). The courts of the duchy of Lancaster were instituted by Edward III. in 1376. The management of the revenues was entrusted to them. Henry BoHngbroke was duke of Lancaster on his accession to the crown as Henry IV., Sept. 30, 1399. In the first year of his reign he procured an act of parhament, ordering that the duchy of Lan- caster, &c., should remain to him and his heirs for ever. It was declared forfeited to the crown in 1461, and was vested in Edward IV. and his heirs, kings of England, for ever. Lancaster (England), the Eoman Longovicus, according to the " Monumenta 475 LAN Britannica," received a charter from King John (a.d. 1199 — 1216), with increased pri- ■vileges from Edward III. The castle, now a gaol, was originally built in the 11th century. The army of the Pretender oc- cupiedt he town three days, Nov. 6 — 9, 1715. It was taken by Prince Charles Edward Nov. 24, 1745. The railroad to Preston was opened June 30, 1S40, and the railroad to Carhsle Dec. 16, 1846. LAifCASTEE (Pennsylvania) was founded A.D. 1730, and incorporated in 1818. The sessions of Congress were removed here on the capture of Philadelphia in 1777. It was the chief town of the state from 1799 to 1812, when that dignity was transferred to Harrisburg. Franklin College was estab- lished in 1787. Lancasteeian" Schools. — Joseph Lancas- ter opened his first school at the age of eighteen, iu the Borough Eoad, London, in 1798. He adopted Dr. Bell's monitorial sys- tem, which he brought to such perfection that in 1802 he was able to teach 250 boys, with no other assistance than that afforded by the senior pupils. Lancaster pubhshedmmierous pamphlets in recommendation of the plan, and obtained influential friends, by whose assist- ance he founded the British and Foreign School Society in 1805. In 1806 he obtained an interview with George III., who imme- diately subscribed £100 a year towards the extension of the system ; and in 1808 he resigned his school into the hands of trustees, in consequence of which it assumed the importance of a pubhc institution. Owing to imprudence iu the conduct of his aifairs, Lancaster was compelled to emigrate to America in 1818 ; and he died at New- York, in very reduced circumstances, Oct. 24, 1838. Lancastee Souis-D (Arctic Sea) was dis- covered by Bylot and Baffin, July 12, 1816, and named after Sir James Lancaster. Lancasteians a^d Yoekists. — The sup- porters of Henry VI., of the house of Lan- caster, and of Edward, duke of York, afterwards Edward IV., who contended for the crown of England a.d. 1455 — 1461, were respectively known by these titles. The struggle is also designated the War of the Koses, the red rose having been the emblem of the Lancastrian, and the white of the Yorkist party. Land. — The provisions usually inserted in acts authorizing the taking of lands for pubhc undertakings were consoUdated by the Lands Clauses ConsoHdation Act, 8 Vict. C.18 (Mays, 1845). Landau (Bavaria). — This town, founded by Eodolph of Habsburg, was made a free city of the empire in the 14th cen- tury. The fortifications were commenced by Vauban in 1680, and the town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1686. Louis of Baden invested Landau June 16, 1702, the citadel surrendered Sept. 9, and the whole town was captured Sept 10. Tallard besieged it in 1703, and completed its reduction Nov. 14 Marlborough obtained possession of it 4i7Q LAN Nov. 23, 1704. The Austrians expelled the French in 1743. It was frequently assailed towards the close of the 18th century, and it was besieged in 1793 by the Austrians and Prussians, who were eventually compelled to abandon the tmdertaking. It was ceded to France by the treaty of 1814, but was re- stored to Germany by that of 1815. Landed Estates Couet. — This court was erected by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 72 (Aug. 2, 1858), to facilitate the sale and transfer of lands in Ireland. The sittings were appointed to be held in Dubhn, under the presidency of three judges, who were inehgible as members of parhament. The authority of the court commenced Nov. 1, 1858. Landen (Battle). — At this village, in Bel- gium, WUliam III. was defeated by Marshal Luxemburg, with a loss of 12,000 men, July 19, 1693 (O.S.). It is sometimes called the battle of Neerwinden. Land&eave. — -This title originated in the 10th century, and was first used in Alsace. Albert III. was the first of the Habsburg family who styledhimself landgrave of Alsace. The margraves of Thuringia assumed the title in the 11th century. The collateral branch of the house of Hesse took it in 1263. Landeect (Flanders). — Francis I. cap- tured this town in 1543, the emperor Charles V. failed in an attempt to recapture it during the same year, and Prince Eugene besieged it but without success in 1712. The prince of Orange invested it April 16, 1794, and it surrendered April 30. The French retook it July 17, 1794. Landshtjt (Bavaria). — The Prussians were defeated by the Austrians near this town, June 23, 1760. The attack was made in the dead of night, and the result was a complete victory. The university of Ingold- stadt, removed here in 1800, was transferred to Munich in 1826. Land-Tax. — The Danegelt (q.v.) was a species of land-tax. The rate now known by the name was first levied by 4 WiU. & Mary, c. 1 (1692), to dsfray the expenses of the war against France. The original rate was three shillings in the pound on the rental, and the tax was continued every year, most frequently at four shillings iu the pound, until it was made perpetual by 38 Geo. III. c. 60 (June 21, 1798). The sum fixed by this act as the amount of the land-tax was £2,037,627. 9s. Old. The provisions of several acts for the redemption of the land- tax were consolidated by 42 Geo. Ill, c. 116 (June 26, 1802). Lanfanan (Battle). — Earl Siward de- feated Macbeth, king of Scotland, at this place, in Scotland, July 27, 1054. Langees (France), the ancient Ande- matunnum or Lingomma Civitas, was occu- pied and made the head-quarters of the Prussian and Russian armies during the campaign in France, a.d, 1814. {See Lin- GONFM CiVITAS.) Langside (Battle). — Mary, queen of Scots, having escaped from Lochleven, May 2, 1567, raised some troops, which were LAN defeated at Langside, near Glasgow, May 13, 1567. Lang-ttage. — The origin of language is veiled in obscurity. Some writers contend that it was revealed from heaven; others that it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion was prevalent amongst the Greek audKoman philosophers and authors. Hobbes says: "The first author of speech was God himself, that instructed Adam how to name such creatures as he presented to his sight (Gen. ii. 19), for the Scripture goeth no further in this matter. But this was sufficient to induce him to add more names, as the experience and use of the creatures should give him occasion, and to join them in such manner by degrees, as to make himself understood ; and so by suc- cession of time so much language might be gotten as he had found use for, though not so copious as an orator or philosopher has need of." The French, Spanish, and ItaMan languages are derived from the Latin. Fran- cis I. ordered the French language to be used in aU pubhc acts, but the change was not fuUy eifected until 1629. HaUam asserts that no industry has hitherto retrieved so much as a few hues of real ItaUan, tiU near the end of the 12th century. The transfor- mation of Anglo-Saxon into modern English was gradual. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle closes with a notice of the events of a.d. 1155. The French language, which was spoken amongst the higher classes in England from the Conquest, tell into disuse in the reign of Edward III., who banished JSTorman French from the courts of law in 1362. According to a recent estimate, there are 3,014 lan- guages and general dialects in the world ; viz. 587 in Europe, 937 in Asia, 226 in Africa, and 1,264 in America. Amongst the most celebrated linguists may be mentioned Arias Montanus, the Spaniard who completed the Antwerp Polyglot Bible in 1572 ; and James Crichton, commonly called the Admirable Crichton, who died in his twenty-third year in 1584 ; both of whom are said to have known from twelve to fifteen languages. SirWiUiam Jones, born in London, Sept, 28, 1746, is beheved to have known twenty-eight languages ; Joseph Caspar Mezzofanti, born at Bologna, Sept. 17, 1774, whom Byron termed a " walking polyglot, a monster of languages, and a Briarseus of parts of speech," is said to have known a hundred and twenty languages. Though this state- ment may be exaggerated, he was conver- sant with above fifty, and was the greatest Unguist the world ever knew. Barthold George Niebuhr, born at Copenhagen, Aug. 27, 1776, was in 1807 acquainted with twenty languages, and afterwards increased the number. Langtjedoc (France), under the Romans, formed a portion of GaUia Narbonensis, and enjoyed the freedom of Italy. In the Mid- dle Ages it was known as Septimania, from its seven cathedral churches. It was ceded by Honorius to the Goths a.d. 409. The Saracens, who had succeeded them, were LAO driven out by Charles Martel in 725. In the 11th and 12th centuries the Albigensian opinions prevailed in Languedoc. Part of Languedoc was ceded to ' France in 1229, and the remainder was annexed in 1270. Languedoc had its own provincial assembly, and retained the right of regulating its own taxation till 1789. Above 100,000 Hu- guenots, of whom about 10,000 perished at the stake, were put to death after the revocation of the edict of jS^antes. The inhabitants of Languedoc took up arms on the sudden return of Napoleon I, from Elba in 1815. LAifGiTE d'Oc and Lakgue d'Oil, or d'Oui. — In the 11th century two languages were spoken in France, the former the Provencal, or the Romance, in the south, and the latter the Langue d'Oil, or d'Oui, in the north. The use of the Langue d'Oc began to dechne towards the end of the 13th century. Lan-sdowit (Battle). — The royalists de- feated Sir William Waller at this place, near Bath, July 5, 1643. Lansquenets, or lance-men, from lanzkneehte, founded by Maximilian I. (1493 — 1519) : they played an important part in the European wars of the sixteenth century. Lanteews, or LAifTHOKNS, were made of horn by the Greeks and Romans ; sometimes skin was used, to allow of the transmission of the light. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne, mentions a glass lantern, a.d. 703. Asser, in his hfe of Alfred (a.d. 871—901), relates that this king ordered a lantern to be con- structed of wood and white ox-horn, which, when planed thin, is almost as transparent as glass. Lanterns for mihtary purposes are said to have been devised by the emperor Comnenus in 1180. Lanthanitju. — This metal was discovered by Mosander, who gave it this name be- cause it had been so long concealed, a.d. 1839. Laocook. — This celebrated Greek statue was the production of the Rhodian sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, who flourished in the reign of Titus, a.d. 79 to 81. It was found among the ruins of the baths of Titus at Rome, a.d. 1506, and is preserved in the Vatican. The subject of the group is the death of the Trojan priest Laocoon and his two sons by serpents, sent against them by Minerva (^neid, ii. v. 200). Laodicea, or Laodiceia (Syria), formerly called Diospolis and Rhoas, was rebuilt, and named after his wife Laodice, by Antiochus Theos, B.C. 260. To the church of this city one of the seven epistles (Revelations iii.) was addressed, a.d. 90. It suifered fre- quently from earthquakes, and was nearly destroyed by one in 494. It was captured by the crusaders in 1199, and by the sultan of Egypt in 1287. It was called Laodiceia ad Lycum, to distinguish it from Laodiceia Combusta, built by Seleucus I., and named after his mother Seleuca. 477 LAO Laon (Combats). — Napoleon I, sustained a check at this place, in the north of France, from the aUies, under Blucher, March 9 and 10, 1814.. The French lost 6,000 men and 46 cannon in the conflict, and were com- pelled to retreat to Soissons. The allies lost about 4,000 men. Laos' (France). — This ancient town of France is beheved by some to be identical with the Bibrax spoken of by Csesar. It received Christianity in the 3rd century, and was the scene of an ecclesiastical coun- cil in 948. The fine Gothic cathedral was consecrated Sept. 6, 1114. In 1419 Laon j was taken by the Enghsh, who restored it to the French in 1429. Henry IV. of France took it after several engagements in 1594, and erected a citadel and other fortifica- tions. The celebrated leaning tower, which was displaced by an earthquake in 1696, was removed in 1832. LAPLAifD (Europe). — This, the most northern country of Europe, is first spoken of in the works of Saxo Grammaticus, who flourished ia the 12th century, and it was very imperfectly known even in the 16th century. Lapland was originally divided into Russian, Danish, and Swedish Lapland; but the three districts were united in 1814. Admiral Little explored the northern coasts of Lapland in 1822 and 1823. Lakgs (Battle). — At this place, on the Clyde, Alexander III. of Scotland defeated the Norwegians, led by their king Haco, Oct. 3, 1263. Laeissa (Turkey), the Turkish Yenitcher, the capital of Thessaly, is supposed to have been founded by Acrisius, B.C. 134i, and took part with the Athenians in the Pelopon- nesian war, B.C. 431 — i04. Antiochus made an unsuccessful attempt to take it B.C. 191, and Bohemund failed in a similar efibrt A.D. 1083. La Eoche Abeille (Battle) . — The Roman CathoMc forces were defeated at this place, iu France, by the Protestants, under Coligny and Henry de Beam in 1569. La Roche Dakien (Battle). — Charles of Blois, duke of Britanny, was defeated and made prisoner at this place, in France, by Jane of Montfort, June 20, 1347. La Rothieee (Battle), fought at this place, in France, between the French, com- manded by Napoleon I., and the aUied Aus- trian, Prussian, and Russian army under Blucher, Feb. 1, 1814. The contest was waged vrith great heroism on both sides; but the French were at length compelled to withdraw, leaving the field of battle in the possession of the aUies. The French lost 6,000 men, and 73 pieces of cannon. Laswaeee (Battle). — A desperate en- counter between the British, commanded by Lord Lake, and the Mahrattas, occurred at this village, near Delhi, iu Hindostan, Nov. 1, 1803. The former were victorious. Latakia, or Ladikiteh (Syria), the ancient Laodiceia ad Mare, was founded by Seleucus Nicator, about b.c. 300, and named after his mother. DolabeUa took refuge 478 LAT here from Cassius, and was the cause of much destruction to the city a.d. 43. The remains of an aqueduct, built by Herod the Great about b.c. 10, are still to be seen ; and a triumphal arch, beheved to have been erected in honour of Septimius Severus, about A.D. 200, is in a state of great perfec- tion. It was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake May 16, 1796. Lateean" (Rome). — This name, derived from the old Roman family of the Laterani, whose chief was executed by Nero (a.d. 54 — 68), was apphedto their palace, presented by Constantine I. to the popes. Gregory XI., on restoring the seat of the papacy from Avig- non to Rome, in 1377, took up his abode at the Vatican. The church of St. John of Lateran, bidlt by Constantine I., is cele- brated for the councils held in it Oct. 5 — 31, 649; Nov. 1, 864; in August, 900; Feb. 12, 1111; March 18—23, 1112; March 5, 1116; March 18 to April 5 (ninth general), 1123; April 20 (tenth general), 1139 ; March 5—19 (eleventh general), 1179 ; Nov. 11—30, 1215 ; and Mav 3, 1512, to March 16, 1517. Every newly elected pope takes possession of this church in great state, and bestows his blessing upon the people from its balcony. The greater part of the palace was destroyed by fire in 1308. A new palace, adjoining the church, was built by Sixtus V. in 1586. Latham House. — The countess of Derby defended this place against the parliamentary forces from February until May, 1644, when it was relieved by Prince Rupert. The par- liamentarv force's assailed and captured it Dec. 4, 1645. Lathe. — Diodorus Siculus attributes the invention of this instrument to a nephew of Daedalus, named Talus, about b.c. 1240; but Phny states that it was first used by Theo- dore of Samos, about B.C. 600. The clas- sical authors make frequent mention of the lathe. Latins, or Latini, signified originally the inhabitants of Latium {q.v.), which, ac- cording to the legend, received a band of emigrant Trojans xmder ^neas, shortly after the Trojan war. The aborigines of Latium were at that time ruled by a king called Latinus, and after his death they formed with the Trojan colony one people, imder the name of Latini. For some time the Latins waged war against Rome; but were finally subdued b.c. 338, from which period, as a separate nation, the Latins disappear from history. The Roman franchise was bestowed upon aU people of Italy who were alhes of Rome, B.C. 91, and thus the last distinction between the Latins and the Romans was ob- hterated. The term was afterwards adopted by the Romans themselves. Latitat. — This writ, formerly employed in personal actions in the King's (or Queen's) Bench, was abohshed by 2 Will. IV. c. 39 • (May 23, 1832) . The name was derived from a supposition that the defendant lurked and was hid, and could not be found in the county of Middlesex (in which the court is held) , to be taken by bill, but had gone into some other LAT county, to the sheriff of which this writ was directed, to apprehend him there. — Wharton. Latitude and Longitude. — Eratosthenes, the hbrarian of Alexandria (b.c. 223 — 194), made some advance towards an accurate measurement of latitude, and, after him, Hipparchus, B.C. 162, who showed how lon- gitude might be determined by attention to echpses of the sun and moon. The principles laid down by Hipparchus were successfully apphed by Ptolemy, a.d. 140, in his great geographical work. A reward of 1,000 crowns was offered by the kmg of Spain, A.D. 1598, for the discovery of a method of determining longitude ; and about the same time the States-general of Holland offered 10,000 florins for the same object. The British government offered £20,000 for a like purpose in 1714, and £5,000 for a chronometer to keep time within certain hmits. Harrison, after much delay and many disputes, gained the prize for his timepiece in 1767. Eewards of various amounts have been granted from time to time by parhament for unproved timepieces. The act of 1774 was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. c. 66 (July 15, 1828). A method of finding the longitude by means of the electric tele- graph was brought to perfection by Airy in 1847. Latitudinakians. — This term was used about the close of the 17th century to de- signate certain divines who endeavoured to act as mediators between EpiscopaUanism and Presbyterianism. Hales, ChiUingworth, and Tillotson belonged to this party. In the reign of Charles II. (1660—1685) the Lati- tudinarians attained the highest positions in the Church. Latium (Italy) . — This country of central Italy derived its name from the city Latium, which was founded by King Latinus b.c. 1240. .Sneas settled here with a colony of Trojans B.C. 1181, and the new colonists and abori- ginal inhabitants, having united into one nation under his government, were known as the Latins. They formed a confederacy of towns, vrith Alba Longa {q.v.) at their head ; and after the destruction of that town by the Komans, B.C. 665, the whole territory was reduced to subjection. The Latins rebelled b.c. 502, and a treaty was concluded between them and the Komans B.C. 493, by which their independence was acknowledged, and an alliance concluded between the two powers. In consequence of the grovring power of the Romans, how- ever, the Latins assisted the Campanians in the war of b.c 340, and shared in the defeat at the foot of Mount Vesuvius. Furius Canullus finally defeated them at the battle of Pedum, b.c. 338, and the confederacy was subsequently broken up. Lattee-dax Saints, or Moemonites. — This sect was founded at Palmyra, in North America, by Joseph Smith, Sept. 22, 1827, the day on which, according to his own statement, he came into , possession of the Golden Bible, or the Book of Mormon, published at Palmyra in 1830. The first LAV edition that appeared in Europe was at Liverpool, in 1841. The first conference of the sect was held at Payette, June 1, 1830. They removed to Kirtland, in Ohio, soon after. In 1831 they founded the city of Zion, in Missouri, but were expelled the state, and took refuge in Illinois in 1838, whereupon they built the " holy city" of Wauvoo. The foundation of the Mormon temple was laid April 6, 1841. Smith was shot by a mob which broke into the prison of Carthage, where he was confined, June 27, 1844. In 1847 the Mormons, expelled from Illinois, undertook a pilgrimage to the Great Salt Lake Valley, which they reached July 24, 1847. The territory of Utah was admitted into the Union Sept. 19, 1850. An expedition was sent against the Mormonites from the United States in 1857, for the purpose of reducing them to subjection. An arrange- ment was, however, effected without a col- lision. The first Mormon mission to Eng- land was despatched in 1837, and in five years many converts had been made. Laudanum is mentioned in a manuscript diary, October, 1601. {See Opium.) Laurel. — The common laurel was brought into this country from the Levant, before A.D. 1629 ; the Portugal laurel from Por- tugal before 1648 ; and the Alexandrian laurel from Portugal before 1713. The royal bay-tree was brought from Madeira in 1665, and the glaucous laurel from China in 1806. Laurentalia. — These festivals were in- stituted at Rome about b.c. 621. They were held in honour of Acca-Larentia, nurse of Eomulus and Remus, or of a courtezan who flourished in the reign of Ancus Martius. They commenced Dec. 23. Laurustinus. — This shrub was brought to England from the south of Europe before A.D. 1596. Lausanne (Switzerland), the capital of the canton Vaud, was a Roman station. The cathedral, founded in the 10th, was not completed until the 13th centuiy. Rodolph I. had an interview here with Gregory X. Oct. 6, 1275. In the church of St. Francis a council was held, April 16, 1449. The university was founded in 1535. A memorable controversy, which terminated in the adhesion of the north-western portion of Switzerland to the Reformation, took place ia the cathedral in 1536. The academy was founded in 1537, and printing is said to have been carried on here in 1556. Gibbon selected it as a residence, a.d. 1783. The French seized Lausanne Jan. 28, 1798. Lautul^ (Battle). — The Samnites de- feated the Roman army, commanded by Fabius, at this pass, between Tarracina and Fundi, B.C. 315. Laval (France) . — This town was gradually formed round an old castle, destroyed by the Northmen in the 9th century. It was rebmlt, and was captured by Lord Talbot A.D. 1466, but the French regained posses- sion in the following year. The Vendeans captured it in 1793, and in October of that 479 LAV year, their leader, Laroehejaquelein, defeated the republican forces at a . short distance from the town. The ancient church was bidlt in 1040. La Valetta (Malta) . — This city was com- menced by Sir John de Valette, grand master of the Knights of Malta, a.d. 1566, and finished Aug. 18, 1571. It capitulated to the French fleet under Admiral Brueys, June 12, 1798, when Malta and its depend- encies were ceded to the republic. In the month of September following, the inhabit- ants rose in revolt, and the Trench garrison retired within the walls of the fortress, where they were blockaded by the English, and were compelled by famine to surrender, Sept. 5, 1800. Lavaite (France), one of the strong- holds- of the Albigenses, was captured by Simon of Montfort, a.d. 1211, when a whole- sale slaughter ensued. La Yexdee (France). — The inhabitants of this portion of France rose against the revolutionary party in 1791, and erected the standard of royalty March 10, 1793. Led by Laroehejaquelein, the Yendeans stormed Thouars, taking 6,000 prisoners. May 15, and estalilished the royalist ascendancy July 15. So powerful did they become, that they formed three coi-ps of 12,000 men each. The first, under Bouchamps, was called the army of Anjou; the second, \inder D'Elbee, was called the grand army ; and the third, under Charette, was called the army of the marshes or fens. Numeroiis reverses followed, and Marceau, with Tilly and Kleber, annihilated then- army at Savenay, Dec. 22. The final pacification of the province was effected by the treaty of Lucon, Jan. 17, 18U0, nearly 1,000,000 victims having fallen in the struggle. During the " Hundred Days " the inhabitants of this district again rose in support of the Bourbon cause, but their army was defeated at Croix de Yie in 1815. Lavender was introduced into England from the south of Europe before 1568 a.d. To lay in lavender was formerly a cant phrase for pawning. The plant was con- sidered an emblem of affection. La VIS (Battles). — The Austrians defeated the French in an attack upon their position near this river, in the Itahan Tyrol, iS'ov. 1, 1796. The French gained a victory over the Austrians on the same river, March 20, 1797. The Tyrolese sustained a defeat here in 1809. Law. — The earhest system of laws was perhaps that which Phoroneus iatroduced in Argos, B.C. 1807. The Jewish laws were promulgated by Moses, b.c. 1491. Lycurgus legislated for Sparta, B.C. 817; Draco for the Athenians, B.C. 621; and Solon B.C. 594. The civd or Koman law was founded by Servius Tulhus, B.C. 566, and amended by the Twelve Tables, b.c. 450 (see Codes). The ancient Britons were governed by certain fixed laws, which were framed by their chiefs and Druids, and Sir William Dugdale states that Malmutius Diinwallo, who began to reign B.C. 444, was the first British lawgiver. Ethelbert pubhshed a 430 LAY system a.d. 600, and Ina one in 692. Alfred arranged the common law (q. v.) in 886. Athelstan promulgated a code in 928, and Edgar in 970 ; and in 1050 Edward the Con- fessor consolidated the British, Saxon, and Danish laws into a single system, which was confirmed by Wfiham the Conqueror in 1070. Stephen's charter of general hberties was granted in 1136. Canon law (q. v.) was introduced into England in 1140, the Con- i stitutions of Clarendon (q. v.) were esta- bhshed in 1164, and Magna Charta (q. v.) was granted in 1215. The English laws were much improved by Edward III., who has been caUed the English Justinian. Law pleadings were ordered to be in EngUsh in 1362, and in 1379 the civil law was superseded by the common law, except in the ecclesi- astical courts. The Incorporated Law Society was formed in 1823, and the building in Chancery Lane was erected in 1827. A charter of incorporation was granted Dec. 22, 1831, and the institution was formally opened July 4, 1832. A new charter was granted Feb. 26, 1845. Lawn was introduced into England during the reign of Elizabeth (1558—1603), being used for the large ruffs then in fashion. Laweence, St. (North America). — This gulf was first explored by Cortereal, a.d. 1500. Law's Bank (Paris) originated in the per- mission obtained by a daring speculator, named John Law, to establish a bank in Paris, May 20, 1716. It was dissolved by the regent, andmergedinto the Eoyal Bank, June 24, 1718. A patent, granting possession ofthe country of the Mississippi, was secured at the same time. It took the title ofthe Company ofthe Indies, and the mint of France was handed over to it July 25, 1719. The right of farming the whole of the pubhc revenue was conceded to this company Aug. 27. In the month of November the shares were sold at sixty times their original price. It was ascer- tained, May 1, 1720, that the bank had issued notes representing a sum of one hun- dred and ten milhons sterhng, and an edict was issued, reducing them in value one-half, May 21. Immediate ruin followed, and John Law resigned his office of eomptroHer-general May 29, 1720. Law died in poverty. Lawxees. — Previous to the Norman eon- quest few persons were learned in the law, except clergymen, who were permitted to practise it without restraint until 1217, when Eichard Poore, bishop of Sahsbury, prohi- bited them from pleading in secular courts. (See Attoenet, Baeeistee, &c.) Laybach (Austria), the ancient ^mona, was taken by the French, March 17, 1797, and again June 3, 1809. It was recaptured by the Austrians in July, 1809. A congress was held here, attended by the emperors of Eus- sia and Austria, and the kings of Prussia and Naples, Jan. 8, 1821. They signed a treaty, in which they engaged to oppose the revolutionary movement in Naples, Feb. 2, 1821. This treaty formed the subject of an animated discussion in both houses of the LAY English parliament Feb. 19 and 21, 1821. The congress of Laybach broke up May 21, Lay Beothees A]yD Sistees. — Uneducated persons, admitted into the convents to assist in the harder kind of work. The practice commenced in the 11th century. Latee's Conspibact. — This conspiracy to seize the Tower, the Bank, and the Ex- chequer, and to proclaim the Pretender, was formed by a young barrister named Layer, Bishop Atterbury, Carte the historian, another non-juring clergyman, named Kelly, Plunkett the Jesuit, and others, in 1722. The papers of the conspirators were intercepted, and Kelly was arrested May 21. Layer and others were taken shortly afterwards. Atterbury was seized Aug. 24. A select conunittee was appointed to examine into the matter. Layer was found guilty, and executed at Tyburn, May 17, 1773._ AbiU of pains and penalties was passed against Atter- bury, and it received the royal signature May 27. Lazaeetto. — This name, applied to the buildings where crews and passengers of ships suspected of contagion perform qua- rantine, is derived from St. Lazarus, the Eatron saint of lepers. The first was esta- lished at Venice during the plague of 1423. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 78, s. 18 (June 27, 1825), persons escaping from a lazaretto are Mable to a penalty of £200. Lazaeites. — This order of priests, founded by Vincent de Paul a.d. 1624, and charged with the care of the sick, was confirmed by Urban VIII. in 1631. They exerted much influence in Prance during the period imme- diately preceding the political changes of 1830. Lazaeo, St. (Battle).— The French and Spaniards attacked the Austrian and Pied- montese camp at St. Lazaro, about two-and- twenty nules from Piacenza, at eleven at night, June 4, 1746. After a well-contested struggle of nine hours' duration, the French and Spaniards were compelled to retire, leaving 6,000 kiRed, and nearly 9,000 wounded on the field of battle. Lazi.— This Slavonian tribe inhabited Colchis, in Asia Minor, to which they gave the name of Lazica. They first appear ia history a.d. 456, when their king, G-obazes, was defeated by the emperor Marcian, They were converted to Christianity in 522, and rebelled against the Komans in 542, but re- turned to their allegiance in 549. lu 550 they were attacked by the Persians, who subdued a great part of the country in 553. The Persians were finally defeated by the combined eff'orts of the Roman and Lazic troops in 556. Lazzaeoni. — This name is derived from Lazarus, the sick man mentioned in the Gospels, and is used to designate the lower orders of the people in Naples. The hos- pital of St. Lazarus is devoted to the service of the poorer classes, or lazzaroni. They aided MasanieUo in the revolution of 1647. They elect yearly a head or chief lazzaro, who is formally acknowledged by the govern- 481 LEA ment, which, by this means, is better able to control and wield at wiU his turbulent ad- herents, amounting to 50,f 00 or 60,000. Lea. — The Danes sailed up this river and built a fort, probably near Ware, a.d. 895. The Londoners were defeated in an attack upon it in 896. In the same year Alfred cut another channel for the water, and thus left the Danish fleet aground, whereupon the Danes retired into Shropshire. Lead is frequently spoken of in the Old Testament during the time of Moses, e.g. 1490, and was in general use amongst the Greeks and Romans. Pliny, in his Natural History, a.d. 74, describes the manufacture of lead pipes. Lead-mines in this country were worked by the Romans B.C. 54. The ancients poisoned their wines with lead. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were invented by Robert Brook in 1538. Pattinson's process for extracting the silver from lead, which in thirty years effected a saving of 200,000 ounces of the more precious metal, was introduced in 1829. Leadenhall Maeket ( London ) . — In 1309 the LeadenhaU. was a manor-house, owned by Sir Hugh NeviUe. It was sold in 1408 to Sir Richard Whitington, by whom it was afterwards presented to the corporation of London. In 1419 Sir Simon Eyre erected a granary, or market of stone ; and ia 1466 a fraternity of sixty priests was established, to perform service every market-day. The chapel was not taken down tiU 1812. Leagues. — The most important leagues mentioned in history are the following :—' 323 to 189. The jEtolian League. 280 to 146. The Achaean League. A.D. 1167. April 7. The Lombard League is signed at Puntido, between Milan and Bergamo. Its object is the maintenance of Italian in- dependence against the pretensions of Frederick Barbarossa, who was compelled to sign the treaty of Constance in June, 1183, and to recognize the freedom of the Lombard cities. A second league was formed March 2, 1226, against Frederick II., who was compelled to retire to Naples. 1465. The league of the Public Good is formed by the French nobles against Louis XL, who is compelled to sign the peace of Conflans Oct. 5. The league is dissolved in 1472. 1508. Dec. 10. The league of Cambray is signed by the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, against Venice. 1511. Oct. 4. The Holy League is formed by the pope, England, Spain, the Venetians, and the Swiss, against France. 1526. May 22. The league of Cognac, also called the Holy League and the Clementine League, was concluded against the emperor Charles V. by the pope, the Venetians, and the Fi-euch. 1530. Dec. 31. The league of Smalcald is concluded by nine Protestant princes and eleven im- perial towns, against Charles V. and the Roman Catholics. 1538. The league of Nuremberg is formed by the emperor and the Roman CathoUc princes of Germany. 1566. League of the Beggars, or Gueux (q. v.), against the introduction of the Inquisition into -, Holland. 2 I LEA 1576. The league, or Holy Unioii, of the French Roman Catholics against Protestantism. It originated at Peronne, in 1576, and after carrying on long civil wars with Henry TV. , of Navarre, was dissolved at Paris, in 1593. 1610. The leagues of Halle and "Wurzburg are respectively formed hy the Protestants and the Roman 'Catholics. 1638. The Solemn League and Covenant is formed in Scotland. {See CovENAifTEKS.) 1686. July 9. The league of Augsburg, between Austria and the majority of the German states, is formed against France. Leap Yeae, or Bissextile. — The name given to every fourth year in the Julian calendar, B.C. 46. In leap year February is made to consist of twenty -nine, instead of twenty-eight days. Under this arrange- ment the years were made a little too long, and to rectify this error, three leap years are omitted during the course of four cen- turies in the G-regorian calendar. Thus 1800 was not a leap year, and 1900 will not be ; 2000 win be a leap year, and 2100, 2200, and 2300 will not. The Bissextile, or Blssextus dies, that is, the sixth day before the calends of March, t'lvice over, was placed in the Eoman calendar between the 24th and 25th of February. By 21 Hen. III. (1175), the bissextile da)', and the day immediately pre- ceding it, were to be considered legally as one daJ^ LEAENiifG-. — The golden period of Grecian learning was the age of Pericles, who died B.C. 429. The reign of the emperor Au- gustus was so distinguished for learned men and brilliant authors, that it is usual to characterize the asras most remarkable for learning as ''Augustan ages." During the 6th centuiy after the destruction of the Western empire, learning dechned, and was almost exclusively restricted to eccle- siastics. Classical learning was revived in the Anglo-Saxon church about a.d. 668. The 10th century is usually looked upon as the darkest period of human history. The revival of learning after the period of depression significantly known as the " Dark Ages," took place in the loth century. Lease. — This word is derived from the French laisser, to let or give leave, and signifies a conveyance creating an estate for life, for a stated period, or at will. During the reign of Edward III. leases were some- times extended to several hundred years. The conveyance by lease and re-lease ori- ginated soon after the Statute of Uses, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 (1535). Leases required by law to be ia writing, were declared void unless made by deed, by 8 & 9 Yict. c. 106 (Aug. 4, 1845). Leases and sales of settled estates were facUitated by 19 & 20 Vict. 0. 120 (July 29, 1856), which was amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 2, 1858). Leather. — It is related, Gen. iii. 21, that our first parents were clothed with skins before they were turned out of the garden of Eden, and this may pei'haps be considered as the origiaal suggestion of the manufacture of leather. It was in use among oriental LEE nations for shoes, girdles, &c.; and with the Greeks and Romans for numerous articles of di'ess, as well as bottles and other vessels for containing liquids. The Romans seem to have obtained the art of tanning from Cor- dova in Spain, whence the name Cordovan leather. It was used for clothing by the ancient Britons, who also exported it in con- siderable quantities. A customs duty was imposed upon leather by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1535). A duty was laid upon it by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 21 (1697), and an export duty of 12d. per cent, was imposed by 9 Anne, c. 6 (1710). By 11 Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 29, 1830), aU duties and drawbacks upon this article were repealed. Leathern money is said to have been used by the Romans, and during the IVIiddle Ages in Italy, and even in England. Lebanoh", Mount (Syria), was subject to the kings of Tyre, in the reign of Solomon (B.C. 1015 — 975). It fell under the sway of the Mardaites, who rebelled against the Saracens, a.d. 677, and became a stronghold of the Assassins about 1190. LECHiEUM (Battle). — Agesilaus II. of Sparta defeated the Athenians and their allies at Lechseum, iu the Isthmus of Corinth, B.C. 393. Lectisteeniitm. — This sacrificial ceremony was first observed at Rome, B.C. 400, accord- iug to Livy. Lectoure (France), the ancient Lactora, belonged to the counts of Armagnae, until besieged by Louis XI., who captured it in 1474, when, in spite of a pledge to the con- trary, the count and the inhabitants were put to the sword. Lectures. — The publication of lectures without the consent of the lecturer is pro- hibited by 5 & 6 Wm. IV. 0. 65 (Sept, 9, 1835). Ledos (Battle).— The Saracens were de- feated by the Spaniards at Ledos, a.d. 793. Leeds (Battle). (-S'ee Winwidfield.) Leeds (Yorkshire), Saxon Loidis, was a Roman station, and probably fell into the hands of the Danes about a.d. 850. It was first celebrated for its manufactures about the begitming of the 16th century, and re- ceived its fij-st charter in 1627, which was renewed, with additional privileges, in 1673. A large portion of the population was cut oif by pestilence in 1644-45. Shenfield's Free Grammar-school was estabhshed in 1552; St. John's Church was founded ia 1634; the Coloured-Cloth Hall was bmlt in 1758, the White-Cloth Hall ia 1775 ; the theatre and the general infirmary were erected in 1771 ; the Old Libraiy was established in 1768 ; the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1820; and the Mechanics' Institution in 1825, They were miited in 1842, The Town- hall, constructed to contain 8,000 persons, for which the town-council voted £5,000 to purchase an organ, and £8,500 to erect a dome, was completed at a cost of £102,000, and opened by Her Majesty Sept, 7, 1858. This borough was enfranchished by the Reform Act of 1832. LEG Legacy. — The legacy duty was first imposed by 36 Geo. III. c. 52 (April 26, 1796). All gifts by will were ordered to be deemed legacies by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 76, s. 4 (Aug. 4, 1845). The law of legacies was amended, and the legacy duty was extended to real property, by 16 & 17 Vict. e. 51 (Aug. 4, 1853) . Legantine CoNSTiTUTioifS, ecclesiastical laws made in national synods, held in Eng- land during the reign of Henry III., about the years a.d. 1220 and 1268. The first synod was held under Cardinal Otho, legate of Gregory IX. ; and the second under Cardinal Othobon, legate from Clement IV. Legates. — The Eoman ambassadors were so called, and the term was also applied to officers who accompanied the Roman gene- rals in their expeditions to render advice and assistance. After the division of the provinces of the empire by Augustus, B.C. 27, the imperial provinces were governed by legates. During the Middle Ages the term was apphed to ambassadors of the popes being cardinals. Other papal ambassadors of high rank were called nuncios. The first legate that ever appeared in England came at the invitation of William I. Legatine courts were established by Wolsey, under the pope's authority, to relieve him of part of the duties of the lord-chancellorship ; and he was himself made papal legate in 1517. Leghorn (Tuscany). — This celebrated seaport-town owes all its importance to the patronage of the Medici family, having been at the commencement of the 13th century an insignificant fishing village. In 1421 it was ceded to the Florentines by the Genoese, and in 1551 its population only numbered 749. The first stone of the new walls was laid by Francesco I., March 28, 1577. The castle was founded by Ferdinand I. in 1595, and the Latin School was established in 1663. An earthquake did great injury to the city in 1741, A large public school was esta- blished in 1746. Leghorn was seized by the army of the French republic June 28, 1796, and retained tiU 1799, when the French were compelled to withdraw. It was, how- ever, retaken by General Clement in 1800. The bishopric of Leghorn was erected in 1806. In 1813 the city was finally restored to Tuscany. It was seized and plundered by insurgents, April 22, 1849, but was recovered from them by the Austriaus, May 12. An alarm of &ce at the theatre occasioned the death of sixty-two persons in June, 1857. LEGioif, a body of men in the Eoman army, as formed by Eomulus b.c. 720, consisted of 3,000 soldiers. The number was increased Ijy Servius TuOius to 4,000, B.C. 578; and a further augmentation brought it up to 5,000 foot 'and 30Q horse, B.C. 558. Gibbon is of opinion that, after undergoing numerous changes, the consti- tution of the legion was dissolved by Con- stantine. Legion oe Honotje.— This order of merit, as a recompense for civil and mihtary ser\ices, 483 LEI was inaugurated by Napoleon I., July 14, 1802. The subject had been brought before the council of state in May, 1801, when a vote in its favour was carried by a slender majority. The first crosses were distributed at the head-quarters of the grand army at Boulogne, Aug. 16, 1804. It was reconsti- tuted by Louis XVIII. in 1816. Legitimists. — This term was given in France to the supporters of the eldest branch of the Bourbon family in 1830. Legnano (Battle). — Frederickl., emperor of Germany, was defeated at this place, near Verona, by the forces of the Lombard League, May 29, 1176. By this victory the Lorn- bard cities secured their independence. Frederick I. concluded a truce of six years with the Lombard League in 1177, and the treaty of Constance terminated the dispute. The French captured Legnano in 1510. Leicester (Leicestershire), believed to be the Eoman Eatae, was founded by a British king, according to some authorities Lear, and became one of the Danish burghs about A.D. 878. Since the time of Edward I., 1272 — 1307, it has returned two members to parliament. Henry V. held a pariiament here April 30, 1414. Eichard III. was buried in the Grey Friars monastery, Aug. 25, 1485. In the abbey, buHt 1143, Cardinal Wolsey died, Nov. 29, 1530. During the parliamentary wars, the town was taken by Charles I., May 31, 1645, and recovered by Fairfax, June 17, 1645. Charles II. ordered the destruction of its waUs in 1662. The manufacture of stockings, for which the town is noted, was introduced in 1680. On the inquiry into the state of the municipali- ties, the corporation refused to deliver up the required documents and to submit to examination, Sept. 24, 1833. Leighlin (See of). — This Irish bishopric was founded by St. Laserian, a.d. 632. It was united to Ferns in 1600, and ui 1835 the two dioceses were united with Ossory. LEiNiis'GEif (Germany), formerly a county, gave the title of prince to the fine, A.D. 1779. The priucipality lost its posses- sions on the left bank of the Ehine in 1803, and was mediatized in 1806. Leinstee (Ireland). — This eastern pro- vince of Ireland formed at the time of the Enghsh invasion (1170) a distinct kingdom, under Dermot. An order for the settlement of Leinster was made in 1550. In 1691 it was erected into a dukedom in favour of Meinhard, son of the duke of Schomberg, but the title became extinct in 1719. It was revived, and conferred upon James Fitz- gerald in 1766. Leipsic (Battle). — The French army imder Napoleon I., amounting to about 166,800 men, was attacked at this place by 290,450 of the aUied forces under Prince Schwartzenberg, Blucher, and other gene- rals, Oct. 16, 1813. The battle was renewed on the 18th and 19th, when the French were com- pelled to retreat, leaving 25,00u prisoners in the hands of the allies. The total loss of the 2 I a LEI French was upwards of 60,000 men, and that of the allies 46,804 men. After the battle, the victors entered Leipsic, and Napoleon I. commenced his retreat towards the Ehine. Leipsic (Saxony). — This city, which is of Wendish origin, was destroyed by Wra- tislaus II., duke of Bohemia, a.d. 1082, and after having been rebuilt, was again razed by Otho IV. in 1212. The celebrated university was founded by German seceders from the university of Prague in 1409. A fire destroyed about 400 houses in 1420. In 1519, Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt held a theological discussion here. The book trade, for which Leipsic is so famous, commenced in 1545. The town-hall was erected in 1556. In 1680 and 1681 the plague carried ofi" 3,000 of the inhabitants. Leipsic was taken by the Prussians in 1745, by Fer- diaand of Bruns^vick in 1756, and by the French in 1806. The booksellers' exchange has been erected since 1834. Political disturbances took place here in 1830, 1831, 1848, and 1849. -A imion between the German Protestants was signed at Leipsic in February, 1631. The elector of Saxony concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa at this place. May 18, 1745, and a convention between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Kussia, was signed here Oct. 21, 1813. Leipsic, or Beeitenfeld (Battles). — The imperial army, commanded by Tilly, was defeated by the Saxons and Swedes in the plain of Leipsic, Sept. 7, 1631 (JSr.S.). The Austrians left 7,000 on the field of battle, and 5,000 were taken prisoners. All their baggage and artillery were lost. The Swedish gen- eral, Tortonsen, defeated the Austrians near the same place in 1642. Leieia (Portugal). — This ancient town is the seat of a bishop, and the first print- ing-press in the peninsula was established here a.d. 1466. In July, 1808, the town was taken by the French, who destroyed it in 1811. It was restored in 1813, and was wrested from the Miguelites, Feb. 15, 1834. Leith (Scotland). — Called Inverleith in the charter granted by David I. for the erection of Holyrood Abbey, a.d. 1128. The earl of Hertford burned the town in May, 1544. In 1560, some French troops, sent to espouse the cause of Mary queen of Scots, fortified Leith. They capitulated to the English army, and a treaty was signed at Edinburgh, July 6, which provided that they should all leave Scotland. An extraordinary convention of superintendents and ministers was held here in January, 1572, and they drew up the agreement of Leith. The first newspaper printed in Scotland was the Mercurius Politicus, which appeared at Leith in October, 1653. A dock was commenced in 1720, a small quay in 1777, and the wet docks in 1800. The Trinity-house was erected in 1817, the town-haU in 1828, and the new pier in 1852. Lembeeg (Galicia). — This once strongly- fortified city resisted a Eoman force a.d. 1666, ;and a Turkish army in 1672. Charles XII. of Sweden stormed it a.d. 1704. Ponia- 484 LEN towski captured it in 1809. The town-haU was built in 1835. Lemkos (^gasan Sea) is said to have been peopled by a Thracian tribe, whose descend- ants were expelled by the Tyrrhenian Pe- lasgians. It fell under the Persian yoke B.C. 505, and was subjected to Athens by Miltiades, b.c. 489. The Macedonians ob- tained possession for a short time, and it again passed under the Athenian yoke. It was celebrated for its labyrinth. {See Sta- TIMES-E.) Lemueia. — This festival for the souls of the departed was instituted b.c. 722, by Romulus, to appease the manes of Remug. Lens (Battle). — The Austrians and Span- iards were defeated by a French army under Conde, in this battle, fought Aug. 9, 1648. The French captured one himdred colours and thirty-eight pieces of cannon. Lent is derived from an Anglo-Saxon word, signifying Spring. Much controversy has been excited amongst learned men re- specting the original duration of this fast, some contending that it lasted forty days, and others only forty hours. Bingham believea it probable that it was at first a fast of forty hours, or the time our Saviour lay in the grave ; that is, the Friday and Satiu'day before Easter. It is said to have been instituted in the time of the Apostles, though it is not mentioned in the New Testament, and appears to have been first enjoined a.d. 136. Consisting at first of only a few hours, it lasted a whole week, if not more, in the time of Dionysius of Alexandria, about a.d. 250. At Rome, about the same time, it lasted three weeks ; and by the fifth canon of the council of Nicsea, June 19 — Aug. 25, 325, was increased to six. Then it received the name of Quadragesima, or the Forty Days Fast, because it commenced forty days before Easter. In reality its duration was only thirty -six days, aU the Sundays being omitted. The duration of Lent differed very much in the early churches. Lent is said to have been first observed in England in 640. By 2 & 3 Edw. TI. c. 19 (1548), all former laws relating to fasts were repealed, and a penalty of ten shiUings, or ten days' imprisonment, was ordered to be inflicted on those that ate meat at Lent and on other fasts. The penalty was doubled for a second offence. By 5 Eliz. c. 5 (1563), it was enacted that whosoever should notify that eating of fish, or forbearing of fiesh, was of any necessity for the saving of the soul of man, or that it was the service of God, otherwise than as other politic laws are and be, should be pimished as spreaders of false news. The same statute laid down regula- tions for the observance of fasts. Victuallers were not allowed to seU flesh in Lent by 27 EKz. c. 11 (1586). The last statute on the subject was 35 Eliz. c. 7 (1593). Several proclamations having reference to this subject were issued, and the encouragement of the navy and fishery was generally set forth as the ground of these regulations. LEO Leoben (Styria). — The preliminaries of a treaty of peace between Austria and France were signed at the castle of Eckenwald, near this tox-m, April 18, 1797. {See Campo- FoRMio, Treaty.) Leon (Spain). — The city of Leon is said to have been founded by the Eomans in the 1st century of the Christian sera. It was anciently called Legio, and received its present name on its capture by the Goths A.D. 586. It was afterwards seized by the Moors, from whom it was taken in 722, and became the capital of the Christian kingdom of Leon, which was foimded in 913 by Ordono II. The city was taken by the Moor Al Mansur in 996, and remained in his power until his defeat at Calatanazor in 998. In 1037 the kingdom of Leon was annexed to Castile ; and with the exception of the intervals from 1065 to 1072, and from 1157 to 1230, never recovered its indepen- dence. Leon was erected into a bishopric ia the 3rd century. Its first bishop died in 312, and the see was refounded in 910. The cathedral was commenced about 1199. The French under Soult entered Leon Dec. 21, 1808, and destroyed many of the old build- ings. Councils were held here in 1020, 1091, and 1114, KINGS OP liEOBT. A.D. Ordono TI 913 Froilall 923 Alfonso IV. 924 Eamiro II 927 Ordono III 950 Sancho 1 95-5 Bamiro III. 967 Bermuda II 982 Alfonso V. 999 Bermuda III 1027 Leonine Verses. — This pecuhar species of Latin versification has been traced to the 3rd century. Leontium (Sicily), founded by colonists from Naxos, B.C. 730, fell under the yoke of Hippocrates, b.c. 498, and of Hieron, B.C. 476. It sohcited the aid of the Athenians against the Syracusans in 427, when Gorgias, the eminent sophist, acted as ambassador for his native city. In one of its streets Hierony- mus was assassinated by Dinomenes, b.c. 263. It passed under the Koman sway, with the whole island, a.d. 201. Lepanto (Greece). — The ancient E^au- pactos (g. v.), called by th# Greek peasants Epakto, was destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Justinian I., about 550 a.d. Another tovsTi, built upo'ti its site, was be- sieged A.D. 1475 by the Turks, who withdrew after having lost 30,000 men, ia a siege of about four months' duration. The Turks seized Lepanto in August, 1499. The town sustained several sieges, and was restored to Venice by the treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. The Greeks captured the town and citadel of Lepanto, May 9, 1829. Lepanto (Sea-fight). —The combined Spanish and Italian fleets, under the com- mand of Don John of Austria, defeated the Turks in a great naval battle in the Gulf of Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571. Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, received a wound in this action, by which he was deprived of the use LET of his right hand during the remainder of his fife. By some Italian authors this is called the battle of Curzolari, from a group of islets of this name at the mouth of the Acheloiis. Leprosy. — This contagious disease ori- ginated in Egypt and Arabia at a very early period. It is frequently alluded to in the Scriptures ; and special regulations were prescribed concerning those afflicted with it by the Mosaic law, B.C. 1491 (Lev. xiii.). Christ healed a leper in Galilee a.d. 28. It was known to the Greeks and Romans, and is described by Hippocrates (b.c. 460 — 357) and Galen (a.d. 130—200). The Crusaders iatroduced many lepers into Europe, where the disease raged with such virulence during the Middle Ages, that almost every town had its lazar-house for the reception of lepers. In 1225, during the reign of Lotiis VIII., there were in France no fewer than 2,000 of these institutions. Since the commencement of the 17th century the disease has almost entirely disappeared from Europe, where it is now limited to the most northern and southern countries. It was very prevalent' ia the Faroe Isles in 1676, and five persons were found to be afieeted with it in Great Britain in 1736. The last case mentioned in this island was described by Dr. Edmonston in 1809. Lerida (Spain). — The ancient Ilerda was taken during the civil war by Juhus Caesar, B.C. 48, and destroyed by the Franks' A.D. 256. The town was restored, and became the scene of frequent struggles between the Moors and the Spaniards. It was besieged Oct. 2, 1707, and taken by assault; Oct. 12. Suchet took it by storm May 13, 1810. The Spaniards regained possession in 1814. Letters op Marque. — These commis- sions, authorizing private persons to equip vessels of war, or privateers, on their own account, against an enemy, in time of war, were first issued in this country in 1295. The cases in which they might be granted were specified by 4 Hen. V. c. 7 (1416). By 33 Geo. III. c. 66, s. 9 (June 17, 1793), they may only be issued to ships belonging to British subjects; or by 41 Geo. III. c. 76 (June 27, 1801), to royal vessels in the Cus- toms service. The abohtion of privateering was resolved upon by Great Britain, Au- stria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, at the congress at Paris, AprO. 16, 1856. Letter-writing.— It is exceedingly doubt- ful whether epistolary communication was known in the Homeric age, which is assigned by various chronologists to different periods between b.c. 1184 to 684. David wrote a letter to Joab, and despatched it by Uriah, B.C. 1035 (2 Sam. xi. 14, 15), and Jezebel wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal, B.C. 899 (1 Kings xxi. 8). The classical authors regard Atossa, queen of Darius Hystaspes, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., as the inventor of letter- writing. LET LIB Lettuce was introduced into England about A.D. 1540. Leucadia (Ionian Islands) came into pos- session of the Corinthians, who called it Leucas, from its white cliifs, b c. 700. They cut through an isthmus, and converted Leu- cadia into an island. The canal was, how- ever, quite choked up, according to Poiybius, B.C. 218. Subsequently it was cleared out, a,nd a bridge thrown across, it is believed by Augustus, about B.C. 17. Leucadia was taken by the Turks a.d. 1467, audit surrendered to the Venetians Aug. 21, 1717. An English force under General Oswald displaced the Erench, March 22, 1810. The fort of Santa Maura, erected near the town in the Middle Ages, was destroyed by an earthquake in 1825. Sappho's Eock, where the poetess is said to have made her desperate leap, B.C. 590, and the tomb of Artemisia, B.C. 352, are in this town. The town is sometimes called Santa Maura, from the fort. Letjctka (Battle). — TheThebans defeated the Spartans in a gi-eat battle at this village of Boeotia, B.C. 371. By this victory the supremacy of Sparta was destroyed. Leutheu-, or Lissa (Battle). — The Prus- sians, after an obstinate contest, defeated the Austrians at the village of Leuthen, in Silesia, Dec. 5, 1757. The Austrians with- drew through Lissa. Levant. — The countries situated on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean have received this name, from the French lever, to rise, because the sun rises in that direction. A Levant eorapauy of merchants was char- tered in 1581, and a second in 1593. The great Levant Company was established in 1605. Levelleks, a party who desired that "all degrees of men should be levelled, and an equahty should be estabhshed, both in titles and estates, throughout the kingdom," ob- tained the supremacy in the army of the Long Paiiiament in 1647. They denounced all existing forms of government, and cla- moured for the blood of Charles I. They raised an insurrection in 1649, and Crom- well took measures to suppress them. (See ACEPHALI.) LEVEEiAif Museum.— This fine collection of obiects of natural history was formed by Sir Ashton Lever, who estaLihshed it at Lei- cester House, Leicester Square, in 1775. Not being efficiently supported. Sir Ashton was compelled to dispose of it by lottery in 1785. It was won by Mr. Parkiuson, who sold it by auction, in 7,879 lots. The sale lasted from May 5 to July 18, 1806. Lewes (Sussex), one of the most ancient towns in England, was fortified by the Saxons, and the ISTormans built its castle soon after the Conquest. The royal army was defeated by the barons at this place. May 13, 1264, Henry III. having been made prisoner. Soon after the battle, Px-ince Edward entered into a treaty, caUed the Mise of Lewes. Lexin&ton (Battle). — During the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent a small force from Boston to destroy some mili- 486 tary stores collected at Lexington (Mas- sachusetts) by the rebels. This service was performed on the morning of April 19, and led to other collisions in the neighbourhood. LEXijr&To:N^ (Kentucky), founded a.d. 1776, was the chief town of Kentucky until 1792, when Frankfort was made the capital of the state. Lexington was incorporated in 1782. Letden (Holland), the ancient Lugdunum Batavorum, withstood two celebrated sieges by the Spaniards iu 1573 and 1574. The first commenced Oct. 31, 1573, and was raised March 21, 1574, by Louis of Nassau. Valdez returned with 8,000 Walloons and Germans, May 26, 1574. Valdez ottered pardon to the citizens, on condition of an immediate sur- render, July 30 ; but they still held out, although reduced to extremities by want of prorisions. A flotilla of vessels, fitted out at Zealand for the relief of the city, broke through the dykes, and, assisted by an inundation, caused by a violent equinoctial gale, Oct. 1 and 2, entered the city Oct. 3, and Leyden was saved. The inhabitants had suttered severely from famine and pestilence, and, in acknowledgment of their heroism, the prince of Orange founded the university in 1575. The round tower called the Burg, in the centre of the town, is supposed to have been built about a.d. 450 ; St. Panoras Church was erected in 1280, and St. Peter's iu 1315. The town-haU was founded in 1574. Here Arminius published his views, which led to the controversy bearing his name, Feb. 7, 1604. In Jan. 1795, Leyden was taken pos- session of by the French, who held it till 1813. Libel. — The Roman laws treated libel as a capital offence, and during the latter period of the empire similar severity was extended to the possessors of libellous documents. Hallam (England, ch. xv.) remarks, — "The law of hbel has always been indefinite — an evil probably beyond any complete remedy, but which evidently renders the liberty of free discussion rather more precarious in its exercise than might be vdshed. It appears to have been the received doctrine in West- minster HaU, before the Eevolution, that no man might pubhsh a writing reflecting on the government, nor upon the character, or even capacity and fitness, of any one employed in it." Fox's Libel Bill of 1792 effected a salutary change. WiUiam Pryune was fined £5,000 for having written the " Histiio-Mas- trix," expelled from the university of Oxford and the bar, was exposed in the pillory, and committed to the Tower in August, 1633. He was, with Henry Burton and Robert Bastwick, condemned in the Star Chamber for hbels, June 14, 1637, and they were set in the pfllory and mutUated, June 30. A resolu- tion adopted in the House of Commons, that privilege of parliament should not extend to cases of hbel, was agreed to by the Lords Nov. 29, 1763. Major John Scott, a mem- ber of the House of Conamons, was repri- manded by the House for a hbellous pubhca- tion in one of the morning papers, May 18, 1790. By 60 Geo. HI. c. 8 (Dec. 30, 1819), LIB offenders convicted a second time were liable to banishment for such term of years as the court before which the case was tried might order. This penalty was repealed by 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Wm. IV. c. 73 (July 23, 1830). The libel laws were amended and mitigated by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 96 (Aug. 24, 1843). LiBEBiA (Africa). — This free republic was founded AprU 25, 1822, by some negro colonists, who had settled on the island of Sherboro in 1820, and were compelled to re- move, from the unhealthiness of the climate. A constitution was framed in 1839. The independence of the colony, declared in 1847, was formally recognized by France and England in 1848. Libertines. — Considerable controversy has been excited respecting the synagogue of the Libertines, mentioned as existing at Jerusalem a.d. 37 (Acts vi. 9). Some writers believe it refers to the Libertini, or the children of freedmen ; and other autho- rities believe the Libertines to have been the inhabitants of Libertina, a city near Carthage. Libertines, or Spirituals, sometimes called Spiritual Libertines, who defended impure morals vdth a profession of Christian faith, appeared in Flanders in the 14th and 15th centuries. The sect spread into France, and received encouragement from Margaret, queen of Navarre, in 1533. One of this sect, James Gruet, an opponent of Calvin, was put to death at Geneva in 1550. Libraries (Free). — Powers were granted to town-councils to establish free libraries, "by a rate levied with the consent of a ma- jority of two-thirds of the voters, by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 65 (Aug. 14, 1850). The city of London is specially included in a subsequent act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 70), July 30, 1855. Manchester sanctioned the levying of a rate for this purpose Aug. 20, 1852 ; and Liver- pool followed the example by opening such an institution under a special act, Oct. 18, 1852. Library. — From an inscription in the Memnonium at Thebes, which is ascribed to the 14th century B.C., it appears that a library, or " haU of books," formed a part of that palace. This is perhaps the most ancient institution of the kind on record. The earliest libraries throughout Christen- dom were those attached to churches. 650. Saidanapalus V. prepares a series of inscribed tablets, or a library in clay, for public instruction. 537. Pisistratus founds a public library at Athens about this year. 322. Aristotle bequeaths his collection of books to Theophrastus. 298. Ptolemy Soter founds the Alexandrian library. (See Alkxandria. ) 197. Death of Attalus I., founder of the library of Pergamus. 167. Paulus JSinUius establishes the first library at Rome. 28. The Palatine Library is founded at Rome. a.d. 330. Constantine founds a librai-y at Constanti- nople. 389. The library of the Serapeum of Alexandria is destroyed. LIB 596. St. Augustine brings nine volumes into Eng- land, which form the nucleus of the first English library. 650 (about). The library of Fleury is founded. 724. The librai-y of Reichenau is founded. 744. Charlemagne founds the monastic library of Fulda. 820. The library of St. Gall is founded. 1215. The library of Salamanca university is founded. 1350 to 1364. John II. founds the Imperial Library at Paris. 1352. Petrarch presents his library to Venice. 1366. The library of Prague university is founded by the emperor Charles TV. 1413. Andreas von Stommow establishes a library at Dantzic. 1440. The library of Ratisbon is founded. The library of Vienna is founded, and also that of UJm. 1445. Nuremberg library is founded. 1447. Pope Nicholas V. founds the Vatican Library at Rome. 1473. The library of Glasgow university is founded. 1475. Thomas Scott, bishop of Lincoln, builds the library of Cambridge university. 1490. The Corvinian Library, fonned by Matthias Coi-vinus, king of Hungary, nimibers nearly 50 000 volumes. 1531. Strasburg university librai-y is established. 1533 to 1559. Christinn III. of Denmark founds the Royal Library of Copenhagen. 1534. Albert of Brandenburg begins the Royal Library of Kcinigsberg. 1540. Gustaviis Vasa founds the Royal Library of Stockholm. 1543. The library of Leipsic university is founded. 1550 to 1579. Albert V., duke of Bavaria, founds the library of Munich. 1556. The Dresden library is founded. 1558. The Ducal Library of "Wolfenbtittel is founded. 1562. The library of Tubingen university is founded. 1580. The library of the Escorial is founded. {See EscoBXAX.) A town library is founded at Ipswich. 1601. The librai-y of Trinity College, DubUn, is founded. 1602. The Bodleian Library (q.v.) is founded at Oxford. 1603. Humphi-ey Chetham founds the first free library at Manchester. 1609. The Antwerp libraiy is founded. 1629. Padua university library is established. 1635. The library of Sion College is founded. 1638. The Harvard Library is founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1650. The Berlin library is founded. 1660. The royal public library of Hanover is founded. 1690. The library of Bologna university is founded. 1692. The Ashmolean Library is bequeathed to Oxford university. 1696. The library of the university of HaUe is founded. 1700. The Cottonian Library {q. v.) is purchased for public use. 1703. The university library of Heidelberg is founded. 1714. The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg is founded. 1731. Franklin founds the first American subscrip- tion library at Philadelphia. 1734. The library of Gottlngen is founded. 1737. The Royal Library at Paris is opened to the public, 1749. The Ratclifl'e Library is opened at Oxford. 1753. The Harleian Library {g. v.) and the collection of Sir- Hans Sloaue are purchased by the nation. 1796. Feb. 29. The National Library of Portugal is founded. 1802. The library of Count Szechenyi forms the foundation of the Pesth libi-ary. 1823. The libraiy of George III. is given to the nation by George IV. 487 LIB 1824. A library for the city of London is founded at GuildhaU. 1830. Tlie library of the Taylor Institution at Oxford is founded. 1831. The Arundel Library is added to the British Museum. 1836. The Royal Libraiy of Brussels is founded. 1845. Oct. 28. The Grenville Library is bequeathed to the British Museum. 1850. Aug. 14. The Public Libraries Act is passed (13 & 14 Vict. c. 6.3). 1852. The burgesses of Manchester establish a free public library, under the act of 1850. Oct. 18. A free library is opened to the public at Liverpool. 1855. July 30. The Public Libraries and Museums Act is passed (18 & 19 Vict. c. 70). 1856. A public library is founded in Melbourne, Australia. 1861. July 11. The citizens of London reject, by a large majority, a proposition to establish a free public library in the city. LrBTJEisriA (niyria) received Yatinius as its proconsul B.C. 47. A revolt against the Roman rule was suppressed by Octavius B.C. 35. The hght galleys of the Liburni rendered important assistance to Axigustus at Actium, Sept. 21, 31 b.c. Charlemagne absorbed Libumia iato his empire a.d. 788. Libya (Africa) is mentioned by Homer B.C. 962, and described by Herodotus B.C. 484. The Phoenicians are said to have colo- nized it B.C. 2080, and endeavoured to mono- pohze its commerce B.C. 600. Cambyses, king of Persia, led an expedition into Libya B.C. 526, and Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes caused it to be explored for pur- poses of trade. The Eomans assigned the country to Ptolemy Physcon, b.c. 164. (See Afeica.) Licences. — Gaming-houses were first ordered to be licensed by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1541), which was repealed by 2 & 3 PhU. & Mary, c. 9 (1555). Alehouses were licensed by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1552) ; wine- retailers by 12 Charles II. c. 25 (1660) ; tea and coffee dealers by 15 Charles II. c. 11, s. 15 (1663) ; spirit-merchants by 2 Geo. II. c. 28 (1729); auctioneers by 17 Geo. III. c. 50 (1777) ; post-horse masters by 19 Geo. III. c. 51 (1779) ; maltsters by 24 Geo. III. sess. 2, c. 41 (1784) ; and tobacco dealers by 29 Geo. III. c. 68, s. 70 (1789). The General License Act is 9 Geo. IV. e. 61 (July 15, 1828) . Licences for refreshment-houses are regulated by 23 Vict. c. 27 (June 14, 1860), which came into operation July 1. Licensee op Plats was first appointed by 10 Geo. II. c. 28 (1736). Brooke's " Gustavus Vasa " was the first play the performance of which was prohibited by this officer. Lichfield (Bishopric). — A bishop's see, estabhshed at this town a.d. 669, was raised to the dignity of an archbishopric by a synod held at Calchutense, or Celchyth, in liorthumberland, in 787. The dignity was suppressed by the synod of Cloveshovense, or Chff, Oct. 12, 803. The see removed to Chester ia 1075, and to Coventry in 1102 ; was restored to Lichfield in 1129, when it was called the bishopric of Lichfield and 488 LIE Coventry. The latter name was discon- tinued in 1837. Lichfield (Staffordshire). — This ancient city, to which Edward II. granted a charter of meorporation, was, with the suburbs, con- stituted a distinct county by Queen Mary, A.D. 1553. The cathedral, founded in 1148, suffered greatly during the civd wars, the parhamentary army having captured the town March 2, 1643, and was restored in 1661. LiCHTENBEEG- (Germany). — In 1816 this territory was ceded by Prussia to the duke of Saxe-Coburg, who made it a principality, naming it Lichtenberg, after an ancient castle. In 1834 it was restored to Prussia for an an- nual rent of 80,000 dollars. LiciNiAN Law, restricting the quantity of land which any citizen of Rome might possess to 500 jugera, or about 330 acres, was proposed by the Roman tribune C. Licinius Stolo, B.C. 376, and was carried B.C. 367. LiEBAir, (Treaty,) annulling the federal sub- jection of the duchy of Prussia to Sweden, was concluded S^ov. 10, 1656. Liechtenstein (Germany). — This prin- cipahty, the smallest of the states forming the Germanic confederation, belongs to one of the most ancient houses in Europe. Liege (Belgium). — A bishop's see, estab- hshed at Tongres a.d. 97, was transferred to Maastricht in 383, and to Liege in 713. Its bishop became a prince of the empire in the 10th century. One of its bishops, expelled in 1406, recovered possession of the towTi in 1408. It was stormed by the duke of Burgundy, and burned Oct. 30, 1468. Louis XrV. took Liege in 1688. Marl- borough obtained possession of the city Oct. 13, 1702 ; the citadel surrendered Oct. 23 ; and a detached work, called the Chartreuse, Oct. 29. The French, who assailed it without success in the summer of 1705, obtained possession Oct. 10, 1746, The French, under General Dumouriez, took possession of Liege, after defeating the Austrians in the vicinity, Nov. 28, 1792 ; but they were in turn beaten with great loss, March 4, 1793. It was annexed to France in 1795. The Cossacks captured it January, 1814. Liege formed part of the Netherlands in 1814, and was added to Belgium in 1830. The cathedral was built in the 8th century, and the university was founded by the king of Holland in 1817. LiEGNiTZ (Silesia), the capital of a gov- ernment of the same name, was the scene of I the Mongol victory over the Poles and the I Teutonic Knights, a.d. 1241. It was taken in 1757 by the Austrians, who were defeated here by Frederick II. of Prussia, Aug. 15, 1760. An aUied Prussian and Russian army 1 defeated the French at Wahlstatt, near this j town, Aug. 17, 1813. The old castle was nearly destroyed by fire in 1834. LiESNiA, orLESNO (Battle).— The Russians defeated the Swedes near this town, at the junction of the Punca and the Sossa, Oct. 8, 1708. The Swedish general Ldwenhaupt with inferior numbers repulsed the Russians LIF at the first charge, Oct. 7. The battle was continued on the next day ; the Russians advanced no less than five times ; numbers at last prevailed, and Lowenhaupt passed the Sossa during the night of Oct. 8, having with 10,000 men maintained an arduous con- flict with 40,000 Eussians during two days. Lifeboat. — A patent for a lifeboat was f ranted to Lukin a.d. 1785. It was improved y Greathead, who launched his first hfeboat Jan. 30, 1790; and for his services in this matter he received a grant of £1,200, June 31, 1802. The Society of Arts voted him their gold medal and 50 guineas in 1804. A prize of a hundred guineas, offered by the duke of Northiunberland for the best model, was awarded to Beeching of Yarmouth in 1850. LiFE-BtrOT. — In 1818, Lieut. Cook received a gold medal from the Society of Arts, for the invention of a hfe-buoy. Liee-Pke server. — Various apparatus for the preservation of Hfe from shipwreck have from time to time been invented. A paper kite was employed to effect commu- nication with the shore in 1740, and in 1791 the Society of Arts published an account of Lieutenant BeU's system. Captain Manby's attention was directed to the subject by witnessing the death of sixty-seven per- sons within fifty yards from the shore, when the gun -brig Snipe was wrecked at Yarmouth, Feb. 18, 1807. He vowed to devote his hfe to the prevention of similar catastrophes in future, and invented the method of communication from the shore by means of a mortar and rope, which now bears his name. The apparatus was first employed Feb. 12, 1808, when it saved the crew of a brig. Captain Manby died Nov. 18, 1854, with the knowledge that he had been the means of saving more than 1,000 lives, E. W. Laurie, of Glasgow, patented several improvements in apparatus to be employed for the preservation of human life, July 9, 1849. Light. — Pythagoras, and the Platonists were the first whose speculations on this subject are recorded. Little definite know- ledge on the subject was obtained until the law of the refraction of fight was dis- covered by WiLlebrord SneU, or SneUiiis, a mathematician of Lej'den, a.d. 1621, and was made public by Descartes in 1637. Its compound nature was discovered by Newton while experimenting on the pris- matic spectrum, about 1666. Bradley, astro- nomer royal, detected its aberration Dec. 21, 1725, and discovered the cause in Sept. 1728. {See Optics.) Lighthouse, or Pharos. — The Colossus of Ehodes, built by Chares about B.C. 290, is supposed by some writers to have answered the purpose of a Mghthouse. These edifices received the name of Pharos from the fight- house erected on the island of Pharos, for the purpose of fighting the harbour of Alex- andria, B.C. 283. It was constructed by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The Tour de Corduan, the first modern fighthoase, was LIG founded at the mouth of the Garonne in 1584, and completed in 1610. Lighting of Streets. — It is doubted whether any system of fighting the thorough- fares existed among the Greeks and Eomans, though they iUuminated their cities on pubfic festivals. Antioch was probably fighted by artificial means in the 3rd century. The governor of Edessa ordered lamps to be kept burning during the night, about a.d. 505. Paris is said to have been the first modern city in which the streets were fighted. An order to the inhabitants to keep lights burn- ing after nine in the evening was issued in 1524, in 1526, and in 1553. Maitland contends that a similar order was issued in London in 1414. Vases containing pitch and rosin were used for this purpose in October, 1558. The Abbe Laudati secured a twenty years' privfiege of letting out torches and lan- terns for hire, in Paris in March, 1662. Householders in London were required to hang out a fight when it was dark in 1668. Parliamentary authority was granted for lighting the streets by contract in 1736. By another act of parfiament, passed in 1744, great improvements were made in the sys- tem of fighting the streets of the city of London. Lighting the streets was intro- duced at the Hague in 1553, at Amsterdam in 1669, at Hamburg in 1672, at Berfin in 1679, at Copenhagen in 1681, at Vienna in 1687, at Hanover in 1696, at Leipsic in 1702, at Dresden in 1705, at Cassel in 1721, at Brunswick in 1765, and at Zurich in 1778. {See Gas.) LiGHTNiiTG Conductors. — The ancient Eomans regarded persons or places struck by fightning with horror, befieving them to be devoted to the wrath of Heaven. They surrounded places struck in this manner by a wafi, and buried things with mysterious ceremonies. Some authors befieve that they possessed the knowledge of conducting fight- ning. Modern lightning conductors, for the protection of buildings, were suggested by Franklin immediately after his famous elec- tric experiment in 1752. Dr. Watson erected the first in England, at Payneshfil, in 1762. A plan; was submitted to the Admiralty by W. Snow Harris,, for protecting ships from the effect of fightning, in 1821. It was adopted, and its inventor was rewarded with a pension, a grant of £4,000, and knighthood. The plans for the protection of the Houses of Parfiament were furnished by him. Pro- fessor Eichmann, of St. Petersburg, was kiUed in his room by a shock from a con- ductor in 1753. LiGNT (France) was captured by the Spaniards June 5, 1544, Here Napoleon I. defeated the Prussian army under the com- mand of Blucher, Jime 16, 1815, and com- peUed them to retreat to "Wavre. The Prus- sians lost 20,000, and the French 10,000 men in this battle. LiGUEiA (Italy) was inhabited by an an- cient people caUed the Ligures, of whose origin nothing authentic has been recorded. They first oame into collision with the Ro- Lia mans B.C. 237, and P. Lentulus Claudinus celebrated a triumph over them b.c. 236. The Ligurians allied themselves with the Car- thaginians, and commenced open hostilities by attacking Placentia and Cremona, Eoman colonies, b.c. 200. A long series of wars, extending over a period of eighty years, ensued between the Komans and the Ligu- rians. Several tribes were reduced to sub- jection before B.C. 173 ; others held out, and one tribe in the Maritime Alps was not re- duced to obedience until B.C. 14. The Lom- bards overran the country a.d. 569. Li&UEiAN Eeptjblic— The French created a revolution in Genoa early in 1797, and by a convention stipulated at Monte BeUo, June 5 and 6, this repubhc placed itself under the protection of France. Napoleon Bonaparte gave it the name of the Ligurian repubhc. The formal surrender of its liberties, and its annexation to France, was made at Milan, June 4, 1805. The inhabitants revolted, and proclaimed the restoration of the Ligurian repubhc, April 3, 1849. The revolt was sup- pressed April 11. Lilac, a favourite flowering shrub, was introduced into this country before or during the reign of Henry YIII. (a.d. 1509—1547) ; as " six hlac-trees, which bear no fruit, but only a pleasant smell," are enumerated in the list of trees in the palace gardens at Norwich, taken by order of Cromwell. Lille, or Lisle (Conference). — Lord Mahnesbury was despatched here early in July, 1797, to resume the negotiations for peace with the French government, which had been suddenly broken off in December, 1796. The demands of England were mode- rate. The French plenipotentiaries required the recognition of the French repubhc, and the renunciation by George III. of the title, king of France. After the revolution at Paris ■ of the 4th September, the former plenipoten- tiaries were recalled, and two repubhcans sent, who required Lord Mahnesbury to pro- duce authority from the Enghsh government to surrender all the conquests made during the war, or to quit Lille within twenty-four hours. Lord Malmesbtiry broke up the con- ference and withdrew. Lille, or Lisle (France) , was founded and walled in by the count of Flanders, a.d. 1030. Phihp II. of France burned it in 1213, and it was besieged and taken by Philip the Fair in 1297. Lille was united to the crown of Spain in 1496, and was taken by Louis XIV. The Huguenots failed in an attempt to capture it in 1581, and the French besieged it in 1645. Louis XIV. took it from the Spaniards in 1667, and it was ceded to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, May 2 (O.S.), 1668. The alhes having besieged it Aug. 13, 1708, the tovra capitulated Oct. 24, and the citadel Dec. 10. The alhes are said to have had 17,000 killed and wounded during the siege. It was re- stored to France by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. The allied army threatened it in 1744. The Austrian army besieged Lihe Sept. 24, 1792, but were compelled to retire Oct. 8. Louis XVIII. found refuge here for a few 490 LIM days, on the escape of Napoleon I. from Elba in 1815. The collegiate church of St. Peter was built in 1066, and the town-hall in 1430. Liltb^um: (Sicily), the modern Marsala, was built by the Carthaginians B.C. 397. Pyrrhus besieged it for two months unsuc- cessfully, B.C. 276. The Eomans laid siege to it during the first Punic war, B.C. 250, and it capitulated b.c. 241. The port was blocked up with stones by Charles V., to protect it from the Barbary pu-ates, in the 16th century. (See Maesala.) Lima (Peru) was founded by Pizarro as his capital, under the name of Ciudad de los Eeyes, or the City of the Kings, Jan. 6, 1535. Here he was assassinated, Sunday, June 26, 1541 . The inhabitants revolted against Gene- ral Santa Cruz, July 29, 1838. It has suffered severely from earthquakes, more particularly in 1746 and 1759, andjwas devastated by yellow fever in 1854. The archbishopric was founded in the 16th century. LiMBUEG (Belgium).— The French demo- hshed the outworks of this town, in the pro- vince of Liege, a.d. 1675. Marlborough invested Limburg Sept. 10, 1703, and the garrison surrendered Sept. 27. It was the capital of the old duchy of Limburg. LiMBTJEG (Belgium and Holland). — This province is supposed to have been occupied by the Eburones, in whose territories Julius Caesar quartered a legion B.C. 54. The Ebu- rones attacked the Eoman camp, and massa- cred nearly aU the troops. Caesar returned B.C. 53, and exterminated the Eburones. The country was formed into a duchy, which was annexed to Burgundy a.d. 1472, and formed one of the United Provinces . It was ceded to Finance in 1795, and was soon after restored to the Netherlands. After the revolution of 1830, the province of Limburg was divided between Belgium and HoUand. LiMBUES (Germany). — The Prussians were driven from this town, on the river Lahn, in the duchy of Nassau, by the French, Nov. 9, 1792. The Prussians regained possession of Limburg in a few days. The French drove the Austrians from Limburg in June, 1796, and the Austrians recovered the town Sept. 16 in the same year. Lime or Dbummoitd Light, invented by- Captain Thomas Drummond, was first prac- tically apphed in the survey of Ireland, com- menced a.d. 1824, and is described by the in- ventor in the Philosophical Transactions for 1826. He recommended its appUcation to hghthouses in 1830. Lime or LiNDEisr-TEEE. — This handsome tree is not indigenous to this country, but it existed here as early as the middle of the 16th century. LiMEEiCK (Bishopric) . — The reputed founder of this Irish diocese is St. Munchin, of whom httle more is known than his name. Sir James Ware, however, contends that it was erected by Donald O'Brien about the time of the Enghsh invasion. Gille, or Gille- bert, A.D. 1106, is the first bishop of whom anything is known. LIM LiMEBiCE (Ireland) . — This city, the capital of the county of the same name, is said to have been a place of some repute in the 5th century. It was first attacked by the Danes A.D. 812, and was captured by them about the middle of the 9th century. Donald 0' Brien founded the cathedral about the period of the English invasion, and built a convent for Black nuns about 1174. King John visited Limerick in 1210, and erected Thomond Bridge over the Shannon, and in 1314 the suburbs were burnt by the Scotch, under Edward Bruce. The fortifications were completed in 1495. The bull against Elizabeth was placed on the gates in 1570. In 1641 Limerick was seized by the confederate Eoman Catholics, under Lords Muskerry and Skerrin, and in 1643 it became the head-quarters of the Irish pa- pists. Ireton took it after a six months' siege, Oct. 27, 1651, and died there the following "Nov. 26. William III. commenced the siege of Limerick Aug. 9, 1690, and after a great expenditure of Hfe, was compelled to raise it Aug. 30. It was, however, renewed the following year by General Ginkell, who finally succeeded in taking the city. A truce was agreed upon Sept. 23, 1691, and the cele- brated treaty of Limerick {q.v.) was signed Oct. 3. The Custom-house was erected in 1769, the Exchange in 1778, the gaol and lunatic asylum in 1821, and the City Infirmaryin 1829. The lace manufacture, for which Limerick is celebrated, was introduced in 1829. The finest building is the bank, erected in 1840. The worlfhouse was built in 1841 . Serious riots occurred here June 15, 1830. The mob attacked the provision warehouses, flour -mills, &c., doing damage to the extent of £10,000. Limerick, (Treaty,) called the Pacification of Limerick, was signed at Limerick Oct. 3, 1691. It put an end to the authority of James II. in Ireland. By the first article the Eoman Catholics were to enjoy such privi- leges in the exercise of their religion as were consistent with the laws of Ireland, or such as they did enjoy in the reign of Charles II. A general amnesty was granted to aU persons willing to remain in Ireland. They were to have all their estates, and all the rights, pri- vileges, and immunities, which they enjoyed iu the reign of Charles II., free from for- feitures, or outlawries incurred by them. The garrison were permitted to march out with the honours of war, and to take service iu the French army. About 12,000 men were conveyed to France, and enlisted under the banner of Louis XIV. They formed the Irish Brigade, so celebrated in the conti- nental wars of the 18th century. "William III. ratified the treaty in February, 1692. The English parliament accepted the treaty, but the Irish parliament declared that General Ginkell and the lords justices had exceeded their powers, and, in 1695, passed an act putting their own construction upon the terms of the convention. Sir Henry Parnell brought forward a motion in the House of Commons, March 6, 1828, for an address to the king, praying that this treaty might be laid before LIN the house. This led to an animated discussion respecting the obhgations it imposed upon England to remove the disabilities of the Eoman Catholics. Limited Liability. — The Habilities of members of joint-stock companies, with a capital divided into shares of not less than £10 each, for the debts of their company, were limited upon certain conditions by 18&19Yict. c. 133 (Aug. 14, 1855). The act did not apply to Scotland. It was amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 47 (July 14, 1856) ; 20 & 21 Vict. c. 14 (July 13, 1857) ; and by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 60 (July 23, 1858). Limoges (France), the Augustoritum of the Eomans, was, in their time, the chief town of the Lemovices, who joined Vereingetorix against Julius Caesar, B.C. 52. It was the capital of the province of Limousin, and Avas taken by Edward the Black Prince a.d. 1370. The Black Prince was shortly after compelled to retire to England, on account of ill-health ; and the capture of this town, in which he is said to have displayed great cruelty, was his last military exploit. Its cathedral was commenced in the 13th, and the church of St. Michel-aux-Lions was built in the 15th century. Councils were held here in 848, 1029, Nov. 18, 1031, and in 1182. LiMOUSiir (France). — This province, in- habited by the Lemovices, was wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis I. , king of the Franks, A.D. 507. It was included in Gnienne, and afterwards made a separate province, for the possession of which the kings of France and England waged frequent war. Eichard I. lost his life from a wound received whilst besieging the castle of Chains- Chabrol, iu Limousin, March 26, 1199. It was united to the French crown by Henry of Navarre in 1589. Turgot was intendant of the Limousin from 1761 to 1773. LiNCELLES (Battle). — General Lake de- feated the French at this viUage, in the Netherlands, Aug. 18, 1793. LiNCOLif (Battles).— Ealph, earl of Ches- ter, and Eobert, earl of Gloucester, attacked and defeated Stephen at Lincoln, Sunday, Feb. 2, 1141. Stephen was captured and imprisoned in Bristol Castle. Matilda was acknowledged as "Lady of England" at Winchester, April 7. A French army that had been sent over to assist the rebel- lious barons against Henry III., was attacked and totally defeated by the earl of Pembroke a,nd Peter, bishop of Winchester, at Lincoln, Saturday, May 20, 1217. Eoger of Wendover states that in derision of Louis, son of Philip Augustus of France, and the barons, this was called the battle of the Fair. LiNCOL]>r (Bishopric). — The two sees of Leicester and Lindisse were erected in 680, and were united in 873. In 886 the seat of the diocese was fixed at Dorchester, and about the year 1078 it was transferred to Lincoln. The see of Ely was created out of Lincoln in 1108, that of Oxford in 1541, and that of Peterborough in 1541 ; and in 1837 it was further reduced by the annexation of 491 Lm LIN several districts previously under its juris- diction to other sees. LiifcOLN (Lineobisliire), the Eoman Lin- dum, was a station of the Eomans. " New- port Gate" is a ruin of a Eoman archway erected a.d. 418. The castle was founded by WiUiani I. in 1086. A charter of incorpora- tion was granted to Lincoln by Henry II. (1154 — 1189). Stephen was captured here by the earl of Chester, and many of the citizens were slaughtered Feb. 2, 1141. Lin- coln was taken by the Parhamentarians under the earl of Manchester, May 5, 1644. The city was represented in parhament in the reign of Henry III. (1216—1272). The cathedral, founded by William I. in 10S6, was burnt down in 1126, and was afterwards rebuilt. St. Peter's Church was bmlt in 1723. The famous beU, Great Tom, cast in 1610, cracked in 1827, was broken up in 1834. LiN-coLW College (Oxford), founded by Eichard Flemmyng, bishop of Lincoln, Oct. 13, 1428 A.D., was extended by Eo- theram, also bishop of Lincoln, in 1479. Other emoluments were added by Crewe, bishop of Durham, in 1718, and l)r. Hut- chins in 1781. The largest quadi-angle was erected in the 15th century, the small court was bxiilt by Sir Thomas llotherham in 1612, and the chapel was built in 1631 by Arch- bishop Wilhams, who had the illuminated windows brought from Italy in 1629. The college was repaired in 1818. Lincolnshire (England) . — A Saxon king- dom, called Lindsey, subordinate to Mercia, occupied the same extent of country as Lin- colnshire. The Danes obtained permanent possession of Lindsey a.d. 877, and it was soon after merged in the Anglo-Saxon king- dom of England. Lincoln's Inn (London) .—The earl of Lincoln erected a palace here a.d. 1229, whence the name. It was used by the bishops of Chichester as a palace until 1310, when a law school was established. Queen Ehzabeth made a grant of the fee simple of Lincoln's Inn to the benchers. The hbrary of Lincoln's Inn was commenced in 1522, and the chapel was erected from the designs of Inigo Jones in 1626. The haU and the new buildings were opened by Queen Yic- toria, Oct. 30, 1845. Lincoln's-Inn Pields (London). — Lord Wilham Eussell was beheaded in Lincoln's- Inn Pields, July 21, 1683. The square was enclosed in 1737. Lincoln's-Inn Fields Theatee (Lon- don). — This theatre was situated on the south side of Lincoln's Inn, at the back of the present Eoyal College of Surgeons. The first was originally a tennis-court, which was converted into "the Duke's Theatre" by Sir WiUiam Davenant, and opened in 1662. The second theatre was built by Congreve and others, and opened with the first per- formance of " Love for Love," April 30, 1695. It was pulled down by Christopher Eich in 1714, and the new theatre was opened after hig decease by his son John, Dec. 18, 492 1714. The "Beggar's Opera" was first played in this house Jan. 29, 1728. Lincoln's- Inn Theatre was converted into a barrack in 1756, and was finally taken down Aug. 28, 1848. LiNDispAENE. {See Holt Island.) Lindsey, or Lindum Island (Lincoln- shire). — This province was, according to Bede, converted to Christianity by PauUnus, A.D. 628. The Danes seized Lindsey a.d. 838, and again in 993. A bishop's see was estabhshed at Lindisse, supposed to be Stow, in Lincolnshire, in 680. It was removed to Lincoln in 1078. Linen was woven at a very early period. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen (Gen. xH. 42), e.g. 1715. The Egyptians had attained high perfection in the art of manufacturing Imen B.C. 700, and exported it, according to Herodotus, B.C. 478. It was used in Britain prior to the Eoman invasion, B.C. 55. In Ireland it was woven in the 11th century. The trade was much im- proved by French refugees in 1685, and en- couraged by the establishment of a " Linen Board," which was abohshed in 1828. Pos- broke (Antiq. 472) remarks : " Strutt ob- serves, that the manufacture of hnen in this country was not carried to any extent before the middle of the 17th century ; was in its infancy even in the time of Charles II. (1661 — 1685) ; was imported from Flanders, and was very dear. . . . D'Arnay says, that it was not common in the west in the 8th century : that table linen was very rare in England in the 13th and 14th centuries. . . . Anderson traces some fine hnen made in England in 1253 ; a company at London in 1386; a manufacture in Nor- mandy in 1422 ; and in Ireland in 1430, which was advanced by the French Protestant refugees about 1696. In 1445 we find fine linen for surplices and the altar, at 8d. the eU. Eheims supphed us with most of our finest hnens in the 14th century." Ma- chinery was first used in this manufacture in 1725. Linen was manufactured in Scot- land early in the 18th century, and a board of trustees for its encouragement was formed in 1727. The duty on hnen was abohshed by the commercial treaty signed with France, Jan. 23, 1860. LiNGHiEBA (Sea-fight). — The Venetians, assisted by the Spaniards, defeated the Genoese off this place, in Italy, Aug. 29, 1353. LiNGONUM CiviTAS, or Andematunnum (Gaul). — Constantius Chlorus defeated the Alemanni at this town, a.d. 298. AttUa destroyed the town in 407. It was rebuilt by the Burgundians, and became the capital of a country called, in old French, Langone. Louis VII. 'made it a duchy. The cathedral was founded in 380. Linlithgow (Battle). — During the mi- nority of James V. of Scotland, the charge of his person was intrusted to certain peers in rotation. He came of age (fourteen years old) in April, 1525 ; but the earl of Angus stiU continued to control his actions, until his i LIN tjTanny became so excessive that a party was formed against him by the earl of Lenox and others in 1526. The two armies encoun- tered each other at the bridge of LinMthgow, about midsummer, when Lenox was lolled and his forces were defeated. LiNsr^Asr Society (London) was founded a.d. 1788, and incorporated March 26, 1802. The hbrary andherbarium of Linnaeus, now in possession of the society, were pur- chased for £1,000 by Dr. Smith. The Trans- actions of the society were first pubhshed in 1791. Linn^aW System. — The classification of plants according to their stamens and pistils was accomphshed by the great Swedish naturalist, Charles Linn^ or Linnaeus, who was bomatEashult,Mayl3,1707 (O.S.), and died at Upsal, Jan. 10, 1778. It was originally pubhshed in the Hortus Uplandicus in 1731, and at once estabhshed the reputation of its author. The Species Flantarum was pub- lished in 1753. Liirz, or Lintz (Austria), the ancient Lentia, at one time a Roman station, was purchased by the margrave of Austria, A.D. 1036. Fardinger, the peasant leader, made an unsuccessful attack upon it in 1626 ; and it was entered by the army of the elector of Bavaria, where he was declared duke of Austria, in 1741. The town-hall was built in 1414, and Trinity column was erected by Charles VI. in 1723. The fortifications were improved after a plan by Prince Maxi- milian d'Estein 1850. Lion and Unicoen (Heraldry) were first adopted as supporters of the royal arms of England on the accession of James I., A.D. 1603. The former was previously the supporter of the Enghsh, and the latter of the Scottish shield. Lioppo (Battle). — Garibaldi defeated the Neapohtans at this place, in Italy, May 16, 1860. Lip ABA, the modern Lipari, was founded on one of the Lipari islands by the Rhodians and Cnidians, b.c. 580. Agathocles ravaged it B.C. 304. The Carthaginians captured it B.C. 264, and made it a naval station. C. AureHus captured it B.C. 251, and it was annexed to the Eoman empire. Attains, who attempted to make himself emperor, was banished here a.d. 416. Robert, king of Naples, captured it in 1839. Khair Eddin Barbarossa seized the town and carried the inhabitants into slavery in 1544. Lipaei Islands (Mediterranean Sea). — This volcanic group, consisting of seven principal islands, was known to the ancients under the names of the ^oliae, Hephaestiae, or Vulcanise Insulse, and of the Liparenses, from Lipara, the largest of the group, said to have been so called from Liparus, one of its early kings. The group was colonized by the Dorians, about b.c. 580, LiPPAtr, (Battle,) foughtdurmg the Hussite war, at this place, near Prague, May 28, 1434. The two Procops fell in the encounter, in which the Taborites were defeated. LippE (Germany). — This town was built LIS in the 12th century, and took its name from the river Lippe, near which Varus, and his three legions, were slaughtered by the Saxons, under Arminius, a.d. 9. It was made a principalitj^ Bernard VIII., who died in 1563, was the first to assume the title of count, and he divided his possessions amongst his three sons, who founded the lines of Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Brake, and Lippe-Biickeburg, or Schaumburg. The line of Lippe-Brake became extinct in 1709. The Aulic ruler of Lippe-Detmold took possession of the whole of Lippe-Brake ; but the council, in 1734 and 1737, divided it between Lippe-Biickeburg, or Schaumburg, and Lippe-Detmold, and the houses entered into a convention on the subject in 1748. Lisbon (Portugal) received from Julius Caesar the rights of a municipium, with the title of FeHcitas Julia, and was also called Oli- sipo. It was taken from the Romans by the barbarian hordes, a.d. 409. The Moors took it in 711, and it was wrested from them by Al- fonso, king of Portugal, in 1147. It was made the seat of the government in place of Coimbra in 1433, and was taken by the duke of Bragan9a in 1640. The city was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, when 30,000 or 40,000 persons lost their lives, Nov. 1, 1755. Lisbon was in possession of the French from Nov. 30, 1807, till Sept. 15, 1808, when they retired in ac- cordance with the terms of the convention of Cintra (q.v.). The duke of Wellington landed here April 22, 1809, upon taking command of the army for the liberation of the peninsula. A mausoleum in the Enghsh cemetery is erected over the grave of Fielding the novelist, who died here in 1754. The Bank of Lisbon suspended payment Dec. 7, 1827. Insurrectionary movements occurred here March 1, and lasted to March 5 and April 25, 1828. The troops revolted against Don Miguel, Aug. 21, 1831, on which occasion 300 fives were lost. A mutiny amongst a portion of the garrison occurred Feb. 13, 1838. Lisbon (Treaty). — A treaty of peace between Spain and Portugal was concluded at Lisbon, through the mediation of England, February 13, 1668. Spain recognized the independence of Portugal. LiSBUSN (Ireland). — Sir Fulk Conway erected a castle at Lisburn, a.d. 1610, and the town was built by one of his descendants in 1627. It was destroyed by the Irish rebels in 1641, and was burned in 1707. LisiETJX (France). — The inhabitants of this town, the ancient Noviomagus, afterwards caUed Lexovii, joined in the GaUic struggle against Caesar b.c. 52. The Saxons pillaged it in the 4th, and the Normans in the 8th century. It has been frequently besieged. Councils were held here in 1055, and ia October, 1106. LisMOEE (Bishopric) . — This Irish bishop- ric was founded by St. Carthagh about A.D. 631. Attempts were made to unite it with Waterford in 1225 and 1326 ; and the union was finally effected by Edward III. Oct. 2, 1363. LIS LisMOEE (Ireland) . — This city, in the county of Waterford, is celebrated for its castle, which was founded by King John \yhen earl of Moreton, a.d. 1185. In 1189 it was seized by the natives, and in 1589 was granted to Sir Walter Ealeigh, by whom it was sold to Sir Eichard Boyle, first earl of Cork. Lismore was unsuccessfully besieged by the Irish rebels in 1641 and in 1643, but it was taken by Lord Castlehaven in 1645. LissA (Adriatic Sea). — This island, the ancient Issa, was colonized by Dionysius the Elder, B.C. 387. ItwasbesiegedbyAgron,king of Dlyria, B.C. 232, but was liberated B.C. 229. The Venetians wrested it from the Normans A.D. 1073. In more modern times Lissa is famous as the scene of a victory over the Frenchfleet, gained by Sir W. Hoste in 1811. Lissa (Battle). {See Leuthen.) Lissus (Ulyria), now called Alessio or Lesch, was founded by Dionysius the Elder, circ. B.C. 385. Scanderbeg, after his victorious campaign in Albania, died at this town, Jan. 17, 1467, a.d., and it was taken by the Turks in 1476. LiSTOWEL (Ireland) was captured by Sir Charles Wihnot a.d. 1600. Litanies, or Eo&atiou-s, formerly a general name for prayers, were instituted by Mamercus, bishop of Yienne, in France, about A.D. 450, and estabUshed by a decree of the councU of Orleans, July 10, 511. Gregory I. instituted such forms at Eome, one in particular under the name of Litania septiformis, in 698. Henry Till, ordered a litany or procession to be set forth in Enghsh, " because the prayers being in an unknown tongue, made the people negh'gent in coming to church," June 8, 1544. Hallam says it had been translated into English in 1542. In the Common Prayer Book of 1549, the Litaliy was placed between the Communion office and the office for baptism. In 1552 it was placed in its present position ; and it was used as a distuict service till 1661. LiTEEAEY Club. (See Club, the.) Liteeaey Fukd (London). — The Eoyal Literary Fund was founded by David Wil- liams, A.D. 1790, and incorporated in 1818. Its object is to relieve authors who have been reduced to want through age or misfor- tune. At the anniversary meeting, April 12, 1304, the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., was proposed as a patron. Lithium. — This metal was discovered by AriVedson, a.d. 1817. LiTHO&KAPHT. — This art was invented by Alois Senefelder, a native of Prague, who produced a piece of music, his first im- pression from stone, a.d. 1796. He secured a patent for his invention in several German states, extending over fifteen years, in 1800, and pubhshed a work on the subject in 1817. A partnership was entered into, and estab- hshments were formed in London and Paris, in 1799, but they did not succeed. Another at Munich in 1806 was more prosperous ; and the inventor was ultimately appointed to the inspectorshixD of the Eoyal Litho- graphic Establishment, in October, 1809. The 494 LIT Society for the Encouragement of Arts in London voted Senefelder their gold medal in 1819. LiTHOTOMT. — The operation of cutting for the stone was practised by Ammonius of Alexandria about B.C. 250, and by Celsus about A.D. 17. They employed the method known as the less apparatus. The high operation was first practised at Paris by Colot in 1475 ; the greater apparatus, so called from the numerous instruments em- ployed, was invented by Johannes de Eomanis in 1590, and pubhshed by Marianus Sanctus in 1524. The lateral operation was invented by Franco before 1561, and was taught at Paris by Fr^re Jacques in 1697. {See LlTHOTHITT.) LiTHOTBiTT. — This Operation is believed to have been practised by the surgeons of Alexandria before the Christian asra, though it was first suggested in modern times by Gruithuisen, a Bavarian surgeon, who con- structed an apparatus for the purpose, A.D. 1812. Great improvements have been since effected in the apparatus. LiTHUAifiA (Eussia) occupied by a savage people, whose origiu is tmknown, A.D. 1009, was conquered by the Knights Sword-bearers, and the Knights of Jerusalem in the 13th century. Having united the independent tribes, and concentrated his power, Eiugold assumed the title of grand- duke in 1230, and was succeeded by has son Mendog, who embraced Christianity in 1252, though he abjured it in 1255. Witenes ac- quired the supreme power in 1282, which he transmitted to his son Ghedemin in 1315. Jaghellon came to the throne in 1381 ; and on condition of receiving in marriage Hed- wige, daughter of the king of Poland, together with the crown of that country, he consented to become a Christian, and was baptized with his nobles and many of his subjects, Feb. 14, 1386. At the diet of Lublin, in 1569, the two countries were formally united. Part of it passed vtnth Poland under the sway of Eussia, Feb. 17, 1772, and the remainder in March, 1794. The ancient serpent - worship is said to have prevailed in Lithuania till late in the 15th century. An insurrection, which was soon suppressed, occurred in Lithu- ania in 1831. The peasants took part with Eussia, during the Pohsh revolt of 1848. Little Eoce (United States). — This town in Arkansas was founded a.d. 1829. LiTUEGiES were used in the Temple service of the Jews in the time of the Apostles, and according to Mosheim, among the early Christians, "each indi\idual bishop pre- scribed to his own flock such a form of jjublic worship as he thought best." Uniformity in the churches of a province was agreed to at various councils, and amongst others at those of Agda, Sept. 11, 506, and of Gironne, June 8, 517. The Breviary of the Eomish church was ia use about the middle of the 5th century. Henry VIII.'s " Primer" was pubhshed in 1535. The Litiu'gy, compiled under the superintendence of Cranmer, by LIT order of Edward VI., was issued in 1549, and revised by a resolution of parliament, April 29, 1559. The English Liturgy in its present form was established by an act of parhament, which received the royal assent May 19, 1662. LiTVATOEOE, (Treaty,) was concluded be- tween Austria and the Ottoman empire, a.d. 1606. The Turks relinquished their claim to tribute from Hungary, and, for the first time in the history of their diplomacy, conde- scended to conclude peace with the formaU- ties used by the other nations of Europe. LiVEEiES were not assumed by the trade companies of London before the reign of Edward I. ; but they afterwards became so dangerous as party badges, that they were regulated by 16 Eich. II. c. 4 (1392), and by 20 Eich. II. c. 2 (1396). The practice was forbidden in the first and seventh years of Henry IV.' s reign ; again by 13 Hen. IV. c. 3 (1411) ; by 8 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1468), and by other statutes. They were, however, allowed at coronations, and in great public cere- monies. In consequence of these restric- tions, the companies were compelled to obtain the king's licence before adopting liveries. LivEEPOOL (Lancashire). — The origin of this important town, and even the etymology of its name, are involved in great obscurity. Baines (Hist, of Liverpool, p. 58) considers the first portion of the name to be derived from the Gothic word "lide" or "lithe," the sea; but other authorities regard it as the waterfowl called the " liver," which they state to have abounded on the shores of the Mersey at an early date. The site of Liverpool was granted by Wifiiam I. to Eoger of Poitou. It was afterwards purchased by King John, and passed through the hands of the earls of Derby and Chester, until it was granted to the house of Lancaster by Henry III. On the acces- sion of Henry IV. it became the property of the crown, and it continued to be so untU it was sold by Charles I. in 1628. A.D. 1171. Henry II. embarks from Liverpool on his expedition to Ireland. 1190. Liverpool is first mentioned in a deed of this year. 1202. Liverpool castle is founded by King John, most probably about this year. 1207. Aug. 28. King John grants a charter to Liver- pool, erecting it into a free burgh. 1229. March 24. Henry III. erects it into a free burgh for ever. 1335. June 3. Edward III. orders a fleet to assemble at Livei-pool, in readiness to attack the Scots. 1356. May 19. The first mention of a mayor of Liverpool is made under this date. 1361. The plague rages fear-fully. 1424. A quarrel takes place in Liverpool between the retainers of Thomas Stanley and Sir Richard Molyneux. 1548. The plague carries off many of the inha- bitants. 1561. The old haven, which was founded in the reign of Edward IIL, is totally destroyed by a tempest. 1571. The inhabitants petition Queen Elizabeth in behalf of her "poor decayed town of Liverpool." 1635. 1643. 1710. 1715. 1745. 1749. 1752. 1772. 1778. 1785. 1791. 1795. 1799. LIV Charles I. sells the lordship of Liverpool to the corporation of Loudon, in liquidation of his debts. Liverpool is ordered to pay ship-money. April. Liverpool is taken by the parlia- mentary forces. June 24. It is taken by the royahsts, under Pilnce Eupert. June 24. Liverpool becomes a distinct parish. (about). The old custoui-house built. Messrs. Blundell and Stithe found the Blue- coat Hospital. The first dock is completed. The castle is finally destroyed. Eight compauies of volunteers are enrolled to oppose the Pretender. The towu-hall is founded. March 25. The infivmn-ry is opened. The Seamen's Hospital is founded. Tue theatre is opened. The first Liverpool dispensaiy is founded. King's dock is constructed. The hospital for the blind is established. The interior of the town-hall is destroyed by fire. The Liverpool Athenaeum, the first institution of the kind in the country, is opened. Sept. 14. A fire destroys property to the amount of nearly £1,000,000 sterling. The Lyceum is founded. The Exchauge is founded. The Corn -exchange is founded. Oct. 25. The statue of George III. is com- 1811. 1814. 1815. 1816. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1828. 1830. 1834. 1836. 1846. 1847. 1851. 1854. 1855. Feb. 11. The tower of St. Nicholas's church falls, and kills twenty-eight persons. Aug. The Academy of Aits is opened. July 5. The first number of the Liverpool Mercury is published. The Royal lustitution is founded. The Wellington Rooms are bmlt. Gas is introduced. July 19. Prince's dock is opened. March. St. John's market is opened. The Marine Humane Society is founded. The present infirmary is opened. The Mechanics' Institute is founded. The old dock is closed. Aug. 12. The new Custom-house is founded. Sept. Clarence dock is opened. Sept. 15. The railway to Manchester is opened, and the occasion is attended by the accidental death of Mr. Huskisson. The Lunatic Asylum is erected. April 13. Brunswick dock is opened. May 22, The cholera appears in Liverpnol. Aug. 18. Waterloo dock is opened. Sept. 8. Victoria and Trafalgar docks are opened. July 4. The railway to Birmingham is com- pleted. The Statistical Society is founded. Sept. 17. The railway to Loudon is opened. Oct. 31. The Preston railway is opened. Jan. The Royal Bank Is opened. Jan. 7. A stoi-m does great damage. Sept. 23. A fire destroys property to the value of £700,000. Jan. The Collegiate Institution is opened. July 31. Prince Albert lays the foimdation of the Sailors' Home. Mr. Huskisson's statue is erected. Oct. Several serious commercial failures occur. Oct. 9. The Queen visits Liverpool. Sept. 18. St. George's Hall is opened. Feb. 19. Serious bread riots take place, 15,000 persons being thrown out of employment by protracted frosts. Oct. 10. The duke of Cambridge is entertained by the mayor at the town -hall, and the town is illu- minated. April 15. The Free Library and Museum are founded by Mr. WiUiam Brown. Nov. Numerous fail\u-es occur. Oct. 12. The Association for the Promotion of Social Science meets at Liverpool. 495 LIV A.D. 1860. April 29. The Sailors' Home is destroyed by fire. Oct. 8. The Free Libi-aiy and Musetun, erected by Mr. Brown, are opened, and presented by him to the town of liver- pool. LiVEEPOOi, ADMiifiSTEATiOH". — Mr. Per- ceval having been assassinated as he was en- tering the lobby of the House of Commons, May 11, 1812, new ministerial arrangements became necessary. A motion for an address to the Prince Eegent, praying his royal high- ness to take such measures as might be best calculated to form an efficient administration, was carried in the House of Commons May 21, by 174 to 170. The marquis of Wellesiey re- ceived instructions to form an administration June 1, and on the 3rd he declared that his efforts had been unsuccessful. The earl of Liverpool announced that he had under- taken the task June 8. The cabinet, formed pi-incipally of members of the Perceval administration, was thus constituted : — Treasury Earl of Liverpool. Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. President of the Council . .Earl of Han-owby. Privy Seal Earl of Westiuorland. Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. N. Vansittart. Home Secretary Viscount Sidmouth. rVisc. Castlereagh, after- Foreign Secretary < wards Marquis of Lon- ( donden-y. Colonial Secretary Earl Bathurst. Admiralty Viscount Melville. Board of Control E.arl of Buckinghamshire. Ordnance Earl Mulgrave. Without ofllce Marquis Camden. The duke of Eichmond was lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Mr. Charles Bathhurst was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, in 1813. The Hon. W. WeUesley Pole, master of the mint, was admitted to a seat in the cabinet in 1815. Mr. Canning became president of the Board of Control, m place of the earl of Bucking- hamshire, in 1816. Mr. F. J. Kobinson, afterwards Yiscount Goderich, and ulti- mately earl of Eipon, was admitted into the cabinet as treasurer of the navy and presi- dent of the Board of Trade hi 1818. The duke of Wellington was made master-general of the ordnance Jan. 1, 1819, in place of Earl Mulgrave, who retained a seat in the cabinet without office. Mr. Canning resigned the Board of Control in June, 1820, and the post was given to Mr.'C. Bathurst, who was also chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Loi'd Maryborough succeeded the Hon. W. Wellesiey Pole as master of the mint, in 1821. Sir Eobert Peel took the Home Office in January, 1822, in place of Viscount Sid- mouth, who retained a seat in the cabioet, without office ; and the Board of Control was taken from Mr. C. Bathurst and in- trusted to Mr. C. W. W. Wynne. The death of the marquis of Londonderry, Aug. 12, 1822, induced Mr. Canning to re- sign the governor-generalship of India, to which he had been appointed, and he ac- cepted the foreign secretaryship Sept. 16. Mr. P. J. Eobinson was made chancellor of LOA the exchequer Jan. 81, 1823, in place of Mr. N". Vansittart, who had resigned, and was created Lord Bexley, March 1. He was appointed to the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster in place of Mr. C. Bathurst. Mr. HusMsson as treasurer of the navy, and president of the Board of Trade, obtained a seat ia the cabinet in 1825. The earl of Liverpool was attacked by apoplexy, Satur- day, Feb. 17, 1827, and a new ministry was formed in AprU. The earl of Liverpool died Dec. 4, 1828. {See Can^ning Admisis- TEATION.) Livonia (Eussia) was visited by some Baltic traders from Bremen, a.d. 1158. A mission of German monks converted the natives to Christianity in 1186. The " Bro- thers of the Sword" subdued the country in 1237. Kettler, the last grand master of the order, abdicated his power in favour of Poland in 1561. It was transferred to Sweden by the treaty of Ohva, May 3, 1660. Peter the Great of Eussia made himself master of the country in 1710, and it was finally an- nexed to Eussia by the treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. Alexander II. hberated the serfs of Livonia Sept. 24, 1818. LtANDAPP (Bishopric). — According to tradition, this bishopric was created by King Lucius about a.d. 180, and Elvanus was the first bishop. Dubritius, who is said to have died in 612, is the first bishop respecting whom anything is certainly known. The deanery of Llandaff was founded and en- dowed in Nov. 1843. Llandewtee (Battle). — Llewelyn, who had made a descent into the marches, was defeated and slain near the town of Llan- deweyer, or Llandeilo-Fawr, Caermarthen- shire, Dec. 11, 1282. LLEEEifA (Battle). — Lord Combermere defeated a French army commanded by Drouet, near this town, in Spain, April 11, 1812. Llotd's (London). — ^A number of mer- chants who were in the habit of congregat- ing at a coffee-house kept by a person named Lloyd in Abehurch Lane, Lombard Street, to transact business, early in the 18th centiiry, afterwards removed to Pope's- Head Alley, and thence to the Eoyal Ex- change in 1774. On the destruction of the Eoyal Exchange by fire, the business was transferred to the South- Sea House, Old Broad Street, Jan. 10, 1838, and thence to the Eoyal Exchange, Oct. 28, 1844. LoADSTO:sE. — The attractive power of the natural magnet was known to the ancient Greeks in Homer's time, B.C. 962, and it is alleged to have been known by the Chinese B.C. 1000. The directive power of this sub- stance was probably discovered in Europe about A.D. 1150, although a Chinese vmter describes it a.d. 1111. The ISTeapohtans maintain that it was adapted to the compass for maritime purposes by a citizen of Amal- phi in 1302. LoAis^o (Battle).— The French defeated an Austrian and Sardinian army in the valley of Loano, lSo\, 23, 1795. LOA LoAXS. — Loans to the public on parlia- mentary security, resorted to in place of aids or benevolences (q.v.), originated in 1382, when Kichard II. demanded the loan of £40,000 for the defence of the kingdom, and the merchants refused to lend because they had formerly been subjected to prosecutions under pretence of having defrauded the sove- reign. Cardinal Wolsey resorted to forced loans as a means of recruiting his exchequer in 1522 and 1525, and parHament afterwards released the king from aU obligation to pay the debts so contracted, by 35 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1543). Charles I. demanded loans from his subjects in 1626, and an act of council was passed, requiring a general loan from the subject. Necker (1776 — 1790) introduced loans into the French financial system. LoBATJ (Germany). — This island in the Danube was captured by Napoleon I. May 19, 1809, and the French army retired here after the battle of Aspern, May 22. A coun- cil of war was held by Napoleon at ten at night. Extensive works were erected by the French, who crossed to the opposite bank of the river, July 2 — 4. LoBos, or Seal Islands (Pacific Ocean), were discovered by the Spaniards, towards the end of the 16th century, though the Americans pretend to have discovered them in 1823. Lord Anson visited the islands, Nov. 10, 1741. The guano for which they are celebrated, was noticed in Acosta's work on the Indies, pubhshed at Seville in 1590. LocHLEVEN Castle (Kinross-shire), said to have been founded by Congal, son of Dongart, king of the Picts, in the 5th century, was the prison to which Mary, queen of Scots, was conveyed after the battle of Carberry-hiU, June 16, 1567. She made her escape by the aid of George Douglas, May 2, 1568, Locks and Keys. — The most ancient lock and key known is one discovered by Bo- nomi at Khorsabad, which is believed to be upwards of 4,000 years old. It is of wood, and exceedingly clumsy. Locks and keys were used by the Israelites at a very early period, as appears from Judges iii. 23—25 (B.C. 1343). The classical authors attributed the invention to the Lace- daemonians, whose celebrated lock was a padlock in principle. Numerous bronze and iron keys, differing little from the more common kinds in use at the present day, were found at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The most beautiful and ingenious mediaeval locks and keys are those of the 16th century. The first patent for their improvement was granted to George Black, May 27, 1774, but no great advance was made until Barron patented his " double-acting tumbler lock," Oct. 31, 1778. Bramah's lock was patented April 23, 1784 ; Chubb's original lock, Feb. 3, 1818; NeweU's American Parantoptic lock was invented in 1841, and patented in England April 15, 1851, and Hobbs's protector lock was patented Feb. 23, 1852. 497 LOG Locomotive. — The idea of the construc- tion of a locomotive was thrown out by "Watt A.D. 1759, and he patented one in 1784. Richard Trevithick made one for the Merthyr Tydvil Railway in 1804, and Brunton another of a different description in 1813. George Stephenson's locomotive with toothed wheels, was tried at West Moor, KUhBgworth, July 25, 1814. The utihty of locomotives may be considered to have been fully established when the "Rocket," the joint production of the two Stephensons, performed its experimental trip on the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way Oct. 6, 1829. LocRi, or LocEi Epizephteii (Italy). — This celebrated city, the modern Gerace, was founded by a colony of Locrians from Greece, B.C. 710, 683, or 673, according to different authorities, and received a written code of laws from Zaleucus, B.C. 660. Tra- dition states that 10,000 of its inhabitants totally defeated 130,000 Crotoniats at the battle of the Sagras, B.C. 510. Much uncer- tainty prevails respecting the alleged victory. Locri was enriched by the territory of Cau- lonia, B.C. 389, and by that of Hipponium in B.C. 388; but the latter city was taken by the Carthaginians B.C. 379. Dionysius the tyrant retired to Locri on his expulsion from Syracuse, B.C. 356, and established an arbitrary and oppressive government. The inhabitants assisted the Carthaginians against the Romans in the second Punic war, B.C. 216, and their city was invested by the consul Crispinus, who was compelled to raise the siege by Hannibal B.C. 208. It was, how- ever, taken by Scipio B.C. 205, and never regained its former importance. It existed in the 6th century of the Christian aera, and was probably finally destroyed by the Saracens. LocRis, or LocEiANS. — The Locrians, ac- cording to Chnton, were a tribe of Leleges who existed before the time of Amphictyon (B.C. 1521), but derived their name from his grandson Locrus. They soon became inter- mingled with the Hellenes, and in historical times are distinguished into eastern and western Locrians. The eastern Locrians are mentioned by Homer as accompanying Ajax to the Trojan war, but the western Locrians do not appear tiU the Peloponnesian war, when they were in a semi-barbarous condition. They promised to assist the Athenians against the JEfcolians, B.C. 426, but afterwards submitted to Sparta, and joined the ^tolian League. The second sacred war was undertaken against them b.c. 339, and they, with their allies the Thebans and Athenians, were defeated by Philip of Mace - don, at Chaeroneia, Aug. 7, B.C. 338. Locusts formed one of the ten plagues of Egypt, B.C. 1491. A swarm of these insects invaded Italy, and being drowned in the sea, produced a pestilence, which carried off' nearly a million men and beasts, a.d. 591. In Venice 30,000 persons perished on account of a famine caused by their depredations in 1478. A cloud of locusts entered Russia, and 2 £ LOD were found lying dead in heaps to a depth of four feet in 1650. This island was visited by a large number in 1748. Barbary in 1724, and South AMea in 1797, suffered to an alarming degree from their ravages. LoDi (Battle). — IS^apoleon Bonaparte de- feated the Austrians in a hotly-contested battle at the bridge over the Adda, at Lodi, May 10, 1796. For his bravery in this action Napoleon Bonaparte received the name of "Le Petit Caporal," by which he was after- wards known in the Trench army. LoDi (Italy). — The ancient Laus Pompeia stood near this town. It became a republic, and was destroyed by the Milanese a.d.1112. The emperor Prederick I. built Lodi about five mUes from the site of Laus Pompeia, in 1158. The duke of Urbino took Lodi in June, 1526. The French occupied Lodi in 1800. Napoleon I. made Melzi duke of Lodi in 1807. The church of the Incoronata was founded in 1476. Lodi (Treaty). — A treaty of peace was signed at this place, between Sforza, duke of Milan, and the Venetians, April 5, 1454. LoGAEiTHMS, the invention of Baron Napier of Merchiston, were first made known to the learned world by his Latin work, "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio, seu Arithmeticarum Supputa- tionum MirabiUs Abbreviatio," pubhshed A.D. 1614. Henry Briggs, of Gresham Col- lege, London, made some improvements upon them, and printed a set of tables in 1618. Gunter appUed them to navigation in 1620. Logic— Aristotle (b.c. 384—322) was for many years almost the only authority in matters of abstract reasoning ; the first who ventured to originate a new system of thought being Marius Nizolius, who pub- lished his work " De Veris Principiis, &c." in 15.53. Acoucio's treatise, "De Methodo," appeared in 1558, and Lord Bacon's "Novum Organum" in 1620. Hobbes' system was published in 1655, in his " Elemexita Philo- sophise," and Gassendi's " Syntagma PhUo- sophicum" appeared in 1658, two years after the death of the author. Locke's views on logic were announced in the "Essay on the Human Understanding," which was pub- lished in 1690, and the Cartesian system was pubhshed in the posthumous works of Des- cartes in 1701. Amongst modern writers on logic may be mentioned Archbishop "VMiately, whose "Elements of Logic" appeared in 1826 ; John Stuart Mill, whose " System of Logic " appeared in 1843 ; Sir Wihiam Ham- ilton, and Dr. Latham. LoGiEEiAX Ststem. — This system of musi- cal instruments was invented by John Ber- nard Logier, born at Hesse-Cassel in 1780. In 1797 itLe first tui-ned his attention to the formation of a system for facUitating the acquirement of music. He obtained a patent for the chiropast in 1814, and his system was soon after adopted in Dubhn. Academies on this plan were estabUshed in England and Scotland, and one was opened in London in LOL 1816. The system flourished from 1817 to 1827. Logier died in 1846. LoG-iiNE is known to have been used in navigation as early as a.d. 1570. Bourne mentions it in 1577. LoGOGRAPHic PEiifTiKG. — A mode of printing with types expressing entire words or common radices and terminations, instead of single letters, was invented by Mr. Walter, of the Times, and Mr. Henry Johnson, about the year 1778, and was described in a work pubhshed by Mr. Johnson in 1783. The Daily Universal Hegister, a four-page paper, designed to introduce this new system of printing to the pubhc, appeared Jan. 13, 1785. The price was 2\d., and its name waS changed to that of the Times, Jan. 1, 1788. Logwood. — This dye was introduced into England soon after the accession of Queen Ehzabeth; but owing to the fugitive cha- racter of the tints it produced, was prohi- bited and ordered to be forfeited and burnt by 23 Ehz. c. 9 (1581) . This act was repealed bV 13&14 Charles IL c. 11, s. 26 (1662). The English logwood-cutters formed their settlement on the Bay of Campeachy about 1667. LoiEE (France). — On the banks of this river, the ancient Liger or Ligeris, Julius Csesar defeated the Turones B.C. 57. The Danes ascended the river as far as Tours a.d, 838 and in 882. The embankments of the Loire gave way, causing a great loss of hfe and destruction of property in 1846, and in Jmie, 1856. LoJA, or LoxA (Spain). — Ferdinand be- sieged this town July 1, 14S2, raised the siege in 14S3, and returned and captured it in 1486. LojEEA (Sea-fight). — A Genoese fleet of fifty-nine galleys, conunanded by Antonio Grinialdi, attacked an Aragonese squadron of twenty -two vessels at Lojera, on the north- ern coast of Sardinia, Aug. 29, 1353. The Spaniards were on the point of surrendering, when the Venetian fleet under Pisani came to their assistance, and completely changed the fortune of the day. Only eighteen of the Genoese galleys were saved from destruction or capture, and the total loss of the van- quished in killed, woxmded, and prisoners, amounted to nearly 5,000 men. This defeat struck a deathblow at the power and renown of Genoa. LoLLAEDS. — The origin of this term, ap- pHed to a rehgious sect of the 14th century, is by some authorities derived from the Ger- man lallen, loUen, or lullen, " to sing in a low voice ; " and by others is referred to Walter Lollard, who was burnt ahve at Cologne a.d. 1322. The early Lollards tended the sick and followed the dead to the grave, chanting in mournful tones. They were constituted a rehgious order through the influence of Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472. Jxilius conferred further privileges upon them in 1506. The name was also apphed to the society of itinerant preachers estabhshed by Wyclfffe in England in 1379, and his fol- lowers. IJnhceused preachers, or Lollards, LOM were ordered to be imprisoned until they justified themselves according to the law and reason of the Holy Ghost, by 5 Eich. II. St. 2, c. 5 (1381) . Henry IV., under pretence that they conspired againt him, punished • them with great severity. By 2 Hen. IV. c. 15 (1401), no person was allowed to preach without the bishop's licence, and heretics who refused to recant were to die at the stake. A similar act was passed in Scot- land in 1425. WiUiam Sautre was burnt at London, under the Enghsh statute, Feb. 12, 1401. Thomas Badby, a LoUard, was exe- cuted in April, 1410. Sir John Oldcastle, commonly called Lord Cobham, was con- demned as a heretic Sept. 25, 1413. He escaped from the Tower, was captured in Wales in 1418, and executed in London in the month of December in the same year. LoMBAED Merchants arrived in London from Italy for the purpose of prosecuting their trade of usury, a.d. 1229. Edward III., then about to enter upon a war with France, issued a commission for seizing aU their estates in 1337. The company of Lombard Merchants was made answerable for the debts of their fellows by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 23 (1352). The street in which they took up their residence in London is named Lombard Street after them. LoMBAEDT (Italy).— The fertile plains of Lombardy were originally peopled by the SieuH, who were expelled by a tribe of Celtse about B.C. 1400. The Etruscans estabhshed their authority over the country about B.C. 1000, and retained it tmtil expelled by the Gauls B.C. 506, when it received the name of GaUia Cisalpina. {See Gaul.) It was ravaged by Attila a.d. 452, became subject to the Heruh in 476, was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489, by the troops of the Eastern empire under Narses in 554, and by the Longobardi (q.v.), from whom it received its name, in 568. The empire of the Longobards was terminated by Charle- magne in 774, when Lombardy, with the rest of the peninsula, formed the Frankish king- dom of Italy. Lombardy submitted to Otho the Great in 961, and during his reign, and that of his successors, the cities gradually adopted independent forms of government, each possessing separate laws and customs. In 1002 they elected Ardouin, marquis of Ivrea, as king, in opposition to the Germans, who nominated Henry II., and the country was in consequence involved in war tiU the death of Ardouin in 1015. On the death of Henry II. in 1024, the Lombards again made futile efforts to obtain an independent sovereign. A civil war between the " gentle- men " of Lombardy and Eribert, archbishop of Milan, commenced 1035, and lasted till Conrad II. promulgated his' feudal edict in 1037. In 1107 Milan became a republic, and Lodi, Cremona, Verona, Genoa, Pavia, and other cities, soon followed her example, and asserted their new-born independence by rushing into civil war. During the 11th and 12th centuries they united to form the Lom- LON bard leagues against the German emperors. (See Leagues.) They were afterwards deso- lated by the contentions of the Guelphs and Ghibelhnes, which they sought to escape by purchasing protection from Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily (1265—1285) . The history of Lombardy is, after this period, the history of the several republics of which it was com- posed, until the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe, Oct. 18, 1748, by which the greatest part of the country was attached to the house of Austria. In Oct. 1796, Bonaparte erected Lombardy into the Transpadane republic, which was incorporated with the Cisalpine republic in June, 1797, and formed part of the Italian repubhc in 1802, and of the kingdom of Italy in 1805. The Lombardo- Venetian kingdom was created by the allies, and given to Austria, in lieu of her Flemish territories, by the treaty of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815. In March, 1848, Lombardy revolted from Austria, and joined the king of Sar- dinia, but it was reduced to subjection by the battles of Custoza, July 23, 1848, and of Novara, March 24, 1849. By the peace of ViUafranca, July 11, 1859, the emperor of Austria ceded nearly all Lombardy to the emperor of the French, who transferred it to Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia. {See Italt.) LoifATO (Battle). — ISTapoleon Bonaparte defeated the Austrians at this town, ia Lombardy, Aug. 3, 1796. Lois^DON- (Bishopric) . — Tradition asserts that an arcmepiscopal see was estabhshed at London by Theanus, during the reign of King Lucius, A.D. 180, and that sixteen prelates completed the number of archbishops. When I Pope Gregory dispatched Augustine to Eng- land in 596, it was his intention that London I and York should form the metropolitan sees '■ of the country; but Augustine estabhshed j his seat at Canterbury. MeUitus became the { first bishop of London in 604. He was ex- pelled in 616, and had no successor tiU 656, when Cedd was consecrated by Finan, bishop of JSTorthumbria. By an order in council dated Aug. 8, 1845, the county of Hertford and part of Essex were separated from the diocese of London and annexed to Kochester. LoifDoiT (Canada) wasfounded a.d. 1826. It was the scene of extensive conflagrations in 1844 and 1845. LoNDOif (England) is first mentioned under the name of Londinium, by Tacitus, in his description of the revolt of the Bri- tons in the reign of Nero, a.d. 61. Tacitus speaks of it as having been at that time famed as the resort of traders, and for its aflBuence and commerce. In the time of Ammianus MarceUinus, a.d. 362, it was called Augusta, an appellation frequently bestowed upon great cities, and in the Chorography of Eaveiina it is styled Londinium iiugusta. Pennant de- rives the name from Llyn din, — Uyn being, in Celtic, a lake, and din a town. Julius Caesar does not mention London by name, though it probably existed when he invaded England,- B.C. 54. 2 E 2 L0I7 A.D. 52. By some authors, London is said to have been founded about this year. It probably existed before this time. 61. The first undoubted mention of London is made this year. 803. Loudon is surrounded by walls. 605. A council is held at Loudon by Augustine. 610. Ethelbert, king of Kent, founds St. Paul's church. 839. The Danes destroy London. 886. London is rebuilt by Alfred the Great. 948. Sept. 8. A council is held at London. 962. St. Paul's is burat and rebuilt. 1078. Gundulph. bishop of Rochester, commences the White Tower, in the Tower of London. 1087. A great fire destroys St. Paul's and other buUdings. 1101. Henry I. grants the city a charter. 1103. Sept. A council is held at London. 1107. Aug. 1. A council is held at London. 1108. May 24. Another council is held at London. 1118. The Knights Templars settle in Holbom. 1127. A council is held at London. 1129. Aug. 1. Another councU assembles. 1136. Jan. A council is held. 1138. Dec. 13. Another council is summoned. 1142. Another council is held in mid-Lent. 1151. A council is held. 1154. Another council is held. 1156. London is now established as the capitaL 1166. A council is held at London. 1175. May 18. A council on discipline is held. 1176. March 14. A tumultous council assembles. Old London bridge is commenced. 118-5. March 18. Another council is held. 1189. An edict is issued that all houses are to be built of stone up to a certain height, and covered with slate or tUes. Henry Fitz- Elwyne is chosen first lord mayor. 1200. A council is held at London. 1209. London bridge is finished. 1211. The Tower ditch is commenced. 1213. Aug. 25. A council is held. 1222. St. Paul's steeple is erected. 1226. Jan. 13. A p.apal bull is rejected at a council held at London. 1232. Another council is held. 1237. Nov. 19, 21, and 22. A councU is held by the legate Otho. 1238. May 17. A council is held. 1244. Feb. 22. A subsidy is granted to the king by a council held at London. 1245. Henry III. rebuilds the east -end and the Tower at his own expense. 1246. Dec. 1. A council is hi;ld at London to con- sider the FOi-e's demand for a third of the revenues of the English clergy. 12.55. Jan. 13. Another council is held. 1257. Hemy III. repairs the city walls. Aug. 22. A council is held. 1259. The Hanse merchants of the Steelyard receive peculiar privileges in London. 1261. May 16. A councU is held at London. 12G8. Apiil 16. Another councU. 1282. Five arches of London bridge are destroyed by the severe frost. March 1. A council assembles at London. 1285. The great conduit in Wettcheap, for the con- veyance of water from Tyburn to London, is commenced. 1286. April 30. A council is held at London. 1291. A council is summoned at London, 1297. Jan. 14. Another council. 1304. Geoflrey de Hartlepool is appointed first recorder of London this year. 1305. Sept. 15 to Oct. 5. Edward I. assembles a council for the purpose of establishing peace between England and Scotland. 1321. Dec. Another council is held at London. 1329. Feb. A council assembles at London. 1342. Oct. 10. A council is held at London on ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 1343. March 19. A council is held against abuses. 1349. The plague is said to have carried off 50,000 LQ-^ A.D. 1355. London, for the first time, sends four mem- bers to parliament. 1356. May 16 to 24. The clergy grant a tenth of their revenues to the king for one year, at a council held at London. 1381. June 15. Wat Tyler is killed in Smithfield. (See Wat Ttler's iNSURREcnoir.) 1S82. May. A council is held at London. 1391. April 28. Another council assembles. 1394. The aldermen are elected for life. 1397. Feb. 19. A council at London against the followers of Wyclifi'e. 1401. Jan. 26 to March 8. Another council against the Wycliffites. 1406. The plague destroys more than 30,000 of the population. 1408. July 23. A council is held at London. 1411. The GuildhaU is buUt. 1413. A council against Sir John Oldcastle and the Lollards breaks up June 26. 1415. Moorgate is built. 1450. Jack Cade's rebellion [g. v.). 1453. The first lord mayor's procession by water occurs this year. 1471, Falconbridge threatens London, and blUTis half the houses on the bridge. 1502. Fleet ditch is made navigable. The first lord mayor's dinner is held at Guildhall this year. 1512. St. Paul's school is foundpd. 1517. E\-il May -day. (See Apprestticbs.) 1529. The period of the lord mayoralty is limited to one year. 1538. Parish registers are first ordered to be kept by Lord CromwelL 1548. Old Somerset House is founded. 1553. Bridewell is given to the city for charitable purposes. June 26. Christ's Hospital (j. v.) is founded. 1562. The first Bill of Mortality is published. 1566. June 7. The first stone of the Royal Exchange is laid. 1568. The first conduit for conveying Thames water is made at Dowgate. 1577. Aug. 24. William Lambe completes a conduit at Holbom Cross, which receives in conise- quence the name of Lamb's Conduit-fields. 1580. July 27. A royal proclamation prohibits the erection of any new house or tenements, " where no former house hath been known to have been," within three miles of the city gates. 1682. The first conveyance of Thames water to private houses by means of leaden pipes is accomplished by Peter Moriis. 1598. Stow's Survey of London and Westminster ia published. 1603. Sept. 16. James I. issues a proclamation against "multitudes of dwellers" in and aliout London. 1604. The plague ravages violently. 1605. The gunpowder plot [q. v.). 1608. June 10. The new Exchange in the Strand is founded. Sept. 24. Whitefriars and Blackfriars are made sanctuaries, by a warrant under the privy seal. 1611. May 9. Thomas Sutton purchases the Charter House, and establishes the school. 1613. Sept. 29. Completion of the New River {q. v.). 1625. The plague again ravages London. 1630. July 24. The erection of new buildings within three miles from the city gates, on ground previou.'ly unoccupied, is again prohibited. 1633. Nov. 15. The Green-coat School in TothiU Fields is erected by letters patent. 1635. Inigo Jones superintends the laying out of Lincoln's inn Fields. 1643. London is fortified. 1647. Sept. 25. The lord mayor and aldei-men are committed to the Tower. 1649. March 24. The Puritan soldiery pull down Salisbuiy - court theatre, the Fortune theatre, and the Cockpit in Drury Lane. 1650. Cromwell allows the Jews to settle in London. 1652. The tirst coffee-house is opened in London. A.D. 1661. 1671. 1672. 1684. 1685. LON April 14. The Maypole in the Strand is erected. April 8. Opening of Drury-lane theatre {q. v.). April 22. The Koyal Society {q. v.) is incor- porated. The year of the. great plague. The mortality is estimated at lOO.OOO persons. Nov. 7. The London Gazette is commenced, being called at first the Oxford Gazette. Sept. 2. The gi-eat Are commences. It rages lor several days, and destroys 13,000 houses and 89 churches. Sept. 13. A proclamation is issued for rebuilding the city. The Rebuilding Act is passed (19 Charles II. c. 3). Nov. 15. The Common Council pass an act for the prevention of fires in time to come. Temple Bar is rebuilt. The Monument is commenced. May 29. A new conduit and a statue of Charles IL are erected in Stock's- market. June ai. The first stone of new St. Paul's is laid. The Bagnio, in Newgate Street, is built and 1705. 1708. 1709. 1711. 1710. 1715. 1722. 1726. 3728. 1729. 1730. 1732. 1749. 1752. 1753. 1754. 1756. March 25. The penny post is introduced. Frost-fair is hela on the Thames. It is ended Feb. 5. The French Pi-otestant silk- weavers settle in Spitaltields. April. Bridgewater House, Barbican, is de- stroyed by fire. The Bank of England is incorporated, and Seven Dials built. June 24. Glass lights are first used for the public Illumination of London. The privilege of sanctuary claimed by fraudu- lent debtors in Whitefriars, the Savoy, the Minories, &c., is abolished by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27. The first workhouse in London is erected in Bishopsgate Street. Nov. 26. The great storm of this year does considerable injury in London. AprU 9. The Haymarket theatre is opened. May fair is abolished, and Bartholomew fair restricted to three days. Nov. 5. Sacbeverel's celebrated sermon is preached in St. Paul's. Fifty new churches are ordered to be erected by 10 Anne, c. 11. The South-Sea Company is formed. {See South-Sea Bubble.) The Maypole in the Strand is taken down. The Chelsea water -works are formed. The old East- India House is built. The city conduits are taken down and de- stroyed. Tyburn Road is changed into Oxford Street. The Serpeutine is fomied by Queen Catherine. June 7. Vauxhall Gardens {g.v.) are opened as a place of public entertainment. Aug. 3. The first stone of the Bank of England is laid. Dec. 7. Covent-Garden theatre {q. v.) is opened. The Wew Exchange in the Strand is taken down. Sept. 30. Stock's-market is removed to Farringdon Street, and called Fleet- market {q. v.), and Fleet ditch is covered In. Oct. 17. The charter of the Foundling Hos- pital is obtained. Oct. 25. The first stone of the Mansion House is laid. The fliBt circulatlug library is established in London by Mr. Bathoe. April 7. Ranelagh Gardens are opened. Dec. 13. London Stone is removed to its present, site in Cannon Street. Jan. 16. The bottle-conjurer {q. v.). Parliament Street is built. Establishment of the British Museum {q. v.). MfU-ch 22. The Society of Arts is formed. May 10. Whitfield's chapel, Tottenham Court Road, is founded. LON 1757. King's (or Queen's) Bench prison is built. 1758. The houses are removed from London bridge. 1760. Oct. 31. Blackfriars bridge is founoed. 1761-2. The Cock-Lane ghost (3. v.). June 29. The City Road is opened. 1764 June. The houses of London are first num- bered. 1765. Feb. 12. Almack's Assembly-rooms are opened. Nov. 7. A dreadful fire occurs in Bishopsgate Street. 1766. Signboards are removed. 1768. Dec. 10. The Royal Academy {q.v.) is esta- 1770. 1771. 1772. 1777. 1779. 1780. 1786. 1789. 1791. 1794. 1813. 1814. 1815. 1819. 1821. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1835. May 31. Alderman Beckford lays the founda- tion-stone of Newgate {g. v.). March 27. The lord mayor. Brass Crosby, Esq., is committed to the Tower by a warrant of the Speaker of the House of Commons. April 28. The Pantheon is opened. Portland Place is built. Tattersall's is established. The Gordon riots {q. v.). Somers-town is commenced. Dec. 19. A market is established in St. George s Fields. Camden-town is commenced. Coldbath-Fields prison is opened. The East- India House is built. The London docks are opened. {See Docks.) Jan. 2. The public funeral of Lord Nelson. Jan. 28. Gas is first employed in the streets of London in Pall Mall. The Mint is completed. Oct. 11. The first stone of Waterloo bridge is laid. The Egyptian Hall is built. Regent Street is commenced. Sept. Southwark bridge is commenced. May 4. The first stone of the London Institu- tion, Finsbury Circus, is laid. June 4. Vauxhall bridge is opened. The Burlington Arcade is built. The Bank of England is completed by Sir John Soaue. March 15. The first pile of New London bridge is driven. May 10. The National Gallery (3. V.) is opened. Dec. 2. The first stone of the London Mechanics' Institute, South- ampton Buildings, is laid. March 2. The Thames Tunnel is commenced. Buckingham Palace is begun this year. April 30. London University is founded. The Turnpike Act (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 24) is passed, which removes twenty-seven turnpikes in one day, June 14. June 24. The new Corn Exchange is opened. Sept. 10. King's College, Strand, is com- menced. Sept. 23. The new Post-ofiice is opened. Sept. 29. The new police com- mence duty. Nov. 20. New Fleet (Farring- don) Market is opened. June 22. The pillory is used for the last time in London. Omnibuses are introduced this year. Aug. 1. New London bridge is opened. Feb. 14. The cholera first appears m London. Jvdy 2. Hungerford Market is opened. The duke of York's column is completed. Oct. 21. Lord Brougham lays the first stone of the City of London Schools. Dec. 14. The railway from London to Dept- ford is completed. July 13. Buckingham Palace is first inha- bited. Nov. 9. The Queen dines at Guild- hall. Jan 10. The Royal Exchange is destroyed by fire. April 9. The Natioual Gallei-y is opened. Sept. 17. The London and Bir- mingham Railway is opened. Dec. 28. The London and Greenwich Railway is opened. July 1. The Great Western railway is opened as far as Twyford. Jan. 10. The penny postage comes into opera- tion. April 10. The model prison is founded at Pentouvilie. LOK- LOIT 1840, 1841, 1842. 1843, 1847. 1848. May 11. The London and Southampton Eail- way is opeued. May. London Library is established. June 30. The Great Western Railway Is opened to Bristol. Oct. 30. A great fire breaks out in the Tower. Jan. 17. The new Royal Exchange is founded. March 25. The Thames Tunnel is opened. Nov. 30. The statue of George IV. is erected in Trafalgar Square. Dec. The Nelson statue is placed in Trafalgar Square. Feb. 7. The railway to Dover is opened. Aprd. Fleet Prison is taken down. May 1. Trafalgar Square is opened. Oct. 28. The Royal Exchange is opened by the Queen. Jan. 1. The new Building Act comes into operation. April 18. Hungerford suspen- sion-bridge is opened. June 9. New Oxford Street is opened. July 30. The railway to Cambridge and Ely is completed. Aug. 18. A terrible fire rages in Aldermanbury. Sept. Penny steamboats commence running on the Thames. Oct. 30. The Queen opens Lincoln's-Inn New Hall. Model lodging- houses are first established this year. Sept. 29. 'J he Wellington statue is erected at Hyde-Park Corner. Oct. 21. Twopenny omnibuses commence ruuning. April 19. The new portico of the British Museum is opened. April 10. The great Chartist meeting is held on Kennington Common. July. Street orderlies are introduced. Jan. 23. The baths at St. Martin's in-the-Fields are opened. Oct. 30. The Coal Exchange is opened by Prince Albert. The cholera re- appears this year. March 21. The lord mayor gives a grand banquet at the Mansion House to the mayors of Great Britain and Ireland. March 29. St. Anne's Church, Lime- house, is destroyed by fire. Aug. 6. The Great Northern Railway is opened to Peterborough. Sept. 4. 'J'he workmen at Barclay's brewery attack the Austrian general Haynau. Nov. 25. A meeting is held in Guildhall to protest against the establishment of a Romish hierarchy in England. May 1. Opening of the Great Exhibition {q.v.). July 2. The Queen and Prince Consort attend a civic banquet at Guild- hall in honour of the Exhibition. Oct. 30. The corporation give Kossuth an oflScial ■B elcome in Giiildhall. Nov. 18. The public funeral of the duke of Wellington takes place in St. Paiil's. July 27. The London cabmen "strike" for two or three days. Oct. 5. Special religious services are held for averting the cholera. Jan. 1. The Irvingite church is opened in Gordon isquare. June 19. The king of Portugal visits the city. July 18. A public meeting is held against the mode of per- forming the ritual of the Established Church at St. Paul's, Knightsbridge, and St. Barnahas', Pimlico. July. The cholera reappears in London. Oct. 30. Opening of the Working Men's College, Red -Lion Square. Nov. 2. A great meeting in aid of the Patriotic Fund is held at the Mansion House. Feb. 22. Bread riots occur in the east of London. April 19. The emperor and em- press of the French pay a state visit to Guildhall. May 6. A meeting in fa- vour of administrative reform is held in the London Tavern. June 11. Smithfield Market is closed. June 13. The New Cattle- market is opened by Prince Albert. June 24. Riots in Hyde Park (q.v.) against the Sunday Trading BiU. July 21. The statue of Sir Robert Peel, in Cheapside, is un- cuvered. 1855. Aug. 14. The Metropolis Local Management Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120, is psssed. Nov. 5. The ratepayers reject a proposition to est;v- blish free libraries and museums. Nov. 30. A meeting is held at Willis's Rooms to establish a Nightingale Fund. 1856. April 29. Peace is ofBcially proclaimed in the metropolis. May 29. Magnificent displays of fireworks are exhibited in the parks in celebration of the peace. July 9. The Guards make their public entry into Lon- don. Sept. 3. The British Bank stops pay- ment. Oct. 19. A false alarm of fire at the Surrey Music Hall leads to the death of eight persons, and the serious injui-y of about thirty. 1857. June 22. The Educational Conference meets in London. June 24. South Kensington Museum is opened. Nov. 12. In conse- quence of numerouH commercial faihn-es the Bank Charter Act is suspended. Dec. 12. More than 3,000 persons are out of work in Spitalfields. 1858. Jan. 1. London is divided into ten postal districts. Jan. 31. The Great Eastern is launched. March 27. Fifteen lives are lost at a fire in Bloomsbury. July 12. About 100 persons are injured, and several killed, by the explosion of a firework manufactory in the Westminster Road. Aug. 2. In consequence of the foul state of the Thames, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 104, is passed for its purification. Nov. 30. The city commissioners accept the offer of S. Gumey, Esq., M.P., to erect free drinking-foun- tains (q.v.) in the metropolis. 1859. May 25. A deputation from the city memo- rializes the premier against English inter- vention in the Italian question. July 18. Much injury is done in Loudon by a violent storm. July 25. Vaux- hall Gardens are closed. Aug. 6. The strike of the builders, &c., of the metro- polis commences, its object being the reduction of the length of the working day from ten to nine hours, without a diminu- tion of wages. It continues until Novem- ber. Aug. 16. Mr. Spurgeon's Tabernacle at Newington, Surrey, is founded by Sir Morton Peto. Aug. 21. The disturbances at St. Geoige's-in-the-E^t, in consequence of the alleged Romish tendencies of the rec- tor, commence. Sept. 22. The metropolis is divided into twenty districts for ecclesias- tical purposes. 1860. March 7. The Floral Hall, Covent Garden, is opened with a grand volunteer ball. May 30. A ti-ain breaks through the walls of the Great Northern terminus at King's Cross, and injures several people in the public street. June 23. A volunteer rifle review is held in Hyde Park. Aug. 26. A fire in Long Acre destroys St. Martin's Hall and other buildings. Dec. Much dis- tress is occasioned by the severe frosts. 1861. April 8. The decennial census of Great Bri- tain and Ireland is taken, and the popula- tion of Loudon is retui-ned at 2,803,034 souls. April 15. The first street tramway is opened in Victoria Street. June 5. The new gar- dens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington are opened by Prince Albert. June 22. A terrible fire in Tooley Street, Southwark, occasions the death of Mr. Braidwood, the superintendent of the fire brigade, and the destruction of property worth about £2,000,000. June. Another strike commences in the building trades. July 11. The ratepayers again refuse a free library. Sept. 2. A collision on the North London RaUway occasions the loss of fifteen lives. Sept. 5. A destruc- tive fli-e breaks out in Paternoster Row. Oct. 31. The prince of Wales opens the Middle Temple library. LOX " London (Gates) . — The old Koman gates of London were four in number, viz., Ludgate, said to have been built by King Lud B.C. 66 ; Aldgate, named on account of its antiquity ; Cripplegate ; and Dovrgate. Besides these, were Bishopsgate, which was built before A.D. 685; Aldersgate; Newgate, which was erected by Henry I., or Stephen ; Moorgate, built in 1415 ; and Temple Bar, which was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670. London (Treaties). — Three treaties were concluded at London between Louis XII. of France, and Henry VIII., Aug. 7, 1514. The first provided for an alliance, offensive and defensive, between France and England ; the second for a marriage between Louis XII. and Mary, theyoungestsisterof Henry VIII.; and the third secured to Henry VIII. the payment annually, for ten years, of 100,000 gold crowns, in satisfaction of arrears. A treaty between Eussia, France, and Eng- land, for the settlement of the affairs of Greece, was concluded at London July 6, 1827. London Bridge. — The first bridge over the Thames at London was built of wood, about A.D. 994, and stood lower down the river, near Botolph's wharf. It was nearly demolished by Olaf, king of Denmark, in 1008, and the ruins were carried away by a flood in 1091, In 1097 Will. II. imposed a heavy tax for its reconstruction. The new bridge, destroyed by fire in 1136, was restored in 1163. The old stone bridge was commenced by Peter of Colechurch in 1176, and was completed in 1209. It was 926 feet long, 40 feet wide, and about 60 feet above the water, and stood upon nineteen pointed arches, between which were massive piers. A handsome stone chapel, dedicated to St. Thomas Becket, stood upon the centre pier, and appears to have been the only building erected upon the bridge at its foundation, though in course of time a row of houses on each side of the road was added. The entire construction was defended by a drawbridge. A fire, which occurred here July 10, 1212, occasioned the death of more than 3,000 per- sons, and did considerable damage to the bridge itself; and in 1282 the frost destroyed five of the arches. The custom of placing the heads of traitors over London Bridge was commenced by Edward I. in August, 1305. A celebrated passage of arms between an English and a Scotch knight took place on the bridge April 23, 1390 ; and on the occa- sion of the entry of Eichard II. and his con- sort into London, Nov. 13, 1395, nine persons were killed here, owing to the excessive crowd- ing. The drawbridge tower was erected in 1426, and the great gate and tower on the Southwark side of the river, together Math two arches of the bridge, fell in Jan. 14, 1437, but without causing any loss of life. The houses on the bridge were burnt by Falcon- bridge during his attempt on London, May 14, 1471, and six houses were also destroyed by fire Nov. 21, 1504. In 1577 the drawbridge tower was rebuilt, the heads were removed to Traitors' gate, the famous Nonsuch House LON was erected about 1579, and in 1582 the water- works were established. A fire which broke out Feb. 13, 1633, destroyed more than a third of the houses on the bridge ; but the Great Fire of 1666 did comparatively little damage. The bridge gate, and several other buildings, were also burnt down, Sept. 8, 1725. Owing to the insecure state of the bridge, the houses were removed in 1757, and a tempo- rary wooden bridge was erected, and opened in October. This temporary bridge was de- stroyed by fire April 11, 1758. The drawbridge was removed in 1760, and in 1800 active exer- tions were made for the erection of an en- tirely new bridge. Nothing was done, how- ever, till June 15, 1822, when the corporation offered three premiums for the best designs, and in December, Messrs. Fowler, Borer, and Busby were declared the successful com- petitors. The design ultimately adopted, however, was that of Mr. John Eennie. The rebuilding of the bridge was officially referred to parliament Feb. 19, 1823, and was ordered to be carried into effect by 4 Geo. IV. c. 50 (July 4, 1823). The first pile was driven March 15, 1824; the foundation-stone was laid by Lord-Mayor Garratt, June 15, 1825, and the bridge was opened by WiUiam IV. and Queen Adelaide, Aug. 1, 1831. The con- tract for building the bridge was £506,000. The dimensions are as follows : — Ft. in. Span of centre arch 150 6 Height of ditto ft-om high water 29 6 Piers 24 Span of second and fourth arohes 140 Height of ditto from high water 27 6 Piers 22 Span of the abutment arches 130 Height of ditto from high water 24 6 Abutments 73 Clear water-way 690 Length of bridge, including abutments ..928 Ditto, without abutments 782 Width of bridge from parapet tot -g „ parapet J Width of carriage-Wrt,y 36 Width of each foot- way 9 Total height of bridge on east side") g„ „ from low water J LoNDONDEERT, or Deret (Ireland) . — This city, situated in the county of the same name, originated in a monastery founded about A.D. 646. Its early history is httle but a record of repeated assaults and conflagra- tions by the Irish and Danes. The great church was built in 1163 ; and in 1198 the town was taken by John de Courcey. In 1311 it was granted by Edward II. to Eichard de Burgh. The first English garrison was sta- tioned in Londonderry in 1566. In 1568 the town and fort were much injured by an ex- plosion in the powder magazine, which caused the English to leave the place ; but it was re- occupied in 1600. In 1608 the town was burnt by Sir Cahir O'Doherty, and in 1613 it received a charter. The town-haU was erected in 1622, and the cathedral was completed in 1633. On the breaking out of the rebellion of 1641, Lon- donderry became the asylum of the Irish Pro- testants, who successfully defended the place against the royalists in 1649. The memor- LON sihle siege by James II. commenced April 20, 1689, and terminated in the retreat of the besiegers, July 30. During the interval, 3,200 of the defenders died from wounds or starvation, and the assailants lost about 8,000 men. The town-hall having been burnt during the siege, was rebuilt in 1692. The court-house was commenced in 1813, and the county gaol was completed in 1824. The colossal statue of the Eev. George Walker, who had conducted the defence in 1689, was inaugurated Aug. 12, 1828. The London- derry Literary Society was estabhshed in 1834. LoNDOir IifSTiTUTiOTr. — This institution for educational purposes was established A,D. 1806 in the Old Jewry, where Professor Porson, who was the first librarian, died in 1808. It was incorporated April 30, 1815. The first stone of the present building in Finsbury Circus was laid May 4, 1815, and it was opened April 21, 1819. LoNDOif Stone. — Camden considers this stone to be the central milestone from which the British highroads radiated ; but Stow states that " the cause why this stone was set there (in Cannon Street), the time when, or other memory hereof, is none." The stone was removed from the south to the north side of Cannon Street, Dec. 13, 1742 ; and in 1798 it was again removed, and built into the outer wall of St. Swithin's Church, Cannon Street. LoNDOif Unttebsitt. — Thomas Campbell, the poet, suggested the foundation of a col- lege on the principle of free admission to aU sects and denominations, in a letter to Lord Brougham, ^vritt9n in the year 1825, and ground for the estabhshment of an institution of this kind was obtained by a deed of settle- ment dated Feb. 11, 1826. The first stone of the London University, in Grower Street, was laid April 30, 1827, "and the institution was opened Oct. 1, 1828. An appUcation having been made for a charter April 25 and 26, 1834, a special meeting of the proprietors, to consider the proposals of the government, was held Dec. 2, 1835, and the University of London was incorporated in 1836. This charter was renewed and extended in 1837, 1849, and 1856. Lone Star Society. — The English news- papers of Aug. 21, 1852, announced the for- mation, in Alabama and other Southern American States, of a society called the order of the Lone Star, of which the object was " the extension of the institutions, the power, the influence, and the commerce of the United States over the whole of the Western hemisphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." LoNGAEA (Italy). — On the approach of an allied French and German army, a portion of the citizens of Yicenza took refuge in a large cavern called the grotto of Masano, or Longara, in the mountains near their city, in 1510. L'Herisson, a French captain, finding it impossible to force a passage into the cavern, lighted faggots at the entrance, when all the iomates, amount- 504 LOX ing to 6,000, with the exception of one young man, were smothered. In more modem times 700 Arabs were destroyed in a similar manner by the French generals in Alsreria (q.v.). Longevity. — The Antediluvians attained an extraordinary age, many of them num- bering nearly a thousand years. Methu- selah, who lived the longest, was 969 yeara old when he died. ]S"oah was 5lX) years old when Shem, Ham, and Japhet were bora (Gen. V. 32), and son[ie of his descendants exceeded what are now considered the ordi- nary limits of human existence, though no one born after the Deluge passed the age of 464 years, or one half of that attained by some of the antedilurians. Terah, the last who exceeded 200, died B.C. 1921, and since his time but few instances are recorded of persons living beyond the term fixed upon in Scripture as the ordinary limit of human existence; "the days of our years are three-score years and ten, and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow." Alison, referring to modern times (Hist, of Europe, 1815-52, vol. V. p. 408), states that the oldest inhabitants of the globe known to authentic history have been found amongst the slaves of the AVest Indies, and speaks of one in Jamaica who attained the age of 180 years. The following Hst contains a selection of the best-authenticated cases of longevity, though the evidence on which some of these rests is far from being satisfactory. Hales. English Bible. Died aged BC. 5181 B.C. 3874 3769 3679 3609 3544 3382 3317 3130 2948 2048 2346 2311 2281 2247 2217 2185 2155 2126 1921 1»?0 1822 1716 1689 16 ^5 1451 Adam Years. 4976 4786 4616 Scth Enos 912 905 910 895 4289 Jared 962 4124 3937 3755 Enoch was ti-anslated 365 9f)9 Lamech 777 2805 3153 3018 2888 :^,iih 950 600 438 S.i]ah 4:^3 464 2624 2492 239 Eeu 239 230 2283 2075 148 Tf rah 205 2016 1978 1899 Sarah .. . 127 175 Isaac 180 1846 147 no 1608 120 Died aged A D. Yeais. 66. Marcus Androgenetts (killed in b»tt]e) 107 95. ApoUonius of Tyana 130 271. Galen 140 491. Sc. Patrick 122 500. Attila, k*ng of the Huns 124 973. <;larenbaldus 168 or 148 973. Swarlingus 143 LOIf LOIf Died aged A.D. Years. 974. Tugarua 115 14th century. Sir Ralph Vernou, called " old Sir Ealph," or Sir Kalph the Long Liver 150 1566. Lewis Coruaro, of Padua 104 1588. Jan. 28. Thomas Cam, London 107 1612. Countess of Desmond 145 1635. Thomas Parr, Winnington, Shropshire 152 1648. Thomas Damme, Leighton, Cheshire .. 154 1652. "William Mead, M.D.,Hert:ord8hire .. 148 1656. James Bowles, Kenilworth .... 132 1668. WUliam Edwards, Glamorganshire 168 1670. Henry Jenkins, Yorkshire 169 1671. Robert Montgomery, Skipton 127 1685. Gustavus Holme, bover 132 1691. Mrs. Eckelston, King's County, Ireland 143 1706. John Bayles, Nurthamptou 126 1711. Jane Scrimshaw, London 127 1714. William Wakeley, Shropshire 124 1715. May 31 Elizabeth Lewis, Herefordshire 141 1724. Peter Zartan, Hungary 1 85 1731. William Edie, Edinbui-gh 120 1732. William Lelaud, Ireland 140 1734 John Ronscy, Scotland 138 1739. Margaret Patten, London 137 1740. James Grasmay, Hungary 125 1741. John Rovin, Hungary 172 1741. Wife of John Rovin, Hungary 164 1743. Mary Prymm, London 121 1743. Peter Mestanea, Spain 130 1747. Jonas Surtngton, Norway 159 1749. Mrs. Bowles, Berkshire 124 1749. Alexander Bennet, Down, Ireland .... 125 1749. Joseph Battlesworth, Cornwall 130 1753. Don Andrew Bueno, Badajoz 124 1753. Evan Peirce, >'orth Wales 120 1753. Andrew Schmidt, Upper Silesia 124 1757. William Sharply, Roscommon, D-eland 138 1757. John Walney, Gla.-gow 124 1757. Robert Pan-, Shropshire 124 1757. Alexander McCulloch, Aberdeen 132 1758. David Grant, Kinross, Scotland 127 1758. Catherine Giles, Belfast 122 1759. James Sheile, KOkenny, Ireland 136 1759. Hannibal Camoux, M^i-seilles 121 1759. Donald Cameron, Scotland 130 1760. Elizabeth Hilton 121 1761. Jan. Charles CuttreU, Philadelphia, N. America 120 1761. Jan. Mrs. Charles Oottrell, ditto 115 1761. July. John ^ e well, Ireland 127 1761. Elizabeth Marchant, Ireland 133 1762. Catherine Brebner, Aberdeen 124 1762. John Noon, Gal way, Ireland 129 1763. John Michaelstone 127 1763. Elizabeth Taylor, London 131 1763. George Kirton, Yorkshire 125 1763. Matthew Hubert, Treland 121 1763. Owen C.arollan, Ii-eland 127 1765. Edfflebert Hoff, New York, U.S 128 1765. Margaret Foster, Cumberland 137 1766. Thomas Wiuslow, Ireland 146 1766. Mr. Dobson, Hatfield 139 1766. John de la S'^met, Vii-gtnia, U.S 130 1766. John King, Cambridgeshire 130 1767. John HUl, Edinburgh 130 1767. Francis Ange, Maryland, U.S 134 1768. Francis Consit, Yorkshire 150 1768. Catherine Noon, Ireland 136 1769. John Brookey, Devonsh re 134 1769. Mr. Butler, Kilkenny, Ireland 133 1769. Margaret Foster 137 1771. John Gough, Ireland 129 1772. Mrs. Keith, Gloucestei-shire 133 1772. Christian Drackenburg, Denmark 146 1772. Mi-s. Clum, Lichfield 138 1773. Cnarles Mc Tiudly, Ireland 143 1775. Peter Garden, Aberdeen '. 131 1776. Mr. Moval. Dumfriesshire, Scotland . . 136 1776 (about). Mi-s. Phillips 126 or 124 1 777. Ann Foster, Newcastle 132 1780. Louisa 'r ruxo (negress), S. America 175 1780. Robert Mc Bride, Bcutland 130 1780. Mr. Evans, London 139 1780. William Ellis, Liverpool 131 A.D. 1784, 1785, 178.5, 1787, 1790. 1791, 1793 1796, 1797, 1798, 1804. 1805, 1806. 1812. 1813. 1813. 1814. 1818. 1818. 1824. 1826. 1827. 1836. 1845. 1848. 1848. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1855. 1858. Died aged Years. Mary Cameron, Invemess-shii'e 128 John Maxwell, Cumberland 132 Cardinal de Salis, Spain HO Jonas WaiTen, Ireland 167 Johu Jacob, the " Patriarch of Mount Jura " 128 Jonathan Hartop, Yorkshire 138 Mr. Robertson, Edinburgh 137 Mrs. Thompson, Dublin 135 Charles MacMin, the actor, London .... 107 April 2. Isaac Ingall, Sussex 120 Thomas Mar-tin, Yorkshire 130 John Tucker, Hamp^hire 131 Catherine Lopez (negress), Jamaica. . . . 134 Ml-. Creek, Thurlow, Suffolk 125 Joseph Rann (negro), Jamaica 140 Mr. Ci-obaUy, D-eland 128 Flora Macdouald, Isle of Lewes, Scot- land 120 Anne Wignell (negress), Jamaica 146 Mai-y Meigan, Ireland 129 John GiUey, Maine, U.S 124 Mary Inues, Isle of Skye 127 David Ferguson, Kent 124 William M'Kein, Virginia, U.S 130 John Madili 'X, Gloucestershire 121 Ann Mullholland, Ireland 122 Rebecca Fury (negress), Jamaica 140 John Cuffee (negro), Virginia, U.S 120 Bridget Dsvine, Manchester 147 Daniel Alkin, Canada West 120 Mrs. Moran, Ireland 121 Richard Domer, Ireland 125 Viscount GardiuvUle 113 Feb. 24. David Kenuison, N.A 117 Oct. 15. Judy (a slave), N.A 110 M. A. Provencal, Fi-ance 119 James Nolan, Ireland 116 Patrick Sweeney, Ireland 119 Loifo Island (Bahamas) was discovered by Christopher Columbus a.d. 1492. With the group to which it belongs it was seized by the Spaniards a.d. 1781, and was restored to the British by the treaty of Versailles, 1783. LoN& Island (Battle). — The English, under General Home, routed the American revolutionary forces, commanded by General Putnam, at the village of Flat Bush, in Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776. The Enghsh lost 61 killed and 257 wounded, and the rebel army 2,000 men. Long Island (IS'ew York) . — Captain Wey- mouth discovered Long Island, a.d. 1605. Longitude. {See Latitude.) LoNGJUMEAU, (Treaty,) was concluded between the Huguenots and the Koman Catholics, March 23, 1568. It was a mere stratagem on the part of the Eoman Cathohcs to weaken their opponents, and was speedily broken. It was called the Hi-grounded Peace. Long-lived Administeation, also called the Short-lived Administration, held office Feb. 11 and 12, 1746. The Pelham, or Broad-Bottom Administration, having re- signed office Feb. 10, 1746, the earl of Bath accepted the Treasury, with Lord Carhsle as privy seal, Lord Granville as one of the secretaries of state, and Lord Winchelsea at the Admiralty. George III. was not, however, satisfied with the ministerial ar- rangements, and the Broad -Bottom Ad- ministration (q.v.) was restored to office Feb. 12. 505 LON LoN&OBAEDi. — The name of this German tribe of barbarians is derived either from the length of their beards or from the circum- stance of their inhabiting the plains beside the Elbe, — horde or bord signifying a "fertile plain by the side of a river." They are stated by the ancient authors to have been a branch of the Suevi; but Paxil Warnefrid, who wrote in the time of Charlemagne, and was himself a Longobard, asserts that they originally migrated from Scandinavia. They first appeared in history during the reign of Augustus, when they were settled between the Elbe and Oder, and but little more was heard of them till the reign of Justinian (a.d. 527 — 565), by whom they were invited into Noricum and Pannonia. Under their chief Alboin, they invaded Italy in 568, and speedily reduced the greater portion of the country to subjection, estabhshing their kingdom of Lombardy, which composed the modern states of Venice, the Tyrol, the Milanese, Piedmont, Genoa, Mantua, Parma, Modena, j Tuscany, a large portion of the papal states, and the greatest part of the kingdom of Naples. (See Lombaedt.) Loifa Pakliament, summoned by Charles I., met at Westminster, Tuesday, Nov. 3, 1640, and continued its sittings until it was dissolved by Cromwell, April 20, 1653. The journal of this parhament terminates Tuesday, April 19. It was said of this par- liament, that "many thought it never would have a beginning, and afterwards that it never would have an end." Loif&WY (France), fortified by Vauban, has sustained several sieges. The Prussian army invested it Aug. 20, 1792, and it surren- dered Aug. 24. Loo (Holland) .— WiUiam III. ratified the peace of Kyswick at his hunting seat of Loo, Sept. 20, 1697. A treaty between Great Bri- tain, Prussia, and Holland, was concluded here under the auspices of WiUiam Pitt in 1790. Loo-Choo, Lekeyo, or Lieott-Kieotj IslajS^ds (Pacific Ocean). — Captain Brough- ton visited these islands, then little known to Europeans, a.d. 1797. LooDiAifA (Hindostan). — This town and the district came into possession of the Bri- tish A.D. 1836, through the failiu'e of the line of succession. LooKiNG-GtASSES are mentioned Job xxxvii. 18, B.C. 2337, and Exodus xixviii. 8, B.C. 1490, and were probably made of polished metal. Praxiteles, who flourished about B.C. 320, is said to have made a mirror of silver, and the American Indians were found to possess such articles, made from a kind of vitrified lava, plane, concave, and convex, A.D. 1492. Beckmann gathers from Pliny that they were manufactured of glass by the Sidonians, a.d. 77. He quotes a treatise of 1279, by John Peckham, a Franciscan monk of Oxford, in which mirrors are particularly de- scribed, and as having the back covered with lead. The Anglo-Sason women wore them at their girdles. A process for silvering was patented by Drayton, November, 1843. 506 LOR Loom is found depicted on the tombs at Thebes, about b.c. 2000, the invention having been ascribed to the goddess Isis. It was in use in ancient Greece and Rome, especially amongst the females of a family. In India and China it has been in use, ia a rude form, from theearliest period. Among the Anglo-Saxons, too, its structure was exceedingly simple. Improved apparatus was introduced into England by the Flemings, of whom Gervaisse says that weaving is their "natural" busi- ness. A number of these people estabhshed themselves at Norwich a.d. 1132, and John Kemp, with a body of workmen from Flan- ders, came over at the invitation of Ed- ward III., A.D. 1331. A method for the apphcation of mechanical power to the hand-loom was submitted to the French Academy of Sciences by M. de Gennes, A.D. 1678, although it does not appear to have been carried into efi'ect. A machine was patented by the Eev. Dr. Cartwright, which imitated the three movements ia weaving, a.d. 1785, and another in 1787; but all these failed, and after an expenditure of £40,000, that gentleman received a grant of £10,000 from parliament as compensation in 1809. The first power-loom for cotton- weaving was erected near Glasgow in 1798. Jacquard exhibited his machine at Paris in September, 1801, and an electric loom was constructed in 1854 by M. BoneUi, director- general of the Sardinian telegraphs, which he brought to England in 1859. Loeca (Spain), the ancient Eliocroca, was besieged several times during the Moorish occupation of a part of Spain. The bridge was built in 1847. LoED Chambeelaiit, and Loed Gkeat Chambeelaiit. (See Chambeelain.) Loed Chaxcelloe (Scotland) was ori- ginally the king's conscience-keeper, issuing his writs for the remedy of injustice, and became the chief judge of the Court of Session at its establishment, a.d. 1533. The office was abohshed at the Union, March 6, 1707. Loed High Admieal. (See Admieal, Lord High.) Loed High ChancelT;0e op Estglakd. — The office of king's chancellor has been traced back as far as the reign of Ethelbert, kin g of Kent (a.d. 568 — 61 5 ) . It was usually held by an ecclesiastic, and frequently by the king's chaplain. The first chancellor after the Conquest was Arfastus, bishop of Helm- ham, whose name occurs in a charter dated 1068. The office assumed a judicial charac- ter in the reign of Henry I., and sustained a change in its constitution under Henry III., who appointed an officer empowered to act as a chancellor, but without possessing that title, his special province being the custody of the seal. The first charter making this distinction is dated June 14, 1232. The chancellor assumed the title of chancellor of England in 1266, and of lord chancellor in the reign of Edward II. By 5 Ehz. c. 18 (1562), the offices of lord chancellor and lord keeper were declared identical. The vice- LOR LOE chancellor (q.v.) was appointed by 53 Geo. III. c. 24 (March 23, 1813). The salaries of the chief officers of the lord chancellor are regulated by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 87 (July 1, 1852) . The lord chancellor takes precedence of all the other law officers of the realm, ranking next to the archbishop of Canterbury, I/OBD HiaH CHANCELLOBS AND I,OED KEEPEES OF ESTGLAND. ■William L A.D. 1068. Arfastus. 1070. Obbert. 1074. Osmuud. 1078. Maurice. 1083. William "Welson. 1085. William Gififard. William II. 1087. William Giffard (continued). 1090. Eobert Bloet. 1093. Galdric. 1095 (about). William Giffard (again). Henry I. 1100. William Gilfard (continued). 1101. Roger, 1103. William Giffard (again), 1104. Waldric. 1108. Ranulph. 1124. Geoffrey Rufus. Stephen. 1135. Roger Pauper, 1139. Philip. Robert de Grant, Henry II. 1154. Thomas Becket. 1173. Ralph de Warneville, 1181. Geoffrey Plantageuet. Bichard I. 1189. William de Longchamp, 1198. Eustace. John. 1199. Hubert Walter, 1205. Walter de Grey. 1213. Peter de Rupibus, IOTA / Walter de Grey (again), ■^^^*- 1 Richard Marisco. Henry III. 1216. Richard Marisco (continuedj. 1226. Ralph de Nevill. 1238. Simon Normanus (keeper). 1240. Richard Crassus (keeper). 1244. Silvester de Everdon (keeper). 1246. John Mansel (keeper). 1247. John de Lexinton (keeper). 1248. John Mansel /again, keeper). 1250. William de Kilkenny (keeper), 1255. Henry de Wingham (keeper), 1260. Nicholas de Ely (keeper), 1261. Walter de Merton. 1263. Nicholas de Ely. -,„,.-( Thomas de CantUupe. ■^'"'°-\ Walter Giffard. 1267. Godfrey Giffard. 1268. John de Chishull (keeper), 1269. Richard de Middleton. 1272. John de Kirkeby (keeper), Edward I. 1272. Walter de Merton. 1274. Robert Burnell. 10Q9 f William de Hamilton (keeper). ^■^^'^- 1 John de Langton. Tmo f Adam de Osgodby (keeper), 1302. 1 -^yjijij.^^ ^g Grenefleld, 1304. WUliam de Hamilton, 1307. Ralph de Baldock. Edward II. 1307. Ralph de Baldock (continued), John de Langton. iQin / Adam de Osgodby (keeper). ^•^^"- (. Walter Reginald. 1311. Adam de Osgodby (keeper). 1312. Walter Reginald (again, keeper). 1343. 1314. John de Sand ale. 1318. John de Hotham. 1320. John Salmon. 1323. Robert de Baldock. 1326. William de Ayremynne (keeper), 1326. Henry de CUtf (keeper). Edward III. 1327. John de Hotham (again). ( Henry de Cliff i ,t„„„^,.„v 1328.< William de Herlaston / ^^^®P"^'- ( Henry de Burghersh. 1330. John de Stratford. 1334. Richard de Anngerville, or Bury. 1335. John de Stratford (again). 1337. Robert de Stratford. 1338. Richard de Bynterworth. ( John de St. Paul ) 1339.-C Michael de Wath Mkeepers). ( Thomas de Baumburgh ) {John de St. Paul (keeper). John de Stratford (agaiu). Eobei-t de Stratford. Sii- Robert Burghchier, or Bouchier. 1341. Sir Robei-t Paming. John de Thoresby ^ John de St. Paul Mkeepers), Thomas de Brayton ; ^Robert de Tadiugton. 1345. John de Offord, or Ufford. fDavid de Wollore I John de St. Paul ) 1349. H Thomas de Brayton > (keepers) Thomas de C'otyngham ) L John de Thoresby. 1356. William de Ediugton. 1363. Simon Langham. 1367. William de Wykeham. 1371. Sir Robert de Thorpe. 1372. Sir John Knyvet. 1377. Adam de Houghton. Richard II. 1377. Adam de Houghton (continued), 1378. Sir Richard le Scrope. 1379. Simon de Sudbury. ( Hugh de Segrave (keeper). 1381. < William de Courteneye. I Sir Richard le Scrope (again). (Hugh de Sesrave \ William de'Dighton Mkeepejs), John de Waltham ) Robert de Braybroke. 1383. Sir Michael de la Hole. 1386. Thomas de Arundel. 1389. William de Wykeham (againj. 1391. Thomas de Arundel (again). 1396. Edmund de Stafford, looa /Thomas de Arundel (again). ^'^^^- (.John de Scarle, Henry IV. 1399. John de Scarle (continued). 1401. Edmund de Stafford (again), 1403. Hemy de Beaufort. 1405. Thomas Langley. 1407. Thomas de Arandel (again). I4if) /John Wakering (keeper). ■^■*^"-l. Sir Thomas Beaufort. 1412. Thomas de Arundel (again). Hemy V. 1413. Henry Beaufort. 1417. Thomas Langley fagain). Henry VI. 1422. Thomas Langley (continued). 1422 ■[ ^i"^**^ Gaunstede (keeper). ■ 1. Thomas Langley (again). 1424. Hem-y Beaufort (again). 1426. John Kempe. 1432. John Stafford. 1450. John Kempe. 1454. Richard Neville. 1455. Thomas Bourchier. 1456. William Waynflete, 1460. George Neville. Edward IV. 1461. George Neville (continued). lAAT S Robert Kirkham (keeper). ^^'' X Robert Stillington. 5or LOE LOE (John Morton \ Henry Bourchier V (keepers). John Morton (again) ) Lawrence Booth. 1474. Thomas Rotheram. , .__ / John Alcock. ' (.Thomas Rotheram (again). Edwai-d V. 1483. Thomas Kotheram (continued) 1483. John BusselL Richard ITI. 1483. John Russell (continued). 1485. Thomas Barowe (keeper). Hemy VII. 148.5. John Alcock. 148t). John Morton. 1.500. HeiiryDene. 1502. William Wai-ham (keeper). 1504. WiUiam Warham. Henry VIII. 1509. William Warham (continued). 1513. Thomas Wolsey. 1529. Sir Thomas More. 1532. Sir Thomas Audley (keeper). 1533. Sir Thomas Audley. 1544. Thomas, Lurd Wriothesley (keeper). 1545. Thomas, Lord Wriothesley. Edward VI. 1547. Lord Wriothesley (continued). , _ ,_ r William Paulet (keeper), ^^"^'-t Richard, Lord Rioh. 15.51. Thomas Goodrich (keeper). 1552. Thomas Goodi-ich. Mary. 1553. Stephen Gardiner. 1556. Nionolas Heath. Elizabeth. 1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon (keeper). 1.579. Sir Thomas Bromley. 1587. Sir (Ihristopuer Hatton. 1591. William, Lord Burleigh. 1592. Sir John Puckering (keeper). 1596. Sir Thomas Egerton (keeper). James I. 1603. Sir Thomas Eserton (continued as keeper) 1603. Sir Thomas Egeiton. 1617. Sir Francis Bacon (keeper). 1618. Sir Pi-ancis Bacon. 1621. John Williams. Charles I. 1625. John Williams (continued). 1625. Sir Thomas Coventry. 1640. Sir- John Finch. 1641. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 1643. Parliamentary Commission. ]645. Sir Richard Ljune. 1646 I ^^^ ^'^^'^ °^ Salisbury. ■ \ Parliamentary Commissioners. 1648. Parliamentary Commissioners, uterregnum* ( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1649. ^^ John L'Isle. ( Richard Keeble. ( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1654 < Sir- Thomas Widdrington. ( John L'Isle. 1 cKc / Nathaniel Fiennes. 1S^8-1 John L'Isle. ( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1659.< Nathaniel Fienues. i. John L'Isle. 1659. William LenthaU. {John Bradshaw. Thomas TyrrelL John Fountain. 1659. Bulstrode Whitt- locks. 1060. William LenthaU (again). / Sir Thomas Widdrington. J Thomas Tyrrell. 1660. \ John Fountain. V. Edward Montague, earl of Manchester. * During the Interregnum the holders of the Great Seal were styled Lords Commissiouets. 508 The Restoration. 16.57. Sir Edward Hyde. 1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, knt. and bart. 1672. Anthony Ashley, Lord Shaftesbury. 1673. Sir Heneage Finch (keeper). 1675. Heneage (Lord Finch). 1682. Sir Francis North (keeper). James IL 1685. Lord Guildford (continued). 1685. Lord Jeffreys. William and Mary. ( Sir John Maynard ) 1690. < Sii- Anthony Keck Mcommigsioners). ( Sir Will. Rawlinson ) ( Sir John Trevor \ 1690. < Sir Wm. Rawlinson > (commissioners). ( Sir Geo. Hutchins j • 1693. Sir John Somers (keeper). 1697. Lord Somers. 1700. Sir Nathan Wright (keeper). Anne. 1702. Sir Nathan Wright (continued). 1705. Right Hon. William Cowper (keeper). 1707. Lord Cowper. ( Sir Thomas Trevor ) 1710. < Robert Tracy Mcommissioners). ( John Scrope ) 1710. Sir Simou Harcourt (keeper). 1713. Lord Harcourt. George I. 1714. Lord Harcourt (continued). 1714 Lord Cowper. f Robert Tracy ) 1718.< Sir John Pratt Mcommissioners). ( Sir James Montague ) 1718. Lord Parker. ( Sir Joseph Jekyll ■) 1725. < Sir Jeffrey Gilbert Mcommissioners). I Sir Robert Raymond ) 1725. Sir Peter King (afterwards Lord King). George II. 1727. Lord King (continued). 1733. Hon. Charles Talbot. 1737. Pliilip Yorke. Lord Hardwicke. ( Sir John WUlis ) ,„„„„,,,. 1756.^ Sir Sydney Stafford Smj-the } '^°„-^Y ( Sir John Eardley Wilmot ) s^ollers^ 1757. Sir Robert Henley (keeper). George III. 1760. Lord Henley (continued as keeper). 1761. Lord Henley. 1762. Lord Camden. 1770. Hon. Charles Yorke. {Sir Sydney Stafford Smythe Hon. Hemy Bathurst Sir Richard Aston 1771. Hon. Henry Bathurst. 1778. LordThurlow. 1783.|s^^^^raeH^"?Ashu.tl(— r ( Sir Beaumont Hotham j sioneis). 1783. Lord Thurlow. ( Sir James Eyre ) /--_,-_^o 1792. <^ Sir William Henry Ashurst V 'ff°J"rf" I Sir John Wilson ) si*'"''^)- 1793. Lord Loughborough. 180L LordEldon 1801). Hon. Thomas Erskine 1807. Lord Eldon (^ain). George IV. 1820. Lord Eldon (continued). 1827. John Singleton Copley {created Lord Lyndhurst). WiUiam IV. 1830. Lord Lyndhurst (continued). 1830. Lord Brougham. 1834. Lord Lyndhurst (again). ( Sir Launcelot .Shadwell ) /o^mmSo 1835.-^ Sir Chas. Christopher Pepys V ' i°™irT* { Sir John Bernard Bosanquet ) ^lonersj. 1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys (Lord Cottenham). Victoria. 1837. Lord Cottenham (continued). 1811. Lord Lyndhurst (again). 1846. Lord Cottenham (again). (commis- sioners). (commis- sioners). 1852. 1852. 1861, LOE ( Heniy, Lord Langdale < Sir LauDcelot Shad well ( Sir Eobert Mousey Kolfe Sir Thomas Wilde (created Lord Truro) Lord St. Leonards. Lord Ci-anworth. Lord Chelmsfoi-d. Lord Campbell. Lord Westbury. LoBD High Chan-cemoe op Ieeland. — The appointment of this officer is coeval ■with the Enghsh government in Ireland ; but the earUest lord chancellor whose name has been preserved is Stephen Kidel, noticed in 1186. Deputies, or vice-chancellors, also formed part of the ancient estabhshment of Ireland. LOBS HIGH CHANCELLOBS OF IBELAH^S. A.D. 1186. Stephen EideL Henry III. 1219. John de Worchley. 1230. Fromond le Brnn. ,„„„/ Ralph Nevill. ^'''^''•XGeoSrey TurviHe (Vice-Chancellor), 1235. Alan de Sancta Fide. 1236. Robert Luttrell. ,„.,_ / Geoffrey Turville. ■^^"^'-t Ralph, bishop of Norwich, 1245. William Welward. 1249. Ralph (again). 1259. Fromond le Bnm. Edward I. 1272. Fromond le Brun (continued). 1283. Walter de Fulburu. 1288. William de Braerlaco. 1292. Thomas Cantock. 1293. Walter de Thomburg. 1294. Adam Wodington. 1295. Thomas Cantock (again). Edward II 1307. Thomas Cantock (continued). 1314. Richard de Bereford. 1317. William Fitz-John. 1321. Roger Outlaw. 1325. Alexander de Bicknor. 1326. Roger Outlaw (again). Edward III. 1330. Adam de Limberg. 1331. William (prior of St. John's, Dublin). ■,„..„ /Adam de Limberg (again). ■^^^''- (. Rogei Outlaw (again). 1334 Adam de Limberg (again). 1335. Roger Outlaw (again). 1337. Thomas Charlton. ,009 / Robert de Hen ningberg. ■^'*^°- I John de Battail (keeper). ,qoQ / Roger Outlaw (again). •^^''•'- (.Thomas Charlton (again). -.oAi f Robert de Askeby. •^^^- (, John le Archer. 1342. Roger Darcy (keeper). 1343. John de Battail (keeper, again). 1344. John le Archer (again). 1346 ■[ •'^o^'^ Morice, or Morys. " l Roger Darcy (keeper, again). 1349. John le Archer (again). i^nn S William Bromley (keeper). "^''- 1 John de St. Paul. 1354. Richard deAssheton. 1355. John de St. Paul (again). 1356. Ji.hndeFrowyk. f Thomas Burley. 1357. < Friar John de Mora "I (Demity ( William Draitou J Chauceliovs). 1359. Thomas Burley. 1363. Richard de Assheton (again). 1366. Thomas Scurlock. 1367. Thomas le Reve. 1368. Thomas Burley. 1370. John de Botheby. LOR 1372. William Tany. ( John de Botheby (again). 1374. <^ William Tany (again). ( John Keppock. Richard II. ,.,„_ f Robert de Wikeford, or Wickford. ^'*'^- \ Alexander P"i»""+ 1379. John Colton. 1380. William Tauy (again). 1381. Ralph Chene, or Cheney (keeper). 1385. Robert de Wikeford (again). ("Robert Sutton (Vice-Chancellor). -joofl J Alexander Balscot (again), idsso. 1 Thomas de Everdon (Vice-Chancellor L Thomas de Everdon (keeper). 1387. Richard White. 1388. Sir Robert Preston (keeper). 1389. Alexander Balscot (again). 1388. Sir Robert Preston. 1392. Robert Waldby. 1393. Richard Northalis. 1394. Alexander Balscot (again). 1395. Robert Waldby (again). ["Alexander Balscot (again). TQoi? J Robert de Braybroke. ■ 1 Robert Sutton (deputy keeper). LThomas Cranley. Henry IV. 1399. Thomas Cranley (continued). 1400. Alexander Balscot (again). 1401. Thomas Cranley (again). 1402. Thomas de Everdon (deputy, again). ( Richard Rede ) 1405.< John Bermingham Mdeputies). ( Robert Sutton (again) J 1407. Laurence Merbury (deputy). 1410. Patrick Ban-et. 1411. Robert Sutton (deputy, again). 1412. Thomas Cranley (again). Henry V. 1413. Sir Laurence Merbury (again). ,.,(./ Thomas Cranley (again). ^*^^- X Patrick Ban-et (again). 1416. William Fitz-Thomas. 1419. Sir Laurence Meibury (again). 1421. William Fitz-Thomas (again). Heniy VI. 1422. Sir Laurence Merbury (agaiu). ' Richard Sedgrave, or Segi-ave. Richard Talbot, f William Fitz Thomas (Mgain). • ( Sir Richard Fitz Eustace. 1427 -f ^i'''^*'''^ Talbot (again). (. Robert Sutton (keeper, again). 1434. Thomas Chase (keeper). 1435. Thomas Strange (deputy). 14-^R / ^i'^ Richard Fitz Eustace (deputy, again ■^^"^"•i. Robert Dyke (keeper). 1441. Sir Thomas Strange. 1444. Richard Wogan. 1445. William Cheevers (deputy). 14ir X ^^"^ '^"^^ Talbot. 1 Robert Dyke (deputy, again). 1.14S r Thomas Fitzgerald (deputy). ■^■**'' 1 Thomas Talbot (deijutv). 1451. Sir John Talbot (^gain)". 1453. Sir Edward Fitz-Eustace. 1454 Sir William Wells (deputy), i/wn / ^^I'l of Rutland. •^*'"-t JohnDynham. Edward IV. 1423.-! 1426. / Sir Robert Preston (deputy). If - ■^'^^•\Sii- William Wells. 1462. Earl of Worcester. 1463. Earl of Kildare. 1468. Robert Allaunston. 1469. Sir William Dudley. -, ..7„ f Lord Portlester. •^■^'^-IJohnTaxton. , ,-, / Gilbert de Venham. i-i/4. j^ g^j. Ro^^yi-^n^ Fitz-Eustace. 1480. William Shei-wood. 1481. Lawrence de St. Lawrence. 1482. Walter Champflour (keeper). , ,Qo f Sir Robert de St. Lawi-ence. I4t». ^ Tiionias Fitzgerald. 509 LOE Henry VII. 1485. Robert Fitz-Eustace. 1492. Alexander Plunket. 1494. Heury Deaue. 1496. Walter Fitzsimons. 1498. WilUam Kokeby. 1501. Walter Fitzsimons (again). Henry VIII. 1509 -f ^i'^^ol''* St. Lawrenf-e. ■ 1 Walter Fitzsimons (again). 1513. Sir William Compton. 1515. William Rokeby. 1527. Hugh Inge. 1528. John Alan. 1532. George Cromer. 1534. John Bamewall. Ti'xa /John Allen (keeper). ■^^''°-t John Allen. 1546. f Sir Thomas Cusack. • 1 Sir Richard Rede. Edward VI. 1548. Sir John AUen 1550. Sir Thomas Cusack. Mary. 1553. Sir Thomas Cusack (continued). ,_._ /Sir William Fitz Williams (keeper). ^^^^-JHughCurwen. Elizabeth. 1558. Hugh Curwen (continued). 1-567. Robert Weston. 1573. Adam Loftus (keeper). 1576. William Gerrard. 1.577. Adam Loftus (keeper). 1603. Adam Loftus. James I. ("Thomas Jones "| leOMlL^EdmundTelham [ (^-pers). LSir Anthony St. LegerJ ("Sir William Jones ■) 1R1Q J S'^'" William Methwold > (keepers). j.Di». -j gjj, pj.j^^gig Aungier ) LAdam Loftus (afterwards Viscount Ely). Charles I. 1625. Viscount Ely (continued), r James Usher 1 16^-is&WnUarPa.ons[(^-P-)- L Sir Adam Loftus J [Robert, Lord Dillon 1 ,~.jQ J Sir Adam Loftus ', ,v„„^„_\ ^^^- i Christopher Wandesfoi-d [ (keepers). LSir Philip Main waring J 1639. Sir Richard Bolton. luteiTegnum. ( Richard Pepys ■) 1655. < Sir Gerard Lowther > (commissioners). ( Miles Corbet ) 1656. WiUiam Steele. The Restoration. 1660. Sir Maurice Eustace. 1665. Michael Boyle. James II. ,„Q_ /Michael Boyle (continued). ±000. j^ g^ Charles Porter. 1686. Sir Alexander Titton. WiUiam IIL ("Richard Pyne \ ifiQ.i J Sir Richard Ryves > (keepers). •^°"''- 1 Robert Rochfort ) LSir Charles Porter. ( Archbishop of Dublin ) 1693. < Earl of Meath >■ (keepers). I WUliam Hill ) {Sir John Jeffreyson 1 Thomas Coote > (keepers). Nehemiah DoneUan ) John Methuen. ( Eail of Meath ) 1697. < Earl of Longford Mkeepei-s). (viscount Blesrnton j Anne. 1702. John Methuen (again). 1703. Sir Richard Cox. 1707. Richard Freeman. 610 LOR TEarl of Kildare ) ,_,„ ! Aichbishop of Dublin Mkeepeis). ■^'^"- 1 Thomas Keightley j LSir Constantine Phipps. George I. 1714. Alan Brodi-ick. 1725. Richard West. 1726. Thomas Wyndham. George II. 1727. Thomas Wyndham (continued). 1739. Robert Jocelyn. 1757. John Bowes. George III. 1760. John, Lord Bowes (continued). 1767. James Hewitt 1789. John Fitzgibbon. 1802. Sir John Mitford. 1806. Right Hon. George Ponsonby. 1807. Thomas Manners Sutton. George IV. 1820. Lord Manners (continued) 1827. Su- Anthony Hart, knt. William IV. 1830. William Conynsham Plunket. 1 g.j^ / Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, knt. ^°*^-l Lord Plunket. Victoria. 1837. Lord Plunket (continued). 1S41 / Sir John Campbell. ° 1 Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 1846. Maziere Brady. 1852. Francis Blackbume. 1853. Maziere Brady (again). 1858. Joseph Napier. 1859. Maziere Brady (again). LoED High Constable (England). — This officer existed in the Anglo-Saxon period of our history. His jurisdiction was defined by 8 Eich. II. c. 5 (1385). The duke of Buck- ingham, tried and executed for high treason. May 21, 1521, forfeited the office, and it has never been revived. The lord high constable and the earl marshal were judges of the cotirt of chivalry, called in the reign of Henry IV. Curia Mihtaris. This office ranked as the first in France. Napoleon I. created his brother Louis constable of the empire. LoED High Constable op Scotland. — This office is of great antiquity, and in 1162 was held by Eichard de MorevUle. Eobert Bruce conferred the dignity of constable on Gilbert de Hay, earl of Errol, and his heirs for ever, Nov. 12, 1315. LoED High Stewaed oe England.— The office of Lord High Steward is of great anti- quity, having existed before the time of Ed- ward the Confessor, and the holder thereof was at that period the first great officer of the crown. It was for many years hereditary in the family of the earls of Leicester, but on the attainder of Simon of Montfort in 1265, it was abolished, and is now only revived for the special occasions of a coronation or the trial of a peer. On the 12th of January, 1559, Henry, earl of Arundel, was created high steward for the coronation of Queen Ehza- beth, Jan. 15, to hold that office from "the rising of the sun on the same day to the setting thereof." Whenever a grand jury finds a true bill agaiast a peer on a charge of treason or felony, a comxaission is issued constituting a lord high steward, with authority to try the accused. Edward, earl of Devon, appointed lord high steward LOR in 1400 for the trial of the earl of Huntingdon, in tlie reign of Henry IV., is the first lord high steward created for this purpose. The trial over, the lord high steward breaks his rod, in order to show that his commission has ended. LoBD High Teeasxteee of England. — This, the third great officer of the crown, had the custody of the royal treasury, and of the foreign and domestic documents kept there. The office is held during plea- sure. The first lord high treasurer was Odo, earl of Kent and bishop of Bayeux, in the reign of William the Conqueror. For many years the office was held by ecclesias- tics, the first lay treasurer being Kichard, Lord Scroop, in 1371. The duke of Shrewsbury, appointed by Queen Anne, July 29, 1714, and who resigned office a few days afterwards, was the last high treasurer of England. Since that time the office has always been Tested in commissioners, the chief of whom is the first lord of the trea- sury, and head of the government. LORD HIGH TBEASXTKEES OP ENGLAND. William I. A.D. Odo, earl of Kent. Henry I. Geoffry de Clinton. Kaiiulph Flambard. Roger, bisJiop of Salisbuiy. Mgellus, bisbop of Ely. Henry II. Geoffrey Eidel. Ricbard de Ely. Eicbard I. Bicbard de Ely (continued). ■William de Ely. Jolm. William de Ely (continued). Dean of St. Paul's. Walter de Grey. Geoflrey, archdeacon of Norwich. Henry III. John Kutball. 1217. Eustace de F.auconbridge. Jobu ae Fontibus. Walter Maclerk, or Lacklatine. Hubert de Burgo. Peier de Orial. 1234. Hugh de Patteshull. Galfridus Templarius. William Haverhull. Richard de Barking. Philip Lovel. 1258. John Crackhall. 1260. John, abbot of Peterborough. 1263. Nicholas de Ely. 1266. Thomas de Wymimdham. 1269. John de Chishull. 1271. Philip de Ely. Edwai-d I. 1274. Joseph de Clancy. ^ f Walter Giffard. ■^^'•'- 1 Robert Buruel. 1278. John de Clancy. 1279. Thomas Beck. 1280. Richard de Warren, or de Ware. 1284. Walter Wenlock. 109R / Roger de Longespee, alias de Moknd. ■^'''"'- 1 John de Kirkeby. 1290. William de Marcbia. 1293. Peter de Leicester. 129.5. Walter de Langton. Edward II. 1307. Walter Reynolds. , 1311. John de Sandale. 1312. Bii- Walter de Norwich. LOR 1313. John de Sandale (again). iQi<; / Sir Walter de Norwich (again). ^''^^- 1 John de Drokenesford. 1317. John Hotbain. iQia / William Walwaine. ■^^■^°- 1 John de Stratford. 1319. Walter Stapleton. 1321. Sir Walter de Norwich (again). 1322. Roger de Northburgh. Tit) A /Walter Stapleton (again). Xd.i4.| -yy-jjiiaj^ (je Melton. Edward III. ,„„„ f John de Stratford (again). ^^''^- \ Adam de Orleton. 1327. Henry de Burghersh. 1329. Thomas Charletou, or Charlton. 1330. Robert Woodhouse. 1331. William Melton (again). 1332. William Ayi-emin. 1333. Robert le Ailstone. 1336. Heury de Burghersh (again). 1337. Richard de Bury. 1338. William de la Zouch, or le Zouch. TQ/fft / Roger de Northburgh. ^'^'^•\ Sir Richard Sodington, Kut. 1342. Roger de Northburgh (again). 1343. William de Cusans. 1345. William de Edington. 1358. John de Shepey. 1361. Simon Langham. 1363. John Baruet. 1371. Sir Richard Scrope. Lord Scrope. 1376. Sir Richard Ashton. 1377. Heury Wakefield. Richard II. 1377. Henry Wakefield (continued). 1378. Thoma? Brentingham. 1379. Richard Fitzalau. 1380. Thomas Breutingham (again). 1389. John Gilbert. 1390. John Waltham. 1395. Roger Walden. loQo / Cruy de Mona. 1398. 1 gjj^ wiUiam le Scrope. HeniT IV. 1399. Sir John Northbm-y, Knt. 1403. Henry Bowet. 1404. Lord Roos, or Eos. 1405. Lord Furnival. TAf\a /Nicholas Bubbewith. ■^''"^- I Lord Scrope (again). 1409. Lord Tiutoft. 1410- Lord Scrope. Henry V. 1413. Earl of Arundel and SuiTey. 1416. Sir Philip Lech, Knt. 1417 Lord'Fitz-Hugh. Henry VI. 1422. John Stafford. 1425. Lord Hungerford. 1431. Lord Scrope. 1434. Lord Cromwell. 1444. Ralph de Sudley. 1447. Marmaduke Lumley. 1448. Lord Say and Sele. 1450. Lord Beauchamp. 1452. Lord Tiptoft (again). ( Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond. 1455. < Thomas Thorpe. ( Viscount Bourchier. 1456. Earl of Shrewsbury. 1458. Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond (again) 1460. Viscount Bourchier (again). Edward IV. 1461. Thomas Bourchier. 1462. Earl of Worcester (again). 1464. Lord Grey, of Ruthyn. 1465. Sir Walter Blount. 1466. Earl Rivers. lAaa /John Longstrother. ■^^''''•tWiniamGrey. 1471 ■[ '^^^^ °^ E^ex (ag:ain). Viscount Bourchier. Edward V. 1483. Karl of (continued). 511 LOR Bichard IIL A.D. 1483. Earl of Essex (continued). 1484. Sir Richard Wood, Knt. Henry VII. lAan /Sir Reginald Bray. 1480. 1 gjj. William Stauiey. 1486. Lord Dynham. 1501. Earl of SuiTey. Henry VIII. 1 Kfto / Earl of Surrey (continued). lOUi). -^ Tiiomag Cromwell. 1522. Earl of Surrey. Edward VI. 1547. Earl of Hertford. 1551. Earl of Wiltshire, afterwards marquis of Winchester. Mary. 1553. Marquis of Winchester (continued). Elizabeth. 1558. Jlarquis of Winchester (continued). 1572. Sir William Cecil. 1599. Thomas Sackville. James I. 1609. Earl of Salisbury. 1614. Earl of Suffolk. 1618. George Abbott. 1621. Lord Cranfield. 1624. Sir James Ley, Knt. and Bart. Charles I. 1625. Sir James Ley (continued). 1636. William Juxon 1643. Lord Cottiugton. Charles II. TCfirt / Sir Edward Hyde. ■'■*'*'"• X Earl of Southampton. 1667. Duke of Albemarle. 1672. Lord Clifford. 1673. Sir Thomas Osborne. ( Earl of Essex. 1679. < Hon. Laurence, afterwards Lord Hyde ( and earl of Rochester. 1684. Lord Godolphui. James II. 1685. Earl of Rochester (again). 1687. Lord Belasyse. William III. and Mary. 1689. Viscount Mordaunt. iron / Si^ John Lowther, Bart, ^^^^- \ Lord Godolphia (again). WOliam III. 1694. Lord Godolphin (continued). 1698. Bigtit Hon. Charles Montagu. 1699. Earl of TankervUle. 1700. Lord Godolphin (again). 1701. Earl of Carlisle. Anne. 1702. Lord Godolphin (again). 1710. Earl Poulett. 1711. Earl of Oxford. 1714. Duke of Shrewsbury. LoED High Teasiteee OF Ireland. — The dignity of this officer, who ranks third of the crovra officers in Ireland, is as ancient as the English government of that country. Originally he was styled the treasurer of the exchequer. John de St. John was the first holder of the office, in 1217. LoED Keepee. — The office of lord keeper of the great seal of England is stated on doubtful authority to have been held diiring the chancellorship of Kanulph, in the reign of Henry I., by Kichard, a chaplain. It was not officially estabhshed tiH the reign of Richard I. The offices of lord chanceUor and lord keeper were declared identical, as far as England is concerned, by 5 Eliz. c. 18 (1562). (For a list of lord keepers see the list of lord high chancellors.) LoED LiEUXEWANl. — HaUam (Hist, of 512 LOR Eng. V. 11, c. 9) states that the miHtary jurisdiction in counties was transferred from the sheriffs, or justices of the peace, to a new officer called the lord lieutenant, during the reign of Mary. "The office gave him the command of the militia, and rendered him the chief vicegerent of his sovereign, respon- sible for the maintenance of public order. This institution may be considered as a re- vival of the ancient local earldom." Lords Heutenant of counties were appointed in Ireland by 1 & 2 AVill. 4, e. 17 CAug. 23, 1831). Lord Mayor. — The title of Lord was granted to the mayor of London, a.d. 1354. Charles I. conferred this distinction on the chief magistrate of Dublin in 1641, but it was not borne by him until 1665. The chief magistrate of York and of Edinburgh is also styled Lord Mayor. LoED Mator (London). — According to the Liber Albus, the principal representatives of the sovereign power in the city of London have since the l^orman conquest acted at various times under different names. Wil- liam I. styled this officer his Portgrave, or Portgreve, afterwards corrupted into Port- reve. In a charter of Henry I. he is called a Justiciar, and in a charter of Henry II., in which the right of the aldermen to elect one every year is confirmed, he is styled Mayor. In olden times the mayor was elected on the feast of the apostles Simon and Jude (Oct. 28), and it was customary for him on the day of his election to go on foot by land, or by boat on the river Thames, to Westminster, or the Tower, to be sworn into office. At first the Lord Mayor frequently held the office for several consecutive years ; but Edward I., in 1285, limited it to one year, and this rule, except in verv particular cases, has since been observecl. Henry Fitz- Elwyne, the first who held the office, was appointed by the crown in 1188. The title Lord was added to mayor in 1354. The procession, at first of a simple character, was converted into a pageant in 1454 by Sir John JSTorman, who proceeded to Westminster in a stately barge. LORD MATOES A.D. Henrv Fitz-Elwyne 1189 to 1212 Roger Fitz-Alau .. 1213 Serlo le Mercer 1214 WiUiiim Hard-1 . . 1215 James Alderman ) (deposed) V1216 Solomon de Basing 3 Serlo le Mercer 1217 to 1222 Richard Renger 1223to 1226 Roger le Due 1227 to 1230 Andrew Bukerel 1231 to 1236 Richard Renger . . 1237 William Joynier . . 1238 Gerard Bat 1239 Reginald de Bungay 1240 Ralph Eswy 1241 to 1243 Michael Tovy 1244 OF XOlfDOM-. A.D. John Gizors 124.9 Pet-r Fitz-Alan 1246 Michael Tovy, or Tony 1247 Michael Tow 1248 Roger Fitz Roger . . 1249 John N' .rman .... 1250 Adam de Basing . . 1251 John Tulesan 1252 Nicholas Bat 12.53 Ralph Hardel 12.54 to 12.57 John Gizors 1258 WiUiam Fitz-Rich- ard 1259 William Fitz-Rich- ard 1260 Thnma* Fitz-Thomas 1261 to 1264 Hugh Fitz - Otho (warden) 1265 LOE LOR A.D. A.D. AD. A.D. William Fitz-Eich- Thomas Iiegge 1-^47 William Estfield, or William Purchase 1497 ard (warden) .... 1265 John Lovekvn .... 1348 Eastfteld 1429 Johan Percival .... 1498 Alan la Suche (war- Walter Tnrke .... 1349 Nicholas Wotton Nicholas Alwyn .. 1499 den) 12(5fi Richard Kisliug- bury 13.50 (again) 1430 Johan Reymington 1500 Sir Johan Shaa.... 1.501 Thomas de Eppe-" Johan WelUs, oi grave (warden) ■1267 Andrew Aubrey .. 13.51 Welles 1431 Bartholomew Reed 1502 Stephen de BUde- Adam Fraunceys . . 1352 Johan Barneys, oi Sir William Capel 1503 worthe (warden) Adam Fraunceys . . 1353 Parvels 1432 John Wyngar, or Hugh Fitz-Otho Thomas Le^ige 1354 Johan Brokley, oi Winger 1.504 (warden) 1268 John Adrien 1269 Simon Fraunceys.. 13.55 Brocle 1433 Thomas Knesworth 1505 HeniyPioaid 1356 Robert Otley, oi Sir Richard Haddon 1506 John Adrien 1270 John S^ody 1357 Roger Otely .... 1434 William Browne Walter Hervey.... 1271 JohnLovekyn .... 1358 Henry Frowyk, oi (again in 1513) .. 1-507 Stephen Jenyns.... 1.508 Walter Hervey .... 1272 Simon Dolsely .... 1359 Frow 1435 Henry Waleys .... 1273 John Wroth 1360 Johan tiMichell, or Thomas Bradbury 1509 Gregory de Kokesley John Pecche 1361 Michael 1436 Heury Keble 1510 1274 to 1280 Stephen Cavendish 1362 William Esifielc Roger Aichiley 1511 Henry Waleys 1281to 1283 JohnNotte 1363 (again) 1437 Sir William Copin- GreaorydeRokesley 1284 Adam de Bui-y .... 1364 Stephen Browne . 1438 ger 1512 Kalph de Sandwich JohnLovekyn ..-.. 1365 Robert Large 1439 Sir William Browne (warden) 1285 John Lovekyn 1366 Johan Paddesley .. 1440 (John Tate) 1513 John Bretone (war- James Andrew .... 1367 Robert Clopton 1441 George Men oux 1514 den) 1286 Simon Mordeu .... 1368 Johan Atherley, oi William Butler.... 1.515 Ralph de Sand wich John Chichester .. 1369 Hatherley 1442 John Rest 1516 (warden).. 1287 to 1292 JohnBemes 1370 Thomas Chatworth 144:^ bir Thomas Exmewel517 John Bretone 1293 to 1296 John Bernes 1371 Henry Frowyk Thomas Mil-ftne .. 1518 Henry Waleys .... 1297 JohnPvel 1372 (again) 1444 Sir James Yarford 1519 Henry Waleys .... 1298 Adam de Bury 1373 Sy. liken, or Simon Sir John Bruge 1520 KliasEussel 1299 William Walworth 1374 Eyer 1445 Sir John Milborne 1521 EliasRussel 1300 John Warde 1375 Johan Olney 1446 Sir John Munday.. 1522 John le Blount Adam Stable (de- ) Johan Gidney 1417 Sir Thomas Baldry, 1301 to 1307 posed) :.... V1376 Stephen Browne orBaldi-ie 1523 Nicholas de Farn- Nicholas Brembre ) (■igain) 1448 Sir William Bailey 1524 done 1308 Nicholas Brembre 1377 Thomas Chalton . . 1449 Sir John Allen .... 1525 Thomas Romeyn .. 1309 JohuPhilipot .... 1378 Nicolas Wyfforde . . 1450 Sir Thomas Seamer 1526 Richer de Kefham 1310 John Hadley 1379 William Gregory . . 1451 Sir James Spencer 1527 JohnGizors 1311 William Walworth 1380 Geffrey Feldyng . . 1452 Sir John Rudstone 1528 John Gizors 1312 John Northampton 1381 Johan ^'orman 1453 Ralph Dodmer .... 1529 Nicholas de Farn- John Northampton 1382 Stephen Forster . . 1454 Sir Thomas Par- done 1313 Nicholas Brembre William Marowe . . 1455 giter 1530 John Gizors 1314 1383 to 1385 Thomas Caning, or Sir Nicbolas Lam- Stephen de Abing- Nicholas Exton.... 1388 Canings 1456 bard 1531 don 1315 Nicholas Exton.... 1387 Geffrey Boleyn, or Sir Stephen Pecocke 1532 John de Wengrave Nicholas Twyford.. 1388 Boleine 1457 Sir- Christopher As- 1316 to 1318 William Venour .. 1389 Thomas Scot 145H kew 1.533 Hamo de Chigge- Adam Bamme 1390 William HenljTi .. 1459 Sir John Champneis 1534 welle 1319 JohnHende 1391 Richard Lee 1460 Sir John Allen Nicholas de Farn- William Staundon 1392 Hugh Wyche 1461 (again) 1535 doue 1320 John Hadley 1393 Thomas Couke 1462 Sir Ralph Waren . . 1536 Hamo de C'higge- John Fresshe 1394 Mathew Philip . . . . 1463 Sir Richard Gresham 1.537 weUe 1321 William More .... 1395 Ranf Josselyne 1464 William Forman . . 1538 Hamo de Chigge- Adam Bamme .... 1396 Rauf Verney 1465 Sir William Holies 1539 welle 1322 Richard Whitington 1397 Johan Yonge 1466 SirWUliamRoch.. 1.540 Nicholas de Farn- Drew Barentyn 1398 Thomas Owlgrave 1467 Sir Michael Dormer 1541 done 1323 Thomas Knolles .. 1399 William Taylour .. I4HH John Cootes, or Cotes 1542 Hamo de Chigge- John Fraunceys . . 1400 Richard Lee 1469 Sir William Bow-T welle 1324 John f'hadworth . . 1401 Johan Stockton 1470 S^\aiph Waren f ^^^^ (again) J Hamo de Chigge- T John Walcot 14(i2 William Edward . . 1471 Ri:htV'^r^^^e.[^325 toigue J William Askham.. 1403 William Hampton 1472 John Hende 1404 Johan Tate 1473 Sir William Laxton 1544 John W.odcock .. 1405 Robert Drope 1474 Sir Martin Bowes . . 1545 Richard de Betoigne 1326 Kichard Whitington 1406 Robert Basset .... 1475 Sir Henry Hurbar- Hamo de Chigge- William Staundon 1407 Rauf Josselyne thorne 1546 welle 1327 Drew Barentyn.... 1408 (again) 1476 Su- John Gresham 1.547 John de Grantham 1328 Richard Merlawe . . 1409 Hmnphrey Hey- Sir Henry Amcotes 1548 Simon Swanlond . . 1329 Thomas Knolles . . 1410 forde 1477 Sir Rowland Hill John de Pounteney 1330 Robert Chichele .. 1411 Richard Gardiner. . 1478 (first Protestant John de Pounteuey 1331 William WaldeiTie 1412 Bartilmew James. . 1479 lord mayor) 1549 Johnde Prestone.. 1332 William Crowmer 1413 Johan Browne 1480 Sir Andrew Jude . . 1550 John de Pounteney 1333 Thomas Fauconer 1414 William Haiyot .. 1481 Sir Richard Dobbes 1551 Reginald de Conduit 1334 Nicholas Wotton . . 1415 Edmond Shaa 1482 Sir George Barnes 1.5-52 Nicholas Wotton . . 1335 Henry Barton .... 1416 Robert BUlesdon . . 14H3 Sir Thomas White 1553 John de Pounteney 1336 Richard Merlawe.. 1417 Thomas Hylle .... 1484 Sir John Lion .... 1554 Henry Darcy 1337 William Sevenoke 1418 Hugh Bryce 1485 Sir William Gerard 1555 Hem-yDarcy 1338 Richard Whitington 1419 Henry Colet 1486 Sir Thomas Offley 1556 Andrew Aubrey .. 1339 William Oambrege 1420 WiUiam Home.... 1487 Sir Thomas Cui-teis 1557 Andrew Aubrey .. 1340 Richard Chichele.. 1421 Robert Tate 1488 Sir Thomas Leigh, John Oxentord ) WilliauiWaldern.. 1422 William White.... 1489 or Lee 1558 (died) >1341 Johan Mathew 1490 Sir Willam Huet 1559 Simon Fraunceys j (again) 1423 Hugh Clopton .... 1491 Sir William Chester 1560 Simon Fraunceys . . 1342 John Michell 1424 WiUiam Martyn .. 1492 Sir William Harper 1561 John Hamond .... 1343 Johan Coventre 1425 Rauf Astry, or Os- Sir Thomas Lodge.. 1562 JohnHamond .... 1344 William Rynwell.. 1426 trich 1493 Sir John White.... 1563 Richard Lacere .... 1345 Johan Gedney .... 1427 Richard Chawi-y . . 1494 Sir Richai-d Malorie 1564 Geoffrey Wichyng- Henry Bai-ton Henry Colet (again) 1495 Sir Richard Cham- ham 1346 (again) 1428 Johan Tate (again) 14U6 513 2 I. LOR LOR A.D. Sii" Christopher Draper 1566 Sir Roger Martin . . 1567 Sir Thomas Howe. . 1568 Alexander Avenon 1569 Sir Rowland Hey- ward 1570 Sir WiUiam Allen 1571 Sir Lionel Ducket 1572 Sir John Rivers.... 1-573 James Hawes 1574 Ambrose Nicholas 1575 Sir John Langley. . 1.576 Sir Thomas Ramsey 1577 Richard Pipe 1578 Sir Nicholas Wood- rofe 1579 Sir John Branche.. 1580 Sir Jamei Harvie . . 15«1 Sir Thomas Blancke 1582 Edward Oshorne . . 1583 Sir Edward Piiliison 1584 Sir Wolstan Dixie 1585 Sii- George Barne . . 1586 Sir George Bond . . 1587 Martin Calthorp, or Colthorpe 1588 Sir John Hart 1589 John Allot 1590 Sir William Web . . 1591 Sir WUliam Rowe 1592 Sir Cuthbert 1 Buckle i ,-q.. Sir Richard Mar- f ■^^^'* tin J Sir John Spencer . . 1-594 Sir Stephen Slauy 1595 Thomas Skinner.. ) Sir Hemy BU- >15h)6 lingsly j Sir Richard Salten- stall 1597 Su- Stephen Some, or Soame 1598 Sir Nicholas Mosley 1599 Sir William Ryder 1600 Sir John Ge.rard . . 1601 Robert Lee 1602 Sir Thomas Beuuet 1603 Sir Thomas Low . . 1604 Su- Henry HoUyday 1605 Sir John Wats 1606 Sii- Heniy Rowe . . 1607 Sir Humphrey Weld 1608 Sir Thomas Cambeil 1609 Sir William Craven 1610 Sir James Pember- ton 1611 Sir John Swinnertonl612 Sir Thomas Middle- ton 1613 Sir Jonii Hayes. . . . 1614 Sir John Jolles 1615 Sir John Leman . . 1616 George BoUes 1617 Sir Sebastian Har- vey 1618 Sir William Cockain 1619 Sir Fraiicis Jones . . 1620 Sii- Edward Bark- ham 1621 Sii- Peter Proby 1622 Sir JMavtin Lumley 1623 Sir John Goare 1024 Sir Allen Cotton . . 1625 Sir Cuthbert Aket 1626 Sir Hugh Ham- mei-sley 1627 Sir Richard Deane 1628 Sir James CambeU 1629 Sir Robert Ducy . . 1630 Sir George Whit- more 1631 Sir Nicholas Rayn- ton 1632 Ralph Freeman . . 1633 514 Sir Thoinas Moulson 1634 Sir Robert Pack- hui-st 1635 Sir Christopher C/.e- Sir Edward Brom- field 1637 Sir Richard Feun.. 1638 Sir ftlaurice Abbott 1639 Sir Henry Garway 1640 Sir William Acton 16 U Sir Richard Gurney 1642 S ir Isaac Pennington 1643 Sir Jolui WoUaston 1644 Sir Thomas Atkins 1645 Sir Thomas Adams 1646 Sir John Gayre (committed to the Tower) 1647 Sir John Warner . . 1648 Sir Abraham Rey- nardson (commit- ted to the Tower by Parliament).. 1649 Thomas Foote 1650 Thomas Andrews . . 1651 John Keudiek 1652 JohnFowke* 1653 Thomas Vs-ner 1654 Chiistopher Pack. . 1655 John Dethick .... 1656 I Robert Tich borne.. 1657 Richard Chiverton 1658 I Sir John Ireton . . 1659 Sir Tiiomas Alleyne 1660 Sir Richard Browne 1661 Sir John Frederick 1662 Sir John Robinson 1663 ; SLi- Anthony Bate- man 1664 I John Lawrence 1665 I Sir Thomas Blud- | woi-th 1666 Sir William Bolton 1667 Sir WUliam Peake 1668 Sir WiUiam Tm-ner 1669 Sii- Samuel Sterling 1670 Sir Richard Ford . . 1671 Sir George Water- man 1672 Sir Robert Hanson 1H73 Sir William Hooker 1674 Sir Robert Vyner. . 1675 Sir J.,seph Sheldon 1676 Sir Th mas Davies 1677 «ii- Francis Chaplin 1678 Sir James Edwards 1679 Sir Robert Clayton 1680 Sir Patience Ward 1681 Sir John Moore 1682 SirWiUiam Prichard 1683 Sir Heni-y Tulse . . 1684 Sir James Smith . . 1685 Sir R..bert Jeiiej y Sir JoLn Peake.. , Sir -John Shot t^r . . 1688 Sir John Chapman ) Sir Thomas Pil- Vl689 kingtim ) Sir Thomas Pil- kingtou 1690-91 Sir Thomas Stamp 1692 Sir JiAiu Fleet .... 1693 SirWiniamAshurst 1694 Sir TiiOmas Lane . . 1695 Sir John Houblon 1696 Sir Edward Clarke 1697 Sir Hiunphrcy Ed- win 1698 Sir Francis Child . . 1699 Sir Richard Levett 1700 Sir Thomas Abney 1701 Sir WUliam Gore.. 1702 Sir Williiun Dash- wood 1703 Sir John Parsons . . 1704 1687 A.D. Sir Owen Bucking- ham 1705 Sir Thomas Rawliu- son 1706 Sir Robert Beding- field 1707 Sir WUl iam Withers 1708 Sir Charles Dun- cumbe 1709 Sir Samuel Garrard, hart 1710 Sir Gilbert Heath- cote 1711 Sir Robert Beach- croft 1712 Sir Richard Hoare 1713 Sir Samuel Stauier, or Stainer 1714 Sir WiUiam Hum- phreys 1715 Sir Charles Peers . 1716 Sir James Bate- man 1717 Sir William Leweu 1718 Su- John Ward 1719 Sir George Thorold 1720 Sir Jnhn Fryer .... 1721 Sir WUliam Stewart 1722 Sir Gerard Conyers 1723 Sir Peter Delme .. 1724 Sir George Mertins, or Mai tyns 1725 Sir Fi-ancis Forbes 1726 Sir John Eyles 1727 Sir Edward Beecher 1728 SirRobei-tBaylis.. 1729 Sir Richard Brociis 1730 Sii- Humphrey Par- sous 1731 Sir Francis ChUd 1732 John Barber 1733 Sir WjUiam BUlers 1734 Sir Edward Bellamy 17:^5 Sir John Williams 1736 Sir John Thompson 1737 Sir John Barnard. . 1738 Micajalj Perrv .... 1739 Sir John Salter .... 1740 SirHumphrryPar- ■) sous >1741 Daniel Lambert . . 3 Sii- R^ibert God- ) schal V1742 George Heathcote ) Robert Willimot, orWillmot 1743 Sir Robert West lev 1744 Sir Henry Marshall 1745 Sir Richard Hoare 1746 WUliam Benn .... 1747 Sir Robert Ladbroke 1748 Sir WUliam Calvert 1749 Sir Samuel Pen- ■) nant >1750 John Blachford . . ) Francis Cockayne 1751 Thomas Winter- ■) bottom >1762 Robert Alsop ) Sir Ciispe Gascoyne 1753 Edward IrouRide I-,— , Thomas RawUiison J ■^'^■^ Stephen Theodore Janssen 1755 Slingsby BetheU .. 17-56 Marshe Dickinson 1757 Sir Charles ASL'iU.. 1758 Sir Richard Glyn, bart 1759 Sir I homas Chitty 1760 Sir Matthew Blakis- ton 1761 Sir Samuel Fludyer, bart 1762 WUliam Beckford 1763 WiUiam Bridgen . . 1764 A.D. Sir WUliam Stephen- son 1765 George Nelson 1766 Su- Robert Kite.... 1767 Hon. Thomas Harley 1768 Samuel Turner 1769 WUliam Beckford ■),_.„ Barlow Trecothick J^"" Brass Crosby 1771 WUUamNash .... 1772 James Townshend 1773 Frederick Bull .... 1774 John Wilkes 1775 John Sawbrid^e . . 1776 Sir Thomas Hali'ax 1777 Sir James Esdaile. . 1778 Samuel Plumoe . . 1779 Brackley Kennet . . 1780 Sir Wat kin Lewes 1781 Sir WUliam Plomer 1782 Nathaniel Newnhaml783 Rob-rt Peckham .. 1784 Richard Clark .... 1785 Thomas Wright .. 1786 Thomas Sainsbui-y 1787 JohnBurneU 1788 WUliam Gill 1789 WiUiam Pickett . . 1790 JohuBoydeU 1791 John Hopkins 1792 Sir James Sander- son 1793 Paul le Mesuiier . . 1794 Thomas Skinner . . 1795 WiUiam Curtis .... 1796 Sir Brook Watson, bart 1797 Sir John -WUliam Andei-son, bart.. 1798 Sir Richard Carr Glynn, bart 1799 Harvey Christopher Coiimbe 1800 Sir WUliam Staines 1801 Sir John Earner . . 1802 Charles Price 1803 John PeiTing 1804 Peter Perchard .... 1805 Sir James Shaw, bart 1806 Sir WUliam Leigh- ton 1807 John Ainsley 1808 Charles Fluwer 1809 Thomas Smith .... 1810 Joshua Jonathan Smith 1811 Claudius Stephen Hunter 1812 6tori;e Scholey.... 1813 Sir WUliam Dom- vUle 1814 Samuel Birch 1815 Mathew Wood .... 1816 M>.thew Wood .... 1817 Christopher Smith 1818 John Atkius 1819 George bi-ydges 1820 John Thouj.asThoi-pel821 Christopher Maguay 1822 WiUiam Heygate . 1823 Robert Waithman 1824 John Garratt 1825 WUliam Venables 1826 Anthouy Browne.. 1827 Matthias Prime Lucas 1828 WUliam Thompson 1829 J.ihnCrowder 1830 Sii- John Key, bart. 1831 Sir John Key, bart. 1832 Sir Peter Laurie . . 1833 Charles Farebrother 1834 Henry Winchester 1835 WiUiam Taylor ' Copeland 1836 LOR LOR A.D. Thomas Kelly .... 1837 Sir John Cowan, bai-t 1838 Samuel Wilson .... 1839 Sir Chapman Mar- shall, knt 1840 Thomas Johnson . . 1841 John Pirie 1842 John Humphrey . . 1843 Sir William Mag- nay, bart 1844 Michael Gibbs .... 1845 John Johnson .... 1846 Sir George Carroll, knt 1847 John Kinneraley Hooper 1848 Sir James Duke, bt. 1849 Thomas Farucomb 1850 Sir John Musgrove, bart 1851 William Hunter . . 1852 Thomas Challis, M. P.1853 Thomas Sidney .... 1854 Sii' Francis Graham Moon, bart 1855 David Salomons . . 1856 Thomas Quested Fiunis 1857 Sir Robert Walter Garden, bart 1858 David W. Wire.... 1859 James Carter 1860 William Cubitt, M.P 1861 William Cubitt, M.P. (second time) 1862 The term of office commences Nov. 9, in the year preceding the one mentioned in the foregoing Ust. LoBD Mayor (Dublin). — The title of Lord was first assumed }>j the Mayors of Dubhn A.D. 1665. In the following list the date of their election to the office is given. ICED MAYOES OF DXJBLIX. A.D. Sir Daniel Belling- ham 1665 John Desmyniers 1666 Mark Quin 1667 John Forrest 1668 Lewis Desmyniers 1669 Enoch Reader 1670 Sir John Totty .... 1671 Robert Deey 1672 Sir- Joshua Allen . . 1673 Sir Francis Bj-e wster 1674 William Smith .... 1675 Christopher Lovet 1676 John Smith 1677 Peter Ward 1678 Johu Eastwood.... 1679 LukeLowther 1680 Sir Humphrey Jervis 1681 Sir HumphreyJervis 1682 SirEliasBesc 1683 Sir Abel Ram 1684 Sir Johu Kuox .... 1685 Sir John Castleton 1686 Sir Thomas Haokft 1687 Sir Michael Creagh 1688 Terence M'Dermolt 1689 Johu Otriiigton 1690 Sir Michael Mitchell 1691 Sir Michael Mitchell 1692 Sir John Koareison 1693 Georg-. Blackball . . 1694 WUliam Watts .. 1695 SirWiUiamBiUing- ton 1696 Bart. Van Homrigh 1697 Thomas Quin 1698 Thomas Quin 1699 Sir Mark Rainsford 1700 Samuel Walton 1701 Thomas Bell 1702 John Page 1703 Sir Francis Stoyte 1704 Williams Gibbon . . 1705 Benjamin Burton. . 1706 John Pearson 1707 Sir William Fownes 1708 Charles Forrest 1709 Sir Johu Eccles 1710 Ralph Gore 1711 Sir Samuel Cooke . . 1712 Sir Samuel Cooke.. 1713 Sir James Barlow. . 1714 515 A.D. John Stoyte 1715 Ihomas Bolton 1716 Anthony Barkey . . 1717 William Quail 1718 Thomiis Wilkinson 1719 George Forbes 1720 Thomas Curtis .... 1721 William Dickson . . 1722 John Porter 1723 John Reyson 1724 Joseph Kane 1725 William Empson . . 1726 Sir JSIathaniel Whit- well 1727 Henry Burrowes and John Page . . 1728 Sir Peter Verdoen 1729 Nathaniel Pearson 1730 Joseph Niittall 1731 Humphiey French 1732 Thomas How 1733 Nathaniel Kaue . . 1734 Sir Richard G rattan and George Forbes 1735 James Someiville. . 1736 WilUam Walker .. 1737 John Macarroll 1738 Daniel Falkiner . . 1739 Sir Samuel Cooke.. 1740 William Aldrich .. 1741 Gilbert King 1742 David Tew and WUliam Aldrich 1743 JohnWalkt-r 1744 Daniel Cooke 1745 Richard White and William Walker 1746 Sir George Ribtun 1747 Robert Ross 1748 John Adamson .... 1749 Thomas Taylor .... 1750 John Cooke 1751 Sir Charles Burton 1752 Andrew Murray . . 1753 Haus Bailie 1754 Percival Hunt .... 1755 John Forbes 1756 Thomas Mead 1757 Pnilip Ciamijton .. 1758 John Tew 1759 Sir Patrick HamU- ton 1760 A.D. Sir Timothy AUen 1761 Charles Rossell .... 1762 William Fo.bes 1763 Benjamin Geale . . 1764 Sir James Taylor . . 1765 Edward Sankey . . 1766 Francis Featherston 1767 Benjamin Barton . . 1768 Sir Thomas Black- ball 1769 George Reynolds . . 1770 Francis Booker and William Forbes 1771 Richard French . . 1772 William Ivightburne 1773 Henry Hart 1774 Thomas Emerson . . 1775 Henry Bevan 1776 William Dunn .... 1777 Sir Anthony King 1778 James Halnilton . . 1779 Killuer Swettenham 1780 John Durragh 1781 Nathaniel Warren 1782 Thomas Green 1783 James Horan 1784 James Shiel 1785 George Alcock .... 1786 William Alexander 1787 John Rose 1788 John Exshaw 1789 Henry Howison . . 1790 Henry Gore Sankey 1791 John Carl eton .... 1792 William James 1793 Richard Moncrieffe 1794 Sir William Worih- iugton 1795 Samuel Read 1796 Thomas Fleming . . 1797 Thomas Andi-ews.. 1798 John Sutton and John Exshaw 1799 Charles Thoip 1800 Richard Manders . . 1801 Jacob Poole 1802 Heniy Hutton 1803 Meredith Jeukin . . 1804 James Vance 1805 Joseph Pemberton 1806 Hugh Trevor 1807 Frederick Darley . . 1808 Sir William Stamer, bart 1809 Nathaniel Hone .. 1810 William Heniy Archer 1811 Abraham Bradley King 1812 John Cash 1813 John Claudius Beres- ford 1814 I Robert Shaw 1815 I AD. Mark Bloxham 1816 John Alley 1817 Thomas M'Keuny.. 1818 Sir William Stamer, bait 1819 Sir Abraham Brad- ley King, bart. . . 1820 Sir John Kingston James, bart 1821 John Smyth Flem- ing 1822 Richard Smyth 1823 Drury Jones 1824 Thomas Abbot 1825 Samuel William Tyndall 1826 Sir Edmund Nugent 1827 Alexander Mont- gomery 1828 Jacob West 1829 Sir Robert W. Har- ty, bart 1830 Sir Thomas Whelan , knt 1831 Charles Palmer Archer 1832 Sir George White- ford, kut 1833 Arthur Perrin .... 1834 Arthur Moriison . . 1833 William Hodges .. 1836 Samuel Warren. . . . 1837 George Hoyle 1838 Sir Nicholas Wil- liam Brady, knt. 1839 Sir John Kingston James, bai-t 1840 Dan. O'Connell, M. P. 1841 Dan. 0'ComieU,M.P. 1842 George Rue 184:} Timothy O'Brien . . 1844 John L Ai-abin .... 1845 John Keshan 1846 Michael Staunton.. 1847 Jeremiah Dunne . . 1848 Timothy O'Brien, M.P 1849 John Reynolds, M.P. 1850 Benjamin Lee Guin- ness 1851 Johu D'Arcy 1852 Robert Heniy Kiua- han 1853 Sir Edward M'Don- nel.. 18.54 Joseph Boyce 18.53 Fergus Farrell 1856 Richard Atkinson 1857 John Camp el .... 1858 James Lambe it 1859 Reilmoud Carroll . . 1860 Richard Atkinson . . 1861 Denis Moylan 1862 Jjoeds. (See House of Loeds, and Peers.) Lords Justices. — Persons under diiferent titles have been appointed by various English kings since the Norman Conquest, to act as their substitutes in the government of part or the whole of their kingdom when absent, or under other exceptional circumstances. WilHam I. appointed Odo, of Bayeux, and Wilham Fitz-Osbern, earl of Hereford, cus- todes regni, or guardians of the realm, on his departure for Normandy, in Lent, 1067. Seven persons were appointed as lords justices by 4 & 5 Anne, c. 20 (1705), and by 6 Anne, c. 41 (1707) ; and, on the death of Queen Anne, Aug. 1, 1714, eighteen persons acted with the lords justices untU the arrival of George I. 2 L 2 LOE from HaBOTer. George I. intrusted the go- vernment to thirteen lords justices, on quit- ting the kingdom in May, 1719; the same course was pursued during his visits to the continent, in 1720, 1723, 1725, and 1727. George II., during the hfetime of Queen CaroEne, left her as regent when he went abroad, and after her death, appointed lords justices during such absence. George III. never quitted the kingdom ; but George IV., on setting out for Hanover, in September, 1821, intrusted the administration of affairs to nineteen lords justices. 'No such appoint- ment has been made during the temporary absence of Queen Victoria from her kingdom ; and in reply to questions asked in parha- ment in 1843, ministers declared that it was not deemed necessary to nominate either a regent, or lords justices. LoEDS Justices of Appeal (Court of Chancery). By 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83, passed Aug. 7, 1851, power was given to the queen to appoint two barristers, of not less than fifteen years' standing, to be judges of the Court of Appeal in Chancery, and, with the lord chancellor, to form such Court of Appeal. They were to be styled lords justices, and the power exercised by the lord chancellor in the Court of Chancery was, from Oct. 1, 1851, transferred to this new court. LoKDS or Aeticles (Scotland), a com- mittee of the Scottish parliament, abohshed in 1690. LoBD Stewaed gethe Hoxtsehold.— This office has the supreme control of the royal household. The post is one of great dignity, and was instituted at a very early dat«. By 8 Hen. VII. c. 14 (1486), the lord steward was empowered to hold a court for the trial of treasons committed by members of the royal household, and by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1541), this jurisdiction was extended to all cases of quarrelling and striking within the palace. This authority was abohshed by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 1, 1849). By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 39 (1540), the office of lord steward was changed to that of great master of the king's house. It was restored by 1 Mary, session 3, c. 4 (1553). LoEETO (Italy). — This town, near Ancona, is celebrated for the Santa-Casa, or Holy House, which is said to be that in which the Virgin Mary was born, the scene of the Anmmciation and of the Incarnation, a^pd the retreat of the Holy Family, on their re- turn from Egypt, April, b.c. 3. According to the legend, the Santa-Casa was conveyed by angels from Nazareth to a hill near Fiiime, in Dalmatia, a.d. 1291, and thence to a laurel grove called Lauretta, from its owner, in 1294. Such is the origin of the name of the town that has grown up around the sanc- tuary. The wealth of the place proved a temptation to the Turkish corsairs, and Sixtus V. fortified it in 1586. The French, under Marmont, took possession of Loreto Feb. 12, 1797, and carried the lady of Loreto to Paris. The image was, however, restored April 8, 1802. L'OEiEifx (France) .-.-Louis XIV, granted 516 LOT the French East-India Company pennission to estabhsh magazines and docks in the Bay of St. Louis, A.D. 1666. The building of the town commenced in 1720 ; it was incorporated in 1738, and fortified in 1744. An EngUsh force, under General Sinclair, landed here Sept. 20, 1746, but waspbhgedto re-embark on the 28th. On the dissolution of the French East-India Company, in 1770, the French government made L' Orient one of the stations of their navy. LoEEAiiTE (France) was conquered by Clovis A.D. 491, and apportioned to Lothaire II., receiving from him the name of Lotharin- gia, or Lothair-regne, the kingdom of Lo- thaire, A.D. 855. It was erected into a duchy in 916. France and Germany contended for its possession, and agreed to divide it between them in 960. The Alsatian line of dukes, founded by Albert of Alsace 1044, continued in power till the duchy was annexed to the French crown. By the treaty of Vienna, concluded Nov. 18, 1738, the duchy of Tus- cany was exchanged for the duchies of Lor- raine and Bar, which were ceded to Stanislaus Leczinski during his hfe. He died Feb. 3, 1766, and Lorraine was reunited to France. LoTTEET. — The Congiaria of the ancient Eomans bore some resemblance to the mo- dern lottery, and formed a feature in the amusements of the Saturnaha, the emperors also employing them to secure the favour of the people. In this manner Augustus distri- buted gifts, B.C. 30 ; Nero, a.d. 54—68 ; and Elagabulus, 218 — 222. Florence appears to have been the first country in Europe in which a lottery was established, the emergen- cies of the state having been met by such a device A.D. 1530. Lotteries passedfrom Italy into France, under the name of blanques, and were legahzed by Francis I. in 1539. In the years 1572 and 1588 the duke de Nivernois instituted a lottery at Paris for providing marriage portions to young women belonging to his estates. The lottery received such high approval from the pope, that he granted to its supporters the remission of their sins. The disposal of merchandise by this means, which had become common, was prohibited in January, 1658 ; and all private lotteries were forbidden, under severe penalties, in 1661, 1670, 1681, 1687, and 1700. _ The name lottery, common in Italy, was first used in France about 1658. The first lottery in England was proposed in 1567 and 1568, and was drawn at the west door of St. Paul's Cathedral, day and night, from Jan. 11 to May 6, 1659. The profit was devoted to the repair of harbours. Another was drawn for the benefit of the Virginian Company in 1612. Lotteries were suspended in 1620, on the ground of their immoral tendency. A lot- tery was, however, permitted in 1680, to aid a project for supplying the metropolis with water. Charles II. used them after the re- storation in 1660, to reward his adherents. A loan of £1,000,000 was raised by govern- ment on the sale of tickets in 1694 ; another of £3,000,000 in 1746 ; and another of £1,000,000 in 1747. For a short period in LOU the reign of Queen Anne they were prohi- bited. In 1778 an act requiring an annual licence, at a cost of £50, to be taken out, re- duced the number of offices from 400 to 51 ; and they were altogether abohshed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60 (1826) ; the last pubhc lottery having been drawn Oct. 18, 1826. An act imposing a penalty of £50 for advertising them (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 66), was passed Aug. 13, 1836. A lottery was drawn at Osnaburg in 1521 ; one at Amsterdam, for building a church- steeple, in 1549 ; one at Delft in 1595 ; and one at Hamburg, to erect a house of correc- tion, in 1615. The first at Nuremberg was drawn in 1715 ; and at Berhn in July, 1740. The famous Italian or Genoese lottery was introduced by a member of the senate of Genoa, named Benedetto Gentile, in 1620. It was forbidden by Benedict XIII. (1724^ 1730) ; but Clement XII. (1730—1740) estab- lished it at Eome ; and it was thence intro- duced into Germany, the first having been drawn at Berlin, Aug. 31, 1763. A lottery existed in the prineipahty of Anspach and Bayreuth, from 1769 to 1788 ; and one at Neufchatel in 1774 became bankrupt. Lot- teries were legalized in the United States by act of congress in 1776, but are said to be now suppressed in the north. The art unions in England, involving the same principle as the lottery, originated at Edinburgh in 1836. Loudon Hill, (Battle,) was fought near Drumclog (q.v.), June 1, 1679. Louisa (Order of). — This Prussian order was created Aug. 3, 1814, for the reward of women who had rendered services in hos- pitals to the sufferers in the war of 1813 and 1814. LouiSBOUEG- (Cape Breton) . — The EngHsh estabhshed themselves here April 30, 1745, wresting the town from the French July 17, 1745. It was restored by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, Oct. 7 (O.S.), 1748, retaken by the English July 26, 1758, and was finally ceded to Great Britain by the 4th article of the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Louis d'ok. — This piece of money was first coined in the reign of Louis XIII., a.d. 1641, and ceased to be a legal coin in France in 1726. Louis XVIII. re-established this gold coin on his return to Paris in 1814. It has been replaced by the Napoleon. Those coined previous to 1726 are also called Louis-blancs and Louis d' argent. Louis, Foet (Africa) , on the banks of the river Senegal, was captured by an English force April 22, 1758. Fort Louis, in Guada- loupe, was taken Feb. 13, 1759. LouisiADE Islands (Pacific). — This group was discovered by Bourgainville, A.D. 1768. Louisiana (North America ). — This country, said to have been, discovered by the French in 1673, was named after Louis XIV. by D'IberviUe, a Frenchman, who formed the first settlement a.d. 1699. A charter was granted to the colony in 1712. The company formed by Law's Mississippi scheme received the territory in 1717, and in 1762 it was ceded to Spain. Transferred LOV to the French in 1800, it was sold to the United States government for 15,000,000 dollars in 1803. Louisiana was admitted into the Union in 1812, and it seceded from the union in 1860. Louis, St. (Missouri), was founded a.d. 1764. The university was founded by the Koman Catholics in 1832. Louisville (Kentucky) was founded A.D. 1773, and was erected into a town in 1780. Loua?H (Ireland) . — This county, conquered by De Courcey a.d. 1179 — 1180, was made a county by King John in 1210, and included in the province of Leinster some time in the reign of Ehzabeth. LouvAiN (Belgium), said to have been founded by Julius Caesar, was walled a.d. 1156. It gave employment to 150,000 weavers in the 14th century, large numbers of whom having been banished, emigrated to England in 1382. The Austrian governor, Don John, received the submission of the inhabitants in 1577 ; and a French revolutionary force mastered the place in 1792. The castle was built about 900, and the cathedral of St. Pierre, founded in 1040, was completed in 1358. The guildhall was built in 1317 ; the university, established in 1423, was attended by 6,000 students in the 16th century ; and the town-hall was built in 1448. LouviEBS (France) . — Here Eichard I. con- cluded a treaty, which was soon broken, with Philip Augustus of France, a.d. 1196. Henry Y, captured this town in 1418, and the French recovered it in 1450. The duke of Bedford having taken it after a long siege in 1451, razed it to the ground. The town was rebuilt, and the manufacture of cloth, for which it is celebrated, commenced in 1680. LouvBE (Paris) . — The early history of the Louvre is lost in obscurity. St. Foix says King Dagobert kept his horses and hounds in a building on its site about a.d. 627. Philip Augustus repaired the edifice in 1204, converted it into a state prison, and built a large tower, which is now one of the oldest parts of the edifice. About the middle of the 14th century it was used as a residence for foreign princes visiting the king. Charles VI. lived there about 1380, but afterwards quitted it for the Tuileries. Francis I. commenced the present edifice in 1528. Charles IX., dur- ing the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572, is said to have fired on the retreating Huguenots from one of the windows. Charles IX. and other kings made great additions, particularly Louis XIV., who laid the first stone of the facade from designs by Bernini, on the 17th October, 1665. Louis XV. in 1719 lived here. Napoleon I. made it a museum; in his reign the magnificent buildings of the new Louvre were begun, and were finished, and inaugurated by Napoleon III. Aug. 14, 1857. The Louvre was assailed during the revolution of July, 1830. The museum of sculptures, com- menced in 1797, was opened under the name of the Musee Napoleon in 1803. LovAi's Eebellion. — Simon Eraser, 517 LOV afterwards Lord Lovat, was despatched from St. Germains by the son of James II. for the purpose of attempting a rising in Scotland, where he landed towards the end of 1702. Having betrayed his trust, he returned to France in 1703, was thrown into the Bastille, and remained a prisoner there till 1708. He returned to Scotland, drove the Pretender's forces out of In- verness, jS'ov. 15, 1715, and held it for the government. For aiding the cause of Prince Charles Edward, he was sent to the Tower June 17, 1746; brought to trial March 9, 1747 ; and beheaded on Tower-hiU April 9, 1747. Love-Feasts. (See AGAPiE.) LowosiTz, or LoBosiTZ, (Battle), was fought between the Austrians and Prussians at this place in Bohemia, Oct. 1, 1756. Each of the combatants claimed the victory, but the Austrians were compelled to retire. Low SuKDAY. — The first Sunday after Easter received this name, according to Hone, because the church service was lovj- ered from the pomp of the festival of the preceding Sunday. It was also called Quasi Modo, from the first words of the hymn, or mass on that day. Dominica in Albis is also another title for this day. LoTALTT LoAK. — This term is apphed to a loan raised by the patriotic feehng of the country between Dec. 1 — 5, 1796, when £18,000,000 were subscribed in a few hours, and hundreds went away disappointed at being too late to contribute their share. LuBECK (Germany) was founded a.d. 1140, ceded to the dukes of Saxony in 1158, and made a free imperial city in 1226, when the Danish garrison was expelled. It be- came the head of the Hanseatic League in 1241. Blucher threw himself into the town to avoid the French army, when it was car- ried by assault, and suffered a three days' pillage, November, 1806. It was annexed to the empire Nov. 12, 1810, and regained its freedom after the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 19, 1813. Its cathedral was founded in 1170, and finished in 1341 ; the Marien-Kirche was built in 1304, and the Kaath-haus in 1442. LtJBECK, (Treaty), was concluded at this town, between the emperor and the king of Deranark, May 22, 1629. Lublin (Poland) . — This town was ravaged by the Mongols a.d. 1241. A treaty was signed here in 1569, for the incorporation of Lithuania with Poland. Ltjcania (Italy), settled by the Samnites about B.C. 420, and rose into such import- ance that a league was formed against it by the cities of Magna Grsecia B.C. 393. A great battle resulted in the triumph of the Lucanians, B.C. 390, and the younger Diony- sius concluded a treaty with them B.C. 358. The Lucanians were reduced to subjection by the Eomans, B.C. 272, and in the civil war between Marius and Sylla, b.c. 88, their nationahty was extinguished. Ltjcab, St. (Spain). — Christopher Colum- bus landed here from his fourth voyage, in December, 1504. Magelhaens sailed from this 518 LUC port on the first voyage round the world, Sept. 20 or 21, 1519, and one of the ships belonging to the expedition returned Sept. 6, 1522. Lfcatos Islands. {See Bahama.) Lucca (Italy), the chief town of the duchy of that name, is mentioned by Livy as having given shelter to the consul Sempronius, when he retired before Han- nibal, B.C. 218. Subsequently it fell into the hands of the Ligvu'ians, and became a Koman colony B.C. 177. A meeting of two hundred senators, including Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, was held here B.C. 56 ; and by virtue of the Lex Julia it was made a muni- cipal town B.C. 49. Narses the eunuch took it, after a long siege, a.d. 553. It became a Lombard duchy in 572 ; was conquered by Arnulf in 895 ; and, having acquired its independence, joined the league of the GhibeUines in 1262. Pisa commenced hos- tihtiss against it in 1341, to prevent its union with Florence, and it submitted to that town in 1342. The inhabitants paid 300,000 florins to Charles IV. for their freedom in 1370. Pope Urban VI., offended at the Genoese, honoured Lucca with his presence in 1386 ; and Gregory XII. made it his residence in 1408, previous to taking refuge in Venice. It was besieged by the Florentines in 1430, and was the place selected for a conference between the em- peror Charles V. and Paul III., Sept. 10, 1541. The French took it in March, 1799 ; it was bestowed by Bonaparte on his sister Ehse, June 23, 1805, and annexed to Tuscany Oct. 11, 1847. The market-place is formed from an ancient amphitheatre. The church of St. Fredianus was founded in the 7th century; St. Michael's was built of white marble in 764. The church of St. Eomanus was founded in the 8th century ; the cathedral by Pope Alexander in 1060 ; and the old town-hall, now a poor- house, in 1413. The Academy of Letters and Sciences was instituted in 1817 ; the fine aqueduct by Nottolini was commenced in 1815, and finished in 1832. Lucca formed part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. LucENA (Spain). — The Moors besieged this city April 21, 1483, and, having been defeated by the Spaniards in a great battle under its walls, retired \ LucEEA (Italy), the ancient Luceria, was, ■ according to tradition, founded by Diomedes about B.C. 1184. It allied itself with the Eomans B.C. 326, who dehvered it from the power of the Samnites B.C. 320. Constans II. took the city from the Lombards, and de- stroyed it, A.D. 663 ; and in 1227 it was restored by the emperor Frederick II. A mosque, built by the Saracens, was converted into the present cathedral a.d. 1269, LucEENE (Switzerland). — This canton joined the Swiss confederation a.d. 1332. The town of the same name was surrounded by towers a.d. 1385. A treaty between the French and the Swiss was concluded here May 5, 1521. Incited by the French, the inhabitants rose in revolt in 1798. The LUC town was retaken by the Federal forces Dec. 16, 1813. The g;overnment having determined to intrust the Jesuits with the education of the young, an attack was made on the place by a large body of Pro- testants, Dec. 8, 1844:. The monument to the Swiss Guards who defended the Tuileries against the Parisian mob, Aug. 10, 1792, was erected in 1821. Lucia, St. (West Indies). — This island was first colonized by the British a.d. 1639. The settlers were expelled by the Caribs, and the French planted a colony in 1650. It was the cause of many contests between the French and Enghsh. The latter took it in February, 1762 ; again Dec. 14, 1778 ; again May 25, 1796, and finaUy June 22, 1803. The capitulation was signed June 30. LuciFERiANS, the followers of Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, a zealous opponent of the Arians. Having been sent to espouse the cause of Athanasius at the council of Milan, a.d. 355, he was so violent in his conduct that Constantine banished him. After going from place to place, he at length retired to Sardinia in 363, and founded the sect that bears his name. He died in 370, and the sect disappeared soon afterwards. Lucifer Matches superseded the more costly and less convenient Eupyrions and Prometheans a.d. 1832. The splint-cutting machine employed in their manufacture was patented by Partridge in 1842. LucKNOW (Hindostan), with Oude, the province of which it is the capital, was con- quered by the Mohammedans about a.d. 1300. The nabob was defeated in an engagement with the English, Oct. 22, 1764. The city was made the residence of the court in 1775, and was, with the territory, annexed to the British possessions in India, March 16, 1856. Symptoms of disaifection amongst the native soldiers manifested themselves May 1, 1857, and the place was invested by the rebels July 1, 1857. It was reheved by General Havelock and Sir James Outram, Sept. 25, 1857, and by Sir Cohn Campbell on Nov. 17, 1857. The Enghsh retired Nov. 22, 1857, and Sir Cohn Campbell recaptvured it March 21, 1858. LTJ9oiir, (Treaty,) for the pacification of La Vendee, was concluded at this town Jan. 17, 1800. Luddites, so called from a mythical Captain Ludd, under whose authority they professed to act, commenced their riots at Nottingham in opposition to the application of improved machinery to stocking-weaving, Nov. 10, 1811. On the 11th they attacked the house of a manufacturer at Bullwell, and destroyed its contents. They extended their operations into Derby and Leicester, where many frames were destroyed in the month of December. In consequence of the serious aspect matters had assumed, a bill was intro- duced into parliament Feb. 14, 1812, for the purpose of adding new legal powers to those already existing for their suppression. It was during the debate on this biU that Lord LUN Byron dehvered his maiden speech in the House of Lords, opposing it with great vehe- mence. The prince-regent sent a message to both houses of parhament June 27, 1812, caUing upon them to take proper measures for the restoration of order, as the combina- tions had become more powerful, subjected themselves to mihtary training, and were bound by an oath of secrecy and confe- deration. A new biU was accordingly brought in, and passed July 24, its operation being limited to March 25, 1814. A military force was assembled, and the local militia called out, for the protection of life and pro- perty. Fourteen of the ringleaders were executed at York, Jan. 10, 1813. After a temporary inactivity the Luddites recom- menced their nefarious proceedings in May, 1814. LuGDUifUM (Battle). — Albinus, at the head of a British army, was defeated and slain by Severus near Lugdunimi, now Lyons, a.d. 197. Lttgo (Italy) . — This town was taken and pillaged by the French in 1796. The unfor- tunate inhabitants were put to the sword. Ltjn^a (Etruria) . — The Romans established a colony at this place, the modern Luni, B.C. 177. The Normans plundered it a.d. 857, and it afterwards feU into decay. Benedict VIII. repulsed the Saracens here in 1016. Lunatic Asylums. — The public exhibi- tion of patients at Old Bethlem Asylum, Moorfields, London, was prohibited in 1771. In 1792 Piriel introduced the non-restraint system into the Bicetre, at Paris ; but it was not until after the revelation of the enormities practised at the York Asy- lum, made by Mr. Higgins in 1813, that it was adopted in England. It was tried at Lincoln in 1837, and proved so successful in its operation that it was introduced at Hanwell in 1839, and shortly afterwards in other important establishments. Provisions for the erection of county asylums were made by 48 Geo. III. c. 96 (June 23, 1808), which was amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 41 (July 15, 1828). This act was repealed by 8 &9 Vict. c. 126 (Aug. 8, 1845), which was explained and amended by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 84 (Aug. 26, 1846), and by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 43 (June 25, 1847) . The laws respecting lunatic asvlums in England were finally consolidated arid amended by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 20, 1853) . County asylums were ordered to be erected in Ireland by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 33 (May 28, 1821), and in Scotland they are regulated by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 89 (Aug. 2, 1858). Lunatics. — Formerly a legal distinction existed between a lunatic and an idiot, the former being a person who had lost the use of reason, which he once possessed ; the latter, one who had no understanding from the day of his birth. By the Roman law, persons of unsound mind might be deprived of the management of their property on applica- tion to the praetor by the next of kin. The custody of idiots and of their lands, for- merly vested in the lord of the fee, was, by 519 LUN 17Edw. II. c. 19 (1323), made a prerogative of the crown. Byl7Edw. II. c. 10 (132i),the king was to provide for the custody and susten- tation of lunatics, and to preserve their lands and the profits of them for their use, when they came to their right mind. Various laws ou the subject are found in the statute-book. Ey 15 Geo. II. c. 30 (17-i2), the marriage of lunatics was declared illegal. AH existing laws on lunacv were consohdated and amended by 16 & 17 Yict. c. 70 (Aug. 15, 1853) . The law of lunacy in Scotland has been amended, and is regulated by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 71 (Aug. 25, 1857), which came into operation Jan. 1, 1858. This act was amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c, 89 (Aug. 2, 1858). LuifAWABA (Hidostan), the chief tovni of the principahty of the same name, was freed from the tribute paid by its rajah to Scindia, by a treaty concluded with theBritish govern- ment Dec. 30, 1303. It was, however, re- imposed in 1806, and Scindia ceded his right to supremacy over the rajah in 1819. LuxD (Sweden) was a considerable city before the introduction of Christianity, a.d. 830. The Scandinavian pirate kings were elected here. Its cathedral was founded in the 12th century ; the university by Chris- tian I. in 1479, the present structure having been erected in 1668. Puffendorif filled a professorial chair in this university in 1670 ; and Linnaeus matriculated here in 1727. LujfD Hill (Yorkshire). — An explosion of gas took place at a colliery here Feb. 19, 1857. K'o less than 189 persons lost their lives on this occasion, and the first body was not recovered until April 10. LtrifDT Island (Bristol Channel). — This j island, oft" the coast of Devonshire, was fortified by Morisco, a pirate, in the begin- \ ning of the 13th century. It was held for Charles I. during the parUamentary wars j A.D. 1643. It was sold for about £9,400 in 1840. j LuNKViLLE (France) , ofily a village pre- : vious to the 11th century, was afterwards fortified, and during the wars between the dukes of Burgundy and Lorraine sustained several sieges. The French captui'ed it in 1638, and destroyed the fortifications. Leo- pold, duke of Lorraine, built a palace at ! LuneviUe in the 18th century. j LxJM-ETiLLE, (Treaty), was concluded at 1 Luneville, in France, between the French republic and the emperor of Germany, : February 9, 1801, and consisted of nineteen articles. "Many of these explained, and others \ confirmed, the provisions of the treaty of ; Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. The Ehine, ; as far as Holland, was made the boundary of France, and the independence of the Bata- i vian, Cisalpine, Helvetic, and Ligurian re- | publics was recognized. LupERCALiA. — This annual festival, es- tabhshed at Eonie at an early period, in honour of Eomulus and Eemus, and so called from lupi(,s, a wolf, the animal re- corded to have §uckled them, was observed on the 15th of February. Augustus endea- voured to restrain the licence of this festival, 520 LUT which was altogether abolished a.d. 493. The place where the priests of Pan assembled was called Luperca. Ltjsatia (Germany). — This ancient mar- graviate, made a marquisate by Henry I., A.D. 931, was converted to Christianity by Otho I., A.D. 968. It was annexed to Bohe- mia in 1370, and ceded to Saxony by the treaty of Prague in 1635 . The greater portion of Lusatia was assigned to Prussia by the treaty of Vienna, June 9, 1815. LusiAD. — This epic poem, commenced by Camoens at Santarem about a.d. 1547, and continued at intervals in Africa and India, was pubhshed at Lisbon in 1572. An edition translated into EngUsh by Eichard Fau- shawe, was pubhshed at London in 1655; and another by Mckle in 1776. LusTEUir.— This expiatory sacrifice, per- formed by one of the Eoman censors at the end of every five years, was instituted by Servius Tullius B.C. 566. LuTHEEANs, the term applied to the followers of Martin Luther, born at Eisleben, in Thuringia, Xov. 10, 1483. The majority of the German Protestants are Lutherans. At an early age Luther became acquainted with the views disseminated by WychtFe and •lohn Huss, and is said to have' received those impressions which ultimately induced him to separate from the Church of Eome, whilst on a visit to the Eternal City, whither he had been sent on business a.d. 1510. At Wittenberg, where he filled the theological chair, Tetzel, the legate of Pope Leo, arrived to raise money by the sale of indul- gences; whereupon Luther drew up his famous ninety-five theses, condemning the abuse of indulgences, and he transmitted a copy of them to the archbishop of Magde- burg, Oct. 31, 1517. Summoned to appear before Cardinal Cajetan at Augsburg, after several confereuces Luther appealed " from the pope iU informed to the pope better in- formed," November 28, 1518. After a con- ference with MOitz, in January, 1519, ha viTote an explanatory and submissive letter to the pope, March 3, 1519. In a disputation at Leipsic he denied the pope's supremacy, June 27, 1519. He published an address to the emperor and the Christian nobility of Germany in June, 1520. A buU against himself and his writings was issued by Eck in August ; and in the same month Luther's treatise on the Babylonian captivity of the Church appeared, denouncing the papacy as the kingdom of Babylon and antichrist. In October he had a conference with Militz, an,d having been excommunicated, he de- stroyed the buU before an immense mul- titude, Dec. 10, 1520. At the diet of Worms he maintained his opinions, April 16, 1521, and an edict was consequently issued commanding his apprehension and the destruction of his writings. May 8, 1521. He was conveyed to Wartburg, under the pro- tection of Frederick, elector of Saxony, where he began his translation of the Bible into German, completing the New Testa- ment in 1521. Luther came to Wittenberg, Lt)T LYC where religious disturbances had arisen, and j restored order in 1522. Luther abandoned j the monastic Hfe, and his monastery being deserted, was given into the hands of the \ elector, a.d. 1524. In the same year a | league of German princes was formed to | check the progress of his opinions, which had | spread over Switzerland, found entrance [ into Scotland, and were adopted as the | national faith in Sweden and Denmark, ; 1524. Luther married Catherine de Bora, i a nun who had left her convent, a.d. 1525, I in which year many of his followers were burned as heretics. His Liturgy and Order of Divine Worship was pubhshed in 1526 ; in 1530 he presented the Articles | of Torgau to the elector of Saxony. At | the diet of Augsburg the Protestants read their celebrated " Confession," June 25, 1530. A complete edition of Luther's trans- lation of the Bible, in three foUo volumes, was published in 1534. A league called the Holy AUiance was formed at Nuremberg, ! between the emperor and the Roman \ Catholic princes, for eleven years, against the I Protestants, June 10, 1538. Luther died at Eisleben, Feb. 17, 1546. ' LuTZEN (Battles). — The Swedes, com- manded by Gustavus Adolphus, who lost his hfe in the battle, gained an important victory over the Austrians, under Wallen- stein, at this place, Nov. 6, 1632 a.d. Napoleon I. defeated the Prussians and Russians in an engagement fought here May 2, 1813. LuxEMBUEG (Belgium and Holland) was ceded to Siegfried by the monastery of Treves, and created a county a.d. 965. The emperor Charles IV. erected it into a duchy in 1354. It came to Philip of Bur- gundy by his marriage with Isabella, daughter of the king of Portugal, in 1443, and through him passed to the house of Spain, with whom it remained tiU the peace of the Pyrenees, when part of it was ceded to France, Nov. 7, 1659. France took entire possession in 1795, and it passed to Holland in exchange for certain German principahties in 1814. In consequence of the Belgian revolution, Luxemburg was dismembered, and a portion was assigned to Belgium by the conference of London, October, 1831. Luxemburg (Holland). — This town, for- merly the capital of the old duchy, and now of Dutch Luxemburg, was taken by the Span- iards from the duke of Orleans, a.d. 1542; by Francis I. in 1543 ; and was captured by Charles V. May, 1544. Louis XIV. blockaded it in 1681, but withdrew, on the protest of the European powers, in 1682. It was ceded to him by the treaty of Ratisbon in 1684, and restored at the peace of Ryswick, Sept. 4, 1697. Having been besieged by the French, xmder General Hatry, it capitulated, after its supphes were nearly exhausted, June 7, 1795. It was taken by the allies in 1813, and was surrendered by the terms of the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. As a fortress it was stipulated, in the treaty of Vienna, that it should be held by the German confederation, Feb. 3, 1815. The fortifica- tions have been greatly strengthened since 1830. A projecting rock called Le Bouc has been hollowed out, and contains casemates for 4,000 men. LuxoB, or El-Uksue (Egypt), was built by Amenophis Memnon, one of the Pharaohs who reigned during the sojourn of the Israehtes in Egypt, about b.c. 1518. Seve- ral chambers and columns were added to the temple by Amenoph III., B.C. 1327. The sculptures on the wings of the portals repre- sent occurrences in the reign of Rameses Miamum, B.C. 1556. The temple was plun- dered by the Persians B.C. 520 ; and one of the massive obelisks of red granite was removed by the French a.d. 1831, and set up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, in 1836. Luxury was carried to excess amongst the Romans during the latter period of the Republic and under the Empire. Gibbon declares that the most remote coxmtries of the ancient world were ransacked to supply the pomp and delicacy of Rome, and, in conomenting upon a passage in Tacitus, remarks -. "It was a complaint worthy of the gravity of the senate, that, in the purchase of female ornaments, the wealth of the state was irrevocably given away to foreign and hostile nations. The annual loss is computed, by a writer of an inqui- sitive but censorious temper, at upwards of £800,000 sterhng." CaUgula is said to have served up pearls of great value, dissolved in vinegar, about a.d. 31. In 1340 Charles VI. of France issued an edict to restrain men from partaking of more than soup and two dishes. Various measures for the restraint of luxury are found in our statute-book. By 10 Edw. III. St. 3 (1336), all classes were prohibited from having more than two courses at any meal, excepting at certain stated festivals. This statute was repealed by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 64 (July 21, 1856). The diet and apparel of each class of the com- munity were regulated by 37 Edw. III. c. 8 — 14 (1363), and many subsequent acts, all of which were repealed by 1 James I. c. 25 (1604). Ltceium. — In this celebrated school at Athens, dedicated to Apollo Lyceius, Aris- totle and his disciples taught while walking about, and their philosophy from that cir- cumstance is called the peripatetic. Plulip, son of Demetrius, during his invasion of Attica, destroyed the trees of the Lyceium, B.C. 200. Lyceum Theatbe (London), called also the Enghsh Opera-house, derives its name from an academy built a.d. 1765. It was converted into a theatre in 1790, and into an English opera-house in 1809. The theatre was destroyed by fire Feb. 16, 1830, and was rebuilt in 1834. Lycia (Asia Minor), originally MUyas, was known to Homer, who makes frequent allusions to it in the Iliad, B.C. 962, and enu- merates its people among the alhes of Troy, B.C. 1192. This covmtry was subdued by Har- 521 LTD pagus, the general of Cyrus, and made a Per- | sian province B.C. 546. It was conquered by ' Alexander tlie Great B.C. 333 ; by tlie Eomans, who ceded it to the Ehodians, B.C. 188; be- came a Roman province about a.d. 48 ; and was constituted a separate province by Theo- dosius II. (a.d. 408 — 450) . In 1838 and 1840 it was visited by Sir Charles Fellows, who discovered the remains of eleven cities. Ltdia (Asia Minor) . — Its history dates as far back as b.c. 1200; but the real Lydian sera commenced about b.c. 713, with G-yges, who reigned tiU B.C. 678, the dynasty closing with Croesus, B.C. 556, when Cyrus reduced the country to the condition of a Persian pro- vince. The Romans bestowed it upon the king of Pergamus B.C. 189, and it reverted to them again B.C. 133. Ltiitg-iis' Hospitals. — The first institu- tion of this kind was opened in a private house at Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, March 25, 1745, and proved so advantageous that in 1747 several influential men in London obtained from him information as to his regtdations, with a view to the establish- ment of similar hospitals at London. The result was the institution of the British Lying-in Hospital, EndeU Street, in 1749 ; the City of London Lying-in Hospital, Old Street, City Road, in 1750 ; Queen Char- lotte's Lying-in Hospital, Lisson Grove, in 1752 ; the General Ljang-in Hospital, Lam- beth, in 1765; the Charlotte Street General Lying-in Dispensary in 1778 ; and the New- man Street General Lying-in Institution in 1787. Lyme Regis (Dorsetshire) received a royal charter a.d. 1284, and was represented by two members in parliament. It was plun- dered by the French in 1404, and again in 1416, and it resisted a two months' siege by Prince Maurice in 1644. Lymphatic Vessels. {See Lacteal Ves- sels.) Ltnchbtteg (Virginia) was founded a.d. 1786, and incorporated in 1805. Ltjstch Law is described in Webster's American Dictionary as " the practice of punishing men for crimes and ofl:ences by unauthorized persons, without a legal trial." The same authority adds : " The term is said to be derived from a Virginian farmer, named Lynch, who thus took the law into his own hands." The accuracy of this defi- nition is questioned. Some writers beheve Judge Lynch to be a mythical personage, and others trace the origin of the phrase to one Lynch, sent to America in 1687-8, to suppress piracy. He had authority to dispense with the usual forms of law in the punishment of the pirates, and from this circumstance the term arose. Sir Harris Nicolas mentions the case of a widow who had committed murder, put to death in this manner by some of her own sex, in 1429. 'Lyss Regis, or King's Ltnn' (Norfolk), received its charter from King John, who remained three days in the town, when evading the forces of the barons, Oct. 9, 1216. It returned two members to parlia- 522 LYO ment in 1295, and was detached from the see of Norfolk, of which it formed a fief, under the name of Lvnn Episcopi, by Henry VIII. (1509—1547). After a three weeks' siege it capitulated to the parlia- mentary forces in 1643. St. Margaret's Church was founded in 1100, St. Nicholas' by Edward III., and the grammar-school in 1510. Lton- Kiitg-at-Aejis (Scotland). — This office existed in Scotland at a remote period, — according to some authorities as early as the 12th century. The first recorded appearance of Lyon king-at-arms is at the coronation of Robert II., in March, 1371. Lyons (Battle). — Clodius Albinus was defeated and slain by Septimius Severus, in a great battle fought at Lyons, Feb. 19, 197 A.D. It terminated the civil war, and 150,000 Romans are said to have been engaged on the occasion. Lyons (France), the ancient Ltigdunum, was settled by the people of Vienna, when driven from their homes by the AUobroges, B.C. 43. A Roman municipium was esta- blished about B.C. 12, Augustus residing here for some time, and raised it to such a degree of importance that it possessed a mint for coining gold and silver, and gave its name to one of the four divisions of Gaul. An altar was erected to Augustus by sixty of the nations of Gaul, and dedicated Aug. 1, B.C. 10; and Caligula visiting the town, instituted games in his honour, a.d. 40. Claudius, who was a native of the town, raised it to the rank of a colony, a.d. 41 — 54. A fire reduced it to ashes in one night, a.d. 59, and the emperor Nero made a hberal grant to aid in rebuilding it. In the reign of Marcus Aurelius the Christians suffered severe persecution, the bishop Pothinus, who was succeeded by Irenaeus, being one of the victims (169—180). After the defeat of Clodius Albinus by Septimius Severus, it was piUaged and burned Feb. 19, 197. The emperor Gratian, seeking refuge from a rebellion, was murdered here Aug. 25, 383. A conference of bishops was held by the Burgundian Iring Gundibald in 501. When the Prankish kingdom was divided, Lvons became a portion of the new kingdom of Burgundy, a.d. 561—613 ; feU to the lot of the emperor Lothaire, a.d. 843 ; to Charles, king of Provence, in 855 ; was seized by Charles the Bald in 863; and was included in the dominions of Boson a.d. 879. The archbishops received the title of exarch, and had their temporal power confirmed by the emperor, a.d. 1157. Archbishop John forbade the preaching of the followers of Waldo in 1178. Pope Innocent IV. fled here, having refused absolution to the em- peror Frederick II., and pronounced a fresh sentence of excommunication against him in 1244; and on his refusal to appear before the general council, passed sentence of depo- sition upon him, A.D. 1245. Dissatisfied with their ecclesiastical rulers, the inhabitants elected a municipal body, but such dissen- LYO sions arose between the two authorities, that the city was annexed to the French crown about the middle of the 13th century. The thirteenth general council was held here from June 28 to July 17, 1245 ; and the fourteenth general council, at which the conclave of cardinals was estabhshed, was held here from May 7 to July 17, 1274. Coun- cils were held at Lyons in 197 ; 475 ; Sept. 2, 500 ; in 517 ; 566 ; in May, 583 ; in 829 ; 848 ; 1055; 1079 or 1080; and March 21, 1528. An order was issued by Clement V. for a meeting of cardinals here in 1305. The coun- cil which had been transferred from Pisa to Milan, and then to Asti, was closed in 1514. Henry IV. of France and Emanuel I., duke of Savoy, met and concluded a peace at Lyons in 1601. Eepudiating the authority of the Jacobins, it was besieged by the army of the French Convention for sixty-six days, when it was taken, and barbarities inflicted on the inhabitants, Oct. 10, 1793. Napoleon I., on his escape from Elba, visited the town, and persuaded the people to espouse his cause, March 8, 1815. A conspiracy, which proved abortive, was discovered June 8, 1816, and serious bread riots took place in 1817. In October, 1831, the manufacturing interests were so depressed that the artisans could earn but eightpence by working eighteen hours, — a state of things which led to an insurrection on the 22nd November, when after a hard day's fighting, the troops were driven from the town. Marshal Soult, with an army of 40,000 men, and 100 pieces of cannon, enforced submission, Dec. 3, 1831. Another insurrection took place April 15, 1834, It cost the troops six days' hard fighting, and much loss of Hfe, before it was queUed. A great reform banquet, which led to important results, was held in the plain of Chatillon Aug. 31, 1840. The town suf- fered severely from an inundation Nov. 4, 1841, which swept away 100 villages. An in- surrection occurred, and a provisional go- vernment was formed. May 18, 1848 ; and a revolt broke out, leading to great loss of life, June 15, 1849. Louis Napoleon, pre- sident of the repubHc, was entertained at a civic banquet Aug. 15, 1850. The Romans constructed three aqueducts of great length for supplying the city with water, one of them having fourteen bridges. Ninety arches of one of these bridges are still in a good state of preservation. The Hotel Dieu was founded by Childebert and his queen (a.d.511 — 558), the present structure, capable of receiving 12,000 patients annually, having been built by Soufflot about 1743. The church of Notre Dame occupies the site of the Forum Vetus of Trajan ; and the cathe- dral of St. Jean, begun in the 7th century, was finished in the reign of Louis XI. (1226—1270) . The Hospital de 1' Antiquaille stands on the site of the palace in which Claudius, Cahgula, and Germanicus were born. The town-hall was erected 1646— 1655. The Place Bellecour, planted with lime-trees, is one of the largest squares in Europe, Two bronze tablets, containing MAA the oration of Claudius on giving the Civitas to the nations of Gaul, were dug up in 1529. Lyons (Treaties) . — The archduke Philip, on the part of Spain, negotiated a treaty with Louis XII. of France at Lyons, where it was signed April 5, 1503. It provided that Phihp's infant son Charles should marry Claude, a princess of France; and the youthful couple were thenceforth to assume the titles of lung and queen of Naples, and duke and duchess of Calabria. The French division of the kingdom was to be ruled by some person named by Louis XII., and the Spanish division by the archduke Philip, or some person appointed by Ferdinand in the interval before the marriage took place. AH places unlawfully seized by either party were to be given up. War broke out soon after the treaty was signed, and much controversy has been excited amongst French and Spanish writers respecting this transaction. Another treaty between France and Spain was con- cluded at Lyons Feb. 11, 1504, and was rati- fied by Ferdinand and Isabella at the convent of St. Maria de la Mejorado, March 31. It guaranteed to Aragon the undisturbed pos- session of her Italian conquests for three years, from Feb. 25, 1504, and provided for a general cessation of hostilities. Lyon's Inn (London). — This inn of chan- cery, originally an hostelry with the sign of the Lion, was purchased by law students, and converted to its present purpose during the reign of Henry VIII. Lyke. — The invention of this musical instrument was ascribed by the Greeks to Apollo, or to Mercury ; but this, or a similar instrument, was known to the ancient Egyp- tians, and was also in use amongst the Hebrew nation. LrsiMACHiA (Thracian Chersonesus) was founded by Lysimachus, whence its name, B.C. 309. The Eomans captured it B.C. 191. 1^. Maasteicht, or Maestricht (Holland), the capital of the province of Limburg, has sustained several memorable sieges, and has been called the German Gate of the Nether- lands. In 1576 the inhabitants expelled the Spaniards, who regained possession, and committed great atrocities, Oct. 20 in the same year. The patriotic party having once more "driven out the Spaniards, the duke of Parma invested it March 12, 1579. A general assault, April 8, was repulsed, but it was carried by storm June 29. The city was dehvered up to the infuriated soldiers for three days, when men, women, and children were treated with great barbarity. One historian relates that not more than 400 citizens remained alive, and Strada says that 8,000 of the iuhabitants were slain during the siege, and of these 1,700 were females. It regained its independence in 1622, and was taken by Louis XIV. in 1673. Wil- liam, prince of Orange, failed in an attempt 523 MAC to capture it in 1675. The duke of Marl- borough occupied Maestricht in 1703. It was invested by the French April 3, 1748, and though they did not succeed in capturing it, yet the preliminaries of peace, signed a short time after, provided that it should be deli- vered to them, and the garrison marched out with the customary honours of war May 3. The French again besieged it Feb. 11, 1793, and retired in March, without having effected their object. They returned in 1794, and the city capitulated to them ]S"ov. 4. Holland ceded Maestricht to Belgium by a treaty vrith. France in 1795, and having long remained under French influence, it was restored to Holland by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. This city remained faithful to Holland during the revolution of 1830. Macadamizing. — John Loudon Macadam, who invented the mode of road-making that takes its name from him, first put it into practice on the Bristol roads, a.d. 1815. He was appointed general surveyor of roads in 1827, and received two grants, amounting to £10,000, from parliament. Macalo (battle). — The Milanese forces, under Carlo Malatesta, were defeated at this place, near Cremona, by the Venetians, under Carmagnola, Oct. 11, 1427. Macao (China) was granted to the Portu- guese for purposes of trade, a.d. 1537. They kept it a close port tiU 1849, when it was declared free. MACAKOifi. — This preparation of wheat flour is an invention of the Itahans, and has for many years formed an important branch of manufacture in Genoa and Naples. An establishment for its manufacture was opened in Spitalfields in 1730. Macaboni Club. — This club of dandies was formed in London a.d. 1772, by a num- ber of young men of fashion, who had tra- velled in Italy, and adopted the title in con- tradistinction to the London Beefsteak Club (q.v.). Hence, ladies and gentlemen of ex- travagant dress were known as macaronies. Macaeonic Verse, or Macaronics, invented by Theophilo Folengo, or, as he called himself, Merliuus Coccaius, an Italian monk, born at Casino a.d. 1512. Hallam says that Folengo, having written an epic poem which he thought worthy of the^S^neid, and being told by a friend that he had equalled Vii-gil, threw it into the fire in a rage, and wrote Macaronics for the rest of his Kfe. Antonius de Arena, of Avignon, is said to have -WTitten macaronic verse in 1519. It became very fashionable, and was intro- duced into Enghsh literature by John Skel- ton, about 1483. He died in 1529, and has been called a rhyming Kabelais. Macarthy Island (Africa), comprised in the British colony on the Gambia, was gua- ranteed to England by the treaty of Ver- sailles, Sept. 3, 1783. Macassar (Eastern Seas). — This station, on the island of Celebes, was obtained as a settlement by the Portuguese a.d. 1512. In 1603 the rajah, with all his subjects, embraced Mohammedanism. The harbour was made 524 MAC a free port from Jan. 1, 1847. The Dutch call it Vlaardingen. Maccabees. — A name considered to be cabalisticaUy derived from the motto " AYho among the gods is like Jehovah ! " inscribed on the Jewish banner used during their war with Syria, B.C. 166. The first of these apocryphal books, giving a history of the struggles of the Jews with their enemies in the period B.C. 175 — 135, was written soon after the events nai-rated, by an unknown author. The second, an abridgement of the larger work of Jason of Cyrene, now lost, and embracing the time irom about B.C. 185 — 170, was written about B.C. 150. The third is considered by Dr. Allix to have been written B.C. 200; and the fourth, attributed to Josephus, may date at about a.d. 70. Of the authorship of a fifth book, a relation of Jewish affairs from some time previous to the birth of Christ to that event, nothing whatever is known. The four books were admitted as canonical by the Council of Trent, Dec. 13, a.d. 1545— Dec. 3, 1563. Maccabees, (^ra of the,) commenced Nov. 24, 166 A.D. Maccabees, (Festival of the,) instituted in honour of the seven Maccabees, who opposed the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes, and died in defence of the Jewish law, was celebrated generally in the Christian chui'ch in the 4th century. In the Eoman martyro- logy it is fixed Aug. 1. Macclesfield (Cheshire) was incorpo- rated by charter a.d. 1260. The church of St. Michael was founded by Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in 1278. The grammar-school was founded in 1502. A subscription library was established here in 1770, and a school of design in 1851 . A free school was foimded in 1838. The manufacture of sUk, for which this town is celebrated, made great advances between the years 1808 and 1825. Mace, an improvement on the club as a weapon of war in barbarous times, is mentioned in Homer, B.C. 962, and was probably introduced into Europe about the middle of the 13th century. The heavy cavalry were supplied with the mace in the 15th and 16th centuries; but it went out of use in England in the reign of Elizabeth (1558 — 1603) . Dr. Clarke considers its use in corporations to be derived from the cere- monies attendant on the preservation of Agamemnon's sceptre by the Chaeroneans, B.C. 1201. Charles II. presented one to the Eoyal Society, to be placed before the' president. Cromwell, when forcibly dissolv- ' ing the Long Parhament, April 20, 1653, said, pointing to this symbol of the speaker's authority, " Eemove that fool's bauble!" This mace was melted down and sold by order of the House of Commons, Aug. 9, 1649. Lord Chancellor Finch had his house in Queen Street broken into and the mace stolen Nov. 7, 1677. Macedonia, orMACEDON (Greece). — The name is derived by some writers from Macedo, a descendant of Deucalijon, and other authorities believe it to be a corruption. MAC of Mygdonia, a district of the country. The early inhabitants of Macedonia are believed to have been an lUyrian race. Caranns settles in Macedon, with a Greek colony. Macedon is Invaded by Darius, king of Persia, and compelled to conclude an alliance with him. Macedon is delivered from the Persian yoke by the battle of Platsea {q. v.). PotiUiea, in Macedon, revolta from the Athe- nian confederacy. Potidaea is taken by the Athenians. On the death of Perdiccas II., his legitimate sons are murdered by his natural son Archelaus, who usurps the throne. Archelaus is assassinated. Thrace and Macedon are at war with each other. Alexander JII. is assassinated. Philip TI. wages war against the Athenians and the lUyrians. Philip TI. takes Pydna and Amphipolis. July. Birth of Alexauder the Great, Philip II. takes Methone, but loses an eye by an arrow during the siege. He expels the tyrants from Pherre. Peace is concluded with Athens. Philip II. obtains the mastery of the Phocseans. He invades lUyria, and subdues Sparta. He conducts an expedition into Acarnania, where he is opposed by the Atheniaus. Thrace is invaaed by Philip II. Aristotle resides at the Macedonian court as tutor to the young prince Alexander. Byzantium is besieged by Philip II. ■ Philip IT., by means of the Macedonian phalanx, gains the battles of Elatea and Chceroneia {q. v.), and thus renders himself master of Greece. Philip TI. is assassinated by the youth Pau- sanias, at ^gas, during the marriage games of his daughter. He is succeeded by Alex- auder III., or the Great, aged twenty years, who is elected generalissimo of the Greek allies against Pei-sia. Alexander III. conquers the Thracians, the lUyrians, and the Triballi, and takes and destroys Thebes. He crosses the Hellespont, gains the battle of Granicus {q.v.), and takes Sardis, Miletus, and Halicamassus. The Lacedaemonians unite with Memnon the Bhodian against Alexander III. He cuts the Gordian knot {q. v.), and gains the battle of Issus (q. v.). Parmenio takes Damascus. Alexander III. takes Tyre and .'Gaza, subdues Kgypt and Palestine, and founds Alex- andria. Oct. 1. He defeats Darius at the battle of Aibela (q.v.); takes Babylon, and burns 330. The seat of government is transferred from Macedonia to Susa, in Babylon. Alexander III. subdues Hyrcauia, Aria, and Aornos, and puts Pai-menio to death on a charge of treason. 329. Alexauder III. enters Bactria, marries the native princess Koxana, and claims divine honours. 325. He kills Clitus, and causes the philosopher Calisthenes to be put to death. 326. Alexander TIT. crosses the Indus, defeats Porus, and takes and destroys the city of San gala. 323. Alexander III. is compelled by the mutinous disposition of his troops to return to Babylon, where he dies in May or June. 1 Macedon engages against Greece in the [ Lamian war. 322. The Macedonians defeat the Greeks at the battle of Cranon, which puts an end to the Lamian war. { B.C. 313. 311. 256. 334. 840. 978. 1001. 1204. 1222. MAC War is carried on with the jEtolians. Koxana and her son Alexander TV. are put to death by Cassander. Alexauder V. and Antipater carry on civil war in Macedon. The foi-mer is aided by De- metrius Poliorcetes, who afterwards pro- cures his assassination, and usurps the throne. Demetrius is expelled from Macedonia, and the kingdom is divided between Lysimachus and Pyirhus. The Gauls invade Macedon. The Achsean League is renewed against Macedon. Antigoiius Gonatas seizes the crown. Pyrrhus invades Sparta, and is killed at Argos. Autigonus takes Athens. Macedon is again ravaged by the Gauls. Macedon is invaded by the Illyrians, who are defeated by Autigonus. Philip V. forms an alliance with Hannibal. He concludes a treaty with the Komans. He is at war with Rhodes. He declares war agiinst the Romans. Philip V. is defeated by the Romans at Cy- uoscephalae. Philip V. strives to conciliate the Romans. He is compelled to surrender several cities and territories. War is renewed with Rome. June 22. Perseus, the last king of Macedon, is defeated and made prisoner by the Romans, at the battle of Pydna. Macedon is divided into four Roman provinces. Andriscus reconquers Macedon. He is defeated and made prisoner by Q. Csecilius Metellus. Thracian invaders commit great ravages. Macedon is ravaged by the Goths. It is settled by some Saimatian tribes, by order of Constantine. It is ravaged by Theodoric, the Ostrogoth. A Persian colony settles on the Axius. Macedon is conquered by the Bulgarians. It is reconquered by Basil II. Macedon is erected into the kingdom of Thessalonica. It is recaptured by the Greek tyrant Theodore. It is conquered by Amurath II., by whom it is annexed to the Ottoman empire. KINGS OF MACEDOM". B.C. Perdiccas I. Argseus Philip L Aeropus Alcetas Amyntas 1 540 Alexander 1 500 Perdiccas II 454 Archelaus 413 Orestes and Aeropus 399 Pausanias 394 Amyntas II 393 Alexander IT 369 Ptoleraseus Alorites 3H7 Perdiccas III 364 Philip II 359 B.C. Alexander III., the Great 336 Philip III., Ari- d»os 323 Olympias 316 Cassander 315 Philip IV 296 Demetrius Polior- cetes 294 Pyrrhus 287 Lysimachus 286 Autigonus Gonatas 283 Demetrius II. 239 Autigonus Doson . . 229 Philip V 220 178 Macedont:ans. — This name, given to the Semi-Arians, is derived from Macedonius, a deacon who was made bishop of Constanti- nople by the Arians, a.d. 341, and was acknow- ledged as patriarch in 342. When the Arians separated into the Arians and the Semi- Arians, in 359, Macedonius took part with the latter, and he was expelled from the see in 3G0, after which time the Semi-Arians 525 MAC were called Macedonians. They were con- demned by the second general council, held at Constantinople from May 30 to July, 381. Macelltjm:. — In this castle near Csesareia, Constantius II. confined Jiilian and Gallus, nephews of Constantino I., for six years, A. D. 845 to March 5, 351. Maceeata (Italy), the capital of a province of the same name annexed to the ecclesiastical estates by Charlemagne, was made a bishop's see a.d. 1322. Napoleon I., by a decree dated March, 1807, annexed this province to the kingdom of Italy. It was restored to the Papal States in 1814-15, and formed part of the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. Machiavelliaij" PEiifciPLEs. — This term is apphed to the principles advocated in the celebrated work " II Pruicipe," by Niccolo Machiavelli, the Florentine states- man. It was first pubhshed at Eome, Jan. 4, 1532. MACHiNE-BEEAKiifG-. — By the fourth clause of 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30 (June 21, 1827), a person breaking or destroying any machine employed in any manufacture in England, was liable to transportation for seven years, or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years. If the offender was a male, whipping, either pubhcly or pri- vately, might be added to the imprisonment. A special commission for the trial of machine- breakers was held in Hampshire in 1830. Machynlleth (Wales). — The Eomans had a station at this town. Here the par- hament of Wales met and acknowledged Owen Glendower, as prince of Wales, a.d. 1402 ; and Owen Glendower entered into a treaty iu 1403 with the Pereies and the Mortimers to restore Eichard II., if he could be found ahve, to the Enghsh throne ; or, in case of his decease, to make the earl of March king. This alliance was dissolved by the battle of Hateley Field {q. v.). Maciejovice (Battle). — A Eussian army of 12,000 men, commanded by Fersen, defeated 10,000 Poles led by Kosciusko at this place, in Poland, Oct. 4, 1794. Kosci- usko was taken prisoner. He was hberated after two years' imprisonment, and died at Soleure, in France, in 1817. Mackenzie Eivee (ISTorth America) is named after Su* Alexander Mackenzie, who discovered it a.d. 1785, and explored the stream imtH it discharged itself in the Frozen Ocean, which he reached July 15. Macon (France), the ancient Matisco, was occupied by one of the legions of Juhus Csesar B.C. 52. During the Middle Ages, Macon was governed by its own counts. Louis IX. annexed it to France in the 13th centui-y. Macon was made a bishop's see in the 5th, and the town suffered severely in the rehgioiis wars during the 16th century. Fearful atrocities were per- petrated in the Maconnais in 1789. The seats of the nobility and several churches were completely destroyed. The French were repulsed in an attack upon an Austrian 526 MAD detachment at this town, March 11, 1814. An inundation committed great destruction at Macon, and in the neighbourhood, in Ifovember, 1841. A reform banquet was held at Macon on Sept. 20, 1847. Macon (North America) . — This town in Georgia was httle more than a village about 1822. The Wesleyan female coUege waa founded in 1839. Madagascab (Indian Ocean). — The exist- ence of this island off' the coast of Africa, then called Magaster, was first made known in Europe by the Yenetian traveller Marco Polo, A.D. 1298. Tristan de Cunha visited it in 1506, and it was named by the Portu- guese St. La\\-rence, because rediscovered on that saint's day. The Portuguese founded a colony here in 1508. It was destroyed by the French, who planted a settlement in the island, which they called Isle Dauphuie, in 1642. The French and English after this time formed several settle- ments, which were all abandoned, the French, who maintained their hold the latest, retiring about 1740. The French returned early in the 19th century, and the settlement surrendered to an Enghsh force Feb. 17, 1811. The Enghsh garrison was captured May 19, but the French again succumbed, and by a treaty with England in 1818, the slave trade was aboHshed, and Madagascar declared independent. Eadama, the most celebrated of the native rulers of Madagascar, began to reign in 1810. He united the two-and- twenty states into which Madagascar is said to be divided, under one central autho- rity. He died in 1828. Christianity, which had been favoured by Eadama, was forbidden by a royal edict in 1835. The French sent an expedition against Madagascar in 1829. Madeira (North Atlantic Ocean). — This, the largest of a group of islands, called the Madeiras, is said to have afforded a refuge to an Englishman named Eobert Macham, or Machin, who, fleeing from France with Anna d'Arfet in 1346, was cast by a storm upon its coast. From this circumstance the island is said to have been called Machico. This story is, however, generally regarded as an invention, and the real discoverer of Madeira is beheved to be Gonzalves Zarco, the Portuguese, who visited it in 1419. The Portuguese soon after fonned a settlement, and erected Funchal into a city in 1508. Madeira, with Portugal, passed under Spanish rule in 1580, and again became a Portuguese colony in 1640. A garrison of British troops, under Colonel Chnton, was landed on the island July 24, 1801, in anticipation of an attack from the French ; and these having been withdrawn, a second force, commanded by Commodore Hood and Major Beresford, took possession Dec. 24, 1807, and remained till the peace of June 20, 1814. The partisans of Don Miguel seized it Aug. 23, 1828, and it declared for Donna Maria June 10, 1834. Madison (North America). — This town of Jefferson county, Indiana, was foimded A.D. 1808. A university was estabhshed at MAD another town of the same name, in Wisconsin, in 1851. Mad Paeliament assembled at Oxford on Barnabas-day, June 11, 1258, and was attended by all the nobility, archbishops, &c., and nearly one hundred barons. It was summoned to effect an accommodation be- tween Henry 111= and the barons. The king and the barons respectively elected twelve persons to form a committee of twenty-four, to amend aU matters appertaining to the king and the kingdom. The committee required, amongst other things, that the king should observe faithfully Magna Charta, provided that the chief justice, chancellor, and other high officers, should be chosen from year to year, and ordered that three parhaments should be held every year ; namely, the first Oct. 6, the second Feb. 3, and the third June 1. These, called the Provisions of Ox- ford, were received pubHcly by the citizens of London -July 22. Henry III., who refused to abide by them ia February, 1261, accepted them ia 1262 and again in 1263. They were pubUcly promulgated at a council held at Lon- don, Sept. 8, 1263. The king of France having been appealed to by both Henry III. and the barons, annulled them at a council held at Amiens, Jan. 23, 1264. Madeas (Hindostan). — The original de- signation of this town was Chinna-Puttun, Madras being the name of a village which existed before the present town was founded. A.D. 1639. March 1. The East-India Company receive permission from the native princes to esta- blish a factory. 1641. Fort St. George is built at Madras. 1652. Fort St. George, Madras, is erected into a presidency. 1687. It is made a coi-poration. 1702. David Khan, general of Aurungzebe, lays siege to Madras, but without success. 1746. Sept. 14 to 19. It is bombarded and taken by the French, under M. de la Bourdounais. 1748. Oct. 18. It is restored to England by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1749. Aug. It is evacuated by the French. 1750. The Company obtaiu large grants of land near the town. 17-36. The fortifications are strengthened. 1758. Dec. 12. The French under Lally lay siege to Madras. 1759. Feb. 17. The garrison is relieved by Admiral Pocock, and Lally is compelled to raise the siege. 1769. April 4. Hyder Ali, having surprised the town, and obtained possession of nearly the whole of it, compels the governor to sign a treaty of peace. 1770. July 26. Sir John Lindsay, the king's com- missioner, an-ives at Madras, where dis- putes commence between himself and the president. 1776. Aug. 10. Madras is thrown into alarm by the approach of Hj'der AU. Aug, 24. Lord Pigot, the governor, is imprisoned by the comioil. 1780. July. The province is thrown into consterna- tion by the wrrival of Hyder Ali and 100,000 men. JSTov. 5. Six- Eyre Cuote takes the command of the Madras army; 1781. Jan. 10. Sir Thomas Rumbold, governor, and four members of the council, are dismissed liy the Company. July 1. Su.- Eyre Coote defeats Byder. 1783. Geneial Stuart is arrested by the governor, and sent to England,, MAD a.d. 1784. 1787. 1788. 1790. 1796, April 26. Sir Eyre Coote dies at Madras. The Military Male Orphan Asylum is founded. The Female Orphan Asylum is founded. Dec. 12. Lord Cornwallia arrives at Madras. A lighthouse is erected. Dec. 26. Sir Thomas Strange is appointed the first chief justice. A navigable canal is opened, connecting the Black town with the river Ennore. A tire destroys more than 1,000 houses. Dec. 9. A violent hurricane does considerable damage. The sepoys at Madras mutiny. Much damage is done by a hurricane. The college for the instruction of young civilians in the native languages is founded. Feb. Public schools are commenced at Madras. St. Andrew's bridge is finished. 1820. St Andrew's church is opened. 1835. Feb. 14. The Kev. Daniel Come is appointed first bishop of Madras, pursuant to the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, s. 89 (Aug. 28, 1833). 1844. Jan. 1. The new lighthouse on the Esplanade is opened. 1847. Measures are taken for improving the drain- age of the Black town. GOVEEM-OES OF HABEAS, A goTernor and council were appointed for Madras by 24 Geo. III. c. 25 (Aug. 13, 1784) ; and Lord Macartney, nominated as the first governor under this act in 1784, ar- rived at Madras early in 1785. 1811. 1812. 1817. 1818. 1785. 1790. 1792. 1794. 1798. 1799. 1803. 1807. 1813. 1814. 1820. 1832. 1837. 1853. 1854. f Lord Macartney. ( June 4. Alexander Davidson. Sir A. Campbell. John HoUond. f Feb. 13. E. J. Hollond. t Feb. 20. Major-Gen. William Medows. Sir Charles Oakely, bart. Lord Hobart. Major-Gen., afterwards Lord Harris. Lord Ciive. afterwards Earl Powis. Lord William Bentinck. f Sept. 11, William Petrie. t Dec. 24. Sir George Hilaro Barlow, bart. Lieutenant- Gen. John Abercromby. Hugh Elliot. Sir Thomas Munro, bart. / July 10. Heniy Sullivan Graeme, t Oct. 18. Stephen Rumbold Lushington. Lieutenant-Gen. Sir Frederick Adam. Lord Elphin stone. Marquis of Tweeddale. Sir Henry Pottinger, bart. James Thomason. Lord Han-is. Sir Charles E. Trevelyan. Su- W. T. Deniaon. Madeid (Spain). — Some Spanish authori- ties claim greater antiqmtj for their metro- pohtan city than is possessed by Eome, but no mention of it occurs in history until the reign of Kamiro II., about a.d. 931. 1083. The Moorish fort of 3fajerit, or Madrid, is taken by Alfunso VI. 1197. It is taken by the Moors. 1212. Alfonso IX. recaptures it. 1461. It is enlarged by Enrique TV. 1473. A council is held at Madrid. 1516. Charles V. makes it a roy.al residence. 1560. Philip II. declares Madrid the only seat of the Spanish court. 1563. PhUip II. fo\mds the Escorial {q. v.). 16-29. Philip IV. founds the college of San Isidore. 1688. The hospital of San Fernando is founded. 527 MAD 1705. June 24. Madrid is taken by the earl of Gal way for ChRrles III. 1734. The old palace isdestrojed by fire. 1737. The theatre de la Cruz is built. 1749. The Plaza de Toros is built, and the Academy of Arts is founded. 17.55. Ferdinand VI. founds the Botanical Gardens. 1806. The theatre del Principe is established. 1808. March 23. Mtirat arrives at Madrid. May 2. The inhabitants attempt to expel the French, who defeat the effort with great slaughter. July 2.5. Joseph Bonaparte is proclaimed king of Spain at Madrid, but is compelled to leave the city July 27. Dec. 4. The city again surrenders to the French. 1812. Aug. 12. Madrid is entered by the English, under the duke of "Wellington. 1842. The museum de la Trinidad is opened. 1852. Oct. 7. Funeral strvices are performed in honour of the duke of Wellington. 1854 July 17. A general insurrection of the inha- bitants breaks out, in consequence of the tmpopularity of the queen mother. Madeid, (Treaty,) was concluded between Francis I. of France, and the emperor Charles V., Jan. 14, 1526. Francis I., at that time a prisoner, restored Burgundy and Charolais to the emperor, renounced all claim to the kingdom of ISTaples, the duchy of MUan, to Asti, and Genoa. Other humili- ating conditions were extorted, and Francis summoned a secret meeting in his chamber, at which he declared that he did not intend to abide by the conditions of the treaty. Madeigal. — This kind of poem, invented by the Flemings about the middle of the 16th century, was imitated by the Italians. In England, Morley's first book of madrigals was published a.d. 1594. The Madrigal Society, a club of amateurs, was founded in London a.d. 1741. Rimbault's Bihliotheca Madrigalium was published in 1847. Hallam remarks that "some of our old madrigals are as beautiful in language as they are in melody." Maduea (Hindostan), the capital of a district of the same name, which came into the possession of the East-India Company with the Carnatic, a.d. 1801 ; sustained seve- ral sieges during the 18th century. Captain CaUiaud failed iu an attempt to capture the town of Madura in May, 1757. A second attack in July of the same year was not more successful. M^ANDEE (Battles). — This river, in Asia Miaor, celebrated for its numerous vdndings, which have rendered its name proverbial, was the scene of a defeat of the Turks by John II., A.D. 1119 ; and of another by the army of Manuel I. in 1177. MaGALHAEKS, OrMAG-EIiliATT Steait (South America), the most extensive strait in the world, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, was discovered by Ferdinand© Magalhaens, incorrectly called Magellan, a Portuguese, who sailed in the Spanish ser- vice. He reached the strait in October, 1520, and cleared it Nov. 28. Magaziites. — The following is a Hst of the principal hterary magazines of the United Kingdom, with the dates at which they were first pubKshed. MAG A.D. Arminian, afterwards Methodist, Magazine .. 1778 Bath and Bristol Magazine 1776 Biographical Magazine . , 1776 BUckwood's Magazine 1817 Botanical Magazine 1788 British Magazine 1760 Christian Magazine 1760 Comhill Magazine 1860 County Magazine 1787 Court Magazine 1761 Dublin University 1833 Edinbui-gh Magazine and B«view 1773 Educational Magazine 1835 European Magazine 1782 Evangelical Magazine 1793 Eraser's Magazine 1830 Gentleman's Magazine 1731 Gospel Magazine 1766 Grand Magazine 1758 Humourists' Magazine 1787 Dnperial Magazine 1760 Lady's Magazine 1770 Lawyer's Masaztne 1760 Literary Magazine 1735 London Magazine 1732 London Society 1862 Macmillan's Magazine 1859 Magazine of Magazines 1752 MagMzine of Zoology 1836 Mechanics' Magazine 1823 Medical Magazine 1774 Metropolitan Magazine 1831 Monthly Magazine 1796 Musical Magazine 1760 New Mouthjy Magazine 1814 Penny Magazine 1832 PhUosopfiical Magazine 1798 Protestant's Magazine 1761 Royal Magazine 17-59 St. James's Magazine 1861 Saturday Magazine 1832 Scot's Magazine 1739 Spoi-tuig Magazine 1795 Tait's Edinburgh Magazine 1832 Temple Bar Magazine 1860 Town and Country Magazine 1769 Universal Magazine 1747 Magdalen College (Oxford) was founded by William Waynflete, lord high chancellor of England, July 18, 1458. The great quad- rangle was commenced in 1473, and the foun- dation of the tower was laid in 1492. The foundations of the new buildings were laid in 1733, and the chapel was restored in 1833. James II. recommended Anthony Farmer as president in 1687. The fellows elected Dr. John Hough, April 15, and for this were ex- pelled by the king Dec. 10. Magdalene College (Cambridge). — Edward Staiford, duke of Buckingham, com- menced building Buckingham House on the site of an ancient hostel, a.d. 1519, and this was completed and converted into Magdalene College by Thomas, Lord Audley, lord high chancellor of England, in 1542. Samuel Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., be- queathed his hbrary to this institution. He died May 26, 1703. Magdalen Hall (Oxford). — This school, erected by "WiUiam Waynflete, to prepare students for admission to Magdalen College, was called St. Mary Magdalen Hall as early as 1487, and became an independent hall in 1602. The president and fellows of Magdalen College obtained Hertford College by act of parliament in 1816. MAO Magdaxen" HospiTAi (London) was esta- blished Auff. 8, A.D. 1758, for the relief and reformation of penitent women. Magdalens. — The first religious associa- tion formed for the reformation of fallen women, was established in Germany before A.D. 1215. A similar order of nuns was established in France by Bertrand, a citizen of Marseilles, about 1272. The convent of the Magdalene at Naples was founded by Queen Sancha, of Aragon, in 1324, and that at Metz was established or refounded in 1452. The Paris convent dates from 1492, when Louis, duke of Orleans, gave his hotel for the purpose of providing a nunnery for peni- tents. The Magdalen at Some was established by Pope Leo X. in 1515. The Magdalen Hos- pital at London was opened Aug. 8, 1758. Magdeburg (Prussia), the capital of the province of Saxony, and now one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, was in exist- ence in the 8th century. It was taken by the Austrian general Tilly, the inhabitants mer- cilessly slaughtered, and the town, with the exception of about 139 houses, burnt to the ground. May 10, 1631. A formidable con- spiracy was concocted by the famous Baron Trenck, while a prisoner in the fortress, to release 16,000 captive Austrians, and master thegarrison, A.D. 1761. The plot was, however, frustrated. After having been invested fifteen days by the French, under Marshal Ney, Magdeburg capitulated Nov. 8, 1806, and was annexed to the new kingdom of Westphalia by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. It was restored by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. The archbishopric was fotmded in 968 by the emperor Otho, whose statue, raised in 973, stands in the market-place. The cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice, which contains the tombs of Otho and the empress, was erected a.d. 1211 — 1363, and restored 1825—1834. The church of the Virgin was bunt in the 11th century, and the French Eeformed church in the 17th century. Magenta. — This shade of crimson dye, named after the battle of Magenta (q.v.), and prepared from gas tar, was brought out in France in 1860, and thence quickly intro- duced into England. Magenta (Battle).— The French and the Sardinians, after a desperate struggle, de- feated the Austrians near this place, in Lom- bardy, June 4, 1859. Maghazul, (Battle,) was fought in a field near Toledo, between the Saracenic monarch Abderahaman, grandson of King AbdaUah, and the rebel Caleb Aben Hafsun, a.d. 912. The royal troops gained the victory, losing 3,000, whilst the rebels lost 7,000 men. Magi were intrusted with the care of religion by Deioces, and formed one of the six tribes into which he divided the Medes, B.C. 700. They were constituted into a sacred caste or college when the Medes and Per- sians became united under Cyrus, B.C. 559. Two brothers of the magi revolted against Cambyses, and usurped the supreme autho- rity during his absence in Egypt, B.C. 523; but were put to death with such a large 529 MAG number of their sect that the day was after- wards observed by the Persians as the "Mas- sacre of the Magi," B.C. 522. The primitive religion, which consisted in the worship of Ormuzd, the symbol of hght and goodness, having become much debased, was greatly reformed by Zoroaster, about b.c. 555. Magic was originally taught by the magi, who diffused a knowledge of their mysteries through Greece and Arabia, on their expul- sion from Persia, about b.c. 500. Smedley (Occult Sciences, p. 190) states that " ac- cording to the Talmud and the Cabbala, which profess to agree with the Bible, magic is divided into three classes, — thejirst, includ- ing aU evil enchantments and magical cures, the citation of evil spirits, and the calling forth the dead through the aid of demons, — to be punished, hke idolatry, with death ; the second, including those magical practices which are carried on by the aid of evil spirits, by which man is often led astray and sunk into eternal darkness, — to be punished with scourging ; and the third, including astro- logy and aU intercourse with the lower spirits, excepted from punishment, but pro- nounced wrong, as leading from reliance upon God." The council of Laodicea, in 366, condemned all magicians and enchan- ters, and the ancient laws dealt with them very severely. Trials on charges of having employed magical arts were common in the Middle Ages. Magic Lan-tekn.— Eoger Bacon is said to have invented this instrument about a.d. 1260 ; but it was not generally known till a much later date. CeUini, who died in 1570, describes optical experiments which appa- rently depended for their effects on an apparatus of this kind. Kircher, who was born in 1601 and died in 1680, is frequently styled the inventor of the magic lantern. The invention of the Argand lamp in 1789, and of the phantasmagoria in 1802, produced considerable improvements in the construc- tion and operation of the instrument. Magic Squabe. — This mathematical ar- rangement of a set of nvunbers was known at an early period to the Hindoos, Egyptians, and Chinese. Emanuel Moschopulus, who wrote upon them in Greek in the middle of the 15th century, was the first author who refers to the magic square. Magna Chaeta, embodying some of the " good old laws of Edward the Confessor," with numerous provisions, intended to secure the hberty of the subject, was extorted by the barons from King John, and sealed in a field at Eunnymede, between Windsor and Staines, June 15, a.d. 1215. John violated its stipulations in August, 1215, appealed to the pope Sept. 13, 1215, who annulled the agree- ment, excommunicated the barons, and sus- pended Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in December, 1215. It was con- firmed by the guardians of the vouthful king Henry III. at Bristol, Nov. 12, 1216, and subsequently by other kings so fre- quently, that Sir Edward Coke counted thirty-two confirmations, additions, or re- 2 M MAG newals a>)out a.d. 1600. From a copy pre- served in Lincoln Cathedral, the Board of Commissioners on the Public Eecords caused a fae-simile' to be engraved and published, which is to be found, with a translation, in the first volume of " Statutes of the Keahn." Ma&na Gr^cia, or Majos Ge^cia (Italy). — This name was applied by Greek writers to their colonies formed on the southern shores of Italy, Cumae having, by general consent, the precedence in point of antiquity ; although the date of its foun- dation, B.C. 1050, is not to be relied upon. There is much uncertainty as to the pre- cise dates of the various settlements ; but the greater number of them were cer- tainly made between B.C. 735 and B.C. 685. Sybaris, B.C. 720, and Crotona, B.C. 710, the two most powerful cities, were founded by the Achseans. Tarentum, a Spartan colony, was estabhshed about B.C. 708; Metapontum by the Achseans, B.C. 700 — 680; and Locri by the Loerians, about B.C. 700. The date of the league between Crotona, Sybaris, and Metapontum, to ex- pel the lonians from Siris, cannot be fixed with any degree of accuracy. A great change in the pohtical condition of these cities was brought about by the teaching of Pythagoras, who arrived at Crotona about B.C. 530. An army of 100,000 Crotonists took the field against 300,000 Sybarites, and after defeating them on the batiks of the Traeis, utterly destroyed the city of Sy- baris, B.C. 510. Thurii, founded B.C. 443, and Heracleia, B.C. 432, were the two latest of these settlements. The Italian Greeks having allied themselves against Dionysius of Syracuse, were defeated by him in an important engagement near Caulonia, B.C. 389, and at the same time they were at- tacked in the north by the Lucanians, with whom they carried on a severe and pro- tracted contest till B.C. 282, when they ap- plied to the Eomans for aid. The celebrated expedition of Pyrrhxis, king of Epirus, whose assistance had been invoked by the Greeks, began B.C. 281. He left them entirely at the mercy of the Eomans on his departure, B.C. 274. iffearly all these cities declared for Hannibal after the victoiy of that general over the Eomans at Cannge, Aug. 2, B.C. 216 ; but they suff'ered the penalty of this partisanship when fortune turned in favour of the Eomans ; the towns were pillaged and the people put to the sword or sold into slavery, — a subjugation from which they never recovered. Cicero describes them in his time, B.C. 106 — 43, as sunk into utter ruin. Magxesia (Battle). — The two Scipios gained a complete ^actory over Antiochus the Great, near Magnesia, usually called Magnesia ad Sipylum, in Lydia, and drove him out of Western Asia, B.C. 190. {See Matj-issa.) Ma&nesia ad M^A]S"Detjm (Greece). — This JSohan city, said to have been founded by Magnesians from Thessaly, was destroyed 530 MAG by the Cimmerians b.c. 726, and rebuilt by the Milesians B.C. 725. It was assigned to Theraistocles by Artaxerxes, to supply him with bread, when he was banished from Athens, B.C. 471 ; and the inhabitants raised a statue to his honour in the Agora. The Eomans incorporated it with the kingdom of Pergamus B.C. 188. A town of Lydia, of the same name, called Magnesia ad Sipy- lum to distinguish it from the above, is known under the modern name of Manissa (q.v.). Magnetism. — This word is supposed to be derived from Magnes, the name of a Phrygian shepherd, who was detained on Mount Ida by the naUs in his boots, or by his metal crook. Other authorities state that it is derived from the Lydian province of Magnesia, whence the Greeks obtained the loadstone about B.C. 1000. A.D. 1576. Robert Norman discovers the dip of the mag- netic needle. 1590. Julius Caesar, a surgeon of Rimini, observes the conversion of iron into a magnet by position. 1600. Gilbert publishes his treatise " De Magnete." 1650. Bond di-ci>vers the true progress of the devia- tion of the compass about this year 1688. Halley publishes his theory of terrestrial magnetism. 1699. Halley constructs the first magnetic chart. 1722. Graham discovers the diurnal variation. 1746. Dr. Gowan Knight constructs artificial mag- nets. 1750. Michell publishes his treatise on artificial magnets. 1756. Canton makes 4,000 observations on the variation of the needle, and ascertains that it is gi-eater in summer than in ■winter. 1780. Coulomb propounds the double-fluid theory of magnetism. 1786. Cassini discovers the annual periodical varia- tion of the magnetic needle. Coulomb constructs his balance of torsion. 1813. Morichiui magnetizes a needle by exposing it to the violet rays of the spectrum. 1817. Professor Hansteen, of Christiana, publishes his work on the Magnetism of the Earth. 1821. Mr. J. H Abraham, of Sheffield, rect-ives the large gold medal of the Society of Arts for his magnetic guard, to p'otect persons engaged in needle-pointing, &c. 1825. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic force. 18.30. Haldat produces magnetism by friction. 1831. Sir W. Snow Harris improves the mariner's compass, and invents the hydrostatic mag- netometer. Faraday produces electricity by means of a magnet. 1846. Professor Faraday propoimds the laws of diainagnetism. 1848. Faraday discovers magneto-crystalline force. 1851. General Sabine demonstrates that the terres- trial magnetic force has periods. 1856. Pi'ofessor 'J'yndall proves the existence of diamagnetic polarity. (See Compass.) Magkolia, of several varieties, has been introduced into England at different periods. The Magnolia glaiica, or the deciduous swamp magnolia, was brought from North America A.D. 1688; the Magnolia grandiflora, great flowered magnolia, or laurel bay, was intro- duced from the same country in 1734 ; and the Magnolia Yulan, or conspicua, from MAG China in 1789. The Tulan magnolia has been cultivated in China since a.d. 627. Magtaks, called Ugri by the Eussians, as being members of the Ugrian race, whence, by corruption, the name Hungary, migrated from the southern part of the Uralian moun- tains, and settled on the plains of the lower Danube, under Arpad, their leader, a.d. 889. They invaded Bavaria in 900, inspiring such terror by the prowess of their arms and the rapidity of their movements, that walled towns in Europe are said to have had their origin at that period. Defeated in battle by the Saxon prince Henry the Fowler, in 934, and again by Otho the Great in 955, their power was completely broken. An- drew III., who came to the throne in 1290, was the last king of the Arpad family, which became extinct in the male line in 1301. Mahabuleshwa (Hindostan). — Sir John Malcolm established this station, where a sanatarium has since been erected, a.d. 1828. Mahadia (Africa), the capital of the Zeirides, was captured by the Sicilians a.d. 1146. Mahabajpoee (Battle). — Sir Hugh (after- wards Lord) Gough defeated a Mahratta army of 18,000 men, supported by 100 guns, at this town, in Guahor, Dec. 29, 1843. Sir Hugh had about 14,000 troops and 40 guns. The Mahrattas lost 3,400 men. Mahe (Hindostan). — This place, on the Malabar coast, was taken by Munro, Feb. 10, 1711, and fell into the hands of the French in 1722. It was captured by the English in 1760; restored by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763 ; again captured in 1793 ; and restored to France in 1815. Mahogany, so called from Mahogani, the American name of the tree, was introduced into England a.d. 1595. Sir Walter Raleigh's carpenter is said to have discovered its value in making articles of furniture ; but it was brought into notice by Woolaston, a cabinet- maker of Long Acre, who, in 1720, was em- ployed by Dr. Gibbons to make first a can- die-box, and afterwards a bureau, with some planks which he had received from the West ' Indies. The duchess of Buckingham having seen the latter article, begged some of the wood from the . doctor, and had one made, which soon brought it into general use. Mahrattas, or Mahakattas. — The origin of this people of Hindostan is unknown, but the empire bearing theii* name was founded in the latter half of the 17th century, by Sevajee, who received from the king of Bejapore a jaghire in the Carnatic. He supplanted his father in the jaghire of Poonah a.d. 1647, and was succeeded by his son Sambajee in 1680. From 1689 till 1818 the nominal sovereign of the period was kept a close prisoner, the Peishwa vnelding the supreme authoi-ity. When the suc- cession of Eagoba was disputed in 1773, he formed a treaty with the Enghsh govern- ment, by which he was to give them possession of Salsette and Bassein, and they in return were to replace him in oiRce ; but as the English obtained the coveted towns 531 MAI by other means, the treaty was not carried out. Bajeron, the Peishwa, having tried to draw together a confederacy against the English, was compelled to cede a territory worth £340,000 a year in 1815. Having attacked the houses of the British residency, November, 1817, he was defeated in an engagement, and fled. He wandered as a fugitive till he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm in June, 1818. At this time 50,000 square miles of Poonah territory came into British possession, a small principality being assigned to the rajah of Sattara, representa- tive of the founder of the rule. Faihng of legitimate heirs, this principality fell to the English in 1848. A battle between the Mahrattas and the British, under Sir Hugh Gough, was fought at Maharajpore, in which the former were defeated, vnth the loss of fifty-six pieces of artillery. Dee. 29, 1843. Maid A, (Battle,) fought between the French, 7,000 strong, commanded by Gene- ral Eegnier, and the English, numbering 4,800, under Sir John Stuart, at Maida, in Calabria, July 4, 1806. The French were defeated with great loss. Maiden, or Halifax Gibbet, an instru- ment for putting criminals to death, some- what similar to the modern guillotine, was in use in England in the 16th century, and was brought into Scotland during the same century; the commonly -received ac- count, that it was introduced into that kingdom by the regent James, earl of Morton, being incorrect. The earl of Argyll, the last who suffered by it, June 30, 1685, declared that it was " the sweetest maiden he had ever kissed." An instrument of this kind is said to have been in use in various Italian towns about the same period. Maids op Honour. — Four ladies bearing this title are mentioned as having formed part of the queen's establishment in the wardrobe account of Edward I. The number is now hmited to eight, each of whom enjoys a salary of £400 per annum. Maids of honour were suppressed in France by Madame Montespan in 1673. Maidstone (Kent), anciently called Caer Meguaid, or Medwig, the city of the Medway, and liy the Saxons Medwegestan and Med- destane, was a possession of the archbishops of Canterbury, and is so described in Domesday Book, a.d. 1086. It received charters from Edward VI., Elizabeth, James I., Charles II., and George II., and has returned two members to parha- ment since the time of its first charter. During the Great Rebellion the Kentish men, who had risen for the king, were attacked and defeated at Maidstone by Fairfax, June 1, 1648. The Gothic palace of the archbishops of Canterbury was built in 1348 ; its parish church, one of the largest in England, was erected in the 14th century, and has been recently restored. A college, founded by Archbishop Courtenay in the reign of Eichard II. (1377—1399), was sup- pressed by Edward VI., the building now 2 M 2 MAI accommodating All Saints' College, founded in 1846. The county gaol was erected at a cost of £200,000 in 1818. Mail Coaches. — Mr. Palmer, manager of the Bath and Bristol theatres, submitted to Mr. Pitt, then prime-minister, the fiirst sketch of his plan for the conveyance of letters a.d. 1782, and a second, further developed, in 1783. In July of the same year the post-office authorities furnished government with three volumes of objections to the proposed innovation. In spite, how- ever, of this opposition, the first mail coach j was started from London for Bristol Aug. 2, j 1784. In 1786 the post-office declared its opinion that the plan was prejudicial to revenue and commerce. Mr. Palmer's ori- ginal agreement was for 2| per cent, on the surplus of the net revenue over £240,000, and a salary of £1,500 a year, as comptroller- general of the post-office. An annuity of £3,000 was settled upon him in 1792. Maillotiks. — The name given to the citizens of Paris who revolted on account of the tax of the twelfth denier upon provisions, A.D. 1382. They rushed to the Hotel de ViUe, and finding no weapons but leaden mallets, — hence their name, fell upon the collectors of the tax with these, and killed several. The example set by Paris was imi- tated by many provincial towns. The dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, who acted as guardians for their nephew Charles VI., entered into a treaty with the revolted Parisians. The French army, after the battle of Eosebec, or Eosbach, Nov. 17, 1382, marched upon Paris, and the citizens were punished with fines and confiscation in 1383. Mails. — An act for the conveyance of mails by railway (2 Vict. c. 98) was passed Aug. 14, 1838. Maiming, formerly punished by inflicting a similar injury on the offender, as in the Mosaic economy, "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," was afterwards met by fine and imprisonment. By 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 1 (March 6, 1671), malicious wounding and maiming was made a capital offence. This was called the Coventry Act (g. v.), and has since been repealed. It was made a capital felony, if the intention to commit murder is proved, or otherwise, punishable vrith transportation for hfe, by 1 Viet. c. 85 (July 17, 1837). By 9 & 10 Vict. c. 25 (1846), maiming by fire, gun- powder, or explosive and destructive sub- stances, was declared to be felony. Maine (North America) was discovered by one of the Cabots, a.d. 1497. The French visited it soon after, and called the northern part of the country Maine, and the eastern portion Acadie or Acadia. The first settle- ment was made at Phippsburg in 1607, and several others were formed by the Eng- lish about 1635. Sir Ferdinand Gorges re- ceived a proprietary charter in 1639. Maine united to Massachusetts as the coujaty of Yorkshire in 1652 ; was purchased from the Gorges family by Massachusetts in 1676. It MAJ was the theatre of the war between France and England from 1702 to 1713, at the close of which Acadia was ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, March 30, 1713. In 1820 Maine became an independent state. At the close of the war, in 1814, the settle- ment of the boundary between Maine and the British province of New Brunswick was, by the fourth article of the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814, referred to two commissioners, one to be appointed by the king of England, and the other by the president of the United States. In the event of a disagree- ment between these commissioners, the matter was to be referred to some friendly sovereign or state, whose decision was to be final and conclusive. Disputes arose, and by mutual consent the king of Holland was named arbitrator. He decided in favour of Great Britain, but the United States government refused to be bound by the award. Commissioners were sent out in 1839, to examine the botmdary-line claimed by England. In 1841 another commission went to examine the line advocated by America, and they both reported in favour of the English claim. The controversy was at last settled by the Ashburton treaty (q.v.), concluded at Washington Aug. 9, 1842, by which the Americans obtained seven -twelfths of the disputed territory. Maine Liquok Law. — This law, prohibit- ing the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors, except for certain stated pui-poses, and ordering the arrest and imprisonment of drunkards, was established in Maine, June 2, 1851. Main Plot, a conspiracy formed a.d, * 1603, to place Arabella Stuart on the throne, was called the Main to distinguish it from the Bye, the Surprise, or the Surprising treason (q.v.). Isabella Stuart was a cousin of James I., being the daughter of the duke of Lennox, brother to Lord Darnley, the king's father. Sir Walter Ealeigh and Lord Cobham are said to have been the prime movers in this plot. They were seized in July. Sir Walter Ealeigh was indicted on a charge of high treason, Aug. 21, and was tried and con- demned at Winchester, Nov. 17, and Lord Cobham Nov. 25. They were both reprieved, the latter on the scattold, Dec. 9 ; but Ealeigh was kept in the Tower until 1616. Maipu, or Matpu (Battle). — The repub- lican army, led by San Martin, defeated the royalists in a plain bordering on the river Maipu, in Chili, a.d. 1818. Maitland Club (Glasgow), named after Sir Eichard Maitland, who died March 20, 1586, was instituted March 31, 1828. The object of the association is the pubUcation of works illustrative of the history, antiquities, and hterature of Scotland. Majesty. — The title of majesty, at first apphed amongst theEomans to the dictators, the consuls, and the senate, as the represen- tatives of the power of the people, was appro- priated by the emperor Tiberius (a.d. 14-37). It was also adopted by the German emperors, and was introduced into France by Henry II. MAJ about A.D. 1547, though Louis XI. was the first to assume it permanently and oifieially. Francis I. saluted Henry VIII. with this title at their interview in 1520, and he was the first Enghsh monarch to whom it was applied. The French Assembly, in 1791, abolished the title. Majorca (Mediterranean Sea) . — This island is the largest of the Balearic group (q.v.), and but little is kriown of its early history. After the final expulsion of the Moors, A.D. 1268, Jayme I., king of Aragon, conferred the islands upon his third son, and they formed a separate kingdom up to 1349. In 1521 the peasants of Majorca revolted against the nobility, and committed great excesses. Majorca declared for Charles in the war of the Spanish succession. The island was captured in June, 1715, and it re- mained faithful to Spain during the occupa- tion of the Peninsula by the French. Ma LAB AH (Hindostan). — This tract of country, extending from Cape Comorin to the river Chandragiri, was conquered by a king from above the Ghaut mountains, at a very early period. A^asco de Gama landed here May 20, 1498, and the Portuguese soon after formed settlements. In 1761 Hyder Ali subdued the country, and in 1782 he ap- pointed a deputy. A serious rebellion was provoked by an attempt made by Tippoo Saib to introduce rehgious changes in 1788. Christianity was introduced at Malabar at a very early period. Malacca (Malay Peninsula), the capital of a district of the same name, was founded by a Malay king a.d. 1250. The Portuguese visited the town in 1507, Albuquerque cap- tured it in 1511, and it was made a Portu- guese settlement. The Dutch, who failed in an attack in 1605, reduced the place in 1640, and held it tUl Aug. 17, 1795, when it was taken by the British. It was restored at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1807, was soon recaptured, and again restored to the Dutch in 1814. The town and a district of 1,000 square miles were exchanged by the king of the N"etherlands for the British possession of Bencoolen, in the island of Sumatra, by a treaty concluded March 17, 1824. The ex- change was fixed to take place March 1, 1825. Malaga (Sea-Fight) .—An aUied Enghsh and Dutch fleet, consisting of forty-one Eng- lish and twelve Dutch ships of the line and six frigates, engaged the French fleet, of fifty ships of the Une and eight frigates, off Malaga, Sunday, Aug. 13, 1704. The battle lasted till night. It was not renewed on the 14th, and on the 15th the French fleet sailed away. No ships were captured; but the Enghsh and Dutch lost nearly 3,000, and the French 4,000 in killed and wounded. Sir George Rooke commanded the aUied fleets. Mala&a (Spain), the ancient Malaca, is supposed to have been founded by the Phoenicians, and passed under the sway of the Carthaginians, the Remans, the Goths, and the Moors, in rapid succession. Fer- dinand and Isabella wrested it from the Moors, after a siege of three months' MAL duration, Aug. 18, 1487. Sebastian, at the head of a French army, captured Malaga, vrith 120 pieces of cannon and a quantity of stores, Feb. 5, 1810. The national guard revolted, and proclaimed the Spanish con- stitution of 1812 in this town, July 25, 1836. The castle, built by the Moors in 1279, shows traces of the effects produced by the Spanish artillery in the siege of 1487. The cathedral, commenced in 1526, was not com- pleted until 1782 ; and the custom-house, begun in 1791, was finished in 1829. The breakwater was commenced in 1588. Malakhoff (Crimea). — On the invasion of the Crimea by the allied Enghsh, French, and Turkish forces, in the autumn of 1854, this small white stone tower, forming one of the defences of Sebastopol, was much strengthened by the Russians, who con- structed an immense semicircular moimd, mounting thirty guns at its base. As the siege progressed, the defences of the Mala- khoff were still further extended, and it became in fact the key of the whole position. It was assaulted June 18, 1855, by the French, who, after a gallant struggle, were compelled to retire. The Russians did everything in their power to render the Malakhoff impregnable, and the result of their labours has been described as "a formidable pahsade or abattis of sharpened stakes in front ; then an earthen parapet of enormous height and thickness ; then a deep and wide ditch ; then three tiers of batteries rising one above another, armed with more than sixy guns of large calibre ; then sheltered spots at which riflemen might be ijosted ; and, lastly, a place d'armes large enough to contain a powerful defensive or offensive body of infantry." The French collected 25,000 men, exclusive of 5,000 Sardinians and the reserves, for the second assault on the Malakhoff, and it was dehvered Sept. 8, 1855, vrith entire success. For six hours the Russians made various unsuceessful attempts to expel the French. Maldive, or Malediva Islands (Indian Ocean). — This group, according to some authorities, 40,000 or 50,000, and, according to others, 1,900 or 2,000 in number, are described by two Mohammedan travellers of the 9th century. A Portuguese mariner, wrecked upon them in 1512, foimd them occupied by Mohammedans. Maldon- (Essex), supposed to be the ancient Camulodunum, is first mentioned in the reign of Edward the Elder, who, a.d. 920, built and fortified the town. The Danes, who attacked it in 921, were repulsed, but they returned and captured it in 993. Queen Mary granted it a charter June 18, 1553. It has sent members to parliament since 1329. The free grammar-school was founded in 1608. Malegnano, or Mahigij-ano (Battles). — Francis I. defeated an aUied German, Italian, and Swiss army, under the command of Maximilian I., at this village, near Milan, Sept. 13 and 14, 1515. After this victory, Bayard was knighted by the French king. MAL It is sometimes called the battle of St. Donato. In a second battle at the same place, Francis I. was defeated and taken prisoner by the Imperialists, Feb. 23, 1525. The French, who lost 8,000 men, were com- pelled to retreat from Italy. This is sometimes called the battle of Pavia. It was after this battle that Francis I. is said to have declared, " AH is lost but honour." In a third battle fought here, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, June 8, 1859. Malignants. {See Engageks.) Malines, or Mechlin (Belgium). — This town dates from the 5th century of the Christian aera. It was destroyed by the Northmen in 884, was rebuilt in 887, and fortified in 930. The fine Gothic church of St. Eombaud was commenced in 1220. In 1333 Adolphus de la Marck sold Malines to the counts of Flanders, and it subsequently passed into the power of the dukes of Bur- gundy. A league against France was signed here by the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Henry VIII. of England, and Ferdinand of Spain, April 5, 1513. The explosion of a powder-magazine occasioned great loss of life and property in 1546. MaUnes has been several times sacked, — by the Spaniards in 1572, the prince of Orange in 1578, and the Enghsh in 1583. Marlborough took it in 1706, and it was taken by the French in 1746, 1792, and 1794, and in 1804 they destroyed the fortifications. The Academy of Painting was founded in 1771. Malines was erected into an archbishopric ia 1561. Synods were held here in 1570 and 1607. Mallicolo, or Manicola (New He- brides) . — This island, one of the largest in the group, was discovered by Quiros, a.d. 1606. Captain Cook landed upon it in July, 1774. Malmaison (France). — A castle, near Versailles, the retreat of the empress Jo- sephine after her divorce from Napoleon I., and the scene of her death. May 30, 1814. A decree was passed in 1853, for the erection of a monument to ber memory. Malmesbtjrt (Wiltshire). — ^A monastery founded here in the 8th century, was destroyed by the Danes in the 9th. It was restored, destroyed, again restored, and was made a mitred abbey by Edward III. The town was taken by the parhamentary army in 1643. Malmo (Sweden). — A treaty was con- cluded between Sweden and Denmark at this strongly -fortified seaport town, a.d. 1524. On the death of Frederick I. in 1534, Mahno declared in favour of Christian II., who had then been kept in captivity since 1523. An armistice between the Danes and the army of Sleswig-Holstein was signed at Mahno, Aug. 26, 1848. Malo- Jaeoslawitz (Battle) . — Napoleon I. with a portion of the French army, having reached this town, Oct. 23, 1812, on the retreat from Moscow, was assailed by the Eussians under Doctoroff, Oct. 24, when a series of furious encounters followed. The town, fired in several places, was taken and 534 MAL retaken seven different times, and was almost entirely destroyed. Though the French finally succeeded in expelling the Eussians, their losses were very severe, and at a council of war held the night of the battle, Napoleon I. determined to fall back on the Smolensko road, Malo, St. (France). — This seaport town, supposed to have been founded about the 10th century, was attacked by John of Gaunt A.D. 1378. The privateers of St. Malo did so much mischief to English commerce, that in 1693, and again in 1695, the Enghsh bom- barded the town, but without success. They destroyed a nvunber of privateers and other ships in the harbour of St. Malo, June 8, 1758. Another descent made upon the coast of France at St. Malo, Sept. 16, 1758, terminated in a severe loss, 600 having been killed and wounded and 400 taken prisoners. Malplaquet (Battle). — The duke of Marlborough and Prinee Eugene, with an allied English and German army, defeated the French in this plain, near the river Sart, Sept. 11, 1709. The allies lost 18,000, and the French 15,000 in killed and wounded. Malt.— A duty on malt was first imposed during the reign of Charles I., and has formed a regular branch of the revenue since 1697. It was made perpetual by 3 Geo. IV. c. 18 (April 3, 1822), and the law was amended by 11 Geo. IV.c.17 (May 29, 1830). New regu- lations were imposed by 1 Vict. c. 49 (July 12, 1837), and subsequent acts. The question of the repeal of the malt-tax has frequently been debated in the House of Commons. The tax was introduced into Scotland in 1713, and into Ireland in 1783. The imposition of a new malt-tax in Scotland caused serious riots at Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1724. Malta (Knights). — This island was con- ferred by the emperor Charles V. upon the Hospitallers (q.v.), for the heroism which they displayed against the Saracens during the siege of Ehodes. They took possession Oct. 26, 1530 ; and from this time the Hospi- tallers are frequently called the Knights of Malta. Malta ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This island, the ancient Mehta, was first colo- nized by the Phoenicians, and afterwards by the Carthaginians. The Eomans laid it waste B.C. 257. The apostle Paid was wrecked here on his voyage from Palestine to Eome, a.d. 59 (Acts xxviii 1). It fell under the power of the Vandals, and was wrested from them by BeUsarius in 533. They retained possession till it was conquered by the Arabs in 870. They were expelled by the Normans, under Count Eoger, in 1090, and these new occupants held the island tiU 1189, when it passed under the sway of the German emperors. It was in the possession of France 1258 tm 1282, when it passed to the house of Aragon. The emperor Charles V., who in- herited it as king of Aragon, made a grant of it to the Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in 1530. Sohman assailed Malta with a fleet of 159 vessels, carrying 30,000 troops, in 1565. The attack on the castle of MAL St. Elmo commenced May 24, and the be- sieged were reduced to the last extremity when relieved by a Sicilian fleet. A new city, called La Valetta, after the grand master, who had defended the place so heroically against the Turks, was commenced in 1566, and completed in 1571. The Turks failed in another attack upon the island in 1601. The French expedition to Egypt arrived off the island June 9, 1798, when the grand master, Ferdinand Hompetsch, surrendered without striking a blow. The inhabitants revolted in 1798, and waged war against the French, in which they were assisted by an English squadron, until Sept. 5, 1800, when the French commander surrendered the whole island to the English. By the 10th article of the treaty of Amiens (March 25, 1802), Eng- land engaged to restore Malta to the Hospi- tallers, and its independence was to be placed under the guarantee and protection of Great Britain, France, Austria, Spain, Prussia, and Russia. In consequence of the aggressions of Napoleon I. in Italy, Germany, and Holland, and his preparations to carry on war, the English government refused to evacuate the island, and hostilities were renewed. Malta was formally ceded to England by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. Malveen- (Worcestershire) . — Edward the Confessor estabhshed a hermitage at this place, which was subsequently erected into a priory, and on the destruction of the monasteries, Latiraier earnestly prayed that it might be spared for the maintenance of preaching and hospitahty. Henry VII. frequently resided at Malvern ; but it owes its modern celebrity to the mineral waters which abound in its vicinity. Dr. Wall wrote a treatise on their efficacy in 1756. Malwah (Hindostan). — This extensive province was invaded by the Mahrattas in 1707, and was wrested by them from the Mongol empire about 1732. Mamelon (Crimea). — This hiU, about one third of a mile in advance of the Malakhoff, and about a quarter of a mile from the allied French and English batteries, formed one of the chief defences of Sebastopol during the siege. It was about a mile in circumference at the base, and the sides, consisting of quar- ries, were steep and rugged. This was forti- fied by the Eussians in February, 1855. The French captured the Mamelon June 8, 1855. Mamelukes, or Memlooks. — Malek Sa- lech, the Ayoubite sultan of Egypt, formed some Turkish and Circassian slaves into a body-guard, under this name, the word mameluke signifying, in Arabic, slave, a.d. 1230. They revolted, and placed one of their own body on the throne, in 1250. There were two dynasties of the Mameluke sove- reigns; namely, the Baharites, founded by Bayers in 1244 ; and the Borgites, who sup- planted the Baharites in 1381. Tumanbeg, the last sultan of the Mamelukes, was put to death at Cairo, by order of Selim, April 23, 1517. The Mamelukes continued to exist until the remnant of them were massacred at Cairo by Mehemet Ali, March 1, 1811. MAN" Mamees (France), once a fortified town, was taken by the Normans in the 11th cen- tury. The English seized it, and destroyed the fortifications, about a.d. 1428. Mameetine s. — Some mercenary bands, who took possession of Messina about B.C. 282, assumed the name of Mamertini, or " children of Mars," from Mamers, an Oscan name of that deity. Hence Messina {q. v.) was sometimes called Mamertina. Manaae (Manaar Passage). — This island, on the coast of Ceylon, was occupied by the Portuguese a.d. 1560. They were expelled by the Dutch in 1658, and it passed under the rule of the English in 1796. Manassas, or Bull's Eun (Battle). — The Confederates gained a victory over the Federalists, or the Union party, after nine hours' severe fighting, at Bull's Eun, near Manassas Junction, in Tennessee, North America, July 21, 1861. The Federalists, who were in much greater strength than their opponents, were seized with a sudden panic, and, abandoning arms, &c., fled in wild confusion from the field of battle. ' Manchester (Bishopric). — An order in council, dated Dec. 12, 1838, passed for the erection of this diocese, did not take effect, and was subsequently repealed by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 108 (July 23, 1847), which established the bishopric upon another footing. Another order in council was issued Aug. 10, 1847, for carrying this act into effect, and the new see was subjected to the metropolitan juris- diction of the archbishop of York. James Prince Lee was nominated the first bishop, Oct. 23, 1847, and was consecrated Jan. 23, 1848. Manchestee (Lancashire). — The Celts, who migrated from Gaul, established a fort here, called Mancenion, or, 'the place of tents,' about b.c. 38 ; and it feU into the hands of the Eomans a.d. 78, who gave the name of Mancunium to this station. The town was afterwards called Manigceastre, or Mancestre. 446. 620. 870. 920. 1301. 1352. 1421, 1509. 1552. 1578. 1616. 1642. 1645 1653. Agricola erects four forts at the British to-wn Muncenioii. Manchester is coustituted a parish. It is taken by Edwin (.f Northumbria. It is taken by the Danes. Edward the Elder repairs Manchester. Thomas de Grelley grants the " Great Charter of Manchester." The cotton manufacture is introduced by Flemish ailisans. The old church, or cathedral, is founded about this year. Manchester free'grammar-school is founded. An act is passed for the improvement of Manchester cottons. The plague carries off many of the inha- bitants. The College of Manchester is refounded. An extraordinary flood. July 15. A broil between the Boyalists and the Puritans results in a few deatbs, and forms the first occurrence in the civil war. Jan. 12 to 21. The Puritans, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, occupy Manchester. The plague rages with fearful violence. Chetham Library and College are founded. 535 MABT 1654. July 19. Manchester sends its first represen- tatiyeto parliament, by Order of Cromwell. The town lost the franchise at the Eesto ration. 1720. Manchester is described as the largest, richest, most poptdons, and busy village in Eng- land. 1745. Nov. 28. Prince Charles Edwai-d and his army enter Manchester. 1752. The Mercury, the first Manchester paper of any importance, is established. The in- firmary is founded. 1753. June 22. SUght shocks of an earthquake are felt. 1755. The infirmary building is opened. 1760. Cotton goods are first exported. 1761. June 17. The Manchester and Worsley canal is opened. 1779. Oct. 9. Riots against the introduction of machineiy take place. 1780. The muslin manufacture is introduced. 1781. The Philosophical Society is founded. 1783. A night-watch is first appointed. 1787. A great flood does severe damage. 1789. June 19. The Queen's Theatre is destroyed by fire. 1792. The workhouse is erected. 1803. The Philological Society is founded. 1806. Broughton bridge is erected. The Portico is buUt. 1803. May 24 and 25. A dispute between the masters and weavers respecting wages leads to a riot, which is quelled by the military. 1809. The Exchange is opened, and the Man- chester and Salford Water Company esta- blished. 1811. HackJiey coaches are introduced. 1812. April 10. A riotous meeting of the populace is held iu the Exchange. 1816. Nov. 4. The first reform meeting is held at Peter's Fields. 1817. Strangeway's bridge is opened. March 10. The " Blanketeers' " meeting is held. 1818. Gas illumination is introduced. 1819. Aug. 16. Contest at Peterloo (q. v.). 1820. Aug. 1. BJackfi-iai-s bridge is opened. The Chamber of Commerce is established. 1821. Kusholme - Road cemetery is formed. The Natural History Society is instituted. 1822. Aug. 19. The towu-haU is founded. 1823. The Royal Institution is fonned. 1824. The Mechanics Institute is founded. 1825. Jan. 1. Omnibuses are introduced in Man- chester. 1826. Owing to commercial distress, numerous riots take place this year. Broughton suspen- sion-bridge and Hunt's Bank bridge are opened this year. 1827. The Botanical and Horticultural Society is founded. 1828. Oct. 7. The first musical festival is held. 1829. May 2. Seriovis riots take place ; a factory is burnt, and numerous provision-shops are robbed. Tne Manchester Improvement Committee is formed this year. The Phrenological Society is founded. 1830. Sept. 15. "The Manchester and Liverpool railway is opened. The building of the Royal Institution is inaugurated. The Con- cert-hall is opened. 1831. The Botanical Gardens at Old Trafford are opened. 1832. May 14. A tumultuous meeting, in favour of the Reform BUI, is held in Peter's Fields. May 17. The cholera makes its first ajs- pearance. June 7. The Refonn BUI, which constitutes Manchester a parlia- mentary borough, receives the royal assent. Aug. 9. The occasion is celebrated by a brilliant " reform jubilee." 1833. The Choral Society is founded. 1834. The Statistical Society is founded. 1835. Manchester is incorporated by the Municipal Reform Act. 1836. March 23. The Blind Asylum is founded. 536 ma:n" 1837. Feb. 1. The Corn Exchange is opened. Harpurhey cemetery is established. The Athenoeum is built, and the Architectural Society foirnded. 1838. May 24. The East Lancashire raUway is opened. Oct. 23. Manchester receives a charter of incorporation. The Geological Society is established. 1839. June 20. Victoria bridge, over the Irwell, is opened. 1840. Oct. 5. Manchester College, in connection ■with London University, is opened. The Victoria Gallery is opened. 1842. The British Association meets at Manchester. 1844. May 7. The Theatre Royal is burnt down. Sept. 26. Albert bridge is opened. 1845. April. The public baths and wash-houses are opened. June 10. The Commercial Schools are founded. Sept. 29. The new Theatre Royal is opened. Dec. 23. A great auti- comlaw league meeting is held. 1846. Peel Park is opened. 1847. The Exchange is enlarged. 1849. The borough gaol is erected. 1851. Oct. 7. The Queen visits Manchester. Owen's College {q. v.) is founded. 1852. Sept. 2. The free library is opened. 1855. June 21. The buUding for the Mechanics' Institute is founded. ia57. May 5. The Art - Treasiu-es Exhibition is opened by Prince Albert. 1861. The British Association meets at Manchester for the second time. Manchestee Aet- Treasures Exhi- BiTiON. — The idea of holding an art- treasures exhibition at Manchester was suggested by Mr. Deane, the general com- missioner of the exhibition, to a meet- ing held at Manchester March 26, 1856. A guarantee fund of £74,000 having been raised in three weeks, a site was selected at Old Traiford, adjoining the Botanical Gardens, for the erection of the building, which was a parallelogram, of 660 feet by 220 feet, covering an area of 130,000 square feet, at a cost of about £30,000. The ar- rangement of the art-treasures was placed under the direction of George Scharf, F.E.S. The n\miber of paintings of all kinds, col- lected in this building, by old masters, was 1,115, and by modern masters, 689. There were, in addition, 969 water-colour drawings ; 388 British portraits, 59 cases of enamels, 280 original sketches and drawings by the old masters, 937 engravings iu hue, 161 in mezzotinto, 246 etchings, and 600 photo- graphs. The museum of ornamental art comprised 17,000 articles. It was opened by Prince Albert May 5, 1857, and closed on the 17th of October. During the time it re- mained open it was visited by 1,335,915 per- sons; and it was, in all respects, a great success. Ma^chestee (North America), merely a village in 1840, received a charter in 1846. Mandates, or Letters from the Pope, requesting a bishop to confer the next vacant benefice upon some person named therein, were first issued by Adrian IV. (a.d. 1154 — 1159). The practice was continued by Alexander III. (1159—1181), until Clement IV., in 1266, issued a bull claiming the right of nomination in certain cases. The right of issuing royal mandates to judges, for inter- MAIS- MAN fering in private causes, was relinquislied as a prerogative of the English crown by Edward I. MANFREDOjriA (Italy), named after King Manfred, who founded it a.d. 1250, was at first named Novum Sipontum, because it stood near the site of that ancient town. A bay in the vicinity is called the Gulf of Manfredonia. The town was taken by the Turks in 1620. Mangaloee (Hindostan) . — This tovra, supposed to have been colonized by Arabs at a very early period, was taken by Hyder All in 1767. The EngHsh, who took it Feb. 25, 1768, were compelled to retire early in May of the same year. They re- covered it in 1783, the fortress surren- dering March 9. Tippoo Saib besieged it May 23, and, having converted the siege into a ijlockade, the garrison capitulated Jan. 26, 1784. The English restored it at the conclusion of peace in that year ; but it came into their possession, with the whole of the Carnatic, after the final overthrow of Tippoo in 1799. Man&aloee, (Treaty,) was concluded be- tween the British and Tippoo Saib at this town, in Hindostan, March 11, 1784. A restitution of conquests was agreed to on both sides. Manganese was included among iron ores irntQ a.d. 1774, when Scheele, and afterwards Gahn, proved that the metal in this mineral was distinct from iron. Mangaeeva Geoup. {See Gameiee Is- lands.) Manich^ans. — This heretical sect was foimded in Persia by Mani, Manes, or Manichseus, about a.d. 261. He endea- voured to engraft Christianity upon the doctrines of the Magi, who beneved in the two principles. The heresy spread rapidly through Persia, Egypt, and Palestine, ulti- mately aflfecting the whole Roman empire. Mani was burned ahve by Varanes I. in 274. Mihnan (Lat. Christianity, b. ii. c. 4) remarks, " That sebt, in vain proscribed, persecuted, deprived of the privilege of citizens, placed out of the pale of the law by successive imperial edicts; under the abhorrence not merely of the orthodox, but of almost all other Christians, were con- stantly springing up in all quarters of Christendom with a singularly obstinate vitahty." It appeared under various dis- guises, and many of its main features were adopted by the Paulicians (q. v.), who sprung up at Samosata. The Manichseans were condemned by several councils, and Pope Leo I. ordered their books to be burned in 443. Manilian Law. — In the year B.C. 66, Caius ManUius, one of the tribunes, pro- posed the revival of a law relating to the enrolment of freedmen, which had been carried by the popular party under Carbo, and was afterwards repealed by Sylla. By proposing it suddenly, at a late "hour of the day, when the majority of the citizens were absent from the forum, he succeeded ia his object ; but it was instantlj' annulled by the senate, because it had been Ulegally passed. This is said to have been the origin of the celebrated Manilian law, vesting the sole management of the war against Tigranes and Mithridates in Pompey. It was sup- ported by Caesar and Cicero, and passed B.C. 65. Manilla (Indian Archipelago). — This city, on the island of Luzon, and capital of the Philippines, was founded by the Spaniards a.d. 1571. An expedition, fitted out at Madras, under Admii-al Cornish and Colonel William Draper, took the place Oct. 6, 1762 ; when, to save the rich cargoes that lay in the port, a ran- som of £1,000,000 was promised ; an ar- rangement which the king of Spain after- wards refused to ratify. It was restored to Spain by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The royal college for the instruction of youths was founded by Phihp IV. in 1645 ; the bronze statue of Charles IV., standing in the pubhc square, was presented to the town by Ferdinand VII. in 1824. England was allowed to trade here in 1809, a privi- lege previously withheld from foreigners, and extended to all nations in 1814. An earth- quake in 1645 destroyed 3,000 lives ; and others in 1762 and 1824 did much damage. A fire, by which 10,000 huts were destroyed, 30,000 persons rendered honsieless, and fifty hves lost, occurred March 26, 1833. Manilla Islands. {See Philippines.) Manissa (Greece), the ancient Magnesia ad Sipylum, surrendered to the Eomans under Scipio, B.C. 190, and was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, when Tiberius granted funds from the treasury to aid in its restoration, a.d. 17. The emperor of Nicsea, Theodore II., died here a.d. 1258, and it fell into the hands of the Turks A.D. 1312. Mannheim (Baden). — Frederick IV., the elector palatine, enlarged and fortified this place, then merely a village, a.d. 1606. It suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War. The French captured it in 1688, and the fortifications were improved in 1699, The French besieged Mannheim in 1793 ; but, having retired, returned and captured it Sept. 20, 1795. The French garrison capitulated to the Austrians, Nov. 22 in the same year. Mannheim was again taken by the French, March 2, 1799; and they were expelled by the Austrians, Sept. IS, 1799. One portion of the aUied army passed the Rhine at this place in the night of Dec. 31, 1813. Mannheim was made the seat of the electoral court in 1720 ; and it was removed to Munich in 1778, and the town was assigned to Baden-Baden by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. The palace, founded in 1720, was completed ia 1731. Mange. — In the feudal times, amanor was a territorial district, with jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites thereto belonging. In Eng- land manors were afterwards called baronies, and ultimately lordships. Each lord held a 537 MAN" court, called Court Baron (q.v.), for redress- I ing wrongs and settling disputes among the tenants. A writer in the National Cyclopae- dia remarks : " The modern English manor derives its origin from subinfeudation, as it existed before the modifications of the sys- tem of tenures introduced in 1215 by Magna Charta, and the still more important alter- ations made in 1290, by the statute 'Quia Emptores,' and in 1324 by the statute ' de Prserogativa Eegis,' by which statutes the granting land in fee simple, to be held by , the grantee as a tenant or vassal to the ' grantor, was stopped." Manresa (Spain).— a French brigade was cut off near this town by the Spaniards, A.D. 1810. The French captured and de- stroyed it in May, 1811. The modern bridge over the Carbonero was built in 1804. Mansion House (London) was founded ; A.D. 1739, from the designs of George Dance, ! city surveyor. The use of the Mansion House, furniture, carriages, &c., and an \ allowance of £8,000, is granted to the Lord Mayor during the year that he holds the office. It was first occupied in 1753, by Thomas Winterbottom, who died during his mayoralty. Mans, Le (France), formerly the chief town of Maine, is built upon the site of the Eoman Smudinum, which in the 4th century was called Oenomania, from which the present name is derived. Its earlier inhabi- tants, the Cenomani, joined Vercingetorix against Caesar, B.C. 52. The church of Notre Dame du Pre dates from the 11th, the church de la Couture from the 12th, and the cathedral of St. Julien from the 13th century. Henry II. of England was born at Le Mans in March, 1133. The church de I'Ancienne Visitation was opened in 1737. Le Mans has sustained several sieges. Mor- ceau drove the royalists from this stronghold during the Vendean war, Dec. 13 — 16, 1793. The Chouans took Le Mans in March, 1799. Mansurah, or El Mansoorah (Battle). — The Saracens defeated the Crusaders at a great battle near this town, in Lower Egj^t, April 5, 1250 a.d. Louis IX. was compelled to purchase peace on very humiliating terms. Mantes (France).— William I., having marched with an army from Normandy into France, burned this town to the ground in August, 1087. It is in this conflict his horse is said to have set its foot on some hot ashes, and, by plunging violently, bruised its rider on the pommel of his saddle. The injuries William I. received brought on an iUness, of which he died at the monastery of St. Gervas, Sept. 9. Mantinea, or Mantineia (Greece). — This city of Arcadia, said to have been named after Mantineus, son of Lycaon, was founded by the inhabitants of four or five villages at an early period. Mention is made of the city about B.C. 540; and an indecisive battle was fought between Mantinea and Tegea, b.c. 423. The Spartans, under Agis, defeated the combined army of Argives, Mantineians, and Athenians, near this city. MAN in June, 418 B.C. They were defeated by the Spartans B.C. 385, and compelled to re- tire from their city, the walls of which were destroyed. They returned after the battle of Leuctra, July, 371 B.C., and began to re- build their city. Epaminondas, the Theban general, defeated them at the second battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362. The city was taken and pillaged, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves, by Antigonus Doson, king of Mace- donia, B.C. 222. It was rebuilt, and called Antigonea, after Antigonus Doson, and did not resume its former name until the time of Hadrian. In addition to the aforemen- tioned battles, the defeat of Archidamus and the Spartans by Demetrius Pohorcetes, B.C. 295; the defeat of the Spartans under Agis, by Aratus and the Achseans, B.C. 242; and the defeat of the Spartans by the Achaean forces under Phdopofmen, B.C. 207, are all known as battles of Mantinea, be- cause they were fought in a plain near that city. Man-Traps and Spring-Guns.— By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18 (May 28, 1827), any person setting any spring-gun, man-trap, or other engine calculated to destroy life, or inflict grievous bodily harm, was to be guilty of a misdemeanour. The act did not extend to Scotland. By the fourth clause, spring- guns, &c., might be set inside a dweUing- house for the protection thereof, from sunset to sunrise. Mantua (Italy).— This city of Northern Italy was founded by the Etruscans at a very early date, but little is known with certainty respecting its ancient history. It passed under the Eoman power B.C. 197, and is naemorable as having been the birthplace of Virgil, B.C. 70. Its territories were distri- buted among the veterans of Augustus, B.C. 42 ; and it was sacked by the troops of Vitellius A.D. 69. In 270 it was piUaged by the Marcomani, and in 403 and 408 was taken by Alaric. After numerous reverses of for- tune, Mantua passed into the hands of Louis I. of Gonzaga in 1328 ; and, under his rule, speedily attained great importance. In 1392 a confederation was signed here with other Italian cities, for the maintenance of the equiUbrium of Italy. The town was erected into a marquisate in 1433, and into a duchy in 1530. Mantua was besieged and taken by the Imperiahsts, after an arduous siege, which lasted from Aprfl 8 to July 18, 1630. In 1701 it was occupied by the French, and in 1707 was taken by the Imperialists. On the extinction of the house of Gonzaga in 1708, it passed into the power of Joseph I. of Austria; and in 1791 Leopold II. and the Bourbon enaigrants organized a coalition here against the French republic. It was taken by Bonaparte, after a siege which lasted from June 14, 1796, till Feb. 2, 1797, and erected into the cliief town of the department of the Mincio. The Austrians regained possession July 30, 1799, but it was restored to France in 1800, after the battle of Ma- rengo. It was restored to Austria in 1814. By the treaty of Zurich, Nov. 10, i MAP Mantua and Peschiera were the only towns of Lombardy left to the house of Austria. Mantua was erected into a bishopric in 808. Councils were held here in 827, 1053, and 1067. Maple. — The scarlet maple was intro- duced into England, from North America, before a.d. 1656, and the ash-leaved maple from the same part of the world before 1688. Maps. — Anaximander of Miletus is the reputed inventor of geographical maps, about B.C. 568. The first maps engraved from metal plates were used to illustrate an edition of Ptolemy's Geography, published in A.D. 1462 ; and the first marine charts seen in England were brought by Bartholomew Columbus in 1488. Mercator's projection was invented in 1556, by Gerard Mercator, and improved in 1599 by Wright. Makathom" (B attles ) . — A great battle, in which the Greeks, under Miltiades, de- feated the Persians and vindicated the in- dependence of Greece, was fought in the plain of Marathon, in Arcadia, B.C. 490. Marathon is mentioned as a place of im- portance in the Homeric poems. The Greeks, during the war of independence, defeated 2,000 Turks at Marathon, July 18, 1824 A.D. Makbach League. — The elector of May- ence, the margrave ot Baden, several power- ful princes, and many of the free towns, formed a league at Marbach, a.d. 1406, under pretence of redressing various wrongs and abuses, for the destruction of the emperor Eupert. He made some conces- sions, and the league was dissolved. Marble. — Phny states that marble was first employed as a material for sculpture by Dipsenus and ScyUis, who were born in Crete about b.c. 580. They used the white marble of Pharos in their works. The practice of staining marble commenced during the reign of Claudius. Maeble Arch (London) was erected by George IV. as a gateway to Buckingham Palace, a.d. 1830, and was removed to its present site, at the north-east entrance of Hyde Park, in 1851. The original cost was £80,000, and the expense incurred by the removal amounted to £11,000. Marburg- (Hesse-Cassel). — The landgrave Phihp founded the first Lutheran university at tins town a.d. 1527. A conference was held in its castle between Luther, Melanc- thon, and other German reformers, Oct. 1, 1529. The French captured Marburg June 3, 1759, but were expelled by the Austrians Sept. 11. The French took it again in 1760 ; and the garrison, assailed by the Austrians without success in 1761, was compelled to surrender in 1762. The church of St. Elizabeth, commenced in 1235, was not completed until 1283. March. — The third month in the year was named Martins by the Romans, after the god Mars. The Anglo-Saxons called it Slyd Monath, i.e. stormy month. The old proverb, " A bushel of March dust is worth MAE a monarch's ransom," expresses the value formerly attached to a dry March. Marches, or country lying near the marks or boundaries of two kingdoms, often had peculiar rights and customs. The authority of the lords of the marches, called lords marchers, — whence the title marquis, between England and Wales, was abolished by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). The Court of the Marches of Wales was abolished by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 27 (1689). Marchfield (Battle). — Eodolph of Habsburg defeated the Bohemian monarch Ottocar II. at Marchfield, near Vienna, Aug. 26, 1278. Ottocar II. fell in the en- counter, which took place between Weiden- dorf and Jedensberg. Marchioness. — The title of marchioness was bestowed upon Lady Anne Rochfort in 1532, and she was invested at Windsor, Sunday, Sept. 1, in the same year, MARCiAiiriSTS, a distinct sect from the Marcionites, were thus named from Marci- anus Trapezita, who, in the time of Jus- tinian I. (a.d. 527 — 565), observed the Sabbath as a fast. Marcianopolis (Mcesia), named after Marciana, the sister of Trajan, who built it in her honour, was the capital of the second Mcesia. The Goths assailed it in the 3rd century, but, on the payment of tribute, retired. It was made the capital of Bulgaria, and was frequently besieged. Marcionites. — A sect of heretics founded by Marcion, son of the bishop of Sinope, and a sailor, about a.d. 150. He held that there were three original princi- ples. His followers were the forerunners of the Maniehseans. They admitted no married persons to their baptism, requiring all can- didates to be either virgins, widows, bache- lors, or divorced persons. Marcion held it lawful to repeat baptism three times for the remission of sins. TertuUian wrote against this heresy in 207. Marcomanni. — The name Marc-o-manni, i. e. March-men, or borderers, was given by the Romans to various tribes on the con- fines of Germany. Some hordes under this name were driven out of Gaul by Julius Caesar, B.C. 58. Marobodnus formed a league amongst these tribes, and concluded a treaty with the emperor Tiberius, a.d. 6. The Cherusci defeated the Marcomanni A.D. 17, and a peace was mediated between them by Drusus. Domitian made war upon them, and was defeated a.d. 90. In alhance with other tribes they invaded the Roman empire in 166, when a war commenced, which was not brought to a close until 180. They ravaged Italy in 270. The last notice of the Marcomanni is in 451, when they formed a contingent of the army with which Attila invaded Gaul and Italy. Marcou, St. (EngHsh Channel) .—These islands, off* the coast of France, were taken by the Enghsh a.d. 1795. The small ga,rrison repulsed an attack made by a flotilla of French gunboats. May 7, 1798. The EngHsh lost one man killed and four woimded, 539 MAR MAE whilst the French admitted a loss of seTe- | ral hundred in kiUed and wounded. These islands were restored to France by the } treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. ' Maedia (Battle) . — Constantine I. defeated his rival Licinius, in this plain, in Thrace, A.D. 315. In consequence of this defeat, Licinius entered into a treaty with Constan- tine in December, 315. Thrace. Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt were assigned to Licinius. MAEEis-ao (Battle). — The Austrian army under Melas was totally defeated by the French at this village, near Alessandria, in Italy, June 14, 1800. The Austrians had defeated their antagonists at all points, and K'apoleon was about to order a retreat, when Desaix, who was killed in the moment of victory, counselled further resistance, and EeUermann by a brilliant charge changed the fortunes of the day. A pageant, repre- senting the battle, was held on this plain, in presence of Napoleon I., the empress, and a large assemblage of spectators, in 1805. Margarita (Caribbean Sea). — This island was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1498. Mae&ate (Kent). — The name is said to be derived from Meregate, on account of the hoUow between two hills in which the town is situated. Bathing-machines were introduced here about a.d. 1790. The fii'st stone of the General Sea-Bathing Infirmary was laid June 21, 1792, and Trinity church was erected in 1825. Maegus, Moegum, orMuEGm (Battles). — Carinus, who disputed the empire with Dio- cletian, was defeated and slain near this city of Mcesia, at the confluence of the Margus and the Danube, in May, 285 a.d. The Goths defeated a Roman atmy under Sabinian at Margus in 505. Maeia Island (Pacific) was discovered by Tasman a.d. 1642. Maeia Louisa, (Order,) was founded A.D. 1792 for ladies only. Maeian Peesecutiok' commenced in January, 1555, when thirty persons, found using the service-book of Edward VI., were seized and imprisoned. Eogers was burned at the stake in Smithfield, Feb. 4, and Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, at Gloucester, Feb. 9. Justices of the peace were ordered to search for heretics, and many persons were apprehended and executed, thirteen having been burnt at Smithfield, June 27, 1553. Ridley and Latimer, condemned as obstinate heretics, were burned at Oxford Oct. 16. Cranmer suifered in the same manner at Oxford, March 21, 1556. Ac- cording to the lowest estimate, nearly 500 persons, belonging to the clergy and the laity, suffei-ed during this persecution, which terminated at the death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. Above 1,000 persons sought refuge in Germany and Switzerland whilst the persecution lasted. Maeia Theeesa, (Order,) was founded A.D. 1757 in Austria. Maeie-Galante (Caribbean Sea). — This island, discovered by Christopher Columbus 540 A.D. 1493, was settled by the French in 1647. Maeienbeeg (Saxony). — This town, cele- brated for its iron and silver mines, was founded by Henry, duke of Saxony, a.d. 1519. Maeienbueg (Prussia). — The grandmas- ter and the knights of the Teutonic order removed their seat from Venice to this town A.D. 1309. A league of Prussian cities, called the Convention of Marienburg, was formed in 1436. The Teutonic knights com- pelled the Prussians to dissolve this league. The Poles having assailed the castle imsuc- cessfuUy in 1410 and in 1420, captvired it in 1457. The castle, which had fallen into de- cay, was restored by the king of Prussia, in 1815. Maeienweedee (Prussia) . — The Prussian cities of the province having formed a league against the Teutonic knights, a.d. 1440, transferred then- allegiance to the king of Poland in 14-54. Near the capital, of the same name, Prince Eugene was surprised by the forces of Wittgenstein, and suffered a severe defeat, Jan. 12, 1813. Maeietta (North America) was founded by colonists from New England, a.d. 1788, and was named after Marie Antoinette. The college was founded in 1832. Maeinee's Compass. {See Amalphi and Compass.) Maeines are first mentioned, according to Grose, a.d. 1684. In the reign of WilUam III. the soldiers on the navy esta- bhshment seem to have been put in training as seamen. Six regiments of maritime soldiers were raised in 1702. On the recom- mendation of Lord Anson, 130 companies were raised and placed under the control of the Admiralty in 1755. The title "Royal" was bestowed" upon the coi-ps by George III., j May 1, 1802, as a mark of approbation for their serWces during the war. Maei>-o, San (Italy). — A hermit named Marinus, who had been a mason, came from Dalmatia, and settled in this locality a.d. 469, ; and at his death a church was built, and ' a village gradually formed. It had become I a waUed town, and was called Plebs Santi Marini cum CasteUo, in the 10th century ; I and in the 12th century the commune of j San Marino purchased some neighbouring lands from the lords of Urbino. In the ! civil wars between the Guelphs and Ghibel- hnes, the people sided with the latter, for j which they were excommunicated b}' Inno- cent IV. (1243—1254). Called upon to pay taxes to the papal government about the end of the 14th century, they refused, and on reference of the dispute to a judge of Rimini, decision was given in their favour ; from which period San Marino has been acknowledged as an independent state. This independence was respected by Napo- leon L, and confii-med by the pope on hia restoration in 1814. Maeischal College. (See Aberdeen.) Maek. — An old gold coin in England, value 13s. M., bore this name. The silver MAR mark seems to have originated in Denmark, and was long current on the continent, especially amongst the northern nations. James VI. of Scotland coined a two-mark piece, a balance-mark, and a half-mark, in silver. Previous to his accession to the British throne, he had two sets of thistle- marks, so named from the thistle on the reverse, and half-marks struck. These seem to have been the last coins of this name struck in Great Britain. Markets, held in former times chiefly on Sundays and holidays, as the people then assembled for divine service, were forbidden to be held in churchyards by 13 Edw. I. c. 5 (1285). By 27 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1418), Sunday markets, except on the four Sundays in harvest, were prohibited ; and by 29 Charles II. c. 7 (1677), markets were de- clared illegal on any Sunday. Maek's, St. (Venice), considered to be the finest Byzantine church in Western Europe, was built a. d. 977 — 1043, the original church having been destroyed in 976. The foundation-stone came into possession of Mr. Douce in 1834, and is now preserved in the Doueean Museum, Goodrich Court, Herefordshire. Howell, in his letters, men- tions a huge iron chest as tall as himself, which he saw in the treasury, with a crevice for receiving the gold, bequeathed to the saint, A.D. 1619. The emperor Frederick I. and Pope Alexander III. met here, when a proclamation of peace was made with much ceremony, July 24, 1177. Maelboeoxtgh House (London). — This house was built by Sir Christopher Wren for the great duke of Marlborough, in 1709 and 1710, and was bought by the Crown as a residence for the Princess Charlotte and Prince Leopold in 1817. The queen dow- ager Adelaide was the last resident of Marl- borough House, and after her death, in 1849, the queen allowed it to be used for the Vernon gallery of paintings. The prince of Wales mil reside here on attaining his ma- jority. Maelboeough (Wiltshire) received its first charter a.d. 1205. A parhament met here Nov. 18, 1267, in the reign of Henry III., when the statutes of " Mar- leberg " were made, which have since been constantly received as the law of the land. The college, for the education of 500 pupils, sons of clergymen and others, was incor- porated in 1843. Maemande (France). — This ancient town is said to have been occupied by the Goths, and was destroyed by the Saracens in the 8th century. It was rebuilt and captured by Simon of Montfort in 1212, and by Amaury of Montfort in 1219. The English took it in 1427, and Henry IV. of France besieged it in 1577. Maronites. — Gibbon (ch. xlvii.) asserts : •' In the style of the Oriental Christians, the Monothelites of every age are described under the appellation of Maronites, a name which has been insensibly transferred from an hermit to a monastery, from a monastery MAE to a nation. Maron, a saint or savage of the 5th century, displayed his religious madness in Syria; the rival cities of Apa- mea and Emesa disputed his relics, a stately church was erected on his tomb, and 600 of his disciples united their solitary cells on the banks of the Orontes." The subject is involved in obscurity ; but the truth ap- pears to be, that John Maro, or Maron, a monk, founded several convents on Mount Lebanon during the 5th century. He maintained the independence of his follow- ers, and assumed the title, " Patriarch of Antioch." His followers became infected with the Monothelite doctrine in the 7th century, and were from that time called Maronites, and regarded as a distinct sect. They renounced the Monothehte doctrine in 1182, and were readmitted into the Eoman Catholic church. They yielded, however, only a modified obedience to Eome, and have frequently been subjected to severe persecutions. A large number of the Ma- ronite Christians were massacred by the Druses {q. v.) in the neighbourhood of Beyrout and Lebanon, in May and June, 1860, and from 1,000 to 2,000 were killed in the streets of Damascus July 9. The re- marks of Gibbon hold good, that " the humble nation of the Maronites has survived the empire of Constantinople, and they still enjoy, under their Turkish masters, a free religion and a mitigated servitude." Maeoons. — When Spain was dispossessed of Jamaica by the English, May_ 3, 1655, the slaves belonging to the Spaniards be- took themselves to the mountains, and, re- cruited by runaways, soon became for- midable under the name of Maroons. General Trelawney succeeded in making an arrangement by which they were confined to certain localities, in 1738. A rebelhoa broke out amongst them in 1795, which was suppressed ; and 600 of the insurgents were transported to Nova Scotia in 1796, 350 of whom were removed to Sierra Leone in October, 1800, at a cost to the govern- ment of £5,903. 19s. Qd. Maeotjga (Battle). — The Eoman army, led by Julian, on their retreat from Assyria, defeated the Persians at Marouga a.d. 363. Mae-Prelate Tracts. — The first of these tracts, under the name of Martin Mar- Prelate, was printed at a movable press, and appeared a.d, 1588. A letter, in- structing the archbishop to find out and commit to prison the authors and printers, was issued Iby the council November, 1588. Henry Penry, a Welshman, executed in 1593 for writing a pamphlet, was suspected of haying assisted in the preparation of these Libels upon the prelacy. They have also been attributed to Throgmorton, to Udal, and to Fenner. Marquesas, or Mendawa IsiiAWDS (South Pacific Ocean) , were discovered by Mendana de ISTeyra, a.d. 1595, who named theni in honour of the marquis of Mendoza, vice- roy of Peru. Hood's Island, one of the group, was discovered by Captain Cook, 5 111 MAR April 6, 1776, and several others by the Americans in 1797. "With the exception of three — Huahine, Eaiatea, and Borabora — they were placed under the protectorate of France, June 19, 1847. Maequis. — The title of marquis is derived from the lords marchers, appointed to guard the marches, or boundary-lands, who were suppressed by 7 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). In the time of Edward III. a foreign noble- man, the marquis of Juliers, was made an English peer, with the title of earl of Cam- bridge ; and Eichard II. created Robert de Vere marquis of DubUn, a.d. 1385, he being the first English peer who bore the title. The marquis of Huntly and the marquis of Hamilton, created a.d. 1599, were the first who bore the title in Scotland. The practice of granting it as a second title to a dukedom was adopted after 1689. Maeeiage. — The institution of marriage is usually referred to Gen. ii. 21 — 25, which relates that God, in the garden of Eden, gave Eve to Adam as his wife. This view of the subject is confirmed by the answer given by Christ to the Pharisees, a.d. 29 (Mark x. 6 — 10). Among the ancient Greeks the nuptials were celebrated with various ceremonies ; but no record was kept of their solemnization, and the only proof of their having taken place was afforded by the guests who were present at the wedding least. The social position of wives among the Greeks was extremely low, sterility being esteemed in some states a sufficient cause for separation. Among the Romans no forms were requisite, though certain ceremonies were usually observed. The Lex Juha et Papia Poppaea, passed B.C. 18 and a.d. 9, placed certain restrictions respecting the parties be- tween whom marriages might be contracted. Roman wives were treated with great consi- deration. They presided over the education of the children, conducted the household, and shared in the honour and respect shown to their husbands. 325. The council of Nice prohibits ecclesiastics from marrying after their ordination. 366. Marriage during Lent is prohibited by the council of Loadicea. 450. Numerous synods discountenance the mar- riage of the clergy about this time. 692. Bishops are prohibited from marrying. 721. The councU of Rome defines the degrees of consanguinity within which marriage is unlawful. 868. May 16. The Canons of 'Worms totally pro- hibit the clergy from mari-ying. 1073. Priests are oomi^elled to take the vow of celibacy. 1100—1200. Matrimony first mentioned as a .sacra- ment. 1199. Innocent III. orders the marriage ceremony to take place in churches. 1533. Bishops are empowered to grant licences for marrying without banns. 1538. A proclamation is issued in England enforcing clerical celibacy. 1545 — 1563. The council of Trent includes marriage amongst the seven sacraments. 1549. The marriage of the clergy is permitted by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 21. 1554. The married clergy who do not separate from theu- wives are expelled. 542 MAR 1695. May 1. A duty is imposed upon marriages by e & 7 Will. III. & Mary, c. 6, on a some- what similar scale to that adopted in the tax upon births {q. v.). 1753. Clandestine marriages are prohibited by Lord Hardwicke's act (26 Geo. II. c. 33). 1772. The Royal MaiTiage Act (12 Geo. III. c. 2) prohibits the descendants of George IT., unless of foreign birth, from contracting any marriage without the royal consent, until they attain the age of twenty -five years. After that age the consent of par- liament is necessary. 1808. July 2. By 48 Geo. III. c. 149, a stamp-duty of lOs. is imposed upon every licence for marriage, and of £4 for every special licence. 1822. Juiy 22. The act of 1753 is amended by 3 Geo. TV. c. 75, which limits the right of granting licences to the archbishops of Can- terbury and Y..rk. Certain provisions of this act are repealed by 4 Geo. IV. c. 17 (March 26, 1823). 1823. July 18. Former laws are repealed by 4 Gpo. rv. c. 76, which insists on a religious cere- mony as esseutial to the marriage uontrai t. 1836. Aug. 17. Maiiiages are permitted to he solemnized without a religious ceremony, by registrar's certificate, or in dissenting chapels, by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. a5. They are ordered to be registered by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86. 1837. June 30. The marriage acts are amended bv 1 Vict. c. 22. 1840. Aug. 7. Provisions are made for solemnizing marriages nesr the residence of the con- tracting par-ties, by 3 & 4 Vict c. 72. 1856. July 29. The marriage and registration acts are amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 119. {See Divorce.) 1858. July 2. The bill for authorizing man-iage with a deceased wife's sister passes the Commons. July 23. It is rejected by the Lords. Maeetjcini.— This nation, of Sabine origin, frequently in alliance with the Marsi and Pehgni, became allies of the Romans B.C. 304. During the Social war, however, they revolted, and about the close of b.c. 89 they were defeated and their territory ravaged by Sulpicius, Pompey's lieutenant, and they were afterwards reduced to submission by Pompey himself, b.c. 52. They revolted against Antonius B.C. 43. Maesala (Sicily), the ancient Lilybaeum (7. ».),was restored by the Saracens, who esteemed its harbour so highly that they called it Marsa Alia, i. e. the port or harbour of God. In the 16th century the harbour was blocked up with a mound of sunken rocks, by order of the emperor Charles V., to protect it from the Barbary corsairs. Maeseillaise.— This celebrated repub- lican hymn was composed by Rouget de LiUe, a French officer of engineers, whilst quartered at Strasburg, in February, 1792. It was called the Marseillaise, because a body of troops on their march from Mar- seilles entered Paris in July, 1792, playing the tune, at that time little known in the capital. The author, who had fallen in love with the daughter of Dietrich, mayor of Strasburg, composed the verses in a single night, and repeated them the following morning to the young girl, to whom he was passionately attached. AKson calls the Marseillaise hymn the "Rule Britannia" of the revolution. MAR Marseilles (France), the ancient Massalia, called by the Eomans Massilia, was founded by a colony of Greeks from Phocsea, in Ionia, B.C. 600. B.C. 542. A second colony settles at Massalia. 218. Maspalia assists the Bomaus in the second Punic war. 154. The people call in the aid of the Romans against the Deceates and Oxybii. 49. Massalia refuses to admit Julius Coesar within her gates, and is in consequence besieged and taken. A.D. 470. Euric, king of the Visigoths, takes Marseilles. 839. It is plundered by the Saracens. 1190. Richard I. of England embarks at Marseilles for the Holy Land. 1214. Marseilles is erected into an independent republic. 1251. It passes under the dominion of the counts of Provence. 1423. It is sacked by Alfonso of Aragon. 1481. It is reunited to the French crown. 1524. The inhabitants repel an attack by the con- stable of BourboiL 1596. Marseilles submits to Henry IV. 1660. Louis XIV. takes away its franchise. 1720. The plagiie carries off about 40 000 persons. 1789. April 30. The inhabitants of JMaxseilles join in the revolution. 1793. Aug. 25. Marseilles is taken by the repub- licans, for having assisted the Gironditis. 1855. The new harbour of La Joliette is completed. 1858 to 1860. The Exchange is erected. Marshal, or Makeschal. — This term was first applied to an officer who had the care or command of horses. The word is derived by Nicod from polemarchus, and by Matthew Paris from Martis senescallus. Napoleon I. created eighteen marshals of the empire in 1804. Mabshalsea Cottrt. {See Board op Greek Cloth, and Palace Court.) Marsi, or Marsians, a nation of central Italy, first mentioned in Roman history B.C. 340, at which time they were on friendly terms with the Romans, against whom they leagued with the Samnites, B.C. 308. They concluded a treaty with the Romans 304 b.c, but again took up arms b.c. 301, when they were defeated, and were compelled to pur- chase peace by the cession of part of their territory. They became faithful allies of Rome, and were among the first to offer voliinteers to the fleet and army of Scipio, B.C. 205. In the Social, sometimes called the Marsic war, B.C. 91, they took a promi- nent part, and gained several victories over the Romans ; but in the next campaign, B.C. 89, after repeated defeats, they were compelled to sue for peace. The Marsi received the full rights of Roman citizens, and from that time disappeared from history as a separate nation. Mar's Insurrection-.— The earl of Mar invited the gentry to meet at a hunt, Aug. 27, 1715, and raised the Pretender's standard at Brae-mar, in Aberdeenshire, Sept. 6. His force had gradually increased from about 50 to 5,000 men, when he entered Perth, Sept. 28. Mar remained some time inactive, and was defeated at Sherilf-muir, near Stirling, Nov. 13. Mar escaped with MAR the Pretender from Montrose, Feb. 4, 1716, whence they proceeded to France ; but some of the chiefs of the insurrection were cap- tured and executed. Marston Moor, (Battle,) was fought between the royalists under Prince Rupert, and the parliamentary army under Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, at Marston Moor, in Yorkshire, Jiily 2, 1644. It com- menced about 7 o'clock in the evening, and the left wing of the king's army totally routed the right wing of the parliamenta- rians ; but Cromwell with his " Ironsides " managed to gain a victory over the king's right wing. After a severe struggle, victory declared in favour of the parliamentarians, the royalists losing aU their artillery, ammu- nition, and baggage. Martaban (Pegu). — This fortress was captured by the English during the Bur- mese war, April 5, 1852. Marta, St. (New Granada). — This city, founded a.d. 1525, was made the seat of an archbishopric^ in 1529. Martial Law*. — Power exercised by the king of dispensing with ordinary law pro- ceedings in time of war, and proceeding by his own absolute authority. By a clause of the Petition of Rights, 3 Charles I. c. 1 (1627), commissions for proceeding by martial law were declared illegal, and prohibited ; but parliament was itself compelled to issue similar commissions in 1644. Martial law, signifying military law, is regulated by court-martial {q.v.). Martinesti (Battle). — An aUied Austrian and Russian army, commanded by Prince Coburg and Suwarrow, defeated the Turks at this place, in Wallachia, Sept. 22, 1789. No less than 5,000 Turks feU. in the battle, and 2,000 in the pursuit. It is also called the battle ofRimnik, from the name of the village near Martinesti, where it was fought. Martinico, or Martinique (Atlantic Ocean), called by the natives Madiana, erro- neously supposed by some writers to have been discovered by the Spaniards a.d. 1493, was in reality discovered by Christopher Columbus, June 15, 1502, during his fourth voyage. It was settled by some French colonists from St. Christopher's in 1635. The Dutch assailed it in 1674, and were repulsed with great loss. Admiral Penn failed in an attempt to capture it in 1695. The principal fortifications were assailed by an English squadron Jan. 24, 1759, and after doing considerable damage, the expedition withdrew. The island surrendered, Feb. 16, 1762, to an English force, which had landed Jan. 16 ; and it was restored to the French by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. It was retaken Feb. 5, 1781, and restored at the peace of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. The English again effected a landing Feb. 5, 1794, and after gaining several battles, the whole island capitulated March 23, 1794. The French failed in an attempt to recover it Dec. 7, 1795, and it was restored at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. An English fleet landed 10,000 troops on the 543 MAR island, Feb. 3, 1809. It surrendered Feb. 2-i, and was restored to France at the general peace in 1814. The slaves rebelled in 183.3, and a number of them were killed, and several taken prisoners, in a battle fought Dec. 24. An earthquake did serious damage to Fort Eoyal, and caused the death of about 700 persons, Jan. 11, 1839. The cul- tivation of the coffee-plant was introduced in 1727. Maetinmas, Martlemass, Maetilmass, or St. Martin's Day, Nov. 11, was for- merly observed as a day of feasting and jolhty. It was instituted in honour of St. Martin, the son of a Eomanmihtary tribune. He was born in Hungary, a.b. 316, settled in the neighbourhood of Poitiers, and was bishop of Tours in 374. He died in 400. His festival was instituted in 650. Moresin refers the festivities practised on tliis day to an ancient Athenian festival in honour of Bacchus. Martin's (St.) Hall (London). — The first stone of this edifice, built from designs by E. Westmacott, was laid June 21, 1847 ; and it was opened Feb. 11, 18.50. It was seriously damaged by fire Aug. 26, 1860, and has since been restored. Maettk. — Since the martyrdom of Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost (Acts vi. 5), chosen a.d. 37 to be one of the seven deacons first appointed, the Chris- tian church has furnished a long succession of martyrs, who have freely given up their fives in the defence of the truth. Stephen the protomartyr was stoned at Jerusalem (Acts vii. 58 — 60) in May, 37 a.d. Polycarp, the last of the Apostolic Fathers, suffered death in 167. Eusebius, who wrote in the be- ginning of the 4th century, is the first writer who gives an account of the early martyrs. Mart, queen of England, the only chUd of Henry VIII. and Queen Catherine that arrived at maturity, was born at Greenwich, Feb. 18, 1516, was proclaimed queen in Lon- don, July 19, and entered the city Aug. 3, 1553. Although Jane (q.v.) was acknow- ledged queen for a few days, the accession of Mary is reckoned from the day on which Edward VI. died, July 6, 1553. Maiy was cro^vned Oct. 1, 1553, and was married at Winchester to Phihp of Spain, July 25, 1554. They had no children, and Phihp became king of Spain on the abdication of his father, the emperor Charles Y., in January, 1556. Mary died at St. James's, broken-hearted from grief, caused by the negligence of her husband and the loss of Calais, !N"ov. 17, 1558, and was buried in Henry YII.'s chapel at Westminster, Dec. 13. She was called Bloody Queen Mary from the severity with which she persecuted the Eeformers. Ac- cording to the lowest estimate, one arch- bishop, three bishops, several clergymen, and about three himdred of the laity, perished at the stake, whilst ntimbers died in prison during her reign. Maryland (North America) .—The first English province created in America was named Maryland, after Henrietta Maria, 5U MAE queen of Charles I., who granted the absolute proprietary of Maryland to Lord Baltimore, A.D. 1632. The first colonists were chiefly Eoman CathoHc gentlemen and their fanu- lies, sent out from England under the charge of Lord Baltimore's brother, in 1634. A house of assembly was established in 1639 ; it was divided into two houses in 1650, — the one consisting of members chosen by the proprietary, and the other chosen by the freemen. In 1645 Cleyborne succeeded in stirring up an insurrection, the governor was obhged to flee to Virginia, and peace was not restored tiU 1646. Parhamentary com- missioners took possession of the govern- ment in 1652, but restored it to the governor in 1658. In 1689 an association, formed for the defence of the Protestant religion, over- threw the proprietary government. A go- vernor was sent out in 1692, and the province remained in the bauds of the Crown till 1715, when it was restored to the heir of the proprietary. In 1765, on the passing of the Stamp Act, riots occurred, and the house of the stamp-master was destroyed. A provin- cial congress assembled in 1774, and took the government into its own hands, and a consti- tution was adopted in 1776, declaring it a free state. In 1814 a British fleet landed troops under General Eoss, who routed the Americans at Bladensburg {q. v.), Aug. 24. Maryland Colony (Liberia), ne.ar Cape Palmas, was founded a.d. 1834 by free coloured emigrants sent from the state of Maryland, in America ; — whence the name. Marylebone (London). — The manor of Marylebone was obtained by Henry VIII. in exchange for certain crown lands, a.d. 1544. In 1646 the park was assigned by Charles I. as security for debts con- tracted by him during the civil war. Mary- I lebone Street was built about 1679, and re- ceived this name because it led from Hedge Lane to Marylebone. The gardens, which were a favourite resort of Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, were situated at the back of the old manor-house. Admission to this fashionable place of amusement was free until 1737, when a shilling was charged. They j were finally closed in 1778. The mauor- house was pulled down in 1791. Mary Magdalene (St.) College (Cam- bridge). — Henry, duke of Buckingham, who was executed for high treason, May 17, 1521, founded tliis institution, and named it Buck- ingham CoUege, in 1519. Baron Audley, of Walden, endowed it, and changed its name to St. Mary Magdalene CoUege soon .after. It is generally known as Magdalen CoUege (q.v.). Mary oe Meeton, St. (Canons of) . — Ee- gular canons of the order of St. Austin settled at Merton, in Surrey, a.d. 1117. In 1121 Henry I. made a grant to them of the whole town, and they erected a church and priory in honour of the Virgin. Mary (St.) Hall (Oxford).— This haU was conferred by Edward II. on Oriel CoUege A.D. 1325. In 1333 it was made a separate place of education, and it subsequently MAS became an independent academical hall. Thomas Dyke bequeathed funds towards the support of four scholars at this haU in 1667. Mascaba (Algeria), the ancient Victoria, •was at one time the residence of Abd- el-Kader. The French seized it in De- cember, 1835, and again in 1841 ; and on the last occasion annexed it to their colony in Algeria. Masks. — The kings and priests of Egypt wore, upon certain occasions, masks of f)apyrus, representing the heads of hawks, ions, and other birds and animals, and from them the knowledge of masks passed to the Greeks and Komans, by whom they were employed in dramatic exhibitions. The tragic masks of the Greek stage were fre- quently very beautiful; but in comedy a grotesque effect was produced by repre- senting the mouth opened and the features distorted. The custom of the use of masks by public executioners is mentioned a.d. 1295. They were first worn by English ladies during the reign of Elizabeth. In the time of Charles II. they were always worn by ladies in the theatre, and in the time of Anne they were used on horseback, being suspended to the side by a string. Masourah (Battle). {See Mansubah.) Masquerades. — Dramatic masques were introduced into this country about a.d. 1340. The masked ball, or masquerade, originated in Italy towards the commencement of the 16th century, and was introduced into Eng- land by Henry VIII. in 1513. The bishop of London preached a sermon against them, Jan. 6, 1724 ; in consequence of which, orders were issued that no more should take place than the six subscribed for at the beginning of the month. Mass. — The word missa, or mass, was first employed in rehgious ordinances a.d. 394, when it signified the particular services specially appropriated to different persons, who left the church when the portion of the service which concerned them was concluded. It was, indeed, the general name for every part of divine service. It sometimes signi- fied the lessons, sometimes the collects or prayers, and sometimes the dismission of the people. The Koman Catholic mass was introduced into England in 680. The term was afterwards apphed to the elements of the Eucharist, and a decree, ordering all to bow down at the elevation of the host, or mass, was pubhshed in 1201. Massachusetts (North America). — This state was first settled by the Puritans, at Plymouth, U.S., in 1620. Salem and Charles- town were founded in 1628, and Boston in 1630 ; and in 1692 the colonies were united under the Indian name of Massachusetts. A charter for Massachusetts Bay was ob- tained from the crown in 1629. Its first constitution was formed in 1780, and was amended in 1820. Slavery was abohshed by law in 1783, and the constitution of the United States was adopted in 1788. Massa di Cabbaba (Italy), the chief town 545 MAS of a duchy of the same name, which was, A.D. 1829, united to Modena, and was, with it, incorporated in the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. It is also called Massa Ducale. Massa GET^. — An invasion of Persia by a tribe of Scythian barbarians compelled Sapor to rehnquish the third siege of Fisi- bis {q.v.), A.D. 350. They drove the Cim- merians from the Araxes b.c, 635, and pene- trated into Media B.C. 632, whence they were expelled by Cyaxares, b.c. 609. Cyrus was killed in battle against them, b.c. 529. Alexander the Great defeated them b.c. 328. Ammianus MarceUinus calls the Alani "the ancient Massagetse." Niebuhr con- siders them Mongols, and Humboldt as- signs them to the Indo-European family, Mass-Book, *' Missale," or Missal, the ritual used by the Koman Catholic church, was compiled by Gelasius, and improved by Gregory the Great. The services were trans- lated into English for the Church of England in 1549, and by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10 (1549), the use of missals was abohshed. Master and Servant. — Various statutes are in existence for the regulation of the law between master and servant. By 32 Geo. III. c. 56 (1792), a master knowingly giving a good character to a bad servant is able to a fine of £20, or three months' imprisonment with hard labour. The pay- ment of certain classes of servants is required to be made in money by 1 & 2 Wfil. IV. c. 37 (Oct. 15, 1831). Mastee-Geneeal op the Militaet. — Constantino I. (a.d. 306—337) instituted two masters-general, one for the cavalry and one for the infantry. Before the end of the reign of Constantius, their number had increased to four. A master of the military was elected annually at Venice, a.d. 737 — 742, instead of a doge. Mastee oe the Ceeemon-ies.— The offi- cial master of the ceremonies at the English court was instituted by James I., a.d. 1603, for the purpose of introducing foreign am- bassadors, &c., to the sovereign. Sir Lewis Lewkenor was appointed to the office, with a salary of £200 per annum. The first person who assumed the title to signify his supremacy in the baU-room was Captain Webster, who preceded Beau Nash in the office at Bath. He became master of the ceremonies on the occasion of the visit of Queen Anne, in 1703. Mastee of the Kevels. — The following list of persons who held this appointment was communicated to Notes and Queries by Mr. E. E. Rimbault. It was copied from the handwriting of Sir Henry Herbert, one of the last to hold the office : — Sir Eichard Guilford . . . .Not on record Sir Thomas Cawerden . . [1544J 36 Henry VIII. Sir Thomas Beneger ....Not on record. Sir John Fortescue Not on record. Edmund TUney, Esq July 24 [1578], 21 Eliz. Sir George Buck June 23 [1603], 1 Jac. Sir John Astley [1612] 10 Jac. I. Benjamin Johnson [1617] 15 Jac. I. Sir Henry Herbert, and ■) . „-, r,„„„ , p,^, -r Simon Thelwall, Esu. . . / ^''S- 21 [1629 5 Car. L 2n MAS To thesi? may be added the following : — Thomas Killegi-ew l(i73 I Chiirles Henry Lee.. 1725 Chaa-les Killegrew 1(583 | Solomou Dayrolle . . 1744 The ancient jurisdiction of the master of the revels was transferred in 1737 to the "licenser of the stage," who, with the deputy licenser, performed all the duties of the office ; and on the death of Solomon Dayrolle, no suc- cessor was appointed. M.4.STEK OF THE RoLLS. — The ToUs of the exchequer commence in the reign of Henry I., the earhest extant being that of his thirty- first year (1131). The title of master or keeper of the rolls of chancery does not occur till the year 12St>, when it was conferred upon John de" Langton, although the office no doubt existed before that date. The duties of this officer are detined by S & i WiU. IV. c. 94 (Aug. 2S, 1833). His salary is regu- lated by 1 Vict. c. 46 (July 12, 1837). The master of the roUs is a patentee officer and a privy councillor. He may sit in parlia- ment, and administer justice iu the Rolls Court ; but his decrees are not valid until signed by the chancellor. By virtue of his office he is chief of the masters in chancery and of the Petty-Bag Office. Master of the Wakdrobe. — This office existed in very early times, and received from Henry Vt. important privileges, which were enlarged by James I. The salary at- tached to the office was £"2,lX)0 per annum, and there were, iu addition to the master, many inferior functionaries. They were all abo- lished by 22 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782) , which trans- ferred the duties of the wardrobe estabUsh- ment to the lord chamberlain's department. Masteks in Chancery. — Foss considers that masters or clerks in chancery existed a« early as the reign of Richard I., and that thej' were appointed to attend the king in his "progresses, when they assumed the title of vice-chancellor. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was made chancellor April 29, 1587, always had masters in chancery present when he sat in court, to assist him in his decisions. The office was abohshed by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 80 (June 30, 1852). Maschpatam (Hindostan). — This city was mentioned by Marco Polo, a.d. 1298, and was conquered by the Bhamenee sove- reigns of the Deccan in 1480. In 1751 it was taken and fortilied by the French, who were expelled by the British, under Colonel Forde, April 6, 1759 ; and Masulipatam was ceded to the East-India Company in 1765. Matamokas (Battle).— The "Americans, under the command of General Taylor, defeated the Mexican army at this place, in Mexico, May 8, 1846. Mataro (Spain). — This place was elevated to the rank of a ciitJud a.d. 1701. It was sacked by Duhesme, under circumstances of great cruelty, June 17, 1808. The church of St. Maria was founded in 1675, the college in 1737, and it was incorporated with the uni- versity of Cervera in 1829. The railroad to Barcelona, the first constructed in Spain, was opened in October, 1848. MAU Matches. — Friction matches were in- vented by Mr. John Walker, of Stockton- on-Tees, in April, 1827. Mr. Reuben Part- ridge obtained a patent for the manufacture of wooden sphnts for lucifer matches in March, 1812. Sturge's improved lucifer matches were patented in 1853. The pre- paration and use of these are not attended with the same diseases and risks which are inseparable from ordinary matches. Hoch- staetter's safety matches were patented in 1859. Matchin (Bulgaria). — The Turks con- structed a camp here, which was destroyed by the Russians Oct. 20, 1771. The Rus- sians obtained an advantage over the Turks iu an encounter near this town, July 9, 1791. The Turks defeated the Russians in an engagement here, Dec. 24, 1853. Si ath EM A TICS. — This terra, which an- ciently signified all knowledge calculated to strengthen the mental powers, is now apphed to algebra, arithmetic, geometry {g.v.), and kindred sciences. Matvrines, or Trinitarians. — This order of friars was founded in France for the re- demption of captives, by St. John de Matha and Felix de Valois, about a.d. 1197. It was introduced into England in 1224, and received the lauds, revenues, and other privileges of the decayed order of the Holy Sepulchre. The Matiirine friars possessed "about twelve houses in this country. They were governed according to the rule of St. Augustine. MAviiErGE (France). — This town was founded in the 7th century, and was for a considerable period the capital of Hainault. It was taken by the French iu 1649, and was ceded to them "by the treaty of Nimeguen, in 1678. Vauban erected the fortifications in 1680; and in 1793 it was besieged by the prince of Coburg, who was compelled to retire by Marshal Jourdan. It has sustained several sieges, and surrendered to the Prus- sians in June, 1815. Its manufactory of arms was founded by Louis XIV. in 1704. Maundy Thitrsday, the day before Good Friday, is so called because on this day it was usual to distribute to the poor, bread and other gifts, contained in maiiiids or baskets. St. Augustine is the earhest who is known to have practised it. The first English monarch who distributed alms to the poor on Maundy Thui-sday was Edward III., in 1363. The day was sometimes called " Shere Thursday," because people used to shear or cut tlieir hair and beards for the occasion. It was so named in 1511. Maura Santa (Ionian Islands). {See Leucadia.) Maurktania, or Mauritania (Africa). — This country was unknown to the inha- bitants of Europe until B.C. 202, when the Romans fought in Africa against Hannibal. Julius Caesar confirmed Bogudes and Boc- chus, as joint kings of Mauretania, B.C. 49, and the kingdom was erected into a Roman pro^nnce B.C. 46. Augustus con- feiTed it upon Juba II., B.C. 25, and on his death it passed to his son Ptolemy, MAU who was slain by Caligula a.d. 41. In 42, ! Claudius divided the kingdom into the two provinces of Mauretania Tingitana, and Mau- ' Tetania Caesariensis. In 256 the country was invaded by a horde of Frankish invaders from Spain, and in 429 it was conquered by Genseric the Vandal. The AraVis first ap- peared in the country in ('>('>7, and completed its conquest in 7f)9. (See Mokocco.) \ Mauritius, or Isle of Fkajjce (Indian | Ocean). — This island was discovered by the Portuguese a.d. 150.5, In 1598 it was seized by the Dutch, who called it Mauritius in honour of their stadtholder, Maurice; but they formed no settlement till 1644. They abandoned the colony in the 18th century, and it was neglected until the French formed a settlement in 1715, and took possession of the island in 1721. It was captured by the British Dec. 2, 1810, and has remained in their possession ever since the peace of 1814. Maur, St. — This celebrated congregation of the Benedictines was first established at this town, in France, a.d. 1618. Mausoleum. — On the death of Mausolus, king of Caria, e c. 353, his wife Artemisia testified her affection i'V erecting at Hahcar- nassus a magnificent building to his memory, which received the title of the Mausoleum, and ranked as one of the seven wonders of the world. Hence all sepulchral edifices of more than usual magnificence are styled mausolea. The ruins of this edifice were used by the Knights of Rhodes in the erection of their castle of St. Peter in 1484 and 1.522. In 1846 the British government arranged with the Porte for the purchase of the remaining ruins ; and in 1856 Mr. Charles ]S^ewton was appointed vice-consul at Mitylene, with fuU f)owers to transmit the acquisitions to Eng- and. He formed a valuable collection, inclu- ding the colossal statue of Mausolus ; and the whole arrived in this country in July, 1857, , aqd was deposited in the British Museum. Mauve.— In 184SDr. Stenhouse announced the possibility of extracting purple dyes from lichens by macerating them in lime-water. This discovery was applied and extended by M. Mamas, of Lyons, who produced in 1857 the fashionable dye known as mauve. Maximiaxists, a branch of the Donatists, so named from Maximinus, their leader. They arose in the Donatist community in Ainca towards the close of the 4th century. May. — This month derives its name either from Maia, the mother of Mercury, or from its having been dedicated by Eomulus to the ' Roman majoreg, or senators. It was the second month in the old Alban calendar, the third in that of Romulus, and the fifth in that of Xuma Pompilius. The Saxons termed it Tri-Milchi, because during this month pasture was so plentiful that they were able to milk their cows thrice during the day. May-DAT.— From the earliest periods it has been customary to hail the return of spring with peculiar sports. The Romans had their Floralia, held on the 4th of the calends of May. The earliest circumstance 547 MAT known respecting the celebration of May-day in England is, that the Druids were accus- tomed to assemble on the night of the last day in April and light large bonfires to hail the return of spring. Chaucer alludes to the universality of its observance in his time, and as late as the reign of Elizabeth, the queen and court joined in the sports. May Fair was abolished in London in 1708. Matence, or Mentz (Hesse-Darmstadt), originated in the Roman fort of Mogun- tiacum, which Drusus erected on the site of the present city b.c. 13. It was de- stroyed by the Vandals a.d. 406, and was rebuilt by Dagobert II. Printing is said to have been invented in this city by .John (ruttenberg in 1440. In 1631 Mentz was taken by the Swedes, and in 1644 and 1688 by the French, who lost it in 1689. It was again seized by the forces of the rejjublic in 1792, but was taken h»y the Prussians in 1793. In 1797 it was ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio, and erected into the chief town of the department of Mont Tonnerre, and in 1814 it was ceded to the grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. The university, founded in the loth century, was suppressed in 1802. The bronze statue of Guttenberg was erected in 18.37. The archbishopric of Mayence was founded by Boniface a.d. 747. Councils were held here in 752 or 753, 829, 847, 848, 852, 857, 860, 1023, 1049, 1069, 1051, 1055, 1071, 1080, 108-5, 1094, 1131, 11.59, 1225, 123.3, 1239, 12.59, 1261, 1310, 1387, 14:39, and 1441. Mayenxe (France). — The earl of Salis- bury captured this ancient town a.d. 1424. Charles IX. made it a duchy in 1544. The Vendeans took it in 1793. Mayxooth College (Ireland). — The Roman Catholic college of St. Patrick at Maynooth, in the county of Kildare, was founded a.d. 1795, according to the pro- visions of an act of the Irish parliament, for the education of persons destined for the Roman Catholic priesthood. It was built at a cost of £32,000, and is supported by an annual parhamentary grant. A lay college was opened in 1802, dependent on voluntary subscriptions. By 8 & 9 Vict. c. 25 (June -30, 1815), the college was placed on a new foot- ing, and permanently endowed for the main- tenance and education of .500 students and twenty senior scholars. A commission was appointed to inquire into the operation of the institution, Sept. 19, 1853. Mayo (Ireland;, forming part of Con- naught, was granted by Henry II. to AYilliam Fitz-Adeka de Burgho, a.d. 1180. WiUiam de Burgho, earl of Ulster, was assassinated in 1.333, and about this time Mayo was made a county. For two centuries it remained in a very unsettled state. The native chiefs submitted to Elizabeth in 1575, but the supremacy of the English was not acknow- ledged until 1586. The old families took part in the rebellion of 1641, and the French attempted an invasion in 1798. Mayor.— This office dates from the reign of Richard I., who appointed a mayor as 2 K 2 MAY chief officer of the city, in place of the bailiffs of London, a.d. 1189, and the precedent was copied by King John, in respect to the bailiff of Bang's Lynn in 1204. Matoe of the Pal ace. — An important officer of the French court during the Merovingian reigns. His duty was ori- ginally to supervise the royal funds, and to regulate the government of the household. Afterwards the mayors acquired political influence, and acted as regents during the minority of the sovereign, until ultimately the whole power of the kingdom devolved upon them. In 614 the mayor of Burgundy induced Clotaire II. to grant that in future the office should be conferred by the great proprietors, not by the king, and held during life. The office became hereditary in 687. Matotta Islakd (Indian Ocean). — This volcanic island, which forms one of the Comoro group, was avoided by Europeans until 1840. In 1841 it was ceded to the Trench, who commenced their occupation June 13, 1843. Mat-pole. — The custom of rearing the May-pole is traced to the Eoman FloraHa, but nothing is knovni respecting the period at which it was iatrodueed into this country. Du Cange speaks of a charter of the year 1207, which states that May-poles were taken by grant, and erected in the streets and at the houses of great men. The old May-pole in the Strand, London, was taken down in April, 1718. Mazaeins. {See Fbou-deues.) Meal-tub Plot. — This was a fictitious plot fabricated by a known criminal named Dangerfield, and ascribed by him to the Presbyterians. He directed the revenue officers to search the lodgings of Colonel Mansel, where they found a number of seditious documents, which were afterwards proved to be forgeries. He was accordingly committed to Newgate, where he acknow- ledged that he had been bribed by the Papists to forge these papers, and that proofs of the truth of his confession were deposited in a meal-tub in the house of a Mrs. Cellier, a Roman Cathohc and his mistress, where they were in fact found. This took place in 1679. Dangerfield was put in the pillory, and also whipped, and was again convicted of libel. May 30, 1685. Measuees.— The Enghsh measure of "Win- chester was made the general standard by a law of L-ing Edgar, a.d. 974. The first standard eU was established from the length of Hem-y I.'s arm in 1101, and the measure for cloth was made uniform throughout the kingdom by 18 Hen. VI. c. 16 (1439), which estabhshed the yard and the inch as the standards. PubKc standards of measures were ordered to be deposited in all the principal towns by 11 Hen. YII. c. 4 (1494) ; and the capacity of the bushel was regulated by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496). The length of the statute mile was regulated by 35 Ehz. e. 6 (1593). Charles I. issued a proclamation ordering a uniform measure for every com- 548 MEC modity throughout the kingdom in 1636. Parliament attempted to introduce uniform- ity of measure in 1759, but without success. By 10 Geo. III. c. 39 (1770), a standard Winchester bushel of eight gallons was ordered to be kept in every market-town. The various laws on the subject were amended by 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 63 (Sept. 9, 1835), which abolished heaped measure, and ordered inspectors of measures to be ap- pointed. Meath (Bishopric). — This Irish bishopric is composed of several minor sees which were anciently distinct. The most important appears to have been Clonard, which was founded by St. Finian a.d. 520. Eugene was the first prelate who assumed the title of bishop of Meath in 1174. Meath (Ii-eland) formed one of the king- doms into which Ireland was divided in early times. Eichard Sti'ongbow subjected Meath to the English a.d. 1171, and Henry II. conferred it as a county palatine on Hugh de Lacy. For nearly a century and a half it was the theatre of continual warfare ; and in the reign of Henry VIII. the ancient coimty was divided into East Meath and West Meath. Meatjx (France). — This town is supposed to be identical with the Eoman latinum. The cathedral was commenced in the 12th century. It obtained a charter in 1179, and was taken by the English in 1419. The French recovered it in 1439 ; in 1587 it joined the League ; and in 1594 submitted to Henry IV. The bishopric of Meaux was founded in 375, and a council was held here June 17, 845. The prisoners were massacred here by the republicans Sept. 5, 1792. The Eussians attacked Meaux Feb. 26, 1814, and the allies passed the Marne, at Meaux, March 28, 1814. Mecca (Arabia). — This town is celebrated as having been the birthplace of Mohammed in April, 570 a.d., by whom it was taken Jan. 11, 630. In 692 it was captured by AbdehneUk, and in 929 it was plundered by the Carmathians. Eenaud de ChatOlou failed in an attempt upon Mecca in 1184. In 1803 it was seized by the Moslem sect of the Wahabees, from whom it was taken in 1818 by Ibrahim Pasha. Mechats'ics. — The ancients were no doubt acquainted with the apphcation of the me- chanical powers from time immemorial, but the principles on which their action depends were not known tiU a comparatively late period. Aristotle (e.g. 384 to 322) is the first author who wrote on mechanics, and Archimedes (e.g. 287 to 212) is the most eminent of ancient mechanicians. 1577. Stevinns, of Wanders, discovei-s the true theory of the inclined plane. 1592. Galileo is said to have wi-itten his treatise " Delia Scienza Mecanica" this year. 1634. Galileo publishes the work " Delia, Scienza Mecanica." 1638. Galileo publishes his dialogues on motion, and CasteUi writes on the motions of fluids. MEC 1661. The laws of percussion are simultaneously discovered by Huyghens, Wallis, and Sir Christopher Wren. 1670. Wallis publishes his treatise " De Motu." 1687. Newtou publishes his " Principia, " and VarignoQ his " New System of Mechanics." 1695. La Hii-e publishes a treatise on mechanics. 1736. Eulei- describes rectilinear and curvilinear motion. 1743. D'Alembert makes important discoveries in dynamics. 1750. The preservation of areas is discovered si- multaneously by Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and the Chevalier D'Arci, about this year. 1752. Euler, D'Aiembert, and Claii-aut, solve the problem of the three bodies. 1788. La Grange publishes the " Mecanique Analy- tique." 1798. La Place commences the " Mficanique Celeste." 1823. Professor Whewell publishes his treatise on dynamics. Mechanics' IifSTiTrTiows. — The first mechanics' institute was established in Lon- don by Dr. Birkbeck, at Southampton Build- ings, Holborn, Dec. 2, 1823. Mecklenbttkg (Germany). — This ancient duchy was originally peopled by the Heruh and the Vandals, who were expelled by the Obotrites a.d. 782. Charlemagne failed in his attempts to reduce this tribe to subjec- tion ; but in 1159 Henry the Lion subdued their chief, Niclot, and seized his territories. The two lines of Mecklenburg and Werle were founded by John the Theologian and Niclot, on the death of their father, Henry- Burwin II., in 1236. The latter became ex- tinct in 1436. The entire duchy was con- ferred upon WaUenstein by the emperor, March 4, 1628 ; but in 1631 it was restored to Adolphus Frederick and John Albert, the then existing representatives of the hues of Meck- lenburg-SchwerinandMecklenburg-Gustrow, The present division of the duchy between the great branches of Strelitz and Schwerin was adopted March 8, 1701. In 1815 the dukes assumed the title of grand-dukes. The two governments assembled at Schwerin, in 1848, to consider the adoption of a new constitution, which was agreed to by the grand-duke of Schwerin. Owing to the op- position of the nobility, he was compelled to rescind his determination in 1850. Medals. — This term, properly speaking, only commences in the Middle Ages. The medallions of the Eoman empire were large metal pieces, presented by the emperors as tokens of esteem, or by the mint-masters to the emperors as specimens of worlcmanship. These were not common until after the ac- cession of Hadrian, a.d. 117 ; but after that they seem to have continued in frequent use until the close of the Western empire. It is a contended point whether or not they were cur- rent as pieces of coin. The earhest modern medal is one in gold, of David II. of Scotland, thought to have been struck between 1330 and 1370. A medal of John Huss, dated 1415, is of questionable authenticity. The Ger- man medals commence in 1453, the Papal medals in 1464, the Danish iq 1474, the Eng- lish in 1480, the Spanish in 1503, and the Venetian in 1509. MED Media (Asia) . — This province revolted from Assyria and became an independent kingdom B.C. 711. Authorities differ re- specting the actual time at which many of the following events occurred. The Medes obtain their independence, and establish a republican form of govern- ment. Deioces becomes the first independent king of Media. Invasion of Media, and defeat and death of King Deioces. Phraortes, king of Media, with his entire army, perishes before the walls of Nineveh. Media is invaded by the Suythians. The Scythians are expelled from Media, The Lydiau war is commenced. Birth of Cyrus. May 28. The Lydian war is concluded by the battle of Halys {q. v.). Cyrus deposes Astyages, and raises Cyasares IT., or Darius the Mede, to the throne in his stead. Cyrus, king of Persia, becomes king of Media. Larissa and Mespila, cities of Media, revolt against Cyrus, but are reduced to submis- sion. Cyrus takes Babylon, and marries the daughter of his uncle Cyaxares, thereby uniting the royal families of Media and Persia. (See Peesia.) KINGS OF media. B.C. B.C. Deioces 709 I Cyaxares 634 Phraortes, or Ar- Astyages 594 phaxad 656 | Medieval or Middle Ages, according to Hallam, comprised about one thousand years, from the invasion of France by Clovis, A.D. 486, to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 1494. DowUng, in his " Introduction to the Critical Study of EcclesiasticalHistory," fixes the council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, as the commencement, and the revival of classical hterature in the 15th centurjr as the end, of the period. G. T. Manning, in " Outlines of the History of the Middle Ages," makes them extend from a.d. 400 to 1500, divided into the following periods : — A.D, First period 400 to 800 Second period 800 to 964 Thii-d period 964 to 1066 Fourth period 1066 to 1300 Fifth period 1300 to 1500 Fleury makes them commence with the fall of the Western empire, in 476, and ter- minate with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, May 29, 1453. Medical Council. — This covmcD. was established by the act to regtdate the quahfi- cations of practitioners in medicine and sur- gery, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 90 (Aug. 2, 1858). Sir Benjamin Brodie was elected the first presi- dent of the council, in November, 1858. Medicine. — A writer in the last edition of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" (xiv. p. 450) remarks that " the earhest historical development of scientific medicine is every- where traced from a priesthood." The Egyptians were the earhest medical practi- ^^^ 649 MED tioners. With them medicine was under the control of the state, and doctors who de- parted from the prescribed methods of treat- ment were guilty of a capital offence, in the event of their patient's decease. The earhest work on medicine is the Hindoo Ayur Teda, which is supposed to have been wi-itten about B.C. 1400. The worship of ^sculapius, the god of medicine, was introduced into Greece about B.C. 1200 ; but the profession of physic was restricted to the priesthood until about B.C. 500. Hippocrates, born about B.C. 460, is the father of the G-reek system of medicine, which declined about B.C. 336, and was succeeded by the Alex- andrian school B.C. 332. The epistle of Diodes on the Preservation of Health was wi'itten about B.C. 312, and continued in high repute for about 400 years. Herophi- lus, who flourished B.C. 285 ; Erasistratus, B.C. 260; and Serapion, B.C. 235, were the most eminent practitioners of the Alex- andrian school. The medical became a distinct profession at Eome about B.C. 200. It was at first practised exclusively by slaves or freedanen, and was not regarded with much interest until after the great pestilence which depopulated the city B.C. 187. Asclepiades, B.C. 90; Themison, B.C. 60; Thessalus, a.d. 55; and Galen, a.d. 165, are the most eminent of Eoman physicians ; and after the death of the last-named, medical science suffered a serious decline. The Greek system was revived at Constan- tinople in 328, and flourished iinder Oriba- sius in 360 ; Aetius in 525 ; and Paul of ^Egina in 640. The Arabian physicians attainted celebrity in the 7th century, the most im- portant being Ebu Sina, or Avicenna, whose great work, the "Ahnalecus," was written about 980. Mondini, who became pro- fessor of medicine at Bologna in 1316 ; Guy de Chauhac, who flourished in 1350 ; and the celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci, were aU eminent medical practi- tioners, and contributed greatly to the advance of the science. The medical profession in Britain owes its rise to Thomas Linacre, who founded the College of Physicians at London in 1518. Harvey pubhshed his work on the circulation of the blood in 1628; Pecquet discovered the anatomy of the lacteal vessels in 1647 ; Malpighi demonstrated the relation of the pulmonary tissue to the circulation in 1661 ; and Mayow obtained advanced views on the subject of respiration in 1668. Medina (Arabia) is celebrated as having been the asylum of Mohammed when he fled from Mecca, a.d. 622, and the scene of his death in 632. The celebrated mosque con- taining the tomb of the Prophet was totally destroyed by fire in 1508. It was restored by Kayd Beg, king of Egypt, in 1514. Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1803, but was recovered from them by Ibrahim Pasha in 1818. Medina del Campo (Spain).— During a revolt in Spain, a.d. 1520, this town was taken by the royal troops, under Antonio 550 MEG de Eonseca, who treated the inhabitants vrith great cruelty. Medina de Eio Seco (Spain), supposed by some authorities to be the ancient Tela, was the scene of a victory gained by the Erench army, under Bessieres, over the Spaniards, J\ily 14, 1808, when the town of Rio Seco was taken and pillaged. The Spaniards I defeated the Erench here IS'ov. 23, 1809 ; j but were, in their turn, defeated and dis- I persed Nov. 26, and the Erench entered I the town Nov. 27. j Medina Sidonia (Spain) was taken by ! Abderahman I. a.d. 764, and surrendered to I Alfonso X. in 1254. I Mediolanum (Italy), the capital of I Cisalpine Gaul, was taken by the Romans I from the Insubres, whose chief town it was, j B.C. 222. A battle between the Romans and I the allied Insubrians and Boians, in which the Gauls lost several thousand men, took place here B.C. 194. It probably submitted i to the Romans vrith the other towns of the I Insubres about B.C. 190. Under the Romans j it became a municipium, and rapidly grew in importance. The usurper Aureolus was be- i sieged here a.d . 268 by the emperor GalHenus, who was killed by the hands of his own sol- diers in the course of the siege (March 20) . The place subseqiiently surrendered to Clau- dius. About A.D. 303 its importance was en- hanced by the residence here of the emperor Maximian, who thus made it the capital of J^orthern Italy. For a century it was the resi- dence of successive emperors. Attila ravaged it in 452, and it was selected as a residence by the Gothic king Odoacer in 476. Belisarius having taken the place, it was recovered by the Goths in 539, after a protracted siege, which was characterized by great barbarity on the part of the besiegers. They put the male inhabitants, 300,000 in number, to the sword, and reduced the women to slavery. {See Milan.) Meeanee (Battle). — Fought during the campaign in Scinde, when Sir Charles Napier, with a force amounting only to 2,600 men, assailed the Belooches, who mustered 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, with fifteen guns. They were strongly posted, their wings resting on large woods extending on each side the plain, with a natural ravine in front of their position. After a fierce contest of three hours' dura- tion, the Belooches gave way, leaving their artillery, stores, &c!, in the hands of the victors. This battle was fought Feb. 17, 1843. Meeeut (Hindostan), an ancient city of Delhi, is mentioned as one of the first con- quests of Mahmoud of Ghizni, a.d. 1018. In 1240 it resisted the forces of Turmacherin Khan ; but in 1399 it surrendered to Timour. Together with the rest of the district in which it is situated, Meerut passed into the possession of the British in 1803, and it was selected as the seat of a judicial and revenue estabhshment in 1809. Megalopolis (Greece), or the "Great City," once the capital of Arcadia, was MEG MEL Lord Melbourne, at that time prime mimster of England, is the capital of Victoria, and is seated on the river Yarra. It was colo- nized from Van Diemen's Land, a.d. 1835, and was officially recognized and designated in 1837. Melbourne was made a municipality in 1843, and the seat of a bishop in 1847. It has increased rapidly since the discovery of gold in its vicinity in 1851. It became the seat of the legislative assembly in 1852. The hospital was founded in 1846. Melbouene Administhatiows. — Owing to some disagreement respecting the Irish Coercion Bill, then under the consideration of Parhament, Viscount Althorp resigned the office of chancellor of the exchequer, July 7, 1834, and Lord Grey, the prime minister, following his example, resigned July 9. After certain negotiations, Viscount Melbourne kissed hands as prime minister, July 16. Several members of the Grey ad- ministration remained in the cabinet, which was thus constituted : — Treasury Viscount Melbourne. Lord Chancellor Lord Brougham. President of the Council. .Marquis of Lansdowne. Privy Seal Earl of Mulgrave. Chancellor of Exchequer. . Viscoimt Althorp. Home Secretary Viscount Duncannon. Foreign Secretary Viscount Palmerston. Colonial Secretary Hon. S. Rice. Admiralty Lord Auckland. Board of Control Mr. Charles Grant. Postmaster-General Mai-quis of Couyngham. '^^orraSef^.'*:^.'^.'"}!'-'^ Holland. Paymaster of the Forces . . Lord John Eussell. ^^^ldT7!^7. !?"!. ^f.' }m^- ^- J- Littleton. The death of Lord Spencer, Nov. 10, ren- dered new arrangements respecting the chancellorship of the exchequer necessary, as Viscount Althorp succeeded to his father's title. Viscount Melbourne went to Brighton Nov. 14, 1834, to make certain propositions to the king, who informed him that he should not require him to complete the arrange- ments, and the first Melbourne Administra- tion was dissolved. [See Peel (first) Admiis-- iSTRATioisr.) The second Melbourne ad- ministration was formed on the resignation of the first Peel administration, AprS 8, 1835, and was announced in both houses of Par- liament, April 18. The cabinet consisted of Treasury Viscoimt Melbourne. President of the Coiuicil.. Marquis of Lansdowne. Privy Seal Lord Duncannon. ( Mr. Spring Kice, created Chancellor of Exchequer < Lord Mouteagle Aug. ( 27, 1839. Home Secretary Lord John Russell. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston. ( Mr. Charles Grant, made Colonial Secretary < Baron Glenelg May 4, ( 1835. Admiralty Lord Auckland. Board of Control Sii' J. C. Hobhouse. Secretaiy at War Viscount Howick. ( Mr. Poulett Thomson, Board of Trade < created Baron Syden- ( ham Aug. 10, 1840. ^orLfnrter^!.'?".'.^^}^^^ Holland. The great seal was placed in commission. 551 founded B.C. 370. It was besieged by Poly- sperchon, who failed in the attempt to take it, B.C. 318, and it joined the Achaean League B.C. 239. It was captured B.C. 222 by Cleomenes III., who laid a great part of the town in ruins. The town was rebuilt, but never regained its former importance. Megaea (Greece), according to some authorities, was founded by Car, son of Phoroneus, while others attribute its origin to Pandion, in the reign of Pylas. At a very early period the city was conquered by the Dorians, and in the 7th century b.c. was one of the most floui'ishing cities of Greece. The Megarians formed an aUiance with the Athenians B.C. 455, and surrendered to Philip of Macedon after the battle of Chaeroneia (q.v.). Demetrius Pohorcetes declared it a free city B.C. 307. Mehudpoee (Battle). — Sir Thomas His- lop defeated Holkar and the Mahratta army at this town, in Hindostan, Dec. 21, 1817. MEiirafGEN (Germany) was made the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen in 16S1. Meissen- (Saxony). — Founded a.d. 922, or, according to some authorities, in 928, by the emperor Henry I., who built a castle, long the residence of the ancient Saxon princes. The cathedral, founded by Otho I. (936 — 972), contains some antique monu- ments, and some paintings by Albert Durer and Cranach. Frederick I. founded the prince's chapel in 1425. The castle was almost entirely rebuilt in 1471, and in 1710 the manufacture of the celebrated china, known as Dresden, commenced here. Fre- dei-ick II. of Prussia entered Meissen, on the retreat of the Austrians, Dec. 6, 1745, and 1,400 Prussians surrendered to the Aus- trians at this place, Dee. 3, 1759. A part of the Prussian army attacked the French at the bridge of Meissen, in order to give Blucher an opportunity of crossing the Elbe at another point, Oct. 1, 1813. Meisteesin&ees, or Masteesingees. — A corporation of German citizens, formed for the cultivation of poetry in the 13th century. They are said to have originated at Mentz, from which town they spread to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Strasburg, and other cities. The emperor Charles IV. incorpo- rated them in 1378, and they attained great celebrity in the 16th century. They had rules like other corporations, and the mem- bers were obliged to submit to an appren- ticeship. The most celebrated poems of this school are," The History of Keynard the Foxe," translated into English in 1481, and the "Owle Glass," pubhshed in London in 1709. Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nuremberg, who wrote much between 1530 and 1538, was a celebrated Meistersinger. Melazzo, or MiLAZZo (Battle). — The royahst forces were defeated near this town, the ancient Mylge (q.v.), by Garibaldi, June 20, 1860. The royalists having taken refuge in the town, capitulated on tjhe following day. Melbotjene (Austraha), named after MEL The earl of Minto succeeded Lord Auckland at tlie Admiralty Sept. 19, 1835. Sir C. C. Pepys, with the title of Baron Cottenham, was made lord-chancellor Jan. 19, 1836. Mr. Francis ThornhiQ Baring became chancellor | .of the exchequer Aug. 26, 1839 ; the marquis ! of Normanby became colonial minister | Feb. 20, 1839, and Lord John Eussell suc- ceeded him Aug. 30, 1839. The earl of Clarendon became privy seal Jan. 15, 1840. Mr. T. B. (afterwards Lord) Macaulay be- came secretary at war Sept. 27, 1839 ; Mr._ Henry Labouchere was made president of the board of trade, in place of Mr. Poulett Thomson, Aug. 29, 1839; and the earl of Clarendon took the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster Oct. 20, 1840. Ministers only obtained a majority of five in committee on "the Jamaica Suspension bill. May 6, 1839, whereupon they immediately resigned, and Sir Eobert Peel, aided by the duke of Wel- Hngton, undertook the task of forming an administration. He obtained the co-operation of Lord Lyndhurst, the earl of Aberdeen, Lord Ellenborough, Lord Stanley, Sir James Graham, Sir Henry Hardinge, and Mr. Goulburn; but the Queen refused to dis- miss the ladies of the bedchamber, May 10, and Sir Eobert Peel resigned the task, the Melbourne administration being reinstated : in office. A vote of want of confidence in ministers, introduced into the House of Commons by Sir Eobert Peel, was carried June 4, by 312 to 311, whereupon minis- | ters dissolved parhament. After the recess, ! a vote of want of confidence, introduced in j both branches of the legislature, was carried against noinisters in the House of Lords by 168 to 72, and in the House of Commons by i 360 to 269 ; and on the 30th of August the resignation of the ministry was announced in both houses. {See Peel's Secon^d Ad- MINISTEATIOK.) Melexians, the followers of Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in Thebais, who was deposed by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, at a coxmeil at Alexandria, a.d. 301. The Me- letians afterwards made common cause \^■ith the Arians. The council of Nicsea, Jime 19 — Aug. 25, 325, in vain attempted to heal the breach. They were numerous about 306. Mosheim, who states that the cause of his deposition is involved in uncertainty, says that the Meletian party was still in existence in the 5th century. Melfi, or Melphi (Italy).— This ancient town, made the capital of the Norman states of Apuha A.D. 1042, was nearly destroyed by an earthquake Aug. 14, 1851. The cathe- dral and all the principal buildings were over- whelmed, and about 600 persons were killed. Melitene (Battle). — The Persian monarch, Chosroes I. (Nushirvan), fought a great battle at this place, the modern Ma- lathiah, in Lesser Armenia, a.d. 577. Chos- roes I. retreated the day after the battle, burning the town of Melitene as he retired. Mellingen (Battle). — The French de- feated the Swiss at the passage of the Keuss, at Mellingen, a.d. 1798. MEL Melodica. — This keyed instrument waa invented by Stein, at Augsburg, a.d. 1770. Melodicon. — This keyed instrument waa invented by Peter Eiffelsen, of Copenhagen, A.D. 1803. Melodkama. — A dramatic entertainment, first introduced into this country by Thomas Holcroft, who was born in London Dec. 10, 1745 (O.S.), and died March 23, 1809. His first comedy appeared in 1781. Meloea, or Meloria (Sea-fight). — The Genoese defeated the Pisans in this naval battle, fought Aug. 6, 1284. Melds (J5gean Sea), one of the Cyclades, is said to have been colonized by the Phoe- nicians, and at a later period to have received a colony of Lacedaemonians. It was invaded by the Athenians, under Mcias, B.C. 426, and was again invaded by a large force B.C. 416. The city was besieged by sea and land, but held out for several months. Two successful sallies were made by the Melians, but at length their provisions became ex- hausted, and they surrendered at discretion. The victors put aU the men capable of bear- ing arms to death, and sold the women and children for slaves, 500 Athenian settlers being sent to form a new colony. A Peloponnesian squadron, under Antisthenes, defeated the Athenian navy here B.C. 412. The Lacedaemonians, under Lysander, having defeated the Athenians, their colony was recalled, and the captive Melians restored to their country, B.C. 404. It subsequently became part of the Eoman empire, and was finally conquered by the Turks, undei* Soliman 11. (1520—1565). It is now called Milo, and is included in the modern kingdom of Greece. Meletchstadt (Battle). — An undecided battle between Eodolph of Swabia and the emperor Henry IV. was fought at this place, in Franconia, a.d. 1078. Meleose (Scotland). — This site was oc- cupied by a Culdee house, founded a.d. 635. It was superseded by an abbey for Cister- cian monks, founded in 1136 by David I., and completed in 1146. In 1322 it was destroyed by Edward II. In 1326 it was rebuilt by Eobert Bruce, and completed in the reign of James IV. It was again destroyed by the English in 1.545. Meltox Mowbe at (Leicestershire), called Medeltune and Meltone Mowbray, received the name of Mowbray from its ancient lords, by command of Henry I. (1154). In 1613 the town was considerably damaged by fire, and in 1637 the plague raged with great violence. A battle was fought here between the royahsts and the parhamentary troops, the latter, 2,000 strong, being routed with great slaughter, in 1645. In 1736 the church, a handsome and spacious structure with lofty towers, was struck by Ughtning, and frag- ments of the south and north-east pinnacles, weighing from 5 cwt. to 6 cwt., were preci- pitated through the north transept. Melun (France), the ancient Melodimum, was captixred by Henry V. of England a.d. 1420. Henry had several conferences with MEM MEN the queen of France at this town in July, . 1419. It was recovered by the French in 1435. Councils were held here in 1216 ; Nov. 8, 1225 ; and Jan. 21, 1301. Memel (Prussia). — This town was built A.D. 1279, and fortified in 1312. It was greatly damaged by fire in 1323, and came into the possession of the Teutonic knights, who settled in Prussia, in 1328. Large portions of the town were destroyed by fires in 1379, 1457, 1540, 1678, and again Oct. 4, 1854. It was taken by the Eussians in 1757, and again occupied by them in December, 1813. The king and queen of Prussia concluded a convention with Napoleon I. at this town in 1807. Memmingen (Germany) was ceded to Ba- varia by arrangements definitively concluded Feb. 25, 1803. It was fortified by Mack in 1805, was taken by the French Oct. 9, and the Tyrolese occupied it in 1809. Memphis (Egypt). — Herodotus ascribes the foundation of this place to Menes, first king of Egypt, B.C. 3893, according to Lep- sius; B.C. 3643, according to Bunsen; B.C. 2412, according to Hales; and b.c. 2320, ac- cording to Wilkinson. Some fix as the date of its foundation B.C. 2188; and Diodorus Siculus ascribes it to Uchoreus, one of the successors of Osymandyas, king of Thebes, B.C. 2100. In order to reconcile the discre- pancy in these statements, some historians ascribe its foundation to Menes, and its com- pletion and extension to Uchoreus, who first made it a royal city. Memphis was taken by the Persians under Cambyses, B.C. 525, when many of its temples and palaces were destroyed. Alexander the Great, who win- tered here B.C. 332, quite destroyed the ancient importance of the place by founding Alexandria in the same year. Memphis was taken by Antiochus Epiphanes B.C. 171, and was visited and restored by Septimius Severus, A.B, 202. In the 7th century it passed under the dominion of the Arabs, and gradually fell into decay. The Arabian traveller Ab- dallatif visited it in the 12th century. The ruins were discovered and excavated by M. Mariette, between 1850 and 1854. It is the Noph of the Old Testament. The most cele- brated of its sacred buildings were, the tem- ple of Ptah, or Hephsestos, — the elemental principle of fire, — said to have been coeval with the foundation of the city, and improved and beautified by several monarchs ; the tem- ple of Proteus, said to have been founded by the Phoenicians about the sera of the Tro- jan war ; the temple of Isis, founded at an early period, and completed by Amasis B.C. 564; and the temple of Apis, called the cathedral of Egypt, founded by Psammeti- ehus. Memphis ceased to be the metropolis of Egypt on the foundation of Alexandria. It soon after feU into obscurity, and of this celebrated city, which, according to Diodo- rus, was seven leagues in circumference, and contained a multitude of beautiful temples, not one stone remains, — even the site on which it stood being disputed, Menai Stbait (Wales). — The Komans crossed this strait, separating Caernarvon- shire from the island of Anglesey, to attack the Druids in their last stronghold, a.d. 59. A ferry-boat was lost, containing fifty per- sons, Dec. 4, 1785. A suspension-bridge over the strait, 100 feet above the level of high water, was commenced by Mr. Telford in 1818, and completed in 1825, at a cost of £120,000. The bridge was opened Jan. 30, 1826. The Britannia tubular bridge, 101 feet above the level of high water, was com- pleted by Stephenson March 5, 1850, at a cost of £621,865. Mende (France). — This tovra, fortified by Bishop Adalbert, a.d. 1151, was frequently besieged during the reHgious wars of the 16th century ; and Henry IV. of France destroyed its citadel in 1597. Mendicants, or Begging Feiars, reli- gious orders in the Komish church, supported by charitable contributions, were established A.D. 1215, by Pope Innocent III. They in- creased rdpidly in numbers, and became a great burthen not only to the people but to the Church. In 1272 Gregory X, reduced the mendicant orders to four ; viz., Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Dominicans and Franciscans obtained great power both in church and state. Their in- fluence began to decline sensibly at the com- mencement of the Eeformation in the 16th century. Mendicity Society (London). — This society for the suppression of mendicity was founded in 1818. It was established for the purpose of checking the practice of pubhc begging, by putting the laws in force against impostors who adopt it as a trade, and by affording prompt and effectual assistance to those whom sudden calamity and un- affected distress may render worthy of the attention of the benevolent. Mendoza (South America), the capital of a province of the same name, was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, March 20, 1861. The city, situated on the eastern slope of the Cordilleras, was in one moment reduced to a mass of rviins. The calamity occurred at about a quarter to nine p.m. Out of a population of 12,000 souls, 10,000 were buried, and of these 2,000 were rescued, many of them having sustained severe injuries. The same night a fire broke out among the ruins of one of the largest buildings in the city, and about 600 persons were actually burned ahve. An eye-witness remarks, " This earthquake is probably the worst on record ; never was destruction so complete." Menehould St. (France) .—This ancient town was captured by the Enghsh a.d. 1436, and afterwards sustained several sieges. The Spaniards, who took it in 1652, were expelled in the following year. Menes (^ra). — The sera of Menes, the first king of Egypt, is placed by Lepsius B.C. 3893; by Bunsen, B.C. 3643; by Hales, B.C. 2412; by Wilkinson, B.C. 2320; and by Prichard, b.c. 2214. Menin (Belgium).— The allied army took 553 MEN possession of this town a.d. 1706, and it was captured by the Frencli in June, 1744. MENNOif ITES.^A sect of Anabaptists founded by Menno, sumamed Simonis, a;i>. 1536. He was born at Witmarsum, in Eries- land, in 1505, and commencing life as a Eoman Catholic, became a convert to the Anabap- tists. He was allowed to settle in the United Provinces by William I., prince of Orange, towards the close of the 16th century. Menno died in Holstein in 1561. In 1630 and 1649, conferences of the Anabaptists of G-ermanv, Flanders, and Friesland were held at Amsterdam, when the rigorous laws of their founder were noitigated. During the 17th century they obtained toleration in JEngland, Holland, and Germany. Mensa et Thoeo.— This partial kind of divorce a rnenscl et thoro (from table and bed), effected by a sentence of the ecclesias- tical courts, but not annulling the marriage, was superseded by a decree for a judicial separation, under the 7th clause o'f 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1857). _ Mensiteation. — The origin of this science is uncertain, though it is generally ascribed to the ancient Egyptians, Euclid, B.C. 1280, a mathematician of Alexandria, was the first who embodied the leading principles into a regular system. Archimedes, B.C. 250, a fa- mous geometrician of Syracuse, made great discoveries in this science. Cavalerius, an Italian mathematician, who died at Bologna A.D. 1647, invented, and applied to this science, the celebrated doctrine of indi- visibles. This, however, was superseded by ]S"ewton's (born 1642, died March 20, 1726) still more celebrated method of fluxions. Mentz. ((See Matence.) Menu (Institutes of). — ^A code of Indian civil and religious law, named after Menu, son of Bramah, by whom it is supposed to have been revealed. Its origin is ascribed to the period between Homer, B.C. 962, and the Twelve Tables of the Romans, B.C. 448. According to Schlegel, it was seen by Alex- ander the Great B.C. 356—323. In 1794 it was translated into Enghsh by Sir William Jones, and in 1830 into French by Des Longchamps. Mercantile Maeine Act. — This name is given to the act 13 & 14 Vict. c. 93 (Aug. 14, 1850), which provides for the engagement of merchant seamen, for sani- tary measures during voyages, for naval courts, log-books, desertions, wages, and other matters connected with the merchant service. It was amended by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 7, 1851). Mebc AEA ( Hindostan ) . — This fortress, built by Hyder Ali a.d. 1773, was taken possession of by the East-India Company's forces in 1834, and annexed to their domi- nions. Meecatoe's Projection. — This method of geographical projection, employed in the construction of nautical maps, is said to have been invented by Gerard Mercator, whose real name was Eauffman, born at Eiippelwonde, in East Friesland, March b, 554 MEE 1512 A.D. He died at Doesburg, Dee. 2, 1594. Edward Wright first investigated the principles, and applied them to purposes of navigation. Meecers' Compantt can be traced back as a metropohtan guild to a.d. 1172. It was incorporated by letters patent (17 Eich. II.) in 1394. Eichard II. was a free brother, and Queen Elizabeth a free sister, of the Mercers' Company. It ranks first amongst the twelve great livery companies of London, and is governed by a prime and three other wardens, and forty assistants, with 232 liverymen. There is scarcely a single mer- cer in the company. Merchants. — By Magna Charta (1215) foreign merchants were allowed to come, go, and stay in England for the exercise of their calling without being subject to un- reasonable imposts. By 27 Edw. III. (1353) it was enacted that if any difference should arise between the king and a foreign state, the ahen merchant was to have forty days', or longer, notice to leave the country. By 5 Eich. II. (1382) Enghsh merchants were exempted from this statute, which restrains Enghsh subjects from leaving the kingdom without a hcence. By 8 Hen. VI. (1429) none were allowed to sell to merchant strangers but for ready money. In 1561 the number of merchants in London was 327. During the threatened Spanish invasion, 300 met weekly to practise the art of war. In 1588 some of these held commands at Tilbury. From time to time companies of merchants were estabhshed in London for foreign trade. The Barbary merchants were mcorporated in the reign of Henry VII., and the Levant or Turkey Company was esta- bhshed in 1581. Their success originated the old East-India Company, which had a mono- poly of the traffic until a new company was incorporated, 9 WOl. III. (1698), on condition of their lending the government £2,000,000. Both companies were subsequently united. In France, Louis XIV. passed two decrees, in 1669 and 1701, allowing the nobles to trade by land and sea without derogating from their nobihty. An attempt made in 1711 to exclude merchants from the House of Commons failed. Merchant ADVENTtrRERS. — This cele- brated commercial company, said to have originated in the London Mercers' Com- pany, obtained privileges from John of Bra- Ijant A.D. 1296, and estabhshed themselves at Antwerp under the title of the Brother- hood of St. Thomas Becket. In 1358 they were encouraged by Louis, count of Flanders, who permitted them to form an estabhshment at Bruges ; and in 1406 they received their first charter from Henry IV. of England. Edward IV. granted a new charter in 1466. Their importance was much increased by the celebrated treaty known as the Intercursus magnus, which was concluded between Henry VII. and Philip, archduke of the ISTetherlands, Feb. 24, 1496 ; and in 1497 the company began to assume the title of the Merchant Adventurers. Henry VIII. granted MEE them a charter in 1513 ; * Queen Elizabeth granted them a charter in 1560, and a second, dated July 8, 1564, confirming aU former charters and privileges. Owing to the op- position of the Hanse towns, they were temporarily expelled from Germany in 1597, but they were soon invited to return. James I. granted them a charter in 1617, and their privileges were confirmed by Charles I. in 1634. They settled at Dort in 1647, and made Hamburg their principal staple about 1651. After 1661 Hamburg became their only foreign station. In 1765 the company published a report, wherein they stated that their trade had been long dechning. Mekchawt Tailoks.— This company, an- ciently called Tailors and Linen Armourers, was incorporated by Edward IV. a.d. 1466. As many of the members were great mer- chants, Henry VII. re-incorporated them in 1503, under the title of Merchant Tailors. In 1607, June 7, a great banquet was given to James I., which cost above £1,000. This company ranks more royal and noble person- ages among its members than any of the city companies. The Merchant Tailors' School was founded Sept. 24, 1561. Mercia (England). — This ancient king- dom is supposed to have been fovmded by the Angles, under Crida, a.d. 586. It was conquered by the Northumbrians in 655, and soon after regained its independence. Meecuet. — The transit of this planet over the sun was first observed by Gassendi, A.D. 1631. Meect (Order) . — The order of Mercy was established a.d. 1218 by James I. of Aragon, in the city of Barcelona, for the purpose of redeeming Christian captives in the power of the Moors. It is sometimes caUed St. Eulalia, from the name of the patron saint of the principal church in that city. A dispute between the knights and priests of the order about the elec- tion of a master, decided in favour of the priests by Pope John XXII. (1316— 1334) , led to the withdrawal of the knights, and the society from that time has been composed entirely of priests. In 1688 the duchess of Dudley bequeathed £100 per annum for the liberation of English captives. Meegiti (Hindostan).— This town, in Tenasserim, was taken by the English a.d. 1824, and was ceded to England by the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. Meeida (Mexico) was founded by the Spaniards on the site of a Mexican city, a.d. 1542. The "Cozumel Cross," supposed to have been originally worshipped by the natives of Cozumel, is preserved at Merida. Meeida, or Emeeita Augusta (Spain), the ancient metropolis of Lusitania, a town * Their first charter of incorporation was dated Feb. 6, 1554, in which they were described as " The Merchant Adventurers for the Discoveries of Lands, Countries, and Isles, &c., not before known or fre- quented by the English." MEE of great antiquity, was built by the legate Pubhus Carisius, B.C. 24. The Moors, under Musa, took it a.d. 712 j but they allowed the inhabitants to retain their tem- ples, creed, and bishops. It was taken from the Moors by Alfonso, Nov. 19, 1229, from which time it began to decline. Philip II. in 1580 ordered drawings to be made of the ruins, which in 1734 were burnt in the palace at Madrid. The French took Merida June 8, 1811. At Aroyo des Molinos, near this town, the Enghsh, under General HUl, defeated the French, under Girard, Oct. 28, 1811. Merida was wrested from the French by the British in April, 1812. Meeines, or Meeinides. — This Moorish tribe appeared in the north-west parts of Africa a.d. 1213. They made themselves masters of Fez, and before 1268 had esta- bhshed their supremacy throughout Morocco. Under their king, Abu Juzef, they entered Spain in 1274, and withdrew in 1294. Meeino Sheep were first brought into England from Spain, a.d. 1788, and a second flock was imported in 1791 . Some authorities believe that the merinos are descended from English sheep imported into Spain. Ed- ward IV., in 1464, sent a score of Costal ewes and four rams to John, king of Aragon. When Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, was espoused to Henry III., in 1390, she took a flock of sheep with her as her dowry. Merino sheep were introduced into the Ger- man states in 1765, into Hungary in 1775, and into France in 1786. Meemaid Club (London), called by HaUam " the oldest, perhaps, and not the worst of clubs," was established at the Mermaid (whence the name) tavern, Friday Street, by Sir Walter Ealeigh at the begin- ning of the 17th century. Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Selden, Donne, Camden, Beaumont, and Fletcher, were members of this cele- brated association. Meeoe (Africa). — This ancient kingdom of Central Africa is considered to have been formed by the mihtary caste which removed from Egypt during the reign of Psamme- tichus (B.C. 658—614). The ruins of the ancient capital of this kingdom were dis- covered by CaiUaud between a.d. 1819 and 1822. Meeovin-gians, the first race of the kings of France, who reigned from a.d. 418 to 752. The name Merovingian is derived from Merovaeus, the third king, who began to reign in 451. The French monarchy was founded in 487 by Clovis, the fifth of the Merovingian race. {See Feam-ce.) Meeet Andeew. — Hearne is of opinion that this term originated from Andrew Borde, a physician, who lived in the time of Henry VIII. He says, "'T was from the doctor's method of using such speeches at markets and fairs, that in after-times those that imi- tated the like humorous, jocose language, were styled Merry Andrews, a term much in vogue on our stages." Meesebueg (Battles ).— Henry the Fowler, emperor of Germany, defeated the 555 MER HuHgarians at this town, in Saxony, a.d. 934. j The Hungarians are said to have lost 40,000 | men. Tms extended plain, between Merse- burg and Leipsic, became the scene of nume- [ rous battles in later times. During the con- tention between the emperor Henry IV. and Gregory VII. a great battle was fought here between the papal and the imperial \ forces. Henry IV. having invaded Saxony, was defeated here in 1080. Kodolph of Swabia died in the encounter, and Henry IV. took the city of Merseburg soon after. Meeset Island (Essex).— The Danes assembled here a.d. 895, and made excursions up the rivers Lea and Thames. Meethye Tydtil (Wales) .— This place derives its name from Tydvil, daughter of Brychan, prince of Brycheiniog in the 5th century. The first congregation of dissen- ters in Wales was formed here in 1620. The Grlamorganshire canal, connecting Mer- thyr Tydvil with Cardiff, was completed in 1796. Serious riots occurred amongst the workmen at the iron- works, June 3, 1831, when several lives were lost. MEETOiSr (Surrey) was anciently called Meretun. Cynewulf, king of Wessex, was murdered here a.d. 784. EtheLred and his brother Alfred, afterwards king, fought a great battle with the Danes at this place, in the spring of 871. The English, at first victorious, were eventually compelled to vfithdraw. The priory, budt of wood in 1115, was rebuilt in stone in 1130. Meetoit College (Oxford) was founded at Maiden, in Surrey, by Walter de Merton, bishop of Eochester, Jan. 7, 1264, and was removed to Oxford in 1274. Thehbrarywas built in 1376 by William Eede. The outer court was rebuilt in 1589. Mebton Statutes. — A council assembled at the abbey of Merton, Jan. 23, 1236, when various enactments were made that have since formed part of the statute law of Eng- land, and are known as the Statutes of Merton. Meeu, or Meet (Asia) , is said to have been founded by Alexander the Great, and having been destroyed, was rebuilt by Antioehus I., who gave it the name of Antiochia Margiana. Here Orodes I., or Arsaees XIV., of Parthia, settled the soldiers of Crassus, whom he had made prisoners, B.C. 53. It was a favourite residence of many of the Persian monarchs, and was destroyed by the Uzbeg Tartars A.D. 1786. Mesmeeism. — The foundation of this theory was laid by Eriedrich Anton Mesmer, A.D. 1766, in his treatise "De Planetarum Influxu." In 1778 he settled in Paris, where he was received with curiosity, and opened an estabUshment for the cure of diseases by his magnetic process. In consequence of the alleged success of his attempts, the Erench government in 1784 appointed a com- mittee of inquiry to examine the truth of the system, and the result was a report stating it to be a complete impostui'e. Mesmer was, in consequence, compelled to leave France. He lived in retirement in England until 556 MES 17S9, when he pubUshed a new explanation of his theory. He returned to Germany, and, sinking into poverty, died at Marsburg in 1815. In 1817 the Prussian law prohibited the practice of mesmerism to any except members of the medical profession ; and the council of University College, London, passed a resolution to prevent its introduction into their hospitals, Dec. 27, 1838. An ingenious correspondent in Notes and Queries, July 3, 1852, quotes from Apideius an early allusion to mesmerism ; and Glanvil, in his " Scepsis Scientifica," pubhshed in 1665, refers to some doctrine analogous to modern mes- merism. Mesne Peocess is defined by "Wharton as " all those writs which intervene in the progress of a suit or action between its beginning and end, as contradistinguished from primary and final process." Arrest on mesne process, where the debt or cause of action was under £'20, was abolished by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 70 (July 2, 1827). The change, which did not extend to Scotland and Ireland, was applied to the last-mentioned country by 10 Geo. IV. c. 35 (June 4, 1829) ; and arrest on mesne process in civil actions was abohshed, except in certain specified cases, by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110 (Aug. 16, 1838). MEsoLOifGHi, or Messoion&hi. (See MiSSOLONGHI.) Mesopotamia (Asia). — This country was called, in the Old Testament, Aram I^aha- raim, or Syria between the two waters {i. e. the Tigris and the Euphrates), and Padan Aram, i. e. Syria of the Plain. It passed suc- cessively under the sway of the Babylonians, the Medians, and the Persians. After the battle of Issus, in October, 333 B.C., it fell into the power of the Macedonians. The Romans obtained possession of Mesopotamia A.D. 165. Jovian surrendered it to the Per- sians in 363. The Carmathians overran it in 902, and the Turks conquered it between 1514 and 1516. Messalians. (See Euchites.) Messene (Greece), the capital of Mes- senia (q. v.), in the Peloponnesus, was founded by Epaminondas B.C. 369, and maintained its independence until it was conquered by the Romans, B.C. 14^. Messenia (Greece). — The earliest inha- bitants of this coimtry are said to have been the Leleges. Polycaon named the country Messene, in honour of his wife, B.C. 1499. At the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, Cresphontes obtained Messenia. IS^umbers of the inhabitants left their country and settled in various parts of Greece, Italy, &c., at the close of the second Messenian war iq.v.), B.C. 668. Those that remained were reduced to the condition of helots, and the whole of Messenia was incorporated with Sparta. For nearly 300 years, Messenia ceased to exist as an independent country. After the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, in which the Spartans were totally defeated, Epaminondas determined to restore Mes- senia, and he bmlt the town of Messene (q. v.), B.C. 369, inviting back to their country the exiles from Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Under the protection of Thebes, Messenia maintained its independence. Its Eeople fought with the Achseans at the attle of SeUasia, b.c. 222. The Messe- nians having made war against the Achaean League, were defeated, and their chief city was captured b.c. 183. Messenia, with the rest of Grreece, lost its independence, and was incorporated with the Eoman empire B.C. 146. Messeniaw Wars. — The first of these wars, between Messenia and Sparta, lasted twenty years, from B.C. 743 to b.c, 723. The former were obliged to submit. The second began B.C. 685, and lasted to B.C. 668, terminating in the conquest of the Messenians. Taking advantage of the de- vastation caused by the great earthquake at Sparta, the Messenians again revolted ; and the third Messenian war commenced B.C. 464, and ended in their entire overthrow B.C. 455. Messina (Sicily), the ancient Messana, was originally called Zancle, said to be derived from a Siculian word, signifying a sickle. It was thus named on account of the peculiar formation of the port. The date of its foundation cannot be ascertained with accuracy, though it is generally believed to have derived its origin from a colony of Naios, which city was not founded until B.C. 735. The Samians obtained possession of Zancle B.C. 493, and were expelled about B.C. 478 by Anaxilas of Ehegium, who called it Messene, from the Grecian city of that name, from which his ancestors came. From that time it was generally known as Messene or Messana. The inhabitants regained their independence b.c. 461, but were compelled to surrender their town to the Athenians, B.C. 426. They joined the Syracusans B.C. 425, again became independent, and enjoyed great prosperity until their city was taken and completely destroyed by the Cartha- ginians under Himilcon, b.c 396. Messana, gradually restored, again became an impor- tant city, and was captured by Agathocles B.C. 312. Some time after his death, pro- bably about B.C. 280, the city fell a prey to the Mamertines (qv.), who endeavoured to change its name to Mamertina. Having been assailed by Hieron of Syracuse, one portion of the citizens desired to seek the assistance of the Carthaginians, and another, that of the Komans. The latter prevailed, and this appeal to Eome (b.c 264) led to the first Punic war. Messina flourished under Eoman protection, and became a station for their fleets. Cassius, in command of Pompey's fleet, destroyed Caesar's squadron here, b.c. 48. The Saracens captured Mes- sina A.D. 829, and they were expelled by the Normans under Count Eoger in 1072. Eichardl., dui-ing the third crusade, landed here with his army, Sept. 14, 1190, and em- barked for the Holy Land April 10, 1191. In 1672 the inhabitants revolted against the Spaniards, and made an alliauce with the MET French; but their city was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 17, 1678, and was ceded to Austria, Feb. 17, 1720. The plague carried off" nearly 50,000 persons m 1743, Messina has suifered severely from earth- quakes. It was almost entirely destroyed by one in 1693. Others occm-red in 1780 and 1783, and on the last occasion the mag- nificent quay and many beautiful edifices were destroyed. A revolution broke out Jan 12, 1848, but it was soon suppressed. A general rising took place in Sicily, March 15, 1860, and several persons were arrested in Messina, May 2. The revolution was, however, successful; the connection with Naples was severed, and Messina now forms part of the kingdom of Italy. METALLiTEGr. — Tubal Cain was "an instructor of every artificer in brass andiron" (Gen. iv. 22). According to Hallam, Agri- cola, a native of Saxony, acquired a perfect knowledge of the processes of metallurgy from the miners of Chemnitz, and perceived the immense resources that might be drawn from the abysses of the earth. " He is the first mineralogist," says Cuvier, " who appeared after the revival of science in Europe." The names of the principal me- tals, vsdth the date of their discovery, are as follows : — Metals. Discovered by (Date. AlnmiTiinTn , , Wohler A.D. Antimony .... Basil Valentine .... 1490 Arsenic Brandt 1738 1808 1.530 Bismuth Agilcola CaJoium Davy 1808 1797 1733 1801 Cobalt Brandt Columbium . . Copper Hatehett Known to the Ancients. Erbinm Ditto Wohler 1840 Gold.... Iridium Known to the Ancients. Tennant 1803 Iron Known to the Ancients. Mosander Lanthanium. . . 1839 Lead Known to the Ancients. Arfwedson Lithium 1817 Manganese .... Mercury Gahn and Scheele Known to the Ancients. Hielm 1774 Nickel Cronstedt 1751 Niobium H. Rose 1845 Osmium Palladium WoUaston 1803 Platinum Wood 1741 Potassium. .... Davy 1807 Kuthenium . . Klaus 1844 Berzelius Silver Sodium Known to the Ancients. Davy 1807 1807 Mtiller 1782 Terbium Mosander 1840 1829 Tin Known to the Ancients. MET MET Titanium Tungsten . . Uranium . . Vanadium Yttrium .. Zinc Zirconiiun Discovered by Gregor . . . . D'EIhuiart Klaproth . . Sefstrom . . Wohler .. Paracelsus Berzelius.. 1791 1781 1830 1828 1530 Mexamoephists. — Certain sacramen- tarians, who affirmed that Christ's body- was wholly deified, arose about a.d. 1450. Metaphysics, or the "science of the principles and causes of all things existing," was first treated of by Aristotle (b.c. 384 to 322). The title was apphed to the series of works which followed his "Physics" and were in consequence styled " ixerd to, (pvaiKO." or " after the physics." Metapgnttim, or Metapontium (Magna Grsecia). — The foundation of this city, assigned to various persons and periods, was doubtless the work of an Achaean colony. The Metapontiaes joined Athens against Sicily B.C. 414. Hannibal occupied Meta- pontum from B.C. 212 to B.C. 207, and on re- tiring took with him all the inhabitants who dreaded lest the Eomans should punish them for their alliance with the Carthaginians. Metaueus, (Battle,) was fought upon the banks of this river, in Italy, b.c. 207, between Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, and the Eoman consuls C. Claudius K^ero and M. Livius. Hasdrubal was slain in this contest, and the Carthaginians were totally defeated. Metempsychosis, or the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, was long supposed to have been derived from the Egyptians. It appears, however, to have existed in Greece, in some form or other, before any intercourse existed between Egypt and Greece. Pythagoras, who died b.c. 507, first gave the doctrine that settled form it long assumed in ancient Greece. Empe- docles, who flourished b.c. 455, held that plants had souls, and that into plants, as well as into animals, the vital principle passed after death. It was a favourite doctrine of the Hindoos. Meteoeolite.— The theories respecting the nature of these phenomena are four in number; viz., that they are stones projected by lunar volcanoes ; stones from terrestrial volcanoes ; that they are the result of gaseous combmations in the air ; and that they are asteroids which are drawn by the earth as ttiey come within the force of its attraction. The last theory receives support from the fact, that since 1833 showers of meteorolites have fallen in various parts of Europe and America annually on the 12th, 13th, or 14th of November. 654. Livy mentions a shower of stones which fell on the Alban mount. 467. A large stone falls near iEgospotami. in Thrace. 558 56. Pliny mentions the fall of an aerolite in Lucania. 46. Csesar states that a stone fell at Accilla this year. A.D. 1492. Nov. 7. A large stone falls at Ensisheim. 1510. A shower of stones falls in Lombardy, 1620. A large stone falls in the Hindoo province of Lahore. 1627. Nov. 27. Gassendi witnesses the descent of a large aerolite on Mount Vaision. 1668. Two large stones fall near Verona. 1753. Sept. Two stones fall at Lipouas and Pin, in France. 1760. Sept. 15. A stone falls near the Chateau de Chevabrie. 1768. Nov. 20. A stone weighing 38 lb. falls at Mauerkirchen, in Bavaria. 1790. July 24. A stone falls near JuiUac. 1794. June 16. A meteoroUte faUs at Sienna. 1798. March 12. A stone falls near Villa Franca. 1803. April 26. A remarkable shower of stones falls near L'Aigle, in Nonnandy. 1841. Sept. A shower of many millions of stones falls in Hungary. Meteoeology.— The Meteorological Society of London was estabhshed in 1823, and began to publish its Transactions in 1839. Methodists. — John Wesley, and some of his friends, at the university of Oxford, formed themselves into an association for the more strict observance of their rehgious duties, about a.d. 1729, and received, amongst other nicknames, that of Metho- dists, m allusion to the Methodici, or phy- sicians in ancient Rome, mentioned by Celsus. The Methodists practised self- denial, visited the poor and the sick, and spent much time in meditation and prayer. John Wesley formed his followers into a regular society, May 1, 1738. Such was the origin of what are termed the Wesleyan Methodists. Their first meeting-house was founded at Bristol, May 12, 1739. George Whitfield separated from the Wesleyans, and founded the Whitfieldites, or Whitfield- ians {q.v.), in 1741. The first watch-night of the Methodists was held in London, April 9, 1742 ; the rules of the society were first pubhshed May 1, 1743, and the first conference was held in 1744. A further separation occurred in 1797, when the Methodists divided into two sects, called the Old Methodists, and the New Connexion. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists arose in 1785, and various Methodist sects have since sprung into existence. Methoxe (Macedonia) is said to have been settled by some Eretrians about B.C. 730. Philip I. besieged it B.C. 353, captured it B.C. 352, and razed it to the ground. During the siege, Philip was wounded in the eye by an arrow, having, according to tra- dition, a label with these words, "Astorto Philip's right eye." This bowman had offered his services to the king, declaring that he could bring down a bird in its flight with his arrows. "It is well," said Phihp, " I shaU make use of thee when I wage war with starlings." Methoxe (Messenia), called Pedasus by Homer, was given to the inhabitants of JNaupha by the Spartans, e.g. 662. The MET Athenians were defeated in an attempt to regain pbssession of Methone, B.C. 431. It was captured by Agrippa about b.c. 31. Trajan made it a free city. (See Modon .) Methuen" Tkeatt was concluded between England and Portugal, by the English ambassador at Lisbon, Paul Me- thuen, — whence its name, a.d. 1703. It regulated the conxmerce between the two countries, and was annulled in 1834. Metonic Cycle, so called from its inventor Meton, an astronomer of Athens, is a cycle of nineteen years, or 6,940 days, at the end of which time the new moons fall on the same days of the year, and the eclipses return in nearly the same order. It com- menced July 15, 432 b.c. CaMppus, who lived about B.C. 330, discovered and cor- rected its error, and invented the Calippic Period (q.v.). Metron-qmb. — This ingenious instrument for determining the movement, i. e. the quickness or slowness of musical composi- tions, was invented by John Maezel, civil engineer and mechanician to the emperor of Austria, a.d. 1814. Meteopolitam". — A term applied to the prelate who resided in the capital city of each province, the clergy and the other bishops of the province being subject to his authority. The establishment of metropo- litans originated at the end of the 3rd century, and was confirmed by the council of Nicsea. Mosheim beheves the prerogatives of metropolitans to have originated in the councils first summoned in the 2nd century. The first metropolitan or archbishop pf Canterbury was Augustine, created by King Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, in 598. PauMnus, the first metropohtan of York, was appointed by Pope Gregory in 622. Patrick Graham, made bishop of St. Andrew's in 1466, was the first metropohtan in Scotland. Metropolitan Board of Works was established by 18 & 19 Vict, c. 120 (Aug. 14, 1855), an act for the better local manage- ment of the metropohs. The first meeting took place Dec. 22, 1855, when Mr. J. Thwaites was elected chairman. The powers of the board were extended by 21 & 22 Vict. e. 104 (Aug. 2, 1858), by which the purifica- tion of the Thames and the main drainage of the metropolis were placed under their direction. Metropolitan" Cattle -Market (Lon- don).— By 14 & 15 Vict. c. 61 (Aug. 1, 1851), power was given to certain commissioners to provide a new cattle-market for the metro- polis. It was called the Metropolitan Market Act. In pursuance of such powers, a new cattle-market was prepared in Copenhagen Fields, in the north of London, and it was opened June 13, 1855, Smithfield having been closed June 11. The sales commenced June 15. Metz (France) was called Divodurum by the Romans, and was the chief town of the Mediomatriei. In the 5th .century it was called Mettis. The inhabitants in a time HEX of peace were massacred by the army of Vitellius, A.D. 70, and Metz was destroyed by the Huns in 452. In the Middle Ages it became the capital of the kingdom of Aus- trasia, sometimes called the kingdom of Metz, and was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. Charles VII. besieged it in 1444, and it only preserved its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. Henry II. obtained possession of Metz in 1552 ; and, although the emperor Charles V. besieged it with 100,000 men, after ten months he was obliged to raise the siege, Jan. 1, 1553. The town continued in the possession of the French, and was formally secured to France by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. The cathedral, one of the most beau- tiful Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1014, was not finished tiU 1546. Its for- tifications were planned by Vauban and con- tinued by Marshal Belleisle. The fort Belle- Croix, commenced in 1731, is a master-piece of mihtary construction. Metz was made a bishop's see at an early period, and coun- cils were held here in October, 590 ; in 753 ; May 28, 859 ; in June, 863 ; Sept. 9, 869 ; and in 888, Mexico (North America). — The earhest inhabitants of Mexico of whom we possess any information, are the Toltecs, who, hav- ing been expelled from their own country, A.D. 472, travelled southward and settled in Mexico, where they established a kingdom in 667. In consequence of a terrible famine and pestilence, this people migrated from the country about 1051, and were succeeded, after a lapse of about a century, by the Chi- chemecs. The Aztecs settled in the country about 1216, founded the city of Mexico in 1325, and estabUshed their monarchy in 1352. Mexico was made known to Europeans by Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. A.D. 1519. 1.521. 1522. 1767. 1808. April 21. Hernando Cortes lands in Mexico. Aug. 13. He takes the city of Mexico. Oct. 15. Ohaiies V. constitutes Cortes governor of the conquered territory, which is called New Spain. Charles V. establishes a viceregal government for New Spain. Mendoza erects the first Mexican mint. Dec. 2. Death of Cortes at CastiUeja de la Cuesta, near Seville. The university of Mexico is founded. An insurrection of negro slaves is suppressed by the viceroy. The province is involved in civil strife, owing to the attempt of the viceroy to obtain a monopoly for the sale of corn. June 20. The city of Mexico is overwhelmed by an inundation, which continues for five years. A formidable insun-ection of the Indians is suppressed. The first auto-da-fe at Mexico is celebrated by the Inquisition. Fifty victims suffer. June 8. An insurrection breaks out in the city of Mexico, and the palace of the viceroy is burnt by the mob. June 25. The Jesuits are expeUed from Mexico. Sept. 15. The Mexicans arrest the viceroy Iturrigaray, and send him prisoner to Spain, 559 MEX 1810. A plot for the overthrow of the Spaniards is detected and suppressed. 1811. July 27. The priestly rebel Mignel Hidalgo is executed. 1815. Dec. 22. The soldier-priest Morelos is shot for raising an insurrection. 1817. April 15. Xavier Mina lands in Mexico, at)d goes to the assistance of the revolutionists. Nov. 11. He is shot as a rebel. 1821. Feb. 24. Agustin de Iturbide proclaims the " Plan of Ignala," the principles of which were, " Independence, the maintenance of Eoman Catholicity, and Union." 1822. Feb. 24. The first Mexican congress assembles. May 18. Iturbide is proclaimed emperor. Nov. Generals Garza, Santa Anna, and Echavari declare against the emperor. 1823. March 8. Itnrbirte abdicates. Oct. Congress sanctions a federal constitution. 1824. July 19. Iturbide is shot for an attempt to recover his authority. Oct. 4. A federal constitiition, founded on that of the United States, is adopted by Congress. 1825. April 15. Guadulupe "Victoria is sworn into office as president. 1829. March 20. Congress decrees the expulsion of the Spaniards. July 5. A Spanish expe- dition for the recovery of Mexico sails from Havana. Sept. 11. It surrenders to General Santa Anna. Sept. 15. The president Guerrero publishes a decree abolishing slavery. Dec. 23. Guerrero is deposed, and is succeeded by Bus- tamente. 1832. The Texans revolt. 1833. May 11. Santa Anna is elected president. 1836. April 21. Santa Anna is defeated by the revolted Texans, under General Houston. 1838. Nov. 30. War is declared against Fi'ance. 1839. March 9. Peace is concluded with France at "Vera Cruz. 1844. April 12. The Texans conclude a treaty with the United States for annexation to the Union. 1845. Jan. 4. Fall of Santa Anna, who is aiTested on a charge of treason. June 4. "War is declared against the United States on the Texas question. 1846. May 8. The Mexicans are defeated by the "United States army, under General Taylor, at Palo Alto. May 9. They lose the battle of Matam'iros. Aug. 18. General Kearney takes Santa F6. Sept. 24. General Taylor take5 IVFonterey. 1847. Jan. 19. The American inhabitants of New Mexico are massacred by the Mexican population. Jan. 28. General Price defeats the Mexicans »t El Embudo. General Taylor defeats the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, at the battle of Angostura, or Bueno Vista. April 18. General Scott defeats Santa Anna at Cerro-Gordo. Aug. 20. Scott defeats the Mexicans at Cou- treras. Aug. 23. A ti-uce is agreed upon. Sept. 8. Hostilities recommence. Sept. 15. Scott takes the city of Mexico. 1848. Feb. 2. The preliminaries of peace are signed at Guadalupe-HidRlgo. May 19. Peace is ratified with the United States. 1852. Sept. 13. A revolution breaks out in the pro- vinces of Xalisco and Guadalaxara. 1853. Jan. 6. General Ai-ista abdicates the presi- dency. Feb. 7. Santa Anna is recalled. March 17. Santa Anna is elected pre- sident. Dec. 16. He is made dictator for life. 1855. Aug. 9. Santa Anna abdicates the dictator- ship. Sept. 12. Martin Carrera, his suc- cessor, also abdicates, and is succeeded by Alvarez. Dec. 8. Alvarez abdicates, and is succeeded by Comonfort. 1856. March 22. Comonfort suppresses the insur- rection of Haro y Tamaiiz. March 31. The property of the ecclesiastics is con- fiscated. MIC 1858. Jan. 11. A revolution breaks out tinder General Zuloaga. Jan. 21. Comonfort quits Mexico, and is succeeded by Zuloaga. Shortly afterwards Benito Juarez is de- clared constitutional president at "Vera Cruz, and the country is in consequence ravaged by civil war. 1859. Jan. 6. Zuloaga is deposed, and a junta elects Miratuon as his successor. Jan. 26. Mira- mon restores Zuloaga. Feb. 2. Zuloaga abdicates. April 11. Miramon enters Mexico, and assumes the presidency. July 13. The constitutional president Juarez confiscates the ecclesiastical property. Sept. 24. A conspiracy against Miramon is suppressed. Dec. 26. Miramon defeats the liberal general Colima. 1860. March 13. Miramon bonabards "Vera Cruz. March 21. He raises the siege. May 1. Zuloaga issues a decree, in which he assumes the presidency, and deposes Miramon. May 9. He" is arrested by Miramon. May 10. The corps diplo- matique ceases to hold official communi- cation with Miramon. Aug. 10. Miramon is defeated at the battle of Siloa, by General DegoUado. Dec. 25. Miramon being defeated in several engagements, the victorious army of Juarez enters Mexico. 1861. Jan. 19. Juarez is president. Jan. 21. A new ministiy is formed. June 30. Congress appoints Juarez president of the republic and absolute dictator. Meziehes (France), the chief town of the department of the Ardennes, "was besieged by an Austrian and Spanish army a.d. 1521. The Chevalier Bayard took the command of the garrison, and compelled the Imperiahsts to retire in confusion. Mezieees-en-Brenne (France). — This town, in the department of Indre, is cele- brated for its church, dedicated to St. Marie -Madeleine a.d. 1339. Mezzotinto, or Middle-tint. — A style of engraTing, the invention of which is ascribed to Prince Eupert by Evelyn in his " Sculptura," pubhshed a.d. 1662. The dis- covery, however, is really due to Louis von Siegen, a heutenant-colonel in the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who engraved a portrait of the queen of Bohemia in this style about 1643. Theodore de Eurstenberg practised the art in 1656, and he and Eupert are believed to have been pupils of Siegen. The earliest work by Prince Eupert is the "Executioner of St. John," completed in 1658. Michaelmas.— The feast of St. IVEchael, celebrated on the 29th of September, was instituted a.d. 487. Michaelmas-day was formerly marked by the display of great hospitality, and many curious customs were connected with it. Michaelmas term was altered by 16 Charles I. c. 6 (IN'ovember, 1640), and by 24 Geo. II. c. 48 (1751). The common tradition attributing the origin of the Michaelmas goose to the fact that Queen Elizabeth was eating a goose on that day when she received the news of the defeat of the Spanish armada, is incorrect : public thanksgiving for the victory had been offered in London Aug. 20, 1588. The practice, moreover, existed in England in the reign of MIC Edward IV., and appears to have been an imitation of a custom observed on the con- tinent of eating a goose on St. Martin's day, or Martinmass, Nov. 11. The goose is called amongst several continental nations St. Martin's bird. Michael's (St.), Motjh't (Cornwall). — This island, lying off the coast, is supposed by some writers to be the Ictis mentioned by Diodorus Siculus. This, however, is a disputed point. It received the name from a supposed appearance of the archangel St. Michael about a.d. 495. In the 5th century it was an object of religious vene- ration, and Edward the Confessor founded and endowed an abbey or priory of Bene- dictines here before a.b. 1044. It was annexed by Eobert, earl of Morton, and made subject, in religious matters, to the abbey of Mount St. Michael, in Normandy, and remained in this condition till the French wars in 1414, when the statute passed in 1380 for suppressing alien priories was put in force. Henry V. or VI. gave this ahen priory to Syon Abbey, Middlesex, under which rule it continued until 1533, when it was dissolved. In 1542 the abbey was given to Henry VIII., who granted the revenues to Humphrey Arimdell. After his death, in 1550, it was sold to Job Milton. The mount was fortified in the Middle Ages, and the earl of Oxford (John de Vere), a Lancastrian, surprised it in September, 1473, and it was wrested from him by the Yorkists in_ February, 1474. The Cornish rebels seized it in 1549, and the parliamentarians in 1646. The pier was rebuilt in 1726, and Queen Victoria visited the mount Sept. 6, 1846. Michael, St. — Louis XI. of France in- stituted the order of St. Michael a.d. 1469, and a similar order was introduced into Germany in 1618. Michigan (North America) . — The French penetrated into this country early in the 17th century, and formed a settlement at Detroit A.D. 1647; Michigan passed into the hands of the Enghsh in 1763, and was not entirely re- linquished by them to the United States until 1796. Michigan was erected into a territory in 1805, and was admitted into the Union as a distinct state in 1836. MicKOMETEE. — This instrument, applied to telescopes and microscopes, for measuring very small distances, was first constructed by Gaseoigne, an Englishman, a.d. 1640, and used by him for measuring the diameters of the sun and moon. Gaseoigne, who perished in the civil wars in 1644, published no account of his invention. Kichard Townley preserved one of the instruments, and it was improved by Hooke. Without any knowledge of these inventions and improvements, Auzout and Picard, in 1666, published an account of a micrometer invented by them. Christian Huygens effected further improvements, and to each of the afore-mentioned persons at some period or other has this invention been attributed. Microscope. — Single microscopes, in the MID form of glass globes containing water, were in use amongst the ancients. Layard found a magnifying lens of rock crystal in the ruins of Nineveh. The invention of the com- pound microscope has been attributed to Jansenand Galileo, a.d. 1609, and to Cor- nelius Drebbel in 1620. It is now generally beheved to have been invented by Zacharias Jansen, assisted by his father, Hans Jansen, spectacle-makers at Middleburg, about 1500. They presented one to Prince Maurice in 1617. Prichard perfected the diamond mi- croscope Dec. 1, 1824. It was the first in which this precious stone had been used, and it was found greatly superior to glass in power. Professor EiddeU, of the university of New Orleans, in 1851 constructed a bino- cular microscope, for rendering both eyes serviceable in microscopical observations. MicKOscopiCAL Societies.— The Micro- scopical Society was instituted at London Sept. 3, 1839, for the promotion and diffusion of improvements in the optical and mechani- cal construction ; for the commimication and discussion of observations and discoveries ; for the exhibition of new or interesting microscopical objects and preparations ; for submitting difficult and obscure microsco- pical phenomena to the test of various instru- ments; and for the estabhshment of ahbrary of standard microscopical works. The Dublin Microscopical Society, for pro- moting a knowledge of the minute structure of organic beings, was founded in that city in October, 1840. Middle Ages. {See Medieval Ages.) MiDDLEBUEG (HoUand). — The prince of Orange wrested this strongly-fortified town, in the province of Zealand, from the Span- iards, after a two years' siege, Feb. 19, 1574. In 1581 a religious sect, called the Brownists (q. v.), from their founder Eobert Brown, set- tled at Middleburg. Disunion soon appeared in their ranks, and Brown left them and re- turned to England in 1589. Middle-Class Examii^ atiosts. — The Con- vocation of Oxford university passed a sta- tute authorizing nxiddle-class examinations, June 18, 1857, and the first commenced at Oxford June 21, 1858. Middlesex (England), before the Eoman invasion, b.c. 55, formed part of the terri- tories of the Trinobantes, the flj'st British tribe who submitted to the Eomans. Jidius Csesar invaded it b.c. 54, and it passed under the dominion of Eome in the time of Claudius, A.D. 43. It formed part of the kingdom of Essex, estabUshed in 527. Middle -Temple Hall (London) was bunt A.D. 1570. It contains an equestrian picture of Charles I., supposed to be a genuine Vandyke ; and portraits of Charles II., Queen Anne, George I., and George II. New buildings were erected in 1831, and the new hbrary, completed in 1861, was openea by the prince of Wales Oct. 31 in that year. MiDDLETOif ( Lancashire) . — The parish was granted, a.d. 1513, to Sir Eichard Assheton for his bravery at Flodden Field, 3 o MID and was only a small village in 1775. In I 1812 it was the scene of rioting by discon- | tented workmen; The church was built by j Sir E. Assheton in 1-524 ; the grammar-school was founded by royal charter, Aug. 11, 1572; and Samuel Eadcliffe founded two scholar- ships at Brasenose College, Oxford, in 164S. MiDDLETOWK ( North America ) . — This city of Connecticut, called Mattabesick by the Indians, was settled a.d. 1650. The Wesleyan university was founded in 1831. MiDHUEST (Sussex) is supposed to have been the Eoman Miba, or Mida, described in the Chorography of Eavenna, as existing in the south of Britain. Its free grammar- school was founded a.d. 1672. Cowdry House, the seat of the Montagues, near this town, built in the reign of Heniy VIII., was destroyed by fire in 1793. MiDiAisT^TES, deriving their name from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah, were early engaged in trade between the East and the West. Joseph was sold by his brethren, B.C. 1728, to a party of Midian- ites carrying spices, the produce of the East, into Egypt (Gen. xxvii, 28). They were utterly destroyed by the Israelites b.c. 1451 (Num. xxxi.). MiDNAPOEE (Hindostan). — This district and town of Orissa were ceded to the British by Cosstm Ah Khan, a.d. 1761. In 1770 it was devastated by a terrible famine, which carried away nearly half of the population. A similar disaster, but of less severity, oc- curred in 1799. MiDWiPEEY. — In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Eome, the obstetric art was exclusively professed by females, male physicians only being called, in when the hfe of the mother was considered in great danger. The first printed book on the subject was pubhshed by Eucharius Eoesshn, a.d. 1513. The practicabihty of the Caesarean operation on the Hving mother was proved by Erancis Eousset in 1581 ; and the science was per- Tnauently eatabhshed on a firm foundation by the treatise of Francis Mauricea, in 1668. The invention of the forceps was made by Dr. Chamberlen in 1672. Male accoucheurs were first employed by ladies of the highest rank in France. A school for midwives was estabhshed in the Hotel Dieu at Paris in 1745. Mies (Battle).— The Hussites defeated a Saxon army, near Mies, July 21, 1426. Milan (Duchy) .—The struggle maintained for several years by various Lombard cities to seciu-e their independence was brought to a successfid close by the treaty of Constance iq.v.), A.D. 1183. Quarrels between the different cities, and internal feuds amongst the civil and ecclesiastical authorities, kept Italy for many years in constant ferment. Visconte took Milan from IS'apoleone della Torre in January, 1277, and the citizens saluted him " Perpetual Lord of MUan." Gian Galeazzo Yisconte obtained the title of duke of Milan by j)urchase in 1395. His descendants ruled as dukes until 1447, when Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of Philip Vis- MIL conte, the last of the line, obtained the duchy. He was acknowledged duke in 1450, and on the extinction of the Sforza fine, in 1535, the duchy was annexed to the Spanish crown. Milan (Italy), — This city, the ancient Mediolanum (q.v.), once more rose from its ruins, and regained some of its former importance in the 9th century. Many of the inhabitants of Pavia, after its capture in 924, settled in Milan, and Otho I. was crowned king of Italy at Milan in 961. Conrad II. laid siege to it in 1037, and retired in 1038 without achieving his object. Councils were held at Milan in 346, 347, 355, 380, 390, 451, 679, 1009, 1103, in February 1117, and Sept. 12, 1287. 1041. 1042. 1044. 1107. 1127. 1161. 1162. 1327. 1395. 1513. 1535. 1540. 1733. 1796. 1798. 1800. 1805. 1807. 1815. 1848. The people expel the nobles. The city is blockaded by the expelled nobles. Peace is restored between the nobles and the people. Milan becomes a republic. The people of Milan make war upon other Italian cities, and destroy Lodi and Como. The Milanese are defeated in a sanguinary battle by the people of Pavia, and they submit, biit with reluctance, to the em- peror Frederick I. Frederick I. , with an army of 100,000 men, besieges Milan, which is reduced by famine and pestilence. The Milanese having rebelled, Frederick I. again lays siege to their city. March 1. The consuls and chief citizens solicit the clemency of the emperor at Lodi. March 4. They deliver up the keys to Frederick I., who ent-rs the city March 26, and destroys the fortifications. The Lombard cities form a league for their defence, and Milan is restored. The citizens choose Uherto de' Visconte, of Placentia. their Podest^. Struggles between the nobles and the people recommence. The government of Milan is remodelled, and twenty-four nobles!, subject to an imperial vicar, are made rulers. Milan is erected into a duchy. Gian Galeazzo Visconte baying pui'chased the title of duke of Milan from W enceslaus, king of the Romans. Milan is occupied by the French. It is again occupied by the French. Charles V. seizes Milan. It is given to PhUip of Spain, by his father Charles V. Philip IV. signs the treaty known as the Capitulation of Milan. Milan is seized by the Austrians. March 13. The French sign a treaty at Milan, resigning all their conquests in Lombardy. Dec. 29. The citadel surrenders to the French. It is taken by ihe French. May 16. A treaty between France and Venice is concluded at Milan. June 28. The convention of JlUan is signed between France and Sardinia. May 24. It is taken by the Austrians, under General Hohenzollem. The French again take Milan. May 28, Napoleon I. is crowned king of Itgly, with the iron crown of Lombardy, at Milan. jSTov. 25. Napoleon I. publishes the Milan decree pr...hibiting the nations of the continent from holding intercourse with the English. April 20. Insurrections break out at Milan. March 18. The Milanese revolt against the Austrians, and expel them from the city. Aug. 5. The Austrian forces re-enter the city. MIL Ji.D. 1849. Aug. 6. Peace is concluded here between Austria and Sardinia. 1853. Feb. 6. The Milanese revolt from Austria, but are speedily reduced to order. 1857. Jan. 15. The emperor of Austria visits Milan. 1859. June 8. The emperor of the French and Victor Emanuel, of Sardinia, enter Milan. 1860. Feb. 15. Victor Emanuel is enthusiastically received at Milan. Milesian Wab, waged by the inhabitants of Miletus (q. v.) in defence of their liberties against the Lydians, lasted from b.c. 623 to B.C. 612. The Milesians were defeated in two engagements by Sadyattes, king of Lydia. The war was continued by his successor Alyattes, who was taken iU, in consequence, it was beEeved, of his troops having burnt a temple in the territory of Miletus, and he at once made peace with the Milesians. Miletus (Asia Minor). — This city, sup- posed to have been peopled by Carians at an early period, passed through the hands of several tribes, and was seized by the lonians, who massacred all the women. The inhabitants carried on war against the Lydians B.C. 623 — 612. They rose against the Persians b.c. 500, and, after sustaining several defeats, their city was taken b.c. 494, and the inhabitants were carried to Ampe, on the banks of the Tigris. Miletus regained its independence after the battle of Mycale (q. v.), B.C. 479, and soon after joined the Athenians. Alexander the Great took the city by assault b . c . 834. It was visited by the apostle Paul (Acts xx. 17), who summoned the elders of the church of Ephesus to meet him here in April, 56 a.d., and it was an early see of the Christian chiu'ch. MiLFOED (Wales). — This town, founded A.D, 1790, is connected with London by the South Wales Eailway. The church was erected in 1805. The naval estabhsh- ments were removed to Pembroke in 1814. MiLFOKD Haven (Wales) is an arm of the sea, with deep water and excellent anchorage, capable of sheltering the whole of the British navy. Here Richard II. embarked on his expedition to Ireland in May, 1399. A French fleet, carrying troops intended to assist Owen Glendower in his opposition to Henry IV., arrived here in 1407. The earl of Eichmond, afterwards Henry VII., who sailed from Harfleur Aug. 1, 1485, lauded at MiUbrd Haven Aug. 7. Two lighthouses were erected on St. Ann's Head in 1800. The Great Eastern wintered in Milford Haven in 1860, and returned for repairs, after having been disabled in a hurricane, Sept. 12, 1861. Military Asylum (London) was foimded at Chelsea, June 19, 1801, by the duke of York. MiLiTABY Fkontieb (Austria). — This tract of country, so named because it is placed under a purely mihtary government, extends from the Adriatic Sea to Transyl- vania, and was originally intended to form a barrier against the Turks. The system was introduced by Ferdinand I., who reigned 5G3 MIL from 1558 to 1563. He planted mihtary colonists in Croatia. It was further extended in the 17th and 18th centuries, the system in existence at present having been esta- bhshed in 1807. Military Knights op Windsob. {See Chapel, Knights of the.) Militia. — The nationalforce, denominated the Fyrd, which existed in this country in the Anglo-Saxon period, was improved and extended by Alfred. Henry II. issued an ordinance commanding all persons to pro- vide themselves with arms in 1181. By 13Edw. I. c. 5 (1285), the scale of arms for different ranks was revised. Hallam, with reference to the changes that occurred in the system of national defence, remarks (Middle Ages, chap. ii. pt. 2), "The feudal mihtary tenures had superseded that earlier system of public defence which called upon every man, and especially every landholder, to protect his country. The relations of a vassal came in place of those of a subject and a citizen. This was the revolution of the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th another innovation rather more gradually prevailed, and marks the third period in the military history of Europe. Mercenary troops were substituted for the feudal militia." The first commission of array {q.v.) for the defence of the kingdom, of which any record remains, was issued in 1323, and the last in 1557. The modern system was introduced by 13 Charles II. c. 6 (1661), by which the sole right of commanding the militia by sea or land was vested in the crown. Further pro- visions were made by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 3 (1662), and by 15 Charles II. c. 4 (1663) ; and the various regulations already in force were amended by 1 Geo. I. c. 14 (1714). Measures were taken for the better ordering of themihtiabySOGeo. II. c. 25 (1757), which, was explained and amended by 31 Geo. II. c. 26 (1758). All the laws in force were consoHdated by 2 Geo. III. c. 20 (1762). Protestant dissenting ministers and school- masters were exempted from service in the militia by 19 Geo. III. c. 44 (1779). The mihtia laws were amended and consoh- dated by 26 Geo. III. c. 107 (1786) . The sup- plementary militia act, 37 Geo. III. c. 3 (Nov. 11, 1796), provided for an augmenta- tion of the militia, and the laws relating to the subject were again amended by 42 Geo. III. c. 90 (June 26,1802). The acts of the Irish parhament respecting the mihtia in Ireland were amended and consohdated by 49 Geo. III. c. 120 (June 19, 1809). Pohce constables are exempted from serving in the mihtia by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 93 (Aug. 27, 1839). The militia laws were again amended by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 50 (June 30, 1852), by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 133 (Aug. 20, 1853), and by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 13 (May 12, 1854). Milky Way. — Democritus, a celebrated philosopher of Abdera, was the fii-st who taught that this luminous trail in the heavens, called the milky way, consisted of a confused multitude of stars, about 428 b.c. Soon MIL after the discovery of tlie telescope, Galileo announced that he had resolved the whole of the milky way into stars. Miiii. — A machine of some kind or other for grinding corn is mentioned in Scripture, and was in use amongst all ancient nations. The time when the mortar, probably the earhest instrument used for the purpose, was superseded by the hand-mill, cannot be ascertained. Moses threatened Pharaoh with the destruction of all the first-born of Egypt, "even unto the first-born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill " (Exod. xi. 5), B.C. 1491, and he commanded the Israelites not to pledge a mill of this kind (Deut. xxiv. 6), B.C. 1451. Cattle-miUs were introduced at an early period. Water- mills were invented in Asia Minor, and appear to have been introduced in the time of Julius Caesar. Floating mills were in- vented in 536. Windmills were used ia Hungary before 718, and were introduced into England about 1040. Mills for draia- ing water off land first occur in Holland 1408. MiLLENAEiAis^s, or Chiliasts, a name given to those who beheve that the saints wiU reigu on earth with Christ a thousand years. These opinions, grounded on the 20th chapter of the Eevelation of St. John the Divine, arose ia the 2nd century, and have existed, with various changes and modifications, since that period. Papias, bishop of Hierapohs and a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, was the first who held these views, and they were warmly supported by Justin Martyr. In the 4th century the mOlenarians held the following tenets : — that the city of Jerusalem would be rebuilt ; that Christ would come down from heaven and reign upon earth with his servants ; and that the saints during this period would enjoy all the delights of a terrestrial para- dise. According to Mosheim, Cerinthus, in the 1st century, held opinions of a similar character. {See Fifth-Moij-archt Meit.) MiLLENAET Petition. — This address to James I., drawn up by the Puritans a.d. 1603, was called the millenary petition be- cause they pretended that it bore the signa- tures of a thousand ministers, though some hundreds were wanted to complete that number. Hallam says it was signed by 825 ministers from 25 counties. The Puritans met the king on his journey from Scotland to take possession of the English throne, and pitsented this address. The universities declared against it June 9, 1603 ; but it was discussed at the Hampton Court conference, Jan. 14, 1604. MiLLExyiTTM.— The ancient tradition, that Christ and his saints should reign upon earth for 1,000 years, was revived in the 10th cen- tury, when the people were taught that the millennium was at hand, that Satan would be set free, that the reign of Antichrist would conamence, and that after a short season of triumph the last judgment would take place. Multitudes, as the eventful year approached (about 950), forsook their 5S4 MIN homes, making over their property to the Church. [See MiLLEifAEiAifs.) MiLLiDusE (Battle). — General Paskie- vntch, at the head of a Russian army, stormed the Turkish camp at this place, near Erzeroum, Jialy 2, 1829. The victors captured 30 pieces of cannon, 19 standards, and 1,500 prisoners. Milton (Kent). — This tovm, anciently called Midleiun and Middleton, formed part of the demesnes of the Saxon kings. Hos- ting, the Dane, built a fort here a.d. 893, and it was burnt by Earl Godwin about a.d. 1052. The fee of the manor remained vested in the crown till the reign of Charles I. Milwatjkee (North America) was founded A.D. 1835. Mincio (Battles). — The French, under Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Aus- trians on the banks of this river, in Lom- bardy. May 29, 1796. The French were de- feated here by the Austrians, Dec. 26, 1800. Eugene Beauharnais gained a victory over them Feb. 8, 1814. In 1848, on the outbreak of the revolution in Italy, the Austrian general Radetsky retreated to the Mineio, AprO 2. He was followed by Charles Albert, who forced the passage of the river April 8. Charles Albert, after losing the battle of Valeggio, was compelled, July 26, to retrace his steps and abandon the line of the Miacio. The Austrians retreated to the left bank after the battle of Magenta, in June, 1859, and recrossed it July 23, to fight the battle of Solferino {q.v.). The allied French and Sardinians followed them across the river Aug. 1, and found the Austrians had taken shelter in the hues of the Quadrilateral. Mindanao, or Magindanao (Pliihppine Islands) . — The Arabians at an early period visited this island, the largest of the group, and Magelhaens took possession of it a.d. 1521. The Mohammedan population are governed by a native ruler, and the Spaniards possess only a small portion of the island. Mind EN, (Battle,) was fought Aug. 1, 1759, between the allied army, composed of English, Hessians,- and Hanoverians, com- manded by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and the French, under Marshal De Contades. The allies, who gained a complete victory, lost 2,000 men, whilst the French lost 7,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. MiNEEAL Watees. — Boylc, in 1663, and again in 1678, seems to have been the first who used tests to detect the ingredients in mineral waters. Gregory, in 1707, procured the solid ingredients by evaporation; and Bouldoc, in 1726, employed alcohol to sepa- rate the saUne substances. After the dis- I covery of carbonic acid by Dr. Black, in 1778, more attention was paid to the analysis of mineral waters. Mineralogy. — Agricola of Saxony is stated by Cuvier to have been the firs_t miner- alogist after the revival of science in Europe, He flourished from A.D. 1494 to 1555. Becker's "Physica Subterranea" was pubhshed in 1669, and Kircher's "Mundus Subterra- MIN neus " in 1662. Woodward is the founder of scientific mineralogy in this country. His "Natural History of the Earth" was pub- lished in 1695. Wallerius published his .celebrated system in 1747. Cronstedt's great work, "Forsog til Mineralogie," ap- peared in 1758, and commenced a new asra in the history of the science. Werner's system was founded in 1774, and Hauy's •'Traits de Mineralogie" was pubMshed in 1801. The Mineralogical Society was esta- blished in 1801. MiNERVE. — This stronghold of the Cevennes was captured during the crusade against the Albigenses, a.d. 1210. A hun- dred and forty of the inhabitants cast them- selves headlong into the flames July 23, to escape the fury of their persecutors. Mines. — The Phoenicians and Egyptians were acquainted with the art of forming aubterraneau shafts and galleries in their pursuit of metaUic ores, although they chiefly depended on what are called stream works. The Athenians worked silver-mines at Latirium in Attica in the 4th century b.c, and the Eomans obtained quicksilver from Almaden in Spain at an early period. The art of mining was known in Britain prior to the arrival of the Eomans, but was much neglected after their departure. It was for a long time chiefly practised by Jews. The king, by his royal prerogative, has a right to aU mines containing gold and silver. BylWm. III. & Mary, c. 30 (1688), copper or tin mines in which gold is found are not to be deemed royal mines. Gunpowder was first employed in mines in 1620. The company of Mine Adventurers was formed in 1690 for the purpose of working the lead and copper mines of South Wales. A mania for mining speculations raged in England in 1824 and 1825, in consequence of the opening of Mexico to British intercourse. Nume- rous statutes have been passed for the man- agement of mines. By 10 Geo. II. c. 32 (1737), it was declared a capital off'ence to set fire to any mine, and by 9 Geo. III. c. 29 (1769), the destruction of any apparatus connected with mines rendered the offiender liable to seven years' transportation. To damage the roads leading to mines was made a misdemeanour by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 77 (July 9, 1800), and to steal from mines was made larceny by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 37 ( J une 21, 1827) . The employment of women in mines was prohibited by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 10, 1842) . New rules for the govern- ment and inspection of mines were imposed by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 151 (Aug. 28, 1860). The French Ecole des Mines was founded in 1783. The London School of Mines was opened with an inaugural address by Sir Henry T. De la Beche, Nov. 6, 1851. MiNGEELiA (Asia). — This principality in the Caucasus was well known in ancient times under the name of Colchis {q.v.). The Turks took possession of the country, leaving the government in the hands of native princes, during the 15th century; and it remained in their power until, by the MIS treaty of Koutchouk-Kainardji, July 10, 1774, between Eussia and Turkey, Mingre- ha was declared independent. The Eussians obtained an ascendancy over the princes of Mingreha in 1812; and by the treaty of Gulistan {q.v.), Oct. 12, 1813, the Turkish government renounced aU claim to this province. MiNiE EiriiE was invented at Vincennes by M. Minie in 1833. The Minie principle, with certain modifications, was adopted in the English service in 1851. The Minie rifle has been superseded by the Enfield and Whitworth rifles. Mining. — Long before the invention of gunpowder it was customary to undermine besieged places, and support the roofs of the excavations by wooden props, which being consumed by slow fire, the roof fell in, and a breach was effected. The first theory of mines since the invention of gunpowder appears in a MS. of George of Sienna, A.D. 1480, and it was first put into practice by the Genoese at the siege of SazaneUa A.D. 1487. The plan failed, and was not resumed till 1503, when mines were success- fully employed by the Neapolitans against the French. Candia was defended against the Turks by 1,173 naines during the siege that terminated in 1669. Minister of War. — The direction of colonial affairs and of war was vested in one person until 1854, when a separation was made, the duke of Newcastle retaining the war department, and Sir G. Grey being appointed to preside over the colonial office. Minnesingers, or Love - singers, flou- rished in Germany during the 12th and 13th centuries. Henry VI., emperor of Germany A.D. 1190, was a minnesinger, as was also the emperor Conrad in 1264. When Eodolph of Habsburg ascended the throne in 1273, the minnesingers began to decline. One of the most celebrated minnesingers was Walther von der Vogelweide, who hved 1190 — 1240. He went to the crusades in 1197. Whilst a child he wrote many " lays,"_ one a song of triumph on the coronation of PhiHp at Mentz in 1198. He assisted as a principal at the famous contention of minne- singers, or poetic battle of Wartburg, in 1207. ■ Minnesota (North America) was erected into a territory March 3, 1849, the portion west of the Mississippi having previously formed a part of the territory of Iowa, and that east of the Mississippi a part of Wis- consin. In 1850 it was divided into nine cotmties. Minorca, or Menoeca (Mediterranean), the second in size of the Balearic Isles (2- ■I'-) 5 colonized by the Phoenicians at an early period, passed successively under the sway of the Carthaginians, the Eomans, the Vandals, and the Arabs. In 1229 it was conquered by Don Jayme of Aragon ; and in 1287 by Alfonso, his grandson, who reduced the Moors to slavery. The British under the earl of Stanhope captured it Sept. 30, 565 1708, and held possession, in which they were confirmed by the treaty of Utrecht, April, 11, 1713, tiU June 29, 1756, when it capitulated to the French. It was restored to the Enghsh at the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The French and Spaniards took it Feb. 5, 1782, and the Enghsh recaptured it Nov. 15, 1798. It was finally ceded to Spain at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. MiNSTEELS, described by Percy as " an order of men in the Middle Ages who sub- sisted by the arts of poetry and music, and sang to the harp, verses composed by themselves or others," were the real suc- cessors of the ancient bards, and were called by the monkish historians, joculatores, mimi, and jestours. Eichard I. was a great patron of the minstrels, and his exploits furnished themes for their lays. It is recorded that in 1374, six minstrels per- formed at Winchester on the anniversary of Alwyne the bishop. John of Gaunt, in 1380, had a court of minstrels at Tutbury, and Henry V. was accompanied on his voyage to France in 1415 by eighteen minstrels. An ordinance was passed in 1456 for the impressment of youths to supply vacancies by death amongst the king's" minstrels. They found free access amongst aU classes as late as the reign of Henry VIII. A Welsh minstrel was executed for singing a pro- phecy against the king, July 1, 1541. They afterwards became neglected, and when Elizabeth was entertained at Kenilworth Castle, in 1575, the appearance of a minstrel excited much wonder. By some authorities the decline of the minstrel's art is attributed to the statute 39 EHz. c. 4 (1597), which included minstrels amongst rogues, vaga- bonds, and sturdy beggars, and adjudged them to be punished accordingly. Mint. — The honour of first establishing a system of metaUie currency is ascribed to the Greeks, about the 8th or 9th century before Christ. At Rome, the mint opera- tions were carried on in the temple of Juno Moneta, or the Adviser. The mint officers formed a corporation. It was worked, in the time of the repubMc by pubHc slaves ; but freedmen were employed by Caesar. The Gothic Mngs of Rome improved the status of the superior officers. In 274 a.d. the workmen rose in rebellion because Aure- lian introduced some reforms in the manage- ment, and the fives of 7,000 of the Roman soldiery were sacrificed in putting dovsii the disturbance. The mints of the Anglo-Saxons were superintended by "moneyers." Barons and bishops were permitted the privilege of issuing coins, and provincial towns of im- portance were likewise allowed to estabhsh mints. In 1279 the various mints in England were placed under one master. Many pri- vileges, granted by Edward I. and his suc- cessors to the officers of the mint, have been gi'aduaUy withdrawn, and are now abohshed. In 1643 a mint was estabhshed at New- Inn HaU, Oxford, where the plate of the colleges was coined to enable Charles I. to provide the mpans of carrying on hostile opera- MIS tions against the parhament. In 1695 there were mints at York, Bristol, Chester, Exeter, and Norwich. The management of the mint was entirely remodelled by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 9 (April 21, 1837). The new building was completed in 1811. Minuet. — This dance, said to have been invented in the province of Poitou, in France, was introduced from that country into Eng- land in the 18th century. MiKANDOLA (Italy). — This small town, in Modena, was captured by the papal forces, after a short siege, Jan. 20, 1511. MiEROKS. {See Looking-Glasses.) MiEZAPOEE (Hindostan). — Part of this district, belonging to Oude, was ceded to the East-India Company by a treaty signed May 21, 1775 a.d , and the remainder by another treaty of Nov. 14, 1801. MisENUM (Bay of Naples). — This pro- montory, said to have derived its name from Misenus, the trumpeter of ^neas, became a favourite site for the villas of the wealthy Romans towards the close of the repubhe. It was made a station for the Roman fleet B.C. 27. Phny the Elder was stationed here a.d. 79, when he was induced to visit the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, in which he perished. Romiilus Augustulus, the last emperor of the W'est, was confined here, in the viUa of LucuUus, a.d. 476. It was taken by the Saracens in 845, and destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1538. MiSEULE (Lord of) . — This officer was, in former times, appointed with great cere- mony to preside over the Christmas fes- tivities. Stow says : — " There was in the king's house, wheresoever he was lodged, a lord of misrule, or master of merry disports, and the Hke had ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal ; amongst the which the mayor of London, and either of the sheriffs, had their several lords of misrule, ever contending, without quarrel or offence, who should make the rarest pastimes to dehght the beholders. These lords, begin- ning their rule on AlhaUow-eve, continued the same till the morrow after the feast of Purification, commonly called Candlemas Day." The lord of misrule went under dif- ferent titles in other countries {see Abbot OF Fools, &c.), and is not heard of in England after 1640. Missals. {See Mass-book.) MissioNAET AND MissioN. — In accord- ance with the command given by our Saviour to his disciples when he appeared to them after the resurrection (Mark xvi. 16), " Go ye into all the world, and preach the Gospel to every creature," Christian missionaries were sent forth during the Ist century. St. Paul, and John the beloved disciple, who flourished about a.d. 52, were amongst the first Christian missionaries. In the 2nd century Eusebius declares that the followers of the apostles went forth into distant lands to preach the Gospel ; and in the 3rd and 4th centuries missions spread rapidly. St. Patrick visited Ireland in the MIS 6th century ; and Gregory the Great sent a number of Benedictine monks as mission- aries to Britain in the 6th century. Marco Polo introduced Christian missionaries into China in 1275. The Portuguese in 1490 and subsequent years sent missionaries to Abys- sinia; and on the discovery of America, missions were sent to all the diiferent European settlements. During the 16th century the Eomish church made great exertions for the propagation of the Eoman Cathohc religion ; and in 1519 Xavier sailed to Japan, and founded a mission there. Other Roman Catholic missionaries penetrated into Chili and Peru in 1580. I'he Dutch, in 1621, sent missions to Amboyna. In 1622 Gregory XV. estabhshed a congregation of cardinals, for the purpose of forwarding the DMSsionary work ; and in 1627, Urban VIII. added a college in which missionaries were taught the languages of the countries to which they were to be sent. MissiONAET Societies. — The first mis- sionary society established in London was made a corporation, xmder the name of "The President and Society for the Pro- pagation of the Gospel in New England, and the parts adjacent in North America," by an ordinance of parliament, passed July 27, 1649. The following hsts contain the date of the establishment of the principal mis- sionary societies in England and on the con- tinent. ENGLISH MISSIONAEY SOCIETIES. A.D. Baptist Missionaiy Society 1792 British Society for tlie Propagation of the Gospel amung the Jews 1842 Chinese Evangelization Society 1850 Church of Eiiglaud Mi^siollary Society 1799 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland 1825 General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland 1843 Gteneral Assemhly of the Presbyterian Church of Ireland . 1840 General Baptist Missionary Society . . ; 1816 Glasgow Missionary Society 1796 London City Mission 1836 London Missionary Society 1795 London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews 1809 Methodist Missionary Society 1786 Methodist New Connexion 1796 Naval Missionary Society for the Loochoo Islands 1845 Patagonian Missionary Society 1844 Presbyterian (Free) Church in Eugland 1844 Reformed Presbyterian Synod 1842 Scottish Missionary Society 1796 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts June 16, 1701 United Presbyterian Synod 1835 Welsh Foreign Missionary Society 1840 CONTINENTAL MISSIONAEX SOCIETIES. Berlin Missionary Society 1833 Berlin Missionai-y Union for China 1850 Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society 1836 German Missionaiy Society 1821 Gossner's Missionary Society 1836 Netherlands Missionary Society 1797 North German Missionary Society 1836 Norwegian 1842 Paris Society for Evangelical Missions 1822 Rhenish Missionary Society . .' 1828 Boyal Danish Mission College 1714 MIS Swedish Missionary Society (Stockholm) 1835 Swedish Missionary Society (Lund) 1846 United Brethren 1732 Mississippi (North America).— De Soto was the first who traversed this region, a.d. 1542 ; and La Salle visited it in 1681. The French made the first settlement in 1698, under Iberville, on Ship Island ; and in 1700 some Jesuit missionaries were found here. The northern portion of Mississippi was ceded to England by France in 1763. With Alabama it was formed into a territory in 1800. A separation ensued in 1817, when Mississippi was admitted to the Union as an independent state. MissoLONGHi, or Mesolonghi (Greece). —This small town became celebrated for the sieges it sustained against the Turks during the war of Greek independence. The Greeks hav- ing carried it by storm Nov. 1, 1821, the Turks laid siege to it in Oct. 1822. Their assault, six tunes renewed, was repulsed, Jan. 5, 1823, and they were compelled to retreat Jan. 27. The Turkish army returned April 17, 1825, and commenced the bombardment May 7. They received a considerable rein- forcement July 10; but after making the most extraordmary eiforts, were compelled to suspend operations in October. The blockade was renewed in November, and another bombardment commenced Jan. 25, 1826. The garrison, driven to extremities, boldly cut their way through the besieging forces, and the town was captured April 22. Lord Byron died here April 19, 1824. The Greeks vrrested it from the Turks in 1829, and it was included in the new kingdom of Greece. Missouri (North America). — The French worked the Missouri lead-mines A.D. 1720; but no permanent settlement was made before 1755, when St. Genevieve was founded. The region now called Missouri was formerly known as Upper Louisiana. Louisiana, on its cession to the United States in 1803, was divided into two govern- ments, i.e., Louisiana and Louisiana terri- tory. In 1812 the latter name was changed into Missouri. AppHcation was made in 1817 for its admission as a state into the Federal union. This met with serious opposition on account of its slaves, and it was not admitted until 1821, and then only on the condition that slavery should be re- cognized in Missouri, but in no other state north of latitude 36° 30'. Missouri Compromise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, enacted that slavery should not exist, except in Missouri, north of latitude 36° 30', and passed the United States congress in February, 1820. This compromise, after having existed above thirty years, was re- pealed in 1854, when the inhabitants of every state were left free to regulate their own domestic institutions, subject only to the con- stitution of the United States. Missouri River (North America) was explored to its sources by Lewis and Clarke in 1804^6. 567 MIS MOD Mistletoe, or Misletoe.— This parasitical j plant, which grows upon the oak and other trees, was regarded with pecuhar veneration | by the Druids (q.v.). Misletoe was found \ growing upon an oak at Ledbury, in Here- j fordshire, a.d. 1829 ; and a specimen on an | oak-branch was exhibited at the Horticul- j tural Society in London April 4, 1837. This estabhshed the fact, long doubted, that the misletoe grows upon the' oak as weU as upon other trees. Mithkidate, a preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be the oldest com- pound known, is saidto have been invented by Damocrates, physician to Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, B.C. 70; whence its name. MitheidaticWak. — Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, having defeated the Eoman armies in Asia, commanded all the Romans to leave the country; but before they could do so 80,000 of them were massacred by the inha- bitants, B.C. 88. This led to the struggle known in history as the first Mithridatic war, which lasted four years. After many battles, ]VIithridates VI. was obhged to sue for peace, b.c. 84. The second Mithridatic war broke out B.C. 75. The Eomans, under Lucullus, defeated Mithridates VI. at Cabira, B.C. 71, and again in B.C. 69 ; but in conse- quence of a mutiny among his troops, Lucullus was deprived of the fruits of his victories. Mithridates VI. collected another armiy, but the war was ^oon brought to a close. Mithridates VI. was totally defeated by the Eomans, under Pompey, on the banks of the Euphrates, b.c. 66, and, unwilhng to faU into the hands of the enemy, he put an end to his hfe, B.C. 63. Mitee, the episcopal crown, or head- dress, is supposed to have been first worn by bishops about the 7th century. Car- dinals wore mitres until 1245, at the council of Lyons, where they were exchanged for hats. The Enghsh bishops wore mitres from the time of the Saxons till the Reformation. Mittat: (Eussia), the capital of the pro- vince of Courland, an ancient town, was cap- tured by Charles XII. of Sweden, a.d. 1701. Peter the Great seized the town Sept. 14, 1705, and the citadel surrendered on the same day. The castle was erected in 1739. The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 1788. MiTTtEifE (Sea-fight).— During the war of independence, the Turkish and Greek squadrons fought a battle off Mitylene, Oct. 7, 1824, on which occasion the Turks were defeated and their fleet was destroyed. MiTTLENE, or Lesbos (^gean Sea).— Lesbos is said to have been peopled by the Pelasgians, who were followed by the lonians and the .Cohans. Lesbos was made a Eoman province about B.C. 48 ; and during the Middle Ages received the name of Mity- lene, fromits chief city {q.v.). Mohammed II. conquered it and annexed it to the Turkish empire, a.d. 1462. MiTTiiEN E, or MTTiiiEiTE, the chief town of the island of Mitylene, or Lesbos, is first mentioned in history during the struggle between the Cohans and the Athenians, for the possession of Sigeum, B.C. 606. It after- wards played an important part. The Vene- tians captured it a.d. 1185, and the Turks in 1256. .Mnemonics, or Mnemotechnt, [the science of artificial memory, was introduced by Simonides the younger, B.C. 477. Richard Grey, rector of Hinton in jjforthamptonshire, wrote a celebrated work on the subject, entitled " Memoria Technica, or alSTew Mode of Artificial Memory." It was published in 1730. MoABiTES. — The descendants of Moab, the offspring of Lot's incestuous connexion with his eldest daughter (Gen. xix. 87), B.C. 1897, dwelt in the land of Ar, from which they expeUed the Emims, a race of giants (Deut. u. 9 — 11). The Israehtes occupied part of the country, and Eglon, king of the country, oppressed them for the space of eighteen years (Judges iii. 12, &c.) B.C. 1343. David subdued the Moabites (2 Sam. viii. 1) B.C. 1040. Mobue (]5forth America). — A town with this name was founded at the mouth of Dog river, by Bienville, a.d. 1702. It was almost destroyed by inundations, and the present town, at the mouth of Mobile river, was founded in 1711. Mobile was ceded to England by the French at the peace of Paris, Eeb. 10, 1763. The Spaniards cap- tured it in 1780, and it was ceded by them to the United States in 1813. Mockeen (Battle). — Blucher, at the head of the Prussians, with some Eussian and German allies, defeated the French commanded by Ney at this place, near Leipsic, Oct. 16, 1813. This was one of the combats in the great battle of Leipsic. Models. — The Greeks attributed the invention of the art of modelling to a potter of Sieyon, named Dibutades. They relate that his daughter, on the eve of parting from her lover at Corinth, remarked the shadow of his profile projected on a waU, and traced its outline, thereby pro- ducing the first attempt at portrait-paint- ing. Her father conceived the idea of filling in the design with clay, and submit- ting the result to the action of his furnace, and thus the first model in relief was ob- tained. This production is said to have been destroyed at Corinth when the city was sacked by Mummius, B.C. 146. The Eoman sculptor Arcesilaus, who flourished B.C. 65, was celebrated for the excellence of his models from the human figure. MoDENA (Duchy) . — The territory consti- tuting the duchy of Modena was, about the end of the 9th century, in the posses- sion of Adalbert. The emperor Henry V. made himself master of it in 1115. Modena acquired a certain independence in 1125, and after many years of internal struggles, Obizzo II. of Este became lord of Modena in 1289. After undergoing various revo- lutions, it fell under the rule of Obizzo III. in 1336. Borso received the title of duke of Modena and Eeggio in 1453. Leo X. MOD purchased the duchy from the emperor Maxunilian I., into whose hands it had fallen a short time previous, for 40,000 ducats, in 1514, and Alfonso I. dehvered it from the papal yoke in 1527. The French annexed Modena to the Cisalpine republic in 1796, and in 1805 it formed part of the kingdom of Italy. The duchy was given to Francis II. of Austriain 1815. On the breaking out of the war between France and Sardinia against Austria, Francis V., who had suc- ceeded to the duchy on the death of his father, Jan 21, 1846, took refuge at Mantua, June 14, 1859. The treaty of Villa-Franca, July 11, 1859, provided for the return of the duke ; but this provision was never fulfilled, and the duchy of Modena was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy. Modena (Italy), anciently called Mutina, or Mutinum, a city of Etruscan origin, was in the possession of Kome b.c. 218. The Eomans estabhshed a colony here B.C. 183. The Ligurians seized the town B.C. 177, but were soon expelled. During the civil war it sustained a siege of four months against the troops of Marc Antony, b.c. 43. Modena was besieged and taken by Constantino I. A.D. 312, and was laid waste by Attila in 452. It fell into a state of total decay after the conquest of the Longobards, but re- covered much of its former importance under the Countess Matilda, a.d, 1076— 1115. The Hungarian partisans of Pope Innocent VI. plundered the tovm in 1360 ; and it was seized by Pope Julius II. in 1510. Alfonso I. made himself master of it A.B. 1527. An engagement between the French and Austrians, in which the forces of the latter were put to rout, took place under its walls, June 12, 1799. The cathedral, with a marble tower, was commenced in 1099. The palace, commenced in the 17th century, contains a fine hbrary of 90,000 volumes and 3,000 manuscripts, founded by Francis II. about the end of the 17th century. MoDOif (Greece), the ancient Methone (q. v), was captured by the Venetians A.D. 1124, and was annexed by them in 1204. The Turks took Modon in August, 1500 ; the Venetians recovered possession in 1686 ; and it again fell into the hands of the Turks in 1715. Ibrahim Pasha landed here Feb. 24, 1825, and defeated the Greek army in the neighbourhood April 19. The Greeks, however, avenged themselves by destroying, by means of fire-ships, a large portion of the Egyptian fleet anchored under the walls of Modon, May 13. The Turks surrendered to a combined English and French force in September, 1828. The French garrison re-embarked in July, 1833, and Modon forms part of the modern king- dom of Greece. McEsiA (Europe), corresponding to the modern Bulgaria and Servia, became the seat of a Gallic tribe b.c. 277. The Eomans penetrated into Moesia B.C. 75, and it was subjugated by them about' B.C. 29. The Goths invaded the country a.d. 250, and MOL defeated the Komans at an obscure town. Forum Trebonii, in 251, on which occasion the emperor Decius and a large portion of his army perished in a morass. The Visi- goths overran Mcesia in the 4th century. The people, who received the name of Bul- garians, were, according to the best authori- ties, of Turkish origin, being in fact the rem- nant of the Huns, who, after the death of Attila (453), retired beyond the Euxine. They invaded the Eastern empire in 559, and were repulsed by Belisarius. In the 7th century they advanced into Mcesia, and founded the first Bulgarian kingdom, which lasted from 640 to 1U18, when it was sub- jected to the Greek empire. MoGADOE (Morocco) was founded a.d. 1760. It was bombarded by the French in 1844. MoHACz (Battles). — Soliman II., at the head of a Turkish army, defeated the Hungarians near the town of Mohacz, in Hungary, Aug. 29, 1526. Louis II. was killed, and 30,000 Christians fell in the battle. The duke of Lorraine and the Imperialists gained a victory over the Turks at the same place in 1687. Mohammedanism. — Mohammed was bom at Mecca, a.d. 569, and began to preach there in 609. In 613 his views were opposed by the Koreishites, who, in 622, compelled him to quit Mecca and seek an asylum at Medina. This flight to Medina fixes the Moslem sera of the Hegira {q.v.). Being made the prince of Medina, he was enabled to declare war against such as refused to credit his statements, and in the battles of Beder and Ohud in 623, and of the Nations or the Ditch in 625, he defeated his Koreishite opponents. In 629 he recaptured Mecca, where he was installed as prince and prophet, and in 630 he completed the con- quest of Arabia. He died at Medina, June 7, 632. The doctrines of Mohammed include a belief in one God and a futiu-e state, and permit the practice of polygamy. The sacred book is the Koran (q.v.). Comrooder Tyabjee, a Hindoo Mohammedan, was ad- mitted in London as an attorney, Nov. 25, 1858. MoHiiEF, or MoHii,ow (Kussia). — This ancient town, taken by Charles XII. of Sweden in July, 1708 a.d., was recovered by Peter the Great in 1709. The French de- feated the Eussians at this town, July 23, 1812. Mohocks. — Under the name of Mohocks, Mohawks, or Hawkabites, some villains went about London, at night, in 1712, assaulting persons whom they met. They frequently cut off the ears of their victims, sht their noses, and committed other cruelties. A proclamation offering a reward of £100 for any person who should discover one of these offenders was pubUshed March 17, 1712. Mold (Wales) . — A castle erected on Bailey Hill, near this town, was during the 12th and 13th centuries frequently besieged by the contending Enghsh and Welsh armies. Owen Gwynneth took it a.d. 1145. The MOL MON- English captured it soon after, and it was retaken by the Welsh in 1201. Moldavia (Europe), one of the Danubian principalities, was subjected to great devasta- tions by the various hordes who invaded the Byzantine empire. About the middle of the 13th century it was re-colonized by descend- ants of Eoman settlers, under a chief called Bogdan. Hence the country was called by the Turks Bogdania, In 1536 the country submitted to the protection of the Turks. The voyvode was to be elected by the principal clergy and nobles, whose choice was to be confirmed by the sultan. He was not, however, to interfere in their local affairs, nor were the Turks to settle in Moldavia. In 1711 the Turks abohshed the privilege enjoyed by the people of electing the voyvodes. Peter the G-reat made an unsuccessful attempt, in 1710, to obtain possession of Moldavia. In 1739 the Eus- sians occupied Moldavia, but evacuated it at the peace of Belgrade. By the 10th article of the treaty of Koutchouk-Kainardji, July 10, 1774, Eussia obtained the right of inter- ceding with the Porte in favour of the prin- cipalities. By the treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, the eastern portion of Moldavia was ceded to Eussia. An insurrection broke out in Moldavia, March 6, 1821 ; and the Turks withdrew ISTov. 23, 1824-. A Eussian general administered the provinces from 1832 to 1834, when Michel Sturdza was elected hospodar of Moldavia, and governed tiU April, 1848. Upon his resignation in June, 1849, Gregory Ghika, a native Boyard, was elected hospodar. The Eussians occupied Moldavia in 1853 ; but, on the approach of the allied forces, retired in 1854. The Aus- trians held the country from that year until 1856. By the 22nd article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856, the principalities of WaUachia {q.v.} and Moldavia, under the suzerainty of the Porte, were guaranteed in aU their privileges and immunities by the great powers of Europe. MoLiNiSTS. — This sect was founded by Louis MoHna, born at Cuenca, in 'New Castile, a.d. 1535. He joined the society of Jesus, and published his "De Concordia Gratise et Liberi Arbitrii," at Lisbon, in 1588, in which he endeavoured to show that the doctrines of predestination and grace are consistent with free ^"iU. The Dominicans assailed him, and Clement VIII. , who at- tempted in vain to put a stop to the controversy in 1594, referred it to a coun- cil in 1598. It decided in 1602 against the Molinists. The dispute was still raging at the death of Molina, which took place in 1600. His antagonists were called Thomists, because they upheld the opinions of Thomas Aquinas. Paul V. in 1609 forbade both the Jesidts and the Dominicans from reviving the controversy. Moluccas, or Spice Islands (Asiatic Archipelago). — This group was discovered by the Portuguese a.d. 1511. The Spa- niards, .mider Magelhaens, seized them in 1519, and the Portuguese returned in 1521. 670 Sir Francis Drake landed in the Moluccas in 1579, and the Dutch made a permanent set- tlement in 1596. These islands, taken by the British in 1796, were restored to the Dutch, by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. They were again occupied by the British in 1810, but were finally restored to the Dutch by the treaty of Paris, May 14, 1814. MoLWiTZ (Battle). — The Prussians de- feated the Austrian army in the plain of Molwitz, in Silesia, April 10, 1741. At the commencement of the battle the Austrians were victorious, and Frederick II. was carried along by his retreating cavalry to Oppeln, where he took refuge in a windmill. This circumstance gave rise to the remark that in this battle Frederick had covered himself with glory and with flour. A writer says : " On this occasion he rode a horse called ' Tall Grey,' which carried him sixty-five English miles without food or resting. Ever after the battle he was called ' Mol- witz Grey,' and survived to the year 1760." MoLTBDE]»ruM. — This metal was discovered about A.D. 1782, by Hielm. MoiiBAS, or M0MBA9A (Africa). — Vasco de Gama visited this port a.d. 1498. It was captured and burned by Almeida in 1505, and having been rebuilt, was again destroyed by the Portuguese in 1528. The Portuguese held it until 1720, when it fell under the sway of the Imam of Muscat. The inhabit- ants obtained their independence in 1824. The castle was built by the Portuguese ia 1635. MoNA. (See Ak&lesey.) MoifACO (Italy). — This small principality, the ancient Portus Herculis Monoeci, or Monoeci Portus, founded by Greeks of Massiha, passed into the hands of the Genoese house of Grimaldi, about a.d. 968, and was placed under the protection of France in 1641. The male branch of the Grimaldis becoming extinct in 1731, the state passed, by marriage, to the house of Matignon, which assumed the name of the original family. In 1815 Monaco passed under the protection of the king of Sardinia, who seized the communes of Mentone and Eochebrune, and incorporated them with his own territories in 1849. They were ceded to France by a treaty concluded Feb. 2, 1861. MoNAGHAsr (Ireland). — Henry II. be- stowed this part of Ireland upon De Courcey A.D. 1177. The native chieftains carried on a struggle against the EngMsh with little cessation until the reign of Elizabeth. Mona- ghan was made a shire in 1568. Its chief town, of the same name, was called in ancient times Mviinechan, i. e., the town of monks. MoNASTEET. (See Abbet.) M0N90N (Treaty). — The Valteline was secured to the Grisons by a treaty con- cluded between France and Spain, at Mon- 9on, A.D. 1626. MoNCONTOXTE (Battle). — The Huguenots were defeated by the Eoman Catholic army near this place, in Poitou, a.b, 1569. Coligny, MOE- -MO-^ who commanded the Huguenots, with diffi- culty saved the wreck of the army. MoNDOvi (Italy). — Here Napoleon Bona- parte defeated the Sardinian army, com- manded by Colli, April 22, 1796. The Pied- montese took Mondovi in May, 1799 ; but it was recaptured by the French Nov. 2 in the same year. Monet. — The earliest mention of money ,as a medium of exchange, is the purchase of the cave of Machpelah from the sons of Ephron the Hittite, by Abraham, for 400 shekels of silver (Gen. xxiii. 16), B.C. 1859, when the money was no doubt uncoined, and regulated by weight. The invention of coined money is attributed to the Lydians. (See Coiif.) The name is derived from the temple of Juno Moneta, that served the Eomans as the mint for their Silver coinage, which commenced B.C. 269. The term ster- ling was first applied to money about a.d. 1216. The importation of base foreign money into this kingdom was prohibited by the statute De falsa moneta, 27 Edw. I. (1299). Various materials have been used for money. {See Copper Money, Gold Coinage, &c.) In 1360 leather was used in France. Tin was coined in England tu 1684. Mongols, or Moguls. — It is said that nearly all the wandering tribes of Asiatic barbarians that desolated Europe from the 4th to the 12th century, were of Mongohan origin. Under their leader Zenghis Khan (a.d. 1206—1227) they ravaged Asia, invading China in 1210, and Persia in 1218. They invaded Kussia in 1235, reached Siberia in 1242, and completed the conquest of the empire of the caliphs in 1258. The death of Cazan, May 31, 1304, put an end to the Mongol supremacy in Persia; but under the great Tamerlane (1370 — 1400) they reconquered that country, and subdued Hindostan and other parts of Asia. His successors in India took the name of the Great Mogvil, which was first assumed by Baber in 1525. Monmouth (Monmouthshire) , the an- cient Mongwy, so named from its situation on the rivers Mon and Wye, was a Eoman station. The Saxons erected a fortress, which, after the Conquest, was bestowed upon William Fitz-Baderon, whose sons assumed the surname of Monmouth. In 1240 two hospitals were founded by John de Monmouth, and in 1257 John, lord of Mon- mouth, rebuilt the castle on a larger scale. It suffered so severely from siege by the earl of Leicester in 1265, that it had to be rebuUt. It then passed into the hands of John of Gaunt. Henry V. was born here Aug. 9, 1388. The present parish church occupies the site of an alien priory for black monks of the Benedictine order, founded in the reign of Henry I. Monmouth was incorporated in 1550, and had its charter renewed in 1557 by Queen Mary ; in 1606 by James I. ; and in 1666 by Charles II. Monmouthshire (England) was occu- pied by the Silures, who were expelled by the Romans, a.d. 78. They held the county until 408. It was annexed to the Oxford circuit in the reign of Charles II. and remained partly under the jurisdiction of the Lords Marchers' court, until its abohtion in 1689. Monmouth's Eebellion.— The duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., was born at Eotterdam in 1649, and educated in France. In 1683 he was banished from England for his share in the Eye-House Plot. He landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, June 11, 1685, was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20, and attacked the king's army at Sedgemoor {q.v.),Ta.e&v Bridgewater, July 6. After fighting three hours, the rebels gave way, having sustained a loss of 1,500 men. Monmouth, who was discovered in a ditch covered with fern, July 8, was tried and beheaded on Tower Hill, July 15, 1685. MoNOPHTSiTES. — This sect of heretics originated in the 5th century, and maintained that the divine and human natures of Christ were so united as to constitute but one nature. They were the followers of Euty- ches, and branched into several sects. In Egypt and the East they are called Jacobites {q.v.). Monopoly. — Justinian I. made the sale of sUk a monopoly, a,d. 532, and the privi- lege, which, as Gibbon remarks, checked the fair competition of industry, prevailed extensively in the Eoman empire. In 1597 and 1601, the Commons complained of the injury inflicted upon the community by patents of monopoly, and in the last-men- tioned year Elizabeth returned a message, promising to abolish them. Sir Gdes Mompesson and Sir Francis Mitchell were degraded from knighthood, fined, imprisoned, and eventually banished, for abusing the power granted to them of a monopoly for licensing alehouses and inspecting inns, and manufacturing gold and silver thread, in 1621. Monopolies were declared contrary to law, and all such grants void, by 21 James I. c. 3 (1624). MoNOTHELiTES. — This heretical sect was founded by the emperor Heraclius, who endeavoured to reconcile the Monophysitea to the Catholic church, a.d. 630, by piib- lishing an edict asserting the existence of a human and divine nature, but only of one will, in Christ. The heresy was condemned by several councils. Monroe Doctrine. — James Monroe, pre- sident of the United States from 1817 to 1824, announced the determination of his government to resist any European inter- ference in the affairs of the independent governments of South America. This re- solution has in consequence been termed the Monroe Doctrine. Monrovia (Africa), the capital of the Liberian republic, was founded a.d. 1821. MoNS (Belgium). — About a.d. 653 a her- mitage, and then a chapel, dedicated to St. Peter, was built on the site now occupied by this town. Alberic, count of Hainault, made it a place of residence, and in 804 Charle- magne made it the capital of Hainault. M03T MON- About the end of the lOth century it sus- tained a siege against Hugh Capet. In 1290 I the city was enlarged ; but in 1436 it fell j into the hands of the duke of Burgundy. | Under Charles V. Mons attained the highest \ degree of prosperity, which was cut short by | the exactions of the duke of Alva in 1569. j Mons was invested by the French, under Marshal Luxemburg, in 1678, and again in 1691, under Louis XIV., when the walls j were destroyed. It remained in their hands | tm the peace of Eyswick, Oct. 30, 1697. | The French took it again in 1701, but were driven out by Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough, Oct. 20, 1709. By the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, Mons was restored to Austria. The French captured it, after a siege of sixteen days, June 27, 1746, and again Nov. 7, 1792. It was an- nexed to France in 1794, and was restored to the iN^etherlands in 1814. MoNSELiCE (Italy). — This town was cap- tured by an alhed French and imperial army A.D. 1510, after an obstinate resistance. MoifTANisTS, or Cataphetgians, the fol- lowers of Montanus, a Phrygian, who hved about A.D. 171. He declared himself to be a prophet of God, sent to complete the Christian scheme. Tertvdlian joined the sect A.D. 204. They were distinguished for their austerity, and existed in the time of Augustine and Jerome. The latter wrote against their doctrines. MojTTAB&is (France). — This town was be- sieged by the Enghsh a.d. 1426, but without success ; and its castle was destroyed in 1809. The alhed Austrian and Eussian army took possession of Montargis in 1814. The allies evacuated it the same year, after the battle of Montereau (q.v.). MoNTATJBAN (France). — Count Alfonse of Toulouse founded this town a.d. 1144. The Huguenots fortified it, and the Eoman Catholic forces, led by Morluc, failed in an attempt to capture it in 1580. It resisted another siege in 1621, but was taken in 1629, and its fortifications were soon after de- stroyed. An insurrection occurred here in 1790. MoNTBELiiAED (France). — This town, which at one time formed part of the kiag- dom of Burgundy, passed to the Wiirtem- berg family a.d. 1395. The French, under Marshal Luxemburg, took it in 1647, and Louis XIY. having captured it in 1674, destroyed the fortifications. The French took it in 1723, and with the kingdom of Wiirtemberg it was annexed to France in 1796. MoifT Blan'C, the highest mountain in Europe, was first ascended by Horace de Saussure, a Genevese, Aug. 3, 1787. The second ascent was not made until Aug. 18, 1822, by Mr. F. Chssold. Since that time various ascents have been made. MoNT DE PiETE was cstabHshed as a charitable institution in Italy in the 15th century. Paul III. (a.d. 1534 — 1549) sanc- tioned one at Eome, and these estabhsh- ments were afterwards introduced iato other 572 countries of Europe. The Mont dc Pi^t^ at Padua, founded in 1491, is the oldest on record. The French plundered these esta- bhshments during their occupation of Italy, in 1796 and 1797. MoNTEBELLO (Battlcs) . — The Austriana were defeated at this village, in Piedmont, by the French under Lannes, June 9, 1800. The French general took the title of duke of MontebeUo from this victory. The French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians here, .] after a struggle which lasted five hours, May 20, 1859. MoKTE Casit^^o (Italy). — Benedict founded his celebrated monastery on the site of a temple to Apollo, a.d. 529. The Saracens destroyed it in 883, but it was restored, and greatly extended in 1065. Markwald besieged it for eight days in 1198, when it was delivered, according to monkish legends, by a miracle. Milman terms it " that great model repubhc, which gave its laws to ahnost the whole of Western Monasticism." MoNTEiEOJ^^E (Italy). — A colony from Loeri Epizephyrii, estabhshed a town here, which was taken by Dionysius of Syracuse, B.C. 389. The Carthaginians restored the inhabitants B.C. 379, but the town was taken by the Bruttians, and afterwards by the ; Eomans, who planted a colony B.C. 192. MoNTELOBo (Battle). — Francis Sforza de- feated the forces of his rival, Nicholas Piccinino, in this engagement, Nov. 8, 1443. MoNTEM. {See Eton Montem.) MoNTENEGEO, or Zeenagoea (Turkey), formed part of the ancient lUyricum, and was conquered by the Turks a.d. 1526. The Montenegrins rebelled in 1700, mas- sacred aU the Turks, and declared them- selves independent. Some Montenegrin tribes joined Eussia against Turkey in 1712. The temporal and spiritual authority pre- viously vested in the Vladika was separated by Prince Daniel in 1851. The Turks invaded Montenegro in 1853, and, after gaining a few barren victories, retired. Montenotte (Italy). — Napoleon Bona- parte defeated the Austrians at this place, April 12, 1796. Soult was driven from his position at Montenotte by the Imperialists m March, 1800. Montenotte, with the sur- rounding district, was made one of the three departments into which the Ligurian re- pubhc was divided on its annexation to France in June, 1805. Monte Olmo (Battle) . — Francis and James Piccinino were defeated at this place, in Italy, by Sforza, Aug. 19, 1444), when Francis, the elder brother, was made prisoner. Monteeeau (Battle). — Napoleon I. de- feated the allied Eussian and German army at this town, seated at the confluence of the ; Yonne and the Seine, Feb. 18, 1814. The French took possession of the town, which had been occupied by their opponents, Feb. 6. MoNTEEET (Battle). — This town, the capi- tal of New Leon, in Mexico, was taken by the American army, after an assault that lasted three days, Sept. 24, 1846. MON" Monte Video (South America), called also Sau Felipe de Monte Video, the capital of Uruguay, was built by a colony from Buenos Ayres in 1723. It was taken Feb. 3, 1807, by the English, who withdrew July 7. When Monte Video shook off the Spanish yoke, the Brazilians took possession of the town ; but it was retaken, after a long siege, in 1814. The Brazilians recaptured it in 1821. By the treaty of 1828 it was made the capital of a republic of the same name. MoNTFEKRAT (Xopth Italy). — The ancient marquisate of Montferrat was created by Otho the Great a.d. 967, in favour of Alderan. In 1187 the titles of marquis of Montferrat and of Tyre were united in the person of Conrad, who was assassinated April 29, 1192 ; and by the marriage of Yolande, daughter of William V., with the Greek emperor Andronicus Palaeologus in 1284, the succession to the marquisate became hereditary in their line. In 1414 the empe- ror Sigismund bestowed upon Theodore II. the title of the " Imperial Vicar in Italy." On the extinction of the male hue in 1533, the succession was contested by Frederick II., Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, Louis II., marquis of Saluces, and Charles III., duke of Savoy. Charles V. decided the case in favour of the marquis of Mantua, Jan. 5, 1536. In 1574 it was erected into a duchy ; and in 1613 it was taken by Charles Ema- nuel, duke of Savoy, who was soon com- pelled to rehnquish his conquest. His son, victor Amadeus, obtained the cession of part of the country in 1631 ; and in 1708 the whole of Montferrat was annexed to his dominions. In 1797 it was incorporated with the Cisalpine republic ; in 1805 it formed part of the kingdom of Italy ; and in 1815 it was given to the king of Sardinia. MoNTGOMEEY (Alabama) was founded A.D. 1817. MoH-T&OMEKT (Walcs).— One Baldwin hvait a castle here a.d. 1067. It was taken by Eoger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1090, and from him received the name it now bears. The Welsh took the castle and put aU the garrison to the sword in 1095. MoNTiEL, (Battle), was fought March 23, 1369, at Montiel, in Spain, between Peter the Cruel, king of CastUe, and his brother, Henry of Trastamare, aided by French knights. Peter was kiUed, and his army totally defeated in this battle. MoNTiGLio (Battle). — Boniface II. of Montferrat defeated the people of Asti at this place, in Piedmont, June 19, 1191. MoNTLHEBY (Battle).— Louis XI., during the civil war excited by the League for the Public Good, encountered the rebellious nobles at this place, July 16, 1465. Victory was claimed for both armies. This is the last occasion in which the oriflamme was displayed in the French army. MoNTMiEAiL (France). — The kings of France and England, Louis VII. and Henry II., with a large assembly of re- tainers, met at this town, Jan. 6, 1169, where Becket was to throw himself on the mercy of MOX Henry II. This, however, he refused to do, and the meeting broke up in confusion. The French, under Napoleon I., defeated the allied Prussians and Russians here, Feb. 11, 1814. MoNTPELLiER (France). — This town was built in the 8th century, to replace the epis- copal town of Mauguelonne, destroyed by Charles Martel. It passed to the house of Aragon in 1202, and afterwards to the kings of Majorca, from whom it was purchased by Philip VI. of France, in 1350. In 1371 it was conferred on Charles le Mauvais, king of Navarre, in exchange for certain lordships in France, but in 1378 it was re-united to France. The bishopric of Mauguelonne was transferred here in 1538. MontpeUier came into the hands of the Huguenots in the reign of Henry III., and after enduring a long siege, it surrendered in 1622 to Louis XIII., who issued an edict for the restoration of peace between the Roman Cathohcs and the Huguenots. The Found- ling Hospital was built in 1180, and the Jardin des Plantes, the first botanical garden estabHshed in France, in 1558. Councils were held at MontpeUier, May 17, 1162 ; in Dec. 1195; Jan. 8, 1215; Aug. 21, 1224; and Sept. 6, 1258. Montreal (Canada), founded by French settlers a.d. 1642, and called VUle Marie, was taken by the English Sept. 8, 1760. It was seized by the Americans Nov. 12, 1775, but the EngUsh regained possession, June 15, 1776. It suffered severely from cholera in July, 1832. A serious collision between the civilians and the military in garrison took place Sept. 29, 1833. Alarming riots broke out, in which the partisans of Papineau ranged themselves against the supporters of the government, Nov. 6, 1837; and a recurrence of the tumults was experienced when the royal assent was given to the Rebellion Losses Indemnity Bill. The houses of parUament on this occasion were burnt to the ground, and the library with the archives of Canada was destroyed April 25, 1849. The Hotel Dieu was founded about the time when the colony was settled, the patients being tended by the nuns of St. Joseph de la Fleche ; the general hospital, attended by the Grey nuns, was established by Madame D'YouviUe in 1747. Montreal College was founded by the priests of St. Sulpice about a.d. 1760. McGill College was founded by a merchant of that name, who died in 1813. The Roman CathoKc parish church, erected at a cost of £80,000, with a fine chime of beUs, one of which weighs 25,000 lb., was opened in 1829. MoNTREUiL- SUB - Mee ( France ) . — This town received a charter a.d. 1189. It was ceded to England by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 1360, but was soon after restored to France. Charles V. took it in 1537, and it again surrendered to the Spaniards in 1544. Napoleon I. formed a camp here for the contemplated invasion of England in 1804 and 1805. MoNTBOSE (Scotland) received its first 573 Mo:s' MOO charter from David I. early in tlie 12th cen- turj'. Here John Balliol resigned the crown and sceptre of Scotland into the hands of Edward I., July 10, 1296; from this port Sir James Douglas, bearing the heart of King Eobert Bruce, embarked for the Holy Land A.D, 1330; and the Pretender, with a few of his followers, sailed hence on their return to France, Feb. 4, 1716. MoNTEOu&E Club.— Established durmg the French revolution, a.d. 1789, and so called from a place near Paris, where its meetings were held. Mirabeau, Sieyes, La- touche, and the Chevalier Laclos were mem- bers of this association. They conspired against the throne, and at one time favoured a project of supplanting the elder Bourbons by the Orleans branch of the family. MoNTSEEEAT (Spain), a fortress in Cata- lonia, composed of the ancient convent of our Lady of Montserrat, was stormed by Suchet A.D. 1811. The French were speedily compelled to retire, and the fortress, having been taken and retaken, was destroyed in July, 1812. MoifTSEEBAT (Wcst Indies). — This island was discovered by Christopher Columbus, A.D. 1493. A settlement was formed by some Irish Eoman Catholics in 1632. The French captured it in 1664, and it was re- stored to England by the treaty of Breda, July 10, 1667. The colony obtained a con- stitution in 1689. It again fell a prey to the French in 1782, but was restored to England by the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. MoNTMETS^T (London) was erected on Fish- Street Hill to commemorate the great fire of 1666. Sir Christopher Wren was the architect, and the column, commenced in 1671, was completed in 1677. In consequence of numerous persons committing suicide, by precipitating themselves from the top, an iron fence was placed round the gallery in 1839. MooDKEE (Battle). — The Anglo-Indian army, imder the command of Sir Hugh (afterwards Lord) Gough and Sir John Littler, defeated the Sikhs at this small town, on the Sutlej, in Hindostan, Dec. 18, 1845. Seventeen guns were captured. MooLTAN, or MouLTAN (Hindostan), the capital of a province of the same name, in the Punjaub, is supposed to be identical with Malh, described a.d. 1582 as one of the most ancient cities of Hindostan. Kunjeet Sing captiired it in 1806, and again in 1818. He appointed Sawun Mull governor in 1821, and by him Mooltan was fortified and made the strongest city in that part of India. Moolraj, his eldest son, having succeeded, expressed a wish to resign the government of Mooltan, which had come under the sway of the British after the death of Euujeet Sing ; whereupon Mr. Vans Agnew, a Bengal civihan, and Lieu- tenant Anderson, were sent with an escort of 1,400 Sikhs, to receive the fortress. These gentlemen were murdered by his orders April 19, 1848. This barbarous act roused the indignation of the British authorities, and after the battles of Kennyree, June 18. 574 and Suddoosam, July 1, in both of which Moolraj was defeated, Mooltan was invested by General Whish, Aug. 18, and was upon the point of faUing into hia hands, when the whole of the Sikh troops deserted and joined Mooh'aj, and Whish was compelled to raise the siege. It was resumed Dec. 27, imder the command of Lord Gough, and Mool- tan was carried by storm Jan. 2, 1849.. Moolraj shut himself up in the citadel j but was obhged to surrender unconditionally Jan. 22. MooBE, (Treaty,) was concluded between: France and England, Aug. 30, 1525. The integrity of the French kingdom was gua- ranteed against the emperor Charles V. MooEs. — The origin of the inhabitants o€ ancient Mauretania is unknown. They as- sisted the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, under Genseric, a.d. 429, and were defeated by the Eoman forces of the eunuch Solomon in 535. In 543 they revolted against the Eomans, and slew Solomon at the battle of Tibeste. For some years they opposed the domination of the Arabian Moslems, by whom they were finally subdued in 709. Yahye Ben Aly introduced them into Spain, to assist him against his brother Alcasim Ben Hamud, in 1019, and after a series of conquests they estabhshed their supremacy in the country in 1031. In 1063 Eoger Guis- card defeated them in Sicily, and in 1070 they founded the city of Morocco (q-v.). The Moors in Spain revolted against their rulers in 1143, and were opposed by the united forces of all the Christian princes of the peninsula in 1193. In 1238 they esta- blished their kingdomof Granada (g.t;.), which continued to flourish tiU 1492. The severity of Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros in employing the Inquisition against them, produced an. insurrection of the Moors of the Alpus arras, which lasted from 1500 to 1502, when they were compelled to become Christians, and from that time obtained the name of Moris- eoes. In 1516 they founded the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis, in Africa. The emperor Charles V., at the instigation of Clement VII., ordered that all the Moors in Spain should be baptized before Dee. 8, 1525, or leave the country by Jan. 1, 1526. They oifered 50,000 crowns for a respite of five years ; but Charles ordered that those who were not baptized by Jan. 15, should for- feit their goods, and be sold as slaves. Many took refuge in the mountains of Valencia, but eventually submitted, and even pvirchased the privilege of retaining some of their cus- toms for 80,000 ducats. In 1568 they rebelled against the government of Philip II. in Spain. Large numbers of them left that country in 1571, and in 1609 they were ex- pelled by order of Philip III. MooESHEDABAD (Hindostau), also called Muksoosabad, the chief town of a district of the same name, whinh, at the commencement of the 13th century, was invaded by the Patau Mussulmans, and finallv subjugated by Akbar in 1584. In 1742 "the Mahrat- tas plundered the city of Moorshedabad, MO? MOE which was the capital of Bengal until 1757. Its ruler, Surajah Dowlah, was defeated in 1757 by Clive at Plassey, and Jaffier Khan was declared nabob. The English deposed him in 1760, and raised Cossim Ali Khan in his stead ; but he engaged in war against them, and was in turn deposed and Jaffier Khan reinstated. Moorshedabad was ceded to the East-India Company in 1765. MopsTJESTiA (Cilicia). — The origin of this town is traced to the soothsayer Mopsus by some writers. The emperor Constantius buUt a bridge here across the river Pyramus. In the Middle Ages it was called Mamista, and is now known under the name of Messis or Mensis. A council was held here a.d. 550. MoRADABAD (Hindostau) . — The province, with chief town of the same name, was ceded to the East- India Company by the sovereign of Oude, A.D. ISOl. MoRAT, or MuRTEM (Battle). — Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated by the Swiss at Morat or Murtem, in the canton of Freibui-g, in Switzerland, June 22, 1476. Moravia ( Austria ) . — This province was inhabited by the Quadi until a.d. 407, when it was seized by the Heruli, who retained it till its conquest by the Longobardi in 548. A kingdom of Great Moravia was subsequently formed, which received Christianity in 856. In 908 the kingdom was dissolved and divided between Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia; and in 1056 the whole was incorporated with Bohe- mia. It became a margraviate in 1086, and was annexed to the Austrian dominions in 1526. Moravia was the chief theatre of the war between the French and allied Austrian and Russian armies in 1805. Moravians, or United Beethren. — The Bohemian Brethren dissented from the Calixtines (q-v.), a branch of the Hussites, A.D. 1433. They sent envoys to Luther in 1522, and, having been expelled from Bohe- mia in 1547, took refuge in Poland and at Marienwerder, in Prussia. MaximiHan II. granted them toleration in 1564, and many of them congregated at Fulnek, in Moravia, from which they received the name of Mora- vians. Their settlements in Bohemia and Moravia were destroyed during the Thirty Years' War. Count Zinzendorf permitted them to settle at Herrnhut, on his estate of Bethelsdorf, in 1722. Several changes were at this time made in the constitution of the sect, and its followers received the name of the United Brethren. One of their principal objects is to send out missions to the heathen. They were first estabhshed in England about 1738. MoREA (Greece). — Finlay (Greece and Trebizond, p. 29) states that " the Morea must have come into general vise, as the name of the peninsula (the Peloponnesus), among the Greeks after the Latin conquest." This took place in 1205, when the country was formed into the principality of Achaia (q.v.). In 1262, Misithra and other fort- resses were ceded to the Byzantines, who established a despotism in 1349, The fol- lowing are the Byzantine despots of the Morea ; — A.D. 1349. Manuel CantRcnzenos. 1388. Theodore Paleologus I. 14o7. Theodore Paleologus If. 1428. Constantiue XI., emperor of Conatantinople, 1430. Thomas. 1460. Demetrius. MoRELiA (Spain).— The French captured this ancient town Dec. 17, 1707. Cabrera having surprised it in 1838, it was twice assailed without success, and the siege was raised Aug. 18. MoRETON Bat. (See Queensland.) MoRQ-ARTEN (Battle) . — ^The Swiss defeated an Austrian army at this place, on the bor- ders of Zug and Schwytz, l^ov. 16, 1315. MoRicE, or Morris Dance. — This dance is said to have been introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence it was brought into England by John of Gaunt, a.d. 1332. It. was but little practised, however, until the reign of Henry VII., when it became a frequent entertainment at the May-games and weddings. The characteristic peculi- arity of the morris was that bells were attached to the legs of the performers. Petrarch exhibited his skill as a morris dancer on the occasion of his coronation at Rome in 1341. MoRLAix (France). — This ancient town, at one period strongly fortified, was taken by the earl of Surrey a.d. 1522, and the fortifications were destroyed towards the end of the 16th century. MoRMONiTES. {See Latter-day Saints.) Morocco (Africa). — This empire, the ancient Mauretania (q.v.), was formed by the union of several small kingdoms under the Arabs. A.D. 829. The city of Fez is founded by Edris. 1030. The Almoravides invade Morocco. 1055. Abu Eekr assum.es the title of sovereign o Morocco. 1097. The emperor of Morocco invades Spain, at the invitation of the Spanish Moors. 1121. Morocco is invaded by the Almohades. 1202. The province of Fez asserts its independence. 1270. The Meriuites invade Morocco. 1413. English ships first trade to Morocco. 1415. The Portuguese invade Morocco, and take Ceuta. 1508. The Portuguese authority extends over a considerable portion of Morocco. 1516. The Scherifs establish their supremacy, and e.itablish the dynasty which still reigns in Morocco. 1578. Aug. 4. Sebastian, king of Portugal, perishes, with his whole army, in battle against the Moors, at Alcazar. 1585. An English company is formed for trading to Morocco. 1662. Tangiers is ceded to the British. 1774. The emperor of Morocco fails in an attempt to expel the Spaniards from his territories. 1815 The inhabitants rise in insurrection. 1844. Aug. 6. The French, under the prince de Jotnville, bombard Taugiers. Aug. 14. Marshal Bugeaud defeats the imperial forces on the banks of the Isly. Aug. 16. De Joiiiville takes Mogador. Sept. 6. Peace is concluded with France. 575 MOR 1851. March 26. The French bombard Sallee. 1852. March 23.. Peace is again concluded with France. 1859. Oct. 22. Spain declares war against Morocco. Nov. 18. The Spanish troops laud on the coasts of M orocco. 1860. Jan. 1. The Spaniards, under General Prim, gain the battle of Castillejos, and advance upon Tetuan. Feb. 4. The Spaniards take Tetuan, alter a severe battle. Feb. 16. A tiTice is agi-eed upon. Feb. 23. Hostilities are resumed. March 23. The Spanish gain the battle of Gualdras. March 29. The queen of Spain agrees to preliminaries of peace, the emperor undertaking to pay 20,000,000 piastres as indemnity, and to leave Tetuan in the hands of the Spanish until the payment is completed. MOEOCCO (Morocco). — This city, the chief town of the empire of the same name, •was founded a.d. 1070, by Moorish adven- turers from Spain. In 1121 it was besieged by the Almohades, who were compelled to retire ; but in 1148 they again attacked the city, which surrendered to their leader Ab- delmumin. In 1673 it was taken from Muley Achmet by Muley Ismael. The plague carried off many of the inhabitants in 1678. MoEPHiNE, or MoEPHiA. — This alkaloid of opium, named after Morpheus, on account of its effect as a narcotic, is mentioned by Ludwig, A.D. 1688. It was obtained from opium by Sertuerner, a German chemist, in 1803. MoETAEA (Italy) . — Charlemagne defeated the Lombards near this town a.d. 774. Edgar Mortara, aged seven years, the son of Jewish parents residing at Bologna, was forcibly removed from his home by order of the Inquisition, June 23, 1858. The al- leged reason for the abduction was that the boy had been secretly baptized by a maid- servant during a serious illness which he had suffered two years before. MoETAES. — The Chinese are said to have constructed guns to throw stones of twelve pounds 300 paces, as early as a.d. 757. When Algesiras was besieged by Alfonso XI., king of Castile, in 1343, the Moorish garrison threw against him " certain thimders " through long mortars. A mortar is still shown at Venice with its marble shot used at the siege of Chioggia in 1385. The Arabian authors say that gunpowder was first used in mortars, wh chwei e at that time cylinders excavated in a rock, during one of the early sieges of Alexandria. In 1771 an experiment was tried at Gibraltar, for dis- charging stones from a mortar of this kind, called a rock mortar. The excavation, four feet long, was carefully polished, and fifteen hundredweight of stones were put in, some of which were thrown a distance of 500 yards. Mortars were first made in England in 1543, and they were in general use in 1588. MoETELLA TowEES, sometimes misspelt Martello Towers, are said to have received this name from the MorteUa tower in MorteUa Bay, commanding the entrance to St. Eio- renzo, in the island of Corsica, which was assailed by a furious cannonade, that lasted 576 MOS three hours, from two British men-of-war, the Fortitude, 74, and the Juno, 32-gun frigate, February 7th, 1794. The tower only mounted two 18 -pounders and one 6-pounder, and the garrison consisted of thirty-threemen,yet it sustained no damage, while the Fortitude caught fire, and was saved with difficulty. A height in the neigh- bourhood had been occupied by 1,400 men, and the garrison was compelled to surrender to this force on the same day. The duke of Richmond gave the plan for the first erected in England about 1805. They extended during the French war from Hythe in Kent to Seaford in Sussex, altogether about seventy-four in number. Though these circular buildings may have derived the name by which they are -known in England from the Corsican fortress, yet some such mode of defence was adopted at a much earlier date. Eobertson, in his Life of Charles V., relates that the Spaniards in the 16th century were compelled to erect watch- towers at regular distances along the coasts, and to keep guards constantly on the alert, to protect the population on the sea-coast from the descents of the pirates of Algiers. Moetimee's Ceoss, (Battle,) was fought near Wigmore, in Herefordshire, between the rival factions of York and Lancaster, Feb. 2, 1461. The earl of Pembroke com- manded the Lancastrian forces, which were defeated with great slaughter. MoETMAiN." — Purchases made by corporate bodies are said to be purchased in mortmain, or dead hand ; the reason for the title, ac- cording to Blackstone (book i. c. 18), being that such purchases were " usually made by ecclesiastical bodies, the members of which (being professed) were reckoned dead per- sons in law ; land, therefore, holden by them might, with great propriety, be said to be held in mortua manu." In order to check the increasing importance of the Church, the giving of land in mortmain was prohibited by 9 Hen. III. c. 36 (1225), which was enforced by 7 Edw. I. st. 2 (1279), and extended to all guilds and cor- porations, lay or ecclesiastical, by 15 Rich. II. c. 5 (1391). These prohibitions were re- pealed by 1 & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 8, s. 51 (1554), which was repealed by 1 Eliz. c. 1, s. 2 (1558). The king was empowered to grant Hcences to purchase in mortmain by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 37 (1696). Gifts in mortmain by wiU were restrained by 9 Geo. II. c. 36 (1736), which took effect June 24, 1736. It was repealed, as far as it related to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, by 45 Geo. III. c. 101 (July 10, 1805). Mosaics. — The invention of mosaic paint- ing is ascribed to the Persians, by whom it was practised at a very early date. The Greeks excelled in it, and transmitted it to I the Romans about the reign of Augustus ; I and during the reign of Constantine it I became the principal means of decorating I the Christian temples. Venice was the j principal seat of the mosaic art from the MOS llth to the 16th century. Mosaic-work was much improved in the 17th century by the application of enamel, to express the finer gradations of tint. Moscow (Kussia). — This ancient capital, founded a.d. 1147, continued to flourish until 1383, when it was taken by the Tartars, and nearly destroyed. The city was, how- ever, rebuilt, and had attained some degree of prosperity, when it once more feU a prey to the Tartars in 1571. The Poles captured it in 1608, and it was wrested from their grasp in 1610. The French, under Napo- leon I., entered Moscow September 14, 1812. The great conflagration comraenced Sept. 15, and raged with fary till Sept. 20. The Kremlin (q.v.) was rebuilt in 1816, and has since been greatly enlarged. The church of the Assumption of the Vir- gin was founded in 1326 ; those of St. Slichael and of the Transfiguration were founded in 1328, and rebuilt in 1527; and the Pokrovskoi Cathedral was built in 1554. It was originally constructed of nine separate churches ; eleven have since been added ; making twenty places of wor- ship joined together. The Beloi G-orod, or White Town, contains the university, which was almost totally destroyed in the French invasion ; the foundling hospital, erected in 1763 ; the excise office, built in 1817 ; and the great military hospital, founded by Peter the Great. The great bell was cast in 1736, but fell, in consequence of a fire, in 1737. The railroad to St. Peters- burg was opened in 1851. MosKiRCH (Battle). — Moreau, at the head of a French army, defeated the Austrians at this village, after a sanguinary contest, May 5, 1800. MosQTTiTO Coast, or Mosqttitia (Central America), was discovered by Christopher Columbus A.D. 1502, and called by him Cariay. The Spaniards formed several set- tlements, and it became one of the favourite haunts of the bucaneers. The first English settlement was formed in 1730. A com- mission, despatched by Trelawney, governor of Jamaica, took formal possession of the country, in the name of the king of Great Britain, April 16, 1740; and an order in council was issued, sending a number of troops in 1744, and another in 1748. Spain took umbrage at these movements, and England agreed to demolish her fortification here by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. A convention, by which the English con- sented to evacuate the territory, signed July, 1786, was confirmed by the treaty of Madrid, Aug. 28, 1814. A British protec- torate was established, and two vessels of war occupied the harbour of San Juan in January, 1848. This led to negotiations with the United States, and the Bulwer- Clayton treaty {q.v.) was concluded April 19, 1850. Moss Troopees. — Freebooters dwelling on the borders of England and Scotland, whose ravages are mentioned as estrly as the reign of Edward I., when they carried ofi" a wealthy 577 MOU citizen of Newcastle, and demanded a heavy ransom as the price of his hberty. In 1529 James V. of Scotland marched against them with 8,000 men, and put large numbers to death, the celebrated Johnie Armstrong being one of his victims. Measures were taken for their suppression by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 22 (1662), which compelled the inhabitants of the Border to apprehend them wherever they were known to exist. They were deprived of benefit of clergy by 18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666). These acts were renewed by 6 Geo. II. c. 37 (1733). Mosul, or Mozul (Asiatic Turkey), the ancient Mespila, was the seat of the Hama- danids of Mesopotamia a.d. 892. Zenghi, the atabek or ruler of Mosul, asserted his independence in 1121. The town was taken by Saladin in 1183, and fell into the hands of the Persians in 1625. Amurath IV. reco- vered Mosul in 1639. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, commenced his explorations at Mneveh in 1843, and Layard arrived here in 1845, in order to pursue his excavations on the site of Nineveh, which is on the oppo- site side of the Tigris. MoTTA (Battle). — The Hungarians were defeated at this place by the Venetians, under Malatesta, Aug. 24, 1412. MoTYA (Sicily). — This Phoenician colony passed under the rule of the Carthaginians, and was made a naval station by them, B.C. 407. Dionysius of Syracuse captured it, and put all the inhabitants to the sword, b.c. 397. The Carthaginians regained possession b.c. 396 ; but it never recovered its former im- portance. MoTJLMEiTJ" (Hindostan). — This town was ceded to the East-India Company by the Bur- mese by the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. MouifT Athos (Greece), eaUed by the Franks Monte Santo, and by the Greeks Agion-oros, both terms implying " Holy Mountain." It has received this appella- tion from its numerous monastic esta- bhshments. According to the monkish tradi- tion, no female has set foot upon the Holy Mountain. Xerxes cut a passage for his fleet through the isthmus that connects the peninsula to the mainland, on his invasion of Greece, B.C. 480. From documents stOl extant, it appears that convents existed on this mountain as early as a.d. 961. Mount HiEMus. — The ancient name of the range of mountains extending from the Adriatic Sea to the Euxine, and now known as the Balkan. Mourning-. — PuUeyn (Etymological Com- pendium, p. 215) states that " the colours of the dress, or habit, worn to signify grief, are different in different countries. In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourning is Mack; in China, it is white, a colour that was the mourn- ing of the ancient Spartan and Koman ladies; in Turkey, it is blue, or violet ; in Egypt, yellow ; in Ethiopia, brovm ; and kings and cardinals mourn m purple. Every nation gave areason for their wearing the particular colour of their mourning : black, which is the priva- 2 P MOU MUN tion of light, is supposed to denote the priva- tion of life; white is an emblem of purity ; yellow is to represent that death is the end of all human hopes, because this is the colour j of leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade J brown denotes the earth, to which the dead return ; blue is an emblem ! of the happiness which it is hoped the deceased enjoys; and purple, or violet, is j supposed to express a mixture of sorrow and hope." White was the original colour of mourning in Spain, the last occasion on which it was used being on the death of Don Juan, heir of Castile, in 1495. In conse- quence of the serious injury done to trade by protracted public mournings, George III. reduced their duration to half their previous length, by an order issued from the cham- berlain's office, Jan. 12, 1768. MOUSQTJETAIEES, Or MUSQTJETEEES, a body of cavalry, attached to the persons of the French 'monarchs, and having some resemblance to our household troops, was abolished a.d. 1775 by Count Germain, war minister to Louis XVI. Mozambique (Africa). — This part of the eastern coast was discovered by Vasco de Gama, a.d. 1498, and the chief town was taken by Albuquerque in 1506. The city of Mozambique, on an island of the same name, was founded in 1763, and incorporated in 1813. By decrees of the Portuguese govern- ment, issued in June, 1854, custom-houses were ordered to be established on the Mozambique coast. Muff. — This protection for the hands was invented in France during the reign of Louis XrV., and was introduced thence into England during the reign of Charles II. They are mentioned as being worn by gen- tlemen m 1683. Muffs made of feathers were fashionable dviring the reign of George III. MuGGLETON-iAKs.— An Enghsh sect, fol- owers of Ludowicke Muggleton, a journey- man tailor, who in 1651 set up as a religious teacher, declaring that he and his companion John Eeeve were the "two witnesses" men- tioned in Eevelations xi. 3 — 7. In 1656 a book was published, entitled " The Divine Looking-Glass," containing a statement and defence of their principles. WiUiam Penn replied in " The New Witnesses proved Old Hereticks," published in 1672. Muggleton was tried at the Old Bailey for blasphemy, and convicted, Jan. 17, 1676. He died March 14, 1697. An edition of the works of Eeeve and Muggleton was pubUshed in 3vols.4to, in 1832. MiJHLBEEG (Battle).— The emperor Charles V. defeated the Saxons and their Protestant allies at Miihlberg, or Mulhausen, on the Elbe, April 23, 1547. MuHLDOEF (Battle) .—Louis of Bavaria took Frederick of Austria prisoner, and defeated his army at this battle, fought Sept. 28, 1322. MuHLHAusEN" (Prussia) . — Munzer the Anabaptist made his head-quarters at Miihlhausen a.d. 1524. It was a free and 678 imperial city imtil 1802, when it was annexed to Prussia. MuLBEEET Teee, a native of Persia, was brought to England before a.d. 1548. Its introduction to this coimtry is ascribed to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who planted mulberry-trees in Kent. Its lon- fevity is remarkable, extending in some nown cases to three centuries. The white mulberry was introduced from China before 1596, the red mulberry from North Ame- rica before 1629, and the paper mulberry fi'om Japan before 1751. Mule, or Mule jEifirr, a machine employed in spinning cotton, invented about 1777, by Samuel Crompton, was in general use about 1786. In 1812 Cromp- ton found on investigation that there were between four and five miUion spindles at work on the principle of his invention, although, from his not having taken out a patent, he received no pecuniary benefit therefrom. Parliament voted him £5,000 as an acknowledgment of his merit in pro- moting the manufactures of the country. MuLHousE, or Mulhausen- (France), is the chief town of a smaU repubhc, which entered into an alliance with the S^viss cantons, a.d. 1514. It declared in favour of annexation to France in 1793, and this was accomphshed by treaty in 1798. Multiplying. — The craft of multiplying gold and sUver, or alchemy, was declared felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4 (1404). This statute was repealed by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 30 (1690). MuMjar. — The use of mummy as a drug commenced either in 1100 or in 1300, and was very common during the 16th and the early part of the 17th century. For details respecting mummies, see Embalming. MuNDA (Spain). — Cn. Scipio defeated the Carthaginians near this town, B.C. 216. Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey at the same place, March 7, 45 B.C., when Munda was captured and destroyed. Cn. Pompey was wounded in the battle, and having been pursued, was killed. Mundan^e ^ea of Alexandbia. — The creation of the world was fixed by this sera B.C. 5502. This computation was continued until A.D. 284, and ten years were deducted from it in 285, making what was the year' 5787 by the previous mode of computation, 5777. Munich (Germany) was a walled town in the 13th century, and was made the imperial residence by Louis I., who restored and extended it in 1327. It was made the capital of Bavaria in the 15th century, and was taken by Gustavus Adolplius of Sweden in 1327, and by the French general Moreau July 2, 1800. Napoleon I. visited Munich Oct. 12, 1805, and again Jan. 14, 1806, on the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais. The Eoyal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1759, was re-organized in 1827. The pubhc hbrary contains 400,000 volumes, 22,000 MSS., and extensive natural history and scientific collections. The university, origin- ally established at Ingoldstadt in 1473, was removed to Munich in 1826. The paper manufacture was established in 1347. The old palace is said to have been built from Vasari's designs, at the close of the 16th century. The cathedral was commenced in 1368, and St. Michael's Church in 1583. St. Peter's was built in 1370, and restored in 1607. Mtjnicipai, CoBPOBATioNS. — TheKomans, at the conclusion of the Social War, B.C. 90, brought the towns of Italy under their government, but permitted them to retain their local administration, which was carried on by a municipal constitution. Charters of incorporation existed in France as early as A.D. 974. Our municipal corporations, most probably of Saxon origin, are be- lieved to have existed before the Norman Conquest. Charters of incorporation were frequently given to towns by the Norman sovereigns, one of the earhest being that of London, which was granted by Henry I. in 1101. The making of statutes by bodies corporate was regulated by 19 Hen. VII. 0.7 (1503). By the Corporation and Test Act, 13 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1 (1661), no one was permitted to hold any office in a corpo- ration unless he had previously received the sacrament according to the rites of the Esta- blished Church. This act was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. 0. 17 (May 9, 1828). Koman Cathohcs are permitted to hold lay offices by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 (April 13, 1829). Cor- porations in Ireland are regulated by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 10, 1840). f,See Munici- pal Eeform Act.) Municipal Eefoem Act. — By 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (Sept. 9, 1835), certain cor- porate tovms and boroughs therein specified were placed under a new constitution. MuNSTER (Ireland) existed as a kingdom at an early period. Brian, surnamed Born, usurped the sovereignty of Ireland in the 11th century, and was killed by the Danes at Clontarf {q. v.), AprU 23, 1014. Henry II. subdued Munster a.d. 1172. The whole of Munster, with the exception of Clare, was divided into counties during the reign of Henry VIII. Clare formded part of Con- naught until 1601, when it was added to Munster. MirjsrsTEE (Prussia) was founded about A.D. 700, under the name of Meiland, which was afterwards changed to Miningerode. Charlemagne, after taking the town, created it a bishopric in 780, which continued to be its form of goverimient till 1803. John of Leyden, leader of the Anabaptists, with a number of his followers, held the town from 1534 till June 2o, 1535, when it was taken by storm. The treaty of peace closing the Thirty Years' War was signed here Oct. 24, 1648. It was evacuated by the French, and taken possession of by the duke of Bruns- wick, in 1758. The French general d'Armen- tieres captured it after a short siege, July 25, 1759, and it was retaken by General Imhoff Oct. 20 following. By a treaty concluded at Paris, it was ceded to Prussia May 23, 1802 j 679 MUR but was again given up July 9, 1807, and re- leased from the French yoke by the aUies in 1813. Its fortiflicatious were destroyed in 1765. The church of St. Leger was built in the 12th, and the cathedral in the 13th century. MuEAL Circle. — This instrument, which superseded mural arcs and quadrants, was invented by Edward Troughton, a.d. 1812. MuECiA (Spain). — This province was colo- nized by the Carthaginians, about b.c. 200, and passing successively under the sway of the Romans and the Goths, came by con- quest into possession of the emperor Jus- tinian, A.D. 552. It was recovered by Suintilha, the Gothic king, in 624, and was subjugated by the Moorish invaders in 712. The califs of Cordova held it till 1144, when the kings of Granada seized upon the pro- vince, which was, however, restored to its former owners a.d. 1221. In 1239 it was erected into a kingdom tributary to Cas- tile, and the Moors were finally dispossessed in 1266. MuECiA (Spain), capital of the province of that name, and supposed to be the Ver- gUia of the Romans, was made one of their seven chief cities by the Moors, a.d. 787. On the approach of Prince Alfonso with a powerful army, the inhabitants ofiered un- conditional submission, a.d. 1239. On two occasions during the Peninsular war, in 1810 and 1812, it suffered from the depreda- tions of the French army. An earthquake caused much damage to the city March 21, 1829. The cathedral, commenced a.d. 1353, has since received additions and renovations at various times, the belfry tower having been built between a.d. 1522—1766, and the facade of Corinthian columns in 1737. The episcopal palace, commenced in 174S, was finished in 1752. The senunary of San Ful- gensio, now in decay, was founded in 1592 ; the iastitute of secondary instruction in 1837, and a normal school in 1844. Murder. — The first murderer was espe- cially preserved from death in consequence of his crime, by the divine protection. Gen. iv. 15. After the Deluge the law of blood for blood was estabHshed, Gen. ix. 6 (b . c . 2347) , and was confirmed by the Levitical law. Murder was a capital crime among the Egyptians, and also among the Greeks, who established the court of Ephetes for its suppression, B.C. 1179. It was alsomade capi- tal by the Roman laws, by the code of Jus- tinian, by the laws of the Visigoths in Spain, and by those of the ancient Germans. The Anglo-Saxons compounded for it with a fine, and the same principle was continued by the Normans. The murder of a master by a ser- vant, a husband by his wife, or a priest by his subordinate, was judged petit treason by 25 Edw. III. Stat. 5, c. 2 (1350) . Benefit of clergy was taken away from murderers by 4 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1512). The various statutes relating to murder were amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 27, 1828), which ordered the execu- tion of murderers to take place the day next but one after the sentence, and the 2 p 2 MUR bodies of convicts to be dissected or bung in chains. The dissection clause was repealed by 2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 75 (Aug. 1, 1832), the hanging in chains by 4 & 5 WiU. IV. c. 26 (July 25, 1834), and the hmitation of in- terval between sentence and execution by 6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 30 (July 14, 1836). MuRET (Battle). — Simon of Montfort defeated Peter II. of Aragon, and the Albi- genses, near this town, in France, Sept. 12, 1213. Peter II. feU in the action. Pope Innocent III. in a letter dated Jan. 17, 1214, celebrates this as a great triumph over the heretics. Mtjrsa, or Mtjesia (Pannonia) . — Hadrian founded a colony at this place, caUed Mursa Major, to distinguish it from another town of the same name, about twelve mUes distant. Constantius II. obtained a signal victory over Magnentius, near this town, Sept. 28, 351 A.D. Constantine I. made it the seat of a bishopric, a.d. 338. Esseck (q.v.), the capital of Slavonia, is buUt upon its site. Museum. — The first institution with this name was founded at Alexandria, about B.C. 280, by Ptolemy PhUadelphus, and was enlarged by the emperor Claudius. It was set apart for the worship of the Muses and the cultivation of science. (See Beitish Museum.) Music. — In Scripture we learn that Jubal, the son of Lameeh, was "the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," Gen. iv. 21 (b.c. 3874). The mythical Orpheus is said to have flourished B.C. 1260. The Greeks and Eomans were the only ancient people who possessed a knowledge of musical characters. Lasus of Hermione, in Argos, who flourished b.c 548, was the first who wrote on the theory of music, and Aristoxenus (b.c 335) is the most ancient author on the subject whose works are extant. St. Ambrose introduces the Ambi-osian chant. Gregory the Great introduces the Gregorian chant about this year. Alfred the Great is said to have appointed a musical professorship at Oxford. Guido Aretinus invents a scale of sis notes, and introduces the use of cleffs. Franco, of Liege, invents metrical music. Doctoi-s and bachelors of music are first men- tioned at Cambridge university. The art of printing music is introduced into England. Music-printing from metal types is invented by Otlavio de Petrucci. The Common Prayer of the Church of England is first set to music by John Marbeck. The Accademia degli Pilariaonici is esta- blished before this year, at Vicenza. Jacopo Peri invents recitative about this time. 1083. 1463. 1495. 1515, 1550. 1565. 1600. 1604. 1605. 1650. 1653. Jam. s I. incoporates the Musicians' Company of London. Ludovico Viadana invents thorough bass. The use of bars in music becomes general, and sonatas are introduced. A Venetian lady named Barbaia Strozzi invents the Cantata. June 28. Louis Xrv. sanctions the establish- ment of a French Royal Academy of Music. 580 IVITC 1710. George Frederick Handel first visits England. Tlie Academy of Ancient Music is founded at London. 1741. The Madrigal Society is founded at London. 1764. Young Mozart visits London. 1785. The Eoyal Society of Musicians is founded. 1791. Haydn visits London. 1822. The Royal Academy of Music of London is founded. 1860. June 5. The Society of Arts' committee to decide on a tuiiform musical pitch present their report. Musical Festivals.— The festival of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford, was instituted a.d. 1724, for the relief of the widows and orphans of the clergy of those dioceses. The Birmingham festivals commenced in 1778. Similar meet- ings were held at York and Chester in 1791. A festival was held at Norwich in 1811, and at Edinburgh in 1815. {iSee Handel Com- MEMOKATIONS.) Musk. — The duty on this article, used both as a perfume and in medicine, was reduced in 1832, and altogether repealed iu 1845. Muskets, or pistols with locks, were first made at Nuremberg, in 1517, and introduced into England in 1521. The fusil, a lighter kind of musket, was invented in France, in 1630, and marksmen armed with a musket were employed by the earl of Albemarle in 1646. A brass musket or gun, caUed the fancy gun, was invented in 1712. Experi- ments were made before the king of Sweden at Aggerhaus, AprU 8, 1845, in which a new kind of musket was used with a smooth barrel, against a breech-loading rifle. This established the immense superiority of the rifle over the best muskets. Muslin, a fine cotton cloth, so caUed from Mosul, in Asia, where it was originaUy manu- factured, was first imported from India into England a.d. 1670. Considerable quantities were manufactured in France and England in 1690. Mustard was first prepared for use at table, in its present form, in 1720, by Mrs. Clements, of Durham, — whence the name Durham mustard. MuTA, or Mutah (Battle). — The Moham- i medans first encountered the Eomans, whom they defeated, at Muta, a viUage near Damas- cus, A.D. 629. MuTiNA, or Mutinum (Battle). — During the civU wars, Mark Antony was defeated under the waUs of Mutina, the modern Mo- dena (q. v.), AprU 27, 43 B.C., and was com- peUed to abandon the siege. Mutiny Act. — The act renewed every year for punishing officers or soldiers who are guUty of mutiny or desertion, was first passed by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 5 (1688). Mtcale (Battle). — The Persian army, under Tigranes and Mardontes, was defeated at this Ionian city of Asia Minor, by the Greeks, under Leotychides, king of Sparta, and Xanthippus, in September, b.c 479. But few of the vanquished survived the contest ; and the Greeks, after burning the Persian ty is again noticed during oleon in Sicily, B.C. 315. MYC fleet and camp, retired with their booty to Samos. The battles of Mycale and Platsea were both gained by the Greeks on the same day. Myceu"^, or Mtcene (Grreece). — This town, the name of which was derived by the ancients from Mycene, davighter of Inachus, is said to have been built by Perseus. The Argives, anxious to bring the whole district under their sway, laid siege to Mycene, b.c. 468. They turned the siege into a blockade, and the inhabitants were compelled by famine to capitulate. Mtcole (Sea-fight). — The corsairs of ISTa- renta defeated the Venetian fleet off this bay, near Zara, and slew the doge, Pietro Sanudo, A.D. 887. MyTjM (Sea-fights). — The Eoman fleet, commanded by C. Duillius, defeated the Car- thaginians near this promontory, in Sicily, B.C. 260. Near the same place, Agrippa, with the fleet of Octavian, defeated Sextus Pompey's squadron, b.c. 36. MyLiE (Sicily). — The date of the founda- tion of this city, the modern Melazzo (q. v.), is uncertain. Siefert fixes it as early as B.C. 716. It was most decidedly in exist- ence before Him era, founded b.c. 648. The Athenian fleet, under Laches, captured Mylse B.C. 427. This cit; " ' • ^ - • the war of Timol In its neighbourhood the Mamertines were defeated by Hieron of Syracuse, b. c. 270. Mtkiokephalon- (Battle). — The Greek emperor Manuel II. was defeated in a narrow defile near this castle, by Kilidsch Arslan II., sultan of Iconium, in September, 1176. Mykeh is first mentioned (Gen. xxxvii. 25) among the wares the Ishmaelites, to whom Joseph was sold by the Midianite merchantmen, were carrying into Egypt, B.C. 1728. It was used by the Egyptians for embalming their dead. The Greeks, Eomans, and other ancient people, em- ployed it as a medicine. Mtsia (Asia Minor) was inhabited by va- rious tribes of Phrygians, Trojans, Cohans, and Mysians ; but httle is known of the people or their institutions. They are mentioned by Homer as allies of Priam. Mysia was successively subject to Lydia, Persia, Syria, and Eome ; and, under the last-mentioned, formed part of the province of Asia. Mtsgee (Hindostan). — This province, also called Mahesura and Maisoor, was invaded by the Mohammedans a.d. 1310, and was for many years governed by rajahs, who traced their descent from the same tribe of which the god Krishna was a reputed member ; but the earliest sovereign on record is Cham Eaj, whose reign commenced a.d. 1507. The pubhc career of Hyder Ali commenced at My- sore in 1749, and he assumed the sovereignty of the province in 1760. Seringapatam, the capital, was stormed and taken by the Enghsh May 4, 1799, when the whole dis- trict passed under the control of the British. In 1818 military means were successfully MYT employed to rid Mysore of the banditti tribes by which it had previously been infested. Mysteeies. — The pagan mysteries ori- ginated in Egypt, where Isis and Osiris were worshipped with secret rites at a very early period. The earhest mysteries practised by the Greeks were those of the Cabiri, which were celebrated at Samothrace. The mysteries of the Curetes, who existed as early as b.c. 1534, and of the Corybantes, rank next in point of antiquity ; but the most celebrated were the Eleusinian mys- teries, which were introduced at Eleusis, in Attica, by Eumolpus the Hierophant, b.c. 1356. This festival was sacred to Ceres, and was observed with such strict secrecy that death was the penalty for intruding during the ceremonies without initiation. It was introduced at Eome in the reign of Hadrian (a.d. 117 — 138), and ceased in 396. Mtsteey Plats. — The origin of these mediseval dramatic entertainments has been referred to the pilgrims who journeyed to the East in the 11th century. They are first mentioned in England, the earhest perform- ance on record being one noticed by Matthew Paris, as having taken place at Dunstable in the early part of the 12th century. The oldest extant is the " Harrowing of Hell," which is ascribed to the reign of Edward III. Hal- lam, from internal evidence, believes it not later than 1350. Warton refers the Chester mysteries to 1327, but Hallam considers this at least a century too early. The French mysteries commenced in the 14th century, and exceeded the Enghsh in the magnificence of their appointments. (See Drama.) Mystics. — This sect of Christians origin- ated towards the end of the 3rd century, and maintained that primary reason is an emana- tion from the Godhead, and that solitude and mortification of the natural man are the most effectual means of promoting its recep- tion and development. During the 4th and 5th centuries they greatly increased in num- ber, and in the severity of the self-imposed austerities they practised. Mystic theology was introduced into the Western empire, where it made many converts, in 824. The mystics vigorously opposed the schoolmen in the 13th century, and were very numerous in Europe in the 14th, when John Tauler of Strasburg, who died in 1361, Henry Suso of Uhn, who died in 1365, and John Eingsbroech, prior of Grosenthal, in Bra- bant, who died 1381, flourished. Mythology, or the " science which treats of the mythes, or various popular traditions and legendary tales current among a people, and objects of general belief," has been as- cribed to three origins. The first is that which asserts the real existence of all mythic persons at some remote period ; the second, known as the philosophic theory, regards mythology as the poetic guise of human science ; and the third, or theologic theory, considers it as the theology of polytheism. The origin of mythology is of course un- 581 NAA known, but there is no doubt that the system in vogue in Greece and at Kome was derived from the Egyptians. IsT. Naaeden (Holland).— Don Frederick of Toledo summoned this small town, on the coast of the Zuyder Zee, to surrender, Nov. 22, 1572. The inhabitants refused to abandon the cause of the prince of Orange, and Don Frederick invested the place Dec. 2, when it was taken, and an inhuman massacre perpetrated. The .Spanish soldiers com- mitted fearful atrocities. Loiiis XIV. took ISTaarden in 1672, and the stadtholder, Wil- liam III., regained possession the following year. Naas (Ireland), in early times was the residence of the kings of Leinster, and some remains of their ancient palace are stiH to be seen. A priory was founded here in the 12th century, for canons regular of the order of St. Augustine. It was destroyed in 1316, when the town was sacked by the Scots, but was soon afterwards restored. A convent for Dominican Friars was founded in 1355 ; a parhament was held here in 1419 ; and a convent for Friars Eremites of the order of St. Augustine was founded in 1484. Queen Elizabeth granted Naas a charter in 1569. A party of insurgents in 1577 burnt between 700 and 800 houses on the night of a festival. James I. confirmed and extended the charter of EHzabeth in 1609, and Charles I. granted a new charter in 1628; but the town has always been governed by the charters of EHzabeth and James. It was garrisoned by the earl of Ormond in 1648, and after many vicissitudes, was taken by the parliamentarians in 1650. It was attacked by the insurgent Irish, who were repulsed vrith a^ loss of 150 men. May 24, 1798. it^ABONASSAE (^Era). — IS^abonassar, the foimder of the kingdom of Babylon, was the author of this sera, which commenced Wed- nesday, Feb. 26, B.C. 747. It included a period of 424 Egyptian years, from the com- mencement of Nabonassar's reign to the death of Alexander the Great, B.C. 323 ; and was brought down to the reign of Antoninus Pius, A.D. 138—161. Nachitshevan (Asia).— This province of Persia was ceded to Eussia by the peace of Tourkmantchai, Feb. 22, 1828, and soon after- wards was, with the province of Erivan, for- mally annexed to the Eussian empire, under the title of the province of Armenia. The town of Nachitshevan was captured by the Eussians in 1827. NACHiTSHETAiir (Eussia) . — Catherine II. founded this town on the Don a.d. 1780. The majority of the inhabitants are Armenians. Nacolia (Phrygia) . — The emperor Valeus defeated the usui-per Procopius near this town in May, 366 a.d. Procopius, deserted by his troops, wandered amongst the woods and mountains of Phrygia, until he was at FAX length betrayed and put to death. May 28. The Gothic garrison at Nacoha revolted against the emperor Arcadius. Nafels (Battle). — The Svsdss defeated the Austrians at this place, in Switzerland, A.D. 1388. Occupying the heights, the Swiss hurled large stones and masses of rock upon the antagonists, and threw them iato confusion. The small town of Niifels was burned by the iavaders the night before the battle. Nagasaki, or Nangasaki (Japan), one of the five imperial cities of the empire, was made the site of a settlement, through Por- tuguese influence, a.d. 1566. It became the scene of frightful massacres during the per- secution of native Christians in 1622. The port was visited by the British frigate Phaeton, under the command of Captain Pellew, who detained as prisoners some Dutchmen coming on board, an act which led to the suicide of the Japanese governor, A.D. 1808. Two Enghsh merchantmen, the Charlotte and Mary, succeeded, by a ruse, in getting cargoes of copper in 1813 ; but a similar attempt failed in 1814. A British squadron, under Admiral Stirling, by the aid of threats, obtained supplies of such provisions as they required, Sept. 7, 1854. Another squadron, with the steam-yacht Emperor as a present from Queen Victoria to the tycoon of Japan, entered this port Aug. 3, 1858 ; and it was opened to British subjects by the treaty of Jeddo, July 1, 1859. Nagpore (Hindostan). — Near this town, then capital of a province of the same name, an English army was, in time of peace, at- tacked by the rajah of Nagpore's troops, Nov. 26, 1817. After a conflict of eighteen hoiirs' duration, the Enghsh obtained a victory and captured the town, which, with the province, was incorporated with the English empire in the East Indies on the death, without issue, of the last descendant of Eajogee, Dec. 11, 1853. Nag's-Head Conseceation'. — The Eoman Catholic writers promulgated a story that Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury from A.D. 1559 to 1576, had been consecrated at the Nag's Head tavern, in Cheapside, The official register shows that he was consecrated at Lambeth, Dec. 17, 1559, by Bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and Hodgkins, suffragan of Bedford ; and the I malignant invention scarcely deserved the ! deliberate refutation which it received. Nahtjm. — The festival of Nahum, one of the minor prophets, who, B.C. 720, foretold the destruction of Nineveh and the overthrow of the Assyrian empire, which events oc- curred B.C. 625, according to some autho- rities, and B.C. 606, according to others, is held on the 24th of December. Nails. — The earliest nails known were made of copper; and flat-headed nails of iron have been found in British barrows. The first machine for making nails was in- vented by French, of Wimborne, in Staf- fordsliire, a.d. 1790. In 1810 a machine was NAI invented in America by which the manu- facture was greatly facilitated. Since that year mmierous improvements have been effected. Much controversy has been ex- cited respecting the number of nails used in the crucifixion. Xonnus and Gregory Nazianzen (a.d. 326 — 390) affirm that only three were used ; and Curtius, who wrote a treatise " De Clavis Dominicis," at the commencement of the 17th century, con- tends for four. Other writers have argued in support of different numbers, some being in favour of as many as fourteen. Naissus (Mcesia) . — Claudius II. defeated the Goths in a great battle near this town A.D. 269. Constantine the Great was born here in 274. Having been destroyed by Attila and the Huns in 411, it was restored by Justinian I. The modern Nissa occupies its site. Najara (Battle). — The Black Prince, hav- ing espoused the cause of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, defeated his opponents at Najara, April 3, 1367, and re-established him upon the throne. Names. — ^Among the Hebrews names pos- sessed a specific meaning, and were not inherited from parents to children. The Greeks had only one name, which frequently received a patronymic for distinction, as Achilles, son of Peleus ; but the Eomans usually had three names, — the prcenomen, denoting the individual ; the nomen, indi- cating the gens or clan of which he was a member ; and the cognomen, specifying the particular branch of the clan. A fourth name, — the agnomen, was sometimes added as an honour ; and it was usually derived from the incidents for which it was con- ferred. Africanus, Coriolanus,, &c., were names of this class. The practice of bearing hereditary names commenced about the 13th century a.d. The first pope who changed his name on his elevation to the chair of St. Peter was Peter di Bocca Porca, who assumed the title of Sergius II., in 844, because he deemed himself unworthy to bear the same name as his apostohc pre- decessor. Some authorities state that the custom was introduced by Oetavian, who became John XII. in 956. Monks and nuns frequently adopted new names on taking their vows, in token that they renounced everything connected with their former mode of life. Namptwich, or Nantwich (Cheshire). — This town is mentioned in Domesday -book under the name of Wick. Here Fairfax defeated the royalist army brought from Ireland to support the cause of Charles I., Jan. 25, 1644 (N, S.). George Monk, after- wards duke of Albemarle, was captured in this battle. Lambert defeated the royalists, who formed a league to overthrow the authority of Cromwell, at Nantwich, Aug. 19, 1659. A mob endeavoured to rescue some poachers who had been imprisoned, and caused a riot, which was quelled by the nuhtary, Feb. 9, 1829. The free grammar-school was foimded in 1561. NAN ISTamur (Belgium).— Thistownwasfounded in the 7th century. Don John seized the citadel in 1577, and it was taken by the French, under Louis XIV., July 1, 1692. It was besieged by the English, under William III., July 3, 1695, and attacked with such fury that the French garrison of 14,000 men, under Marshal de Boufflers, capitulated Aug. 4. The citadel held out, and was besieged Aug. 12. An attempt to carry it by storm was repulsed with great slaughter, Aug. 30; but the garrison sur- rendered Sept. 1. The count of Nassau as- sailed it without success in 1704. Namur was ceded to Austria in 1713 ; garrisoned by the Dutch in 1715; and taken in 1746 by the French, who restored it to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 7, 1748. The fortifications, demolished by Joseph II. of Austria in 1784, were afterwards restored, Namur was taken by the French, under Dumouriez, Dee. 7, 1792, and having been evacuated by them in March, 1793, was re- taken in 1794. The allies captured it in Jan., 1814, and it was the scene of an obstinate battle between the Prussians and the French in 1815. Nan CI (France). — ^No record of the old town exists previous to the 11th century, and the new town dates from a.d. 1603. The church of the Cordeliers, built in 1484, con- tains the tombs of several dukes of Lorraine. Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who took Nanci in November, 1475, was killed here by Kene II., dxike of Lorraine, Jan. 4, 1477. Nanci was wrest-ed by the French from the duke of Lorraine in 1633. The fortifications were demohshed by Louis XIV. on the re- storation of the town to the dukes of Lor- raine. In 1790, the French army stationed here revolted against the National Assembly. Bouille marched on the ioym. with 3,000 infantry and 1,400 horse, and took it after a short resistance . It was captured by Blucher in January, 1814. Najtein (China) was made the capital of the empire a.d. 420, and continued to occupy this position till the end of the 13th century. The removal of the imperial resi- dence and the subsequent transfer of the six great tribunals to Pekin, caused it to decline. In 1842 the British army forced a passage up the river, and the troops landed Aug. 9, with the intention of storming the city. The Chinese submitted, and the treaty of Nankin was concluded by Sir Henry Pottinger, Aug. 29. The Taeping rebels took Nankin, March 19, 1853. They committed fearful ravages and destroyed the celebrated Porce- lain Tower, one of the principal objects of interest in Nankin, in 1856. Nantes (France), the ancient Condivic- num, or Condivincum, mentioned by Ptolemy as the capital of the Nannetes, or Namnetes, from which is derived the modern name Nantes. In 445 it withstood a siege of sixty days from the Huns ; in the 9th century it was almost entirely destroyed by the Nor- mans, and in 992 it was taken by the duke of Britanny. The greater part of the town 683 HflAK NAP was reduced to ashes by an accidental fire in 1118. It passed into the hands of Louis XII. on hjs marriage with Anne of Britanny in 1498. Thecelebrated edict of I^antes, issued here by Henry IV. April 13, 1598, was re- voked by Louis XIV. Oct. 22, 1685. The royalists made an unsuccessful attack on the town in June, 1793, when it became the scene of the atrocious cruelties of Carrier ; no less thanl8,000personshavingiDerishedbythe guil- lotine or drowning during his administration. In 1799 the Vendeans defeated the republican army here. An outbreak of the working classes, arising from distress and the spread of sociaUst doctrines, took place in 1848, and was suppressed by the mihtary, but not without serious loss of life. Ifantes was made a bishopric at an early period, and councils were held here in 660, 1127, July 1, 1264, and April 23, 1431. Nantuceet (Massachussets) . — This town, on a small island of the same name off the coast, was the first place in America which engaged in the whale fishery. It was almost totally destroyed by fire July 13, 1846. Naphtha. — This highly-inflammable fluid, which oozes out of the ground in Persia, Italy, and other countries, is supposed by Gibbon to have formed the basis of the Greek fire, used with such effect in sieges during the Middle Ages. Gibbon calls it " Hquid bitumen, a hght, tenacious, and inflammable oil." It is supposed to have secured the dehverance of Constantinople when besieged by the Arabs, a.d. 668 — 675 and A.D. 716— 718. Napier's Eods, or Boites. — This contri- vance to facilitate the multipUcation and division of large numbers was invented by John Napier, baron of Merchiston. The invention was first explained in his " Eab- dologiae, seu Numeratio per Virgulas," pub- lished at Edinburgh in 1617, and would perhaps have been more used but for his discovery of logarithims. Napier was born at Merchiston Castle in 1550, and died there April 3, 1617. Naples (Italy) was made a duchy, subject to the Byzantine empire, in the 6th century. 1084. The Norman conquest of Naples is completed by Robert Guiscard. 1250. Pope Innocent IV. prouoimces Naples part of the Holy See. 1130. Eoger II. rules both Naples and Sicily. 1139. Naples and Sicily are united into the king- dom of the Two Sicilies by papal inves- titure. 1194. Henry VI. of Germany succeeds to the throne of Naples and Sicily. 1266. Feb. 26. Manfred is defeated and slain by Chailes of Anjou at Grandella. 1268. Aug. 23. Charles of Anjou defeats the right- ful heir, Conradin, at TagUacozzo. Oct. 29. Conradin is beheaded at Naples. 1282. Sicily is separated from the kingdom of Naples at the revolution known as the Sicilian Vespers {q. v.\. 1309. The Neapolitan crown is disputed by Kobert the Good and Caribert, king of Hungary, and is allotted by the pope to the former. 1345. Sept. 18. Andrew of Hungary, king consort of Joanna L, m murdered. 1347. Louis of Hungary invades Naples, and expels the queen. 1349. Joanna I. is restored. 1382. Joanna I. is strangled by order of Charles Durazzo. 1403. Ladislaus resists the encroachments of the duke of Abjou. 1404. He invades Rome. 1408. Ladislaus again invades Rome. 1413. He attacks Rome a third time. 1420. Joanna II. adopts Alfonso of Aragon as her successor. 1423. She revokes the adoption, and nominates Louis III., duke of Anjou, as her heir. 1434. Death of Louis of Anjou. 1435. Death of Joanna 1 1., who bequeaths the cr<5wn to Ren6 of Anjou. His claim is contested by Alfonso V. of Aragon. 1442. Alfonso secui'es the crown. 1453. Reu6 of Anjou invades the kingdom. 1459. John, duke of Calabria, son of Ren6, invades Naples. 1462. He is defeated by Ferdinand, at Troia. 1495. Naples is invaded and conr|uei'ed by Charles VIII. of France. 1501. Naples is conquered by the French and Spaniards, who expel king Frederick II. 1503. The French are expelled, and the king- dom is again annexed to the crown of Aragon. 1510. The Jews are expelled from the Neapolitan territories. 1524. The French, under Stuart, duke of Albany, unsuccessfully invade Naples. 1526. The pope invades Naples in vain. 1527 The French, under Lautrer, ravage Naples. 1565. The Inquisition is prohibited in Naples. 1615. Ossuna is viceroy in Naples. 1620. Ossuna fails in an attempt to become sole mler of Naples. 1647. June 6. Ma-^anielio, a fisherman of Amalphi, rouses the Neapolitans to insurrection. July 16. He is assassinated by his colleagues, and the revolt is quelled. Aug. 21. The Neapolitans again revolt, and are assisted by the duke of Guise. 1648. April 4. Spanish supremacy is restored. 1702. A consi)iracy to establish an Austrian govern- ment fails. 1706. Prince Eugene expels the French from Naisles. 1713. April 11. Naples is ceded by Spain to Aus- tria by the treaty of Utrecht. 1720. Victor Amadeus cedes SicUy to Austria in exchange lor Sardinia. 1734. May 10. The iofant Don Carlos enters the Neapolitan kingdom, with a force of 30,000 men. May 27. His generals defeat the Austrian imperialist forces at the battle of Bitonto, which puts an end to the Austrian dominion in Naples. 1735. July 3. Don Carlos is crowned king of the Two Sicilies at Palei-mo, with the understanding that the crowns of Spain and the Two Sicilies are never to be united. 1738. Institution of the order of St. Januarius. 1743. Naples is constrained by Englajid to preserve neutrality in the war of the Austrian suc- cession. 1759. The king of Naples succeeding to the throne of Spain, resigns the wown of the Two Sicilies to his son Ferdinand. 1768. The Jesuits are expelled. 1782. The Inquisition is abolished in Naples. 1784. Many monasteries are suppi^essed. 1785. Baronial sei-vice is abolished. 1788. Naples ceases to be in feudal subjection to Rome. 1793. Sept. 3. War is declared against the Fi-ench republic. 1796. Oct. 11. Peace is concluded at Paris between Naples and Fi-ance. 1798. Nov. 29. Ferdinand, having published a manifesto against tue Pi-ench, marches against them in Italy, and entei-s P.ame. N-AP NAP 1805. 1805. 1810. 1814. 1816. 1820. 1825. 1827. 1847. 1848. 1849. 185G. Jan. 4. The French take Gaeta. Jan. 14. On the approach of the French, Ferdinand deserts his capital, and the Pai-thenopeau republic is established. June 26. Nelson takes Naples from the French, and hangs Prince Caracciolo, an act which Southey states demands "severe and unqualified coudemuation." July 12. Fort St. Elmo surrenders to Captain Troubridge. Aug. 12. The Weopolitans take Kome. March 28. Peace is concluded with France by the treaty of Florence. July 26. An earthquake destroys 20,000 lives. Sept. 21. A treaty with France is concluded at Paris, by which Naples agrees to main- tain neutrality in the Italian wars, and Napoleon I. consents to withdraw his troops from the Neapolitan states. Dec. 27. The king is dethroned. Feb. 8. The French enter Naples. Feb. 15. Joseph Bonaparte is crowned king. July 4. Sir John Stuart defeats the French at Maida. July 15. Joachim Murat is made king. July 20. The English take a Neapolitan squjidron. Jan. 11. Murat concludes an alliance with Austria. Feb. 3. A truce is concluded with the English. April 10. Austria declares war against Naples. May 2 and 3. Murat is defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino. May 16. Marat flees from Italy. June 17. King Ferdinand is restored. Oct. 8. Murat lands at Pizzo, in Calabria, with thirty friends, and attempts to recover his throne. Oct. 15. He is taken, tried, and then shot. A treaty is concluded with Great Britain. July 13. General Pepe heads an insurrection of the Carbonari, and compels the king to gi-ant a new constitution. The Austrians invade Naples. March 7. They defeat Pepe at Bieti. March 19. Pepe flees to Barcelona. March 23. A convention is signed for the occupation of Naples by the Austrians, and a provisional government is appointed. May 15. Ferdinand re-enters his capital. Jan. 4. Death of King Ferdinand. The Austrian army of occupation is diminished in number. June. Destructive inundations take place. An insignificant insurrection of the Carbo- nari is suppressed. Aug. 23 to 29. Alvea- politan squadron bombards Tripoli vdthouft success. June. The king of Naples grants the mono- poly of all the Sicilian sulphui- to a private company, in opposition to the treaty of 1816. April 17. In consequence of the king's refusal to discontinue the monopoly, the English commence hostilities. May. The monopoly is abolished, and peace is restored. Sept. Insurrections are frequent in Calabria and Sicily. Jan. 28. The king promises to gi-ant a con- stitution. May 15. Terrible riots occur in Naples, in which the lazzaroni assist the military against the revolutionists. Sept. 4. The pope visits the king of Naples at Portici. Oct. The French and English ambassadors are recalled from Naples, owing to the king's refusal to attend to the remon- strances of their governments on his oppressive government. Deo. 8. Milano attempts the king's life. June 25. The Cagliari steamer sails from Genoa. It is seized by the passengers. They compel the captain to steer for the isle of Pouza, where they release some state pri- soners, who accompany them to SaprL The steamer, being restored to its officers at this place, returns to Naples ; but is seized by a Neapolitan vessel dxiring the voyage. 1857. Jan. 29. The crew, with two English en- gineers. Watt and Park, are imprisoned. They were subseiiuently released. Dec.16. A dreadful earthquake destroys about 10,000 lives. 1858. Dec. 27. A political amnesty is granted. 1859. March 7. Barou Poeiio, with sixty-eight Neapolitan exiles, arrives at Queenstown, Ireland. May 22. Death of Ferdinand 11. June 16. Another amnesty is proclaimed. July 7. Revolt of the Swiss troops at Naples. 1860. March 26. The foreign ambassadors at the Neapolitan court present an address to the king, stating the necessity of consenting to political reforms. May 14. Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship of Sicily (q.v.). June 7. The emperor Napoleon III. refuses to mediate betwe en the kin g and the Sicil ian revolutionists. June 26. The king proclaims a general amnesty, promises a liberal ministry, agreement with Sardinia, the ado ption of the national flag, and a vice-regal and liberal goverument for Sicily. June 27. The French ambassador. Baron Brenier, is wounded by the mob. June 28. A liberal ministry is formed, Naples is declared in a state of siege, and the queen-mother flees to Gaeta. July 10. The troops attempt a revolt against the constitution, and pro- claim Count Trani king, as Louis I. Aug. 10. Prince Lucien Murat asserts his claim to the throne of Naples. Aug. 17. The Neapolitan proviuces rebel. Aug. 19. Garibaldi lands in Naples, and occupies Eeggio. Aug. 21. The fort of Beggio surrenders to him. Aug. 27. Gari- baldi accepts the title of dictator of the Two Sicihes. Sept. 6. The king leaves ■Naples for Gaeta. Sept. 7. Garibaldi enters Naples. Sept. 15. He expels the Jesuits, and declares the estates of the crown national property. Sept. 19. He defeats tbe royalists at Cajazzo. Oct. 1 and 2. The Neapolitans are defeated at the Volturno. Oct. 6. The Sardinian government an- nounces that its army is about to enter the Neapolitan territory. Oct. 17. Defeat of the Neapolitans at Isernia. Oct. 18. Gari- baldi publishes a decree stating that Naples ought to be incorporated with the Italian kingdom. Oct. 21. The people vote in favour of annexation to Sardiuia, the numbers being 1,310,266 pro, and 10,102 contra. Nov. 2. Capua surrenders to the Sardinians. Nov. 3. The siege of Gaeta commeuces. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel of Sardinia enters Naples. Nov. 13. The English legation is suppressed. Nov. 14. A reaction in favour of Francis II. com- mences in the proviuces. Nov. 27. Ihe army of Garibaldi is disbanded. Dec. 8. Francis II. addresses a conciliatory procla- mation to the Neapolitans. 1861. Jan. 3. Prince Carignan is named governor- general. Jan. 15. The Bourbon army, under General Lovera, defeats the Sar- dinians near Tagliacozzo. Feb. 14. Gaeta surrenders to General Cialdiui, and the king and queen retreat ttieuce to Kome. April 5. Fi-ancis II. protests from Rome against Vicr.or Emanuel's assumption of the title of " king of Italy." June. Nume- rous movements are made throughout the kingdom for the restoration of Fran- cis II. ETTLEBS OP KAPLE3 AND SICILT. ooxrtras of aptjlia. A.D. A.D. "William 1 1043 I Robert Guiscard . . 1054 Drogo 1046 Roger 1 1085 Huuuiey.. 1051 1 683 NAP COUNTS OF SICILY. Roger I. 1072 | Roger H. . KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. A.D. Roger II 1130 1 "William I 1154 William n 1166 | Tancred 1189 WiUiamin 1194 Henry 1194 | A.B. Frederick! 1197 Conrad 1 1250 Conrad IT., or Con- radin 1254 Manfred 1258 Charles of Anjou.. 1266 KINGS OF NAPLES. Charles of Anjon . . 1282 Alfonso I., king of A.B. Charles II 1285 Robert 1309 Joanna 1 1343 Charles III. of Du- razzo 1382 Ladislaus 138S Joanna II 1414 Naples, Sicily, and Aragon 1435 Ferdiuandl 1458 Alfonso II 1494 Ferdiuandll 1495 Frederick II 1496 KINGS OF SICILY. Peter I., the Great 1282 James 1 1285 Interregnum 1295 Frederick II 1296 Peter II 1337 Louis 1 1342 Frederick ni .... 1355 Mary 1377 Mary and Martin I. 1391 Martin I. 1402 A.D. Martin n.,theElder 1409 Ferdinand I., king of Aragon 1410 Alfonso I., king of Sicily, Aragon, and Naples 1416 John of Aragon . . 1458 Ferdinand IT., the CathoUc, of Spain 147^ KINGS NAPLES, SICILY, AND SPAIN. A.D. 1621 1665 1700 Ferdinand in. of j PhiTip III Naples, II. of Charles II SicUy 1503 1 Philip IV Charles 1 1516 Charles HI. of Au- PbUip 1 1556 stria PhilipII 1598 I KING OF NAPLES, Charles III I713 KING OF SICILY. Victor Amadeus of Savoy Charles III. (VI. of Germany) KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. Charles III. , Don Carlos Ferdinand PV. of Naples, III. of SicUy , A.D. 1735 1759 KINGSS OF NAPLES. A.D. Joseph Bonaparte. . 1806 | Joachim Murat. . . . KING OF SICILY. Ferdinand III. KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. A.D. Ferdinand I. (late IV.) 1815 Francis 1 1826 Ferdinand n 1830 Francis II. 1859 Victor Emanuel, king of Italy.... 1861 Naples (Italy) .—This city was founded by 686 NAP a colony of Cumasans, by whom it was termed Parthenopes, about B.C. 1030. About B.C. 416, its iuhabitants separated into two com- munities, who occupied different quarters of the city, distinguished as Palaeopobs, or the old town, and Neapolis, or the new town. From the latter designation is derived the modern title of the city. In consequence of the piracies of the Palseopo- litans, the Romans besieged and took the city B.C. 326, and from that period the name PalseopoHs disappears from history. Neapo- hs, on the contrary, was admitted to Roman protection, and became a dependency of the republic. Pyrrhus threatened the city B.C. 280, and it was sacked by the partisans of SyUa B.C. 82. The poet Virgil was buried here B.C. 19, and the city became a favourite summer watering-place of the wealthy Ro- mans. The emperor Nero made his first appearance as an actor at Naples, a.d. 64. Theodoric the Goth took the city in 493, and it was captured by Belisarius, after a long siege, iu 536. Totila retook it in 543, but it surrendered to Narses in 553, and was defi- nitely united to the Eastern empire. In 572 it became a duchy, and in 1139 was made the capital of the kingdom of Naples. Naples was taken by Manfred ia 1250, and by Louis of Hungary in 1347 ; it was retaken by John I. in 1348, Louis I. of Anjou seized it in 1383 ; Rend of Anjou in 1438 ; Alfonso of Aragon in 1442 ; and Charles VIII. of France in 1495. It was also taken by the French in 1501, and by the Spaniards in 1503. The French gene- ral Lautrec was compelled to raise the siege of Naples in 1528. In 1647 the city was the scene of MasanieUo's insurrection, and it was much injured by an earthquake Sept. 8, 1694. It was taken by the Austrian general Daun in 1707, submitted to Don Carlos in 1734, and was made the capital of the French Parthe- nopean repubhc in 1799. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of the emperor, made his entry into Naples in 1806, and resided here till he went to ascend the Spanish throne in 1808. Fer- dinand IV. re-entered the city as king in 1815. Naples was again the scene of insurrections in 1848. It was declared in a state of siege June 28, 1860. The king quitted Naples Sept. 6, and it was entered by Garibaldi the following day. Victor Emanuel made his official entry Nov. 7, but on the 14th popu- lar demonstrations were made in favour of the deposed king. Victor Emanuel re- turned to Turin Dec. 27. Among the most important public buildings at Naples are, the university, founded by the emperor Fre- derick II. in 1224 ; the cathedral, commenced in 1272, and completed in 1316 ; the Castel Nuovo, built by Charles I. in 1283 ; the Museo Borbonico, founded as cavalry barracks in 1586, and converted to its present purpose in 1790 ; the royal palace, begun in 1600, burnt down in 1837, and since rebuilt and greatly enlarged; the Teatro Reale di San Carlo, which was opened in 1737, and burnt and re- built in 1816. The railway to Nocena was opened in 1839. The bishopric of Naples is said to have been founded by Saint Asper- NAP nus, •who was consecrated by Saint Peter, A.D. 44. It became metropolitan in 966. Councils were held at Naples in 1565, 1568, and 1576. A treaty between Austria and the king of Naples was signed here Oct. 3, 1759 ; an alliance between Great Britain and Naples, July 12, 1793 ; another alliance between the same powers, Dec. 1, 1798 ; a convention between the French republic and the king of Naples, June 25, 1803 ; and an alliance between Austria and Murat, Jan. 11, 1814. Napoli-di-Komania (Greece), the ancient Naupha, founded by an Egyptian colony, was taken by the Argives in the 7th century B.C. It grew into importance during the crusades, and was taken by the Franks A.D. 1205, and made the capital of a duchy. The Venetians took it in the 14th century, and ceded it to the Turks in 1540. The Venetians regained possession in 1686, and it was stormed by the Turks July 4, 1715. The Greeks, who failed in an attempt to take it by escalade, Dec. 15, 1821, having been compelled to withdraw, returned and captured it, Dec. 12, 1823. The seat of government, transferred to Napoli-di-Eo- mania June 24, 1824, was removed to Argos in 1829. Capo d'Istrias was assassinated here Oct. 9, 1831. Narbonne (France), the ancient Narbo Martins, was the second colony founded by the Romans beyond the Alps, B.C. 118. Some of Csesar's tenth legion settled here, and it was then called Decumanorum Colonia. It fell into the hands of the Visigoths a.d. 462, who made it the capital of their king- dom ; and it was captured by the Saracens in 720, from whom it was taken by Pepin le Bref in 759 and annexed to the Prankish monarchy. In 1272 the cathedral, one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe, was founded. In 1310, 30,000 of its inhabitants perished by the plague. It was successfully defended by Aymeri III., viscount of Narbonne, against the attacks of the Black Prince in 1355, and it was annexed to the crown of France in the beginning of the 16th century. In the rehgious wars of this century, Narbonne sided with the League, but in 1596 submitted to Henry IV. Councils were held here Nov. 1, 589 ; June 27, 791; March 27, 947; in 990; March 17 and Aug. 8, 1043 ; in 1054 ; Oct. 1, 1055 ; March 19, 1091 ; in January, 1211 ; in 1227 ; in 1235 ; and in April, 1374. Narceia. — PeUetier produced this alkali from opixun, a.d. 1832. Narva (Russia). — This town, founded A.D. 1213, and sold to the Teutonic knights in 1346, was taken by the grand-duke Ivan Wassihewitsch in 1553. The Swedes re- captured it in 1581. Charles XII. of Sweden, with 8,000 men, attacked the in- trenched camp of the Russian army (which had been besieging Narva), and gained a complete victory, Nov. 30, 1700. No less than 18,000 Russians fell in the battle, and 30,000 surrendered themselves prisoners on the following day. The Swedes lost only 600 men. The town was taken by storm by NAT Peter the Great, Aug. 20, 1704, and it haa since remained in the hands of the Russians. Naseby, (Battle,) was fought at this vil- lage, near Market-Harborough, in North- amptonshire, June 14, 1645, between the royalists and the parliamentary army. The latter gained a complete victory, taking 500 officers and 4,000 men prisoners", with aU the king's artillery and ammunition. Nashville (North America), the capital of the state of Tennessee, contains a univer- sity, founded in 1806. Nashville, occupied by the Confederates in 1861, was captured by the Federalists in March, 1862. Nassau (Germany) derives its name from the castle of Nassau, built in the beginning of the 12th century. In 1255 Walram I. and Otho, the sons of Henry the Rich, shared the territory between them. The former became the founder of the present family of Nassau, and the descendants of Otho were the founders of the house of Orange-Nassau, of which Wilham III. of England was a member. In 1605 Lewis II. became pos- sessed of aU the lands belonging to the elder branch of the family. On his death in 1625, the family was divided into three branches, which, however, had been reunited into one when Napoleon I. founded the con- federation of the Rhine in 1806, and bestowed the title of duke upon Frederick William. Natal (Africa). — The Portuguese disco- vered this country a.d. 1498, and gave it the name of Natal, because they landed on Christmas-day. The native races were swept away by the Zulu Caflfres in 1810, and the English formed a settlement in 1824. They were joined by some Dutch boers, who left Cape Colony in 1836, and obtained by treaty some land from Dingaan, chief of the Zulu tribes. Several of the boers were mas- sacred by Dingaan in 1838. They removed to Port Natal, and renounced their alle- giance to Great Britain in 1839. A small British force was sent in 1842 from the Cape, which the boers permitted to land, but after- wards commenced hostilities. The British, maintained their position until the arrival of reinforcements, when the boers were defeated and driven out of the territory. It was recognized as a British colony in 1845, and was made a bishopric in 1853. National Anthem. — Much controversy has been excited respecting the authorship of " God save the King." For many years it was attributed to several persons, the gene- ral opinion being in favour of Dr. Bull. A writer in Notes and Queries (2nd series, vii. 64), who favours the claim of Anthony Young, organist of AU-HaUows, Barking, in the reign of James II., draws the following conclusions : — " 1. The tune, being in BuU's MSS., is of the time of James I. 2. That A. Yoimg united it to a " God save the King " in the time of James II. 3. That it slept until George II., 1745. 4. That Young's grand-daughter received a pension for its composition; and 5. That her grand-daugh- ter, in 1789, received £100, the proceeds thereof." Another view is, that both the 587 NAT NAT come to no accommodation with them, to whatever extremities the country might be reduced. National Associatioit foe the Pso- MOTiON OF Social Science, formed imder the auspices of Lord Brougham, first met at Birmingham Oct. 12 — 16, 1857. Its objects are, "To aid the development of the social sciences, and to guide the pubHc mind to the best practical means of promoting the amendment of the law, the advancement of education, the prevention and the re- pression of crime, the reformation of cri- minals, the establishment of due sanitary regulations, and the recognition of sound principles in aU questions of social eco- nomy." The annual meetings have been held at A.D. Liverpool Oct. 12, 1858 Bradford Oct. 10, 1859 Glasgow Sept.24, 1860 National Associations. — Inconsequence of the bull of Pius Y. against Queen Ehza- beth, April 25, 1570, absolving aU her subjects from allegiance to her, several Roman Catho- lic zealots beUeved that in taking her life they would perform a meritorious act. Her hfe was in constant danger, and a national association, formedin London about A.D. 1582, to protect Queen Elizabeth from assassina- tion, or to revenge her death, was legalized by 27 Eliz. c. 1 (158-1), entitled "An Act for provision to be made for the surety of the queen's most royal person, and the continu- ance of the realm in peace." After the dis- covery of the Assassination Plot (q.v.), a similar association was formed in London, r^b. 27, 1696. The subscribers bound them- selves to do their utmost to preserve the hfe of William III., or to avenge his death. Lord Keeper Somers removed from the commission of the peace aU magistrates who refused to sign it. The association was em- bodied by 7 &8 Will. III. c. 27 (1696), by which the signature of all persons holding civil or miUtary appointments was rendered imperative. A similar document was signed by the Irish parhament Dec. 2, 1697. National Convention (France), substituted for the National Legislative Assembly, met in one of the halls of the Tmleries, Sept. 21, 1792. Its sittings were afterwards transferred to the Riding School. Its first act was to declare royalty abolished, and to proclaim a repubhc. By another decree it was ordered that the old calendar should be abandoned, and that aU public acts should be dated from the first year of the Erench republic. This aera began Sept. 22, 1792. The convention sent Louis XVI. and his queen to the block, and having involved Europe in war, was dissolved Oct. 26, 1795. "The destruction of human life," says Alison, "which took place during its government, in civil dissension, was \mparalleled ; it amounted to above a iniUion of human beings. National Debt. — A few insignificant words and the music were composed by Dr. Henry Carey, in honour of a birthday of George II., and were performed on such an occasion at a dinner given by the Mer- cers' Company in London. Henry Carey was a natural son of the marquis of Hah- fax, and was born in 1696. He died Oct. 4, 1743. National Assemblies. — ^A national assembly which commenced its sittings at Berlin, May 22, 1848, after coming in coUi- sion with the crown, was dissolved by force, Nov. 13. The deputies continued to meet, and the assembly was finally dissolved by royal proclamation, Dec. .5. The old Ger- man Diet at Frankfort passed a resolution, March 30, 1848, sxmimoning a German national assembly, which met at Frankfort in April, 1848. Its sittings were removed to Stuttgardt, in Wiirtemberg, May 30, 1849, and the assembly was dissolved by the pohce Jime 16. National Assembly (France) . — This title was assumed June 17, 1789, by the States- feneral of France, which had assembled at ersailles May 5. The haU of the Assembly was closed by order of the king June 20, upon which the members adjourned to the Tennis- court Hall, and took an oath not to dissolve until they had prepared and voted a con- stitution. Admission to the Tennis-court having been afterwards refused to them, the members met at the church of St. Louis, June 22. Louis XVI. reopened the Assembly Jtme 23. The mob broke in Oct. 5, and both the king and the Assembly removed to Paris Oct. 6. The Assembly held its first meeting after the removal to Paris in the hall of the archbishop's palace, Oct. 19, 1789, from which place it was transferred to the Riding-school HaU in 1790. Mirabeau, one of the most celebrated leaders of the Assembly, was made president Feb. 1, 1791. It declared its sittings permanent July 17, 1791 ; but having entered into an agreement with the king, was dissolved Sept. 29, 1791. A new chamber, vmder the name of the National Legislative Assembly, met Oct. 1, 1791, and was dissolved in August, 1792. {See National Convention.) After the expulsion of Louis PhUippe, the provisional government issued a decree summoning a national assembly for AprU 20, 1848. By a subsequent decree the elections were fixed for AprU 23, and the meeting was postponed tiU May 4. The Government decided in favour of a presidency, and a single chamber consisting of 750 members, both to be elected by uni- versal suffrage. A motion for its dissolu- tion. May 19, 1849, was carried Feb. 14, 1850, and the new elections were fixed for May 4. The new assembly met May 28, and was dissolved Dec. 2, 1851, by Louis Napoleon, who introduced a new constitution. National Association (France) was formed at Paris, by the extreme demo- cratical party, in 1831. The members bound themselves, on their hfe and honour, to combat the stranger and the Bourbons by aU peeimiary and personal sacrifices, and to long annuities created by Charles II. are too unimportant to be regarded as forming part of the EngHsh national debt, which was commenced by William III. in 1692. The following table exhibits its most important fluctuations. A.D. Principal. Interest. 1689. At the Revolution . . £664,263 £39,855 1702. Queen Anne's Acces- 1 jg^gg^j^Qa 1,310,942 1714. Accession of George i. 54,145,363 3,351,353 1727. Accession of George II. 52,092,238 2,217,551 1763. Peace of Paris 138,865,430 4,852,051 1775. Commencement of 1 ,„o ^j,„ -oi^ 4471^71 American war .... / 128,583,635 4,471,571 1784. Conclusion of Ame- Ig^ggg^g^g 9500,907 rican war J ' ' ' ' 1793. Commencement of 1 339 ggQ j^g 9 g^^ggO 1817. Conclusion of French j84o,ggo,491 32,015,941 1859. March 31. ' Total debt | gog 078.554 28,612,207 and charge j ' ' ' (See Aids, Benevolbnces, and Funds.) NatiottaIi Gali-ekt (London). — In the year 1823 Sir George Beaumont expressed his wilUngness to present his collection of paint- ings to the nation, so soon as the formation of a national gallery should be decided upon. This led to the purchase of the Angerstein collection in April, 1824, by the goTernment for £57,000. It was opened in PaU Mali, May 10, 1824, and the Beaumont pictures were added in 1825. The Eev. W. Howell Carr bequeathed his coUectiou of pictures to the National Gallery in 1831 ; Mr. Robert Vernon presented his in 1847 ; Turner be- queathed some pictures in 1851, and Mr. Sheepshanks presented his valuable collection in 1857. A select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the National Gallery in 1854, and the in- stitution was reconstituted by a Treasury minute dated March 27, 1855. The build- ing in Trafalgar Square, commenced in 1833, was completed and opened to the public in 1838. National Guaed (France), a kind of citizen miMtia, was first formed in Paris by the Committee of Pubhc Safety in July, 1789. This force became so popular that ia 1790 it was generally established throughout the kingdom, and was reorganized in 1795. The command was offered, in 1796, to Napoleon Bonaparte and refused by him. It was reorganized in 1805, 1813, and 1814; was disbanded by Charles X. April 13, 1827, and was re-estabhshed by the constitution of 1830. The defection of the National Guard from Louis PhUippe in 1848 was one of the principal causes of his overthrow. The National Guard throughout France was reconstructed by a decree dated Jan. 11, 1851. Nationai Life-Boat Association was founded a.d. 1824, for the establishment of life-boats and rocket -mortars at aU the dan- gerous parts of the coast. . National Political Union (London). — This pohtical association, formed for the purpose of giving unity to the proceedings NAT of the various political unions throughout the country, held its first meeting in Lin- coln' s-Inn Fields, under the presidency of Sir Francis Burdett, Oct. 31, 1831. A reso- lution to resist the payment of taxes until the reform biU was made the law of the land was passed May 9, 1832. National Portrait Gallert (London) was estabhshed by a warrant of the Treasury Dec. 2, 1856, when a board consisting of thirteen trustees was appointed. The first meeting was held Feb. 9, 1857, and by a Treasury warrant dated Feb. 28 in that year, George Scharf, F.S.A., was appointed secre- tary and keeper. Temporary apartments were taken at 29, Great George Street, West- minster, and the collection was opened to the pubhc, by tickets only, Jan. 15, 1859. The use of tickets was dispensed with Feb. 25, 1860. The number of visitors were a.d. 1859 5,305 leen/With tickets 228 •i«t)U I Without tickets 6,164 1861 10,907 Nativitt. — There are three ecclesiastical festivals so called. The first is to comme- morate the birth of the Saviour (see Christ- mas) ; the second in order of, appointment is the nativity of St. John the Baptist, which was instituted a.d. 488, and is cele- brated June 24 ; and the third is the nativity of the Virgin Mary, which is ob- served by the Roman Catholic church Sept. 8, and was appointed by Pope Sergius I. (687—701). Natural History. — " Solomon," says the sacred narrative, " spake of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that spriugeth out of the wall : he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes" (1 Kings iv. 33), B.C. 1000. The subject was treated of by Aristotle (b.c. 384^-322), Theophrastus (b.c. 394—287), Dioscorides (a.d. 40—70)), and by Phny (a.d. 24—79) . Otto Brunfels of Stras- burgpubhshed a work on botany a.d. 1530 ; and a professorship thereof was founded at Padua in 1533. Turner, an Englishman, who became dean of Wells, pubMshed at Cologne a work on birds a.d. 1548. The first part of Gesner's important work, "The History of Animals," appeared in 1551 ; a history of fishes was published by Salviani in 1558 ; Ray's work on ornithology came out in 1676 ; Robert Morisou of Aberdeen, who is styled by Hallam " the founder of classification," published his "Historia Plantarum Universahs " in 1672 ; and Tournefort his " Elemens de la Botanique " in 1694. Grew, who discovered the sexual system in plants, pubhshed his physiological theory in 1682. Naturalization. — Children born abroad were, under certain restrictions, entitled to inherit as if born in England, by25Edw. III. St. 1 (1351) . This statute was renewed by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1541) . The laws relatmg to ahena were amended by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66 NAT (Aug. 6, 1844) . The law for naturalization in a British colony is regulated by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 83 (July 22, 1847). . Natuee-Peinting, an invention for ob- taining an exact reproduction of natural objects, so that numerous impressions may be taken, was perfected in the imperial printing - oflBce iu Vienna, by Andrew Worsing, about 1852. KniphoflF, of Erfurt, produced something of the kiud in a crude Form in 1761, and Kyhl, of Copenhagen, in 1833. The process was introduced into England by Henry Bradbury iu 1856. Naitmbtjeg- (Prussia).— The Hussites besieged this old town a.d. 1482, but retired without securing its capture. A treaty was concluded here iu 1554, between Augustus, elector of Saxony, and John Frederick, the deposed elector. It played an important part during the Thirty Years' War, and was taken by the French in 1806. Napoleon I. advanced to this town April 29, 1813. The cathedral was completed in 1249. Naupactus (Greece). — The Athenians settled the Messenians at this town B.C. 455, but they were expelled B.C. 405 by the Lo- crians, who retained possession. It frequently changed owners, and having been given by Phihp to the ^^tbhans, was by them de- fended against the Eomans for two months, B.C. 191. The modern Lepanto (q.v.) occu- pies its site, I^AUvoo (North America) . — This town, in Illinois, was founded by the Mormons a.d. 1840. Their temple was destroyed in 1848, when the Mormons were expelled, and sought refuge in Utah. Naval ■ Asxitjm (London) . — The Eoyal Naval Asylum, instituted in 1801, was re- moved to Greenwich, and incorporated with the hospital iu 1821. Naval Battles. {See Sea-Fights in Index.) Navaeino (Greece) takes its name from a fortress built in the Middle Ages, and called Paleo-Avarino, which stood on the ruins of a fort built by the Athenians on the site of the ancient Pylus, B.C. 424. The name Ava- rino is derived from the Avars, who settled here iu the 6th century of the Christian sera. The modern town, Navarino, called by the Greeks Neokastoro, or Neocastro, is built at a short distance from the ruins of the old fort, now called Old Navarino. The Turks took Navarino a.d. 1500 ; it was wrested from them by the Venetians in 1686, and it was re- taken by the Turks iu 1718. The Turkish garrison capitulated to the Greeks Aug. 9, 1821. The Tui-ks recaptured the place after a short siege. May IS, 1825, and evacuated it after the battle of Navarino {q. v.), by a con- vention signed Sept. 7,1828. The "French troops, which were sent to the assistance of the Greeks, and entered Navarino Oct. 6, 1828, withdrew from the fortresses of Navarino, Modon, and Cronon, in July, 1833. Navaeih-o, (Sea-fight,) a combined British, French, and Eussian iieet, engaged and com- pletely defeated the Tiu'kish and Egyptian 590 NAV ' squadrons, under Ibrahim Pasha, in the Bay of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. The forts on the coast took part in the engagement, and in- flicted much damage on several vessels be- longing to the alhed fleet. The action, fought ! to secure the independence of Greece, re- F suited in the annihilation of the naval power ! of Turkey. It lasted four hours, and the scene of wreck and devastation which pre- sented itself at its termination was such as ! has rarely been witnessed. Of the Turkish fleet, which at the commencement of the action consisted of seventy sail, no less than sixty-two were burnt, sunk, or driven on shore complete wrecks ; and from a state- ment of the Turkish admiral, it appears that on board of two hne-of-battle ships, each having a crew of 850 men, 650 were kiUed in one ship, and 400 in the other. Navaeee (France), called Lower or French Navarre, was a portion of the Spanish kingdom of Navarre assigned to John d'Albret a.d. 1515, on the extinction of the old kingdom of Navarre. Henry (afterwards Henry IV. of France) became king of Navarre, June 10, 1572, and on his accession to the French throne, July 31, 1589, Navarre was annexed to France. The formal incorporation took place in 1620. Navaeee (Spain). — This part of Spain, called by Prescott " the little kingdom of Navarre, embosomed within the Pyrenees," was inhabited at an early period by the Vascones, who were expelled by the Eo- mans. It was seized by the Visigoths a.d. 470, invaded by the Saracens early in the 8th century, and fell under the sway of Charle- magne in 778. It became an independent state in 858. Ferdinand conquered it in 1512. The estates of Navarre took the solemn oath of allegiance to him March 23, 1513, and it was incorporated with Castile by a solemn act in the cortes of Burgos, June 15, 1515. The French, who invaded it in 1516, were defeated March 25, and Cardinal Ximenes ordered the principal fortresses to be destroyed. Francis I., of France, in- vaded Navarre in 1521. His army having sustained a severe defeat at Esquiros, Jime 30, 1521, was compelled to retii'e. SOVEEEIGKS OP NAVAEEE. A.D. A.D. 885 Jeanne 1 1274 891 Louis of France . . ia05 925 John of France .. It oie 970 Philip of France . . J '^''^^ 1035 Charles I. of France 1322 1054 Jeanne II. and Philip of Evreux 1328 1076 Charles II 1349 1094 Charles ni 1387 1104 Blanche and John 1134 of Aragon 1425 11.50 Francis Phoebus .. 1479 1194 Cathei-ine 1483 1234 Fe)dtaand of Ai-a- 1253 gon 1512 1270 Garcia I Sancho I Garcia II Sancho II Garcia III Sancho III Sancho IV. of Ai-a- gon Pedio 1. ditto .... Alfonso I. ditto . . Garcia IV Sancho V Sancho VI Thibault I Thibaultll Henry Navtgatiok.— The earliest intimation of this art is in connection with the Deluge, NAV when God commanded Noah to build the ark (Gen. -vi. 14), B.C. 2468; which was completed, and received the patriarch and his family, with all its other inmates, B.C. 2348. In the early period of their history the Egyptians carried on maritime traffic with India, Sesostris being represented as the first who sailed in "long ships," B.C. 1416 — 1353 ; although the ships of the Phoeni- cians had yisited the i^x-incipal parts of the known world b.c. 1800. The famous expe- dition of the Argonauts indicates the state of this art among the Greeks at that time, B.C. 1263. In their wars with the CarthaJ ginians, thefKomans found it necessary to supply themselves with a navy, b.c 260. Venice began to assume importance on the seas about a.d. 600; and the Genoese about A.D. 1000. In modern times the art has attained a high degree of perfection by the aid of logaiithms, invented a.d. 1614, and the quadrant, in 1731. Navigation" Laws. — Foreign ships were prohibited from fishing and trading on the British coasts by 5 Eliz. c. 5 (1562). The Act of Navigation of the republican parlia- ment, passed Oct. 9, 1651, prohibited all im- portation into the British territories, except in ships owned and manned by English sub- jects, and these restrictions were confirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18 (1660), which is some- times styled the Charta Maritima. Several acts of similar import were afterwards passed, which were consolidated and amended by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 54 (Aug. 28, 1833). Most of these restrictions were repealed by the act to amend the laws in force for the encouragement of Sritish shipping and navigation, 12 & 13 Vict. c. 29 (June 26, 1849), which came into operation Jan. 1, 1850, Steam navigation is regulated by 14 & 15 Vict, c, 79 (Aug. 7, 1851), which took eflfect Jan. 1, 1852. Further provisions were made by the Merchant Shipping Law Amendment Act, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 131 (Aug. 20, 1853). Foreign ships were admitted to the coasting trade by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 5 (March 23, 1854). Natigatob's Islands ( Pacific ), also called the Samoan Islands, a group consist- ing of three larger and five smaller islands, were visited by missionaries from Otaheite in 1830. Natty. — A writer in Notes and Queries (xi. p. 424) asserts that this term, as apphed to a railway labourer, is a corruption of the word navigator, the name by which men employed in constructing navigable canals w^ere designated. Navvy took the place of the more appropriate term, excavator. Towards the end of 1854, a number of navvies were sent to the Crimea to construct a line of rail\va,y between Sebastopol and Bala- clava, which place they reached in February, 1855. Natt (English). — The ancient Britons made use of boats rudely formed of wicker- work, and covered with skins. It was not, however, until the reign of Alfred that a fleet was constructed. NAV 53. The use of boats of varioua sizes, for -vrarlike as well as for commercial purposes, is com- mon amongst the early Britoug at this time. A.D. 897. Alfred the Great cansesi a fleet of "long ships" to be built to resist the Danes. 964. Edgar, in a charter of doubtful authenticity, asserts his authority over the oceau lying round Britain. 973. Edgar, with all his marine force, makes a triumphal procession on the river Dee, his own barge being rowed by eight tribu- tary kings. 978 to 1016. The laws of Ethelred order ships of war to be prepared annually after Easter. 1008. Ethelred orders ships to be built throughout the kingdom, and prepares a large fleet. 1012. Ethelred hires forty-five ships from the Danes, and levies the "heregeid" to defray the expense of his navy. 1052. Edward the Confessor abolishes the heregeid, "wherewith the people were manifoldly distressed." 1066. Harold II. assembles a large fleet at Sand- wich. Sept. 8. He is compelled to dismiss it for want of provisions. Sept. 27. The fleet with which "William the Conqueror embarks for England is variously estimated. Thierry states that it niimbered 400 ships and more than 1,000 transport boats. Other writers mention diflerent numbers, ranging from 696 to 3,000 vessels. 1171. Henry assembles a large fleet to convey his army to Ireland, and lands at "Waterford Oct. 18. 1181. Henry II. prohibits the sale of British ships to foreigners. 1189. Kichard I.'s fleet for the invasion of Palestine numbered 100 ships and 14 busses ; viz., "vessels of great capacity, very strongly and compactly built." Sir Harris Nicolas states that the reign of Richard I. forms the first great epoch in the naval history of England. 1191. Richard I.'s fleet is scattered by storms in the Mediterranean. 1200. King John is stated, on doubtful authority, to demand that all ships whatever should lower their sails, as a token of respect, when they met his fleet at sea. 1294. Edward I. divides the navy into three squad- rons, stationed at Yarmouth , Portsmouth, and in Ireland and the "West. 1303 to 1307. A document which asserts the right of England to the sovereignty of the narrow seas was signed some time between these years. 1320. Oct. A treaty is concluded with the Flemings, in which they admit the English sovereignty of the narrow seas. 1340. June 24. Edward III. defeats the French fleet at Sluys. 1346. July 11. The fleet in which Edward III. in- vades France is estimated at from 1,000 to 1,600 vessels ; but this is regarded as an exaggeration. 1373. Jan. 8. Edward III. hires galleys and seamen from the Genoese. 1413. Henry V. causes larger ships to be built than were before known, and throughout his reign evinces a great desire for the improve- ment of the navy. 141-5. Aug. 10. Henry embarks for France with a fleet of 1,500 ships. 1488. Henry VII. builds the Great Harry, the first ship of the royal navy. 1500. The king's ships form a distinct class, ex- clusively devoted to warlike purposes, about this year. 1512. Henry VIII. establishes the Trinity House for the encouragement of navigation. 1515. Henry VIII. builds the Henry- Grace-i\-Dieu. 1546. The royal navy consists of 58 ships, amounting to 12,455 tons, with 8,546 sailoi-s. 591 NAX 1563. The Great Barry is burnt at Woolwich. English merchants fit ont ships for voyages of ciiseovery and trade. 1588. The English navy defeats the Spanish armada (q. v.). 1603. The English navy consists of 42 ships, 17,055 tons, -with 8,346 sailors. 1626. The navy is divided into rates. 1637. The Sovereiffn of the Seas is launched. 1649. The Constant - Warwick, the first British frigate, is built. 1674. Feb. 9. The Dutch yield the honour of the flag to the English navy. 1688. The English navy consists of 173 ships, of 101,892 tons, with 42,003 sailors. 1703. Nov. 26 to Dec. 1. The great storm rages, in which 12 ships belonging to the royal navy, with 1,500 men, were lost. 1714. The jurisdiction of the comptroller and com- missioners of the navy is defined by 1 Geo. I. St. 2, c. 25. 1747. A naval uniform is established. 1749. The Articles of War are established by 22 Geo. IT. c. 33. 1822. The Comet, the first steamer constructed for the loyal navy, is built. 1840. The Swarf screw steamer is employed in the service of the Admiralty. 1845. Screw steam ships of war are introduced into the navy. 1853. Aug. 15. The Admii-alty are empowered to raise a body of naval coast volunteers, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73. 1854. March 10. The Queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead. 1856. April 23. A naval review of unprecedented magnitude takes place at Spithead before the Queen and the members of both houses of parliament. 1859. Aug. 13. A reserve volunteer force of seamen is established by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 40. Naxos, or Naxia (Areliii)elago), one of the largest of the Cyclades, is said to have received its name from Naxos, who planted a colony of Carians in the island. The Per- sians having assailed it without success B.C. 501, conquered it B.C. 490. The Athe- nians reduced the inhabitants to subjection B.C. 471. Marco Sanudo, a Venetian, took possession of Naxos, and founded a state called the duchy of the j3Egean Sea, a.d. 1207. It lasted 360 years, and was overthrown by the Turks in 1566. Naxos now forms part of the modern kingdom of Greece. It was made the seat of a bishop in the 5th century, and its first bishop, Barachus, was present at the council of Chalcedon in 451. Naxos, or Naxus (SicUy).— This, the most ancient of the Greek colonies in Sicily, was founded b.c. 735, and is said to have been thus named because among its first settlers were some people from the island of Naxos. Hippocrates of Gela conquered it about B.C. 495, and it was subject to Hieron of Syracuse B.C. 476. Dionysius of Syracuse seized it B.C. 403, sold the inhabitants to slavery, and destroyed the city. (See Ta.v- eombhium:.) Nazaeenes. — This term was applied to the Jewish Christians as a term of reproach (Acts xxiv. 5), A.D. 56, and also to the early Jewish Christians, who maintained that they were bound to observe the Mosaic law. The Nazarenes afterwards held peculiar notions on the divinity of Christ, and are mentioned as heretics byEpiphanius in the 4th century. NEa These heretics are said to have sprung up in the 2nd century. Some authorities contend that the Christians recognized this name tiU the heresy of the Nazarenes broke out, and that in consequence they adopted the appel- lation of Christians (Acts xi. 26), a.d. 41. Of course these writers affix a much earher date than that usually accepted for the origin of the heresy. Nazareth (Galilee). — From this city, where the Saviour passed the commence- ment and the greater portion of his human existence, His followers were called Naza- renes. Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., wrested this town from the Saracens in May, 1271, during the last crusade. Neapolis. {See Naples.) Neapolis (Palestine), the ancient Sichem, or Shechem {q.v.), the modem Nabloos, or JSTabulus, received the name of Neapohs when restored by Vespasian about a.d. 69. Nebraska (North America) formed part of Louisiana when purchased by the United States government a.d. 1803, and was sepa- rated from Kansas and made a distinct territory by act of congress in 1854. Nebulab Hypothesis. — The theory that nebulae are planetary or solar bodies in course of formation, and hence that the universe was derived from nebulae, was originated by Sir William Herschel, who read a paper on the subject to the Eoyal Society June 20, 1811. Nectarine. — This fruit-tree was intro- duced into England from Persia about a.d. 1562. Needles, though introduced into England from Germany, were at first called Spanish needles, from the fact that the manufacture originated in Spaiu. Needles were first made in England about 1565 ; and the art having declined, was re-introduced in 1650. Neemtjch (Hindostan). — The native offi- cers at this town swore on the Koran and on Ganges water that they would be true to their salt, June 2, 1857 ; but on the 3rd they violated their oath, joined in the mutiny, and massacred several of the Europeans. The rebels expelled the Europeans, and obtained entire possession of the town, June 10. Neerwikden, or Neewii^den (Battle). — The Imperialists, commanded by the arch- duke Charles, defeated the French repub- licans, under Dumouriez, at this village, near Tirlemont, March 18, 1793. {See Landem".) Ne&apatam (Hindostan) was a small vil- lage until fortified by the Portuguese colo- nists. The Dutch captured it in 1660, under whose rule it became a place of importance. They improved the fortifications, and made' Negapatam the capital of their colonies on the coast of Coromandel. The Enghsh took it after a siege of four weeks' duration, Nov. 12, 1781 ; and it was ceded to them by the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. Negapatam (Sea-fights). — Admiral Po- coek, with seven ships of the fine, defeated a French fleet ofi" this port, April 28, 1758. The English vessels received considerable damage, but their opponents fled. Another naval action between De Suffren with a French, and Sir Edward Hughes with an EngHsh, fleet, took place off this port, July 6, 1782. The former lost 168 killed and 601 wounded, and the latter 77 killed and 233 wounded, and the French fleet escaped. Negkais (Bay of Bengal). — The English formed a settlement on this island a.d. 1687, but it was soon after abandoned. It was oc- cupied by an Enghsh force in 1751, and was ceded in 1757 by the Burmese, who attacked it and slaughtered aUthe inhabitants in 1759. The Enghsh captured it during the Burmese war in 1824, and it was ceded to the East- India Company by the fourth article of the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. Negkopont (JUgean Sea), the ancient Chalcis iq.v.), in the island of Euboea, also called Negropont, fell under the rule of the Venetians a.d. 1204, and was wrested from them by the Turks a.d. 1470. The Vene- tians failed in an attempt to regain possession in 1688. Dui-ingthe insurrectionary war, the pasha was besieged in the fortress, which was reheved by the Turkish fleet March 17, 1823. A reinforcement of 3,000 men enabled the Turks to resume the offensive in June, 1824. ISTegus. — This beverage, consisting of wine mixed with water, was named after Colonel Francis Negus, commissioner for executing the office of master of the horse duriug the reign of George I. During a quarrel, in which high words were used between some Whigs and Tories, he recommended them to dilute their wine as he did, and from this circumstance wine and water was nicknamed negus. Neilgebries (Hindostan) . — This range of mountain territory, in the presidency of Ma- dras, remarkable for its salubrity, came into the possession of the Enghsh a.d. 1799. Ootakamund, the first sanitary station on the northern mountains, was founded in 1822. Neisjje (Prussia) is* said to have been built A.D. 966, but was not fortified before 1594. Frederick II. took it in December, 1741, and he laid the first stone of Fort Preussen in 1743. The Austrians besieged it without success in 1758. The episcopal palace is an ancient building, and here in 1769 a celebrated meeting took place be- tween Frederick II. and the emperor Joseph II. The French under Vandamme laid siege to Neisse J' an. 17, 1806. General Kleist, with 4,000 men, attempted to reheve it during the night, April 20, 1807, but was defeated by the arrival of Jerome Bonaparte with a powerful reinforcement. It capi- tulated June 6, 1807, when this large fortress, with 320 pieces of cannon and 5,000 men, fell into the hands of the French. The hbrary, contahiing 10,000 volumes, was burnt in the siege of 1807. Nelson (New Zealand) was settled a.d. 1843. Extensive coal-fields were discovered in 1852, and gold was found in the vicinity in 1856. Nemean Games were celebrated at Nemea (whence their name), a village in Argohs. According to the legend, they were insti- 593 NEP tuted in memory of OpheUes, or Archc- morus, who was killed by a dragon while Hypsipyle, his nurse, was gone to show the seven champions, on their way to attack Thebes, the nearest well. They were first celebrated B.C. 1230, and are said to have been revived by Hercules b.c. 1226. Philip of Macedonia was made president of the Nemean games by the Ai'gives B.C. 208. Having fallen into neglect, they were re- stored by the emperor Juhan a.d. 362, and were solemnized for the last time in the reign of Hadrian, about 396. Nemours (France).— The old castle, for- merly the seat of the dukes of Nemours, contains a library of 10,000 volumes. An edict issued here by Henry III. of France, in 1585, revoked all concessions made to the Huguenots. The title of duke was first borne by the Armagnac family, descended from Caribert, son of Clotaire II., who died A.D. 630. Louis, the last duke of that family, was killed at the battle of Cerignola, in Apuha, April 28, 1503. Gaston de Foix was made the next duke by Louis XII., and he was kfiled at the battle of Ravenna, in 1512. The title was given to Philip of Savoy by Francis I. in 1528, and continued in his fine until 1659. It is borne by the second son of the late Louis Philippe. NEO-PiiATONisTS. — TMs name is given to the philosophers of the school of Alexandria who endeavoured to combine the doctrines of Plato and Christianity into one system. The sect was founded by Ammonius Sacca, who died a.d. 243, and numbered Plotinus, who flourished in 254, and Porphyry, who died about 305, among its most distinguished members. Nepaul (Hindostan) is said to have been conquered a.d. 13^:3 by Hurr Singh, prince of Oude. The Ghoorkas completed the conquest of Nepaul in 1768. A treaty of commerce was concluded i)etween the Bri- tish government and Nepaul, March 1, 1792, and by the treaty of Dinapoor, concluded Oct. 1801, political relations were es'ablished between the two governments. This aUiance was dissolved in 1894, and, until 1812, little intercourse took place. The repeated re- monstrances of the British against border invasions were neglected, and, Nov. 1, 1814, war was declared. It was carried on with great vigour, and the Nepaulese, after nume- rous defeats, were obhged to sue for peace. The treaty of Segoulee was signed Dec. 2, 1815. The signature of the rajah having been withheld, the British again took the field, and the Nepaulese, after having sus- tained several severe defeats, sued for peace, and the unsigned treaty of 1815 was duly ratified, March 4, 1816. Jung Bahadoor sent a contingent of Ghoorka troops to the aid of the British during the mutiny of 1857. Nepblalia.— Festivals celebrated in Greece in honour of various deities were so called because no wane was used during the fes- tivities. They were instituted at Athens B.C. 613, Nepshalites, Ephthaliies, or "White 2q KEP HxTirs, a branch of the nation of the Huns, from whom the present Turcomans are probably descended, emigrated to the east- ern shores of the Caspian Sea, after their conquest by the Sienpi Tartars, a.d. 100. Having extended their conquests from that point to the centre of India, an expedition was undertaken against them by Firouz, king of Persia, who encountered the cavalry of the Huns supported by a line of 2,000 elephants, and lost both his army and his life, a.d. 488. They were subdued by the Turks about A.D. 545. ]N"eptune. — The planet Uranus, discovered by the elder Herschel a.d. 1781, had deviated j so much from its primary position, that in i 1S30 the longitudinal error amounted to half : a minute of space. This deviation could only be accounted for by the disturbing action of an undiscovered planet, which was discovered and called Neptune by Mr. Adams, of St. John's College, Cambridge, Oct. 1, 1845. About the same time M. le Verrier, the famous French astronomer, made a similar discovery. Nekchinsk, or Nipchoo, (Treaty,) was concluded between Russia and China, set- tling the boundaries of these respective empires, Oct. 21, 1721. It provided for a Russian resident at Pekin, and permitted 200 merchants to trade in China once in three years. In consequence of Catherine's death, it was not ratified until June 14, 1728. Neeesheim (Battle) . — Anindecisive action was fought at this place, in Germany, between | the French, commanded by Moreau, and the Austrians, led by the archduke Charles, Aug. 10, 1796. Neki. {See Biajtchi.) Nervii. — This people of Belgiea are first mentioned by Ctesar B.C. 57, when he de- feated them in a great battle on the banks of the river Sambre. They rose again in arms B.C. 54, when they joined the Eburones ' in an unsuccessful attack upon the camp of ! Quintus Cicero. They were finally subdued by the Romans B.C. 53. At a meeting of the ' G-aUic states, B.C. 52, the Nervii sent 5,000 j men as their contingent to the rehef of Alesia. Nesbit Mooee, (Battle,) was fought | May 7, 1402, between the Scotch, under I Sir P. Hepburn, of Hailes, and the Enghsh, \ under the earls of Percy and March. The Scotch were defeated, their leader and most of his knights were slain, and the rest taken prisoners. IN'estoeians. — This heretical sect at first consisted of the followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople (a.d. 428 — 431), who taught that the Virgin should not be worshipped as the mother of God, and that the divine and human natures were not so united in Christ as to form but one person. His views were condemned, and he himself deposed, by the council of Ephesus (the third general council) in 431 ; and after leading the hfe of an exile in Arabia, he died in Egypt about 439. Barsumas, bishop 594 NEU of Nisibis, estabhshed the doctrines in Persia in 440, and founded the school of Nisibis, which subsequently carried Nes- torianism into Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary, and China. Babacus, arch- bishop of Seleucia, held a council in 499, at which the whole Persian church professed lyTestorian views, and made regulations pro- hibiting celibacy in the priesthood. A separate patriarchate, which was established about the same time at Seleucia, was trans- ferred to Bagdad in 752, and afterwards to Mosul. When the Portuguese, under Yasco de Gama, arrived on the Malabar coast in 1498, they found upwards of 100 churches belonging to the Nestorian Christians. The inquisition was established at Goa to repress the heresy, and in 1807 the churches had dwindled to fifty-five. The IS'estorians reject image-worship, and regard the Scriptures as the only source whence true doctrine is to be derived. Netheelands, or Low Coxjnteies. — ]J^ames often applied to the territories of which Holland (q. v.) and the modern king- dom of Belgium (q. v.) are composed. Neubueg (Bavaria). — The French seized this town, in the circle of Swabia, a.d. 1702. They abandoned it on the approach of Marl- borough, July 7, 1704. Netjchatel, or Neufchatel (Switzer- land), was a fief of the old kingdom of Bur- gundy, and had its line of counts tiU a.d. 1288. It was admitted into the Swiss con- federation in 1398, and the county of Yalendis having been joined to it in 1579, the counts changed their title to that of Prince of Neu- chatel. On the death of William III. of England, on whom the title had devolved, it passed to his nephew, Frederick I. of Prus- sia, in 1702. Is^apoleon I. compelled the king of Prussia to surrender it in 1806, and gave it to General Berthier ; but it was restored to Prussia in 1814. A repubhcau government was established in 1843, since which time the king of Prussia's authority has been but nomi- nal. An attempt was made, Sept. 2, 1856, to re-establish the authority of the king of Prussia. It proved unsuccessful, and compli- cations having arisen, the great powers at last mediated between the contending parties in a conference assembled at Paris March 25, 1857, and a treaty was signed at Paris May 26, by which the king of Prussia resigned his sovereignty, retaining only the title of Prince of IVeuehatel. Neuhausel (Hungary). — This fortress, taken by the Turks a.d. 1663, was wrested from them by the duke of Lorraine in 1685. Neusteia (France). — On the death of Clovis at Paris, Nov. 27, 511, his kingdom was divided, when Soissons and its teiTitory, afterwards called Neustria, or West France, was allotted to his son Clotaire I., who reigned from 511 to 561. SOVEEEIGIfS OE S-ETJSTEIA. A.D. A.D. Chilperic 1 5151 I Clovis II 638 Clotaire II 584 Clot.iire IH 656 DagobertI (523 Thierry III 670 NEU Clovis III 691 Childebert IIL .... 69-5 Dagobert III 711 ChilpeiicII 715 Thierry IV 720 ChUpericIII 742 Pepin 752 Caiioman 768 Carloman died Dec. 3, 771, and his brotlier Charlemagne became sole king of France. Louis I., in 837, allotted Neustria to his youngest son, Charles the Bald, who in 840 became king of France, and the first of the Carlovingian hne. Neutrality Laws. — The plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Eussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled in Paris, in order to establish a uniform system respecting the relations between belli- gerents and neutrals, agreed to the fol- lowing points : — The abolition of priva- teering ; the right of a neutral flag to carry enemy's goods, unless contraband of war; the freedom of neutral goods, not being contraband of war, from capture when under an enemy's flag; and that blockades, to be binding, must be eflFective. The decla- ration embodying these resolutions was signed at Paris, April 16, 1856. {See Armed Neu- trality.) Neva (Battle). — ^Alexander I. of Russia defeated the Swedes and the Danes on the banks of the Neva a.d. 1241, and took the surname of Newski in commemoration of the event. Neva (Russia) . — Inundations of the Neva occurred in 1728, 1729, 1735, 1740, 1742, and 1777 ; but the most extensive and disastrous happened Nov. 19, 1824, when the river rose to the first story of the houses in St. Peters- burg. Carriages and horses were swept away, and a regiment of carbineers, who had climbed to the roofs of their barracks, were drowned. At Cronstadt a 100-gun ship of the hne was left in the middle of the market- place, more than 10,000 hves were lost, and property to the amount of many millions was destroyed by this terrible calamity. Nevaheud, (Battle,) called by the Arabs "the victory of victories," because it sub- jected the Persians to their sway, was fought A.D. 640, and Persia became a Saracen province. Neville's Cross, (Battle,) was fought at this place, near Durham, between the Scotch, under David II., and the Enghsh, under Philippa, queen of Edward III., and her general Lord Percy, Oct 12, 1346. The Scotch were defeated with the loss of 15,000 men Mlled. Their king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, where he remained in captivity eleven years. Nevis (Atlantic Ocean) , one of the Lee- ward Islands, discovered by Columbus, and named after the mountain Nieves, in Spain, was first colonized by the English a.d. 1628. It was taken by the French Feb. 14, 1782, and restored by the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. It rose to great importance ; but since the emancipation of the slaves, Aug. 1, 1834, has declined. ,The Wesleyaus founded a mission here in 1789. New Albany (North America). — This 595 NEW city, on the Ohio, in Indiana, was founded A.D. 1813. New Amsterdam (Berbice).— This town was commenced by the Dutch a.d. 1796. Newark (Nottinghamshire).— The castle of Newark was built a.d. 1125 by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, who, having rebelled against King Stephen in 1139, was taken and sent prisoner to bis own castle. Here King John died, Oct. 19, 1216, and Cardinal Wolsey was a guest after his fall in 1530. Edward YI. granted its first charter of in- corporation, which was extended by Charles II. Newark was given up to the Scotch army May 8, 1646. In 1775 the wooden bridge over the Trent was replaced by one of brick. New Britain (Pacific Ocean). — William Dampier discovered this island, separated from New Guinea by a narrow strait, Feb. 27, 1700. New Brunswick (North America), ori- ginally formed a part of Nova Scotia, at that time caUed Acadia, or New France. The first attempt to colonize it was made a.d. 1639, and a number of French emigrants settled in the country in 1672. It was ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713. In 1764 the first British colonists landed, and in 1785 the country was separated from Nova Scotia and named New Brunswick. A great conflagration occurred in this colony in 1825, when a district of more than 100 miles in length, including many towns, was destroyed. Newburn (Battle). — The Scotch defeated some of the adherents of Charles I. at this place, upon the Tyne, near Newcastle, Aug. 27, 1640. Newbury (Battles). — The royaKst army, commanded by Charles I., attacked the parhamentarians at this village in Berkshire, Sept. 20, 1643. The cavalry were completely defeated by the royahsts, but the infantry stood firm, and Essex was enabled to retire in good order. Lord Falkland fell in this encounter. A second battle was fought at Newbury, Oct. 27, 1644, when the parliamen- tarians, commanded by Waller and the earl of Manchester, failed in their attack upon the king's forces, and afterwards withdrew into winter quarters. New Caledonia (Pacific Ocean). — Cap- tain Cook discovered this island Sept. 4, 1774, and landed upon it and named it the follow- ing day. Newcastle Administration. — The death of Mr. Pelham, at that time prime minister, occurred March 6, 1754, and his brother, the duke of Newcastle, a few days afterwards, was appointed the head of the government. The cabinet consisted of, — Treasury Duke of Newcastle. Lord Chancellor Earl of Hardwicke. President of the Council . .Earl Granville. Privy rieal Lord Gower. Chancellor of Excliequer..Mr. H. Bilson Legge. ^ . . , „ ^ . ^ f Earl of Holdemesse. Principal Secretaries of) gi^. .^>ijos. Eobius.on, after- Sta'te ( wards Lord Grantham. Admiralty Lord Anson. Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. 2 Q 2 NEW The duke of Marlborougli superseded Lord Gower as privy seal, Jan. 8, 1755 ; and Sir George Lyttleton, bart., afterwards Lord Lyttleton, became chancellor of the exchequer, "N'ov. 22, 1755. Mr. Henry Fox, afterwards Lord HoEand, succeeded Sir Thomas Eobinson as one of the principal secretaries of state, Nov. 25, 1755. The duke of Newcastle reaigned office Nov. 11, 1756. {See Devostshire AnMiNisTEATioif .) Newcastle and Pitt Adjiinisteation, also called Chatham (First) Administration. The Devonshire Administration was dissolved April 5, 1757, and after negotiations that extended over neai'ly three months, the earl of Newcastle returned to the Treasury, June 29, while William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, was the actual head of the government. The cabinet was thus consti- tuted : — Treasury Duke of Newcastle. 1/ord Keeper Sii- Robert Heiiley. President of the Council . . Earl Granville. Privy Seal Earl Temple. Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. H. Bilson Legge. -D.J • 1 c!„»„ + ^„„ „ f William Pitt, iifterwaxds Principal Secretaries of» Earl Chatham. ^^^^ { Earl of Holdeinesse. Admiralty Lord Anson. Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. Board of Ti-ade Eaii of Halifax. George 11. died suddenly Oct. 25, 1760, but the Newcastle and Pitt Administration retained office, though certain changes followed in a short time. Lord Keeper Henley was made lord chancellor Jan. 16, 1761. Viscount Barrington became chan- cellor of the exchequer March 12, 1761. Mr. Charles Tovmshend took the Ordnance March 18, 1761. Lord Sandys succeeded the earlof Hahfax as president of the Board of Trade, March 21, 1761. The earl of Bute succeeded the earl of Holdernesse as one of the principal secretaries of state, March 25, 1761. Pitt having obtained information of a secret treaty between France and Spain, urged upon his colleagues to declare war against Spain. This they refused to do, where- upon he resigned, and'the earl of Egremont was appointed in his place, Oct. 9, 1761. His relative. Earl Temple, foUowed his example, and the privy seal was intrusted to the duke of Bedford, Nov. 27, 1761. The ministry struggled on vsithout its real head until May, 1762, when the earl of Newcastle re- signed. {See Bute Administeatiok.) Newcastle-upon-Tyne occupies the site of the Pons MYa, a fortress of the Eomans built about a.d. 120. The Saxon kings had a residence here called Ad Murum, and in the year 653 it was the scene of the baptism of two royal converts — Penda, king of the Mercians, and Sigibert, king of the East Angles. The Danes destroyed all the monas- teries and churches of Newcastle, and miu-- dured their inmates, tu 876. At the time of the Conquest it was called Monkchester, from the number of monks. The castle which gives its name to the town was built NEW in 1080 by Eobert Curthose, the eldest son of William I. It was seized in 1135 bv David I., Idng of Scotland. The Scotch held it tUl 1157, when it was restored to Henry II. BaUiol, king of Scotland, did homage for that crown to Edward I. in the haU of the castle, in 1292. In the war between Charles I. and his parliament, Newcastle embraced the king's cause, but was besieged by the earl of Leven, and, after a gallant resistance, was taken, Oct. 29, 1644. Newcastle was the head-quarters of the king's army in the rebellion of 1745. St. Nicholas' Church, built in 1091, and destroyed by fire in 1210, was rebuilt in 1359. St. Andrew's Church was built in the 12th century. All Saints' Church, commenced in 1786, and completed in 1796, stands on the site of an old edifice that existed in 1284. The Literary and Philosophical Society was founded in 1793, and the new lecture-room in 1802. The assembly-room was foimded in 1766, and the dispensary in 1777. St. Thomas's Church, commenced in 1828, was opened in 1830. The town gaol was built in 1827 ; and the theatre, built in 1788, was pulled down in 1835, and was re- opened in 1837. The Newcastle and Dar- hngton EaUway was opened April 15, 184i. A lire broke out about 12 a.m. Oct. 6, 1854, in Gateshead, and, having spread to New- castle, many hves were lost, and property estimated at more than a million sterhng was destroyed. New College (London) was founded at St. John's Wood, a.d. 1850, for the educa- tion of dissenting ministers. New College (Oxford), at first called St. Mary of Winchester, was founded by William of Wykeham, who was Ijorn at Wykeham, in Hampshire, a.d. 1324. The foundation-stone was laid March 5, 1380, and the building was completed in six years, the society taking possession April 14, 1386. WiUiam of Wykeham died Sept. 27, 1401, and was buried in the chantry of Winchester Cathedral. James I., his queen, and the prince of Wales, were entertained in the hall of New College, Aug. 29, 1605. The garden- court was built in 1684, and the chapel was restored by Wyatt in 1789. New England (North America). — The Puritans gave this name, a.d. 1620, tb their settlements in Massachusetts Bay and the surrounding districts of North Amei'ica. New Exchange (London), founded in the Strand June 10, a.d. 1608, was removed in 1737. New Foeest (Hampshire) was formed by order of William I., a.d. 1079. William of Malniesbury says that William I. destroyed the towns and churches for more than thirty miles, for the purpose of forming this forest ; and others affirm that he leveEed fifty-two churches to the ground. William Eufus, while hunting in this forest, was kiQed by an arrow shot by Walter TyrreU, Aug. 2, 1100. In 1788 a survey was taken of the New Forest, when the amount of land was estimated at 92,363 acres. The timber was found to be rapidly decaying in the reign of Charles II. j and John NEW Norton, woodward of the New Forest, was ordered to inclose 300 acres as a nursery for joung oaks, Dec. 13, 1669. A hurricane swept over the New Forest in November, 1703, when no less than 4,000 of the best oaks were destroyed. Newfoundland (Atlantic Ocean) was visited by Norwegians about a.d. 1000, and re-discovered by John Cabot June 24, 1497. A settlement was attempted in 1536 without success ; and a charter for the colonization of Newfoundland was granted May 2, 1610. Three settlements were after- wards made, viz., by Lord Baltimore, in 1623 ; by Lord Falkland, in 1633 ; and by Sir David Kirk, in 1654. Squabbles between the French and English settlers led to hostilities in 1696, and again in 1702 ; but by the peace of Utrecht it was declared to belong to England, April 11, 1713. An act was passed prohibiting the Americans from fish- mg, March 30, 1775 ; but by the treaty of Versailles this was withdrawn, Sept. 3, 1783. The representative assembly was established in 183"i, and Newfoundland was made a bishopi'ic in 1839. New Feance (North America). — A French expedition, under Verazzano, sent out by Francis I., took possession of a large extent o± territory on the north-east coast of America, and gave it the name of New France, a.d. 1524. It is called Canada (q.v.). Newgate (London), mentioned as a prison as early as a.d. 1207, was burnt in the great fire ot 1666, and was afterwards rebuilt. It was pulled down in 1778, and the new edifice was nearly completed when the Gordon rioters attacked it, June 6, 1780, liberated the prisoners, and set it on fire. It was rebuilt, and ceased to be a debtors' prison in 1S15. Mrs. Fry commenced her labours for improving the condition of the female pri- soners in Newgate in 1808. She states that the usual amusements were swearing, gaming, and fighting ; and that some were destitute even of clothing, while others enjoyed deli- cacies sent in by their friends. An attempt was made to classify prisoners in 1811 ; and the inspectors of prisons, iu their annual reports of 1836, 1838, and 1843, called atten- tion to the serious evils arising from gaol association. The iuterior of the prison was repaired in 1851. New Geoegia (Pacific Ocean). — ^Vancou- ver bestowed this name upon the various groups of islands iu Nootka Sound, a.d. 1792. The term is sometimes restricted to Solomon's Islands, discovered by the Spa- niard Mendana in 1567. New Granada (South America) was dis- covered by Ojeda a.d. 1499. The first settlement in the country was made by the Spaniards a.d. 1510. The people proclaimed their independence in 1811, united with Venezuela in 1819, and with other South American states in 1823. The union was dissolved in 1831 ; New Granada became an independent republic, and General San- tander was installed president, April 1, NEW 1833. It has been the scene of numerous revolutions. New Guinea (Pacific Ocean). (See Pa- pua.) New Hampshire (North America) was first settled a.d. 1623, and placed itself under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641. It was made a separate province by act of parliament in 1679, and the first con- gress assembled in 1776. A constitution was drawn up in 1784, and amended in 1792. New Haemont (North America). — The German Sociahsts removed to this town, in Connecticut, a.d. 1814. They sold the place to Eobert Owen in 1824, but his attempt to estabhsh a communist town resulted in a failure. New Haven (Connecticut), was first settled A.D. 1638, by a colony of English under Theophilus Eaton, the first governor, and C. Mather, the first minister, called the Moses and Aaron of the settlement. It was united by royal charter to Connecticut in 1665, and in 1784 New Haven was consti- tuted a city. The most important institution in this city, and the oldest and most exten- sive in the United States, is Yale College, founded in 1701 atKiUiDgworth, and removed to New Haven in 1717. New Haven was taken by the British in July, 1779. The constitution of the United States was adopted by New Haven, Jan. 9, 1788. New Heb kides (Pacific Ocean) .—-One por- tion of this extensive group was discovered by Quiros, a.d. 1605, and was proved to be islands by Bougainville in 1763. Cai)taia Cook explored the group, giving it the name of the New Hebrides, in July, 1774. Captain Bligh discovered the most northern portion of the group in 1789. New Holland. — The name given by the Dutch to Australia (q.v.). New Independents.-— This sect was founded by John Eobinson, a Norfolk divine, in 1616. They maintain that every congre- gation of Christians has, according to the New Testament, fuU ecclesiastical power over its members, and hence they are called New Independents. The Scottish Inde- pendents, also called New Independents, and Haldanites, or Haldanite Independents, from their founder, Eobert Haldane, arose in 1797. New Inn (London) was founded a.d. 1485, and is attached to the Middle Temple. New Inn Hall (Oxford). — A collection of houses called TriUeck's Inns a.d. 1349, from John TrOleck, bishop of Hereford, were inherited in 1391 by WiUiam of Wyke- ham, who granted them to New CoUege, and they received the name of New Inn Hall. An additional range of building was added m 1836. New Ireland (Pacific Ocean) was dis- covered and named by Carteret, a.d. 1767. New Jersey (North America) was first colonized by the Dutch from New York, between a.d. 1614 and 1620. A colony of Swedes and Finns settled here in 1627. Charles II. in 1664 granted this territory to I^W his brother the duke of York, who sold the patent to Lord Berkeley and Sir G-. Carteret. The Dutch in 1673 regained possession, but resigned it in 1674. Great confusion having arisen in regard to the appointment of governors, the proprietors. Lord Berkeley, [ &c., in 1702 surrendered the government to : the crown. New Jersey formed part of the j state of New York until 1736, when a sepa- { ration ensued. It pubhshed its constitution i Jiily 2, 1776, and was one of the original states of the Union. New Lanaek (Lanarkshire) was founded by David Dale, a.d. 1783. Eobert Owen en- deavoured to establish communism here in 1801. ^ ^^. New LoifDOif (North America). — This town, in Connecticut, founded a.d. 1644, was taken and burned by Arnold, Sept. 8, 1781. Newmaeket (Cambridgeshire). — The earliest mention of this town is in a.d. 1227, when it is supposed to have derived its name from a market removed hither from Esning on account of the plague. James I. erected a hunting-seat, afterwards called the Kng's House. Having fallen into decay, it was re- built by Charles II., who was a great patron of horse-racing. It was almost entirely de- stroyed by fire March 22, 1683, during the races, and a large portion of the town fell a sacrifice to the devouring element on the same occasion. New Mexico (America). — This territory of the United States was formed Sept. 9, 1850, out of the country ceded by Mexico after the war vrith the Americans. New Orleans (Louisiana) was founded by Bienville, the French governor of Louisiana, A.D. 1717. The colony was conveyed to Spain in 1762, and restored to France in 1801. Na- poleon I. sold it to the United States in 1803. The battle of New Orleans took place Jan. 8, 1815, between the Americans, under General Jackson, and the English, under General Pakenham, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 3,000 in killed and wounded. The university of New Orleans was founded in 1849. New Philippiites (Pacific Ocean), more properly called the Carohnes, were named from La Carolina, a term applied to one of those islands visited by the Spaniard Lazeano A.D. 1686. An attempt was made by the Jesuits of Manilla to establish missions here about 1600. The small -pox committed terrible ravages among the natives in 1854. Newpoet (Isle of Wight). — The parish church was built a.d. 1172 ; and the grammar- school was founded in 1619. In the school- room of the town negotiations were opened between Charles I. and the parhament, Sept. 18, 1648, and closed, the king having agreed to some of the demands, Nov. 27, 1648. The coffin of the Princess EHzabeth, daughter of Charles I., was discovered in the church in 1793. Newport (Monmouthshire) . — Edward III. granted this town its first charter, which was confirmed by James I. Of the old castle, supposed to have been foxmded by Eobert NEW Fitzroy, earl of Gloucester, only a square tower and a part of the great hall now remain. A handsome stone bridge was built over the river Usk in 1800. This town was the scene of serious Chartist riots, Monday, Nov. 4, 1839. The rioters, led by one John Frost, a retired draper of Newport, amounting to 10,000 in number, armed with guns, &c., met in front of the Westgate Hotel, where the magistrates were assembled, with about 30 soldiers and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the hotel, and fired upon the inmates. The soldiers succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, vrith its leaders, fled from the city, leaving about 20 dead, and many dangerously wounded. Frost and several of his associates were apprehended on the following day, tried at Monmouth Dec. 31, and found guilty of high treason, Jan. 5, 1840. Their sentence was subsequently commuted into transportation for hfe. New Kivee (London).— In 1605 the lord mayor and citizens of London were em- powered to bring a stream of fresh water to the north parts of the city of London, from ChadweU and AmweU, in the county of Hert- ford, but nothing was done till Hugh Middle- ton offered, March 28, 1609, to begin the work within two months, and to make and finish the river, provided the common counci would transfer to him the powers vest ed in them by two acts of parliament. This was agreed to, and the New Eiverwas completed as far as the basin at Ishngton, S'ept. 29, 1613. Newet (Ireland) . — A Cistercian abbey was founded here a.d. 1157, by Maurice Mac Loughlin, king of Ireland, and a castle was built by John De Courcey. It was destroyed , in 1318, and rebuilt in 1480. Marshal Bagnal restored the castle, rebuilt the town, for which James I., in 1613, granted him the entire lordship in fee to him and his heirs for | ever, and peopled it with Protestant settlers. After the Eestoration, the to\^^l continued to flourish tin 1689, when it was burned by the duke of Berwick in his retreat from Duke Schomberg. The custom-house was built in 1726. A very considerable trade was carried j on with the West Indies in 1758. News-books, or pamphlets of news, the foremnners of the modern newspaper, were first issued from the English press in the 16th century. They merely treated of some poli- tical event, either foreign or domestic, and did not appear at stated periods, or even under the same title . A proclamation against certain " bookes printed of newes, of the prosperous successes of the king's majestie's arms in Scotland," wasissuedinl544. Acollec- tion, commencing in 1579, is preserved in the British Museum. The news-books continued to appear until the close of the 17th century. Burton remarks, in the " Anatomy of Melan- choly," of which the first edition was published in 1614, " If any read now-a-days, it is a play- book, or pamphlet of newes." {See News- papers.) News-lettees were used in this country NEW NEW as a medium for the circulaton of intelli- gence before the printed news-book (q.v.), the forerunner of the modern newspaper, made its appearance. A writein the new edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" remarks (xvi. 180), " Their first journalists were the writers of 'news-letters.' Origi- nally the dependents of great men, each em- ployed in keeping his own master or patron well informed, during his absence from court, of all that transpired, the duty grew at length into a calling. The writer had his periodical subscription Hst, and, instead of writing a single letter, wrote as many letters as he had customers. Then one, more enterprising than the rest, established an 'intelligence- office,' with a staif of clerks." News-letters, giving an account 'of events that happened during the Wars of the Eoses, are given in Sir John Fenn's collection of the " Paston Letters." New South Shetland Isles (Pacific Ocean). — The group, consisting of twelve islands, was discovered by Captain Smith A.D. 1819. New Sottth Wales (Australia). — The eastern coast of Australia, from Cape Howe to Cape York, was discovered by Captain Cook, A.D. 1770. He took possession of it in the name of the king, calling it New South Wales, and he named the island in which he performed the ceremony. Possession Island. The first convicts arrived Jan. 20, 1788, and the settlement formed at Botany Bay was transferred to Sydney (q. v.) in 1789. The colony received a new constitution in 1855. Newspapers. — The Eomans possessed publications agreeing in some respects with the modern newspaper. These manuscript journals, called Acta Diurna, were, as the title denotes, simply records of daily occurrences. They were issued by govern- ment authority as early as B.C. 691. The privilege was vdthdrawn about B.C. 40. During the wars carried on between the state of Venice and the Turks, the Gazzetta, in manuscript, was published at Venice, of which the first number appeared, it is believed, a.d. 1536, and was continued monthly. Stations were appointed where the people might come to hear them read, and thirty volumes are preserved in one of the libraries of Florence. The earliest in the British Museum Mbrary is a printed copy, dated 1570. Gazzetta, the name of the coin paid by the auditors for hearing the news read, was transferred to the news- paper. Offices were estabhshed about this time in France, on the suggestion of the father of Montaigne, the essayist, for re- ceiving intimations that any person wished to make pubhc. These were copied out and posted on the waUs, and eventually gave rise to regularly published advertising sheets. The "news-letters" {q. v.) were introduced during the reign of Henry VI. In these the gossip of the town was collected by " corre- spondents," and posted to 'their employers in the country, at a salary of a few pounds a year. The collection of newspapers in the British Museum contains seven numbers — four in manuscript and three in Roman type— of the " English Mercuric," the first dated July 2.3, 1588. For many years this was considered to be the earliest printed English newspaper; but, in 1839, Mr. Watts showed that it was a forgery. The same collection contains what must be considered as the first regularly published newspaper in England, bearing the title of " Weekly Newes," the first number being dated May 23, 1622. The " Daily Proceedings of both Houses of Parliament," from Nov. 3, 1640, to Nov. 3, 1641, in two volumes, was the first systematic account of the kind laid before the pubhc. It was followed by " Diurnal Occurrences," brought out weekly'; and this was succeeded by the host of " Mercuries," including the famous " Mer- cujrius Britannicus," from 1642 to 1654. During the residence of the court of Charles II. at Oxford, on account of the plague that devastated the metropohs, the first number of the "Oxford Gazette" appeared, Nov. 13, 1665. It was transferred to London with the court, and took the title of " London Gazette," Feb. 5, 1666. Amongst the earhest commercial papers was the " City Mercury," vrith which L'Estrange was con- nected, commenced Nov. 4, 1675. The first gratuitously circulated paper was " Domes- tick Intelligence," in 1679. The forerunner of literary journals is the " Mereurius Li- brarius," first pubhshed April 9, 1680. The " Daily Gourant," the first morning paper, appeared March 11, 1702. Archbishop Laud's licensing decree, aimed at the newspaper press, came into operation July 11, 1637 ; the restriction being renewed at intervals by act of parliament, till it expired in 1693. A stamp duty of one penny was proposed in the House of Commons in 1701, but abandoned. An act (10 Anne, c. 19) was, however, carried imposing the stamp for a period of thirty- two years, Aug. 1, 1712. The biU for the abolition of the stamp duty (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27) received the royal assent June 15, 1855. A duty of one shilling on advertisements had been origin- ally charged, which was raised in time to three shillings ; and on the 31st of May, 1815, the chancellor of the exchequer im- posed an additional sixpence. This tax was aboHshed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853). The first newspaper published in Scotland, printed by order of the Protector, was called " Mereurius Politicus," and it appeared Oct. 26, 1653. It was for the use of his troops in garrison at Leith, and the publication was transferred to Edinburgh in ]N ovember, 1654. The first number of the " Mereurius Caledonius " appeared Dec. 31, 1660. The " Caledonian Mercury " was fii-st issued April 28, 1720. " Pue's Occurrences," a daily paper, made its appearance in Ire- land in 1700, and was probably the first in that country ; the second, also daily, being "Falkener's Joui-nal" in 1728. The press in India originated with " Kicking' s Ga- zette," pubhshed at Calcutta Jan. 29, 1781. 699 FEW JTEW The "Calcutta Gazette" was brought out by the governmeut March 4, 1784. The «' Bengal Hurkaru," started in January, 1795, appeared as a daily paper April 29, 1819. A censorship was established by Lord Wellesley, April, 1799. George Howe, a native of St. Kitts, established the " Sydney Gazette," the first Australian newspaper, March 5, 1803. The " Boston ISTews Letter," the first number being dated April 24, 1704, w^as the first newspaper pubhshed ia America. The "Daily Sun," of New York, which first appeared Sept. 23, 1833, was the fia-st of the penny papers of that country. French journalism took its rise from Theophraste Eeuaudot, who brought out the "Gazette "in May, 1631, and ob- tained a monopoly of the business of supply- ing the Parisians with news by letters patent granted in October of the same year. A Trankfort bookseller brought out the first German newspaper in 1615. In 1605 Abra- ham Verhoeren received from the archduke the exclusive privilege of pubhshing news, and commenced the "IS^ieuwe Tydingheu" of Antwerp. The " Gazette van Gend" appeared at -Ghent in 1667. According to the " Iv'ewspaper Press Directory for 1862," there are now published in the United Kingdom 1,165 newspapers, dis- tributed as follows : — England, 845 ; Wales, 33; Scotland, 139; Ireland, 134; Channel Islands, 14. Of these there are 43 daily papers published in England, 1 in Wales, 16 in Ireland, 9 in Scotland, 2 in the Channel Islands. On reference to preced- ing editions of the "Directory," we find that, in 1821, there were pubhshed in the United' Kingdom 267 journals; in 1831, 295 ; in 1841, 472 ; and in 1851, 563. The following is a list of the newspapers that have appeared in the metropohs, vnth thedate of their establishment. Many of them, how- ever, enjoyed but a short existence : — Albion Oct. 15, 1831 Antl-GaUican Monitor ..' 1809 Argus 3789 Association Medical Journal (weekly) Jan. 7, 1853 AthenEeiun (weekly) Jan. 1828 Athenian Gazette March. 17, 1690 Atlas (weekly) May 21, 1826 Atlas (for India, weekly) April, 1842 Australian Gazette (weekly) 18-50 Aurora (daily) 1807 Bell's Lire in London (weekly) 1820 Bell's Weekly Messenger (weekly) .... May 1, 1796 Britannia (weekly) AprU, 1839 British Banner (weekly) Jan. 1, 1848 Bent s Literary Advertiser (monthly) 1802 Bingley's Journal 1770 British Journal Sept. 22, 1722 British Standard (weekly) Jan. 2, 1857 Briton. May 29, 1762 Builder (weekly) 1842 Building IS ews (weekly) March 1, 1854 Canadian News (fortnightly) 1854 Chemical Gazette (fortriightly) Nov. 1, 1842 Christian Cabinet (weekly) July 27, 1855 Christian Chronicle (weekly) Nov. 13, 1857 Christian Times (weekly) Aug. 1848 City Mercury Nov. 4, 1675 City Press (weekly) July 18. 1857 Civil Service Gazette (weeVly) Jan. 1, 1863 Clerical Jom-nal (fortnightly) May, 1853 CoUiery Guardian (weekly) Jan. 2, 1858 Cooper's John Bull 1826 Cottage Gardener (weekly) Oct. 1848 County Courts Chronicle (monthly) 1846 Couriier de I'Europe (weekly) 1840 Courant (weekly) Oct. 9, 1621 Court Cucixlar (weekly) April 26, 1856 I Court Joiuual (weekly) 1829 Covent Garden Journal Jan. 4, 1752 Craftsman 1726 Critic (fortnightly) Nov. 1843 Daily Com-aut March 11, 1703 Daily News Jan. 21, 1846 Daily Telegraph June 29, 1855 Daily Universal Eetoster Jan. 13, 1785 Diary 1789 Dispatch (weekly) 1801 Diurnal Occiu-rences (weekly) 1641 Domestick Intelligence 1679 Dyer's >.'ews Letter 1712 Economist (weekly) Sept. 2, 1843 Ecclesiastical Gazette (monthly) July 10, 1838 Educational Times (monthly) Oct. 1847 Enffineer (weekly) Jan. 4, 1856 English Churchman (weekly) Jan. 1843 En^li^h Journal of Education (monthly) Jan 1, 1847 Era (weekly) Sept. 30, 1838 Evening Herald June 29, 1857 Evening Journal (three times a week) Oct. 6, 1851 Evening MaU (three times a week) 1789 Evening Po-t Sept. 6, 1709 Evening Star (daily) March 17, 1 856 Examiner (weekly) Jan. 1808 Express (dailv) Sept. 1, 1846 Field (weekly) Jan. 1, 1853 Freeman (weekly) Jan. 24, 1855 Free Press (weekly) Dec. 13, 1855 Friend (monthly) 184:^ Gardeners' Chronicle (weekly) Jan. 28, 1841 Gardenei-s' and Farmers' Journal (weekly). . . . 184S Gas and Water Times (monthly) 1853 General Advertiser 1766 General Shipping List (weekly) Oct. 3, 1853 Globe (daily) 1803 Guardian (weekly) Jan. 21, 1846 Home News (weekly) Jan. 1847 Homeward Mail (on arrival of each mail from the East) 1857 Illustrated Inventor (weekly) Oct. 31, 1857 Illustrated London News (weekly) . . May 14, 1842 lUustrated Times (weekly! June 9, 1853 Independent Whig 1710 Indian Mail (on an-ival of maU viA Mar- seilles) May, 1843 Indian News (ou aiiival of each Indian mail) June, 1840 Inquirer (weekly) July 9, 1842 Distructor 1808 Jacobite Joui-nal Dec. 1747 Jesuit 1782 Jewish Chronicle (weekly) 1845 John BuU (weekly) Dec. 17, 1820 Johnson's Sunday Monitor 1778 Jom-nal of Gas Lighting (fortnighly) Feb. 10, 1849 Journal of the Society of Arts (weekly) 1852 Journal of the Photographic Society (monthlv) March, 1853 Jurist (weekly) 18:37 Justice of the Peace (weekly) Jan. 28, 1837 Kingdom's Intelligencer Jan. 7, 1661 Kingdom's Weekly Post Oct. 1645 Knight's Official Advertiser (monthly) . . Nov. 1855 Ladies' Mercury Feb. 18, 1692 Lady's Newspaper (weekly) Jan. 2, 1847 Lancet (weeldy) Oct. 3, 1823 Law Chronicle (monthly) 1854 Law Times (weekly) April 8, 1843 Leader (weekly) March 30, 1850 Liberator 'monthly) July, 1855 Literary Com-ier of Grub Street 1737 Literarium (weekly) Aug. 1, 1855 Literai-y Churchman (fortnightly) May 5, 1855 Literary Gazette (weekly) Jan. 1817 Lloyd's Weekly Loudon Newspaper Nov. 1842 London Gazette Feb. 5, 1666 London Gazette (twice a week) Nov. 7, 1665 KEW A.D. London Mail (fortnightly) 1852 Londoner Deutsches Journal (weekly) Aug. 4, 1856 London Mercury ... .Tnrift 3. Ififlf! Magnet (weekly) Mark Lane Express (weekly) MeHical Circular (weekly) Medical Times (weekly) .... March, 1837 Dec. 1832 . . Jan. 14, 1852 .Tulv fi ^s.^n Mercantile Journal (weekly) 1832 Military Spectator (weekly) 1 857 Mining J..urnal (weekly) Aug. 29, 18o8 Mitchell's Mai-itimeKegister (weekly (Sept. 27, 1859 Monetary Times (three times a week) Jan. 5, 1858 Morning Advertiser (ilailyj Feb. 8, 1794 Morning Chronicle (ciaiiy) June 28, 171)9 Morning Herald (daily) Nov. 1, 1780 Morning Post (daily) Nov. 1772 Morning News (daily) 1856 Morning Star (daily) March 17, 1856 Musical Gazette (weekly) Jan. 26, 1 856 Musical Times (monthly) June, 1844 Musical World (weekly) 1825 Naval and Militaiy Gazette (weekly) Feb. 9, 183:3 News of the World (weekly) New Times . . Sept. 29, 1843 Nonconformist (weekly) Observer (weekly) Old Whig . April 14, 1841 1792 Overland Mail (weekly) . . July 10, 1855 Patriot (twice a week) Pawnbrokers' Gazette (weekly) . . . People (weekly) People's Paper (weekly) Jan. 1832 1839 . AprU 18, 1857 18.52 Press (weekly) Presse de Londres (weekly) Public Advertiser (Newcumb's) . . . Public Intelligencer . . . May 7, 1853 .. Sept., 20, 18.57 . . May 26, 1657 . . . . Oct. 8. 1655 Publishers' Circular (fortnightly) . Sept. 1837 Racing Times (weekly) . . Feb. 26, 1851 . July 12, 1845 1835 Railway Journal (weekly) Railway Record . April 13, 1844 Record (three times a week) Reporter (weekly) Representative (dailj-) Representative (weekly) Review (weekly) Review and Country Gentleman Jan. 1828 1847 .. Jan. 25, 1826 . . . Jan. 6, 1822 ..... Feb. 1704 'a Journal Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper . . Saturday Review (weekly) Scots JW ercury ... Mays, 1850 . . . Nov. 3, 1855 May 8, 1692 Shipping Advertiser (daily) Shipping Gazette (dail j ) SoUcitors' Journal (weekly) 1845 . . . Jan. 4, 1836 1857 Standard (daily) -T ^^ "^ evening paper 1827 K.i,»uud,iu \u\) Niger Expedition was undertaken for the purpose of planting an English colony in the centre of Africa, the government grant- ing £60,000 for that purpose. The expedi- tion, consisting of three ships, — the Albert, the Wilberforce, and the Soudan, — sailed May 12, 1841. They began to ascend the Niger Aug. 20. Fever broke out in Sep- tember. The expedition arrived at Adda Kudder Sept. 11, when the Soudan was sent back with the sick. The Wilberforce fol- lowed directly after, and the Albert, the last vessel, gained the island of Fernando Po Oct. 17, 1841, and thus the Niger expedition, from the unhealthy eifects of the climate, became a total failure. It was stated in the House of Commons that the object of the expedition was to secure the effectual aboli- tion of the slave trade. Nightingale FuifD.— A meeting was held at WiUis's Rooms Nov. 29, 1855, for the purpose of raising funds to establish an institution for the training of nurses, as an acknowledgment of the services of Miss Florence Nightingale in the Eussian war. NiEA Sedition. (See Circus Factions.) Nile (Egypt).— This celebrated river is formed of two streams called the Blue River and the White River, which flow together at Khartoum, and each of which has been re- garded as the main stream of the river. Cosmas Indieopleustes heard of the sources of the Blue Nile in the territory of the Agows in the 6th century a.d., and Pra 604 NIM Mauro represented them with some degree of accuracy m the loth century. Paez dis- covered and described its source in 1618, and it was also reached by the English traveller Bruce^ Nov. 4, 1770. M. Linart ascended the A\hite River as far as El Ais in 1827, and it was explored as far as Chanker by a Turko-Egyptian expedition in 1840. M. Brun-RoUet ascended still higher in 1854. Nile (Sea-fight). — In the roadstead of Beqiiiers, between Aboukir and Rosetta, the French fleet, consisting of the flag-ship (120-guns), three 80-gun ships, nine 74-guii ships, two 40-gun frigates, and two 36-gun j frigates, commanded by Admiral Brueys, \ was discovered by Nelson, Aug. 1, 1798. His fleet consisted of thirteen 74-gun ships, one 5i'-gun ship, ant the brig Mutine. The French vessels were anchored close into the shore, and were protected by gunboats and a battery erected on Aboukir Island. Lord Nelson, in spite of the superior force and the advantageous position of the enemy, deter- mined upon an attack, which commenced at sunset. Several French ships had been taken when a fire broke out on board L' Orient, and she blew up at ten o'clock. Firing ceased simultaneously for ten minutes, and was resumed by the Franklin. Another suspension took place, and the contest was again renewed at five o'clock on the morning of the 2nd. Only two ships of the line and two frigates of the French fleet escaped. The British loss amounted to 218 killed and 671 wounded. Nelson signalled to the fleet his intention to return public thanks to the Ahnighty for this glorious victory at 2 p. m. Aug. 2, 1798. NiLOMETEH (Africa). — A graduated pillar ' placed in a square well in the island of Roda, opposite Old Cairo, to mark the daily rise of the Nile, was first constructed by Soh- man, seventh cahph of the Ommiades, A.D. 715. Al Motawakkel, tenth caliph of the Abbasides, built a new Nilometer in 800 ; and Mostunser Billah, fifth of the Fatimite princes of Egypt, repaired it in 1092. Nimbus. — This halo round the head or body of divine persons is called a nimbus when it surrounds the head, and an aureola when it envelops the body — the union of the two being called a glory. It is of pagan origin. Images of the gods were decorated with a crown of rays ; and when the Roman emperors assumed di\-ine honours, they appeared decorated in the same manner. It afterwards became so common, that it appears on coins, round the heads of the consuls of the late empire. It was for a long time avoided in the Christian represen- tations, and the first example is a gem of St. Martin in the early part of the 6th cen- tury. After the 11th" century it was em- ployed to distinguish the Saviour, the Virgin Mary, the apostles, saints, &c. From the 5th to the 12th century the nimbus had the form of a disc or plate over the head ; from the 12th to the 15th century it was abroad golden band roxmd or behind' the head; from tJie 15th ceuturj it was a bright fillet over the head, and in the 17th. it disappeared altogether. NiiiEGUEN, or Ntmegen- (Holland) ,_ the ancient Noviomagus of the Batavi, is a strongly fortified town. The castle, said to have been built by Julius Csesar, was repaired by Charlemagne about a.d. 780. William of Holland mortgaged the town to .the duke of Guelderland in 1247. Maurice captured it in 1591. The duke of Marlbo- rough arrived at Mmeguen July 2, 1702, to assume the command of the allied armies. The stadtholder William V. removed the court here in 1786. The duke of York, who formed an intrenched camp before Nime- guen in 1794, had an indecisive engagement with the French Oct. 28. The French be- sieged the town Nov. 1, and the English made a successful sortie Nov. 3. The French batteries were, however, re-esta- blished Nov. 6, and the English garrison was withdrawn Nov. 8, the fortress falling into the hands of the French. The town-hall was built in 1554. NiMEGUEN- (Treaty). — Conferences for peace were opened at Nimeguen in July, 1675, and Charles II. of England, having signed a convention with Holland, Jan. 26, 1678, for the withdrawal of the English con- tingent from the French army, a treaty of peace was concluded at Nimeguen between France and Holland Aug. 10. Spain acceded to the treaty Sept. 17, the emperor of Ger- many Feb. 5, 1679, and Sweden March 29. NiifETEH (Assyria) . — Nimrod, or Asshur, is said to have founded this city about B.C. 2250, but some authorities believe that it had no existence tUl the reign of Ninus, B c. 2182. It is mentioned on the tablet of Karnak, which was engraved about B.C. 1190. Diodorus asserts that Nineveh was destroyed by Arbaces the Mede, B.C. 876; but Layard considers this destruction to have been most probably a mere depopula- tion. Jonah's prophecy to the inhabitants of Nineveh was pronounced b.c. 862, and the city was conquered and destroyed by Cyazares and Nebuchadnezzar b.c. 606. The extent of the ancient city was sixty, or, according to some authorities, seventy -four square miles. Heraclius and Shazates fought a great battle on its site a.d. 627. Mr. Layard' s discoveries of antiquities at Nineveh commenced Aj)ril, 1S40, but no excayations of importance were made tin the autumn of 1845. In 1848 he published *' Nineveh and its Kemains," and in 1353 his " Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon." The antiquities discovered by him have been deposited in the British Museum. NiifGPO (China) was taken possession of by Sir Henry Pottinger Oct. 13, 1841. The Chinese failed in an attempt to recover it March 10, 1842. A British consul and British subjects were allowed to reside at the port by the terms of the treaty of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842. NisHAPOBE (Persia) was destroyed by Alexander the Great during his eastern NTS expedition about b.c. 331. Having been restored and raised to a royal city by the Seljukian Turks, it was sacked by the Tar- tars A.D. 1269, and taken in 1739 by Nadir Shah, who reduced it to ruins. NisiBis (Mesopotamia), the modern Nisibin, is supposed to be the Zobah of scrip- ture, whose kings are mentioned as having been defeated by the Israelites, 1 Sam. xiv. 47, and 2 Sam. viii. 3, about b.c. 1093 and B.C. 1040. It is said to have been rebuilt by the Macedonians, and called Antiocheia Mygdonife. It was taken from the Parthians by the Romans under LucuUus, after a long siege, B.C. 68. They did not retain posses- sion, and it was recaptured by the emperor Trajan a.d. 116. Sapor I., king of Persia, took it A.D. 256; but it was recovered by Odenathus in 264. Diocletian and Galerius met here and received the Persian ambassa- dor, and a peace was concluded with the Persians a.d. 298. Sapor II. besieged Nisibis three times without success, viz., in the years 338, 346, and 350. The city was, however, surrendered by the emperor Jo- vian to Sapor II. by treaty in 363, and the inhabitants retired to Amida. That rising city, with this reinforcement of inhabitants, recovered its former splendour, and became the capital of Mesopotamia. The Romans, under Ardaburius, attempted, but without success, to regain Nisibis in 420, and the Saracens, having taken it in 640, levelled its waUs with the ground. Nisi Prius. — The clause in the writ sum- moning a jury, from which this legal phrase is derived, was introduced by 13 Edw. I. c. 30, passed a.d. 1285, and enforced by 14 Edw. III. c. 16 (1340). The judges sit in Middlesex at Nisi Prius by virtue of 18 Eliz. c. 12 (1576). NxsiiES, or NiMES (France). — The ancient Nemausus noticed by Strabo as the capital of the Volcse Arecomici, came under the sway of Rome B.C. 119, and was fox^titied by Augustus about 14 years before the Chi-is- tian sera. It fell under the power of the Visigoths, from whom it was wrested by the Moors in the Sth century. Charles Mai'tel took the town in 737, when it suifered much. In the 16th century it became a stronghold of the Calvinists. By the pacification of Nismes, agreed to in 1629, the Huguenots were secured in the possession of their estates, and the free exercise of their reli- gion, and of all the privileges accorded by the edict of Nantes. They were, however, deprived of their fortified cautionary towns. The fortifications were destroyed by Louis XIII. The amphitheatre, erected by the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, is still in a state of fair preservation, though it suifered much in the time of Charles Martel. Nismes still retains two of its Roman gates — the Porte dAuguste, founded b.c 16, and the Porte de France. The cathedral was almost de- stroyed during the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the town suffered much in the French revolution of 1789. 1 NissA, or NiscH (Servia) .— The ancient 605 NIT Naissus iq.v.), the birthplace of Constan- tine, was captured by the Turks a.d. 1376, and again in 1389. John Huniades wrested it from the Turks in 1443. It again feU into their possession, and was recovered by Louis of Baden, Sept. 24, 1689. The Turks re- gained possession in 1690. The Austrians took it July 28, 1737, and it was retaken by the Turks the same year. NiTKic Acid. — Liquid nitric acid was obtaiaed as early as the 7th century. The nature of this acid was demonstrated in 1785 by Cavendish. NiTBOGEN, or Azote, was discovered by Dr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, and de- scribed in his "De Aere Mephitico," pub- lished A.D. 1772. Dr. Priestley, who termed it " phlogisticated air," also described it in the Philosophical Transactions for the same year. Lavoisier showed it to be a compo- nent of atmospheric air m 1774. NivE (Battles). — Soult's position on this river was menaced by HiU, IS'ov. 16, 1813 ; and it was attacked and forced by the Eng- lish army Dec. 8. Soult, anxious to regain the position, assailed the Enghsh armv, only 30,000 strong, with 60,000 troops, Dec. 10, and, after making a most desperate attack, was compelled to retire. Further struggles occurred Dec. 11 and 13, but the English maintained their ground, and the passage of the Nive was effected. In these actions the French lost 6,000 in killed and wounded, and 2,500 prisoners, whUst the Enghsh lost in Mlled, wounded, and prisoners, 5,019 men. NiVEiiLE (Battle). — The Erench position on this river was carried by the Enghsh army, commanded by the duke of Welling- ton, after an arduous struggle, !N"ov. 10, 1813. The Enghsh army advanced in order of battle jSTov. 11, and crossed the Nivelle Nov. 12. Marshal Soult lost 4,265 men, in- eluding 1,200 prisoners, and the English 2,294 men. NivEi/LES (Belgium). — This town origin- ated in an abbey founded by St. Gertrude, about A.D. 645. The church dedicated to this saint was built in 1048. Nobility. — The rank of noliles, or known men, among the Eomans was restricted to the patricians till B.C. 336, when the Slebeians were permitted to attain the ignity. Hotman, in his " Franca Galha," ascribes to Hugh Capet, king of France, the device of making such honours heredi- tary A.D. 987. The first recorded summons for the creation of an English peer was issued by Henry III. a.d. 1265. Titles were abolished in France, June 18, 1790; but Napoleon I. revived them in March, 1808. The hereditary peerage of that coimtry was extinguished in 1831. Noble. — This gold coin, of the value of 6s. 8d., was struck in the reign of Edward III., a.d. 1344. NocEEA (Italy), the ancient Nueeria, in- habited by people of the Oscan race, took part with the Samnites against the Romans B.C. 815, for which the consul Fabius be- sieged and car)tured the city, b.c. 308. 606 NON Hannibal reduced it by famine B.C. 216, and in the civil war it was taken by C. Papius B.C. 90. The battle between Narses and Teias, which terminated the Gothic mon- archy in Italy, was fought near this city, A.D. 533. A colony of 20,000 Saracens was estabHshed here by Frederick II. a.d. 1215 — 1250, whence its name Nocera dei Pagani. Charles of Anjou assailed it and destroyed its fortifications in 1269. NoLA (Italy) was founded by the Etrus- cans as early as B.C. 800, according to some authorities ; but there is some doubt on the subject. It was conquered by the Samnites about B.C. 440, and by the Romans B.C. 313. Hannibal assailed it in three successive years, B.C. 216 — 214. The inhabitants took part with Marius in the civil war, and were put to the sword by Sylla, who divided the countiy amongst his victoi'ious followers, B.C. 82. Alaric laid it waste a.d. 410; and Genseric, king of the Vandals, destroyed it, selling the inhabitants into slavery, a.d. 455. Augustus died here a.d. 14. It was.made the seat of a bishop in 254, and St. Pauhnus, its bishop, is said to have invented church bells, whence they were called "nola" and "campana." Nominalists a-nti Realists. — These cele- brated ecclesiastical parties originated in the discussion between Anselm, abbot of Bee, and Roscelhnus, a canon of Compiegne, A.D. 1092, the doctrines of Anselm giving rise to Reahsm, and those of Roscellinus to Nominahsm. The controversy was revived after some years of quiet by the Franciscan Nominahst, William Occam, who died in 1347, and founded the sect of the Occamists. His followers were expelled from Prague in 1408, and their books were prohibited in France by Louis XI. in 1473. The Realists maintained that general ideas (unioersalia) are real things with positive existence ; the Nominahsts, on the other hand, merely re- garded them as words or names. The Nomi- nahsts were in later times called Concep- tuahsts. Nojr, or Nun (Africa). — This cape long formed the boundary of ocean navigation, but was at last doubled, a.d. 1412, by an ex- pedition fitted out by John I. of Portugal. Some writers contend that a Catalan doubled it as early as 1346, and that some Dieppe mariners penetrated as far as Sierra Leone in 1364. The story is not supported by satis- factory evidence. NoNCONFOEMisTS. — The name of Noncon- formist, now used generally to describe a dissenter from the Church of England, was first applied to those who refused to comply mth the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edw. \1. c. 1) passed in 1549. A proclamation against unhcensed preaching was issued by Eliza- beth, Dee. 27, 1558; and the Nonconfor- mists, under the name of Puritans, formed their first presbytery at AVandsworth a.d. 1572. On the passing of the Uniformity Act of Charles II., 2,000 clergymen volun- tarily resigned their hvings, Aug. 24, 1662. James the Second's Declaration of Indul- gence was promvdgated April 4, 1687, and the Toleration Act (1 Will. III. c. 18) wag passed May 24, 1689, Nones. — This term was applied by the Eo- mana to the fifth day of each month, except- ing in March, May, July, and October, when it was applied to the seventh. The nones formed part of the system of computing time ascribed to Romulus, b.c. 753. NoNJUEOBS, headed by Sancroft, arch- bishop of Canterbury, and the bishops of Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, liorwich, and Peterborough, refused to take the oath of aUegianee to William III. They were deprived Feb. 1, 1691. The bishops of Chichester and Worcester, who had also de- clined to take the oaths, died in the interval. To these men and their followers the term Nonjurors was applied. They divided into two sections in 1720, in consequence of a dispute respecting the administration of the communion. By 9 Geo. I.e. 18 (1723), they were subjected to siniilar taxes as papists. Their worship was conducted in hired rooms or private houses ; and they became extinct in 1780. Noif-HESISTANCE Oath, inserted in the Corporation Act (13 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1) of 1661, and required to be taken by all cor- poration officers, was as follow : — " I do declare and believe that it is not lawful, upon any pretence whatsoever, to take arms against the king, and that I do abhor that traitorous position of taking arms by his authority against his person, or against those that are commissioned by him." It was repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 6, s. 2 (1719), an act for quiet- ing and establishing corporations. A homily on the subject was vfritten in 1569, and the doctrine was laid down in the canons of con- vocation of 1606. Nonsuch Palace (Surrey). — Henry YIII. having purchased the manor of Ewel cum Guddmgton, ordered two parks, called the Great and the Little, to be laid out. In the latter he began to build the palace of Non- such, A.D. 1543. Queen Mary, Nov. 23, 1557, granted Nonsuch to the earl of Arundel, by whom it was completed. Camden says it is built with so much splendour and elegance that it stands a monument of art, and you would think the whole science of architec- ture had been exhausted on the building. Q.ueen Elizabeth visited Nonsuch in 1559, 1567, 1579, and 1580. She purchased it, and it became her favourite residence. Here the earl of Essex first experienced her displea- sure on his sudden reurn from Ireland, Sept. 28, 1599. James I. settled Nonsuch upon his queen Anne ; and in 1650 a survey was taken of it by the Commonwealth commis- sioners, and it was sold. At the Eestoration, Nonsuch and all the lands were restored to the queen-mother, and George Lord Buckley was appointed keeper Sept. 5, 1660. A pro- clamation was issued July 26, 1665, for re- moving the receipt of the exchequer from Westminster to his Majes;ty's honour of Nonsuch, in the county of Surrey. In 1760 it came into the possession of Barbara, who KOR had been created duchess of Cleveland, and baroness of Nonsuch, and by her Nonsuch was pulled down, and the parks turned into farms, NooTKA Sound, {See King George's Sound.) No PoPEKT.— This cry was raised by the ringleaders in the Gordon riots (q.v.) a.d. 1780. A similar cry was raised during some disturbances in Edinburgh and Glasgow in February, 1779. NoRDEN (Battle). — The Danes, under Hasting, defeated the army of Charles the Eat at this town, in East Eriesland, a.d. 882. NoEDKOPiNG, orNoEKOPiNG (Sweden).— At a diet held at this town a.d. 1769, the French, or the Hat party, who had long opposed the Russian and Enghsh, called the Cap party, obtained the ascendancy. NoEDLiNGEN (Battles) . — Two battles were fought at this walled town, in Bavaria, the first between the Austrians and Bavarians, under the archduke Ferdinand, and the Swedes, commanded by the duke of Saxe- Weimar and Count Horn, was fought Aug. 27, 1634. The latter were defeated. In the second, the Spaniards and Austrians were defeated by the French, under Turenne and the duke d'Eughien, in 1645. NoEE (Mutiny).- — Great discontent pre- vailed amongst the sailors in the British navy early in 1797. They complained that, although the price of the necessaries of life had increased, they received the same amount of wages as that paid during the reign of Charles II. In April the men broke into open mutiny at Spithead. They refused to obey the commands of their officers, appointed delegates, and drew up petitions to Parliament for redress of griev- ances. Lord Howe succeeded in repressing this mutiny, but another broke out May 27, 1797, in the fleet lying at Sheerness. The ringleader was one Richard Parker, who was nicknamed Rear-Admiral Parker. The mutineers removed the ships to the Nore, hoisted the red flag, sent their ofiicers on shore, and made the most extravagant demands. They seized some store-ships, and blockaded the mouth of the Thames. Owing to the energetic measures of the authorities, the mutineers began to waver, and fired a royal salute on the king's birthday, June 4. One by one the ships returned to their sta- tions, the last red flag having been hauled down on the 13th. Richard Parker, president of the delegates, arrested with others on the 14th, was executed on board the Sandwich at Sheerness on the 30th. NoEEiA, or NoEEJA (Styria), the capital of Noricum, celebrated for the great defeat inflicted upon the Romans by the Cimbri and Teutones, e.g. 113. The Boii besieged it B.C. 59. The modern town of Neumark occupies its site. Norfolk Island (Pacific Ocean) was dis- covered A.D. 1774 by Captain Cook, when it was uninhabited. A settlement of freemen and convicts made in 1787, was abandoned NOE in 1810. It was made a penal settlement in 1825, and on the withdrawal of the convict estabhshment in 1856, the inhabitants of Pitcairn's Island took possession. ISToEicuM (Europe), the country now forming a large portion of the Austrian em- Eire, is supposed to have received this name 'om Noreia, its capital, aud was inhabited by a Celtic race, anciently called Taurisci. The Boii settled in the northern part of Noricum b.c 58. The country was made a Eoman province B.C. 13. [See AfSTBiA.) NoEKiTTEN, or Geoss Jagerkdoeff (Bat- tle). — The Prussians attacked the Russians, 30,000 strong, in an intrenched camp near the forest of Norkitten, ia Prussia, Aug. 30, 1757, and after gaining some advantages, were compelled to retire in confusion. At the commencem.ent of the battle they cap- tured eighty pieces of cannon, which they were obliged to rehnquish, with thirteen pieces of their own artillery. JSToEMAL Schools for the training of teachers were instituted in France in 1795. The Normal school at Paris, suppressed in 1821, was revived June 28, 1833. Xormal schools were introduced into England in 1808, and into Tuscany by a decree issued Dec. 3, 1846. JVoEMANDY (France). — This duchy, which comprises part of the ancient kingdom of ifiTeustria, was ceded to Rollo, Rolf, or Eaoul, the [N'orseman or Norman, by Charles the Simple, according to the treaty or con- ference of St. Clair-sur-Epte, which was con- concluded between them a.d. 911. Rollo is believed to have held it as a fief of the French crown, but the subject is mvolved in considerable obscurity. 912. Rollo is baptized at Rouen by the name of Robert. 923. The Franks invade ISToraiandy under Raoul of Burgundy, who is compelled to retire and psiy a heavy L)anegelt as the price of peace. 927. Rollo abdicates in favour of his son, ■William Lijngue-Kpfie, who performs homage to King Charles. 931. William imades Britanny, and annexes part of that coi;ntry, with the Channel islands, to his own states. 932. He supjjresses an insurrection under Count Riulph, whom he puts to death. 937. Cornouaille is permanently annexed to Nor- niHudy . William revolts against Louis IV of France. 938. He ravages Flanders. 940. He swears fealty to Otho I. of GrPi-many, but after many vaciiliitions retiu-ns to his allegiance to Louis XV. 942. Dec. 17. He is murdered by Balzo, the nex^hew of Count Riulph. 944. Normabdy is invaded by the French and Flemings, who defeat the Normans at the bittle of Arguirs. 945. Richai-d the Fearless is restored by the aid of Harold Blaatand, king of Denmark. 960. A powerful confederacy is formed .-igainst Richard, headed by Lothaire, king of France. 96L Richard defeats Lothaire at the battle of the Fords. 962. Tliibaut, count of Chartres, invades Nor- mandy, and is defeated at the battle of Hermondeville. NOR 996. Richaa-d II. suppresses an insun-ection occa- sioned by the tyranny of the nobles. 1003. Ethelred of England makes an unsuccessful descent upon the Norman coasts. 1025. The Normans form settlements in the south of Italy. 1035. July 2. Dnke R'lbert undertakes a pilgi-image to the H(ilv Land, and dies from, poison at NicM.-i, in Bitnynia, 1064. WiUium the Bastard annexes Maine to Noimaudy. 1063. William the Bastard conquers England'. 1106. Sept. 23 Henry I. of England defeat^ Robert Cuui-tbose aud conquers Normandy at tKe battle of Tench ebray. 1150. Henry Plantagtuet receives the investiture of Normandy. 1204. Philip Augustus annexes Normandy to France. 1329. Philip VI. reestablishes the duchy of Nor- mandy in favour ■ f his son John. 1346. Normandy is ravaged by Edward III. of England. 3417. The Engli-h seize Normandy. 1450. It is restored to Franco. 14U8. The states-general declare that Norniam'y shall never be detached from the French crown. 1-199. Louis XII. establishes the parliament of Rouen. 1639. The sedition of the Nu-pieds or Barefeet suppressed. 1654. Louis XIV. suppresses the Norman states. 1771. The parliament df Kouen Is suipress'd. 1774. Louis X\I. restores the pailiament of Rouen. DUKES OF NOEMANDT. A.D. 911. RoHo. 9'27. William I., Loncrue Ep6e or Long-sword. 943. Kichard I., the Feiuless. 996. Richard II., the Good. 1026. Rich ird III. 1028. Robert I., le Diable. 103.5. William TL, the Bastard (T. of England). \()'i7. Robert II., surnamed Com-those. 1106. Henry I. 1135. Stephai. 1144. Geoflrey Plantagenet. 1151. Heiuv II. 1189. Richard IV., Coeur-de-Lion (I. of England). 119;i. John. 1204. Normandy is reunited to Fx-ance. NoETH ADMi^fisTEATioJS'. — Frederick, Lord North, created earl of Guildford in 1790, who filled the office of Chancellor of the E.^ chequer in the Grafton administration {q.v.) became first lord of the treasury Jan. 28 1770, on the resignation of the duke of Graf ton. The cabinet was thus constitated : — President of the Coimeil . . Earl Gower. Privy Seiil Earl of Halifax. fEarl of Hillsborough, . I afterwards marquis of ■{ Downshire. i Earl of Rochford, LLoid Weymouth. Admiralty Sir Edward Hawke. Principal Secretaries of J State The great seal was at first placed in com- mission. Lord Apsley, afterwards Earl Bathui-st, was made Lord Chancellor Jan. 23, 1771. He resigned in 1778, and Lord Tbur- low was appointed June 3. Lord Weymouth resigned, and the earl of Sandwich became one of the principal secretaries of state in NOE NOR his place Dec. 19, 1770. Sir E. Hawke re- signed the Admiralty, and was succeeded, Jan. 12, 1771, by the earl of Sandwich, whose place as secretary of state was sup- phed by the earl of Hahfax Jan. 22, the earl of Suffolk and Berkshire taking the privy seal. The earl of Hahfax died June 8, 1771, and was succeeded, June 12, by the earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, the privy seal being filled by the duke of Grafton. The earl of Dartmouth succeeded the earl of Hillsborough as secretary of state, Aug. 14, 1772. The earl of Dartmouth replaced the duke of Grafton as privy seal, Nov. 4, 1775. Viscount Wej^mouth and Lord George SackviUe Germaine, afterwards Viscount SackviUe, became secretaries of state in place of the earls of Kochford and Dart- mouth, Nov. 10, 1775. Earl Bathurst be- came president of the council as successor of Earl Gower, Nov. 24, 1779. Lord Wey- mouth resigned his secretaryship of state, and was succeeded by the earl of Hillsbo- rough, Nov. 24, 1779. Mr. Welbore ElHs, afterwards Lord Mendip, succeeded Vis- count SackviUe as secretary of state, Feb. 22, 1782. The ministry grew extremely un- popular on account of the American war, and Lord North announced his resignation in the House of Commons, March 20, 1782. {See KocaiN-GHAM: (Second) Administea- TlOIf.) NoETHALLEBTOif (Yorkshire). — This town is supposed to have been originally a Eoman station, and subsequently a Saxon borough, but the date of its foundation is unknown. In Doomsday Book the place is called Alvertine and Alreton. The church is said to have been built by the Northumbrian apostle Paulinus, about a.d. 630. In the reign of Henry I. (1100 to 1135) a castle was built on the west side of the town by the bishop of Durham. This is supposed to be the one destroyed by order of Henry II. about 1174. Near the town, on the 22nd Aug. 1138, the famous battle of the Standard was fought between the English and the Scotch, the latter being defeated with a loss of 10,000 men. About 1345 a monastery of Carmelites was founded, and in 1476 an hos- pital, which has since been rebuilt. During the rebellion of 1745, the English, xmder the command of the duke of Cumberland, en- camped here. NoRTH-AMEEicAif INDIANS, numbering about 120 tribes, or nations, each speaking a different language, were estimated, in 1853, by the United States commissioner of Indian affairs, to amount to 400,764. The state of Georgia expelled the Cherokees from their territory in 1834, which led to the Federal government taking measures to fix a boundary for their residence ; and all the tribes hving east of the Mississippi have been removed to the west of that river since 1836. NoETHAMPTON (Battle) . — Margaret, queen of Henry VI., raised an army to main- tain the cause of the house of Lancaster, early in 1460. The duke of Buckingham, who took the command, engaged vrith the Yorkist forces near Northampton, July 10, 1460, when he was totally defeated. Henry VI. was taken prisoner, and Queen Mar- garet was compelled to flee into Scotland. NoETHAMPTON (Northamptonshire), the Autona of Tacitus, was anciently known as North Aufonton, according to some anti- quarians, and, according to others, as Mamp- tune, to which the word North was after- wards prefixed. In the year 921 it was in the possession of the Danes, who made it their principal station when their forces were preparing to besiege Towcester. In 1010 it was again attacked and burnt by the Danes. At the Conquest the town was bestowed upon Earl Waltheof. Having conspired against the king, he was executed, and his possessions were given to the earl of Hunting- don and Northampton, who erected a strong castle for the defence of the town. The priory of St. Andrew was founded in 1076, and the abbey of Black Canons about 1112. Henry I. assembled a great council here, Sept. 8, 1131. A convention of barons and prelates assembled here in 1180 to consider the laws of the realm. King John, in the 10th year of his reign, being displeased with the city of London, removed his court of Exchequer here. On the signing of Magna Charta, Northampton was one of the strong- holds placed in the hands of the barons as security for the fulfilment of its conditions. The last parhament held here was summoned Nov. 5, 1390, when a poU-tax was ordered, which led to the rebelhon of Wat Tyler. The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 1675. It received a charter of incorporation from Henry II. The church is said to have been built by the Knights Templars, after a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Of the castle, only a few remains are to be traced, the embattled walls and gates having been demohshed in 1662. A flood did great damage in 1720, and shocks of an earthquake were felt in 1750 and 1776. St. Thomas's Hospital was founded in 1450, the free grammar-school in 1556, the infirmary in 1747, and the present building in 1793. The bluecoat-school was founded in 1700 ; the ! barracks were opened in 1796, and the gaol j in 1846. North BaiTOKr Newspaper was brought I out in June, 1762, in opposition to Lord i Bute's administration, by John Wilkes, M.P. for Aylesbury. In the 45th number, Saturday, April 23, 1763, George III. was accused of falsehood, and a general warrant was issued, April 26, against the authors, printers, and pubhshers, who were taken into custody April 30, and released May 6. They brought an action against the king's messengers for false imprisonment. It was tried at Guildhall July 6, and resulted in a verdict in their favour, with £300 damages. Parhament met Nov. 15, 1763, and the house resolved, by a majority of 237 against 111, that the paper entitled the North Briton, No. 45, was a false and scandalous hbel, and I that it should be burnt by the common ' 2 B NOR hangman. This sentence was carried out in ' Cheapside Dec. 3, under the direction of Alderman Harley, sheriff of London. A riot ensued. The hangman only succeeded in burning part of the paper, and the re- mainder was carried away in triumph by the mob. NoETH, or Icy Cape (Arctic Sea). — An EngHshman, named Eichard Chaneelor, was the first to pass this, the most northerly point in Europe, and anchor in the White Sea, which he accomplished a.d. 1553. In his own account of the expedition he relates that "he came at last to the place where he found no night at all, but a continual hght and brightness of the stm sh in ing clearly upon the huge and mighty sea." NoETHEEN CiECAES ( Hindostan) . — The Mohammedans first appeared in this exten- sive province about A.D. 1471 ; and in 1541 and 1550 added considerably to their con- quests. It formed part of the empire of Aurungzebe in 1687. In return for military services, the district was granted by the Nizam to the French East-India Company ; but on the capture of Masulipatam by the British, the maritime ports fell under their dominion in 1759. A free gift was made of four of the Circars by the Mogul to Lord Chve in August, 1675; and Guntoor de- volved to the Company in 1788. The tribute of £70,000 annually paid by the Company was redeemed by a payment of £1,200,000 in 1823. NoETH FoEEiAiirD (Sca-fights) .— Monk, afterwards earl of Albemarle, and Penn, de- feated the Dutch fleets oflF the North Fore- land, June"2 and 3, 1653. The second, and most memorable engagement, which ex- tended over four days, commenced June 1, 1666. The duke of Albemarle, with an English fleet of fifty-four ships, attacked a Dutch fleet of eighty ships, under De Ruyter and Tromp, off the North Foreland. Dark- ness separated the combatants, and the contest was renewed June 2, when a squad- ron of sixteen ships joined the Dutch, and the English, having only twenty-eight ships with which to contend against this superior j force, were compelled to withdraw, in order to repair damages. Eupert, with twenty ships, joined Albemarle's fleet June 3, and the battle was renewed that afternoon, and again on the morning of June 4, on which | day the combatants separated, each side claiming a victory. The third sea-fight off the North Foreland was fought July 25, 1666. The fleets were about equal in point of num- bers, each commander having about eighty sail. The Dutch were totally defeated with great loss, and Prince Eupert and the duke of Albemarle chased De Euyter and his retreating squadrons to their own shores and insulted the Dutch in their own harbours. The English fleet captured ScheUing soon after, and destroyed 200 of the Dutch ships. Noethme:s", or Noeseme?^. — The Scan- dinavian pirates of the 9th and 10th centuries were so called by the inhabitants of the main- 610 land of Europe. Danes (q.v.). NOR The English called them 820. The Norsemen attack the French coasts, but are unable to penetrate into the interior of the countiy. 830. They ravage the banks of the Loire. 837. They plunder the coasts of Belgium. 841. May. Kouen is burned and pillaged by Osker. 84S. March 28. Reyner Lodbiok takes Paris, and levies heavy subsidies from Charles the Bald. 850. Koric receives Kustringia from Lothaire. 855. The Northmen engage in civil war, and fight the great battle of Flensbtugh in Jutland, in which Eric the Red is slain. 861. April 6. The Northmen under Jarl WeUand sail up the Seiue and seize Paris. 865. Eobert-le-Fort is defeated by the Northmen at the battle of Melun. 866. July 25. R..bert-le- Fort is killed by the North- men at the battle of Pont-sui-Saithe. 870. Charles the Bald encourages the Northmen to settle peaceably in France. 876. Sept. 16. RoUo or Rolf enters the Seine. 879. Nov. 30. Louis III. defeats the Northmen at the battle ot the Vigenne. 880. They are defeated at the battle of Ardennes. Feb. 2. They defeat the Germans with im- mense slaughter at Ebbsdorf, or Luneburg Heath. 881. Louis defeats the Northmen at the battle of Saulcourt. The Northmen invade the Rhine, Schpldt, and Meuse country in this and the following yeai-s. 882. Frieslatid is ceded to Gddfrey the Northman. 885. July 25. RuUo occupies Rouen. 888. June 24. Eudes Capet defeats the Northmen at the battle of Montfaucon. 891. Ai-uolph df feats the Northmen at the battle of Louvain. 911. July 20, Saturday. Rollo sustains a severe defeat from the Frankish and Burguudian forces at Chartres. A treaty is concluded shortly after at Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, by which Rollo receives in marriage Eisella, daughter of Charles the Simple, agrees to become a Chri-^tian, and is invested with the sovereignty of part of Neustria, which was afterwards known as Normandy. NoETHTTMBEiA (England) .—This kingdom was founded by Ida, a.d. 547. Noeth-West Passa&e. — The idea that a shorter track to India might be discovered than that round the Cape of Good Hope, was first broached by John Cabot about the year 1496, and in 1500 the Portuguese de- spatched the first expedition sent out for the express purpose of discovering the pas- sage, under the command of Gaspar de Cortereal. A reward of £20,000 was offered for the discovery of the north-west passage by 18 Geo. II. e. 17 (1745), and a like sum, with £5,000 for the first approach within one degree of the North Pole, by 16 Geo. III. c. 6 (1776), and 58 Geo. III. c. 20 (May 8, 1818) . The last-mentioned act was amended by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 2 (Feb. 23, 1821). The passage was at length discovered by Captain Al'Clure, of the Investigator, Oct. 26, 1850, and in May, 1854, the Eoyal Geographical Society awarded him its gold medal for the discovery. For the various voyages under- taken in search of the north-west passage, see Aectic Ciecle, and FEANKLiif's Expe- DlTIO]>fS. NoEWAT.— Like the other countries of NOE northern Europe, the traditions of Norway point to Odin as the founder of the nation. He is said to have arrived in the north about B.C. 70. 630. Olaf Troetelia founds the province of Ver- ineland. 865. Harold Harfager vows neither to cut nor comb his hair until he has completed the conquest of Norway. 885. He defeats the proviucial rulers at the sea- fight of Hafuiafiord, which establishes his authority over the whole of Norway, and releases him from his vow. 937. Eric I., deposed for his tyranny by his brother Hako, embraces Christianity, and is in- vested by Athelstan with the sovereignty of North urn bria. 941. Hako proposes to establish Christianity, but is opposed by his subjects. 963. Harold Blaataiid, king of Denmark, esta- blishes Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric I., on the Norwegian throne. 998. Olaf I. overthrows the idols in the temple at Drontheim. 1000. Olaf I. is defeated and slain by the Danes and Swedes, who divide Norway between them, under the lieutenancy of Eric and Sweyn, sons of Hako II: 1015. Olaf I. defeats the fleet of Sweyn off the coast of Vikia, and thereby secui-es the Norwegian throne. 1028. Canute the Great invades Norway, and com- pels Olaf I. 10 flee into Swerlen. 1030. July 29. Olaf I. is slain in an endeavour to recover his kingdom, by the forces of Ca- nute, at the battle of Sticklestadt, 1066. Sept. 55. Harold Hardi-ade falls in battle agaiijst the English at Stamford, in Lin- colnshire. After his death Norway is di- vided between Olaf III. and Magnus II. 1069. Olaf III. reigns alone. 1096. Magnus III. invades Britain. 1098. He conquers the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and the Orkney and Shetland islands. 1103. He is killed by the Irish, and his kingdom is divided between his sons Sigurd, Eystein, and Olaf. 1186. Magnus V. is defeated and slain by Swerro, natural son of Siirurd II. 1240. The jarl Skule, half-brother of Inge II., asserts his claim to the Norwegian throne. 1242. Skule is defeated and slain by Hako IV. 1250. The Hause league obtains exclusive privi- leges in Norway. 1261. Iceland is added to the Norwegian territories. 1263. Hako TV. invades Scotland. 1286. Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric II., is heiress to the throne of S. otland. 1319. Death of Hako V., with whom the greatness of Norway becomes extinct. The sceptre devolves on Magnus VII., king of Sweden. 1343. Maguus VII. resigns the throne of Norway in fcvvoui- of his son Hako VI. 1349. Norway is ravaged by the plague. 1387. Norway is annexed to Denmark and Sweden, under the government of Margaret. 1397. June. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are formally united into one kingdom by the union of Calmar. 1448. Norway and Sweden are separate from Den- mark. 1450. Aug. a9. Norway and Denmark are reunited. 1536. The Keformation is introduced into Norway. 1567. The Swedes invade M orway. 1812. Aug. 27. Norway is guaranteed to Sweden by the emperor of Russia in exchange for Finland. 1814. Jan. 14. Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, which creates great dis- satisfaction among the Nqrwegians. April 11. A constitution is adopted by the diet of Eidsvold. May 17. Prince Christian, after- wards king of Denmark, is elected king. 611 NOR A.D. 1814. Aug. 14. An armistice is concluded with the Swedes, who compel Christian to abdi- cate the throne. Nov. 4. Charles XIII. of Sweden accepts the constitution of Eids- vold, which declares Norway a free, inde- pendent, indivisible, and inalienable state, united to Sweden unoer the same king. 1821. The law for abolishing hereditary nobility ig 1844. King Oscar grant* the Norwegians a national flag. 1847. Aug. The order of St. Olaf is Instituted for Norwegians. 1860. Aug. 5. CharlesXV. of Sweden and his queen are solemnly crowned at Drontheim, king and queeu of Norway. SOVEREIGlfS OP NOEWAT. A.D. Olaf Troetelia 630 Halfdanl. 640 Eystein 1 700 Halfdan n 730 Eiidrod 784 Olaf Geirstada .... 824 Halfdan III., the Black 840 Hai-old I., Hai-fa- ger 863 Eric 1 934 Hako I., the Good 940 Harold II., Graa- feld 963 Hako II., Jarl .... 977 Oiafl 995 Eric and Sweyn 1000 Olaf II., the Sair . . 1015 Sweyn 1030 Magnus T., the Good 1035 Harold III., Hard- rade 1047 Magnus II. and Olaf III 1066 Olaf III 1069 Magnus HI., Bare- foot 1093 Olaf IV., Sigurd I., and Eystein II. . . 1103 Eystein II. and Si- gurd I 1116 Sigurd 1 1122 Magnus TV. and Harold IV 1130 Harold IV 1134 Sigurd II. and Inge 1 1136 Sigurd II., Inge I., and Eystein III. 1140 Eystein III. apad Inge 1 1155 Iirgel 11.57 Hako III 1161 Magnus V 1162 Swerro 1186 Hako III 1202 Guthrum 1204 Inge II 1205 Hako IV 1207 Maguus VI., the Legislator 1263 Eric II., the Priest- hater 1280 HakoV 1299 Mignu«VII 1319 Hako VI 1343 Olaf v.. III. of Denmark 1380 After the death of Olaf v., Norway and Den- nrark were united un- der one crown till 1814, when Norway was ad- ded to Sweden. For the subsequent sovereigns, see those countries. Norwich (Bishopric). — The see of East Anglia was founded about a.d. 630, by a Burgundian named Eelix, who fixed his seat at Silthester, or Dunwich, in Suffolk. Bishop Bisus, or Bosa, divided the diocese into two sees, fixing the new one at North Elmham, in Norfolk, in 673. Wylred, or Wildred, reunited them in 870, making Elm- ham the episcopal town; and, after his death, the country was iu such a disturbed state, owing to the ravages of the Danes, that the see remained vacaut till about the year 955. The see was transferred to Thet- ford by Herfast about 1078, and to Norwich by Herbert de Losinga in 1092. Norwich (Norfolk) is supposed to occupy the site of the Venta Icenorum of the Bo- mans. Uffa, king of the East Angles, is said to have built a castle here a.d. 575, and under the Anglo-Saxon princes the town became a place of some importance. Alfred the Great fortified it against the Danes, who plundered and burnt it in 1004. It was rebuilt, and the castle restored, in 1018. 2 R 2 NOR From this time it rapidly increased in size and importance. Henry I. held his Christ- mas here in 1122, and raised the town to an equality of franchise and privilege with London. In 1189 the Jews were almost exterminated, on the ground of having per- mitted the crucifixion of a Christian boy. The town was plundered and the castle taken by the dauphin of Prance in 1210. A great number of worsted and woollen manufac- turers from the Low Countries settled here about the year 1337. Nearly one-third of the inhabitants fell victims to the plague in 1349. The city was separated from the county of Norfolk, under the name of the city and county of Norwich, in 1403. A fire destroyed 718 houses in 1507, and a rebellion broke out in 1549. The rebels, 20,000 strong, under the brothers Ket (q.v.), were defeated here with great slaiighter, Aug. 27, by the earl of Warwick. Upwards of 300 Flemings settled here, and established the manufacture of bombazine, in 1565. During the civil war the city was held by the parliamentary army. The cotton manufacture was introduced in 1784, and a new fabric called "Norwich crape" was produced in 1819. The cathe- dral, commenced in 1094, was completed in 1280, and the spire was erected in 1361. A Benedictine monastery, founded in 1094, was completed in 1101. St. Andrew's Hall was built in 1415. The free grammar- school was founded in 1547, and the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital in 1771. The first musical festival here was held in 1824. The railroad to Yarmouth was opened May 1, 1844, the hue to London through Cambridge in 1845, and the line to London through Colchester in 1850. Its first public library was estabhshed in 1784, and a new free library was opened in 1857. NoBwooD (Surrey).— A school of industry for girls was founded here, a.d. 1812. Nor- wood has long been celebrated as the haunt of gypsies, many of whom were appre- hended and sent to prison as vagrants in 1815. St. Luke's church was completed and consecrated July 15, 1825 ; Beulah Spa was opened in August, 1831; and the South Metro- politan, commonly called Norwood cemeterv, covering forty acres of land, was consecrated Dec. 6, 1837. Notables. — One of the stipulations ob- tained by the nobles from Louis XI. of France, by the treaty of St. Maur, was, that the king should call an assembly of notables, to consist of twelve prelates, twelve knights and squires, and twelve lawyers, Oct. 29, 1465. An assembly of Notables was sum- moned by the advice of Calonne, to consider how the financial diificulties of the country were to be met, Feb. 22, 1787 ; and was dis- missed May 25. They were again convoked by the king, with the concurrence of Necker, Nov. 3, 1788. Napoleon I. summoned an assembly of Spanish notables, which met at Bayoime, June 15, 1808. NoTAEiEs Public— Short -hand vnriters among the Romans received the name of JExcepfores, when employed to draw up 612 NOV pubMc documents in the 4th century. Per- sons who performed duties corresponding to those of the modern notary were styled tabelliones at the same period. In England they executed royal charters, a.d. 1043 — 1066 ; and power of admitting to practice was vested in the archbishop of Canterbury by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4 (1553). The terms of their apprenticeship and admission to prac- tice were regulated by 41 Geo. III. c. 79 (June 27, 1801), and by 6 & 7 Vict. c. 90 (Aug. 24, 1843). By a decree of the council of Cologne in 1310, notaries were ordered to make use of seals. Nottingham (England) resisted an in- cursion of the Danes, who were defeated near the town by Alfred, a.d. 866. Its castle was fortified and bestowed on his natural son Peverel, by WilUam the Conqueror, a.d. 1068. Richard I., having captured the castle, held a coimcil here March 30, 1194; and it obtained the privileges of a county from Henry VI. (a.d. 1422—1471). Charles I. erected his royal standard at this town in the beginning of the civil war, Aug. 22, 1642 ; and the castle was taken by the parhamentarian forces, after a brave defence, in September. The Luddite riots {q. v.) of 1811 and 1814 ori- ginated here ; and, during the reform excite- ment, much property was destroyed, and the castle of the duke of Newcastle burned, Oct. 10, 1831. St. Mary's Church, supposed to have been erected in the 15th century, was repaired at a cost of £9,000, and reopened in 1848 ; and St. Barnabas, a Roman Catho- lic cathedral, built at a cost of £20,000, was consecrated in August, 1844. The general hos- pital was founded in 1781 ; the general lunatic asylum in 1810 ; the dispensary in 1831 ; and the foundation-stone of the new lunatic asylum was laid Oct. 30, 1857. The barracks, built in 1792, were ordered to be renewed by a resolution of government in 1857 ; and the People's College was founded by Mr. George GiU in 1847. An act for the inclosure of 1,300 acres of pasture-land was passed June 30, 1845. NovABA (Italy). — The duke of Orleans surprised this town June 11, 1495, and the French and Milanese fought a battle in the neighbourhood, April 5, 1500, which did not lead to any important results. Pope Leo X. having engaged a large body of Swiss to defend his newly • acquired territory, they obtained a victory over the French here, June 6, 1513. The French, under Lautrec, captured it m 1527 ; and the Sardinian army was totally defeated by the Austrians under Radetzky, followed by the resignation of the crown by Albert, and the abandonment of all claim on Lombardy by Sardinia, March 23, 1849. Nova Scotia (North America). — This British possession, settled by the French A.D. 1604, and called by them Acadia, was granted by charter to Sir W. Alexander in 1621, when its name was changed to Nova Scotia. The French, however, were not expelled until 1654 ; and the colony was re- stored to them by the treaty of Breda, July NOV NUM 25, 1667. War having again brolieu out, Port Royal, in Acadia, was captured in 1710, and named Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne, and the whole colony was secured to i England by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, ] 1713. The French and Indians frequently attacked the new colony, untU finally con- ] quered in 1758. The bishopric of Nova Scotia was founded Aug. 11, 1787. Gold was ; discovered on the Tangier river in March, ! 1861. Mr. Joseph Howe, provincial secre- j tary, presented an official report on the sub- j ject, Sept. 4, 1861. 1 NovATiANS, the followers of Novatian, a presbyter at Rome, who denied the right of the Church to restore the "lapsed," took their rise a.d. 250. Novatian, consecrated t bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius, ' was condemned by a council a.d. 251 ; Mar- 1 cianus, bishop of Aries, was deposed for holding these tenets in 254. The sect de- clined in the 5th century. Nova Zembla (Arctic Ocean), known at an early period to the Russians, was dis- covered by an EngHsh seaman named Wil- loughbyA.D. 1553. Stephen Burrough made a voyage to Nova Zembla in 1556 ; and the j Dutch navigator Barentz in 1596. Novels. — The NovellcB, forming part of ! the emperor Justinian's code, were prepared and pubhshed a.d. 535. NovEMBEE, called blot-monath, blood - month, or month of sacrifice, by the Saxons, had thirty days in the time of Romulus (B.C. 753 — 716) ; increased to thirty-one by Julius Caesar (b.c. 49 — 44) ; and was again reduced to thirty by Augustus (b.c. 31 — a.d. 14) , An annual thanksgiving on the 5th of November, in commenxoration of the de- liverance of the nation from the perils of the Gunpowder Plot {q.v.), was appointed by 3 James I. c. 1 (1606). Novgorod (Russia). — The Russian mon- archy was founded here under Ruric, a.d. 862; and it was made an independent re- public in 1150. It joined the Hanseatie league in 1276 ; and one of their factories was established, which led to such a degree of prosperity, that the saying arose, "Who can resist God and the great Novgorod ? " Ivan VassUievich destroyed its independence in 1477 ; and Ivan IV. massacred 25,000 of the inhabitants in 1570. Novi (Italy). — The king of Sardinia drove Marshal Maillebois from his position here A.D. 1746. It capitulated to Marshal Loudon Oct. 3, 1788. The French, commanded by Jombert, were signally defeated by Su- warrow, when 15,000 men were put hors de combat, Aug. 15, 1799, Novum Oeganum. — This work of Lord Bacon was first made known by his treatise on the Advancement of Learning, a.d. 1605, and was published with a dedication to James I. in 1620. It was entitled "Instau- ratio Magna {i. e. Novum Organum, sive Indicia vera de Interpretatione Saturae)." NoYADES. — Jean Baptiste Carrier was sent by the Montagnards to Nantes, with proconsular powers for the suppression of aU opposition to their party. He arrived in the city Oct. 8, 1793, and immediately set in operation the existing means of destruction against the royalists. The guillotine and discharges of musketry prov- ing too slow in their effects, he placed ninety -four priests in the hold of a ship stationed on the Loire, and having secured the hatchways, scuttled the vessel, which of course sank with aU on board, Nov. 15, 1793. This mode of execution was re- peated tiU the Loire had received between 4,000 and 5,000 victims, whose bodies so infected its water that it was rendered illegal to drink of them, or to use fish caught in its stream. These wholesale executions were termed the noyades nantaises, from noyer, to drown. Carrier himself termed them revolutionary baths. He was recalled to Paris soon afterwards, and after a lengthy trial was condenmed to death, Dec. 16, 1794. NoTON (France), the ancient Noviomagus, a town of the Veromandui, was made a bishopric a.d. 531. It was the residence of Charlemagne, who was crowned here Oct. 9, 768 ; and Hugh Capet was crowned king of France here, June 1, 987. A treaty was concluded at Noyon between Francis I. and the emperor Charles V., Aug. 13, 1516. Charles engaged to marry Louisa, the French king's infant daughter, on her at- taining her twelfth year, and was to receive as her dowry the claims of France on Naples. Charles was to pay 100,000 gold crowns every year until the marriage took place. The cathedral was founded by Pepin-le-Bref, and the town-haU was buUt in 1499. {See Beewneville.) Nubia (Egypt) formed a treaty with the emperor Diocletian a.d. 284 — 286, and was converted to Christianity at an early period, continuing in that faith till the 13th century. The caliph Omar exacted from it an annual tribute of 360 slaves, about a.d. 637, which was maintained tiU about 1150. Contests were carried on almost uninterruptedly be- tween the people of Nubia and the sultans of Egypt during the 14th century ; and they ended in the extinction of Christianity and the breaking up of the kingdom into a num- ber of petty Mohammedan states. An expedi- tion by Mehemet Ali brought it into nominal subjection to the pashas of Egypt a.d. 1820. The architectural ruins at Sabooa are as- cribed to the age of Rameses, b.c. 1355 — B.C. 1289. Nuisances. — The mayors and bailiffs of towns were ordered to compel the inhabitants of the districts under their jurisdiction to remove aU filth and other nuisance, by 12 Rich. II. c. 13 (1388). Numerous sanitary regulations were made by the Nuisances' Re- moval and Diseases' Prevention Act, 11 & 12 Vict.c. 123 (Sept. 4,1848), which was amended by 12 & 13 Vict. 0. Ill (Aug. 1, 1849). NuMANTiA (Spain), the site of which is marked by the ruins at Puente de don Guarray, offered a brave resistance to the Roman arms for twenty years. It was at 613 NUM OAK length reduced by Scipio Africanus, who brought against it an army of 60,000 men, B.C. 134. The conqueror received the sur- name of Numantieus. NuMAifTiNE War, between the Eomans and the Celtiberians (q.v.), whose chief town was Numantia, commenced B.C. 140, and was brought to a close by Scipio ^mi- Manus, the conqueror of Carthage, who levelled the city of Ifumantia with the ground, B.C. 133. Ntjmidia (Africa).— The Eomans became acquainted with this country B.C. 264, during the first Punic war when its people formed the cavali-y of the Carthaginians. They transferred their services to the Eomans B.C. 256, and aided them throughout the second Punic war, B.C. 218—201. Masi- nissa, the king,who was rewarded with a large accession of territory, died B.C. 149 ; his son Micipsa at his death left the kingdom to Adherbal and Hiempsal, his sons, and his nephew Jugurtha, B.C. 118. Jugurtha having murdered his cousins, the Eomans de- clared war against him B.C. Ill ; and he was captured and put to death B.C. 106. The country was made a Eoman province by Julius Csesar for having taken part in the civil war against him, and Sallust the histo- rian was appointed governor B.C. 46. Cali- gula changed the government of the province A.D. 39. The province was wrested from the Eomans by the Yandals, under Genseric, in 427. They were subdued by Belisarius, general of the emperor Justinian I., in 533. The Mohammedans, commanded by Akbah, seized Numidiain 667. Numismatics. — The Greeks and Eomans formed collections of coins as objects of beauty, but not for purposes of historical in- quiry. The earliest known collection is that of the poet Petrarch, who died a.d. 1374, and the first vmter on numismatics is Eneas Vico, whose discourse on medals appeared at Venice in 1555. The science was fiurst applied to aid profound and critical research into antiquity by Spanheim, about 1671, and in 1692 the labours of previous authors were consolidated by Jobert in his " Science de Medailles." Addison's dialogues on the Usefulness of Ancient Medals were first pubMshed in a separate form in 1724. NxTNCio is the name given to an ambassa- dor from the papal court, when he is not a cardinal. {See Legates.) James II. re- ceived in public Francisco d'Adda, the last papal nuncio sent to the court of England, July 3, 1687, whereupon several noblemen and gentlemen resigned their offices. NuNHEAD Cemeteet (Loudou), Compris- ing fifty acres of ground, was consecrated by the bishop of Winchester, July 29, 1840. Nunneet and ISTuNS. — Saint Syncletica, who died about the year 310, aged 84 years, is usually regarded as the founder of the first monasteries for women. The first in- stitution of the kind in England was founded at Folkstone by Eadbald, king of Kent, in 630. By 13 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 34 (1285), the abduction of a nun from her convent, even with her ovra consent, was punished with three years' imprisonment. Convents, as well as monasteries, were suppressed by Henry VIII. in 1539. In 1633 a Protestant nunnery was in existence at Gedding Parva, in HuntiDgdonshire. Nueembeeg, or NlJRirBEEG (Bavaria), received from Henry III. power to coin money, and other privileges, about the middle of the 11th century, and was made afree city a.d. 1219. The people of Nurem- berg embraced the cause of the Protestants, and diets were held here in 1523 and 1524 ; and the first religious peace, called the Peace of Nuremberg, was concluded here in July, 1532, and ratified at Eatisbon Aug. 2. The Protestants, who were allowed the free exer- cise of their religion, promised obedience to the emperor, and engaged not to protect the Zwinglians and the Anabaptists. It retained its independence till 1803, when Napoleon I. bestowed it upon the king of Bavaria. The castle, built by the emperor Conrad a.d. 1030, was presented by the town to the king in 1855. The Protestant church of St. Lawrence, rich in old German paintings, was built by the em- peror Adolphus (1292—1298) . The church of St. Sebaldus, with the bronze shrine of the saint, was completed, after thirteen years' labour, by Peter Vischer in 1519. The Frauenkirche, with its famous astronomical clock, founded by Charles IV., was com- pleted in 1361. The town-haU, adorned -with paintkigs by Albert Durer, was built in 1619. The Gymnasium was opened in 1526, by Melancthon, to whom a statue was erected in 1826. Nttesia (Italy), a Sabine city, first men- tioned as furnishing volunteers to the army of Scipio during the second Punic war, B.C. 205. Octavian punished the inhabitants for their conduct in the Perusian war, about A.D. 40. It was made the seat of a bishopric in the 5th century ; the fio'st bishop of whom any record remains was living in 495. St. Benedict, founder of the monastic order bearing his name, was bom here a.d. 480. Nystadt (Finland). — A treaty of peace was signed between Peter the Great of Eussia and the Swedish regency at this town, Aug. 30, 1721. Sweden ceded Livonia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Carelia, part of Wiborg, and some small islands, in return for Finland and 2,000,000 of rix-dollars. Oae:. — ^The evergreen oak was introduced into this country from the south of Europe before a.d. 1581 ; the scarlet oak from North America before 1691 ; the chestnut- leaved oak from North America before 1730 ; and the Turkey oak from the south of Europe before 1735. The tree in which Charles II. concealed himself at Boscobel, in Shropshire, after the battle of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651, denominated the Eoyal Oak, was preserved with great care. Oakham (Eutlandshire) . — By an ancient OAK custom the lord of the manor was entitled to demand from every peer passing through his domains a shoe from one of his horses, or the equivalent in money, and the ruins of the old castle of Oakham, supposed to have been built in the reign of Henry IT., are covered vrith horse- shoes obtained in this manner by its former possessors. The grammar-school was founded in 1581, and the Agricultural Hall in 1837. Oak Stnob was held in June, a.d. 403, in a suburb of Chalcedon called the Oak, where a church and a monastery had been founded by Eufinus. Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria, had brought accusations against Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, and charges embodied in forty-seven articles were launched against him at this synod. It lasted fourteen days, and forty-five bishops subscribed the sentence of deposition against Chrysostom, who refused to appear. The synod appealed to the emperor ; Chrysostom was arrested, but was speedily reinstated, and a council held at Constantinople pronounced in his favour. Oasis, or Atjasis (Africa). ^ — Three of these solitary places in the deserts of Libya, were celebrated in ancient history under this name, — the Greater Oasis, accord- ing to Herodotus seven days' journey west of Thebes ; the Ammonium, the site of the famed temple of Jupiter Ammon, visited by Alexander the Great b.c. 333, with its celebrated oracle; and the Lesser Oasis. Juvenal is supposed to have been the first person banished to one of these sohtary places, in the sandy deserts of Libya, a.d. 94. Timasius, the master-general of Theo- dosius, was banished by Eutropius to the Oasis in 396. Nestorius was also transferred from Petra to the Oasis in 435. Oates's Plot. {See Popish Plots.) Oaths. — Abraham sealed his covenant with Abimelech by an oath, B.C. 1891 (Gen. xxi. 23) ; and they were sanctioned by the Mosaic law B.C. 1496 (Lev. v. 4). Oaths were common amongst the Greeks and Eo- mans. They were introduced into judicial proceedings in England by the Saxons a.d. 600 ; and 150 monks were sworn at a synod held at Cliff, in Aug. 824. With reference to the claim set up by Innocent III. a.d. 1200, and maintained by his successors, to grant dispensations from promissory oaths, Hal- lam (" Middle Ages," c. vii. p. 2) remarks : •' Two principles are laid down in the Decre- tals — that an oath disadvantageous to the Church is not binding ; and that one extorted by force was of slight obligation, and might be annulled by ecclesiastical authority. As the first of these maxims gave the most un- limited privilege to the popes of breaking aU faith of treaties which thwarted their inter- est or passion, a privilege which they con- tinually exercised, so the second was equally convenient to princes weary of observing engagements towards their subjects or their neighbours. They protested with a bad grace against the absolution of their people &om aflegiance by an authority to which OBS they did not scruple to repair in order to bolster up their own perjuries." (See Abjtj- kation. Allegiance, Act of Supbemact, Jewish Disabilities Bill, &c.) Obelisks. — PHny mentions two that stood before the temple in Alexandria; one, Cleo- patra's Needle, is stiR in existence, and bears the name of Eameses II., who flourished b.c. 1360. The emperor Augustus (b.c. 31 — A.D. 14) removed several from Egypt to Eome, and succeeding emperors following his example, forty-eight in all were trans- ported. Eour of these were restored and set up by Pope Sixtus V. Another was set up by Innocent X. ia 1651 ; another by Alex- ander VII. in 1667 ; and one for Pius VII. in 1822. An obeHsk, removed by the French from Luxor, was erected in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, Oct. 25, 1836. Obidos (Battle).— The duke of Wellington defeated the French in an encounter near this fortified town in Portugal, Aug. 15, 1808. It is memorable as the scene where English blood was first spilt in the Peninsu- lar war. OsLivioiir. — The title Act of Oblivion was given to 13 Charles II. c. 3 (1660), which granted a general pardon and indemnity to aU state offences committed between Jan. 1, 1637, and June 24, 1660, excepting to the persons mentioned by name in 13 Charles II. St. 1, c. 15 (1660) ; to those who had embez- zled the king's goods; to Eomish priests or persons engaged in the Irish rebellion of 1641. Fifty-six of these regicides were at- tainted, of whom twenty -nine were brought to trial, and eleven executed. Disquahfica- tion from office was the punishment imposed upon twenty others. Obseevants. — When St. Bernard of Siena reformed the Franciscans, about a.d. 1400, those that remained under the re- laxed rule were termed Conventuals, and those that accepted the Eeformation, Observ- ants or EecoUects. The reformation was confirmed by the council of Constance, the seventeenth general council, held from Not, 16, 1414, to April 22, 1418, and afterwards by Pope Eugenius IV., who ascended the papal cnair in 1431. Obseevatoet. — The tower of Babel, erected about b.c. 2247 (Gen. xi. 1—9), is supposed by some writers to have been an observatory. The tomb of Osmandias in Egypt was an edifice of this kind. Observa- tories existed amongst the Chinese and the Hindoos at a remote period. The observa- tory at Alexandria, buUt B.C. 300, was the most celebrated of ancient times. The first modern observatory was erected at Cassel A.D, 1561. Cassel 1561 Edinburgh July 22, 1776 Is] e of Huen Aug. 13, 1576 Dublin 1785 Dantzic .... (about) 1640 Konigsberg 1814 Copenhagen 1656 Cape of Good Hope 1821 Paris 1670 Paramatta 1822 Greenwich Aug. 10, 1675 Cambridge 1824 Berlin 1711 Christiania 18.33 Petersburg 1725 Pulkowa 1839 Padua 1769 Cambridge, U.S. .. 1840 Oxlord 1772 Washington . U. S. 1842 615 OCA OcAJTA (Bailie).— The French, under' Mortier and Soult, defeated the Spaniards in a plain near this town in Spain, Nov. 19, 18U9. The French made 20,000 prisoners, took 45 pieces of cannon, and all the ammu- i nition of the Spanish army. Ocean Monaech. — This American emi- grant ship, on the same day that she sailed from Liverpool with 399 persons on board, took fire off Orme's Head, Aug. 24, 1848, and was burned to the water's edge in a few hours, 178 hves being lost. OcKLEY (Battle).— Ethelwulph, king of Wessex, and his son Ethelbald, defeated the Danes in a great battle near this town, in Surrey, a.d. 851. Octarchy. (See Heptarchy.) October, the eighth month of the Eoman year, as its name implies, was introduced into the calendar of Eomulus B.C. 753. October Club was first formed in Lon- don during the reign of Wfiham III. and Mary, about a.d. 1690. It consisted of a large number of members, many of them being Ja- cobites. In 1703 the club consisted of about 150 county members of parhament, who were of opinion that their party was too backward in punishing and turning out the Whigs. Their meetings, first held at the BeU, were afterwards transferred to the Crown, in King Street, Westminster. Octroi.— This excise duty, levied by the government on all articles entering Paris a ;d other large towns of France, was first imposed in the middle of the 14th century. It was abolished by the National Assembly in 1790, and it was restored Oct. 18, 1798. This tax was abolished in Belgium in 1848. OczAKOw, OczAKOFP, or Otchakoe (Eussia) , possessed a citadel at a very early period. The Eussian army, under Mtinnich, amounting to 70,000 men, with a powerful artillery train, besieged it July 10, and a Eowder-magazine having blown up and uried 6,000 men in the ruins, the Turkish garrison surrendered July 13, 1737. The Turks laid siege to it Oct. 28, but were com- pelled to withdraw, on account of sickness in their ranks, Nov. 10, 1737. The Turks re- gained possession in 1738. It was assailed, though without success, by the Eussians in 1769 ; was invested by Prince Potemkin July 12, 1788; and taken Dec. 17. It was finally ceded to Eussia Jan. 9, 1792. The fortifications were blown up on the ap- proach of the French and Eughsh, Oct. 18, 1855. Odd Fellows. — Nothing positive seems to be known respecting their origin. In the Odd Fellows' Magazine for March, 1837, an Odd FeUow is said to be " hke a fox for cunning ; a dove for tameness ; a lamb for innocence ; a hon for boldness ; a bee for industry ; and a sheep for usefulness." The first number of an Odd Fellows' Magazine appeared at Manchester in March, 1828. It was continued till Jan., 1843. An Odd Fel- lows' newspaper, of which 52 numbers were issued, was pubhshed in London in 1839. Odense, or Odensee (Denmark) .—One of 616 OEN the most ancient towns in the kingdom, the" foundation of which is referred by tradition to Odin. The cathedral, commencedA.D.1080, was completed in 1301. A diet assembled here a.d. 1527 secured the reUgious hberty of Denmark. Odessa (Eussia) was founded by the em- press Catherine a.d. 1794, and received as its governor the duke of EicheUeu, a French emigrant, in 1803. In 1817 it was declared a free port for thirty years, a pri^Tlege after- wards extended by imperial ukase tiU Aug. 27, 1854. The batteries having fired upon the Furious steam frigate, under a flag of truce, in April, 1854, it was bombarded by the French and English fleets, April 22. The steam frigate Tiger, having stranded here, was fired upon in a cowardly manner by the garrison of Odessa, May 12, 1854. The Enghsh and French expedition to the Bug and the Dnieper lay at anchor off Odessa from Oct. 8 to 14, 1855. Odessus. — This town, near the site of which the modern Varna stands, is said to have been founded by the Milesians about B.C. 592. The Bulgarians seized it a.d. 679. Odontology, the science of the teeth, was first accuratelv treated of by Purkinj^, A.D. 1835, and by Eetzius in 1837. The re* lations between the teeth and the rest of the body were explained by Professor Eichard Owen to the French Academy of Sciences in Dec, 1839. The same gentleman pubhshed his Odontography/ in 1840 — 1845. Odkys^ are mentioned in connection with the Scythian expedition of Darius, B.C. 507; and they raised an army of 150,000 men against Macedonia B.C. 429. Xenophon and the Ten Thousand, in their "retreat," as- sisted to restore Seuthes, one of their kings, to the throne, B.C. 400. They were engaged in dissensions with the Athenians respecting the possession of the Thracian Chersonese, B.C. 382 — 357, and ceded the disputed terri- tory in the latter year. Phillip II. of Mace- don, after a ten years' contest, brought them under tribute, and founded Philippo- pohs in the heart of their country, B.C. 343. Sadales bequeathed his kingdom to the Eo- mansB.c. 42. A formidable rebellion against their Eoman masters was with difficulty put down by Poppaeus Sabinus a.d. 26. Vespa- sian incorporated the country with the em- pire about the year 72. Oedenburg, or Odenburg (Hungary), the ancient Scarabantia, called by the Hun- garians, Sopron, or Soprony, is celebrated in modern times as the scene of a diet held by Leopold I. A.D. 1681, with a view of concUiat- ing the Hungarians. The Hungarians de- feated the Austrians here, May 7, 1849. Oeland, or Oland (Baltic Sea).— This island, belonging to Sweden, seized by the Danes a.d. 1360, was soon after restored. QSniad^ (Greece) is first noticed B.C. 455, and was unsuccessfully besieged by Pe- ricles b.c. 454. The inhabitants, who sided with the Lacedaemonians in the Pelopon- nesian war, were compelled, chiefly through the instriunentality of Demosthenes, to de- OES" OLD dare for Atlions, b.c. 424. The iEtolians made themselves masters of (Eniadse about B.C. 350, and retained possession till B.C. 219, when it was taken by Philip V. of Macedon. It was captured by the Romans, and made over to their allies, the iEtolians, b.c. 211, but restored to the Acarnanians B.C. 189. Colonel Leake described its ruins a.d. 1855. CEifOPHTTA (Battle) was fought B.C. 456, between the Athenians, commanded by My- ronides, and the Boeotians. The latter were signally defeated. OESEii (Baltic Sea). — This island was taken from the Teutonic knights by the Danes, who ceded it to Sweden a.d. 1645. It was captured by Peter the Great a.d. 1710, and was, with the government of Livonia, ceded to Russia by the treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. Ofejt. {See Buda.) Opfa's Dyke, extendingfrom Bristol to the north of Flint, was constructed by Offa, king of Mercia, a.d. 779, in order to protect his territories from the attacks of the Welsh. Offices. — The purchase and sale of offices was abolished by5 &6 £dw. VI. c. 16 (1552). An order in council, enforcing the prohibi- tion, appeared July 19, 1702. By 31 Geo. II. c. 22 (1758), a duty was imposed upon aU salaries, fees, and perquisites of offices and pensions payable by the crown, exceeding the value of £100 per annum, and it was made perpetual by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 97 (Aug. 19, 1836) . Oglio (Battle).— The brothers Visconti, of Milan, were defeated on the Oglio with great loss by Count Lando, chief of an irregu- lar band, a.d. 1357. Ogulnian Law. — So called from tribunes of the name of Ogulnius, by whom it was proposed, b.c. 300. Its object was to remove the last exclusive privilege retained by the patricians; namely, that of being alone eligible for the sacred offices of Pontificate i and Augurate. By this law aU orders of priests were increased, and the priesthood opened to the plebeians. Ohio (North America) was explored a.d. 1673, by the French from Canada, who de- sti'oyed an EngHsh settlement on the Great Miami in 1752, bringing on the war between France and England, of 1755. At the peace, it was, with Canada, ceded to the English, Feb. 10, 1763, and passed into the power of the United States government after the War of Independence, Sept. 15, 1783. The first territorial legislature met in September, 1799, and Ohio was admitted into the Union as a separate state in 1802. Ohud, Mount (Battle). — Mohammed was defeated by the Koreish on Mount Ohud, near Medina, a.d. 623 or 624. Mohammed j himself v'as wounded in the face with a I javelin, and two of his teeth were broken. I Oil. — Jacob poured oil on the stone which ' formed his pillow at Bethel, b.c. 1760 (Gen. \ xx\'iii. 18). It was extensively used in the '' sacrificial worship of the J^ws, and in the anointment of their high priests and kings, j The ancient Egyptians extracted oils from | the ohve, castor-berry tree, lettuce, flux, and other sources, and used them in the toilet, as well as for lamps and in cookery. Athens exported large quantities of olive oil ; and at Rome, bathers and the athletse habitually used it for purposes of anointment. Jan Van ] Eyckis regarded as the inventor of oil colours i A.D. 1410, but there is httle doubt that they j were known at least two centuries before his time. AU vessels containing oil were ordered to be gauged by 4 Rich. II. c. 1 (1380), which was repeated and enforced by subsequent acts. Imported oils were taxed by 12 Charles II. c. 4 (1660), and the duty on olive oil was increased by 2 Will. & Mary, s. 2, c. 4 (1690). The duty on chemical or essential oils was fixed at one shilling per lb. by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 14, 1855), which repealed the duties on vegetable and fish oils. Taylor's apparatus for the manufactm-e of oil-gas was invented in 1815. Old Bailet (London).— The Sessions or court house, commenced a.d. 1770, was not completed until 1783. Improvements were made in 1808. The piUory in the Old Bailey was used for the last time June 22, 1830. Oldenburg- (Germany). — The title of count was assumed by Christian I. a.d. 1155, and the duchy was formed of the two coun- ties, Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, by Joseph II. in 1773. It joined the confede- ration of the Rhine in 1808, was incorporated with the French empire by Napoleon I. in 1810, and was restored to the duke in 1814. Augustus first assxmied the title of grand-duke in 1829. Kuiphausen was added to the grand duchy in 1854. Old Fort (Crimea) .—The allied Enghsh, French, and Turkish army, reached Old Fort, near Eupatoria, Sept. 12, 1854. In the com'se of a few days the forces disem- barked with their material. The English mustered 26,000 men and 54 guns; the French 24,500 men and 70 guns, and the Turks about 7,000 men. Old Man of the Mountain. — The name given in Europe to the leader of the Assas- sins [q.v.). Old Style. — An attempt was made in England to reform the calendar (q. vA March 16, 1585, when a biU, entitled " An act giving her Majesty authority to alter and new-make a calendar, according to the calendar used in other countries," was read a first time. It was read a second time March 18, 1585, and then the subject dropped. The alteration was effected by 24 Geo. II. c. 23 (1751), entitled " An act for regulating the commencement of the year, and lur correcting the calendar now in use." This measure effected two great reforms, first in substituting the Gregorian for the Julian calendar, and, secondly, in abohshing the practice of commencing the legal Aear on the 25th of March. (See Yeah.) The act provided : "That throughout aU his Majesty's dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, the supputation according to which the year of our Lord began on the 25th of 617 OLE Marcli shall not be used after the last day of December, 1751 ; and that the first day of January next following shall be reckoned as the first day of the year 1752, and so in all future years. That from and after the 1st day of January, 1752, the several days of each month shall go on and be reckoned and numbered in the same order, and the feast of Easter and other movable feasts thereon depending shall be ascertained according to the same method as they now are, until the 2nd of September, 1752 ; that the natural day next immediately following the 2nd of September, 1752, shall be called and reckoned as the 14.tli day of September, omitting the eleven intermediate nominal days of the common calendar ; that the day which followed next after the said 14th of Sep- tember shall be reckoned in numerical order from that day ; and all pubhc and private proceedings whatsoever after the 1st of January, 1752, were ordered to be dated accordingly. That the several years of our Lord 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, or any other hundredth years of our Lord which shall happen in time to come (except only every fourth hundredth year of our Lord), whereof the year 2000 shall be the first, shall not be deemed bissextile or leap-years, but shall be considered as common years, con- sisting of 365 days only ; and that the years of our Lord 2000, 2400, 2800, and every other fourth hundredth year of our Lord, from the year 2000 inclusive, and also all other years of our Lord, which by the present supputation are considered bissextile or leap-years, shall for the future be esteemed bissextile or leap-years, consisting of 366 days. That whereas, according to the rule then in use for calculating Easter-day, that feast was fixed to the first Sunday after the first full moon next after the 21st of March ; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter-day is the Sunday after, which rule had been adopted by the general council of Mce, A.D. 325 ; but as the method of com- puting the full moons then used in the Church of Eugland, and according to which the table to find Easter prefixed to the Book of Com- mon Prayer was formed, had become con- siderably erroneous, it was enacted that the said method should be discontinued, and that from and after the 2nd of September, 1752, Easter-day, and the other movable and other feasts were henceforward to be reck- oned accordiag to the calendar, tables, and rules annexed to the act, and attached to the Books of Common Prayer." {See New Style.) Oleron (British Channel) .—This island, the ancient Uliarus Insiila, was ceded to England by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 1360. Olekon- (France) .—Tinder the mediation of Edward I. of England, a treaty of peace was signed at this town of Beam, a.d. 1288, between Philip IV. of Prance and Alfonso III. of Aragon. Oleeon Laws. — Hallam (Middle Ages, oh. ix. pt. 2) remarks, with reference to this 618 OLM celebrated code of maritime law, — "A set of regulations, chiefly borrowed from the Con- solato, was compiled in France under the reign of Louis IX., and prevailed in their own country. These have been denominated the laws of Oleron, from an idle story that they were enacted by Eichard I., while his expedition to the Holy Land lay at anchor in that island." At the time this code was formed the EngUsh navy consisted of thirty- three ships. Oliva. — A. treaty of peace was ratified at Oliva, May 3, 1660, between Poland, Den- mark, Sweden, and the emperor. The Polish king renounced aU claim to the crown of Sweden. Drontheim and Bornholm were ceded to Denmark, and Esthonia and Livonia to Sweden. Olive, " in the western world," says Gib- bon, " followed the progress of peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the foundation of Eome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant ; it was naturaUzed in these countries, and at length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul." A law of the Roman republic prohibited the culture of the vine and the oHve beyond the Alps, that the value of those in Italy might be kept up. It was so highly valued by the Israelites that it was planted in the outer court of the second temple (Ps. xcii. 13, &c.). Olive-trees were culti- vated in the botanic garden at Oxford in 1648, and some trees planted in the open ground at Camden House, Kensington, in 1719, produced fruit. The Cape ohve, and the weather-leaved olive, were introduced from the Cape in 1730, the sweet-scented oHve from China in 1771, and the laurel- leaved ohve from Madeira in 1784. Olivewza (Spain). — This town, belonging to Portugal, was taken by the Spaniards May 20, 1801, and a treaty was concluded by which Ohvenza was confirmed to Spain, Sept. 29, 1801 . The French, under Soult, captured it Jan. 22, 1811, and it was retaken by the Enghsh, under Beresford, after a few days' siege, April 17, 1811. It was again occupied, June 24, 1811, by the French, who blew up the fortifications. Olivenza was restored to Portugal by the congress of Vienna in 1814, but Ferdinand VII. refused to give it up, and the town is stiU held by Spain in spite of the treaty. Olmtttz (Austria). — This town, at a later period the capital of Moravia, resisted an attack by the Mongols a.d. 1242. Here Matthias concluded what was termed the perpetual peace, with the kings of Bohemia and Poland, in July, 1479. Sigismtmd, king of Poland, held a congress here in April, 1527. It was taken by the Swedes, under Torstenson, during the Thirty Years' War, A.D. 1642, and was besieged unsuccessfully by Frederick the Great for seven weeks, a.d. 1758. Here Lafayette was imprisoned in 1794, and Ferdinand II. resigned the crown to his nephew, Dec. 2, 1848. The cathedral was founded about a.d. 1300 ; and the uni- j varsity was transferred to Kremsir in con- OLO sequence of the outbreak in 1848. A conference, under the auspices of the empe- ror of Eussia, at which the plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia came to terms on the Hesse-Cassel dispute, was held here Nov. 29, 1850. Olot (Spain). — This ancient town, of which some Roman remains stiU exist, was almost entirely destroyed hy an earthquake A.D. 1427. It was rebuilt, and suffered severely during the war of independence. The Spaniards were defeated by the French at Olot, Dec. 18, 1809. Oltenitza (Battle).— About 12,000 Turks who crossed the Danube from Turtukai, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853, estabhshed themselves at Oltenitza, where they were assailed by the Russians, Nov. 4. The engagement ter- minated in favour of the Turks, who only lost 106 men. The Russian loss amounted to 1,000 in killed and wounded. Olympia (Battle). — The Eleians were de- feated by the Arcadians, in the neighbour- hood of Olympia, b.c. 364, and at the time of the celebration of the 104th Olympiad, the Arcadians were in possession of Olympia. Assisted by the Achaians, the Eleians sur- prised the Arcadians in the celebration of the games, and obtained a complete victory. Olympia (Greece) .—The temple and sacred frove of Zeus Olympius were planned after the estruction of Pisa by the Eleians, b.c. 572, when the spoils of the conquered cities were devoted to the erection of a temple, which was completed about b.c. 472. Phidias executed the colossal statue of Zeno in ivory and gold, and the figures in the pediments, B.C. 437 — 433. The site, plan, and dimen- sions of the temple have been shown by the excavations of the French commission. Olympiad, a term of four years, deriving its name from the Olympic games, commenced with the new moon of the summer solstice, July 1, 776 B.C. This system of computing time was employed by the ancient Greeks, and it ceased after the 305th Olympiad, a.d. 440. Olympic Games. — ^The chief of the four great national festivals of the ancient Greeks, celebrated every fifth year at Olympia (q-v.), whence the name. The exact interval at which they recurred was one of forty- nine and fifty Ivmar months alternately. The origin of the games, which lasted five days, is unknown. Some authors assert that they were founded by the Idsei Dactyh B.C. 1453. There was a tradition that Iphi- tus, king of the Eleians, had revived the festival, B.C. 884 according to Eratosthenes, and B.C. 828 according to Callimachus. Herodotus recited parts of his history at the Olympic games, b.c. 456. They were cele- brated at Antioch a.d. 44, and were discon- tinued at Ehs in 394, and at Antioch by a decree of Justin I. in 520. Olympic Theatre (London) was built in 1805, by Phihp Astley, of Astley's Amphi- theatre, and opened Sept. 18, 1806. It was burnt to the ground March 29, 1849, and OMM having been rebuilt, was opened Dec. 26, 1849. Olynthian War.- The Olynthians had become so powerful that Acanthus and Ap- poUonia, jealous of their supremacy, applied to Sparta for aid, B.C. 383, The Spartans sent an army, under Eudamidas, B.C. 382, and Teleutias joined him soon after with 10,000 men. Both generals were utterly de- feated, and Teleutias lost his life, B.C. 381. In the next campaign the Olynthians sub- mitted to Polybiades, the Spartan general, B.C. 379. War broke out between the Olyn- thians and Philip II., king of Macedon, B.C. 350, which ended in the entire destruction of the city of Olynthus, B.C. 347. Olynthtjs (Greece) . — Artabazus, the Per- sian general, having captured the town and put all the inhabitants to death, gave it to the Chalcidic Greeks. From its situation it became of great importance, B.C. 392. {See OLYifTHiAN War.) Oma&h (Ireland), anciently called Oigh- Magh, signifying " the seat of the chiefs," is supposed to have been founded a.d. 792. The soldiers of James II. set fire to the town, and destroyed it with its church and castle in 1689. The tovm having been rebuilt, was again destroyed by fire. The county in- firmary was estabhshed in 1796. Omercote (Scinde). — This fortified town was taken by the Ameers of Scinde from the rajah of Joudpore in 1813. The north-west tower of the fort was swept away in 1826 by the overflowing of a branch of the Indus. Omer, St. (France). — The cathedral, a fine bmlding in the Gothic style, was com- pleted in the middle of the 16th century. Within the walls of the abbey of St. Bertin, the only remaining fragment of which is a tower built in the 15th century, Childeric III., the last of the Merovingian kings of France, was confined by Pepin in 752. The French captured St. Omer in 1487. Wilham III., prince of Orange, was defeated in battle here by Marshal Luxemburg in 1677, and the town was ceded to France by the treaty of Nime- guen, Aug. 10, 1678. Ommiades. — This dynasty was founded in Arabia by Moawiyah, a.d. 655 or 661. Mer- wan II., the fourteenth and last caMph of this race, was slain in a mosque on the banks of the NUe, Feb. 10, 750, when the Abbassides (q.v.) assumed the reins of power. Abder- haman, the only member of the Ommiades who escaped the massacre at Damascus, founded acahphate inSpainin755. Eighteen caHphs reigned ; Hixem III., who resigned in 1031, being the last. Began to reign. A.D. Moawiyah I. ..655 or 661 Yezid 1 680 Moawiyah 11 683 Merwan 1 684 Abdahnelik 684 Walid 1 705 Soliman 715 Began to reign. AJ). Omarll 717 Yezid II 720 Hashem, or Hixem 724 Walid II 743 Yezid in. (5 months) 744 Ibrahim (3 months) 744 Merwan II 744 OMN" OPE Began to reign. A.D. Abderahmanl... .. 755 Hixem I., or Hashem 787 Alhakem .. 796 Abdeialiman II. .. 821 Mohammed L . . .. 85-2 Almondhir .. 886 AbilaUah 888 Abderahman III .. 912 Alhakem II . 961 HixemIL .. 976 Began to reign. A.D. Mohammed H 1009 Suleyman 1009 Ali Ben Hamud . . 1016 Abderahman IV. . . 1017 Alc.ssim 1021 AbdfrahmanV. ..1023 Mohamad III. (cousin of Hixem II.) . . 1023 Hixem III 1025 Omnibus. — Charles Kniglit says "the omnibus was tried about 1800, with four horses and six wheels ; but we refused to accept it in any shape till we imported the fashion from Paris in 1830." The omnibus was introduced there in 1827, and Mr. ShiUi- beer started the first pair in the metropohs, from the Bank to the Yorkshire Stingo, New Eoad, July 4, 1829. Omnibuses began to run in Amsterdam in September, 1839. Oa'e-Pound B'otes were first issued by the Bank of England March 4, 1797. They were withdrawn in 1823. They were again issued Dec. 16, 1852, for a short time, to relieve commercial distress. Onoee (Hindostan). — This place, near Bombay, was captured by the Portuguese A.D. 1569. General Mathews took it by storm Jan. 5, 1783, when the inhabitants are said to have been cruelly treated. OoDETPOEE, or Mewar (Hiudostau). — Its former capital, Chittor, was sacked a.d. 1303 by the Mohammedans, and again March 16, 1527. Chittor was taken in 1568 by the emperor Akbar, and most of its inhabitants perished. On the loss of his capital, the nana, Oody Singh, founded the city of Oodeypore, since that time the capi- tal of Mewar. The nana of Oodeypore entered into a treaty with the East-India Company in 1818, by which he became a tributary of the British government. Oojein (Hindostan), one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindoos, is supposed to be the Ozoana mentioned by Ptolemy. Vi- cramadilya, king of Oojein, was so celebrated that the Samoat sera used to this day through- out India dates from the commencement of his reign, b.c. 57. Oojein was taken by the Mohammedans in 1310, and it came under the power of the Patans in 1387. It was sub- jugated by Akbar in 1561. The Mahrattas took it in the middle of the 18th century, and it was the capital of Scindia's posses- sions tin 1810, when the seat of the govern- ment was fixed at Gwalior. OoTAKAMUND (Hindostau). — A sanitary station at this place, on the Neilgherry HiUs, was founded a.d. 1822. Opera. — This term, at first applied to the earhest Itahan plays of a mixed character, and then to lyrical dramas, was afterwards restricted to musical compositions. Menes- trier, the Jesuit, considers the Song of Solomon to be the earhest opera on record. The more probable account is that the opera proceeds from the sacred musical plays of t20 the 15th century. "The Conversion of St. Paul" was performed at Rome a.d. 1440, and " Orfeo," or the descent of Orpheua into heU, was produced in that city in 1480. Sutherland Edwards, in his " History of the Opera," from which much of the informa- tion in this article is derived, states that Clement IX. was the author of seven libretti. A.D. 1574 Clandio Merulo composes the music of a drama, which is played beJore Henry HE. of France at Venice. 1581. Baltasarini, alias Beaujoyeux, produced the Ballet Comique de la Reyne, which is said to have cost 3,600,000 francs. 1597. The opera of Dafne is pertbimed for the first time in the Corsi palace at Florence. 1600. Euridice is represented publicly at Florence, on the occasion of the marriage of Henry IV. of France with M.irie de Medicis. 1608. Gagliano composes new music to the libretto of Dafne, and Monteverde's Orfeo is pro- ducea in Italy. 1645. Cardinal Mazarin introduces the Italian opera into Paris. 1646. The first French opera, entitled Ak6bar, Jtoi de Mogol, is pioduced in the episcopal palace of Carpeutras. 1656. The first English opera is produced at Sir W. Davenant's thtatre. 1671. The seconi i Fj ench opera, La Pastorale en Musique, is privately performed at Issy. The third, Pomone. being the first French opera heard by the Parisian public, is pro- duced this year. 1673. LulU. in conjunction with Quinault, wi-ites Cadmus and Bermione, which is produced upon the French stage. 1677. Purcell (bom 1659) produces his first opera. Dido and JEneas. 1678. Thiele's ^dam and .Cve. the first opera pro- duced in public in Germany in tho German language, is played at Hamburg. 1685. Dryden's celebrated opera, the music by Gra- but, Albion and Albanlus, is performed at the Duke's Theatre. 1690. Purcell composes music for the Tempest. 1691. Purcell produces his King A rtliur in England. 1710. The Italian opera is introduced into Kngland about this time. Buououciui's Almahide is produced in Kngland, being the first work performed entirely in the Italian language. 1711. Handel's first opera, Rinaldo, is produced at the Queen's 'Theatre, in the Haymarket. 1712. Handel's 11 Pastor Fido is produced at the King's Theatre. 1713. Handel's Teseo is produced. 1715. Handel's Ainadigi is brought out. 1722. Bu(moucini's Griselda is produced. 1723. Handel's Ottone and Flavio are brought out. 1724 Handel's Giulio Cesare and Tamerlano are produced. 1727. Buononcini's last opera.^ styanax,is produced. 1733. Eameau's Hippolyte et Aricie is produced at Paris. 1737. Rameau produces his Castor and Pollux. 1752. Pergolese's Serva Padrona is produced in Paris. This opera causes the cele'a-ated dispute between the French and Italian stage. 1760. Galuppi's Mondo della Luna is represented in Loudon. 1780. Paisiello's Barbieredi Siviglia is produced at St. Petersburg. 1794. Jan. 21. Admission to the National Opera of Paris is granted free of charge. 1806. Catalani appears in London. 1821. Weber's Der PreischUtz is performed at Berlin. ! 1826. Oberon, "Webei-'s last opera, is produced at ' Coveut Garden. i 1828. Catalan! sang for the last time in Dublin. OPE 1829. Aug. 3. GuiUaume Tell, the last opera -written by Rossini, is represeuted for the first time at the Aciid6in;e Royale, Paris. 1831. Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable is produced at the AcHd6inie Royale. .1832. Giulia, or Giulietta, Grisi first distinguishes herself a^ Adalgisa, in Norma, at Milan. 1835. / Puriiani is played for the fiist time in London, for Grisi's benefit. 1836. Jan. 26. Meyerbeer's second grand operR, Ze« Huguenots, is produced at the Acad6mie Royale. 1840. Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia is produced at Paris. 1844. Donizetti's last opera, entitled Catarino Co- mar o, is performed at Naples. 1847. Madem.oiselle Altaoui appears at the Royal I'alian Opera, Covent Garden. 1848. April 8. Donizotti d'es at Bergamo, in his fifty-second year, having composed sixty- four operas. 1849. Meyerbepr's third opera. Le Prophite, is pro- duced at the Accidfemie Royale. 1861. Giulia Giisi retires from the stage. Opeka-House (London). — The Italian Opera-house, or Her Majesty's Theatre, built by Sir John Vanbrugh a.d. 1705, was burnt down June 18, 1789. The present edifice was built in 1790, by an architect named jVovasielsky. The colonnade and arcade were added m 1818. Ophir, the name of an ancient country celebrated for gold. Its position has not been ascertained ; and Arabia, India, and Africa, are contended for by diiferent au- thorities. The ships of Solomon and of Hiram, king of Tyre, brought 450 talents of gold to Jerusalem, b.c. 1000 (1 Kings vs.. 26—28, X. 11, and 2 Chron. -riii. 17 and 18, and ix. 10). Jehoshaphat built ships at Tharshish, to go to Ophir for gold, about B.C. 913 (1 Kings xxii. 48, and 2 Chron. xx. 36 and 37). Gold from Ophir is also men- tioned in Job xxii. 24, and xxviii. 16 ; Psalm xlv. 9 ; and Isaiah xiii. 12. Oi'HTHALMic Hospital. — The first insti- tution of this description in England was founded in Moorfields a.d. 1804, and was called the Rojal London Ophthalmic Hos- pital. The Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital was founded in 1816, the North London in 1841 , and the Central London in 1843. The Ophthalmic Infirmary was founded in Bur- lington Gardens in 1804. Opium, chiefly obtained from Persia, Arabia, and India, was anciently prepared at Thebes. The opium trade to China be- came a monopoly in the hands of the East- India Company a.d. 1773, and was trans- ferred to the Board of Trade in 1793. The Chinese prohibited the importation in 1796. The cultivation of opium in India was restricted to the districts of Bahar and Benares in 1797. Turkey opium was intro- duced into the Indian Archipelago in 1815. On the cessation of the East-India Company's trading powers in 1834, a superintendent of trade was sent out to China by the Bi-itish gOTemment. Disputes arose with the Chinese, who, in 1839, destroyed 20,000 chests of opium. Serturner proved opium to be a compound substance in 1612. OPT Opoeto (Portugal) stands near the site of the ancient Cale, or Calem, also called Portus Cale, whence the name Portugal is by some writers derived. The Alani after- wards foimded Castrum Novum, of which the present city of Oporto, i. e., the Port, is supposed to occupy the site. It was taken by the Arian Goths, under Leovogildo, a.d. 540. The Goths gave way to the Moors in 716, and the tovra was utterly destroyed by Almanzor of Cordova in 820. It was rebuilt and re-peopled by Gascons and French in 999, and it again feU into the hands of the Moors, who retained possession till 1092, when it was finally taken by the Christians. A tax having been laid upon Hnen manufac- tures, the women rose and routed the solcUers in 1628. Another riot ensued in 1661, on ac- count ofatax imposed upon paper. Aninsur- rection occurred in 1756, when the wine mono- poly was created by Pombal, and for this in- surrection twenty-six: persons were put to death. The Erench, under Soult, took Oporto by storm March 29, 1809. The duke of WeUington passed the Douro May 11, 1809, and surprised Soult, who was obhged to retreat. The Miguelites seized Oporto July 3, 1828. Don Pedro landed near Oporto, of which he took possession, July 8, 1832. The Miguehtes attacked the place Sept. 19, and were repulsed with great slaughter. They continued the siege, and failed in another assault, March 4, 1833. _ Oppido (Italy), supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Mamertium, was made a bishop's see about a.d. 1301. The town was ahnost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1783. O. P. Riots (Covent-Garden Theatre).— The new theatre was opened Monday, Sept. 18, 1809, and the prices of admission having been raised, the pubhc assembled in large nunbers, and by uttering loud cries of 0. P., meaaiug old prices, prevented the actors from being heard. This was repeated night after night. The managers having tried in vain to overcome the opposition by the aid of a pugilistic corps, with Dutch Sam at their head, submitted Dee. 16, 1809, by re- turning to the old prices. Opslo (Battle). — Christian of Denmark suppressed a revolt of the Norwegian nobles at this town, the ancient capital of Norway, A.D. 1508. Opslo was almost completely destroyed by fire. May 24, 1624, and Chris- tiania was soon after "founded upon its site and made the capital. Optics, the science which treats of the nature of light and vision, was very imper- fectly known until the 16th and 17th cen- turies. 424. Burning glasses are mentioned by Aristo- phanes, in the comedy of the " Clouds." 300. Euclid writes the first treatise on Optics. A.D. 65. Seneca observes the magnifying power of convex lenses and the refraction of light by prisms. 621 OPT A.D. 140 (about). Claudius Ptoleray, the astronomer, wi-ites his five books of Optics, in which the subject is first treated in a scientific manner. 174 Galen announces the principle of binocular vision. 1100. The Arabian philosopher Alhazen makes im- portant discoveries in the theory of vision, and in the laws of reflection and refrac- tion. 1266 (about). Koger Bacon describes the applica- tion of lenses to aid defective sight, or to counteract the effects of distance, in his Opus Majus. 1270. The science is cultivated by Vitello. 1525. Maurolycus makes important researches into the laws of light and shade. 1558. BaptistaPortapublishes his J/ag-iaiV^atoraiis, which contains a description of the Camera Obscura (q v.). 1571. J. Fleschier publishes a work on the rainbow. 1600. Guido Ubaldi explains the laws of perspec- tive. 1604. Kepler explains the functions of the retina. 1611. Kepler founds the science of Dioptrics, which treats of the transmission of light through transparent substances. 1619. Christopber Scheiner proves the resemblance between the eye and the camera obscura. 1621. WiUebrord Snellius, of Leyden, discovers the true theoiy of refraction. 1630. Descartes publishes his " Dioptrics." 1663. Death of Francis Maria Grimaldi, discoverer of tbe inflection of light. Dr. Houke pub- lishes his " Experiments upon Colours." 1669. Eiasmus Bartholinus discovers double refrac- tion. 1672. Newton announces the different refrangibUity of light. 1675. Koemer discovers the velocity of light. 1676. Newton announces his theory of " Colours." 1678. Christian Huyghens announces the wave theory of light, and discovers the pheno- menon of polarization. 1800 to 1803. Dr. Thomas Young supports the wave theory of light, and demonstrates the general law of interference. 1810. Colonel E. L. Mains discovers polarization by reflection. 1811. Frangois Arago investigates the colours of polarized light, and discovers circular polarization. 1812. M. Blot announces his fallacious theory of movable polarization. 1818. M. FresKeJ estaijlishes bis theory of double refraction, and publishes the true theoi-y of the inflection of light. 1830. Sir David Brewster proves the identity of the phenomena of metallic and elliptic polari- zation. {See Photogeapht, &c.) Optimists. — This sect of philosophers maintain, not merely that " whatever is, is right," but that whatever is, is absolutely best, and hence that even crimes form part of the divine plan in the government of the universe. Malebranehe, who was born a.d. 1637, and died in 1715, and Leibnitz (1646 to 1716) are regarded as the founders of optimist philosophy. Oeacles. — The most ancient oracle was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of Epirus. It was destroyed by the ^EtoHans B.C. 219, when the temple of the god was razed to the ground. The celebrated oracle of Apollo, at Delphi, was founded B.C. 1236. The temple was destroyed by fire B.C. 548. The Amphietyons rebuilt it at a cost of 300 talents, or about £115,000. The temple was plundered by Sylla and l^ero, and having 622 OEA fallen into neglect, was restored by Ha- drian. The oracle was finally silenced by Theodosius. Oean (Algeria) was in the possession of the caliphs, and it contained extensive bazaars and flourishing manufactures in the 12th century. The Pisans formed estab- lishments at Oran and on the surrounding coasts, A.B. 1373, and the Spaniards, under Cardinal Ximenes, invaded and captured Oran in 1509. It was retaken by the Algerines in 1708, and in 1732 was again captured by the Spaniards, who finally left it 1791, after an earthquake had de- stroyed everything except the fort. The French took Oran Dec. 10, 1830. They constructed docks, which were opened in 1850, and added many public buildings and streets to the old town. In 1837 a military colony of spahis (native cavalry) was estab- hshed, and the colony has, since its acquisi- tion by France, been under the control of a mihtary governor. Oeange (France). — This town is remark- able for its Roman remains, consisting of a triumphal arch, supposed to commemorate the triumph of Marius over the Teutones at Aix, B.C. 102, a theatre, and a circus or hip- podrome. The town was called by the Ro- mans Arausio. In the Middle Ages it was the capital of a small principahty of the same name. On the death of the prince of Orange in 1531, without children, it was inherited by his sister, who married the prince of Nassau, and the Nassau family were con- firmed in possession by the treatv of Rys- wick, Sept. 11, 1697. The king of Prussia claimed it on the death of William III. of England in 1702, and by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, he was allowed to exchange it for other possessions with the king of France. Oeange Lodges. — The first was formed by the Orangemen (q. v.) at Armagh, Sept. 21, 1795; and the duke of York became a patron in 1797. They fell into comparative neglect at the close of the war in 1815. It was decided to revive them in Ireland, Aug, 28, 1828, and at a great Orange meeting held in Dubhn Sept. 15, 1828, the accept- ance, by the duke of Cumberland, of the office of grand master of the Orangemen of the United Kingdom, was announced. De- bates respecting the legahty of the Orange lodges occurred in the House of Commons March 4 and 6, and Aug. 4, 11, 15, 19, and 20, 1835 ; and a series of resolutions against them was agreed to in the House of Com- mons Feb. 23, 1836. Many magistrates were dismissed in 1845 because they were members of Orange lodges. Oeangemen-. — This name was given by the Roman CathoKcs of Ireland to the Pro- testants of that country, on account of their support of the cause of WiUiam III., prince of Orange. It was first assumed in 1795 as the designation of a pohtical party by the Protestants, who formed loyal associations in opposition to the society of United Irish- men, organized in 1791 for the purpose of OEA creating an insurrection, and establishing a republic in connection with France. Okange Eiveb (Africa) . — A district watered by a river of this name, was made British territory after the suppression of the Caffre rebellion, a.d. 1848. It was erected into a free state in 1854. Orange -Tree. — This tree, introduced into Europe by the Moors, was cultivated at Seville towards the end of the 12th, and at Palermo and Rome in the 13th century. Orange-trees are also said to have been brought from China to Portugal in 1547. Oranges are supposed to have been intro- duced into England by Sir Walter Raleigh. In the early part of the 16th century orange- trees were planted at Beddington, in Surrey, and in the beginning of the 18th century they had attained the height of 18 feet. They were all destroyed by frost in 1739. The Syringa, or mock orange, was brought from the south of Europe before 1596. The duty on oranges was repealed in 1860. Obatians, or Fathers of the Oratory, were founded in Italy by Philip Neri, and re- ceived the public approval of Gregory XIII. A.D. 1577. The name is derived from the chapel or oratory, built by Neri at Florence. The French society of Fathers of the Ora- torv of the Holy Jesus was instituted by John Berulle in 1613. Oratorio. — Some composition of this kind was known in the Church in the Middle Ages, though the modern oratorio is generally believed to have originated in Italy about A.D. 1540. Oratorios were introduced into England by Handel in 1720, but were not performed in public tiU 1732. They were so successful that in 1737 they were per- formed twice a week during the season of Lent. Handel's "Messiah" appeared in 1741; Haydn's "Creation" in 1798; Mendelssohn's " St. Paul" Sept. 20, 1837, and his "Elijah" Aug. 26, 1846, Orbazzano, or Marsaglia (Battle). — The French, under Catinat, defeated the troops of Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, at this town, in Piedmont, Oct. 4, 1693. Orcades (North Sea), — Ancient writers represent this group, at the extreme north of Britannia, to consist of between thirty and forty small islands, supposed to be the modern Orkney and Shetland Islands (q.v.). Orchards, from the Anglo-Saxon ort- geard, or wyrt-yard, existed in this country in ancient times as appendages to monastic establishments, yet do not seem to have become numerous before the beginning of the 17th century. Orchestrion. — A musical instrument, in- vented in France by the Abbe Vogler a.d. 1789. Kunz, a Bohemian, gave the same name to an instrument invented by him in 1796. Orchian Law. — A sumptuary law, pro- posed b.c. 181, by Orchius (whence its name), one of the tribunes, on the I'ecommendation of the senate. It limited the number of guests at any entertainment, ordering the OED doors of the house to be left open during the meal, to guard against any infringement of the law. Orchomenijs (Arcadia).— This city was built, according to Pausanias, by a son of Lycaon ; and the kings of Orchomenus are said to have ruled over the greater part of Arcadia. During the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedaemonians left the hostages they had taken from the Arcadians in Orcho- menus. The people were, however, com- pelled to surrender them to the Athenians, B.C. 418. ItfeU into the hands of Cassander B.C. 313, in the war waged by him against Polysperchon. Orchomenxjs (Bceotia), capital of the powerful tribe of the Minyse, became a member of the Boeotian confederacy sixty years after the Trojan war. It continued on friendly terms with the Thebans until war broke out between Sparta and Thebes, B.C. 395, when Orchomenus assisted the Spartans. At the peace of Antalciadas (q.v.), B.C. 387, Thebes acknowledged the independence of Orchomenus. After the battle of Leuctra {q. v.), b.c 371, the Thebans became undisputed masters of Bceotia, and burnt Orchomenus to the ground, killed aU the male inhabitants, and sold the women and children into slavery, B.C. 368. It was rebuilt during the Phocian war ; and at the conclusion of the Sacred war, B.C. 346, Philip II. gave Orchomenus to its old enemy Thebes, and the people destroyed the city a second time, and sold all its inhabitants as slaves. After the battle of Chaeroneia {q.v.), in which the Thebans and the Athenians were defeated, B.C. 338, it was rebuilt by order of Philip II., but it never regained its former importance. Ordeals, or God's judgments, are of great antiquity, some writers being of opinion that the jealousy-oifering mentioned in the 5th chapter of If umbers, B.C. 1496, is a test of this kind. Ordeal of fire was known to the Greeks, and was practised by the Brahmins. Blackstone says : " The most ancient species of trial was that by ordeal; which was peculiarly distinguished by the appellation of Judicium Dei, and sometimes Vulgaris Pargatio, to distinguish it from the canonical purgation, which was by the oath of the party." The trial by ordeal in England was of two sorts, either fire ordeal or water ordeal. Fire ordeal was performed, either by taking up in the hand a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, or three pounds weight ; or else by walking barefoot and blindfold, over nine red-hot ploughshares, laid lengthwise at unequal distances ; and, if the party escaped being hurt, he was adjudged innocent ; but if it happened otherwise, as vrithout collusion it usually did, he was then condemned as guilty. Water ordeal was performed, either by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boihng water, and escaping unhurt there- by ; or by casting the person suspected into a river or pond of cold water, and if he floated without any action of swimming, it 623 ORD was deemed an evidence of his guilt, but if he sank he was acquitted. There were several other species of ordeal in use in different countries. Notice of ordeals in England first occurs in the laws of Ina, who reigned in Wessex from a.i>. 628 to 727. This mode of punishment was formally abol- ished by Henry III. in 1218, when assize of battel, or trial by combat (g-.w.), for some time took its place. Ordees in Cotjitcil, provoked by l^apo- leon I.'s Berlin decree (q.v.), were issued by the Enghsh government Jan. 7 and Nov. 11, 1807. They prohibited trading to any ports under the influence of France. These orders, which led to several discus- sions in the houses of parliament, were revoked, as far as the United States were concerned, June 23, 1812, and were alto- gether repealed in 1814. Ordinances. — French laws were, after the reign of Philip IV., or the Fair, of France (a.d. 1285—1314), usually styled ordinances. Louis XIV. ordered a collec- tion of these ordinances to be published, and the first volume appeared ia 1723. The ordinances of Charles X., which led to the expulsion frona France of the elder Bour- bons, appeared in the Monifeur July 25, 1830. During the great rebellion, the more important affairs of the kingdom were set- tled by ordinances. {See Selp-Denying Ordinance.) Ordnance. — As early as the reign of Henry III. the military stores of the country were under the charge of an officer called the " Balistarius," or " keeper of the cross- bows.'' The functions of this officer became extinct in the reign of Henry VI. The mas- ter of the king's ordnance was first appointed about A.D. 1461. The ofiice was formerly conferred for life, and was so bestowed by Queen Ehzabeth on the earl of Essex. March 29, 1596. The last master-general appointed for life was Sir William Compton, who assumed the office Jan. 22, 1660. The letters patent of the master-general of the ordnance were revoked May 25, 1855, when the civil administration of the army was vested in the hands of the secretary of war. Ordnance Ofeice (London) was built A.D. 1767. Ordnance Survey. — The trigonometri- cal survey of England was commenced a.d. 1783, for the purpose of connecting the ob- servatory at Greenwich with the French are of tlie meridian at Paris. This led to the great undertaking of a general survey of the British isles, begun in 1791. The ordnance survey of Ireland commenced in 1824, and the great survey of India in 1804. Orebro (Sweden).— Here, in 1540, the act of succession in favour of Gustavus Vasa originated. It was confirmed at Westeraas in 1542. Bernadotte was elected crown prince of Sweden at Orebro in 1810, and a treaty of peace was signed here between Great Britain and Sweden, July 18, 1812. It consisted of four articles, and was ratified om by the prince regent of England Aug. 4, and by the king of Sweden Aug. 17. Oregon (North America) is said to have been visited by the Spaniard Bartolomi Ferrelo, a.d. 1543. Sir Francis Drake touched here in 1579 ; Captain Gray, an American trader, sailed along part of the coast in 1789 ; Captain Baker, an English- man, entered the mouth of the Columbia in 1792; and Lieutenant Broughton, E.N., sailed a hundred miles up the river, taking formal possession in the name of George III, in 1792. A dispute having arisen between Spain and England as to the sovereignty, both countries relinquished exclusive pos- session by the convention of Madrid, when Nootka Sound was ceded to England (1790). An American company, formed by Mr. Astor, of New York, made a settlement at a point in the mouth of the Columbia which was named Astoria, March 24, 1810. It fell into the hands of the Enghsh in 1814. The United States government laid claim to the territory, and after much negotiation, it was agreed by treaty, June 12, 1846, that the United States should possess up to 49° N. latitude, leaving free to England the navigation of the Columbia. Oregon was constituted a territory by act of congress, Aug. 14, 1848. Orel (Eussia), the chief town of a go- vernment of the same name, first rose into importance during the 17th century. A great part of this city was destroyed by fire June 7, 1848. Organ. — An instrument of an inferior kind was in use at a very early period. Athenaeus says the organ was invented by Ctesibius, a native of Alexandi-ia, B.C. 150 — 120. Other authorities assert that it was used in Spain as early as a.d. 450 ; that Pope Vitalian invented it in 660, and that the first organ erected in France was in the church of St. CorneiUe, at Compiegne, in 757. According to the best authorities, the organ did not assume its present form until the 15th century. Bingham contends that the use of organs was introduced into the church after the time of Thomas Aquinas, a.d. 1250. According to his view, Martin Sanutus, who flourished about 1290, first introduced wind organs into churches, whence he was sur- named Torcellus, the Italian term for an organ. Bingham shows that the story of the invention by Pope Vitahan is altogether unworthy of credit. Organo-Ltricon, a musical instrument invented by M. de St. Pern at Paris, a.d. 1810. Oriel College (Oxford) was founded by Edward II. Dee. 6, 1324, at the instiga- tion of his almoner, Adam de Brom, who became its first provost in 1326. Edward III. granted the college, in 1327, a large messuage, called La Oriole, to which the college was removed, and from which it takes its name. The south and west sides were rebuilt in 1620, and the north and east between 1637 and 1612. The first library was built in 1444, and lasted till the rebuild- OEI ing of part of the college in 1637. In 1372 tlie students obtained a licence for a chapel within their premises, which was buUt at the expense of the earl of Arundel. This chapel was pulled down in 1620, and the present edifice was finished in 1642. Carter's Build- ing was erected in 1729. The library was commenced in 1788, and the college was en- larged in 1817. Oriental Club (London). — This club was founded by Sir John Malcolm in 1824. Okiflamme of St. Denis, or royal ban- ner of France, was borne at the head of the French armies from the 12th to the 15th century. Fabian, quoting a description from Eobert Gaguin, whom Erasmus calls a discreet historiographer, says it was " a cloth of red silk, which was named the auri- flamme, and borne for a banner in the field against the barbarian or heathen people, by virtue whereof the French princes won many victories ; but after, when this pre- cious relic, or auriflamme, was borne against Christian princes, the virtue thereof ceased, and was at length lost, but yet the like thereof is kept at St. Denys, and had in great reverence of the bishops and abbots of the same place." Louis VI., the Fat, used it for the first time as a royal standard in his war against Henry I. of England, a.d. 1124, and he afterwards took it from the altar of St. Denis whenever he went on an expedi- tion ; and Louis VII. of France took it with him in the second crusade in 1148. Fabian relates that it was borne by the French in the battle of Poitiers in 1356 ; and it is said to have been borne in battle for the last time by Louis XL at the battle of Mont- Ihery {q,v.), July 16, 1465. Okigenists. — The supporters of Origenes, or Origen, a Christian father, born in Egypt A.B. 184 or 185. He was ordained a pres- byter at Csesareia, in Palestine, in 228, and he died in 253. In the 4th century a great controversy arose respecting Origen, whose name, in spite of his various erroneous opi- nions, had always been held in veneration. The orthodox condemned his writings a.d. 378. Justinian I. issued an edict against the Origenists in 544, and they were condemned by the second council of Constantinople, being the fifth general council. May 4 to June 2, 553. Oeihtjela (Spain). — TheEomansare sup- posed to have had a station at this town. Though it was not, as some writers assert, the ancient Orcelis, it might have been the ancient Thiar. The Moors took it a.d. 713, and it was finally wrested from them by Jayme I. of Aragon in 1265. It was sacked in 1520, and has suffered severely from the ravages of war, intmdations, and plagues. An earthquake did considerable damage March 21, 1829. It was made the seat of a bishop March 23, 1566. The university, estabUshed in 1568, was suppressed in 1835. The episcopal palace and the theological seminary of San Miguel were both founded in 1733. The poor-house, founded in 1743, was enlarged in 1818. The hospital was 625 GEL founded in 1764, and the cathedral was ex- tended in 1829. Oeion.— A steam-shii) thus named, plying between Glasgow and Liverpool, was lost on the rocks close to Portpatrick lighthouse, June 18, 1850, when nearly a hundred pas- sengers perished. Obissa, or Oeixa (Hindostan). — This country was wrested from its Hindoo princes by Akbar, a.d. 1592. The English received permission to trade to Piplee, in Orissa, in 1634. Clive captured it a.d. 1755, and the East-India Company were empowered to receive the revenues of Orissa, Bahar, and Bengal, by the treaty of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 1765. Orizaba (Mexico).— The peak of Orizaba, an extinct volcano near the town of the same name, was explored by Lieutenant Eeynolds, a.d. 1848. Oeknet and Shetland Isles, or Oe- CADES (North Sea), originally peopled by Scandinavians, were seized by Keneth II. of Scotland a.d. 889. The Norwegians conquered them in 1099, and held them tiU 1263, when they were driven out by Alex- ander III., king of Scotland. The islands were afterwards retaken by the Danes. James III. of Scotland, who married Mar- garet, daughter of the king of Denmark, in 1469, received the Orkney and Shetland Isles as her dowry, and they have since remained part of Scotland. A lighthouse was built in 1806 on the Point of Start. Some ancient relics of the earliest Scandina- vian or Scottish kings were discovered in these islands April 6, 1858. Oeleans (France), the Genabum of the Eomans, was afterwards named Aurelianum, from Marcus Aurelius, who rebuilt it in the 2nd century. Caesar mentions a great insur- rection which occurred here B.C. 52, after which he burned the town. Attila, who besieged Orleans a.d. 451, was defeated under its walls by ./Etius. JSgidius de- feated the Visigoths in a battle near this towna in 463. A council was held, July 10, 511, to regulate ordination and the use of litanies ; and another, May 7, 538, by which many indignities were inflicted on the Jews. Other councils were held June 23, 533 ; in 541 ; Oct. 28, 549 ; in 638 ; and in 1022, when thirteen Manichseanswere condemned to be burnt. On the death of Clotaire in 561, his kingdom was divided among his sons, and Orleans fell to the lot of Gontran. The Northmen captured it in 855, and again in 865. The siege of Orleans was commenced by the Enghsh Oct. 21, 1428. Joan of Arc relieved the city April 29, 1429, and the siege was raised May 8. The Huguenots, under the prince of Conde and Cohgny, assembled here in 1562. Orleans was besieged Feb. 24, 1563, by the duke of Guise, who was assassinated under its walls by Poltrot de Mer6. The struggle was brought to a close by the edict of Amboise, March 19, when the two parties united for the purpose of wresting Havre de Grace from the English. The cathedral was begun by Henry IV. in 1601. 2 S OEM Oemtis, or HoEMTJz (Persian Gulf) . — The kings of Ormiis, celebrated for its pearl- fishery and great wealth, became tributaries of the sultans of Kerman, until they were dehvered, about a.d . 1505 , by the Portuguese, who took possession of this island a.d. 1507. They were expelled by the Persians, assisted by the EngUsh, in 1622. The disciples of Zoroaster took refuge in its caves, and were afterwards called Parsees {q. v.). Mil- ton, in " Paradise Lost" (b. ii.), aUudes to its reputation for wealth — " Higb on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Orrnus and of Ind." Ohkithology. — Aristotle, in his "History of Animals," B.C. 350, gives a brief account of birds; and Pliny in his "jS'atural History," A.D. 72, also deals with the subject. Pierre Belon wrote upon it in 1551 ; Conrad Ges- ner of Zurich in 1555 ; and the three volumes of Aldrovandus of Bologna appeared a.d. 1559 — 1603; WiUughby's " Ornithologiae Libri tres" was pubHshed posthumously in 1676, and Ray's "Synopsis" in 1713. The first edition of " Systema Katurae," by Linnaeus, was published at Leyden in 1735 ; Wilson's "American Ornithoiogj^," 1808 — 1814; Cu- "vier's "Animal Kingdom" in 1817; and Latham's " History of Birds," 1821—18:^4. Oeopus (Greece), a Boeotian town, was taken at an early period by the Athenians, who were expelled B.C. 412. Some of the inhabitants founded another town of the same name, further inland, B.C. 402. It was a frequent souj-ce of strife between the Boeotians and the Athenians; and it was given to the latter by PhiHp II. b.c. 338. The inhabitants recovered their independence B.C. 318, and Cassander obtained possession of the town b.c. 312, but did not hold it long. The inland town is supposed to have been abandoned soon after tlus time. | Oephan Institutions. — It is not known when asylums for the maintenance of orphans were first estabhshed, though they evidently existed among the Eomans. Tra- jan, the Antonines, and Alexander Severus founded several, but they do not appear to have become frequent until the in- I troduction of Christianity. During the i Middle Ages thev were very numerous, especially in the Netherlands. The most celebrated orphan asylum in the world is that established by A. H. Franke at I Halle in 1698. The following are the principal orphan asylums in the metropohs and its vicinity : — i Adult Orphan Institution, Eegent's Park Asylum for Fi-iendless and Deserted Orphan Girls, Lambeth Bayswdter Episcopal Chapel Female Orphan school British Orphan Asylum, Clapham Rise .....[ Clergy Oi-phau Society, St. Jov-n's Wood Infant Orphan Asylnm, Waustead Jews' Orphan Asylum, Goodman's Fields '.*. .. London urphan Asylum, Clapton .' llerchnnt Seamen's Orphan Asylum, Bow Eoad 626 GET A.TK National (late Cholera) Orphan Home, Btam Common 1849 New Asylum for Infant Oi-phans, Stamford HUl 1844 Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill . . 1758 Eoyal Military Asylum, Chtlsea, supjKirted by Parliament 1801 Sailors' Orphan Girls' School and Home, Whitechapel 1829 School of Industry for Female Orphans, St. John's Wood 1786 Oepheonists. — A party of three thousand arrived in London trom Prance to fulfil a musical engagement at the Crystal Palace, June 24, 1860. Oeeeet. — The Chinese are said to have constructed such pieces of mechanism to illustrate planetary motion B.C. 2000. Ar- chimedes constructed one B.C. 287 — 212; I and Posidonius B.C. 51. Huyghens (a.d. 16'29 — 1695) attended to their construction ; and Eoemer invented one which he described A.D. 1735. Mr. George Graham constructed one which was presented to the earl of Orrery, from whom it derives its name, about 1700. The Eoyal Institution, London, had one made in 1801, and another, on a much larger scale, by Dr. Pearson, in 1813. I Oesini Conspiract. — This attempt to as- sassinate the emperor Napoleon III. and the empress, on their way to the opera at Paris, by throwing hand-grenades at the carriage, was made Jan. 14, 1858. Orsini, Eudio, and Pieri, were condemned to death, and Gomez to hard labour for fife, Feb. 26 ; Orsini and Pieri were guillotined at Paris, and Eudio' s sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life, March 13. Dr. Ber- nard was arrested at Bayswater Feb. 14; and, after a trial at the Old Bailey ex- tending over six days, was acquitted April 17. Violent addresses against Eng- land, from the colonels of the French army j to the emperor, appeared in the Moiii- teur, Jan. 27, 1858. Lord Pahnerston's eonspiracy-to-murder biU was introduced into the House of Commons, Feb. 8, 1858 ; and defeated on the second reading by a majority of 19, Feb. 19, 1858, which led to the resignation of the first Palmerston ad- I ministration. Oesini Faction, opposed to the Colonna family, adherents of the GhibeUine party at Eome, joined the Guelphs about a.d. 1200. Their influence decHned in 1280. Obsova( Turkey) .-This strongly-fortified town of Wallachia, taken by the Turks in 1738, was ceded by Austria to the Porte, Sept. 1, 1739. The Austrians were de- feated near Orsova by the Turks, Aug. 8, 1788, when the victors set fire to the town. New Orsova, which forms part of Servia, was captured by the Austrians, April 16, 1790. Oete&al (Sea-Fight). — Commodore Fox attacked a French fleet and convoy, amount- ing in aU to 170 sail, off Cape Ortegal, June 20, 1747. The ships of war being fast-sailing vessels escaped, but forty-eight merchant- men were captured. Their united tonnage ORT amounted to 16,051 tons, and the crews to 1,197 men. Oethes, or Orthez (France), was the residence of the princes of Beam till the end of the 15th century; and of Jane d'Albret, mother of Henry IV., who founded a Protestant college here about 1562. A year's truce was concluded at Orthes by Ferdinand of Spain with Louis XII. April 1, 1513. The governor, Viscount d' Orthez, refused to obey the royal order for the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. In the vicinity, Wellington gained a victory over Soult, Feb. 27, 1814. The castle of Moncada was built by Gaston de Foix in 124i<), and formed for two years the prison of Blanche of Navarre, poisoned by her sister in 1462. Orvieto (Italy).— This town, built upon the site of the ancient Herbanum, possesses one of the finest churches in Italy, founded A.D. 1290. A league between the Pope, Venice, and Naples, against the Greek empire, was concluded here in 1281. It was dissolved by the Sicihan Vespers (q.v.) in 1282. OsBOENE HotrsE (Isle of Wight). — The original name of this manor was Auster- borne. It was purchased by Queen Victoria from Lady Isabella Blatehford in 1845, when the old house was pulled down, and the present mansion erected from the designs of Mr. Cubitt. OscHOPHOEiA, a festival thus named, from the practice of carrying boughs hung with grapes, was instituted at Athens, in honour of Minerva and Bacchus, or Ariadne and Bacchus, by Theseus, about b.c. 1235. OsiMO. (See Attximtjh.) OsMA, or UxAMA (Spain). — This town was taken and destroyed by Alonso II. of Leon A.D. 746. It was rebuilt in 938, and fortified in 1019. The cathedral was founded in 1232, and the university inl550. The see was estabUshed about 597. Osmium. — This metal was discovered by Tennant in the grains of native platinum, A.D. 1803. OsNABUEft, or OsjsrABEUCK (Hanover), was surrounded by walls a.d. 1082. The cathedral at this town was buUt in the 13th century, and a council against heretics was held there in 1538. A university was esta- blished in 1632, but was suppressed the fol- lowing year. The treaty of Westphalia was signed at Osnaburg and Munster, Oct. 24, 1643. Charlemagne founded the bishopric of Osnaburg in 780. Since the peace of Westphalia it has been held by a Roman Cathohc and a Protestant bishop alternately. It was secularized and united to Hanover in 1803. OssoEY (Bishopric). — This bishopric is re- garded as the most ancient in Ireland. It was founded by St. Eaaran, a.d. 402, at Saighir, or King's county, and was trans- ferred to Aghabo, or Aghavoe, in 1052, and to Kilkenny in 1180. According to the pro- visions of the Church Temporahties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the 627 OSW sees of Ferns and Leighhn were united to Ossory on the death of Bishop Elringtou in OsTEKD (Belgium), from a small village in the 9th century, had become an impor- tant seaport about a.d. 1100. It was de- stroyed by the sea in 1334. Having been rebuilt, it was walled in by PhiUp in 1445 ; and fortified by the prince of Orange in 1583. The siege by the Spaniards, commencing in 1601, terminated, after a loss of 50,000 men to the garrison, and 80,000 to the besiegers, in 1604, with the capitulation of the town. It again capitulated to the allies July 6,- 1706 J was ceded to the emperor of Germany in 1715, and surrendered to the French Aug. 15, 1745. The French took possession of Ostend July 13, 1794; and the British as- sailed it unsuccessfully May 20, 1798. It was given up by the treaty of Paris May 30, 1814. The town sufiered considerable damage by the explosion of a powder ma- gazine in 1826. OsTEND Company, for carrying on trade with the East Indies, was established here A.D. 1717; received a charter from the em- peror Charles in August, 1723; and was suspended in 1727. OsTiA (Italy) was founded by Ancus Martins B.C. 640, and exempted from mili- tary levies B.C. 207. Application for exemp- tion from naval levies was also made, but refused, B.C. 191. A squadron in its harbour was destroyed by Ciiician pirates B.C. 67 ; and in the civil wars the town was taken by Marius and given up to plunder by his soldiers, B.C. 87. It dechned gradually, and had fallen into a state of ruin a.d. 827 ; but it afterwards revived, and was occupied by Ladislaus, king of Naples (1386 — 1414), and fortified by Sixtus IV., who built the castle. The French seized it, and were driven out by Pope Julius III., who formed a "holy league" against them, Oct. 4, 1511. OsTEACiSM. — This mode of banishment among the Athenians, at first for a term of ten years, afterwards reduced to five, is said to have been established by Cleisthenes B.C. 510. It was discontinued B.C. 452. OsTEOGOTHs, or Eastekx Goths, with the other branches of the same nation, took possession of Dacia a.d. 275, and were subjected by the Huns in 376. Their king, Theodoric the Great, served under the emperor Zeno in 482 or 483, and from Pannonia marched with aU his tribe into Italy in 4S8, and conquered and put to death Odoacer, estabhshing his authority over that country in 493. Their dominion was anni- hilated by Belisarius and Narses about 55;-(. OsTEOLENKA, (Battle,) between the Poles and the Russians, in which the latter wei e defeated, was fought May 26, 1831. Oswego (North America). — This town, situated on both sides of the Oswego river, was founded a.d. 1722. A fortress was built on the western side of the river in 1727, and a fort was erected on the opposite lank in 1755. They were both captured by Mont- calm in 1756, and were afterwards given up 2^2 osw to the English, who held them till 1795. Oswego was taken by the EngUsh May 6, 1814. OswESTET (Shropshire), anciently called Oswaldstree, is said to have been named after Oswald, king of ISTorthnmbria, killed in the battle of Maserfield, Aug. 5, a.d. 642. By some authorities the site of the battle is fixed at Winwick, in Lancashire, and by others at Oswestry. Oswald was honoured as a saint, his day falling on the anniversary of his death, Aug. 5. Ota&o (Nevr Zealand) was settled by members of the Free church of Scotland, A.D. 1848. Otaheite (Pacific Ocean) was discovered by the Spaniard Quiros a.d. 1606 ; visited by Captain Wallis in 1767, and by Cook several times between the years 1769 and 1778. Missionaries arrived in 1797, and the king, Pomaree II., embraced Christianity in 1816. By a treaty with the queen Poinare, it was placed under French protection, Sept. 9, 1842 ; and the French admiral on that sta- tion asserted the complete sovereignty of France over it in November, 1843. This led to a remonstrance on the part of England, and his proceedings were disavowed by the government Feb. 29, 1844. Otfohd (Battle). — The Kentish men were defeated at Otford, by Oila, king of Mercia, and his army, a.d. 774. Oteanto" (Italy). — The ancient Hydrun- tum, or Hydrus, founded at a very earl)'^ period, probably by Greeks, was a port of some importance B.C. 191, and the usual place of passage from Italy to the East a.d. 400. It was one of the last cities in the south of Italy held by the Greek emperors, who lost it in the 11th century. About 12,000, being more than one-half the popula- tion, were slaughtered by the Turks when they sacked the city a.d. 1480. Ottawa (Canada), formerly called By- town, which name was changed to Ottawa A.D. 1854, was made the capital of Canada in 1858. Otterbtirk, or Chevt Chase, (Battle), on which the well-known ballad seems to be founded, was fought between the English, under Henry Percy, son of the earl of Nor- thiunberland, and the Scots, commanded by the earl of Douglas, Aug. 10, 1388. The for- mer having been taken prisoner and the latter slain, the victory remained undecided. Ottomah- Empiee. — This empire was founded by Osman, the son of Ertoghrul, whose name has been corrupted into Othman, or Ottoman. The Ottomans style them- selves Osmanlis. 12.58. Birth of Othman, or Osman. 1299. Othman, or Osman I., murders his uncle Deindar, and founds the Ottoman empii-e. 1321. The Ottomau Turks enter Europe, and ravage Thrace and Macedonia. 1326. Death of Otlunan, who is succeeded by his son Orchan. 1327. Orchan makes Prusa, or Boursa, his capital, and completes the coniiuest of Bithynia. 1333. 1336. 13/2. 1376. 1380. 1382. 1390. 1391. 1396. 1400. 1402. 1403. 143.5 1443. OTT The Ottoman Turks conquer Nicsea, in Bithynia. Orchan forms an alliance mth the Greek emperor Andronicus. Khorasi, the ancient Mysia, is conquered by the Turks. Karamania, the ancient Phrygia, is reduced under the Turkish yoke. The Turks make their first permanent settle- ment in Eui-ope, on the co^^st of Thrace. Amurath I., son of Orchan, captures GalUpoli. He takes Hadi-ianople, and erects it into his capital. Servia and Bulgaria are reduced to subjec- tion. Kermian is annexed to the Ottoman do- 1461. 1463. 1466. 1472. 1474. 1511. 1514. 1515. Amurath I. purchases the territories of the emir of Hamid. Amurath I. subdues Natolia. Part of Albania is brought under the Ottoman yoke. Aug. 27. The king of Servia, is defeated at the battle of Cossova, by Amurath I., who is assassinated in the moment of victoi-y. Bajazet I. conquers Philadelphia, in Asia Minor. He conquers Wallachia, and obtains a footing in Constantinople. Sept. 28. He defeats Sigismund of Hungary, at the battle of Nicopolis. He annexes Bulgaria to the Ottoman empire. Sept. 1. War commences between Bajazet I. and Timour. July 28. Timourdefeats B.-yazet I., and makes him prisoner, at tbe battle of Angora. March. The death of Bajazet I. in captivity is followed by the dismemberment of hia empire by his three sons. Soliinan I. esta- blishes his government at Hadrianople, Isa at Prusa, aud Muhammed in Amasia, and the three wage civil war. Mohammed I.. annexes Wallachia. The Ottoman empire is reunited by Amu- rath II. ;o 1437. War with Venice. ScMuderbeg restores Albania to independence. Nov. 3. J<'hn Huuiades defeats the Turks at the battle of Nissa. July 12. Amurath II. resigns all claim to Servia by the treaty of Segedtn. Nov. 10. Amurath II. defeats and slays Ladislaus IV. of Htmgary and Cardinal Julian at the baitle of Varna. John Huniades invades the Ottoman terri- tories, and is defeated with great loss at Cossova. April 6. Mohammed II., the Great, lays siege to Constantinople. May 29. The city sun-en- ders, and the Eastern empire is dissolved. Mohammed II. is defeated by John Huuiades, with the loss of 40,000 men, at the battle of Belgrade. The Peloponnesus is conquered by the Turks. War is declared against Venice. Epirus is annexed to the Ottoman empire. The Turks enter Italy. The Geuoese possessions in the Crimea are seized by the Turks. Peace is restored with Venice. Mohammed II. takes Otranto, and sustains a teiTible defeat in his attempt upon Khodes. Spain is invaded by the Turks. Bon-ak Keis defeats the Venetians at the naval battle of Lepanto. The Morea is wrested from the Venetians. Peace is concluded with Venice, whose pos- sessions on the mainland of Greece are ceded to the Turks. The Janissaries dethrone Bajazet II., and cen- ter the sceptre on his son Selim. Selim I. defeats tbe Persians at the great battle of Shaldii-in, or Kalderoon. Selim I. defeats the Persians at Khai-gandede, and subdues Mesopotamia and Kurdistan. OTT 1516. Aug. 24. Selim I. defeats and slays Ghori, sultan of Egypt, at the battle of the Darik, nt-ar Aleppo. 1517. Selim I. aunexes Egypt to his dominions. 1521. Aug. 20. Soliman XL, the Magnificent, takes 1522. 152(5. 1533. 1536. 1541. 1552. 1574. 1583. 1585. 1602. 1603. 1636. 1637. 1642. 1645. 1664. 1678. 1681. He conquers Ehodes. He assails Austria and Hungary, and defeats the Hungarians at Mohacz, Aug. 29. He is compelled, after heavy losses, to raise the siege of Vienna. Peace is restored with Austria and Hungary. Soliman II. forms an alliauce with Francis I. of France against the emperor Charles V. The southern parts of Arabia are subdued, and an unsuccessful invasion of India is conducted by Suleiman Pasha. War recommences in Hungary, and the Turks take Buda. Transylvania is made tributary to the Turks. Bajazet, son of Soliman II., rebels against his lather. Aug. 1. The capittdation of Famagusta com- pletes the conquest of Cyprus. Oct. 7. The Turks sustain a terrible defeat from the combined Christian fleets under Don John of Austria at the naval battle of Lepanto. Amurath III. signalizes his accession by the murder of his five brothers. Commercial relations are fli'st established with Kngland. The Turks conquer the district of Van, in Persia. The Persians obtain peace by ceding the pro- vinces of Georgia, Azerbijan, Shirwan, and Loristan to Turkey. Mohammed III. succeeds his father, and mur- ders his nineteen brothers and the concu- bines of his father. Abd al Kalim Karayasiji, the "Black Scribe," commences a formidable revolt in Asia. The Black Scribe is defeated and slain. The accession of Achmed, or Ahmed I., is memorable fiom his refusal to murder his brothers. Tobacco is introduced into Turkey. Georgia, Erivan, and Tabriz are ceded to Persia^ Mustapha II. is deposed. Othman, or Osinan II., is mui-dered by his subjects, who restore Mustapha II. An insm-rection of the Janissaries is sup- pressed with horrid cruelty. Amiirath IV. murders his brothers Bajazet and Suliman. He murders his brother Kazim. Azof is taken by the Cossacks. The Turks take Bagdad and massacre the inhabitants. Azof is recaptured. War is declared against Venice. The grand vizier, Ahmed Koeprilii, is de- feated by the Imperialists under Montecu- culi at the battle of St. G.ithard. Caudia is taken from the Venetians. (See Caudia.) The Tui'ks are defeated by the Poles, with the loss of more than 30,000 men, at the battle of Choczim. War is commenced against Eussia. The Ukraine and Cossack territories are ceded to Kussia, and peace is restored. Sept. 12. Vienna, on the point of surrendering to Mohammed IV., is relieved by John Sobieski. Buda, is retaken by the Austrians. Mohammed IV. is deposed by his brother, Soliman III. Belgrade, Bosnia, Croatia, and Slavonia are wrested from the Turks. Belgrade is recovered. The Imperialists totally defeat the Turks at the battle of Peterwai-dein, or Salankemen, in which the vizier Mustapha Koeprilii is 1703. 1710. 1711. 1715. 1716. 1717. 1718. 1726. 1730. 1732. 1739. 1743. 1749. ]766. 1768. 1770. 1773. 1774. 1787. 1788. 1790. 1791. 1798. 1799. 1802. 1812. 1813. 1820. 1821. OTT Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at the battle of Zeuta, in which they lose 20,000 men killed, and 10,000 drowned in the retreat. Jan. 26. Peace is restored to TJjirkey by the humiliating treaty of Carlowitz. The Janissaries revolt and depose Mustapha II. The Turks declare war agaiust Russia. July 10. Baltanji Mohammed compels Peter the Great to accede to the treaty of Falczi (q. v.), by which the Turks regain Azof. Charles XII. of Sweden is made prisoner at Bender {q. v.). The Turks reconquer the Morea. The Austrians seize Temeswar. Aug. 16 (N.S.). Prince Eugene gains the battle of Belgrade {q. v.). July 21. Peace with Austria and Venice is re- stored by the treaty of Passarowitz. War is declared agaiust Persia. The printing- press is introduced into Turkey. Sept. 17. Achmet, or Ahmed III., abdicates in favour of his nephew, Mohammed V. Peace with Persia is restored by the treaty of Eiivan, wh ich cedes all the territory beyond the Araxes to the sultan. July 22. The Austrians are defeated at the disastrous battle of Krotzka. Sept. IS. The Austrians accede to the treaty of Bel- grade (5. v.). The recognition of Turkey by the great powei-s as an integral portion of Europe Commences about this year. The Wahabee insiu-rection commences. (See Wahabees.) Insurrections break out in Georgia. War is declared against Russia. The Turkish fleet is destroyed by the Russians in the bay of Tchesme. Ali Bey revolts in Egypt. The Russians take Akermann, Azof, Bender, and Crim Tartary. The Egyptian insurrection is quelled. July 21 (N.S.). Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of KoutchoukXainarclj i, by which the Tartars are declared iudepenJent in the Crimea, Cuban, and Bessarabia, and tlio Porte engages to govern Moldavia and Wallachia with greater equity. Jan. 8. The Crimea is ceded to Russia by the convention of Constantinople. War is renewed with Russia. W«r with Austria recommences. Dec. 17. The Russians, under Prince Potemkin, storm Oczakow, and massacre 20,000 Tui-ks. Dec. 22. Suwarrow storms Ismail, and mas- sacres 45,000 Turks. Aug. 11. The treaty of Galatz restores peace with Russia,, which receives important con- War is declared against France. {See Egypt.) An alliance is formed with England. Jan. 25. Peace with France is restored by the treaty of Paris. Jan. 7. War is declared against Russia. Feb. 19. Sir John Duckworth forces the passage of the Dardanelles {q.v.). May 29. Selim is deposed by M ustapha III. The Janissaries revolt at Constantinople and massaci-e the regular troops. May 28. Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Bucharest (7. v.). A Ttrrkish anmy of 100,000 men ravages Servia. The Wahabees are finally subdued. Revolt of Ali, pasha of Albania. March. Moldavia and Wallachia rebel. April 23 (Easter Sunday). The Chri.^tians are persecuted, and the Greek patriarch of Constantinople is hanged by the Tmkisix mob. {See Greece.) April 11. The Turks take Scio and massacre the inhabitants. {See Scio.) The Greek inhabitants of Pergamo are mas- sacred, March 2. Mehemet Ali revolts. 629 ia34. 18:38, OTT Oct. 7 The Turkish fleet is almost annihi- lated by the Greeks at Mitylene. Nov. 23. 1 he Turks evacuate Moldavia. June^-5. Tde Janissaries are massacred, and the army is placed under a European system of discipline. Oct 20. The Turkish fleet, numbering 30 vessels, is destroyed by the allied English and French squadi-ons at Navarino {q. v.). Jan 5. 132 French residents, 120 English, and 85 Russians, are expelled from Turkey. April 26. War is declared by Kussia. May 20 1 he emperor of Russia heads his army in person. June 19. Brailow sur- rendei-s to the Russians. June 23. They seize Anapa. July 20, They gain the heights of Shumla, Aug. 5. Nicholas com- mences the siege of Varna. Aug. 24. Prince P-skiewitch Erivanski defeats the Turks at the brtttle of Akhalzikh, in Georgia. Sept. 8. The Tui-ks close the Bosphorus. Sept. 9. The Russians take the fortress of Bajazet. Sept 24. They take Toprak-Kali. Oct. 11. Varna surrenders to the Russians. Oct. 15. The Russians retire from Shumla and re- cross the Danube. Oct. 18. The Bui-sians blockade the Dardanelles. Oct. 30. The garrison of the castle of the Morea sur- renders to the French general Maison. Nov. 10. The Russians raise the siege of Silistria. May 6. The Russians again cross the Danube. June 11. The Turks sustain a seveie de- feat frum the Russians st Koulawtscha. June SO. Sibstria sun-enders to the Rus- sians, and Prince Paskiewitch gains a great victory over the pasha of Erzeroum. July 2. Paskiewitch defeats 20,000 Turks at the battle of Milliduse. July 9. He seizes Erzeroum. July 27. General Kras- sowsky defeats 10,000 Tui-ks at bhumla. Au2. 20. I'he Russians occupy Hadrianojile. Sept. 14. Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Hadrianople. April 23. l\irkey acknowledges the indepen- dence of Greece. May 7. A t'eaty is con- cluded with the United States. May. Albania rebels against the Poite. The Albanian insun-cction is suppressed, the first T\irkish newspaper is established, and the cholera appears in the country. Me- hemet Mohammed Ali revolts in Egypt, and invades ^yl■ia. May 27. Ibrahim Paeha, son of Mohammed Ali, takes St. Jean d'Acre. Aug. 1. He seizes Autioch. Dec. 21. The grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, is defeated by Ibrahim, at Konieh, or Iconium, with the loss of 30,000 men. Feb. 18. A Rus.sian squadron arrives at Constantinople to assist the stdtan against Mohammed Ali. Feb. 21. The Porte accepts the mediation of Fr-ance to arrange its disputes with Mohammed Ali. May 6. The Porte concludes a peace with Mohammed, who is declared inde- pendent, and inve.=ted with the govern- ment of Svria and Adama. July 20. A trea'y of peace and alliance is concluded with Russia. A regular postal system is first established in Turkey. Mai-ch 30. The office of gi-and vizier is abolished. Aug. 16. A commercial treaty is concluded with England and Fi-ance. Mohammed Ali revolts in Syria {g. v.). July 15, By the treaty signed at London, England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, agree to aid Turkey against Mohammed Ali. War is declared against Persia. April 30. A commercial treaty is concluded with Rus.«ia. Insurrections break out in the Danubian principalities. 1855. 1856. 1857. OTT April 30. A treaty relative to the government of the Danubian principalities is concluded with Russia. Aug. 21. The Hungarian generals, Bern and Kossuth, take refuge in New Oi-sova. {See Hungary.) Sept. 16. The Porte refuses to surrender the Hun- garian refugees to Austrra and Ru!-sia. Nov. 3. Ihe Hungarian fugitives are traus- feried to Shuiula. Nov. 4. The British fleet under Sir William Parker arrives in the Dardanelles, to the assistance of the Porte. Dec. 31. Russia resumes diphimatic relations with Turkey, which had been suspended in Ci)iisequenceof the Hungarian refugee difficulty. April 6. Austria resumes diplomatic rela- tions. Feb. 1. Mustapha Pasha suppresses an insur- rection m Samos. Itfaroh 4. An insurrec- tion breaks out in Turkish Croatia. March 19. Omar Pasha defeats the rebels at a battle near Jayca. Feb. 14. A treaty respecting the Holy Places of Palestine is concluded with France. Feb. 28. Prince Menschikoff aiTives at Con- stantinople as anih«ssador extraordiujiry from the court of Russia, to insist on the repeal of the concessions made to Roman Catholic christians respecting the Holy Places. May 5. Menschikolf presents his ultimatum. May 19. The Porte concedes some points to Russia. May 21. They are deemed unsatisfactoiy, and the Russian ambassador quits Constantinople. June 6. Ali Christian nations receive a confirma- tion of ttie privileges and rights granted to their worship in Turkey. June 26. 'Ihe emperor of Russia publishes a mani- festo against Turkey. July 2. A Russian army of occupation, un'ier Prince Gorts- chakofi', enters the Danubian principalities. July 14. The Porte protests against the occupation of the principalities. Seut. 26. A grand national council of the Turkish nation insists on the evacuation of the principalities. Oct. 5. War is declared against Russia. Jan. 27. The Greek provinces of Epirus and Albania revolt. March 14. The rebels are assisted by volunteers from Athens. March 19. The Porte demands that the Greik government should prevent its subjects from aiding the Albanian rebels. March 21. His ultimatum is rejected. March 28. The Greek ambassador quits Constan- tinople. April 22. Abdi Pasha defeats the Greeks at Damoko. April 25. Osman Pasha seizes Peta, the head(|uarters of the insurrection. May 25. Greece promises to preserve stiict neutrality in the Tm-kish question. (.See Greece.) June 14. A conven- tion respecting the Danubian principali- ties is sigTied with Austria, and she agrees to occupy the principalities with her troops until the conclusion of peace. June 18. The insurgent camp at Kalabak is taken by Abdi Pasha. Sept. 20. The Russians eva- cuate the principalities. March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Sardinia. March 30. Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Paris. May. An insurrection. Jan. 21. A treaty is concluded with Austria for the esto,blishment of telegraphic com- munication. Jan. 7. Death of Reschid Pasha. May 23. Death of Abdi Pasha. July 21. The Montenegiins are defeated near Kostain- izza. July 25. Massacre of the Christian inhabitants of Jeddah (g.i>.). July 28. The Montenegrins seize Kolaichin. Aug. 18. The sultan adopts important fijiancial re- forms. Nov. 8. Ihe Montenegrin bound- aries are fixed by the commissioners of the allied powers at Constantinople. OUD 859. July 31. The Christians are persecuted in Candia. Sept. 17. A plot against the sultau is discovered at Constantinople. 1860. May 5. Prince Gortschakoff states that the Christians in Turkey are again subjected to ill treatment. May 30. The Turkish government examines the charge. June 1. England refuses to interpose iu favour of the Christians, as contrary to the treaty of Paris. June 3. The French and Russian ambassadors declare that their govern- ments are satisfied by the conduct of Tur- key with respect to the Christians. {See Druses and Maronxtes.) Oct. 23. A large proportion of the Bulgarian clergy join the Eomish communion. 1861. Jan. 28. A revolution breaks out in Herze- govina. April 29. A commercial treaty is concluded wiih France. May 16. Omar Pasha, with an international commission of foreign consuls, goes to Herzegovina to restore order. June 5. The French eva- cuate Syria. June 25. Death of the Sultan Abdul Medjid, who is succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz. OXTOMAN EMPEEOES. A.D. Osmanll 1618 Mustapha I. (again) 1622 Auiurath IV 1623 Ibrahim 1640 Mohammed IV. .. 1648 Soliman III 1687 Ahmed, or Achmet n 1691 Mustapha IT 1695 Abmed, or Achmet III 1703 Mohammed V 1730 Osmanlll 1754 Mustapha III 1757 Abdul -Ahmed .... 1774 Selimlll 1789 Mustapha IV 1807 Mahmoud, or Mo- hammed VI 1808 Abdul-Medjid .... 1839 Abdul-Aziz 1861 A.D. Osman, Othman, or Ottoman 1 1299 Orchan 1326 Amui-ath I. 1360 Bajazet I., Ilderim, or The Lightning .. 1389 SoUman I., Isa, and Mohammed 1403 Musa-Chelebi 1410 Mohammed 1 1413 Amm-athll 1421 Mohammed 11 1451 Bajazet II 1481 Selim 1 1511 Soliman II., the Magnificent .... 1520 Selim II 1566 AmurathlTI 1574 Mohammed III. .. 1595 Ahmed, or Acnmet I 1603 Mustapha 1 1617 Ottde (Hindostan), one of the first pro- vinces of India, colonized from the west about B.C. 1366. The general of the emperor of Delhi conquered it a.b. 1195, andBabar's army, which had been sent to subdue the country, was defeated by the Aflfghans a.d. 1528. It was conquered by Akbar a.d. 1559, and the dynasty of Saadat Ali estabhshed in 1720. An action, in which the English were ■victorious, under Major Hector Munro, was fought at Baksar Oct. 23, 1764; a treaty with Warren Hastings was concluded in 1773 ; and another, which resulted in the spoliation of the Begums and the subsequent impeachment of Hastings, was signed Sept. 19, 1781. The nuwab was deposed, and Saadat II. raised to the throne Jan. 21, 1798, and Wajid Ali was pensioned off with £120,000 per annum, the territory annexed, and the title of king abohshed Jan. 1, 1856, the fact being announced by official procla- mation Feb. 7, 1856. OuDENAEDE (Belgium) surrendered to a force of French and EngUshA.D. 1658. It was besieged by the stadtholder in 1674, and the French were defeated here by Marlbo- rough and Eugene, when Prince George, OYI afterwards George II., distinguished him- self, July 11, 1708. OuLAKT (Battle).— A picked detachment of 110 men, chosen from the North Cork militia, under Lieutenant -Colon el Foote, at- tacked the Irish rebels under Father John Murphy at the Hill of Oulart, in Wexford, on Whitsunday, May 27, 1798. The rebels were driven from their position and were in full retreat, when an alarm that they were rushing on a body of cavalry caused them to turn on their pursuers, who were all slain except Colonel Foote, a sergeant, and three privates. OiTEiQTJE (Battle).— Near this small town of Portugal, Count Alfonso Henriques, with a force of 13,000 soldiers, defeated the com- bined armies of five Moorish sovereigns, July 25, 1139. The five leaders of the infidels fell in the action, and the victorious Alfonso was immediately hailed as king of Portugal. Ouzel Galley Society (Dublin) .-This society, for deciding commercial difficulties by arbitration, originated in the following cir- cumstance. Early in the year 1700 much legal perplexity was occasioned by the case of the Ouzel Galley, a vessel in the port of Dubhn, and it was referred to the arbitration of a committee of merchants, who decided to the satisfaction of all parties. A permanent society was estabhshed in consequence, which received the name of the Ouzel Galley Society, in 1705. Its members consist of a captain, lieutenants, and crew, elected from the most respectable merchants of Dubhn, and the general business of the society is transacted at periodical convivial meetings. Ovation. — The first ovation, or lesser triumph among the Komans, was accorded to Pubhus Postumius Tubertus, after his victory over the Sabines, B.C. 469. Oteeland Mail. — The new route to India, via Trieste, on the Adriatic, was tried by Lieutenant Waghorn, under whose superintendence the express which arrived at Suez Oct. 19, 1845, reached Alexandria on the 20th, and was by him conveyed to London, where it arrived on the 31st, at 4.30 a.m. The overland route via MarseOles was established about the same time. Oveeseees of the poor were appointed for parishes by 43 Ehz. c. 1 (1601), and for townships by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12 (1633). OvEETTTEES, Called sinfonia by the Itali- ans, originated in France, where LulH, the father of French dramatic music, assisted to give them a settled form a.d. 1633 — 1687. They were introduced into concert-rooms and theatres about the end of the last century. OviEDO (Spain), the capital of a pro- vince of the same name, and known in the Middle Ages as Civitas Episcoporum, from the number of bishops who found refuge m it from the Moors, is beheved to have been founded by Fruela I. a.d. 759. A great part of the town was destroyed by fire in 1521. The fortress was built "by Alfonso III. in 913, and the university was founded by * 631 OWH Philip III. A.D. 1604. The diurch, erected in the 9th century, was taken down and the cathedral commenced in the lith century, one of the towers having been finished in 1575. The library was founded in 1764; the hospicio provincial in 1752 ; and the conso- lidated hospitals of San Francisco in 1837. OwHTHEE (Pacific Ocean) was discovered by Captain Cook a.d. 1778, and revisited by him on his return from Behring's Strait, when he was murdered by the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. His bones were preserved bythe priests, receiving homage and the offerings of the people, tiU. the abohtion of idolatry ia 1819. OxFOED (Bishopric) . — This see was found- ed by Henry VIII. a.d. 1541. Oxford (Oxfordshire) is said to have been founded by Alfred a.d. 849—901. Ed- mund Ironside died here Ifov. 30, 1016, and Canute held several national councils at Oxford. Eefusing to admit the l^ormans, it was stormed by William I. in 1067. It sus- tained a three months' siege from Stephen. The empress Maud made her escape, and it surrendered Dec. 21, 1142. The great charter, with aU the privileges and hberties of London, was granted by Henry II. (1154 — 1189). John Bereford's riot, when the colleges and halls were sacked by the townsmen, took place a.d. 1355. Henry VIII. made it his residence for some time in 1518. Queen Elizabeth dehvered a long Latin speech on her visit in 1592. Here Latimer and Eidley suffered at the stake Oct. 16, 1555, and Cranmer March 21, 1556. After the battle of EdgehiU, Charles I. took possession of the town Oct. 26, 1642. He estabHshed a mint, where the plate of 'New Inn HaU was coined for his use, and settled the exchequer here Feb. 13, 1643. Charles I. also summoned a parhament which sat from Jan. 22 tiU AprU, 1644. The city sur- rendered to the parhamentary forces June 24, 1646. Parhament met here Oct. 9, 1665, during the plague of London, and March 21, 1681. The faniily of the Veres, to whom it gave a title, became extinct a.d. 1702, but the title was revived in 1711. The town-haU was erected in 1753 ; the new county hall and courts in 1840. Oxford Administeatiok. — See (Haelex ADMIlflSTEATION.) OxFOED Steeet (London).— By 2 & 3 Vict. e. 80 (Aug. 24, 1839), permission was given to the authorities to extend this street to Holborn. OxFOED Univeesitt. — The Britons and Saxons estabhshed schools of learning at Oxford, which were restored by Alfred the Great, the reputed founder of the univer- sity, about A.D. 879. In Alfred's time the in- stitution was styled the school or the schools, and it is mentioned as the university in a deed dated 1190. Edward III. granted a great charter to the students, June 27, 1355, and their privileges were confirmed by a charter of Henry VIII. in 1510. The uni- versity was incorporated by 13 EUz. c. 29 (1570). During the civil war the colleges 632 OXY espoused the king's cause, and in January, 1643, they sent their plate to the mint to be coined for his use. A commission of in- quiry into the state of the university was issued Aug. 31, 1850, and the report of the commissioners was presented April 27, 1852. The constitution of the university was changed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854) , which was amended by 19 & 20 Viet, c. 3 (June 23, 1856). There are 19 colleges at Oxford, which, with the date of their foiuidation, are as follows : — Name of College. Found- ed. By whom Founded. University A.D. 872 1263 Alfred. BaUiol 1 aud 1268 John Balliol. Merton 1264 Walter de Merton. Exeter 1314 Walter de Stapleton. Oriel 1326 1340 Edwai-d II. Queen's Kobert de Eslesfield. New 1386 1428 WUliam of Wykeham. Lincoln Richard Flemmyng. All Souls 1437 Henry Chicheley. Magdalen 14.58 William Wayuflete. Brasenose 1508 William Smith aud Sir Bichard Sutton. Corpus Christi . . 1516 Richard Fox. Christ Cliuich .. 1524 Cardinal Wolsey. Trinity 1554 Sir Thomas Pope. St. Jolin's 1557 Sii- Thomas White. 1571 1613 Queen Elizabeth. Wadham Nicholas Wadham. 1624 Worcester 1714 Sir Thomas Cookes, Bt. The difference between colleges and halls !, that the latter are not incorporated. Name of TTR.n Found- ed. By whom Foimded. St. Edmund's.... St. Mary New Inn Magdalen St. Alban ....< A.D. 1269 1333 1392 1487 Shortly after 1547 Canons of Oseney. Oriel College. William of Wykeham. WUliam Waynflete. iMerton College, Oxygen was discovered by Dr. Priestley, Aug. 1, 1774, and by Scheele, who called it empyreal air, in the following year. OxTEYNCHUS (Egypt). — The name is derived from a fish of the sturgeon species, worshipped here in early times. It was made the seat of a bishop in the 4th century. The first bishop, Theodore, is represented in 372 as stUl occupying the episcopal throne. According to Gibbon, this stately and popu- lous city, the seat of Christian orthodoxy, had devoted the temples, the pubhc edifices, and even the ramparts, to pious and chari- table uses. OYE PAD Oyer and Terminee.— Writs of Oyer and Terminer were only to be granted before justices of either bench in eyre, save in exceptional cases, when a special royal warrant was required by 13 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 29 (1285). These regulations were en- forced by 2 Edw. III. c. 2 (1328) ; 9 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 5 (1335) ; and by 20 Edw. III. c. 3 (1346). The rule by which no judge or other lawyer could act in this commission within his'own county where he was born or lived, was aboMshed by 12 Geo. II. c. 27 (1739) . Oyes. — In the old Norman law courts silence was commanded by the crier pro- nouncing oyez, " hear ye." This injunction, corrupted into the meaningless phrase, " Oh yes," is still used by pubhc criers and heralds. Oysters. — British oysters were much es- teemed by Roman epicures, and Juvenal, in his 4th satire, commemorates those of Eichborough in Kent as possessing pecuhar excellence. The stealing of oysters, or oyster brood, from the beds, was declared larceny by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 36 (June 21, 1827). In 1839 a convention was agreed to by Erance and England for setthng the hmits of the oyster-beds of each nation. The regulations thus estabhshed were em- bodied m the act 6 & 7 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 22, 1843) , which hmited the period of the oyster fishery to the interval between the 1st of September and the 30th of April. All oysters and dredges found on fishing vessels from the 1st of May to the 31st of August may be seized by the coast guard and excise officers by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 14, 1855), The growth of the oyster in Erance has been much improved since 1858 by the labours of M. Coste. Ozone. — Attention was first directed to this odour, evolved during the working of the electric machine, by Professor Schonbein of Basel, a.d. 1840. PACiFiCATioiir. — This term was usually apphed to the edicts issued by the Erench monarchs in favour of the Huguenots, or Protestants. The first was promulgated by Charles IX. a.d. 1562. The edict of Amboise, granting full liberty of worship to the Pro- testants within the towns of which they were in possession up to that date, was issued March 19, 1563. It was revoked in 1568. A fresh edict was issued in August, 1570, which was followed by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. Other edicts followed, and were in turn revoked, until Henry IV. issued the famous edict of Nantes, April 13, 1598. This secured to the Huguenots freedom of worship in all the towns where their creed prevailed. It was revoked Oct. 22, 1685, when the exercise of the reformed rehgion was forbidden, and all the Protestant ecclesiastics were ordered to quit Erance within fifteen days. The Paci- fication of Ghent, by which several provinces of HoUand united against Spain, was signed in that town Nov. 8, 1576. A treaty signed at York June 18, 1639, between Charles I. and the commissioners sent by the Scotch, is known in Enghsh history as the Pacification of York. Pacific Ocean, or the South Sea, was first seen by Vasco Nunez de Balboa iu Sep- tember, 1513. Magelhaens rounded Cape Horn, and entered this ocean, to which, on account of the calm weather that prevailed, he gave the name of the Pacific, in 1521. Sir Francis Drake, the first Englishman who saw it, reached its shores in 1573. Pacific Steamer, belonging to the Collins line, running between New York and Liver- pool, was totally lost, with all on board, in the early part of 1856. She left Liverpool Jan. 23, 1856, with forty-five passengers and a crew of 141 men, and was never heard of afterwards. It is supposed that she struck suddenly on an iceberg, and foundered with all on board. A bottle was picked up in 1862, containing a few lines, supposed to have been written as the vessel was sinking, and bearing date April 12, 1856. Paderborn (Prussia) . — This ancient town of Westphalia, made a bishopric by Charle- magne, afterwards became a member of the Hanseatic League. The cathedral, com- menced early in the 11th century, was not finished till 1143. The town was taken and pillaged by the duke of Brunswick in 1622, and was annexed to Prussia in 1802. Coun- cils were held here in 777, 780, 782, and 785. At the first, generally designated the diet of Paderborn, multitudes of the Saxons were baptized. Padlock. — Du Cange states that a lock of this description was in use as early as A.D. 1381, though a later date is usually assigned for the invention. Padstow (Cornwall). — This town was destroyed by the Danes a.d. 981. Padua (Italy).— The ancient Patavium was, according to Virgil, founded by Ante- nor, who escaped thither after the faU of Troy. The Patavians were constantly at war with the Cisalpine Gauls, and B.C. 301 they defeated Cleonymus the Lacedaemonian, who had landed on the Medoacus. Patavium gradually fell into the power of Rome, though it seems to have retained some of its former independence, as M. j^Emihus, a Roman consul, was sent to quell a riot here B.C. 174, and the inhabitants refused to receive the emissaries of M. Antonius B.C. 43. Patavium was occupied, a.d. 69, by Primus and Varus, the generals of Vespa- sian, on their advance into Italy. Attila destroyed it in 452; it is mentioned as one of the chief cities when the province was overrun by the Lombards under Alboin in 568 ; and was burned to the ground by Agilulph, king of the Longobardi, in 601. In 1164 Padua formed a league with other states against Frederick I., or Barbarossa; in 1167 it joined the great Lombard league ; and by the peace of Constance in 1183, its freedom was recognized. EcceUno da Romano made 633 himself master of Padua in 1239, but was driven out in 1256, by a coalition of the towns of Upper Italy. In 1337 it came under the sway of the Carrara family, who held it till 1405, when it was taken by the republic of Yenice. Maximilian I. besieged it Sept. 15, 1509, and retired Oct. 3. The French occu- pied it April 28, 1797, and it passed into the power of Austria by the treaty of Campo- formio. The hospital was founded in 1420, and the pubhc library in 1540. The botan- ical garden was instituted by the Venetian senate in 1545, and the observatory dates from 1767. In consequence of disturbances among the students which took place Feb. 9, 1848, the university was closed, and it was not reopened luitil 1850. A council was held here in 1350. PiEONiA (Macedonia). — This district, in- habited by the Pasones, was overrun by Megabazus B.C. 506, and was finally annexed to Macedon by Alexander the Great. Pa&ans. — This term, from pagani, or dwellers in the pagi, was appHed to the heathens, because the inhabitants of the country districts were the last to receive Chjistianity. The Eoman senate renounced paganism a.d. 388 ; and a few years after the death of Theodosius I., which occurred Jan. 17, 395, few vestiges of paganism remained. Pagan ceremonies were revived in Christian churches in the beginning of the 5th century. Paganism was imputed to the classic enthusiasts of the 15th century, who professed a secret devotion to the gods of Homer and Plato. Pa&as^ (Thessaly), celebrated in mytho- logical history as the port at which Jason built the ship Argo, was conquered bv Philip II. of Macedon B.C. 353. The in- habitants were transferred to Demetrias, founded b.c. 290. Pagasse was afterwards restored, and became a flourishing city. Pains and Penalties. — Certain bUls, passed by the legislature to inflict specified penalties for particular acts against state oifenders, were known bj this title. The last instance was the biU of pains and penalties introduced against Queen Caroline A.D. 1820. It passed the House of Lords, but was not carried further. Painting. — This art appears to have originated in Egypt, where it was employed about B.C. 2100, to commemorate the ex- ploits of Osymandyas ; whence it was most probably imparted to the Greeks, who, however, attribute its origin to their an- cestors. {See Deawing.) The earliest painter whose name is recorded is Bular- chus, whose picture of a battle of the Magnetes was purchased by Candaules, king of Lydia, either for its weight in gold or for as much gold coin as would cover it, about B.C. 716. Greek art was not established on an independent basis until the period ot the Persian invasion in the 5th century B.C., it having been previously a mere adjunct to architecture and the celebration of reHgious mysteries. Polygnotus, who removed from Thasos to Athens, about b.c. 463, painted PAI the first portrait, and is regarded as the founder of historic painting. ApoUodorus of Athens, who was born about B.C. 460, first practised nice discrimination of light and shade, in which he was much excelled by the celebrated Zeuxis of Heracleia, who was bom about B.C. 450. ApeUes, who flourished from B.C. 350 to 310, was remarkable for his delicacy of finish, and is regarded as the prince of ancient portrait-painters. En- caustic painting was invented by Pausias of Sicyon about B.C. 332, who was also highly celebrated as a flower-painter. The classic period of painting began to decHne about B.C. 300, when Antipholus the Egyptian, and others, introduced caricatures and pictures of stiU-life. Fabius Pictor introduced paint- ing into Eome B.C. 289, but the greatest impetus was given to the art by the number of chefs-d'oeuvre which Mummius brought from Corinth B.C. 146. The materials of ancient art appear to have been wood, clay, plaster, stone, parchment and canvas, on which pictures were painted in distemper or with a medium of wax. The establishment of Christianity and the subversion of the Eoman empire by the northern barbarians, occasioned a decline in painting as well as in the other arts ; and the ravages of the Iconoclasts, which began a.d. 728, destroyed many valuable specimens of the semi-bar- barous Byzantine school, which was chiefly employed in the decoration of churches. (ert. Admiralty Sir .TamHsGinliaui, Bart. Board of Control Sir Charles Wood, Bart. Secretary at War Lord Faniuure. Public Works Sir Win. Molesworth, Bt. Without office Marquis of Lausdowne. The PeeHte section of the cabinet objected to the appointment of the committee of inquiry into the conduct of the war ; and the resignation of Sir James Graham, Messrs. Sidney Herbert and Gladstone, was announced Feb. 22, whereupon the follovnng changes and additions were made in the cabinet : — Chancellor of Exchequer. .Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. Colonial Secretary Lord John Kussell. Admiralty Sir C. Wood, Bart. Board of Control Mr. Vernon Smith. Board of Trade Lord Stanley of Alderley. Postmaster-General Viscount Canning. ''^orCcasfer!'.!.^"*'}^-! of Harrowhy. Lord John EusseU, on his return from the Vienna miission, was sworn into office May 1. He resigned office, for the second time during the same year, July 16, and his place was fiUed by Sir William Molesworth, Bart., who died Oct. 28, and was succeeded as colonial minister by Mr. Henry Labouchere. The duke of Argyll was made postmaster- general on the appointment of Lord Canning to the governor-generalship of India, and the earl of Harrowby became lord privy seal. He was succeeded in the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster by Mr. M. T. Baines. An amendment on the second readipg of the Conspiracy Bill was carried against the Pal- merston administration in the House of Commons, Feb. 19, 1858, by 234 to 215, and the members of the cabinet resigned office on the following day. {See Deebt ADMiiiris- TEATiONS.) The second Palmerston ad- ministration was formed on the resignation of the ilrst Derby administration, June 11, 1859. The cabinet announced in parhament June 30 was thus constituted : — Treasury Viscount Palmerston. Lord Chancellor Lord CampbeU. President of the Council.. Earl Granville. Privy Seal Buke of Argyll. Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Gladstone. -r^ „ ^ f Sir G. CornewaU Lewis, Home Secretary | -^^^^ ' Foreign Secretary Lord John Bussell. Colonial Secretary Duke of Newcastle. Admiralty Duke of Somerset. India Sir Charles Wood, Bart. ci i„™ „+ ■„r„„ / Mr. Sidney Herbert, cre- Secretary at War | ^^^^ j^ord Herbert. Postmaster-General ' Earl of Elgin. Duchy of Lancaster Sir George Grey. Poor Law Board Mr. Milner Gibson, Chief Secretary for Ire- "I ^^ CardweU. land J Mr. Milner Gibson was appointed president of the Board of Trade with a seat in the cabinet, his place at the Poor-Law Board being supphed by Mr. C. P. Villiers, who also obtained a seat in the cabinet. The earl of Elgin was sent on a mission to China, and Lord Stanley of Alderley succeeded him as postmaster-general in 1860. Mr. Sidney PAL Herbert was created a peer in 1861, and died Aug. 2, when his place as secretary at war was supplied by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Bart. Palm Sunday, also called Passion Sunday, the last Sunday in Lent, is so named from the ovation received by our Saviour on his way to Jerusalem to present himself in the teJinple (Matt. xxi. 8 & 9), April 1, A.D. 30. Caxton, in his directory for the festivals, 1483, says that the yew was our substitute for the palm. Li loS-i, being the second year of the i-eigu of Edward VI., proclamations were issued, abolishing many of the ceremonies connected with this day. Palmtea (Syria), the Tadmor or Thad- mor of the Hebrews (1 Kings ix. 18, and 2 Chron. viii. 4), was founded, or enlarged by Solomon, about B.C. 1001. Both its Greek name Pahnyra, and its Hebrew name Tadmor, signify the city of palms, and the Arabs call it Tedmor. It submitted to the emperor Hadrian a.d. 130, and rose to its highest power in the 3rd century. Sapor, Idng of Persia, was defeated here by Ode- nathus in 260. Odenathus was mui-dered about 266, and his wife Zenobia assumed the title of queen of the East. She was besieged in her capital by the emperor Aureliau in 272. It surrendered in 273, and having been destroyed, was restored by Justinian I. in 527. It was plundered by Tamerlane in 1400. The ruins were discovered by some Enghsh merchants in 1691. Their account was not believed; but these reports were confirmed in 1751, when Pahnyra was visited by Wood and Dawidns, who pubhshed a most elaborate account of the ruins, and the inscriptions. Tiby and Mangles visited the ruins m 1816. Palos (Spain). — From this small seaport town of Andalusia, Christopher Columbus sailed on the voyage in which he discovered America, Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, and here he landed on his return, March 15, 1493. Vin- cent Pinzon sailed from Palos in December, 1499, on the voyage in which he discovered the Amazon, and Cortes lauded here after the conquest of Mexico in 1528. Pampeluna, or Pamplona (Spain). — This town, rebuilt by the sons of Pompey B.C. 68, was taken from the Eomans by Euric, A.D. 466. Childibert I. sacked it in 542, and Charlemagne captured it in 778. The Saracens captured it in 802, and it was re- captured in 806 by the Franks, who re- pulsed an attack by the Saracens in 868. It became the capital of K^avarre in 978. The bishopric was founded in 1130. Pam- peluna was seized by the French general d'Armagnac, Feb. 9, 1808. The Enghsh, under General Hill, blockaded Pampeluna, in June, 1813. The blockade, raised July 27, was renewed in September, and the town surrendered Oct. 31, 1813. The citadel was seized by Marshal O'Donnell, and held for a short period, in Sept. 1841. The Gothic cathedral was built by Charles III. of Navarre in 1397, on the site of an older edifice, founded in 1100; the citadel .was strengthened in 1521 by Charles V,, and PAN I enlarged by Phihp II. in 1551. A council was held here in 1023. Pamphlets were in common use in England, in pohtical and rehgious contro- versy, about the middle of the 16th century. The pubhcation of pamphlets without a hcence was declared illegal by the judges. May 16, 1680, and a stamp duty was first imposed upon them by 10 Anne, c. 19, passed in 1712. Panama (Central America). — The Isthmus of Panama or Darien, connecting l^orth and South America, was first seen b}^ Columbus A.D. 1502, and the first Spanish settlement took place in 1510. The town of Panama was destroyed by the buccaneer Sir Henry Morgan, in 1670. The Scotch attempted to found a colony on the west coast of Panama in 1698. [See Dahien.) The Panama railway, commenced in 1850, and completed in 1854, was opened through- out for tratiic, Jan. 28, 1855. PANATHENiEAN Games. — Thcse festivals in honour of Minerva were instituted at Athens B.C. 1495, or B.C. 1397. Theseus ordained that they should be celebrated every fiilh year B.C. 1234. Besides the great festival, there were the lesser Pana- thenaea which were celebrated annually. Pandects, the chief rules of law contained in the writings of the Koman jurisconsulti, were ordered by Justinian to be prepared in December, a.d. 530. They were pubhshed at the end of three years (December, 533), although he had granted ten for the per- formance of the work. A story Avas long current that a copy of the Pandects had been found by the emperor Lotharius at Amalphi, after the capture of the town, a.d. 1135. Pandosia (Greece). — The date of its foundation, fixed by Eusebius B.C. 774, is uncertain. Alexander, king of Epirus, lost his life in an engagement •with the Bruttians here B.C. 326 ; and it was captured by the consul P. Sempronius in the second Punic war, B.C. 204. Paneeput (Hindostan). — The DeUii dynasty was defeated at this town, and the Mongol dynasty founded by the sultau Baber, a.d. 1525. Here the Affghans, under Ahmed Shah, gained a victory over the Mahrattas, of whom 60,000 were slain, and 20,000 made prisoners, in 1761. Pang^um, or Pan GiEUS (Macedonia). — . Gold was discovered in this mountain B.C. 356. It also produced silver. Panius, or Panium (Battle). — Antiochus the Great defeated Scopas and the Jitohans at this town, on the coast of Thrace, B.C. 198. Panmelodicon. — This musical instrument was invented by Leppich at Vienna, a.d. 1810. Pannonia. — This country, inhabited by Celtic tribes, was attacked by the Eomans, under Octavianus, B.C. 35, and made a Eoman province by Tiberius a.d. 8. It was ceded to the Huns by the emperor Theo- dosius II. about 447 ; came into the hands PAN of the Ostrogoths at the death of Attila in 453 ; and to the Longobardi in 500, from whom it passed to the Avari in 568. The Ungri, or Hungarians, settled here in 862, and from them it received the name of Hungary. PAJfOPTicoN (London). — The Koyal Pa- nopticon Institution was incorporated by charter, Feb. 20, 1851, and the building in Leicester Square, built from the designs of Mr. T. Hayter Lewis, was opened March 16, 1854. It failed as a scientific institution, and was converted into a circus for equestrian performances, and its name changed to the Alhambra Palace. It was opened with a rehgious service, and a concert of sacred music, Sunday, Feb. 7, 1858. Panorama. — This pictorial contrivance was invented by Eobert Barker, an Enghsh artist, about a.d. 1794. His first work of the kind was a view of Edinburgh. Thomas Girtin produced a semicircular view of Lon- don, taken from the top of the Albion mills, near Blackfriars bridge, about the same time. Pantalone. — This musical instrument was invented by Hebenstreit towards the end of the 17th century. Pantaloon appears to have been first introduced on the English stage early in the reign of Ehzabeth (1558— 1603) . Pantaloons, trowsers fitting tight to the leg or knee, with this name, came into fashion about a.d. 1790. The word was, however, used before that time. Pantheism is fully developed in the "Vedas" of the Hindoos, a compilation which, according to some Oriental scholars, dates as far back as b.c. 1600. Speculations of this kind, among the Greeks, seem to have originated with Anaximander, of Miletus, B.C. 611 — 547 j and were prose- cuted by Pythagoras B.C. 584 — 489; Hera- chtus, B.C. 503; and by Xenophanes, B.C. 617 — 517. The system was supported by John Scotus Erigena a.d. 845 — 886 ; and Giordano Bruno, burned alive as a heretic, in the Campo di Fiore, at Kome, Feb. 17, 1600. It was advocated by Spinoza a.d. 1632 — 1677; followed by Frederick ScheUing a.d. 1775 — 1854; and Hegel 1770— 1831. Pantheon (London). — This building, originally designed by James Wyatt as a theatre and pubhe promenade, was first opened in January, 1772. It was burnt down Jan. 14, 1792, but was rebuilt. The second building was taken down in 1812, and restored the same year, and in 1834 it was converted into a bazaar by Sydney Smirke. Pantheon (Kome) was built by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, and dedicated to Cybele and Neptune, B.C. 25. It was con- secrated as the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, by Boniface IV., on the calends of November, a.d. 608. Pantograph. — This instrument for copy- ing, reducing, or enlarging plans, was in- vented by Christopher Scheiner a.d. 1603. Professor Wallace improved upon it, and produced the eidograph {q. v.). Pantomime. — This dramatic entertain- PAP ment, in which the actors express them- selves by gestures and attitudes, was in vogue among the ancients from the earliest times, and was introduced on the Koman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus B.c. 22. Gibbon (ch. xxxi.) says : " The pantomimes, who maintained their reputation from the age of Augustus to the 6th century, ex- pressed, without the use of words, the various fables of the gods and heroes of an- tiquity; and the perfection of their art, which sometimes disarmed the gravity of the philosopher, always excited the applause and wonder of the people." The modern panto- mime was invented in Italy by Kuzzante, an author and actor, who lived about a.d. 1530, and was introduced into England shortly after. Papal Aggression. — The arrival of a papal brief from Rome, constituting an episcopal hierarchy in England and Wales, in place of the vicars apostohc, took place in October, 1850. By this instrument England was par- celled out into Romish dioceses, and Dr. Wiseman was constituted first archbishop of Westminster ; the ceremony of his enthroni- zation being performed with great pomp at the cathedral church of St. George's, South- wark, Dec. 6, 1850. The agitation caused by this act of papal aggression, led to the passing of the Ecclesiastical Titles BiU, July 29, 1851, which prohibited the constitution of bishops of pretended provinces under a penalty of £100. Papal States (Italy). — Rome was go- verned by its bishops after the fall of the western empire. When Gregory II. con- demned the emperor Leo, it refused to pay him the accustomed tribute, a.d. 726. Pepin having defeated Astolphus, king of the Lombards, obliged him to give up the ex- archate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis " to the holy church of God and the Roman re- pubhc," A.D. 755 ; a cession which was con- firmed and added to by Charlemagne in 774. The countess Matilda ceded territory to Gregory VII. in 1077, and the whole of her states to Pascal II. in 1102. The claim of the Church was disputed by some of the empe- rors, but Innocent III. succeeded in esta- blishing it in 1197, and Rodolph of Habs- burg, by letters patent, defined and recog- nized the States of the Church in May, 1278. The papal court having been removed from Rome to Avignon by Clement V. a.d. 1309, was brought back to the former city, and the government reduced to a regular form in 1371. Pope Juhan II. conquered Ro- magna, Bologna, and Perugia, a.d. 1.503 — 1513. Ferrara was annexed in 1597 ; Urbino in 1632 ; and Castro and Ronceglione in 1650. The legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Forh, and Ravenna, were incorporated with the Cisalpine repubhc by Napoleon Bonaparte, July 9, 1796. The pope, deprived of his tem- poral power, was sent oif to Sienna, Feb. 23, 1798, and his dominions erected into the Roman republic, March 2i), 1793. The pontiff" having been restored, a concordat was signed between Rome and France, iu 639 PAP September, 1801; but his dominions were annexed to the kingdom of Italy, May 21, 1808, and he was carried prisoner to Savona Jioly 6, 1809. He was restored to Uberty, and allowed to return to Eome, Jan. 23, 1814. Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, jSTov. 25, 1848, and a republican form of government was estabhshed at Eome, Feb. 8, 1849. The pope returned to Eome, the city being occupied by French troops, April 12, 1850. The papal army, commanded by Lamoriciere, sur- rendered prisoners of war at Ancona, Sept. 29, 1860. Paper. — The Egyptian government held a monopoly for the growth and sale of this article, which was manufactured from the Cyperus ■papyrus, probably as early as B.C. 2000, and appears to have become of con- siderable commercial importance B.C. 330. A fine quahty made at Eome was called August, after the emperor. A tumult arose owing to its scarcity, in the reign of Tibe- rius (a.d. 14 — 37). The demand for paper throughout the world had increased to such an extent, that Firmus declared he had seized as much in Egypt as would support his whole army, a.d. 273. The export duty was abohshed by Theodoric (493 — .526). Paper from cotton, called by the Greeks charta hombycina, is known to have been made as early as 1050. Meerman fixes the date of the invention of hnen paper between the years 1270 and 1300. The Chinese discovered the art of manufactur- ing it from fibrous matter a.d. 95. At Hertford, a person named Tate had a paper- mill early in the 16th century. A German, named Spiehnan, who was knighted by Queen Ehzabeth, had one at Dartford, in Kent, in 1588, and Thomas Watson elfected important improvements in 1713. Fine paper was made by Whatman at Maidstone, in 1770. The art seems to have come into France from Spain about 1260, and to have been practised in Germany in 1312. A pa- tent was granted to Jerome Lanyer in London, for a method of making " velvet- paper," May 1, 1634 ; and a similar article would appear to have been produced by a Frenchman at Eouen in 1620 or 1630. Paper-mills were at work in the United States in 1730; France erected its first paper-machine in 1815, and Berlin in 1818. The duty was abolished in England by 24Tict. c. 20 (June 12, 1861).- Paper Mojtet. — Banking establishments for the issue of notes, or paper money, have existed in England since the end of the 17th century. The Bank of England, founded by William Patterson, and incorporated by royal charter July 27, 1694, has long been the greatest circulator of paper money in the world. £5 notes were first issued in 1795. An act was passed for the issue of notes under £5, March 3, 1797 ; and £1 and £2 notes were issued March 10. During the great monetary panic of 1825, the issue of £1 notes proved of immense service. PAPHLAGoifiA (Asia Miuor) is mentioned by Homer, B.C. 962 j was incorporated in 640 PAR his empire by Croesus, B.C. 560 — 550; and in that of Persia by Cyrus, B.C. 54€. IS^ominally independent for some time afterwards, it fell to the share of Eumenes, B.C. 323.JfJIt was united to Pontus by Mithridates, B.C. 290 ; formed a part of the province of Ga- latia, under the Eomans, B.C. 47; and was made a separate province in the 4th century. PAPiA]!f Law, proposed and carried B.C. 65 by C. Papius, one of the tribunes. It required all foreigners to depart from Eome. Papies Mache. — The date of the origin of the manufacture of articles for use or ornament from paper, ascribed by some writers to the French, and by others to the Enghsh, is uncertain. Many of the fine old ceihngs, in deep rehef, in the time of Elizabeth (1558 — 16U3),are of papier-mache. John Baskerville, a printer at Birmingham, manufactured it in 1745, and from that time its use has gradually spread throughout the country. Paptja, or ]S"ew GnwEA (Pacific Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese a.d. 1512 — 1526 ; and Saavedra, a Spaniard sent from Mexico by Cortes, visited it in 1528 and 1.529. Vniabos "changed its name from Papua to New Guinea in 1543. Dampier sailed along the northern coast in 1699. Captain Cook ascertained it to be an island in 1700; Mac Cluer gave his name to that bay in 1792 ; and Flinders surveyed the coast in Torres Strait in 1802. In consequence of a survey made of the south-west coast by Kloflf, the Dutch founded a colony, and erected Fort Dubus m Triton's Bay a.d. 1828. Papyrus, the name given to the paper made by the Egyptians from the papyrus plant, was used for writing about B.C. 2000. The rolls of that material were made known in Europe through the French expedition, A.D. 1798 ; specimens of which were printed by M. Cadet in 1805. Of the funereal papyri in the Turin museum a fac -simile was pub- Hshed by Dr. Lepsius in 1842. The books of jSTuma Pompihus, containing the earhest Eoman laws, probably consisted of this sub- stance. Philostratus mentions it as a staple manufacture of Alexandria, a.d. 244. It continued to be used in Italy till about the 12th century. In the ruins of Herculaneum 1,756 roUs were found about a.d. 1753. Para (Brazil) was foimded by Francis Caldeyra, a.d. 1615. It was attacked in 1834 and 1835 by the Indians, who took it and kept possession for six months in 18.36. Parable.— Under this figurative form of speech, S'athan reproved David, B.C. 1035 (2 Sam. xii.) ; and our Saviour taught the Jews about a.d. 30 (Matt. ix. 36, &c.y. Parachute. — A machine of this kind was used in Siam about a.d. 1650. The first experiment in Europe was made by N'ormand at Paris, a.d. 1783. Gamerin, a Frenchman, descended in London from a height of 8,000 feet, narrowly escaping with his life, Sept. 2, 1802; and his daughter twice performed the feat in 1816. Mr. Cocking was killed in making a descent PAE in a parachute from a balloon at Lee, near Blackheatli, July 24, 1837. Paradise Lost. — This epic poem was commenced by Milton about a.d. 1658, and completed in 1665. It was pubhshed by Simmons in 1667, the terms being an imme- diate payment of £5, another instalment to the same amount when 1,300 copies had been sold ; a thu'd payment of £5 when the same nvuntjer of the second edition was disposed of; and £5 after the sale of the third. After the poet's death, his widow cancelled her claims on the publisher for £8, and the third edition was issued a.d. 1678. PAEAFFiif was discovered by Keichen- baeh in coal, wood, and tar, a.d. 1830; and Mr. Young patented his process for procuring it ixom bituminous coal in 1850. Pakagitat (South America). — A large colony of Spaniards founded the city of Assumption a.d. 1535. The Jesuits esta- bhshed numerous missions here in the 16th century, and received a mandate from the Spanish court, prohibiting others from entering without permission a.d. 1690. The Jesuits were expelled, a.d. 1767. EebeHing against the Spaniards in 1810, the country formed itself into a republic in 1811, of which Dr. Francia was made dictator in 1814, an office he held tiU his death in 1840. Its present repubhcan constitu- tion was adopted in 1844. A commercial treaty with the Argentine Eepublic was signed in 1852 ; vrith the United States, France, and Sardinia, in 1853 ; and with Great Britain, March 4, 1853. New Bor- deaux, a French colony on the banks of the Paraguay, estabhshed in 1855, was soon after abandoned. Paeasols were used by the ancient Greeks, and the Eomans employed them as a protection against the sun at the theatre. During the Middle Ages they were borne by horsemen in Italy. The modem parasol was first used in France about 1680. Pabchmestt. — The term is derived from the Latin word pergamena, said to be taken from Pergamus, to whose king, Eumenes (B.C. 197 — 159), the invention has been attri- buted. It was, however, in use among the Persians long before that period ; and among the lonians, as mentioned by Herodotus, b.c. 450. Parchment superseded papyrus for pubhc documents in Europe about the end of the 7th century. Paedok, a branch of the royal prerogative in England, and said by the Saxons to be derived a lege suce dignitatis, was declared to belong solely to the king, " united and knit to the imperial crown of this realm," by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1536). By the Act of Settlement (12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2, 1701), no pardon under the great seal of England is pleadable to an impeachment by the House of Commons. Pae&a (Turkey) maintained its municipal independence after the fall of the Eastern empire, under the protection of Venice, 641 PAR till that state was broken up Oct. 17, 1797, when it fell into the possession of France. AJi Pasha endeavoured to capture it after the treaty between Eussia and the Porte, signed in March, 1800, when a Turkish bey was sent, who held it until a Eussian gar- rison arrived in 1806. They gave way to a French force, by the terms of the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The fortress was taken by the English March 22, 1814. It was handed over to the Porte, by agreement. May 28, 1817 ; and the entire population of 800 fam i lies, having received from Turkey £150,000, the value of their immovable property, emigrated to Paxo and Corfu in May, 1819. Pakian Marbles. — This name is given to the collection of antiquities more ge- nerally knovra as the Arundehan or Oxford marbles (q.v.), because they were discovered in the island of Paros early in the 17th century, Paeis (France), the Eoman Lutetia, was the capital of the Farisii. Julius Csesar summoned the Gauls to assemble here b.c. 53, and the city was taken by his heutenant Labienus B.C. 52. Coimcils were held at Paris in 360, 551, 557 ; Sept. 11, 573 ; in 577 ; Oct. 18, 615 ; in November, 825 : June 6, 829; Feb. 14, 846; in 849, 85a 1024 ; Oct. 17, 1050 ; Dec. 2, 1104 ; m 1147 ' January, 1185 ; in 1196, 1201 ; October 1210 ; in 1212 ; August, 1215 ; July 6, 1223 May 15, 1225 ; Jan. 28, 1226 ; in 1229, 1248 Nov. 12, 1253 ; July 13, 1255 ; in February; 1256 ; April 10, 1261 ; Nov. 18, 1263 ; Aug. 26, 1264 ; in December, 1281 ; April la 1302 ; March 12, 1303 ; Oct. 11 to 26, 1310 \ May 7, 1314; March 3, 1324; March 9 to 14 1347 ; Feb. 4, 1395 ; May 22, 1398 ; Oct. 2l' 1404 ; in 1406 ; Aug. 11 to Nov. 5, 1408 March 1 to April 23, 1429 ; and Feb. 3 to Oct. 9, 1528. 1160. 1169. 1182. 1222. 1223. 1253. St. Denis introduces Christianity. Julian visits Lutetia, where he remains five years. The city is presei-ved from the Huns by St. Genevieve. Clovis I. occupies Paris. He makes it his capital city. Childebert I. founds the cathedral of Notre Dame. Paris is ravaged by the Northmen. It sustains a siege of thii-teen months from the Northmeu, who are repelled by Count Eudes and Bishop Goslin. A horrible famine carries off numbers of the inhabitants. Hugh Capet, count of Paris, becomes king of France. The church of St. Germain I'Auxerrois is founded. Notre Dame is rebuilt. The university is founded about this year. The first portion of the cathedral of Notre Dame is consecrated. Paris is surrounded by walls by Philip Augustus. The Temple is built. The western front of Notre Darae is built. Robert Surbon founds the school of La Sor- 1302. The parliament of Paris is organized 2 T PAR 1306. The inhabitants rebel, and besiege Philip IV. in the palace of the Temple. 1313. Philip divides Paris into three districts, and rebuilds the Palais de Justice. 1357. The first H:6tei de 'Ville is rounded. 1382. The insurrection of the MailloHns breaks out in Paris, in consequence of an impopular tax. 1396. The arsenal is founded. 1418. The English enter Paris at the invitation of John the Fearless. 1422. Henry VI. is crowned king of England and France at Paris. 1436. The English are expelled. 1469. The Ecole de Medecin is founded. 1528. Francis I. builds the Louvi-e. 1532. The chui-ch of St. Eustache is founded. 1533. Toe present H9tel de Ville is founded. 1544. Charles V. marches on Paris, the north-east and south quarters of which the duke of Guise surrounds with a rampart. 1551. The Fontaine des Innocents is erected. 1564. The palace of the Tuileries is commenced. 1572. Aug. 24. The massacre of St. Bartholomew. 1578. Henry III. founds the Pont Neuf. 1583. The original Palais de Luxembourg is com- pleted. 1612. The Place Royale is completed. 1616. Thw (Jhamps Elysfies are laid out. 1622. Paris is erected into an archbishopric. 1635. The Jardiu des Piautes is established. 1645. The church of the Val-de-Grdce is founded. 1664. The Pout Neuf is completed. 1670. The boulevards are opened. 1672. The Porte St. Denis is erected, and the Observatoiy is completed. 1674 The Porte St. Martin is built. 1684. The Pont Eoyal is buUt. 1685. The Place des Victoires is formed. 1706. The Hatel des Invalides is comi>leted. 1718. The czar Peter visits Paris, and the palace of the Elyb6e is founded. 1722. The Palais Eouibon, or Chamber of Deputies, is founded. 1752. Louis XV. founds the Ecole Militaire- 1761. The southern boulevards are completed. 1764. Feb. The Pantheon, or chui-ch of St. Gene- vieve, is founded. 1779. The Odgon is built. 1781. The Theatre de la Porte St. Martin is built. 1786. The Palais de la Legion d'Honneur is built. 1787. The Theatre FrauQais is founded. 1790. The Pont de la Concorde, or Pont de Louis XIV., is completed. 1791. The Pantheon, or church of St. Genevidve, is completed. 1798. The fh-st National Exposition is held at Paris. 1799. The Od6on is destroyed by fire. 1800. The cemetery of P6re la Chaise is formed. 1802. The PiUe Rivoli is commenced. 1806. The Pont de Jena, the Ai-c de VEtoUe, and Arc de Triomphe du Can-ousel are founded. 1807. The Od6on is rebuilt. 1808. Napoleon I. founds the Bourse, or exchange. 1810. Aug. 15. The column in the Place Vend8me Is completed. 1811. The Chateau d'Eau is erected. 1814. March 30. Paris sm-renders to the allies. 1815. The English encamp in the Bois de Boulogne 1816. The Ecole des Beaux Arts is founded. 1819. Gas illumination is introduced. 1820. The Theatre du Gymnase Dramatique is erected. 1827. The Theatre du VaudeviUe and the Cirque Olympique are built. 1829. The Pont des Invalides is completed. 1831. July 28. Louis Philippe founds the column of July. 1832. March 28. The cholera appears in Paris. 1840. The fortifications of Paris are commenced. July 28. The column of July is inaugu- rated. PAR 1842. The church of the Madeleine is consecrated. 184.5. The Jardin d'Hiver is opened. 1847. April. The Theatre Lyrique is opened. 1848. Feb. 22. A revolution oreaks out at Paris. {See France.) 1852. July. The New Louvre is commenced. 1855. May 15. The Industrial Exhibition is opened. 1859. Feb. 9. An imperial decree orders important extensions of the Parisian boundaries. 1860. The Fontaine St. Michel is erected. The population of Paris this year is returned at 1,500,129. Paeis (Treaties). — The following are the most important treaties of Paris : — 1229. April 12. Between Louis IX. and the count of Toulouse, who ceded Languedoc to the French crown. This treaty put an end to the war of the Albigenses. 1303. May 20. Between Edward III. of England and Philip IV. Aquitaiue is ceded to England. 1635. Feb. 8. France and the Dutch States-General form an alliance against Spain. 1763. Feb. 10. Between France and Spain, and Great Britain and Portugal. France cedes Nova Scotia and Canada to England, and Spain, Florida. This treaty concludes the Thirty Years' war. 1796. May 15. Between France and Sardinia. Savoy is ceded to the French republic. 1802. May 24. Between France and Prussia and Bavaria, respecting the house of Orange. 1810. Jan. 6. Between Fi-ance and Sweden. Sweden receives Rngen and Pomerania, and agrees to exclude English commerce. 1814. April 11. Between the allies and Bonaparte, who renounces the rulership of France. This is also called the treaty of Fontaine- bleau. May 30. Between France and the allied powers. France is confined within the limits of 1792. 1815. Aug. 2. Convention between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Napo- leon I. is committed to the custody of the English. Nov. 20. Between France and the. allied powers, to fettle the French boundaries, &c. France promises to pay an indemnity of 700,000.000 francs, and allow certain fortresses to be garrisoned by the allies for three years. 1817. June 10. Between Austria and Spain, con- firming the congress of Vienna. 1856. March 30. Between Russia and Turkey, Great Britain, France, and Sardinia. This treaty terminated the Russo-Turkish war. 1857. March 4. Peace between England and Persia. May 26. Between England, France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the Swiss Confedera- tion, respecting Neuchatel. 1860. Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between France and England. 1861. Feb. 2. Between France and the prince of Monaco, for the cession of Mentone and Roquebrune to France. Paeish. — The name was sometimes applied to a bishop's see among the early Christians. Alexandria is said to have been the first city divided into parishes. According to Cam- den's account, England was divided into parishes by Honorius, about a.d. 630. Lay parishes existed, according to Bede, about 700, and the division is to be found in the laws of Edgar in 970. The creation of parishes was probably not fully effected till the time of the N"orman conquest, 1066. Paeis Indusxeial Exhibition. — The PAR " Palais de 1' Industrie" was opened at Parii' by Napoleon III., May 15, 1855, when Prince Napoleon, president of the commission, read a report giving an account of its rise and progress. It was visited by Queen Vic- toria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855. The price of admission was half a franc, and on Sunday, for the working classes, two sous. It was finally closed Nov. 15, 1855. Park was originally a portion of the forest appropriated by the lord of the soil for the use of animals of the chase. The first park was that of Woodstock, made by Henry I. in 1 123. St. James' s Park is the oldest in Lon- don, having been formed by Henry VIII. (1509 — 1547). It was re-arranged and planted in the reign of Charles II. by the celebrated French architect Le Notre, and was entirely remodelled in the time of George IV. The Green Park originally formed part of St. James's Park. Hyde Park was a fashionable place for drives and promenades as early as the reign of Charles II. In 1550 the French ambassador hunted with the king in Hyde Park, which was then well stocked with game. Kensington Gardens formed part of Hyde Park before George II. 's time, when Queen Caroline inclosed them and formed the Serpentine. Ke^nt's Park was laid out in 1812 and named after George IV., then prince regent. Victoria Park was commenced in 1842. Battersea Park was opened in 1858. Parliament. — Parry (Parliaments and Councils of England, Introd. x.) remarks : — *' At the close of the reign of Henry III. the Curia Regis was called the King's Parlia- ment, a term then employed to express any assembly met for pui-poses of conference." It did not then denote a legislative assembly, though it began to be used in that sense at the commencement of the reign of Edward II. The two branches of the legislature assembled in the same room as late as 1342. Their joint assent became necessary before any act covlA. become law in the reign of Edward IV. 120.5. The first writ on record is issued by John. 1244. The prelates and barons deliberate sepa- rately. 12o4. A representative parUament, composed of two knights from every shire, is convened to grant an aid. PAR 1258. The barons assemble at Oxford. This meeting is the first called a parliament. 1265. The earliest writ extant is is-sued. 1295. Borough representation is regarded as com- mencing this year. 1311. Annual parliaments are ordered. 1322. Wales is represented in parliament. 1327. Jan. 7. King Edward II. is deposed by both houses of parliament. 1362. English is made the language of the law. 1399. Sept. 30. King Kichard If. is deposed by parliament, and the House of Commons begins to assert its control over pecuniary grants. 1404. Oct. 6. The Unlearned Parliament, so called because lawyers were prohibited from at- tendiijg, meets at Coventry. 1407. Nov. 9. The Lords and Commons are per- mitted to assemble and iransact busiuess in the sovereign's absence. 1413. May 25. Members of parliament are ordered to reside in the cities and boroughs they represent. 1430. Feb. 23. The Commons adopt the 40s. qualifi- cation for county electors. 1483. The statutes are first printed. 1542. Members of parliament are exempted from, arrest. (See Ferbar's Arrest.) 1549. The eldest sons of peers ai-e permitted to sit in parliament. 1640. Nov. 3. The Long Parliament assembles. 1649. Feb. 6. The House of Lords is abolished. 1653. April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Par- liament. 1660. April 25. The House of Lords is restored, but only consists of jjeers temporal. 1661. Nov. 20. The bishops are permitted to resume their seats in the House of Lords. 1667. An attempt is made to unite the English and Scotch parliaments. 1677. Roman Catholics are excluded from sitting in either house, by 30 Charles II. st. 2. 1694. Triennial parliaments are ordered by 6 Will. &Maiy, c 2. 1707. May 1. The parliaments of England and Scotland are united by 5 Anne, c. 8. Oct. 23. The first parliament of Great Britain assembles. 1715. Septennial parliaments are ordered by 1 Geo. I. St. 2, c. 38. 1800. July 2. The Irish parliament is incorporated with that of Great Britain by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67. 1801. Jan. 22. The united parliament of Great Britain and Ireland holds its first mefting. 1829. April 13. The Roman Catholic Emancipation Act (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) permits Roman Ca- tholics to sit and vote in either house tit parliament on swearing fidelity to the king and coustitution. 1832. June 7. Passing of the Reform Bill (q. v.). 1858. July 23. Jews are admitted to sit in both houses by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 49. {See House of Commons, House of Lords, and Houses of Parliament.) list of parliaments since, the union. Assembled. Dissolved. Duration. a.d. r 1st. — Sept. 27, 1796 1 2nd.— Aug. 31, 1802 Pt,„„„^ ttt J 3rd.— Nov. 25, 1806 George IILj 4^1,. -Nov. 27^1807 ! 5th. -Nov. 24, 1812 L 6th. -Aug. 4, 1818 rn-n^r,. TV / 7th.-At)ril 23, 1820 George IV. | gth.-Nov. 14, 1826 June 29, 1802 Oct. 24, 1806 May 27, 1807 Sept. 29, 1812 June 10, 1818 Feb. 29, 1820 June 2, 1826 July 24, 1830 Yrs. IVIs. Ds. 6 9 3 4 1 25 6 2 4 10 2 5 6 16 1 6 25 6 19 3 8 10 643 2 T 2 PAE PAK LIST OF PABLiAMEK-TS SINCE THE v-mios— (continued) . Assembled. Dissolved. Duration. AD. r 9th. —Oct. 26, 1830 WTr,T.,r w J 10th. -June 14, 1831 William IV. ^ i^th.- Jan. 29, 1833 Ll2th.-Feh. 19, 1835 ri3th.— ]S"ov. 15, 1837 14th. -Aug. 19, 1841 Jl5th.-Kov. 18, 1847 ^l^^-^-l 16th. -Nov. 4,1852 1 17th.— Apx-il 30, 1857 L18th.-May 31, 1859 A.D. AprU 22, 1831 Dec. 3, 1832 Dec. 30, 1834 July 17, 1837 June 23, 1841 July 23, 1847 July 1, 1852 March 21, 1857 AprU 23, 1859 Yrs. Ms. Ds. 5 26 1 5 19 1 11 1 2 5 10 3 7 9 5 11 4 4 7 12 4 4 17 1 11 23 Pabiiameu-t (rxencli).— The ancient Prencli parliament, wliich existed as early as the accession of the Capetian dynasty, a.d. 987, was a moveable court, composed of the great seigneurs and prelates of the realm, ■who assembled under the presidency of the king, and accompanied him in his removes from place to place. In 1190, Philip Augustus instituted the parhament of Paris, which assembled three times a year ; and, in 1302, Philip the Pair divided it into three cham- bers,— the Grande Chamhre, or Chamhre des Flaids, for the decision of causes relating to the crown and matters of pubHc importance ; the Chambre des Enquetes, which regulated appeals; and the Chamhre des Eequctes, for the transaction of ordinary pai'liamentary business. The first pubUc ministry was formed in 1312, when avoeats and procureurs generaux were appointed. In 1453, Charles VII. iovmedi.t\ie Enquetes into two chambers, and created a new chamber, entitled the Tournelle Criminelle, as a final court of appeal. In 159S a Chambre de I'Edit was erected, for deciding cases refei-ring to Pro- testants, — it became extinct in 1669 ; and in 1667 the Tournelle Civile was instituted, to relieve the Grande Chambre of some of its business. In 1753, Louis XV. tried unsuc- cessfully to substitute a Chambre Boyale for the parhament, but in 1771 it became ob- noxious on account of its unwise proceedings, and was suppressed. It was restored by Louis XVI. Nov. 12, 1774, but was again abolished Nov. 7, 1790. Paeliament (Ireland). — The Irish par- liament was modelled on that of England, and exhibited much the same progressive developments. In 1494 Sir Edward Poyning, one of the lord deputies, obtained the^assing of the act which bears his name. It ren- dered the assent of the Enghsh parhament essential to aU laws made in Ireland, and ordered all former Enghsh statutes to be deemed binding in Ireland. This act was repealed in April, 1782. The Irish parha- ment was united to that of Great Britain by the third article of the Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800) . It was prorogued for the last time, Aug. 2, 1800, and met at London as an integral portion of the parhament of Great Britain, Jan. 22, 1801. Q4A Parliament (Scotland). — The ancient forms of government in Scotland seem to have been nearly analogous ^vith those adopted in this countiy, the legislature being conducted by the sovereign mth the advice of his council. The first assembly properly called a parliament was convoked at Scone by John BaUiol, Feb. 9, 1292. Burgesses were admitted by Eobert Bruce, July 15, 1326, when a grant of the tenth penny of aU rents was made to the king by the earls, barons, burgesses, and free tenants in fuU parhament assembled. The Scotch parhament differed from that of England in having only one house, but a commit- tee, known as the Lords of Articles, an- swered to some extent the purpose of a house of peers. The parhaments of England and Scotland were united by 5 Anne, c. 8 (1707). Pakma (Italy), in the ancient Gallia Cis- padana, was colonized by the Komans after the subjugation of the Bon, B.C. 183. It received a colony of Goths by order of Gra- tian, A.D. 377 ; was included in Lombardy in 572 ; and was transferred by Charlemagne to the papal see about 773. The govern- ment was usurped by the Correggio family in 1334. "When Napoleon Bonaparte in- vaded Italy, he compelled the duke to furnish supplies for his army, May, 1796; but peace was agreed to Nov. 6, 1796. It was decided by the congress of Vienna to make it the appanage of Maria Louisa of Austria, Napoleon's wife, and at her death it reverted to the duke of Lucca, June 9, 1815. An insurrection took place, and the Austrian garrison was expelled, March 19, 1843 ; and the duke resigned in favour of his son, March 14, 1849. An insurrection occurred at Parma April 30, 1859, when the duchess left the capital, to which she re- turned May 4. Another revolution oc- curred soon after, and Parma was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy. Colonel Anviti was seized at Parma and put to death with great cruelty, Oct. 6, 1859. Near the capital, which bears the same name as the duchy, the Austrians were defeated by the Sardinians, June 29, 1734. The cathedral, with a fine fresco by Correggio, was conse- crated A.D. 1106. Paeos, or Paeus (.^gean Sea).— Thia PAE island, one of the Cyclades, is said to have been originally inhabited by Cretans and Arcadians. The lonians colonized it at an early period. The Arundelian, or Oxford marbles, were found here. Pareet (Battle).— Osric, the ealdorman, and Ealstan, bishop of Sherborne, led an army against the Danes, and defeated them at the mouth of the river Parret, A.D. 845. Parricide. — The Athenians had no law against parricides, as they professed to be- lieve that nobody could be so wicked as to kill a parent. This was also the case with the Komans until L. Ostius killed his father, about B.C. 172. A law was then enacted which ordained that the criminal, after he had been first scourged until the blood came, should be sevni up in a leathern sack with a dog, an ape, a cock, and a viper, and so thrown into the Tiber. This punishment was changed by the Lex Pompeia into that of the sword, or burning, or throwing to wild beasts. Parsdorf (Armistice). — A truce, con- eluded at Alessandria between France and Austria, June 16, 1800, was extended to Germany, under the name of the armistice of Parsdorf, July 15. Hostilities ceased at all points, and could not be resujned without twelve days' notice. It led to 51 negotiation, which resulted in the pre- liminaries of peace, on the basis of the treaty of Campio Formio, being signed at Paris July 28, 1800. Parsees. — Owing to the persecutions of the Mohammedan conquerors of Persia, the Guebres, descendants of the ancient fire- worshippers, sought refuge in the north- western parts of Hindostan, chiefly Bombay and Gujerat, about a.d. 800, when they were called Parsees, or Persians. PAETHENOif, the temple of Minerva, pro- tectress of Athens, was built in that city in the time of Pericles, — CaUierates and Ictinus being the architects, and Phidias the chiel sculptor, — about B.C. 4A8. It suffered from the explosion of a powder-magazine during a siege by the Venetians a.d. 1687. PAETHENOPEiAif Eepublic was esta- bHshed in the kingdom of Naples by the French, after the completion of its conquest, Jan. 23, 1799. Cardinal Euffo took the field against it, at the head of 17,000 Calabrians, and Macdonald received orders from the Directoi-;^ to abandon Naples, May, 1799, and it was soon afterwards dissolved. Parthia (Asia), subject at an early pe- riod to Media, to Persia, and subsequently to Alexander and his successors, threw off the Syro-Macedonian rule, when the dynasty of the Arsacidse was established, b.c. 256. The empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf, at the death of Mithridates, B.C. 130. It was invested by the Eomans, under the triimivir Crassus, B.C. 55, who was de- feated and slain B.C. 53. On the death of Artabanes, the last king, Artaxerxes usurped the supreme power, and founded the new PAS Persian dynasty called the Sassanides. a.d. 226. PAETiTioif Treaties.— A treaty, regu- lating the succession of the Spanish monar- chy, and its partition, was made between England and Holland Aug. 18, 1698. Ano- ther treaty for the same purpose, between England, France, and Holland, was signed in London, Feb. 21, 1700, and at the Hague by the French envoy and the plenipotentia- ries of the States-General, March 25. The first treaty for the partition of Poland, be- tween Austria, Prussia, and Eussia, was made in February, 1772. A second treaty was signed at St. Petersburg Aug. 5, 177Z, and the third, for the final partition of the kingdom, was concluded Oct. 24, 1795. PASAE&ADiE (Persia) . — The name of this town is sometimes written Passargadse and Pasargada. It is said to have been built by Cyrus B.C. 559, after his defeat of Astyages near this spot. The kings of Persia were consecrated here by the magi. Paschal Cycle, formed by the multi- plication of the sun's cycle, 28 years, with that of the moon, 19 years, to ascertain when Easter occurs, was adopted by the general council of Nicsea a.d. 325. It was discontinued in England by act of parlia- ment, Sept. 2, 1752. Pasquin^ade. — This name, given to a short satirical poem, is derived from Pas- quino, a tailor of Eome, who, towards the close of the 16th century, wrote lampoons, and hung them on a mutilated statue during the night. Passaeo, Cape (Sea-fight). — Admiral Byng, created Viscount Torrington in 1721, defeated the Spanish fleet off' this cape on the coast of Sicily, July 31, 1718. The EngHsh captured five ships of the line and eight frigates. Passarowitz (Peace). — This treaty of peace between Charles VI., emperor of Germany, the Venetians and the Turks, was concluded July 21, 1718. The sultan ceded Belgrade and Temeswar to the emperor. Passau (Bavaria). — The bishopric, of which it is the capital, originally an indepen- dent state, was secularized a.d. 1803, and united to Bavaria in 1809, A treaty, securing religious freedom to the Protestants, was signed in the building now used for the post- oliice, on behalf of Charles V., July 31, 1552. The colossal bronze statue to Maximilian Joseph was erected in 1828. Passengers in public vehicles are pro- tected by 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 22 (Sept. 22, 1831) ; 1 & 2 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 10, 1838), and by 16 & 17 Vict. (June 28, 1853). The laws relating to passengers by sea were amended and consolidated by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 44 (June 30, 1852). Passovee, or Feast of Unleavened Bread, commemorating deUverance from the de- stroying angel when the first-born of Egypt were smitten, was ordained by God to be observed by the Jews for ever, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii.). Passpoets are of ancient date. A 645 PAS passport granted by Julius Caesar to a pliilosoplier ran thus : — " If there be any one, on land or sea, hardy enough to molest Potamon, let him consider whether he be strong enough to wage war with Caesar." The system became very oppressive in Europe at the end of the 18th century. Passports were aboHshed in France, as far as regards British subjects, Dec. 16, 1860. Pastoueeaus, or Shepherds, followers of an impostor in Flanders, called the Master of Hungary, arose a.d. 1251. Tbey spread into France, entering the city of Orleans on St. Barnabas day, Jan. 13, and committed dreadful outrages on the inhabitants. At Bourges the leader was slain, and his fol- lowers massacred the same year. A simdar rising in France was distinguished by a ge- neral massacre of the Jews a.d. 1321. Patagonia (South America), so named by Magalhaens, who discovered it a.d. 1520. Sir Francis Drake sailed along the coast in 1578, and Captain Cook explored it in 1774. A settlement, formed by the Chilians at Port Famine iu 1843, was removed to Sandy Point in 1850. An expedition to discover a suitable site for a new colony was de- spatched in 1854. Patat (France). — Lord Talbot was de- feated and taken prisoner b_v the French under Joan of Arc, at this town, June 18, 1439. Patents for titles of nobihty were first made in the reign of Edward III. (1327 to 1377). Patents for new inventions are founded upon a statute passed in 1623, which grants the privilege " of the sole working or making of netv manufactures within the realm to the true and first inventor and in- ventors of such manufactures." An act for improving the patent laws was passed, under the auspices of Lord Brougham (5 & 6 AVill. IV. c. 83), Sept. 10, 1835. Commission- ers of patent laws were appointed July 1, 1852. Pate BINES, holding Gnostic opinions, headed by a certain Gerard, made their ap- pearance at Monteforte, and were, many of them, bui-ned at Milan by Archbishop Heri- hert about a.d. 1026. The term Patei-ini, or Paterines, was also apphed to the Pauhcians, the Manichseans, and other sects. Pateeson (j^orth America). — This town, in New Jersey, was founded a.d. 1791 for the manufacture of cotton. Patna (Hindostan), in Sanscrit, Patali- putra, the Palimbothra of the Greeks and Eomans, was visited by Megasthenes, as ambassador from SeleucusKicator to Sandra- eottus, B.C. 305. It was incorporated with the empire of Delhi a.d. 1194. Major Carnac defeated Shah Alum here in January, 1761 ; Mr. EUis captm-ed it Jime 25, 1763 ; but the troops having been made prisoners while engaged in plunder, it was retaken ITov. 6 of the same year. An action, in which Mir Casim was defeated, secured the town to the British, Oct. 23, 1764. A column marks the grave of 200 English prisoners murdered in cold blood by Mir Casim a.d. 1763. Dr. PAT Lyell was murdered by the mutineers in the streets here, July 3, 1857. Patochin (Battle). — Louis of Baden de- feated the Turks in this battle, fought Aug. 30, 1689. Pate.s;, or Pateas (Greece), one of the twelve Achaean gities, was founded by the lonians, took the Athenian side in the Pelo- ponnesian war, B.C. 431; and, through the persuasion of Alcibiades, connected itself by a wall with the port of Athens, B.C. 419. Cassauder, one of Alexander's generals, hav- ing taken it, was driven out by Aristodemus B.C. 314. The inhabitants expelled the Ma- cedonians and renewed the Achaean League with the three to\Mis Dvme, Pharae, and Tritaea, b.c. 280. After the battle of Phar- salia it was taken by Cato, B.C. 48; Antony and Cleopatra chose it for a ■winter resi- dence B.C. 32-31. It was restored, and colonized with Eoman soldiers b}' Augustus, about B.C. 20. The town sent an archbishop to the council of Sardica a.d. 347, and it was destroyed by an earthquake in the 6th century. It was restored, and purchased of the Venetians in 1408 ; was captured by the Turks in 1446 ; and recovered by the Venetians in 1533. Having again been taken by the Turks, it was held tiU the revolution in 1828, when it capitulated to the Greeks. Pateiaech. — The appellation was given to the early ancestors of the Jews ; also to certain governors among the Jews after the destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. The order became extinct in the end of the 4th 'century. It was first applied to bishops, by authority of the Church, in the council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, although Socrates in his history says it began to be used as the title of eminent bishops after the general council of Constantinople, a.d. 381. The patriarch of Constantinople was distinguished as oecu- menical or universal pctriarch, and the bishop of Eone as prince of the patriarchs. Patbicians, or Patbes, an appellation given to the Eoman populace by Eomulus. It belonged to every Eoman citizen till the creation of the patres minorum gentium by Tarquiu, and formed the exclusive source of the senate, consuls, and pontifices, till B.C. 365. Headed by L. Tarquinius, they con- spired against king Servius and murdered him, B.C. 534. The dignity ceased to be hereditary in the reign of Constantine I., A.D. 323—337. Pateick's (St.) Cathedeal (Dubhn) was founded by Archbishop Comyn, a.d. 1190, destroyed by fire about 1300, and, I having been rebuilt, was dissolved at the j Eeformation, and used for courts of justice I about 1539. Mary restored it to its original 1 use. j Pateick, St. (Order), consisting of the sovereign, a grand master, and twenty-two knights, was founded in Ireland by George III., Feb. 5, 1783. Pateiotic Funds. — After Admiral Jer\-is's victory over the Spanish fleet, a subscription was made at Lloyd's for the PAT relief of the widows and orphans of those who had fallen in the engagement, March 3, 1797. At a meeting of merchants, under- WTiters, and other subscribers to Lloyd's, July 20, 1803, it was resolved to raise a fund on an extended scale for the widows and orphans of those killed in defence of their country, and upwards of £100,000 was sub- scribed by the end of the month. The com- mittee voted, as a tribute of their considera- tion, swords, pieces of plate, and sums of money, to the officers and men engaged in the gallant defence of Dominica, May 1, 1805. In the House of Commons Lord Howick characterized it as " that mis- chievous system of rewards," tending to bring the government into contempt, Dec. 19, 1806. In Cobbett's "Political Eegister" it was represented as a " grand means of making a formidable opposition to govern- ment," its funds amounting to more than a quarter of a million of money, Jan. 24, 1807. A commission was issued June 13, 1854, by Queen Victoria, presided over by Prince Albert, to raise and distribute a fund for those engaged iu the Eussian war, which, before the end of the year, reached upwards of aonillion. Out of the fund, which eventually amounted to £1,458,000, an insti- tution for the education of 300 daughters of soldiers, sailors, and marines, was esta- blished, the foundation-stone being laid by the Queen, on Wandsworth Common, July 11, 1857. Another patriotic fund, for the relief of the sufi'erers by the Indian mutiny, originated at a pubUc meeting held in London Aug. 25, 1857. The sum collected amounted to £434,729 in November, 1858. Patripassians, the followers of Praxeas, a confessor at Eome, who maintained that the Father was born of the Virgin, died upon the cross, and was buried, arose towards the end of the 2nd century. They were also called Monarchians. TertuHian wrote against Praxeas. The term was also applied to the followers of ISToetus, a native of Smyrna, who early in the 3rd century maintained that G-od was united with the man Christ, and in him was born and suffered. Pattlians, PAUiiKriANS, or Paulianists. — The followers of Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch a.d. 260—270, who held some peculiar notions respecting the Godhead. Bingham asserts that he denied the divinity of Christ, and introduced a new form of baptism. Paul of Samosata was accused of heresy in 264, condemned by a council in 269, and was expelled in 270. The council of Nicsea (June 19 — Aug. 25, 325) ordered the Paulians to be re-baptized previous to admission into the Church. Paulicians, or Disciples of St. Paul, holding Gnostic or Manichsean principles, originated with one Constantine, living near Samosata, a.d. 660. He fell a martyr to his principles a.d. 687. Subjected to un- ceasing persecution at the hands of the rulers of the Western empire, it is said that not fewer than 100,000 were extirpated by the PAU sword, the gibbet, or the flames, in the reign of Theodoi-a, a.d. 842—857. Carbeas, commander of the guards, followed by 5,000 of the sect, renounced the allegiance of Eome, leagued with the Mohammedans, founded and fortified the city of Tephrice, and defeated the emperor Michael under the walls of Samosata, 845 — 861. Led by Chrysocheir, successor of Carbeas, they pil- laged Mcsea, Nicomedia, Ancra, and Ephe- sus, turning the cathedral of the latter city into a stable for mules and horses, to manifest their abhorrence of images and relics, in 868. They were attacked by the forces of the emperor BasU I., their leader slain, and Tephrice, their strong- hold, taken, in 871. Constantine V. (Co- pronymus) , having discovered a great num- ber of them in Mehtene and Theodosiopohs, transplanted them to Constantinople and Thrace, and so introduced their doctrine into Europe, about 850. The emperor John I. (Zimisces) removed a powerful colony of the sect from the Calybian hills to Philip- pohs in Thrace, in 970. Having spread through Italy into the southern provinces of France, a persecution was raised against them, and they were extirpated with fire and sword in 1200. Paul's (St.) Cathedeal (London). — Sir Christopher Wren denies Camden's theory that St. Paul's cathedral occupies the site of a Eoman temple to Diana, and asserts that " there is authentic tes- timony of a Christian church planted here by the apostles themselves, and, in particular, very probably by St. Paul." It is, however, doubtful whether any such building existed in London till the reign of Lucius, A.D. 185, when Faganus and Damia- nus visited England to consecrate buildings formerly devoted to the service of pagan, divinities, to the worship of the true God. The church they founded or consecrated was destroyed during the Diocletian persecution in 303, and another erected on its site was burnt by the Saxons in the 5th or 6th century. Ethelbert, king of Kent, and his nephew Se- bert founded a new church in 610, which was severely injured by a fire in 962, and totally burnt in 1087, after which, Maurice, bishop of London, commenced the erection of Old St, Paul's. This cathedral was much damaged by fire in 1137. In 1221 a new steeple was erected. The choir was completed in 1240, and in 1256 Fulco Basset, bishop of London, added the subterranean church of St. Faith. The spire was struck by hghtning Feb. 1, 1444, and again June 4, 1561, when a fire w^as kindled which rendered the re- moval of the roof and steeple a matter of necessity. Various attempts were made to effect a complete restoration, but no active measures were taken tiU 1633, when Inigo Jones erected a fine, but incongruous classic portico. St. Paul's cathedral was totally destroyed by the great fire of 1666. The ground was cleared for a new building May 1, 1674, and the warrant to begin the works was granted May 1, 1675. The first 647 PAU PAV and dwellings for about fifty-two families, of from six to eight persons each. Their ope- rations were begun in September, 1818 ; by the 10th of i^ovember the houses were ready ; and the communes sent some poor families. The expense of each family, in EngUsh money, was as follows : — £. s. d. "Building each house 41 13 4 Furniture and implements 8 6 8 Clothing 12 10 Two cows, or one cow and ten sheep 12 10 Cultivation and seed, first year 33 6 8 Advances in provisions 4 3 4 Advances of other kinds 4 3 4 Flax and wool to be spun 16 13 4 Seven acres uncultivated land net 8 6 8 Total establishment £141 13 4 stone was laid June 21, and divine ser- vice was celebrated for the first time in the uncompleted edifice on the occasion of the public rejoicings for the peace of Eyswick, Dec. 2, 1697. The last stone was set up in 1710, the whole building having been completed by Sir Christopher Wren, and by the same master -mason, and during the presidency of one bishop of Lon- don. The expense was defrayed by a tax on the coal consumed in London, and amounted to £747,954.. 2s. 9d. The iron raihng cost £11,202. Os. 6d. The anniversary musical festivals for the benefit of the orphans and widows of the clergy have been solemnized in the cathedral since 1697. The organ was built by Bernard Schmydt in 1694, and the bell was recast by Eichard Phelps in 1716. Gas was first employed in the cathedral May 6, 1822, and it was first opened for evening service Sunday, Nov. 28, 1858. The principal dimensions of St. Paul's are as follows : — length from east to west, 510 ft. ; breadth from north to south porticos, 282 ft. ; breadth of west entrance, 100 ft. ; circuit, 2,292 ft. The extreme height is 404 ft. ; that of the campanile towers, 222 ft., and of the west pediment, 120 ft. The dome is 420 ft. in circumference, and the ball 6 ft. in di- ameter. Paul's (St.) Cross (London). — This ancient pulpit cross of timber stood at the north side of St. Paul's cathedral. The date of its erection is not known, but it was in existence A.D. 1259, as Henry III. summoned a general assembly to meet here in that year. In 1382 it was struck by lightning, and was restored by Thomas Kempe, bishop of London from 1448 to 1489. It was finally taken down by order of parliament in 1643. Paul's (St.) School (London). — This institution was endowed a.d. 1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 poor men's children. The present building was erected in 1823, by Mr. George Smith. Pauper Colonies. — Estabhshments with this name originated in Holland, a.d. 1818. General Van den Bosch, on his return from Java, laid before the king of Holland a plan for a pauper colony ; a meeting was held at the Hague, and a regular society formed. A writer in the British Almanack for 1829 says : — " Having received the sanction of the king, the society was recommended to all the local authoritieis, and soon found itself in possession of £5,380, obtained from more than 20,000 members. With these funds, having been enabled to make the necessary arrangements, the society pur- chased the estate of Westerbech Sloot, on the east side of the Zuyder Zee, and not far from the town of Steenvpyk. This estate cost them £4,660, and it contained from 1,200 to 1,300 acres, about 200 of which were under a sort of culture, or covered with bad wood, and the rest a mere heath. They let the cultivated land, about one-tenth of the whole; deepened the Aa (which rvms through the estate), so that it is navigable for boats, and bvult storehouseSj a school, 64S The writer goes into various details and then gives the result of the experiment. " In the course of seven years from its first establishment, the colony of Fredericks Oord contained a population of 6,778, in- eluding that of Omme Schanze, which is under a more rigid control. Among the number were 2,174 orphans and foundlings. The total number forming all the colonies in Holland, were stated to Mr. Jacob at 20,000; but he thinks it exaggerated : there were, however, 8,000 in North HoUand." Paupers might be put in the stocks if not provided with a testimonial from a justice of the peace, by 12 Eich. II. c. 7 (1388) ; were prohibited from begging, except in the hundred where they last dwelt, by 11 and 19 Hen. VII. (1495 and 1504) ; and if able-bodied, were to be whipped, by 22 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1531). Compulsory payment was first instituted in support of the poor by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1536). The compulsory system was brought into fuU operation by 14 Ehz. c. 5 (1572), form- ing the basis of a subsequent act, stUl in operation (43 Eliz. c. 2), passed in 1601. Pavement. — The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns with stones, and the practice was introduced into Europe by the Eomans. London was first paved about a.d. 1533. McAdam's system of paving was introduced into London in 1823. Pavia (Italy), the ancient Ticinum, is first mentioned in history as the place where Augustus met the funeral procession of Drusus, A.D. 20. A sedition among the troops of Vitellius broke out here in 69 ; and while commanding its garrison, Claudius was saluted with the imperial title in 268. It was taken by Attila in 452, and by Alboin, after a siege of more than three years, in 570, when it became the residence of the Lombard kings and the capital of Italy, under the name of Pavia. It surrendered to Chai'lemagne, at the close of a fifteen months' blockade, in 774. It was, with its forty-three churches, reduced to ashes by the savage Magyars in 924. Victor IV. was elected pope by a council held here Feb. 5, 1160, and the emperor Frederick I. held his PAW stirrup and kissed his :feet. The army of Charles V., under the viceroy Lannoy, came to its relief when besieged by Francis I., and in the battle (see MALEGKrAiro) which ensued, Francis I. was defeated and taken prisoner, Feb. 23, 1525. It was occupied by the French and Sardinian army Oct. 29, 1733 ; and again by the united troops of France, Spain, Naples, and Genoa, in July, 1745. The populace rose against the French occupants, and took the castle. May 26, 1796. The university, supposed to have been founded by Charlemagne in 774, was restored in 1361 by Galeazzo Visconte, who was st3^1ed count of Pavia. The church of St. Michael, perhaps the oldest in Italy, dates from the beginning of the 7th century; the church Del Carmine, which contains valuable paintings, was built in the 14th century ; the citadel, completed in 1469, was partly destroyed in 1527, and suffered from the French in 1796. Councils were held here in 1128, and Feb. 1160. PiWifBROKEKS. — The emperor Augustus estabhshed a fund at Rome for lending money to those who could leave a sufficient pledge, B.C. 31 ; Tiberius lent money on lands, a.d. 14 ; and Alexander Severus advanced money to the poor without interest in 222. By the papal court a fund was collected from which the poor received loans free of charge, and lending-houses were permitted to exact interest under the name of pro indemnttate, the pope declaring the holy mountains of piety, " sacri monti di pieta," to be legal, the first being estabhshed at Perugia, by Barnabas Interamnensis, about a.d. 1464. Another at Savona was confirmed by Sixtus IV. in 1479. A mont de piete was established at Assisi by Bernardinus Tomitano, of the order of Minorites, in 1485, at Mantua in 1436, at Parma in 1488, and at many other towns up to the close of the loth century. A constant hostility being kept up by some of the ecclesiastical bodies to these institu- tions, which were, they said, not monies pie- tatis, but impietatis. Pope Leo X. issued a bull, declaring them legal and useful. A mont deplete was founded at Eome by Gio- vanni Calvo, a Franciscan, in 1539; one at Naples in 1539 or 1540. Maximilian I. permitted the citizens of Nuremberg to drive out the Jews and establish an exchange bank, where those requiring money might leave their effects in pledge, in 1498. In the Netherlands, France, and England, such houses were known under the name of Lom- bards, and to evade the prohibition of the Church against interest, exacted it before- hand, as a present. The lombard, or lend- ing-house, at Brussels was established in 1619, at Antwerp in 1620, at Ghent in 1622. The mont de piete of France was instituted by royal command in 1777. The present system in England was established by De Northburgh, bishop of London, the prac- tice being for the preacher at St. Paul's Cross, in his sermon, to declare, at the end of a year, that the article pledged would be forfeited if not redeemed in fourteen days. PEA The rate of interest is fixed by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99 (July 28, 1800). Pawtucket (North America) .—The first cloth factory in America moved by water was estabhshed at this town, situated partly in Rhode Island and partly in Massachu- setts, A.D. 1790. Pax. — This instrument, used in the Roman Cathohc church, and sometimes called the tabula pacis, or the osculatorium, was intro- duced in the 12th or 13th century. The custom of giving the kiss of peace (q. v.) before the communion prevailed until the pax was introduced. The priest kissed the instrument first, then it was kissed by the clerk, and finally by the laity, and this pro- cess was substituted for the former general exchange of salutations. A pax appears amongst the regular ecclesiastical instru- ments ordered in the parish churches of Yorkshire in 1250. Paz de Atactjcho (South America). — This town in Boh via was founded by the Spaniards a.d. 1548, under the name of Nuestra Senora de la Paz. It was made the seat of a bishop in 1605, and its name was changed, in 1825, to Paz de Ayacucho, in honour of the victory of Ayacucho. Pazzi CoifSPiBACT, formed by Francesco Pazzi, and sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV., to murder the Medici, Lorenzo and Julian, at Florence, was attempted during the celebration of high mass in the cathedral. The work of assassination was undertaken by two priests, and the elevation of the host was the signal agreed upon for the onset, April 26, 1478. Julian fell beneath their daggers, but Lorenzo escaped with a shght wound. The populace took up arms, 70 of the Pazzi party, including the two assassins, were killed, and altogether more than 200 persons were put to death. Peace. {See Con-seevatoes and Justices OP THE Peace.) Peace Society, for the promotion of permanent and universal peace, was esta- blished A.D. 1816 ; held a meeting at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849 ; in Exeter Hall, Oct. 30, 1849; af Frankfort, Aug. 22, 1850; at Birming- ham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; at Manchester, Jan. 27, 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853. A deputation from the society had an inter- view with Nicholas, emperor of Russia, at St. Petersburg, Feb. 10, 1854. Peaels are mentioned by Job (xxviii. 18) as possessing considerable value, B.C. 2130. Clodius, the tribune, gave a pearl, dis- solved in vinegar, to each of his guests, B.C. 61. Cleopatra made a wager with Antony to serve up her pearl eardrops, worth £76,000, at a repast, a.d. 32. Ceylon was famed for its fisheries in the time of Phny in 72 ; Seville imported upwards of 697 lb. weight in 1587. A pearl was obtained from Margarita, by Phihp II., worth £31,875, in 1574. Joint stock companies were formed to prosecute the Columbia fishery in 1825, but were abandoned in 1826 ; and an Eughsh company undertook the same enterprise at Algiers in 1826. The total value imported 6H> PEA into the United Kingdom in 1856 was £56,162. Linnaeus announced the discovery of a method of producing them artificially in 1761, and an imitation was devised by a Pari- sian bead-maker, called Jaquin, about 1656. Peasant Wak.— A struggle, called the Bundsckuh, broke out a.d. 1502, and another, the League of poor Conrad, at Wiirtemberg, in 1514. The peasants of the small towns rebelled in Swabia, and those of the Thurgau rose inarms in Jime, 1524,whenmany outrages were committed. The insurgents were de- feated by the army of the archduke Ferdi- nand, May 2, again at Konigshofen June 2, and were 'finally put down after 100,000 per- sons had perished, in June, 1525. Pecquignt, orPicQui&jrr (Peace).— The treaty of Amiens (q.v.), of Aug. 29, 1475, was ratified at Pecquigny, near Amiens, on which account it sometimes passes by that name. It was renewed for the lives of Louis XI. and Edward IV. in 1477. Pedlaes. (See Hawkees.) Peel Administeations.— The first was formed on the resignation of the first Mel- bourne administration (q. v.), iS'ov. 14, 1834. William TV. apphed, ]S'ov. 15, to the duke of Wellington, who advised that Sir Eobert Peel, Bart., at that time travelling in Italy, should be summoned to form an administra- tion. The duke of Wellington became prime minister, provisional arrangements were made, and Sir Eobert Peel obeyed the call, and reached London Dec. 9. He immedi- ately assumed the responsibilities of office, and his cabinet, formed at the end of the month, was thus constituted — First Lord of the Treasury ■) and Chancellor of the VSir Robert Peel, Bart. Exchequer ; Lord Chancellor lord Lyndhurst. President of the Council. .Earl of B-osslyn. Privy Seal Lord WharncUffe. Home Secretary Mr. Hem y Goulbum. Foreign Secretary Duke of Wellington. Colonial Secretary Earl of Aberdeen. Admiralty Earl de Grey. Board of Control Lord Ellenborough. Secretaiy at War Mr. Herries. Chief Secretary for Ire- ■)„. „ „ ^■ land jS"^ Henry Hardmge. Master of the Mint, and ■) Pi-esident of the Board VMr. A. Bartug. of Trade ) Paymaster of the Forces . . Sir E. Knatehbull, Bart. ''or^;ncr.^^'..?f..*.'!!}s-<5-^geMurr-ay. Parhament was dissolved Dec. 30, 1834, and a new parliament was summoned to meet Eeb. 19, 1835. A coalition having been formed between the AVhigs and the Eadicals, an amendment to the address was proposed in the House of Commons, and carried Feb. 26, by 309 to 302. Three adverse divisions having taken place respecting the appropria- tion of the revenues of the Irish church, namely, first, a resolution proposed by Lord John EusseU, carried April 2 by 322 to 289 ; secondly, the resolution cariied in commit- tee April 6, by 262 to 237, and thirdly, a further resolution in favour of the appro- priation principle carried against ministers, 650 PEE April 7, by 285 to 258, Sir Eobert Peel announced the resignation of the ministry April 8. (See Melboueij-e Admi:xistea- TiONS.) The second Peel administration was formed on the resignation of the second Melbourne administration (q.v.), Aug. 30, 1841. The cabinet formed by Sept. 8 was thus constituted — Treasury Sir Eobert Peel, Bart. Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhui-st President of the Council. .Lord Whai-ncl'flFe. Pri^-y Seal Duke of Buckingham. Chancellor of Exchequer. .Mr. Goulbum. Home Secretary Sii' James Graham, Bart. Foreign Secretary Earl of Aberdeen. Colonial Secretary. Lord Stanley. Admiralty .. ..^ Earl of Haddington. f Lord Ellenborough. ore- Board of Control < ated Earl of Ellen- ( boro\igh Oct. 14, 1844. Secretary at War Sir H. Hardinge. Board of Trade Earl of Kipon. Treasurer of the Navy ) and Payma-ster of the >Sir E. Knatchbull, Bai-t. Forces ) Chief Secretary for IreOj^j.^ j.^^^ land J Without office Duke of Wellington. Lord Ellenborough accepted the governor- generalship of India, and was succeeded at the Board of Control by Lord Fitzgerald and Yesci, Oct. 23, 1841. The duke of Buck- ingham resigned the privy seal Jan. 31, 1842, and it was intrusted to the duke of Buc- cleuch and Queensberry Feb. 2. The duke of Wellington was made commander-in-chief Aug. 15, 1842. The earl of Eipon succeeded Lord Fitzgerald and Yesci (who died May 11, 1843) at the Board of Control, May 17, 1843 ; and Mr. Gladstone was made presi- dent of the Board of Trade and master of the mint, June 10, 1843. Sir Henry Har- dinge was succeeded. May 17, 1844, as secre- tary at war by Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., who, having been appointed chief secretary for Ireland, was replaced by Mr. Sidney Herbert, Feb. 4, 1845. Lord Somerset, made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster Sept. 3, 1841, and the earl of Lincoln, made first commissioner of woods and forests Sept. 16, 1841, were both admitted to seats in the caijinet in 1845. A division ensued in the cabinet respecting the expediency of an immediate repeal of the corn laws in the autumn of 1845, and ministers resigned ISTov. 25. Lord John EusseU failed in his attempts to form an administration, Dec. 20, and the Peel administration, with the exception of Lord Stanley, returned to of&ce. He had been summoned to the House of Peers as Baron Stanley, in 1844. He resigned the colonial secretaryship, and was succeeded by Mr. Gladstone, Dec. 20, 1845. The earl of Lincoln succeeded Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., as chief secretary for Ireland, Feb. 14, 1846. Sir Eobert Peel carried the repeal of the corn laws ; but this change in his policy produced a division amongst his followers, the two parties being afterwards called Peehtes (q.v.) and Protectionists (q.v.). The latter avaihng themselves of the opportunity afforded by PEE the second reading of the Irish Coercion Bill, voted against ministers, who were defeated by 292 to 219. The division took place early in the morning, June 26, 1846, the day on which the bill for the repeal of the corn laws passed the House of Lords. The resignation of the Peel administration was announced in both houses of parhament June 29. (See EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIOIf.) Peelites. — This name was given to that section of the Conservative party which, after the rupture caused by the repeal of the corn laws (q.v.) in 1846, adhered to Sir Eobert Peel. They were thus designated as opponents to the Protectionists {q. v.). Peep-o'day-Bots. — This Irish faction ori- ginated at Market-hill, in Armagh, July 4, 1784. {See Deeenders.) Peers and Peerage. — The nobility of the realm, consisting of barons, dukes, earls, marquises, and viscounts (q.v.), are called peers, or equals, because they enjoy an equality of right in all public proceed- ings. They are created either by tenure, by writ, or by patent. Peerage by tenure originated at the Norman conquest, when the land was divided between the followers of the Conqueror. The earKest peerage by writ is of a.d. 1265, when a writ of summons to parhament was issued by Henry III. The first peer created by patent was John de Beauchamp, who was made baron of Kidderminster by Richard II. Oct. 10, 1387. Peers are exempt from arrest in civil, but not in criminal cases. In cases of treason and felony, they can only be tried by their fellow peers ; but in misdemeanours they are tried by an ordi- nary jury. Peeresses are tried by the same tribunals as peers, by 20 Hen. "VI. c. 9 (1442). By 4 & 5 Vict. c. 22 (June 21, 1841), peers convicted of crimes were ren- dered liable to the same penalties as com- moners. The elevation of Sir James Parke to the peerage for the terna of his natural life, by the title of Lord Wensleydale, Jan. 16, 1856, led to the appointment of a committee by the House of Lords to inquire into the legality of hfe-peerages. A report, deciding that such peerages could not entitle their holders to sit or vote in parliament, was presented Feb. 25, in consequence of which Lord Wensleydale received a patent with the usual remainder to " the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten," the following July. The peers of Scotland are re- garded as forming part of the nobility of Great Britain. By the 23rd article of the Act of Union, 5 Anne, c. 8 (1706), sixteen of their number are permitted to sit in the House of Lords as representatives of the rest. As this act limits the right of election of these representatives to the Scotch peers then existing, it follows that no new Scotch peerages can be created. The Irish peers also form part of the nobility of the realm ; and bv the 4th article of the Irish Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800) , four of the Irish bishops and twenty- eight temporal peers are permitted to sit PEL in the House of Lords. The same act per- mits the sovereign to create one new Irish peerage whenever three of those existing become extinct ; and when the number is reduced to 100 noblemen, every vacancy may Ue immediately supphed. Sir Wilham Dugdale's " Baronage of England," which was pubhshed in 1675-6, is the earliest work on the English peerage. The first edition of Collins's " Peerage " was published in 1709. Peg-t: (Asia), capital of a province of the same name, was besieged by the Burmese, and capitulated a.d. 1757. The British obtained possession of Pegu in 1824, and, having restored it at the conclusion of the war with Burmah, it was again taken and retained Nov. 21, 1852. The whole province was annexed, and the close of the war officially proclaimed, June 30, 1853. Peiho (China). — An attempt to force a passage up the mouth of this river by Admiral Hope, June 24, 1859, was resisted by the Chinese forts, and resulted in a disastrous repulse. The English lost twenty- five men killed and ninety-three wounded on board the gunboats, and sixty-four kil led and 252 wounded in the attempt to effect a landing. The Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho were captured by the alhed French and English squadron Aug. 21, 1860. Pekin (China) was besieged and taken by Zenghis Khan and his Mongols, when the inhabitants, for want of ammunition, are said to have discharged ingots of gold and silver upon their assailants, a.d. 1214. Kub- lai Khan rebuilt it, and made it his capital in 1260. A British embassy, intrusted to Lord Macartney, arrived Sept. 14, 1793. The city was entered by the allied armies of France and England, Oct. 12, 1860. A con- vention was signed Oct. 24, and they eva- cuated Pekin Nov. 5, 1860. Pelagian-ism, so named from Pelagius, its founder, who began to disseminate his heresy at Eome a.d. 404 ; was examined by a council at Jerusalem, and another at Diospolis, in both of which the tenets passed without condemnation, in 415. It was condemned by a council at Carthage, eighteen bishops in Italy were deposed for their adherence to it, and Pelagius himself was banished from Italy by the emperor Honorius in 418. Having extended into Britain, two Galhc bishops were called over to suppress the doctrine in 442. A conference was held at Verulam between its supporters and the orthodox party in 446, and the Pelugians were banished from Britain in 452. The council of Orange decreed the doctrine of Augustus, in opposition to Pelagianism and Semi-pelagianism, to be estabUshed, July 3, 529. Their decree was confirmed by the coun- cil of Valentia, and by Pope Boniface II. in 530. Pelagonia (Macedonia) ,— The name at first apphed to a district, was afterwards conferred upon the chief town of the Pela- fones, and the capital of the Fourth Mace- onia. 651 PEL Pelasgi, an ancient race spread oyer Greece, and the islands of the JSgean Sea, are first mentioned by Homer as furnishing a contingent under Achilles at the siege of Troy, B.C. 962. JSTiebuhr considers them to have been the original inhabitants both of Greece and Italy. Pelekanon (Battle) .— Orchan I. defeated Andronicus III., who was wounded in the encounter, a.d. 1329. Pelew IsLAifDS (Pacific Ocean) were first brought mto notice (although long previously known to the Spaniards) through the wreck of the Antelope, East-Indiaman, a.d. 1783. Prince Lee Boo, son of king Abba Thulle, who had been intrusted by his father to Captain Wilson, was brought to England, where he only survived five months, in 1784. The East-India Company sent infor- mation of the event to the islands in 1790, together with a present of five stock and culinary vegetables, which were found to have flourished weU when the place was re-visited by an English vessel in 1798. Pelham Administeation. — The death of the earl of Wilmington rendered fresh minis- terial arrangements necessary, and Mr. Pel- ham, brother of the duke of'jSTewcastle, was made first lord of the treasury and chancel- lor of the exchequer, Aug. 25, 1743. His col- leagues in the cabinet were : — Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. Presideut of the Covmcil . . Earl of Harringtou. Pri\'y Seal Earl Gower. ^^<^^^'^^'^^^^^'-'^ ■■■■&e'':^^lt.stle. ^d-^alty {'^^oUinlZ^'''''' ^"' Ordnance Diike of Montage. Paymaster of the Forces . .Sii- T. Wimiington, Bart. Earl Gower was succeeded by the earl of Cholmondeley, as lord privy seal, in December, 1743. Lord Carteret, who had succeeded to the title of Earl GranviUe, re- signed :No\. 24, 1744, and the Pelham Administration was reconstructed. The chiefs of several parties coalesced ; from which circumstance the new ministry was called the Broad Bottom Administration (q.v.). Peli&ni, a people of central Italy, and, according to Ovid, of Sabine descent, are first mentioned in Roman history as having been attacked by the Latins, B.C. 343. They entered into a treaty of peace with the Ro- mans B.C. 304 ; afforded them material aid against the Samnites at the battle of Sen- tiima, B.C. 295 ; and raised volunteers for Scipio B.C. 205. At the outbreak of the Social war, B.C. 90, they joined the Marsi, making their chief city, Corfinivmi, the ca- pital of the confederate states. They sub- niitted to the Romans B.C. 88, and were soon after admitted to the franchise. In the civil war between Csesar and Pompey, their chief town, Corfinium, was garrisoned to oppose Csesar, B.C. 49; and they espous- ed the side of Vespasian against Vitelhus, which was their last appearance in history, A.D. 69. 652 PEN^ Pell A (Macedonia). — Philip II. made this a royal residence, and Alexander the Great was born here in July, B.C. 356. ^mi- hus Paulus took it B.C. 168, and it became a Roman colony. Pella (Palestine), also called Batis, is said to have been colonized by Macedonians. Antiochus III. (the Great) took it B.C. 198, and it was destroyed by Alexander Jan- nseus, king of the Jews. Pompey restored it, and the Jews took refuge here when Je- rusalem wag threatened. Peloponnesian War, between Athens and Sparta at the head of a confederacy, commenced with the siege of Potidaea by the Athenians, B.C. 431. The contest con- tinued twent3'-seven years, and was termi- nated by the defeat of the Athenians at jEgospotami, when Lysander sailed to Athens, compelled it to surrender, and demo- hshed the walls, b.c. 405. Pelusium (Egypt). — The modem Tineh, called Sin by the Hebrews (Ezekiel xxx. 15), and by the" Copts Peromi. The Assyrians, under Sennacherib, encamped under its walls, when the field-mice gnawed asunder their bow-strings and shield-straps, about B.C. 715. Cambyses took it when he in- vaded Egypt, B.C. 525, and it fell before the Persian arms B.C. 456. Alexander the Great entered it B.C. 333. It was cap- tured by the Persians B.C. 309, and by An- tiochus Epiphanes B.C. 173. When Amrou subdued the country, a.d. 618, it surren- dered, and afterwards fell into decay. Pelworji.— This island, belonging to Den- mark, was detached from the larger island of Nordstrand by a flood in 1634. Pemaneon (Battle). — John Ducas Va- taces, emperor of Nicsea, defeated the Latin, emperor, Robert of Courtenay, in this battle, fought a.d. 1224. Pembroke (Wales).— The shire of which this town is the capital was a county pala- tine until A.D. 1536. The castle, a Korman structure, came into the hands of Gilbert Strongbow, who received the title of earl of Pembroke from Henry I. in 1107. It was captured in 1648, after a six weeks' siege, by Cromwell. Henry VII. was born in the fortress in 1456. In the suburbs are the ruins of a priory founded in 1098. The royal dockyard was removed from Milford to this place in 1814. Pembroke College (Oxford), built on the site of Broadgate HaU, and sometimes called Segrim, or Segreve Hall, was esta- bhshed by letters patent, June 22, 1624. The chapel was consecrated in 1732. Pembroke Hall (Cambridge) was founded under the name of Valence-Mary, by Mary de St. Paul, widow of Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, a.d. 1347. The chapel, built by Matthew Wren, bishop of Ely, from the designs of his nephew, Sir Christopher Wren, was consecrated in 1665. Penal Servitude. — An act substituting penal servitude for transportation (16 & 17 Vict. c. 99) was passed Aug. 20, 1853. It took effect from Sept. 1, 1853, and was amended by 20 & 21 Vict. e. 3, June 26, ' 1857. Pewance. — The practice of performing penance as expiation for sin was introduced into the Eoman Catholic church about the middle of the 2nd century. The laws on the subject subsequently became so numerous, that they were compiled into a separate code by John Jejunator, patriarch of Constanti- nople, about the year 595. Bingham states that the perforrnance of penance always ne- cessitated the penitent to assume sackcloth and ashes, and either to shave the head, or wear the hair dishevelled. It is one of the seven sacraments of the Eoman Catholic church. Penang, or Peince of Wales' Island (Strait of Malacca), was bestowed by the king of Keddah as a marriage portion on Captain Francis Light, an Enghshman who had married his daughter, a.d. 1785. He transferred it to the East-India Company, and was made governor July 7, 1786. It was made an independent presidency in 1805 ; and, with other settlements in the strait, was again brought under the government of Ben- gal in 1830. It was placed under thp general government of India in 1851. Peninsular War. — Apphcation for aid against the French invaders having been made by Spain, Sir Arthur "Wellesley sailed from Cork with 10,000 men, July 12, 1808, landing at Figueira, in Portugal, Aug. 1. He defeated the French at Vimeira Aug. 21. A convention called the convention of Cintra, by which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal, was signed Aug. 30. The British army entered Lisbon, and Wellesley obtained leave to return home in September. The command of 20,000 men having devolved upon Sir John Moore, he commenced his retreat before Soult, and reached Corunna Jan. 13, 1809. A battle was fought, in which Moore lost his life, Jan. 16 ; and the embarkation of the troops was completed Jan. 18. Sir Arthur Wellesley again received the com- mand, and arrived at Lisbon April 22, 1809. After several successful campaigns, the French were finally driven out of the coun- try April 5, 1814. Peniscola (Spain) capitulated to the French marshal Suchet, with seventy-four pieces of cannon and 1,000 men, in February, 1812. It was strengthened and garrisoned June, 1813, and was invested by the Spaniards in March, ISllj ; but held out tiU after peace had been concluded in April, 1814. Penitence. — The order of Penitence of St. Magdalen was founded by Bernard, a native of Marseilles, for the reformation of fallen women, a.d. 1272, and was constituted by Pope Nicholas III. under the rule of St. Augustine. Pennsylvania (North America) was first settled by the Swedes and Finns, a.d. 1627. They were reduced by the Dutch in 1655 ; and the whole territory passed under British rule in 1664. It was granted by letters patent to WUham Penn, in consideration of a debt due by government, March 4, 1681. PEN He founded Philadelphia in 1682, where the delegates of the colonies assembled to resist taxation by the mother country in 1774. The constitution was adopted Dec. 13, 1787. Penny. — This coin, originally of silver, is first mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex, a.d. 688. It was reduced by Ed- ward III. from twenty-two and a half to twenty grains in weight, in 1346. The first legal copper coin was introduced in the reign of James I. about 1609. Penny Post.— The metropolitan penny post was set up a.d. 1681, by Murray, an upholsterer, who assigned his interest to William Dowckra, a London merchant, in 1683. It was decided in 1697 that its reve- nues formed part of the general post, and Dowckra was appointed comptroller. A pen- sion of £500 per annum for ten years was awarded to him in 1702. An additional penny was authorized by law to be laid on letters for the villages round London in 1727 ; and the metropolitan rate was raised from a penny to twopence in 1801 . A uniform rate of a penny on inland letters, to take effect from Oct. 5, 1840, was estabhshed by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 17, 1839). A treasury minute was accordingly issued Nov. 12, 1839, fixing the rate of postage at fourpence per half-ounce, to take effect on and after Dec. 5. The uniform rate of one penny for the United Kingdom came into operation Jan. 10, 1840. Penon de Velez (Morocco) was founded by Pedro of Navarre, a.d. 1508. The Moors seized it in 1522, and the Spaniards regained possession in 1664. Pen, Peonna, or Pethekton (Battle). — Cenwalch, king of Wessex, defeated the Britons in this battle, fought a.d. 658. Peneitddock's Kebellion, in favour of monarchy, was suppressed in Devonshire, whither the royalists had retreated. Colonel John Penruddock being taken, amongst others, and executed. May 16, 1655. Pensacola (North America). — This town in Florida was captured by the Spaniards May 10, 1781. Pensionary Paeliament. — This name was given to the second parliament sum- moned by Charles II., from the number of pensions conferred during the session. It met May 8, 1661, and consisted of sixteen sessions, the last of which terminated Dee. 30, 1678. It was dissolved Jan. 24, 1679, and has also been called the Long Parhament. Pension List. — To prevent the crown from burdening the revenue with improvi- dent grants, a law (1 Anne, c. 7) was passed, regulating all those made after March 25, 1702; and a civil fist was settled on George III. in heu of the larger branches of the hereditary revenue in 1760. The pension list was examined by a committee of the House of Commons in 1837. Pentatettch, or the five books of Moses, were written by the Hebrew lawgiver about B.C. 1452. Pentecost, or Feast of Weeks, ob- served seven weeks after the Passover, was 653 established by Moses, at the command of God, B.C. 1496 (Lev xxiii. 15). The Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles at Jerusalem, according to the promise of our Saviour, on the day of Pentecost, May 26, A.D.30 (Aetsii. 1—6). PEifTLAjsTD Hills (Scotland). — An insur- rection having broken out in Scotland, on account of the feelings of hatred entertained towards Archbishop Sharp, the iasurgents were defeated here Nov. 28, 1666. PEifZAifCE (Cornwall) received a charter for a market and fair a.d. 1332 ; was incor- porated in 1615 ; was burnt by the Spaniards in July, 1595 ; and was taken by Fairfax, the parliamentary commander, in 1646. Sir Humphry Davy was born here Dec. 17, 1778. Peppee is first noticed by Hippocrates, B.C. 460 — 357. It was a favoiirite ingre- dient in Eoman cookery. Alaric demanded 3,000 lb. weight of pepper as a portion of the ransom of Rome, a.d. 409. Pee A. — The residence of the EngHsh ambassador is situated in this suburb of Constantinople, which suffered severely from a fire a.d. 1831, when the ambassador's residence was destroyed. Per a has since suffered severely from conflagrations. {See Galata.) Peeceval ADMiifisTEATioN-. — On the death of the duke of Portland, Oct. 30, 1809, Mr. S. Perceval became first lord of the treasury. The cabinet was thus con- stituted : — First Lord of the Treasury, 'j ChanceUor of the Ex- „, a„„„„„, r.^- i chequer, and of the i^' Spencer PercevaL Duchy of Lancaster . . ) Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. President of the Council. .Earl Carndf-n. Privy Seal Earl of Westmorland. Home Secretary Mr. Richard Kyder. Foreign Secretary Marquis of "ft ellesley. Colonial Secretary ... .Earl of Liverpool. Admiialty Lord Mulgrave. Ordnance Earl of Chatham. Board of Trade Earl Bathui-st. Lord Mulgrave became master-general of the ordnance May 1, 1810, and was replaced at the Admiralty by Mr. Charles Yorke, June 23. Viscount Melville succeeded Mr. Charles Yorke at the Admiralty in March, 1812. Yiscount Castlereagh became foreign minister, in place of the marquis of Wel- lesley, who resigned ; and Yiscount Sidney became president of the council in April, 1812. As the prime minister, Mr. Perceval' was entering the lobby of the House of Commons, May 11, 1812, he was shot by a man named BeUingham. Death was almost instantaneous. (See Liveepool Adiiinis- TEATIOIf.) Peecussiou- Gum-s.— The substitution of detonating powder for flint and steel in discharging firearms was the invention of the Eev. A. J. Forsyth, of Balhelwie, Aber- deenshire, whose patent was dated April 11, 1807. Percussion-cap guns were introduced into the French army in 1830. 654 PEE Peeed (Battle). — The allied Eussian and Austrian army defeated the Hungarians, commanded by Georgey, in this battle, fought June 20, 1849. Peeekop (Eussia) . — The Tartar lines, ex- tending across the Isthmus of Perekop, from the Sea of Azof to the Black Sea, were forced by the Eussian marshal Miinnich, May 27, 1736. The fortress of Perekop, situated on the isthmus, was assailed by Marshal Lacy, and capitulated at the end of two days, July 10, 1738. It was carried by assault, against a defending army of 50,000 Tartars and 7,000 Turks, the Eus- sian assailants being commanded by Prince Dolgorucki, in 1771. Pebe-la-Chaise (Paris).— This most im- portant cemetery of the French metropohs is named after Pere-la-Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIY., who occupied a house on its site. The ground had for about a hun- dred and fifty years been the property of a convent of Jesuits, who were com- pelled to sell it to pay their debts, a.d, 1763, In 1800 it was purchased by the munici- pahty of Paris, who employed M. Brongniart to convert it into the French Jfational Ce- metery. It was consecrated in the early part of 1804, and was first used for interments in May, 1821. On the approach of the allied armies to Paris in 1814, Pere-la-Chaise was strongly fortified by the pupils of the schools of Alfort, who were, however, driven from their position by the Eussians, March 30. Peefumeey. — The use of perfumes is of the highest antiquity, as they were em- ployed by the Egyptians in the embalming of the dead, and by the Jews in the service of the temple. Babylon was celebrated by the ancients for the excellence of its per- fumes. The Greeks and Eomans used them extensively, and regarded them as an oflTer- ing acceptable to the gods, and their poets always accompany the description of the appearance of any of their divinities by a notice of the ambrosial odour which they diffused. The taste for perfumes reached its height in this country in the reign of Ehza- betli, whose sense of smeU was remarkably acute, and pomander balls and pounce-boxes figure largely in the writings of her time. Perfumery was taxed, and dealers were com- pelled to take out a licence by 26 Geo. III. 0.49(1786). Peegamus, or PEEGAMtTM (Asia Minor), — This city is said to have been founded by a colony of Arcadians, and to have been named- after Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus, The city, with the surrounding districts, was formed into a kingdom by a Paphlagonian eunuch, named Philetserus, B.C. 283. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, had selected this place for the reception of his treasures, amotmting to nine thousand talents, and he committed its government to Philetaerus, who revolted. Attains, one of his succes- sors, who assumed the title of king, and whose name became proverbial for wealth, died B.C. 197. Eumenes II., his son, who rendered it a large and powerful kingdom. PEE and collected a library only inferior to that of Alexandria, died B.C. 159. It was be- queathed to the Komaus by Attains III. B.C. 133, and, having revolted, was subdued and made a Roman province under the name of Asia, B.C. 130. It contained one„of the seven churches of Asia, mentioned Rev. ii. 12 (a.d, 96). A council was held here in 152. SOVEEEiaNS OP PEEGAMUS. A.D. A.D. Philetaerus 283 1 Eumenes II. 197 Eumenes 1 263 Attalus II 159 Attalus 1 241 I Attalus III 138 Peega, or Peege (Pamphylia). — At this city, renovnied for the worship of Artemis, Paul and Barnabas preached with great suc- cess (Acts xiii. 13 and xiv. 25), a.d. 45. Peeigueux (France).— This town, in the old province of Perigord, stands near the site of the Roman Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Louis IX. ceded it to the Eng- lish, from whom it was finally wrested by Charles V. It was a stronghold of the Hu- guenots, and was annexed to the French crown in 1653. Peeim, or Mehttk (Strait of Bab-el-man- deb). — This island, commanding the entrance of the Red Sea, was occupied by the Eng- lish A.D. 1799, on account of the French invasion of Egypt. The English withdrew in 1801. Another English expedition landed here Feb. 1, 1857, and took formal possession Feb. 14. Peeinthus (Thrace), originally a Samian colony, was founded, according to Syncel- lus, B.C. 599, butPanofka places its origin as early as b.c. 1000. It was taken by the Per- sians B.C. 506, besieged b.c. 340 by Philip II. of Macedon, who was compelled to abandon the enterprise B.C. 339. The Romans were totally defeated by Phyrrus in the plain near this tovm, B.C. 280. An alliance with Rome was formed B.C. 278. It assumed the name of Heracleia in the 4th century of the Christian aera, and its old imperial palace and aqueducts were restored by the em- peror Justinian, a.d. 527—565. Peeipatetic Philosophy. — This school of philosophy was founded by Aristotle the Stagirite, who became a pupil of Plato B.C. 367. He was appointed tutor to Alexander of Macedon, at that time thirteen years old, B.C. 342, and was assigned the Lyceium at Athens as a school wherein to teach his disciples, b.c 333. Having been charged with impiety and condemned to death, he fled to Chalcis, where he died, b.c. 322. From his habit of giving lessons while walking in the groves of the Lyceium at Athens, his system has received the title of the Peripatetic school. Peeisaboe (Assyria). — This city, also called Anbar, was destroyed by Juhan during his invasion of Assyria, a.d. 363. Perjuet. — The Levitical law punished the crime of wilful perjury with deaith (Lev. v. 1) . The Greeks had severe laws against it ; but it was, notwithstanding, so common amongst PER them that Grceca fides hecsbvae a proverbial expression for false witness. Other ancient nations punished it with death or fines ; but most frequently it was regarded as an offence of so serious a nature that the criminal was left to the justice of the gods. The early Christians had various laws on the subject ; by some of which it was atoned by severe penances, while others rendered the perjurer excommunicate for hfe. The Anglo-Saxons inflicted whipping, and sometimes death, on perjurers. By 11 Hen. VII. c. 25 (1494) , per- jury committed by unlawful maintenance, imbracing, or corruption of officers, or in the chancery, or before the king's council, shall be punished by the discretion of the lord- chancellor, treasurer, both the chief justices, and the clerk of the rolls ; and if the com- plainant prove not, or pursue not his bill, he shall yield to the party wronged his costs and damages. By 5 Eliz. c. 9 (1562) perjurers were rendered hable to six months' imprison- ment, with a fine of £40, and in default of payment, to have both ears nailed to the piUory. By 8 Geo. I. c. 6 (1722), a quaker making a false affirmation incurred the penalties of a wilful perjurer. By 2 Geo. II. c. 25, s. 2 (1729) , the judges were em- powered to sentence persons convicted of this crime to transportation or imprisonment for seven years ; and the modes of indictment and prosecution were regulated by 23 Geo. II. c. 11, ss. 1 & 2 (1749). The last-mentioned act was amended by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 100, s. 19 (Aug. 7, 1851) . The Abohtion of Oaths biU, 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 62 (Sept. 9, 1835), declares the making of a false declaration to be a misdemeanour. Peexambuco (Brazil). — This city, pro- perly composed of the distinct towns of Recife and Olinda, was founded by Duarte Coelho, A.D. 1530, and was seized and occu- pied for thirty days by the English in 1594. It was taken by the Dutch Feb. 16, 1630, and was the scene of an insurrection in 1661, when the governor was arrested by the popu- lace, and sent home to Portugal. In 1676 it was erected into a bishop's see. An insur- rection resulted in the flight of the governor, Nov. 7, 1710. Insurrections occurred here in March, 1817, in 1821, and 1829. Peeitau (Russia) .— Charles XII. of Swe- den landed here Oct. 17, 1700, in his campaign against the Russians. Peeonne (France). — Charles the Simple died a captive in its castle a.d. 927. Charles, duke of Burgundy, held Louis XI. prisoner here in 1468, extorting from him (Oct. 14) a treaty by which he abandoned the sove- reignty of Burgundy, and consented to aid in the suppression of the revolt which he himself had excited in Liege. The assembly of notables that met at Tours in November, 1470, declared the treaty null and void, and pronounced the duke of Burgundy guilty of high treason. Peronne was unsuccessfully besieged by the troops of Charles V. in 1536 ; and here the Roman Catholic league was organized by the duke of Guise in 1576. Never having been captured, it was formerly 655 PER styled La Fucelle (the maiden), a designa- tion rendered no longer appropriate, as Wellington carried it by assault June 26, 1815. Peepetttal Edicts. — One was compiled under the directions of the emperor Hadrian, by Salvius Julianus, a.d. 132; another, stipulating terms of peace between Spain and the IS^etherlands, was signed at Marche- en-Famine Feb. 12, and at Brussels Feb. 17, 1577. The brothers John and Cornelius De Witt induced the States of Holland to pass a perpetual edict abohshing the office of stadtholder, a.d. 1667 ; but the aggression of Louis XrV. caused it to be repealed July 3, 1672. PEKPiGifAif (France), said to have been founded a.d. 1068, was taken by Louis XI. in 1474. It was restored to Spain, but re- taken by France in 1642 ; and ceded to that country with the province of Eoussillon, by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Kov. 7, 1659. The university was founded by King Pedro in 1349, and a council was held here in 1408. Its defences were thoroughly repaired in 1823. Peesabme^'ia. — The nobles of Armenia rebelled against Artasires about a.d. 440, and reduced his kingdom to a province of Persia, under the name of Persarmenia. Peesectttions. — The most important are the ten general persecutions to which the early Christians were subjected by the Koman emperors. They are as follows :" — 64. The rhristians are first persecuted by Nero, on a charge of having set fire to Rome. Tacitus enumerates cnicifixion, burning alive, and baiting by dogs and wild beasts, among their tortures. 95. The second pei-secution, under Domitian, commences with the banishment of his niece DomitOla, and the execution of the consul Clemens. 104. Trajan persecutes. 16.5. Marcus Aurelius oppresses the Christians. 198. Septimius Se-vems publishes his edict against the Christians. 235. The favourites of Alexander Severus are bar- barously massacred by Maximin. From the circumstance of there being many Christians among them, the event is styied a persecution. 249. The emperor Dtcius exceeds all his predeces- sors in the severity of his persecutions. 257. Valerian adopts severe measui-es against the Chrihtiau". 27.3. Auvelian publishes edicts against Christianity. 303. Feb. 24. Diocletian publishes his tir-st edict against the Christians, ordering the demo- lition of their churches and the execution of all who refused to renounce their wor- ship. The persecution thus commenced was continued with great barbarity for ten years. Peesepolis (Persia), supposed to have been from the earliest times the capital of Persia, contained the magnificent royal pa- lace which, together with a large portion of the town, was bm-nt by Alexander the Great in his drunken frenzy, B.C. 331. Peesia. — According to the national tra- ditions of this country, its first king was Mah-a-bad, who taught the inhabitants agriculture and the manufacture of metals, 656 PER and introduced other arts of civilization ; l)ut the most general opinion is that the mon- archy was founded by Kaiomurs. Councils were held in Persia, a.d. 499, in 544, and 553. 2160. Kaiumarath, or Kaiomurs, founds the Pisch- dadian dynasty. 2010. Persia is tributai-y to Syria. 1740. Parhang, king of Turan, invading Persia with an army of 400,000 men, defeats Nodar, and establishrs his own son Afra- siab on the Persian throne. 1730 (about). Afra.=;iab retires to his own country, and is succeeded in Pei-sia by Zu or Zoab. 1661. Afr.isiab invades Persia, and finaUy subverts the Pischdadian dynasty. 642. Kai-Kobad, or Cyaxares, expels the Turani from Pei-sia, and establishes the Kaianite dynasty. 640 (about). Persia is invaded and made tributary to the Scythians. 612. Kai-Kobad expels the Scythians. 606. He takes Nineveh. 598. Kai-Kaus, king of Pei-sia, is defeated and made prisoner by the king of Turan, from whom he is rescued by Rustem. 596. Egj-pt, Syi-ia, Arabia, and Asia Minor, are subjected by the Pei-sians. 559. Cyrus, or Kai-Khosru, becomes king of Per- sia, and defeats the Assyrians and Baby- lonians. 551. On the death of Cyaxares II. of Media, that country is annexed to Persia by Cyrus. 548. Cyrus defeats the Egyptians at the battle of Thymbra. 546. Cyrus seizes Sardis and takes Croesus, king of Lydia, prisoner. 543. Cyrus annexes Lydia and Asia Minor to his empire. 538. Cyrus conrjuers Babylon. 536. Phoenicia is annexed to Persia. The religion of Zoroaster is established about this date. 525. Cambyses conquers Egypt and reduces it into a Persian province. 522. Cam)>yses is slain by accident, and the sove- reignty isusui-ped by Smerdis the Magian. 521. Assassination of Smerdis by seven coi^spira- tors, the chief of whom, Darius Hystaspes, ascends the throne. 517. Darius X. takes and destroys Babylon. 508. Darius I. makes Macedon, Thrace, and the countries north of the Indus, tributary to his puwer. 501. The Persians are defeated in the Naxian war. 499. Tlie Athenians assist the Ionian rebels against Persia. 497. War is commenced between the Persians and. Greeks. 494. The Greeks are defeated in the naval battle of Lade. 492. Mardouius invades Greece and is defeated both by sea and )and. 490. Datis and Artaphernes Invade Greece with- out success. (See Marathoh.) 486. The Egyptians revolt. 484. Xerxes I. suppresses the Egyptian insurrec- tion. 480. Xerxes T. invades Greece. (See ARTEansiCTi, Sal^mis, and Thermop-\x^e.) 479. The Pei-sians, after the defeats of Mycale and Platasa {q. v.), retreat from Greece, and lose their supremacy in Maced»n and Thrace. 466. The Persians are defeated at the Eurymedon ( New Grenada. The provinces of Eio de la Plata, Potosi, Charcas, Chiquitos, and others, are sepa- rated from Peru, and erected into a dis- tinct government. Tapac Amaru heads a formidable but fruitless insurrection against the Spaniards. July 28. Sal) Mai tin proclaims Peru free and independent. Aug. 3. San Martinis made protector. Sept. 22. He seizes Callao. Sept 26. He orders the English squ.adron, under Lord Cochrane, to quit the Peruvian 1535. 1541. 1544. 1545. 1551. 1718. 1778. 1780. 1821. 1834. 1835. May 24. The royalists are defeated at Pin- chacha. Sept. 20. The Peru-\-ian congress is f irmally installed, and San Martin resigns the protectorship. Sept. 1. Bolivar is invested with the chief authority at Lima. Dec. 9. The battle of Ayacucho (g. v.) secures the liberties of Peru. Jan. 23. Callao, the last Spanish stronghold in Peru, surrender^ to the patriotic party. Feb. 27. The Peruvians sustain a heavy defeat from the Columbians at Tarqui, in Quito, in consequence of which a treaty is con- cluded between the two republics the following day. An insurrection under General GamaiTa ia suppressed by General Miller. Feb. 25. General Salavery seizes Callao, and proclaims himself head of the rejjublic. PEE 1835. Aug. 13. His army is totally defeated at Yauacocha. 1836. Feb. 7. Salavery sustains another severe defeat, and is made prisoner, in the pass of Tingo. Feb. 18. He is executed. 1837. May 17. War is declared against Chili. Nov. 17. Peace is restored. 1851. April 21. Kiots break out at Arequipa, in consequence of the election of General Echenique to the presidency. 1857. Aug. 11. The British chargS d'affaires is assassinated. 1858. Feb. 21. General Vivanco rebels, and bom- bards and takes Arica. March 8. The insurrection is suppressed by General Eamon Castilla. Oct. 26. The ports of Ecuador are declared in a state of siege. 1859. Oct. 9. Castilla announces that he shall occupy Ecuador, unless a settled govern- ment ia adopted. Peetjgia, or Peeitsia (Italy), is first noticed in history B.C. 310, when the Peru- gians shared in the great defeat of the Etruscans by the Eomans at the Vadimo- nian lake. They allied themselves with the people of Clusium, and renewed the war against Eome B.C. 295 ; but, having suffered two defeats, were obliged to sue for peace, and by the payment of a large sum of money obtained a truce for forty years. Perugia afterwards became a dependency of Eome, and took a prominent part in the civil war between Octavian and L. Antonius B.C. 41. It was taken by Octavian, pillaged, and burnt, B.C. 40, and was restored by Axigustus. The bishopric was founded a.d. 57, St. Hercu- lanus, a follower of St. Peter, being the first bishop. The town was taken and occupied by Belisarius in 537 ; was besieged by Totila in 547, but held out for two years, and only surrendered after Behsarius had quitted Italy. It was recovered by ISTarses in 552. The university was founded in 1320. In 1416 Perugia came into the hands of Braccio da Montone. It was twice visited by the plague, viz., in 1348, when 100,000 persons perished, and again in 1524, when the celebrated painter Perugino died. In 1512 it was united to the Papal States by Pope Julius II., and in 1540 the citadel was erected by Pope Paul III. The bronze statue of Juhus III. was erected in 1555 in gratitude for his re- storation of many of their privileges. The necropolis of Perugia was discovered in 1840. Pebttvian Bakk, {See Baek.) Pes AEG (Italy), the ancient Pisaurum, of which town nothing is known previous to B.C. 184, when a Eoman colony formed a settlement. It was one of the first places occupied by Caesar after his passage of the Eubicon b.c. 49. An earthquake destroyed the greater part of the town soon after the battle of Actium, b.c. 31- It was restored by Augustus. The manufacture of pottery, which existed at Pesaro from the time of the Eoman emperors, was revived a.d. 1300 by Pope Boniface VIII., and attained great perfection under the dukes of Urbino in the middle of the 17th century. . Peschieea (Italy). — This town of Mantua was captiired by the Sardinians, May 30, 659 PET 1848, and recovered by the Austrian army under Eadetzky in March, 1849. Peshawae (Hindostan), the capital of a province in the Punjaub, was founded by the Mongol emperor Akbar. Eunjeet Singh captured the place in 1818. The sepoy garrison mutinied Oct. 23, 1848, and expelled the resident. Major Lawrence. Pestalozzian Schools of education, es- tabhshed by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, who was born at Zurich, in Switzerland, Jan. 12, 1746. He turned his farna into a school in 1775, and was compelled to give it up in 1780 from want of funds. At the request of the Swiss directory, he opened a second school in 1798 at Stanz, in Unter- walden, but was compelled to retire on account of iU health and the interference caused by the war. In 1800 he founded an educational institution at the castle of Burg- dorf. It was broken up in 1825. Pestalozzi died Feb. 17, 1827. Pesth (Hungary) was built by Arpad about A.D. 889, and walled in the 13th century. It was for nearly 160 years in possession of the Turks, who were finally expelled in 1686. An inundation of the Danube destroyed 1,200 houses in March, 1838. The Hungarian revolution broke out here Sept. 11, 1848, and Count Lamberg, the imperial commissioner, was murdered on the Buda-Pesth bridge, Sept. 28. Pesth, taken by the imperial forces Jan. 5, 1849, was evacuated by them April 21, and bom- barded May 4. Near the city is the field of Eakos, where the national assembly of the Magyars met in the open air from 1268 to 1525. The Neugebaude, now used as bar- racks, was erected by Joseph II. in 1786. He also transferred the university from Ofen to this city in 1784. The Ludovicium, a military school, was built ia 1837, and the town-hall in 1844. Pestilewce. {See Plague.) Petalism. — This form of banishment, in- stituted by the Syracusans, was borrowed from the Athenian ostracism, the difference being that the names were written upon olive-leaves instead of shells, and the sen- tence lasted only five years. Petalism was abolished b.c. 452. Petaed. — This implement of war, for forcing open the gates of tovras, was first used by the French Huguenots at the siege of Cahors in 1579, and was soon afterwards introduced into England. Petchewegans, a Slavonic tribe, famous in Byzantine, Eussian, and Hungarian an- nals from the 10th to the 12th century. After a vain attempt to enter Eussia, they occupied the country between the Eussian and Greek empires, and concluded a treaty of peace with Igor I. a.d. 920. They invaded Eussia, for the first time, in 968, and laid siege to Kief. It was on the point of surrendering from famine, when it was reheved by the Eussians, and the siege was raised. They defeated Vladimir I. at Vas- silef, on the Stugna, in 996, and in the following year they laid siege to Bielgorod, 2 XT 2 PET but were compelled to retreat. The em- peror John II. drove them out of Thrace in 1122, and from that time they ceased to be formidable. Petelia, or Petilia (Battle). — Spartacus was defeated and slain by Crassus near this town, in Lueania, B.C. 71. It terminated the Servile war. Petelia (G-reece), the modern Strongoli, was an ancient city of Bruttium, founded, according to Greek tradition, by Phiioctetes, soon after the Trojan war. It supported the Eoman cause during the second Punic war, B.C. 216 ; was besieged by the Bruttians and Carthaginians, under Hamilco, and, having been abandoned by the Romans, was, after several months' resistance, compelled to sm-render. PETEEBOKor&H (Bishopric) was established by order of Henry VIII., a.d. 1541. Peteeboeotjgh (Northamptonshire). — Penda, king of Mercia, having embraced the Christian religion, founded a monastery at this place, anciently called Medeshamstede, about A.D. 655. It was dedicated to St. Peter ; and from this monastery the town was caDed Petriburgus, — hence its present name. Having been plundered and burnt by the Danes in the 9th century, it was restored in 970. The monastery was burnt Aug. 3, 1116. Here King Stephen sum- moned a council in 1138, and held his court in 1144. King John, in the tenth year of his reign, being displeased with the citizens of London, removed his exchequer to Peter- borough. Edward I. held his parliament here in 1317. The cathedral was desecrated by the parhamentary forces in 1643. Peter- borough has received numerous charters, which were aU confirmed in 1796, when a new one was obtained. Peteehead (Scotland) was founded by George Earl Marischal, a.d. 1593. James Prancis Edward, the Pretender, landed here in 1715 ; and in the same year the estates of the Marischal family were forfeited, in con- sequence of their adherence to the house of Stuart. The town-house was built in 174S. The south breakwater was constructed in 1773, and the north breakwater, commenced from designs by Thomas Telford in 1818, was, while in an unfinished state, nearly destroyed by a storm in 1819. It was, however, completed in 1822. Peter le Poet, or St. Petee Poet (Guernsey).— Edward I. gave orders for a pier to be built here, a.d. 1274, for the benefit of the commerce of the island ; but many delays took place, and the project was not executed until 1570. The church was built in 1312. Elizabeth granted a charter to the islanders, for the collection of petty customs, Aug. 28, 1580. It was confirmed by James I. June 15, 1605, and renewed by Charles II. Feb. 11, 1663. The town hos- pital was erected in 1742, and greatly en- larged in 1810. Port George was built after the commencement of the American war, in 1775. Queen Victoria landed at Peter le Port Aug. 12, 1859. PET Peteeloo Eiot took place in St. Peter's Fields, near Manchester, Aug. 16, 1819. IS'early 100,000 persons, belonging chiefly to the labouring classes, had assembled in St. Peter's Fields, under the leadership of Henry Hunt, to petition for reform. The mihtary were ordered to disperse them, when about six persons were killed and thirty or forty wounded. Peteesbukg (America). — This town, in Virginia, was destroyed by a conflagration in July, 1815. The first cotton-mill was erected here in 1828. Peteesbtjeg-, St. (Eussia), was founded by Peter the Great, from whom it takes its name, in May, 1703. The Swedes, under Charles XII., attacked it June 25, 1705, but failed ; and in 1714 a triumphal procession took place in consequence of a naval victory gained over the Swedes. It was threatened by Gustavus III. of Sweden in June, 1788. The Hermitage j^alace, commenced iu 1765, was finally completed in 1804. St. Pe- tersburg was inundated by the river Neva, Nov. 19, 1824, when many lives were lost, and much property was destroyed. The im- perial palace was totally destroyed by fire, Dec. 29, 1837. Peteesbtjeg, St. (Treaties). — The fol- lowing are the most important : — 1715. Oct. 30. An alliance between Eussia and Prussia. 1744 Feb. 4. An alliance between Russia and Poland. 1755. Sept. 30. An alliance between Great Britain and Russia. 17G2. Ma5' 5. Peiice is concluded between Russia and Pi-u--sia. 176G. June Si'. A commercial treaty is concluded between Russia and Great Britain. 1772. Aug. 5. A convention for the partition of Poland is entered into by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 1787. Jan. 11. A commercial treaty is signed be- tween France aud Russia. 1795. Sept. 28. A triple alliance is concluded be- tween Great Britain. Russia, aud Austria. 1805. April 11. A treaty agaiust Bonaparte is con- cluded between Great Britain and Russ'ia. 1812. April 5. An alliance against France is con- cluded by Russia and Sweden, the former country agreeing to unite Norway to the latter. Peter's Pes^ce, or Petee-Peitce. — Ina, king of Wessex, is said to have imposed a tax of one penny upon every house in Eng- land, in order to found a school at Rome, about A.D. 720. It was called Eom-feoh, or Eome-scot. Offa, king of Mercia, levied a tax of one penny upon each house in his dominions possessed of thirty pence a year, for the support of the English school at Rome, in 790, and this being afterwards extended to all England, and claimed as a right instead of a gift, received the name of Peter's pence, or Peter-pence. The tax occasioned frequent disputes, and was finally abolished by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 21 (1534). Peter's (St.) College, or Peter-house (Cambridge). — This most ancient college of Cambridge university was founded by Hugh de Balshlm, bishop of Ely, for a master PET and fourteen fellows, a.d. 1257. Its char- ter was dated 1284. Andrew Perne founded two 'additional fellowships in 1589, Lady Eamsay two in 1601, and Thomas Parke four in 1637. Originally seyen of the fel- lows of this college were obliged to be from the northern counties of England, and seven from the southern ; but these restric- tions were removed by letters patent, which took effect in June, 1839. Peterswalbe (Battle). — Napoleon I. de- feated a large body of Eussian cavalry, under the command of Colonel Blucher, son of Marshal Blucher, at this place, in Silesia, Sept. 17, 1813. Petekswalde (Convention), consisting of fourteen articles, was signed between England and Eussia, at Peterswalde, in Si- lesia, July 6, 1813. It provided for the subsidies to be paid by England to Eussia, for the maiutenance of the German legion in the service of the Czar, and led to the last coalition of the aUies against Napoleon I. Peterwaedein, or Peteewaradin (Austria), is said to have derived its name irom Peter the Hermit, who assembld^d an army here for the first crusade, a.d. 1096. The Turks took the town Jvily 15, and the citadel July 27, 1526, and Prince Eugene defeated the Turks with great slaughter here, Aug. 5, 1716. The Turkish commander and 30,000 of his troops were slain, and 250 pieces of heavy artillery captured. The Hungarians having seized it, the Austrians established a blockade, and it surrendered Aug. 17, 1849. Petitioners. {See Abhoreers.) Petition of Eight. {See Bill oe Ri&hts.) Petitions. — By 13 Charles II. stat.l, c. 5 (1661), no petition to the crown or parUa- ment for the alteration of any matter of church or state established by law, was per- mitted to bear more than twenty signatures, unless it had previously been approved by certain stated legal authorities. The subject possesses a right to petition the crown, and by 1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 2 (1689), aU prosecutions and commitments on account of exercising this right are* invalid. The manner of proceeding upon electioneering petitions is prescribed by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 98 (Sept. 4, 1848). Petea (Arabia) . — This city, the capital of Arabia Petraea, and the modern Wady Musa, is mentioned by Pliny as a great resort for travellers. It was subdued by Trajan's lieutenant, A. Cornehus Pahna, and remained for many years under the domi- nion of the Eoman emperors. Its neigh- bourhood abounds in ruins of the temples and mausoleums erected during the Eoman occupation. Petra was an ancient episcopal see ; Asterius, who occupied this diocese A.D. 347, being its first bishop. Petra (Colchis). — This town of the Lazi, in Asia Minor, was founded by Joannes Tzibus, one of Justinian's generals. It was taken by Chosroes I., king df Persia, a.d. 541, and, after a protracted siege, was recovered by the Eomans in 551, when it PHA was finally destroyed. Its ruins are known by the name of Oudjenar. Petrobussians.— The followers of Peter de Brueys, who preached in the south of France early in the 12th century, and after doing so for about twenty years, was burned at the stake at St. GiUes, in Languedoc, a.d. 1130. According to Peter the Venerable, who wrote a work to refute his errors in 1146, Peter de Brueys denied, " 1. Infant baptism; 2. Eespect for churches; 3. the Worship of the cross. The cross on which the Redeemer was so cruelly tortured ought rather to be an object of horror than of ve- neration. 4. Transubstantiation and the real presence. It is asserted, but not proved, that he rejected the Eucharist altogether : he probably retained it as a memorial rite. 5. Prayers, alms, and oblations for the dead. To these errors was added an aversion to the chanting and psalmody of the Church ; he would perhaps replace it by a more sim- ple and passionate hymnology." Peteopaulovski (Asiatic Eussia), or, " the Harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul," the principal military station in the province of Kamtschatka, was bombarded Aug. 31, 1854, by the Enghsh and French squadrons. The attack was renewed Sept. 4, and a landing eifeeted ; but the expedition proved unsuc- cessful, and was abandoned Sept. 7. An English squadron was sent again in May, 1855, when the town and fort were found to be deserted, the Eussians having carried off" all their guns and munitions of war. Pevewset (Sussex) was ravaged by the earl of Godwin a.d. 1049. William, duke of Normandy, landed here Sept. 28, 1066. King John granted it a charter April 27, 1208, and in the time of Henry III., 1220, it was a considerable port. The castle was besieged, but without success, by Simon Montford in 1265. James I. of Scotland, taken prisoner by Henry IV. in 1406, was confined in Pevensey Castle for 18 years. Pews in churches were not known tiU after the Eeformation. The first reading- pew is mentioned in Bishop Parkhtirst's " Visitation of Norwich," a.d. 1596, and the first authority for setting up reading-desks is the canon of 1603. The earliest pew for the use of the congregation is one in the north aisle of Geddington St. Mary, in Northamptonshire, bearmg date 1602. Another in the same church dates from 1604. Women's pews are mentioned in the parish accounts of Leverton, in Lancashire, for 1639, showing that the sexes ware separated in church at that time. Pfaffendorp (Battle). — The Austrians, under General Landohn, were defeated Aug. 15, 1760, at this place, in Silesia, with the loss of 10,000 men, by Frederick of Prussia. Phalanx. — The celebrated Greek pha- lanx was brought to a state of perfection by Phihp II., king of Macedon, in his lUyriau wars, B.C. 359. Phanakiots.— Greek nobles of Constan- tinople, who sorung into existence soon after the capture of" that city by Mahommed II., ^ 661 PHA May 29, 1453. They received tliis name because tliey resided in' the Phanar, the quarter of Constantinople which surround- ed the residence of the Greek patriarch. Phakisees. — A Hebrew sect, whose name was derived from " Pharash," a Hebrew word signifying separated, because they made pretensions to superior strictness in religious observances. (Luke xviii. 9.) Their origin is involved in obscurity, though Jose- phus, himself a Pharisee, says they were a considerable sect in B.C. 110. He speaks of three sects as having been in existence B.C. 150,— the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. Phaemact. — The Egyptians, in the time of Osiris, were celebrated for their phar- macy, and the art was, at a very early date, in high estimation among the Chinese, who studied plants, boiled them in water, and prepared extracts. The first Pharmacopoeia was pubhshed in 1618. The Pharmaceutical Society of London was instituted June 1, 1841, and obtained a charter Feb. 18, 184.3. The constitution and management of this society, and the quaUfications of pharma- ceutical chemists, are regulated by 15 «& 16 Vict. c. 56 (June 30, 1852). Phakos (Egypt).— The name is said to have been derived from the pilot of Mene- laus, who died here from the bite of a ser- pent, on his return from the Trojan war. Alexander the Great converted the island into a breakwater, B.C. 332, for his pro- jected capital of Alexandria, and connected it with the mainland by an embankment a mile in length. The celebrated light- house, or tower of Pharos, commenced by Sostratus of Cnidus, B.C. 298, was completed in the reign of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, B.C. 283. Phaksalia (Battle). {See Phabsalus.) Phaesalits (Greece) , considered by Leake to have been one of the strongest cities in Greece, is first mentioned after the Persian wars. It was besieged by the Athenian commander Myronides, B.C. 455, without success. Medius, tyrant of Larissa, took Pharsalus by force about B.C. 395. It was for some time in the possession of the Syrian monarch Antiochus, but surrendered to the Eoman consul Acilius, B.C. 191. Phar- salus is chiefly memorable for the great battle fought on a plain in the vicinity, between Jiilius Caesar and Pompey, B.C. 48. The latter was completely defeated, and the victory made Julius Caesar master of the Eoman world. Phek^ (Thessaly), celebrated in my- thology as the residence of Ametus and his son Eumelus, the latter of whom took eleven ships to the Trojan war. About the end of the Peloponnesian war, Lycophron estabhshed a tyranny at Pherse, and sought to gain the dominion of aU Thessaly. This was achieved about B.C. 374 by his son Jason, who was assassinated B.C. 370. Pherae, with the rest of Thessaly, became subject to Macedonia B.C. 352; it surrendered to Antiochus, king of Syria, B.C. 191, and it PHI soon after fell into the hands of the Eoman consul Acilius. Philadelpheia (Asia), the modem AUahsher, founded by Attains Philadelphus of Pei'gamus, is mentioned in the Apocalj'pse (i. 11) as one of the seven churches of Asia, A.D. 96. Strabo says it was subject to fre- quent earthquakes, and during the reign of Tiberius it was destroyed by one. The Turks assailed it frequently, and it was at last taken by them under Bajazet I. in 1390. Philadelphia (North America). — The Swedes penetrated into the country bor- dering on Delaware Bay as early as a.d. 1627, and this city was laid out in 1682. Accor- ding to the design of William Penu, its founder, it was to have rivalled Babylon in extent aud splendour, but was restricted to its present boundaries by the charter of 1701. The old state-house was erected in 1735. Here the first congress assembled, Sept. 5, 1774, and adopted the Declaration of Eights, and here also was promulgated, July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Indepen- dence. In the autumn of the same year the congress retired to Baltimore, and the city fell, Sept. 26, 1777, into the hands of the British, under Lord CornwaUis, who held it tin June 18, 1778. The American Philoso- phical College was founded in 1740, and the Pennsylvania Hospital in 1750. A conven- tion niet here May 17, 1787, and agreed on a constitution for the United States, Sept. 17. In 1793 and 1798 the yellow fever ravaged the city. Philadelphia continued to be the capital of the United States till 1800, when it was superseded by Washington. The university of Pennsylvania was founded in 1791 by the imion of two previous insti- tutions, the first of which was erected in 1755. The first United States bank, now the Girard Bank, built of marble, in the Corinthian style, was erected in 1797. The Athenasum was founded in 1815 ; the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1817, and the Jefferson Medical College in 1824. Philiphaugh (Battle). — The Eoyalists, under the duke of Montrose, were defeated with great slaughter by the Covenanters under David Leslie, at this village, in Selkirk- shire, Sept. 13, 1645. The prisoners were butchered in cold blood, and some women captured after the battle were drowned by order of the preachers. Philippeville (Algeria). — This town, in the province of Constantia, buUt from the ruins of the ancient Eusicade, was founded in October, 1838. Philippi (Macedonia) derives its name from Philip, the father of Alexander, having been originally called Crenides, was under the dominion of the Thasians B.C. 360. In the plain of PhUippi the celebrated battle was fought, B.C. 42, when Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antonius and Octavius Caesar. This city was visited by the apostle Paul, accompanied by Silas, a.d. 48 (Acts xvi. 12—40), and again on his departure from Greece in 56 (Acts xx. 6) . The gospel for the first time gained a home PHI in Europe at Philippi in 62. The ruins of the city were visited by D wight and Schaufller in 1834. Philippics, a name given to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip, and after- wards appUed to those of Cicero against Marc Antony. Demosthenes dehvered his first Phihppic B.C. 352, and the second B.C. 34i. Cicero delivered fourteen Philippics against M. Antony, commencing September, B.C. 44. Philippine Company.— This commercial company was formed in Spain a.d. 1785, with a capital of £1,200,000. Though many valuable privileges were granted to it by the crown, and a charter for twenty -five years, the speculation proved a failure. Philippines (Indian Archipelago). — This group, consisting of about 1,200 islands, was discovered a.d. 1521, by Fernando Ma- galhaens, who gave it the name of the Archipelago of St. Lazarus. The Spaniards sent a fleet from Mexico in 1564, and made a settlement in the island of Zebu, naming the islands the Phihppines, after Philip II. Another fleet, despatched to Luzon in 1570, effected a landing in the Bay of Manilla, and took possession of the town of Manilla. The Spaniards having made an attack on the Sooloo pirates in 1590, were defeated with great slaughter. The English took Manilla Oct. 6, 1762, but restored it in 1763. Another expedition against the Sooloo pirates, who had committed many outrages, achieved a complete success in 1851. Philippolis (Turkey). — This town of Thrace was founded by Phihp of Macedon on the site of a town called Eumolpias or Po- neropolis. The Thracians obtained posses- sion, and it remained in their hands until they were subdued by the Komans. Philip- polis was taken by the Goths a.d. 250, after a long siege, during which 100,000 persons are said to have perished. The Turks under Amurath I. captured and annexed it to the Ottoman empire in 1363. It was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1818, and suffered from an extensive conflagration in 1846. Philippsburg (Germany), named after Phihp von Sotern, archbishop of Spires, who founded it after the Thirty Years' war. 'ihe French took it July 21, 1734, and Marshal Berwick was killed under its waUs. By an additional article to the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the Austrians agreed to evacuate Philippsburg. It was be- sieged by the French under Bernadotte in 1799, the siege being raised April 7. It was again invested in August, tlae siege being raised Sept. 20. The French returned in 1800, and it was ceded to them by the con- vention of Hohenlinden, Sept. 28. It was afterwards restored to Prussia. Philistines.— This ancient people, de- scended from Ham, the son of Noah, emi- grated at a very early date from Egypt into Syria, where they gave the name to the country since called Palestine (g.u.). They reduced the Israelites to subjection B.C. PHI 1156 (Judges xiii. 1), but were compelled to set them at hberty by Samson, who destroyed their chief nobihty by pulling down the tem- ple where they were assembled, B.C. 1117 (Jud. xvi. 30). In the time of Eli, B.C. 1116 (1 Sam. iy. 11), they seized the ark of the Lord, which they were compelled to restore by the miraculous plagues it brought upon them, and they sustained a severe defeat from Samuel at Mizpeh, b.c. 1096 (1 Sam. vii, 2—13). Throughout the reign of Saul they infested the Israelites (1 Sam. xiv. 52), and the death of that monarch occurred while fighting against them in Mount Gilboa, b.c. 1055 (1 Sam. xxxi. 4). David gained several victories over the Philistines, and Jehosha- phat made them tributary to him, b.c. 912 • (2 Chron. xvii. 11); but in the reign of Jeho- ram they invaded Judah, and carried away the king's wives and sons into captivity, b.c. 888 (2 Chron. xxi. 17). They again invaded Judah, and took Bethshemesh and Ajalon, B.C. 740 (2 Chron. xxviii. 18), and subse- quently were themselves invaded by the Assyrians and Egyptians, who took their strong city of Ashdod (q.v.). Pompey incorporated Philistria in the Roman pro- vince of Syria b.c 62. Philosophy. — The term philosophy, or the love of wisdom, was first employed by Pythagoras, who flourished b.c. 529 ; but phi- losophy itself is of much more ancient origin. It appears to have flourished in India and China in the most remote ages ; and the earliest authentic histories we possess of the Egyptians and Assyrians represent, their priesthood as highly versed m natural and speculative science, which they used to strengthen their power over the super- stitious and the ignorant. Greek philo- sophy comprises the following schools : — the Academic, Alexandrian, Aristotelian, Cynic, Cyrenaic, Eclectic, Eleatic, Epi- curean, Ionic, Megarian, Peripatetic, Pla- tonic, Pythagorean, Socratic, and Stoic. The philosophy of the Romans was de- rived from that of the Greeks, but never attained equal celebrity. Domitian expelled all the philosophers from Rome a.d. 90. Mediaeval philosophy commences with Bo- ethius, who was born about the year 475. The Scholastic school originated in the 9th century, and for many years was the only system of orthodox philosophy. During the 10th century the influence of Arabian learn- ing was felt throughout the civihzed world, and Cordova became the intellectual capital of Europe. The Speculative school com- menced about 1520, and the inductive method of Lord Bacon was published ui the treatise on the " Advancement of Learning," in 1605. The most important modern systems of philosophy are the Cartesian, the Coper- nican, and the Newtonian, Philtek, or Philtka, a potion given by the Greeks and Romans to excite love. Lucretius is said to have died from drinking one, B.C. 52 ; and the madness of Cahgula (a.d. 37 — 41) is attributed by some to a potion of this sort. 663 PHI Phintias (Sicily) was founded about B.C. 280, by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, at the mouth of the river Hymera. He peopled it with the inhabitants of Gela {q. v.), which town he utterly destroyed. It afforded shelter to the Koman fleet when attacked by that of the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, B.C. 249. Cicero mentions it as a seaport, carrying on a large trade in corn ; but in Strabo's time it had fallen into decay. Phocis (Greece). — This country, cele- brated for the oracle at Delphi, which originally belonged to the Phocians, is said to have derived its name from Phocus, a son of Ornytion. The Phocians, having invaded Doris, B.C. 457, were compelled to retire by the Lacedsemonians, under Nico- medes. The Delphic oracle, which had been taken from them by the Delphians, was, through the assistance of the Athe- nians, restored B.C. 450. In the Peloponne- sian war they were zealous allies of the Athenians, but, by the treaty of Nicias, B.C. 421, the temple was once more given into the hands of the Delphians. After the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, the Phocians became subject to the Thebans ; but, having deserted the alliance, the Thebans, in re- venge, induced the Araphictyonic council to condemn the Phocians to pay a fine, on the plea that they had cultivated the Cir- rhaean plain, B.C. 357. This they refused to do ; the Amphictyonic council consecrated the Phocian territory to Apollo, upon which the Phocinns seized the temple at Delphi, which* led to the Sacred, or Phocian war. Their leader, Philomelus, was killed in a battle near the to-mi of !N'eon, and was succeeded, B.C. 353, by his brother Onomarchus,who was killed B.C. 352, when his brother Phayllns assumed the leadership. They were at length conquered by Phihp II. of Macedon, their towns given up, and themselves expelled from the Amphictyonic council, B.C. 344. Phcenicia (Syria).— This maritime king- dom, one of the most ancient in the world, was originally peopled by the sons of Anak more than 28 centuries B.C. Some authori- ties state that Agenor was the first Idng of Phoenicia, .B.C. 1497; but all agree that the country itself was the seat of a great nation, and renowned for its naval enterprise at a much earher period. A colony of Phoenicians, led by EUssa or Dido, settled in Africa b.c 878, and founded Carthage (q. v.). Phcenicia was invaded by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, B.C. 721 ; by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby- lon, B.C. 587 ; and by Cyrus, king of Persia, B.C. 636. The Phcenicians subsequently assisted the Persians in their wars with the Greeks, and sustained a total defeat from Cimon, at the naval battle of the Eurymedon, B.C. 466. Theyrevolted from Persia B.C. 352, and were conquered by Alexander B.C. 331. After his death, B.C. 323, Phoenicia was an- nexed to the dominions of Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt. It was seized by Antigonus of Phrygia, B.C. 315, and passed under the protectorate of Tigranes, kiug of Armenia, PHE B.C. 83. It formed part of the Eoman pro- vince of Svria B.C. 62, and was finally deprived of all its liberties by Augustus, B.C. 20. The Turks annexed it to their empire a.d. 1516. Phcenix Clubs. — A combination consist- ing principally of young tradesmen of Cork and Kerry, pledged to rise in rebellion at a moment's notice, was discovered in Ireland in December, 1858. Daniel Sullivan, in- dicted March 30, 1859, for being a member of a Phcenix club, was, after three days' trial, found guilty and sentenced to ten years' penal servitude. Phonography. — The Phonetic Society for [ the promotion of this science was founded in ' March, 1843, under the name of the Phono- '• gi'aphic Corresponding Society. The P^o>?c^ic 1 News, a weekly newspaper, commenced Jan. 6, 1849, but did not enjoy a long existence. Phosphoeus was discovered a.d. 1668, by an alchemist named Brandt, at Hamburg. Nearly all the phosphorus is now manufac- tured from calcined bones, called bone-earth. Photo-galvakography. — This art, for producing engravings from photographs by i the galvano-plastic process, was invented by ' Paul Pretsch of Vienna, and patented in England Oct. 29, 1852. Photoglyphic Engraving. — This new art of engraving by the action of light was patented by Mr. Fox-Talbot April 21, 1858. Photography. — Thomas Wedgwood was the first who tried this process, which he did in 1802. Leebeck, in 1810, made some striking discoveries, as also did Berard in 1812. Nicephorus Niepce, in 1814, dis- covered what he termed hehography, or sun-drawing, — the art of fixing the photo- graph. Daguerre made his discoveries known in 1839, and the French government gave him a pension of 6,000 francs per annum. Fox-Talbot communicated his dis- covery of paper for photogenic drawing Jan. 31, 1839. Photolithography. — This art, by which a photograph is impressed on a lithographic stone, and copies are taken in the ordinary way, was invented by Mr. Macpherson, of Eome. Mr. Ligar, the surveyor-general of Victoria, Australia, applied it to the printing of plans in May, 1860. Photometer. — This principle originated with Bouguer a.d. 1760. Professor Ritchie, in 1825, communicated to the Royal Society the description of a new photometer. Leslie and others have eifected various improve- ments in this instrument. Photozincography, a name given, in March, 1860, by Colonel James, R.E., di- rector of the ordnance survey, to a process for copying ancient documents and plans. The reduced print is transferred to stone or zinc, from which any number of copies may be taken. Phrenology was reduced to a system by Dr. Gall, who first propounded his doctrine at Vienna a.d. 179fi. Dr. Spurzheim assisted him in his investigations in 1800 ; and in 1807 they removed to Paris, where they published their work on the " Anatomy and PHR Physiology of the Nervous System in general, and of the Brain in particular," in 1810 and 1812. Little was known of phrenology in England till 1815, when a severe criticism on its promulgators, pubhshed in the Edinburgh Meview, directed attention to the subject. George Combe was led to a consideration of its truth or falsity in 1816 ; and in 1819 he published his " Essays on Phrenology," which is the chief EngHsh authority on the subject. Phrtgia (Asia Minor). — The traditions respecting the origin of the Phrygians are of the most conflicting character. It appears that they had their cradle in the mountains of Armenia, and that they were among the most ancient of the inhabitants of Asia Minor. In the "Diad" they are mentioned as the aUies of the Trojans. They attained the supremacy of the sea about B.C. 891, but were excelled by the Cyprians b.c. 865. Phrygia was invaded by Agesilaus, king of Sparta, in his expedition against Persia, B.C. 395; and the district known as Great Phrygia was assigned by Alexander to Antigonus, b.c. 333. Anti- gonus conquered Lesser Phrygia B.C. 319, and united the two under one sceptre ; but they were again divided on his death, B.C. 301, Seleucus annexed both to the Syrian dominions B.C. 282 ; but after the defeat of Antiochus by Eumenes II. of Pergamus, at the battle of Magnesia, b.c. 190, he was compelled to cede the two provinces to that monarch. After the death of Attains III. of Pergamus, B.C. 133, Phrygia, with the rest of his territories, became subject to Eome. It was declared free B.C. 120, but gradually relapsed under the Roman sway. Phylacteet, derived from the Greek, and signifying a preservative, consisted of four scrips or scrolls of parchment, or the dressed skins of a clean animal, inscribed with four paragraphs of the law, taken from Exod. xiii. 1—10; xiii. 11—16; Deut. vi. 4 — ^9 ; and xi. 13 — 21, and other passages, was worn by the Jews on the forehead and arms. The custom, which is derived from their interpretation of Exod. xiii. 9 and 16, was prevalent during our Saviour's sojourn upon earth. Phyle (Greece), a strong fortress stiU called Fill, commanding the narrow pass across Mount Parnes, through which runs the road, from Thebes to Athens, is memo- rable as the place seized by Thrasybulus and the Athenian exiles, B.C. 404, whence they commenced their operations against the thirty tyrants. Physic. — Hippocrates, called the father of medicine, born at Cos B.C. 460, usually carried his physic about with him. Galen, who was born at Pergamus a.d. 131, was the first who compounded and sold physic at Rome. The College of Physicians in 1696 established a dispensary for the sale of pure Ehysic, and in 1724 obtained an act for the etter viewing of drugs. A dispensary was established in London in 1732 for supplying PIA the nobihty and gentry with advice and physic at the cost of 2s. a head per quarter. Physicians.— By 3 Hen. VIII. c. 11 (1511), no one was permitted to practise within Lon- don, or seven miles thereof, as a physician or surgeon, unless he had been previously ex- amined and licensed by the bishop of Lon- don or the dean of St. Paul's. The necessity for the ecclesiastical warrant was removed by the charter of incorporation granted to the London physicians by Hen. VIII., Sept. 23, 1518, which was confirmed by the act for es- tabhshing the Royal College of Physicians, 14 & 15 Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1522-3) . Physicians were allowed to practise surgery, and were released from holding parish offices, by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 40 (1540). A stamp duty of £15 on physicians' licences to practise was imposed by 55 Geo. III. c. 184 (July 11, 1815), which was repealed by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 36, s. 2 (Aug. 13, 1859). Physiognomy. — The first author who at- tempted to reduce the study of human cha- racter from the outward manifestations of countenance and gesture to a regular science, was Jean Gaspard Lavater, who pubhshed his treatise " Von der Physiognomonik " A.D. 1772. Physiology. — ^This science treats of the phenomena of living bodies in a healthy state, and is dependent upon a knowledge of anatomy {q.v.). The science of vegetable physiology was founded by Grew, whose at- tention was directed to the subject in 1664, and Malpighi, whose first work appeared in 1671. They investigated the resemblance between the functions of animal and vegetable hfe. PiACENZA (Italy), the ancient Placentia, was colonized by the Romans B.C. 221, and plundered by the Goths b.c. 200. It was one of the first places that revived after the invasion of the northern barbarians, and in the 10th century became one of the principal marts of the Peninsula. The church of St. Antonio, at one period the cathedral, where St. Barna- bas is said to have preached to the people, founded a.d. 324, was rebuilt in 903, and re- stored in 1104 and again in 1562. The cathe- dral of Piacenza was consecrated by Pope In- nocent II. in 1132, and the ducal palace was erected in 1281. Piacenza revolted from the Milanese in 1447, and placed itself under the protection of Venice ; but was retaken by Francesco Sforza in Dec. 1447, and given up to pillage. The French, under Louis XII., took it ; and it was recaptured by Pope Julius II., and remained in the hands of the popes till 1545, when Paul III. gave it to his son Peter Farnese. It formed part of the duchy of Parma until aimexed to the Itahan kingdom. PiALiA, or PiA, festivals in honour of Hadrian at PuteoH, appointed a.d. 142 to be held in the second year of each Olympiad. PiANOFOETE. — The Itafiaus and Germans dispute the honour of this invention. Coimt Carli says it was invented a.d. 1718 by Bar- tolommeo Cristofori of Padua, during his stay in Florence. The Germans ascribe its 665 PIC invention to C. A. Sehrceter, a German organist, in 1717. It has since received various improvements. PiCAKDS.— This sect of Adamites (q.v.) was so called from Picard, a Fleming, who raised a rebellion in Germany a. d. 1415. He represented himself as the son of God, and having penetrated into Bohemia, was defeated in battle and slain in 1420. PiCAEDT (France). — The name of this province does not date earher than a.d. 1200, when the students from the fi-ontier of France and Flanders were called Ficards at the Paris university, on account of their quar- relsome disposition. In 1435 it was ceded to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy ; and in 1463 it was finally annexed to the French crown. PiCEifTiifES. — This Sabine tribe, according to Strabo, consisted of the inhabitants of Picenum transported by the Eomans from that town shortly afterits conquest, B.C. 268. In the second Punic war they arrayed them- selves on the side of Hannibal, for which they were afterwards punished by being kept from military service, and employed only as messengers and couriers. The Eomans founded the colony of Salernum in their territory B.C. 194, that they might the more efi'ectuaUy hold them in check. They joined in the Social war against Kome, B.C. 90, and were subduedB.c. 89. PiCHEGEu's CoNSPiEACT, SO Called from Pichegru, its chief, a general in the French republican army, who devised this plot for the restoration of royalty in Fi-ance. He was arrested in Paris Feb. 15, 1804, having just arrived from London, and was found strangled in prison April 5. PicQTiET, or Piquet. — This game at cards is supposed by Pere Daniel to have been invented in France in the reign of Charles VII. about A.D. 1430. The earliest French piquet cards that have been discovered are those formerly belonging to Henin, and are assigned to the year 1425. This, how- ever, is doubtful. PicTS. — The Piets are regarded as a Scythian tribe which landed in Ireland about the time of the first peophng of these islands, and being expelled thence, settled in the northern parts of Britain. Claudius CaBsar subdued them a.d. 47 ; but they subsequently threw ofi'aU control, and proved a continual source of alarm to the inhabitants of the northern provinces. Several walls were erected to prevent their incursions. After the departure of the Eomans, their inroads became insupportable, and led to the invitation of Vortigern to Hengist and Horsa to assist him in subduing them in 449, and thus to the ultimate estabhshment of the Saxons in England. The Picts waged fierce wars with their Scottish neighbours for many years, and reached their highest point of national glory dui'ing the reign of their king Ungus the Great, about the year 730. In 767 the Scotch invaded the Pietish domains, and penetrated to their capital, where a great battle was fought with doubtful PIL success. In 839 the Danes invaded their territory, and so weakened them that Kenneth II. of Scotland asserted his claini to the Pietish crown, and in 842 united all Scotland tmder one sovereign. {See Beitain and Scotland.) PiCTUEES. {See Iconoclasts, Images, and Painting.) Piedmont (North Italy). — This country, which forms a considerable portion of the Sardinian states, receives its name from its situation at the foot of the Alps, and is com- posed of the eastern portions of Transpa- dane Gaul and the northern part of ancient Liguria. It was annexed to the dominions of the counts of Savoy a.d. 1220, and on the death of Thomas II. in 1233 was erected into a separate county under his son Thomas. It was again united to Savoy in 1418. During the ISth century its territory was increased by the annexation of the folio-wing pro- vinces : — Alessandria, Valencia, Lomellina, and Valsesia, in 1703; Tortona in 1735; Novara in 1736 ; and Vigevano, Anghiera, Voghera, and Bobbio, in 1745. In 1746 it was occupied by the French, and in 1814 was restored to Sardinia. {See Saedinia and Savoy.) Pie-poudee, or Pie-powdee Couet, held at fairs and markets, was estabUshed to decide upon the spot, in all cases of dispute between buyer and seller. The name is, according to some authorities, derived from the French pie poadre, because justice was done to an injured person before the dust of the fair was off' his feet ; and according to others, from pied poiddreux, a pedlar. By 17 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1477), the owner of the fair or market, or his steward, was for- bidden to entertain any action that did not originate in the same fair or market. The book kept by the Pie-powder court at Bar- tholomew fair from 1790 is preserved in the City Library at Guildhall. The last entry is — " Sept. 2, 1854. The Lord Mayor not having proclaimed Bartholomew fair, the court of Pie-powder consequently was not held." Pieeee, St. (West Indies) . — This town, ia the island of Martinico, was founded by a French planter from St. Christopher's, a.d. 1635. It was captured, vrith the rest of the island, by the Enghsh in 1762, and again in 1794 and 1809. The town suffered severely from an earthquake in 1839. Pietists. — This German sect consisted of the followers of Phihp James Spener, who, A.D. 1689, attempted to revive, at Leipsic, what he called vital religion. With this object he formed societies, called Colleges of Piety, and this led to violent commotions and long and bitter controversies. PiGNEEOL (Piedmont). — The French took Pignerol a.d. 1630, obtained possession by purchase in 1631, and were confirmed in their possession by the treaty of West- phaha in 1648. Pignerol was restored to the duke of Savoy by the treaty of Turin, in 1696. The French were driven out of Pignerol by the aUies in 1799. PiLGEiMAGE OF Geace. — An insurrection. PIL caused by the suppression of the smaller monasteries, broke out in Lincolnshire in Sept. 1536, and was suppressed in October. The people of York rebelled, for the same cause, in December, and termed their revolt the Pilgrimage of Grace. They bore ban- ners on which the five wounds of Christ were displayed, and they demanded the suppres- sion of heresy and the restitution of the property of the Church. Robert Aske was their leader, and they were joined by Lords Darcey, Latimer, Scroop, the archbishop of York; and others. They seized Htill and York, and the duke of Norfolk, who was sent against them, induced them to disperse about Christmas. Several of the ringleaders were executed in 1537. Pilgrimages. — One was performed by Helena, mother of Constantinel., to Jerusa- lem, when she founded the church of the Holy Sepulchre, a.d. 326. They became com- mon throughout the Christian world about 500, and continued, notwithstanding the dis- approval of many of the "fathers," tUl they reached their height about 1000. The prin- cipal point of pilgrimage for the Mohamme- dans is Mecca, the birthplace of their prophet. This pilgrimage is enjoined by the Koran. The celebration of the centenary jubHee, by which pilgrims to St. Peter's at Eome were pro- mised plenary indulgence, was established by Boniface VIII. in 1300. It was reduced by Clement VI. to a period of fifty years in 1350. The Hindoos, who perform a journey to the temple of Juggernath twice a year, in the months of March and July, were in 1806 subjected to whatwas called the pilgrims' tax, which was abolished by the British govern- ment in 1839. The three Child-pilgrimages of the Middle Ages were among the most singular of the phenomena connected with religious fanaticism. The first and most extraordinary was the Boy-crusade of 1212, which was undertaken under the auspices of a French shepherd-boy, named Stephen, who appeared at Vendome, and announced himself divinely commissioned to conduct a crusading army of boys to the Holy Land. His preaching gathered more than 30,000 chil- dren to his standard, and the whole number embarked in seven large ships at Marseilles, under the false protection of two merchants, named Hugh Ferreus and William Porcus. A severe storm, which arose two days after they sailed, sank two of the vessels with all their passengers, of whom not one was saved, and the remainder, on reaching the Holy Land, were sold as slaves to the Sara- cens by their two infamous protectors. Of the whole 30,000 who left France, not one ever returned. The second Child-pilgrimage was confined to the city of Erfurt, and com- menced July 15, 1237, when more than 1,000 children assembled apparently without any previous arrangement, and proceeded to Armstadt, leaping and dancing, and exhi- biting aU the symptoms of the, extraordinary dancing mania which at times disturbed Europe during the Middle Ages. This agi- tation was immediately suppressed by the PIO parents of the children. The third Child- pilgrimage was of still less importance. It was made by more than 100 children, who set out from HaRe, to Mount St. Michael, in Normandy, in 1458, and appears to have been successfully performed. PiLGEiM Fathees.— The Mayflower, with about 100 English puritans on board, sailed from Delft haven July 22, 1620, and arrived in the northern part of Virginia in Novem- ber. An exploring party reached Massachu- setts Bay Dec. 11, and the spot was afterwards called Plymouth. PiLLOKT was in use among the Greeks and Eomans. The Gauls also employed it as an instrument of punishment, under the name of the Boia ; and for centuries it was used in most countries of Europe. It was abolished in France in 1832, and in England by 1 Vict, c. 23 (June 30, 1837). PiLNiTz (Germany). — An interview took place Aug. 27,1791, between the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia at the palace of Pilnitz, the summer residence of the kings of Saxony, situated at a village of the same name, near Pirna, in Saxony, when they agreed to take up arms in behalf of monarchi- cal government in France, and recommended the sovereigns of Europe to do the like. Pilotage. — The estabUshment of pilots at particular ports is confirmed either by an- cient charters of incorporation, such as those possessed by the corporations of Deptford Strond {see Deptford) and the Trinity House {q. v.), or by special statutes. The laws re- lating to pilotage were consolidated by 48 Geo. III. c. 104 (June 25, 180S), which was amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 125 (July 5, 1825). Further regulations were made by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (Aug. 20, 1853), which unites the Cinque Ports with the Trinity House pilots, and all the regulations on the subject were embodied in part V. of the Merchant Ship- ping Act, 17 & 18 Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 10, 1854). Pine-trees. — The stone pine was intro- duced into England from the south of Europe before a.d. 1548. The Norway spruce was also brought here before 1548 ; the cluster pine before 1596 ; the cedar of Lebanon from the Levant, before 1683 ; and Sir Joseph Banks' pine from Chili, in 1796. Pinkie, (Battle,) fought at this place, near Musselburgh, between the Enghsh and the Scotch, Sept. 10, 1547, to enforce the marriage treaty of July 1, 1543, between Edward VI. of England and Mary queen of Scots, when the latter were defeated with a loss of 10,000 men. PiNKZow (Poland). — The anti-Trinitarians separated from the Protestant churches at a synod held here a.d. 1563. Pins made of metal were introduced into this country from France before a.d. 1643. A law enacting how those offered for sale were to be manufactured, entitled "An acte for the true making of pins," was passed (35 Hen. VIII. c. 6) in 1543. PiOMBiNO (Italy), at one time the capital of a principahty, which included the island of Elba, was captured by the Genoese a.d. 667 PIE 1125. The principality was ceded to France by the treaty of Florence, March 28, 1801, and was bestowed by Napoleon I. on his sis- ter Elise, June 23, 1805. Prince Baeciocchi, Napoleon's brother-in-law, held possession of it from 1805 to 1815. Piracy was the national profession, so to speak, of the Danish invaders who infested Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries. The first execution by hangino:, drawing, and quar- tering, was that of the pirate William Marsh, A.D. 1242. The offence was afterwards re- garded with considerable leniency, the only rule imposed by 31 Hen. VI. c. 4 (1452), is, that pirates robbing passengers with safe- conduct, should be compelled to make res- titution. By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1535), it was made punishable with death without benefit of clergr, and further provisions were enacted by 28 Hen. VIII. e. 15 (1536). The crime was defined, and a distinction made between principals and accessories, by 11 & 12 WiU. III. c. 7 (1700), and further provisions on the same points were made by 8 Geo. I. c. 24 (1722). A bounty was awarded for kilhng or capturing pirates by 6 Geo. IV. c. 49 (June 22, 182.5), which was repealed by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 26 (June 25, 1850). The penalty for pii-acy was made death when the crime is aggravated by attempted murder, and transportation in other cases, by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 88 (July 17, 1837). PiRjiASENS (Battle).— The French, under General Moreau, were defeated by the Prussians, commanded by the dulce of Brxmswick, at this town oi Bavaria, vrith a j loss of twenty-two pieces of artillery and 4,000 men, Sept. 14, 1793. I PiKNA (Germany) was taken by the Swedes a.d. 1639. The united Austrians and Saxons were defeated here by the king j of Prussia in 1745, and the king of Poland blockaded the Saxon camp in Sept. 1756. The suburbs were fired by the Prussians, and 260 fine houses destroyed, Nov. 10, 1758. The intrenched camp, at Pirna, strengthened by Napoleon I. in 1813, was taken by the allies the same year. Pisa (Italy). — Nothing certain is known of the origin of this town. Livy mentions that a Latin colony was sent to Pisa, at the request of the inhabitants, about b . c . 179. It became subject to Eome in the middle of the 5th century, and passed successively into the hands of the Goths, the Longo- bardi, and the CaroUngians. Under the last it became an independant community, with a nominal allegiance to the emperors. The Saracen pirates were defeated near the town by the Pisans, a.d. 874. Hugo of Provence came to Pisa in 926, and received the homage of the great feudatories as king of Italy. The Saracens made an attack on the town in 1005, and again invested it in 1012. The Pisans, in conjunction with the Genoese, wrested the island of Sardinia from the Moors in 1022. At this time Pisa was a republic, and, during the centuiy, main- tained the maritime supremacy of the Medi- PIT terranean. A war commenced between Pisa and Genoa in 1070, which lasted, at inter- vals, for more than two centuries, and ended in the ruin of Pisa. In a naval battle in 1284, the Pisans lost the greater part of their fleet, and above 16,000 men in killed and prisoners. The Genoese attacked and destroyed the Porto Pisano, and blocked up the entrance with sunken ships filled with stones in 1290. In 1405 the citadel and other strongholds were sold to the Floren- tines by Marshal Boucicault, but the citizens soon retook the citadel. The Florentines then blockaded Pisa, and took possession of the to^vn Nov. 8, 1406. When Charles VIII. of France visited Italy, in 1494, and showed hostility to Florence, the Pisans drove out the Florentines and restored the republic under the protection of France. Pisa was besieged by the Florentines, with- out success, in 1499, again in 1504; and they took the town by blockade June 8, 1509. Pisa was then united to Florence. It was taken by the French in 1799, and deli- vered up by "them to the allies, Feb. 20, 1814. It was annexed to Sardinia by a vote of the people taken March 11 and 12, 1860. The cathedral, a magnificent Gothic building, was commenced in the 11th century. Coun- cils were held at Pisa, May 30, 1134; March 25 to Aug. 7, 1409 ; and Sept. 1, 1511. PiSTOJA (Italy). — This town, anciently called Pistorium, was of no importance in the time of the Eomans. It was inclosed within walls by Desiderius, the last of the Lom- bard kings, who reined from a.d. 756 to 774. It became an independent municipa- lity, and was subjugated by Florence about 1150. A citadel was built in 12.52. The feuds between two branches of a Pistojan family, named Cancellieri, at the close of the 13th century, originated the factions of the Bianchi and Neri, which spread to Florence, and caused much nusery to both cities. The Florentine Neri blockaded Pistoja, which surrendered April 14, 1306, on con- dition of safety to life and property. The victors, however, committed cruel barbari- ties, and razed the waUs to the ground. It then became subject to Florence. The ca- thedral was built early in the 12th centur;^. The palace del Commune, or degli Anziani, dates from the 13fh century, and the epis- copal palace from the 18th century. Pistol. — Grose states that this fire-arm derives its name from having been invented at Pistoja, in Tuscany. The Mheel-lock pistol was common in Germany as early as A.D- 1512, and became the characteristic weapon of the Eeiters, or Pistoliers, who were enrolled soon after. Pistols were used in France in 1544. Double-barrelled pistols, and pistols capable of discharging two or three balls from a single barrel without re- loading, were invented about the middle of the 16th century, and the flint-lock is first mentioned in connection with pistols in 1588. Pitcairn's Island (Pacific Ocean) was discovered by a young officer named Pit- cairn, belonging to the ship Carteret, a.d. PIT 1768, and was visited by Capt. Cook in 1777. The mutineers of the JBounty established a colony on this island in 1790, consisting of 9 British sailors, 6 native Tahitian men, and 12 women. Through dissensions and mas- sacres, there remained, in 1800, only one Englishman, Adams, the Tahitian females, and 19 children. Captain Beechy found an interesting colony of 66 persons here in 1825. A scarcity of water caused the colony to be transferred to Tahiti in 1831 ; but after remaining five months', they returned to Pit- cairn's Island in 1832. Pitt Administbatiox. — The first Pitt administration was formed soon after the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (q.v.), which took place Dec. 18, 1783. WUham Pitt, at that time not quite twenty-five years of age, was made first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, Dec. 19. Lord Stanhope remarks that it consisted of seven cabinet ministers, of whom only one, the prime minister, was a member of the House of Commons. It was thus constituted : — Mrst Lord of the Trea- ) siuy and Chancellor of > William Pitt. the Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Thurlow. President of the Councn{X.^^^^V,'^:^7^''' Privy Seal Buke of Rutland. ( Lord Sydney, made Vis- Foreign Secretary < count Sydney June 9, ( 1789. ( Marquis of Caeinnarthen, Home Secretary .< afterwards duke of ( Leeds. A^™^-„i+^ /Lord Howe, created Earl Admiralty | Howe in July, 1788. The ministry held its first meeting Dec. 23, 1783. After an interval of a few weeks, the duke of Richmond, as master-general of the ordnance, was admitted to a seat in the cabinet. The marquis of Caermarthen was succeeded in the home office, June 5, 1789, by Mr. William Wyndham Grenville, after- wards Lord Grenviile, who took the foreign office in May, 1791, and was succeeded at the home office by Mr. Henry Drmdas, afterwards Lord MelviUe. He became colo- nial secretary July 11, 1794, and was re- placed at the home office by the duke of Portland. Viscount Sydney resigned the secretaryship for foreign affairs in May, 1791, and was succeeded by Lord G-renviUe. The third secretaryship of state for war and colonies, suppressed at the peace of 1782, was re-established in 1794, when Mr. Henry Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, received the appointment. Mr. Windham, as secre- tary at war, obtained a seat in the cabinet in 1794. The privy seal was placed in com- mission March 8, 1784, Earl Grower, after- wards marquis of Stafibrd, receiving the appointment Nov. 24; it passed to Earl Spencer July 11, 1794; to the earl of Chat- ham Dec. 17, 1794; and to theearl of West- moreland Feb. 14, 1798. Lord, afterwards Earl Camden, replaced the marquis of Staf- ford as president of the council, Dec. 1, 1784. PLA He was succeeded, July 11, 1794, by Earl FitzwiUiam, who gave place to the earl of Mansfield, Dec. 17, 1794. The earl of Chat- ham was made lord president Sept. 21, 1796. The earl of Chatham succeeded Earl Howe at the admu-alty in July, 1788, and was re- placed by Earl Spencer March 4, 1795. Lord Thurlow resigned the lord chancellorship June 12, 1792, the great seal being placed in commission until January, 1793, when Lord Loughborough became lord chancellor. Difficulties respecting Roman Catholic eman- cipation led to the resignation of Mr. Pitt early in 1801. The acceptance of office as prime minister was communicated to the House of Commons by Mr. Abingdon, Feb. 10, and his name appeared in the Ga- zette as chief of a new administration. (See Addington Administkation-. ) Pitt's second administration was formed on the dissolution of the Addington administration (q.v.). May 10, 1804, and Mr. Pitt's ap- pointment was gazetted May 12. The ca- binet was thus constituted : — First Lord of the Trea-) suiy and Chancellor of VMr. Pitt. the Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Bldon. Pi-esident of the Council. .Duke of Portland. Pi-ivy Seal Earl of Westiuoreland. Foreign Secretary Lord HaiTowby. Home Secretary ( '^'°''^ Hawkesbury, after- ■^ I wards earl of Liverpool. Colonial Secretary Earl Camden. Admiralty Viscount Melville. Sir Charles Middleton, afterwards Lord Barham, succeeded Viscount Melville at the admiralty April 30, 1805. The duke of Port- land was succeeded, Jan. 14, 1805, as privy seal by Mr. Addington, created Viscount Sidmouth Jan. 12, who was followed by Earl Camden, July 10, 1805. Lord Mul- grave succeeded Lord Harrowby as foreign secretary, Jan. 11, 1805, and Viscount Cas- tlereagh became colonial secretary when Earl Camden took the privy seal, July 10, 1805. This administration was dissolved by the death of Mr. Pitt, Jan. 23, 1806. (See All the Talents Administkatiok.) Pittsbtjeg (North America) . — This town of Pennsylvania was the scene of the defeat of the Enghsh army under General Braddock by the Americans, July 9, 1755. PiTJBA, or San Migxjel (Peru). — This city, founded by Pizarro, a.d. 1531, was the first Spanish settlement in Peru. Placentia. (See Piacenza.) Plague and Pestilence. — " The terms pest, pestilence, and plague," says a writer in the new edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," " were long employed in Great Britain, as were the corresponding terms in other languages, both in ancient and in modern times, to denote rightly a disease attacking a great number of persons siniul- taneously and in succession, and destroying a large proportion of those whom it attacked ; in short, a widely -diffused and mahgnant epidemic." The following table exhibits a List of the most terrible visitations of this PLA PLA kind. Provisions for the relief of plague- stricken persons were made by 2 James I. e. 31 (1604), which was repealed by 7 Win. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 91, s. 4 (July 17, 1837). (/See Lazaeetto and Quaeaii- TINE.) BC. 1491. The Egyptians are visited by a terrible pes- tilence on the occasion of the Israelitish exodus. 1471. The mntinotis companions of Korah, Dathan, and Abiran, to the number of 14,700 per- sons, perish by pestUen^ e. 1017. A pestilence in Palestine destroys 70,000 per- sons in three days. 790. A terrible plague occurs in Italy. 710. The army of Sennacherib perishes before Jerusalem. 594 A third pai-t of the inhabitants of Jerusalem is destroyed by plague. 480. The Persian aiTQy in Greece loses 150,000 men from pestilence. 452. Nearly half the population of Rome perishes from plague. 435. A pestilence breaks out in Athens. 427. A pestileiice commences in Egypt, and extends almost throughout the known world. 366. The plague rages tearfully at Rome, wliere, at its height, it is said to have destroyed 10,000 citizens daily. 201. The destruction of vast swarms of locusts occasions a plague in Italy, and it continues for many years. 126. Africa is devastated by a plague occasioned by putrid swarms of locusts, and 800,000 persons die in Numidia, and 200,000 in Carthage. 89. The Roman army loses 10,000 men from a plague. 30. A pestilence rages throughout the known world for five years. A.D. 40. Babylon and all the countries between Italy and India suffer from plague. 80. At Rome 10,000 persons perish daily. 88. Rome loses 30,000 of its inhabitants from pestilence. 92. A plague in Scotland destroys about 160,000 persons. 114 A pestilence breaks out in Wales, where 45,000 persons die. 195. The whole of Italy is ravaged by the plague. 218. Scotland loses 100,000 of its populace from a pestilence. 250. Plague rages throughout the world. 262. The mortality in Rome from plague is said to number 5,000 persons daily. 325. Britain is visited by a deadly pestilence. 450. Pestilence breaks out at Rome, and i-ages for seventeen years. 502. Scotland is visited by a fatal epidemic. .5S5. The whole of Europe is ravaged by pestilence which continues several years. 590. A fatal plague desolates Rome. One of its symptoms was a violent tendency to sneeze, inconsequence of which it hecame usiial to address a person sneezing with the v/ords Dominus tecum, "God blessyou," or similar expressions. 717. Constantinople loses 30,000 of its population this year. 749. Another plague breaks out at Constan- tinople and rages with such malignity that the survivors are too few to buiy the dead. 762. England and "Wales are visited by pestilence which is said to have carried off 34,000 per- sons in Chichester alone. 874 A destructive epidemic, caused by the putrid bodies of immense swarms of h ousts, deso- lates the northern parts of Gaul. 940. The northern countries of Europe are ravaged by aterrible mortality among human beings and cattle, 40,000 persons dying in Scotland alone. 670 1096, 1120. 1172. 1221, 1235. 1316. 1334 1337 1346, 1365. 1374 1394 1401. 1445. 1485. 1504, 1517. 152.4 1525, 1541, 15.51, 1.557, 1563, 1565, The true plague appears in various parts of the globe, and cai-ries off more than half its inhabitants. A great pestilence rages in England and Con- stantinople. England, Holland, and Palestine are deso- lated by a pestilence. A pestilential period of 272 years commences at this date. England suffers from erj'- sipelas, and loses one-thii-d of its inhabi- tants in five years. Dysentery ravages England with pestUeutial fatality. The whole of Europe is visited by famine and plague. England suffei-s from famine and leprous diseases, 20,000 persous dying in Lundon alone. Fever and dysentery prevail in E'igland with the fatal viiTdeuce of the tnie plague. China is visited by a pestilence which destroys 500,000 of the inbabitauts of the city of Tche. A famine occasions a pe'itilent epidemic in China, which carries off 4,000,000 persons in the neighbourhood of Kiaug. A plague commences in China, ravages the whole of Asia, and depopul.ates the entire extent of Em-ope. The mortality in Florence is differently estimated at from 60,000 to 100.000 persons. In London 50,000 died in one week. Venice lo^es 100,000 of its inhabitants, Liibeck 90,000, and 200,000 perish in Spain. This dread- ful epidemic continued until the follow- ing year. Another plague destroys 900,000 people in China, 14 000 at B^sel, 16,000 at Erfurt, 50,000 at Paris, 50,000 at Norwich, 56,"00 at Marseilles in one month, 62,000 at Avignon, and 100,000 in London. Spain loses two-thirds of its inhabitants, and Ireland is nearly depopulated. Cologne and its neighbourhood lose 20,000 of its inhabitants. St. "Vitus's Dance rages with epidemic violence at Aix-la-Chape)le, and extends to nearly all the cities of Belgium. Spain is visited by a plague which destroys 10,000 persons in the city of Valnncia. London loses 30,000 persons from epidemic disorders, and 14,000 die of dysentery at Bordeaux. Asia, Italy, Germany, Fi-ance, and Spain suffer from pestilences for some years about this time. The " sudor Anglicus," or sweating sickness, breaks out with great violence in the army of the earl of Richmond, afterw.ards Henry VII. The venereal disease appears at Rome, where it rages as a pestilential fever. A great plague breaks out in England. Loudon loses 30,000 of its inhabitants, and the king and court retire to Calais. China is visited by a pestilence. The sweating sickness aga'n rages in England, and carries off its victims within three hours after their fii-st attack. MUan loses 50,000 of its inhabitants. The sweating sickness extends its ravages to Germany, Holland, Norway, Denmark, and France. A fatal plague rages furiously in Constan- tinople. The sweating sickness rages for the last time in London. Spain is nearly depopulated by a new pes- tilence, which originates among the Spanish Arabs. Famine and pestilence destroy 20,000 people in London. A very fatal epidemic prev.ails in Fi-auce, and .. destroys many lives at Constantinople, Alextndria, Vienna, Cologne, Dantzic, Leyden, and London. PLA A.D. 1577. July 6. The gaol fever breaks out at Oxford, owing to the filthy state in which the pri- souei s were brought to trial, and carries off 610 persons in a few days. The assizes are known in consequence as the " Black 1579. 1610. 1618. 1635. 1646. 1662. 1664 1675. 1710. 1717. 1720. 1736, 1751. 1763. 1769. 1772. 1781. 1792. 1799. A pestilential catarrh dpstroys 8,000 persons in Liibeck, 4,000 in Rome, and 3,000 in Hamburg. A plague also breaks out at Grand Cairo, where 500,000 people die in eight months. Russia suffers from a famine and plague, of which 500,000 die, and 30,000 perisa in Livouia. A frightful plague ravages England, and destroys 36,000 persons in London. Paris also suffers from a similar epidemic. Spain suffers from frt,tal epidemics, and 200,000 people die of plague at Constan- tinople. A plague rages in North America, and reduces the Massachusetts tribe of Indians from 3,0ii0 pei'sons to 300. The whole ot England is visited by the plague, which carries off 30,000 persons in London alone. Pestilence destroys 60,000 persons at Lyons. An extraordinary pestilential fever destroys many lives in Fi'ance. It was attended by mortification of the extremities, which frequently dropped off spontaneously. Leyden loses 20,000 of its inhabitants from an epidemic pestilence. The yellow fever rages with great violence in the West Indies, 12,000 persons dying at Barbadoes and St. Christopher's. Epidemic disorders carry off SOO.'OOO persons in the southern provinces of Spain. A pestilence rages in many parts of Europe, and destroys 200,000 lives in Moscow, 13,200 at Amsterdam, 13,000 at Leyden, and 9,000 at Riga. The Neapolitan territories are desolated by the plague, which carries off 400,000 of the inhabitants. Venice loses 60,000 of its inhabitants from a pestilence. Nov. 2. The Great Plague commences in Lon- don and destroys 68,596 persons. It ex- tended to all parts of the city and subxurbs, and ceased in May, 1666. The plague destroys 11,300 persons at Malta. The sweating sickness carries off 30,000 per- sons in Stockholm, and 25,000 in Copen- hagen. The true plague destroys 80,000 lives at Aleppo Marseilles and its neighbourhood suffer from a visitation of the plague. One district loses 87,659 persons out of a population of 247,899. A pestilence rages at Grand Cairo in February and March, and destroys 100,000 people. A contagious fever carries off 150,000 persons at Constautinople, and 30,000 people die of famine and plague in Cyprus. Naples loses 20,00J of its inhabitants from a malignant fever. A famine, attended with pestilence, carries off more than 3,000,000 people in Ben- gal. Famine and pestilence destroy 168,000 persons in Bohemia, 20,000 persons in Russia and Poland, and occasion a weekly mortality of 1,000 persons at Constantinople. The plague carries off 133,299 persons at Moscow, and 80,000 persona at Bassorah. The Asiatic cholera breaks out in Hin- dostan, aud destroys 20,000 lives. (See Cholera.) Egypt loses 800,000 of its population from the plague. A severe pestilence destroys 247,000 persons in Fez, and occasions an average mortality of 3,000 daily throughout the Barbary states. PLA 1810. A pestilence of the yellow fever type breaks out at Gibraltar, where only twenty-eijrht men out of a garrison of 14,000 escape its attacks. 1812. The plague carries off 160,000 persons in Constantinople. 1813. The plague at Malta destroys 4.483 live'<. 1825. Gi-and Cau-o loses 30,000 persons from a pestilence. 1834. The plague rages with great fatality in Egvpt. 1847. In Glasgow about 15,000 persons die of an epidemic remittent fever. Planets. — Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, were known to the ancients. The four satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo A. D. 1610. Saturn has eight satellites. Titan was discovered by Huygens in 14.55 ; Japhet in 1671, Ehea in 1672, Tethys and Dione in 1684,— these were all discovered by Cassini; Mimas and En- celadus by Sir WiUiam Herschel in 1789 ; Hyperion by Lassell and Bond in 1848 ; and Chiron by Goldschmidt in 1861. The planet Uranus, Herschel, or Georgium Sidus, was discovered at Bath by Sir W. Herschel, March 13, 1781. In 1787 he discovered its satellites, Oberon and Titania, and subsequently four others, which have never been observed since. Two more within the orbits of those previously noticed, were discovered by Lassell and Otto Struve in 1847. The planet Neptune was discovered independently by Messrs. Adams and Le Verrier, Sept. 23, 1846, and its satellite by LasseU in 1847. The following list exhibits the date of discovery of the asteroids. They are usually characterized by the number expressing the order of their discovery, which is inclosed in a small circle. Date. Name of Planet. Discovered by A.D. 1801. Jan. 1 Ceres (1) Piazzi. 1802. Mar. 2^ Pallas (2) Olbers. 1804. Sept. 1 Juno (3) Harding. 1807. Mar. 2Ji Vesta (4) Olbers. 1845. Dec. f^ Astrjea (5) Hencke. 1847. July i Hebe (6) Ditto. 1847. Aug. 13 Iris (7) Hind. 1847. Oot. IH Flora (8) Ditto. 1848. April 26 Metes (9) Graham. 1849. April 12 Hygeia (10) .... De Gasparis. 1850. May 11 Parthenope (11) Ditto. 1850. Sept. 18 Victoria (12) .... Hind. 1850. Nov. 2 Egeriail3) De Gasparis. 1851. May 19 ]reije(14) Hind. 1831. July 29 Eunomia (15) De Gasparis. 1852. Mar. 17 Psyche (16) Ditto. 1852. April 17 Thetis (17) Luther. 1852. June 24 Melpomene (18) Hind. 1852. Aug. 22 Fortuna (19) Ditto 1852. Sept. 19 Massilia(20) .... De Gasparia. 1852. Nov. 15 Lutetia(21) .... Goldschmidt. 1852. Nov 16 Calliope (22) .... Hind. 1852. Dec. 15 Thalia (23) Ditto. 1853. April 5 Themis (24) .... De Gasparis. 1853. April 7 Phocea (25) Chacoruac. 1853. May 5 Proserpine (26) . . Luther. 1853. Nov. 8 Euterpe (271 .... Hind. 1854. Mar. 1 Bellona(28) .... Luther. 1854. Mar. 1 Amphitrite (29) Marth. 18-34. July 22 XJrauia (30) Hind. 1854. Sept. 1 Euphrosyne (31) Ferguson. PLA PLA A.D. 1854. Oct. 1854. Oct. 1855. April 1855. ApiTl 19 1855. Oct. 1855. Oct. 1856. Jau. 1856. Feb. 1856. Mar. 18.-6. May 22 1856. May 23 1857. AprU 15 1857. May 27 1857. June 1857. Aug. 16 1857. Sept. 15 1857. Sept. 19 1857. Sept. 19 1857. Oct. 4 1858. Jan. 1858. Feb. 6 1858. AprU 4 1858. Sept. 10 1858. Sept. 10 1859. 1860. 1881. 1861. 1861. 1861. 1861. 1861. 1861. 1861. Sept. 22 Mar. Sept. 12 Sept. 14 Sept. 19 Oct. Feb. 10 Mar. 4 Mar. 9 April 10 Api-U 17 April 29 April 29 May 5 Aug. 13 Name of Planet. Discovered by Pomona (32) ... Polyhymnia (33) Circe (34) Leucothea (35) . Fides (36) Atalanta (37) ... Leda (X8) Laititia (39) . . . . Hannonia (40) . , Daphne (41) ... Isis (42) Aiiadne (43) . . . , Nysa (44) Eugenia (45) Hestia (46) Aglaia(47) Doris (48) Pales (49) Virginia (50) . . . . Nemausa (51) Europa (52) Calypso (53) Alexandra (54) . . Pandora (55) (56)» .... (57) Concordia (58) . . Olympia (59) . . . . Titauia (60) . . . . Echo (61) t Erato (62) Ausonia (63) Angelina (64) Maximiliana (65) Maia (66) Asia (67) Leto (68) Hesperia (69) . . . . Panopea (70) Niobe (71) (72): Goldschmidt. Chacomac. Ditto. Luther. Ditto. Goldschmidt. Chacumac. Ditto. Goldschmidt. Ditto. Ditto. Goldschmidt. Ditto. Pofrson. Luther. Goldschmidt. Ditto. Ferguson. Laurent. Goldschmidt. Luther. Goldschmidt. Searle. Goldschmidt and Sihubert. Luther. Ditto. Chacornac. Ferguson. Goldschmidt. Lesser audForster Tempel. Ditto. Tuttle. Pogson. Luther. Schiaparelli. Goldschmidt. Luther. Plantageh-et, derived from planta genista, the broom plant, a sprig of which Geoifrey, the founder of the house, wore in his cap, is the name of a hne of fourteen kings who reigned in England from a. d . 1154 to 1485. The first monarch of the house, Henry II., ascended the EngKsh throne Dec. 19, 1154. The second, Richard I., during whose reign and that of his predecessor a complete fusion of the Saxon and Norman elements of the * M. Goldschmidt was searching for the planet Daphne, Sept. 9, 1857, when he came across an object, whifh he took to be that planet, and observed it as such. In No. 1,160 of the Astronomische MacMrehter, M. Schubert, of Berlin, showed that the planet observed by M. Gold-chmidt was not Daphne, but a new planet. The new planet was in vain sought for on many occnsions, till at last it was re-d'igcovered by M. Goldschmidt, Aug. 27, 1861. It received the name of Melete, though previously to its optical re-difcovery, it had been known by the name of Pseudo-Daphne. t On its discovery, this planet received the name of D country took place, succeeded July 6, 1189. The family was divided into the two branches of Lancaster and York on the death of Eichard II., who was succeeded by Henry IV. Sept. 29, 1399. The line closed with Eichard III., Aug. 22, 1485. Plantations. — This name was originally apphed to colonies {q.v.). {See Boaed of Tbade.) Plasset, (Battle,) was fought at Plassey, a village of Bengal, June 23, 1757. The English force, under the command of Colonel CHve, consisted of about 1,000 Europeans and 2,100 Sepoys, while the army of the soubah- dar of Bengal amounted to 50,000 foot, 18,000 horse, with 50 pieces of cannon. Clive gained a complete victory, which gave Bengal into the hands of the Enghsh, and laid the foun- dations of our empire in India. Plastee of Pasis. — The method of taking casts from the human face in this material was invented by the Florentine artist Andrea Yerocchio, who was born a.d. 1432, and died in 1488. Plaster of Paris was first employed as a manure in France in 1776. It derives its name from the abundance in which it is found near Paris, especially at Montmartre. Plata, La (SouthAmerica), was visited by the Spaniard Juan Diaz de Solis, who landed at the mouth of the river, and took formal possession in the name of the long of Spain, a.d. 1515. The first settlement was made by Sebastian Cabot in 1530 ; and Don Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Ayres in 1535. The Jesuits commenced missionary work in the 17th century ; but they were suppressed in 1768. The country was, excepting some trifling commercial privileges allowed in 1602, and renewed in 1618 and 1622, kept dependent on Peru tiU 1777. A royal " audiencia" was estal)lished at Buenos Ayres in 1665 ; the last fleet which had monopoUzed the trade between Europe and Spanish America, which had dvdndleddownto an insignificant amount, sailed from Cadiz in 1748; and free trade with several of the American ports was per- mitted in 1774. The Portuguese settlement in Brazil extended to the shores of the river in 1553 ; and a definite boundary was esta- bhshed between the colony and the Indians to the south in 1740. The various provinces were erected into a vice-royalty in 1778. Repudiating the sovereignty of Joseph Bona- parte, the country organized an independent government in the name of Ferdinand VII., May 25, 1810. A sovereign constituent assembly was convened at Buenos Ayres in January, 1813, which continued in power till dissolved in April, 1816 ; andageneralcongress declared the independence of the provinces July 9, 1816. General Puyerredon remained supreme director tiU 1820. After various attempts to recover their authority, the Spaniards were finally defeated by the troops of the repubhc in July, 1821. Great Britain recognized its independence in 1824 ; and a blockade of the port of Buenos Ayres by a Brazilian fleet, instituted January, 1826, was raised through British intervention, in Octo- ber, 1828. The Argentine Confederation PLA (q.v.) was formed in January, 1834, General Rosas attained absolute power in 1835. At the request of Brazil, England and France sent out a combined fleet, which forced the chains Eosas had drawn across the mouth of the river, and destroyed the batteries he had erected at Point Obhgado, Feb. 19, 1845. The states opposed to the despotic rule of Eosas entered into a treaty to depose him ; and Greneral Urquiza, at the head of their troops, totally defeated the army of the dictator on the plains of Moron, Feb. 2, 1851. A federal constitution was published at Santa Fe, May 1, 1853. The country con- tinued divided into two parties and distinct governments, and treaties of commerce, con- cluded between them in December, 1854, and January, 1855, were annulled March 18, 1856. Plate. — The exportation of gold or silver plate without a Mcence was prohibited by 9Edw. in. St. 2, c. 1 (1335). By 8 Will. III. c. 8 (1696), provision was made for convert- ing wrought plate into coin; and tax- coUectors were authorized to receive the land-tax in plate instead of money. The sale of plate that has not been stamped at the assay office renders the seller liable to a fine of £50 by 24 Geo. III. c. 53 (1784), and the counterfeiting of the assayer's stamps was made a capital offence by 52 Geo. IH. c. 143, s. 8 (July 23, 1812). The penalty was commuted to transportation or imprisonment by 1 Will. IV. c. 66 (July 23, 1830). The laws relating to the assay of gold and silver plate were amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 10, 1854). Plat^a (Greece) is mentioned by Homer B.C. 962. It resisted the supremacy of Thebes ; formed an alliance with Athens, B.C. 519; and furnished a thousand men to the battle of Marathon, Sept. 28, b.c. 490. The people fought at Artemisium, b.c. 480 ; and the city was burnt to the ground by the Persians. The Persian general Mar- donius was defeated with a loss of up- wards of 200,000 men, by the Greeks under Pausanias, at Plataea, B.C. 479. A small party of Thebans failed in an attempt to take the city b.c. 431. It was besieged by the Peloponnesian army, when the Platseans sent off their old men, women and children to Athens, B.C. 429. The besiegers having failed in an attempt to take it by assault, raised a circumvallation of two parallel walls, with a ditch on either side of the city, over which one half of the besieged made their escape to Athens, B.C. 428. Owing to want of provisions, the remainder surrendered, and were put to death b.c 427. The survivors received from Athens the town of Scione B.C. 420; and having been restored to their native city, it was surprised by the Thebans and de- stroyed B.C. 372. They were again reinstated by Philip II., b.c. 338. The city is mentioned by Hierocles in the 6th century, and its walls were restored by Justinian I., a.b. 527 —565. PiiATiKra,— The art is of great antiquity. 673 PLO By 5 Hen. IV. c. 4 (1403), all work of thia kind upon copper or latten was prohi- bited except in ornaments for the church, of which some part was to be left uncovered to show the copper or brass. The modern method of plating with silver on copper wjs invented by Thomas Bolsover, an ingenious mechanic of SheflReld, in 1742. Platinum, or Platina.— This important metal was not known before the middle of the 18th century. Mr. Wood met with the ore in Jamaica a.d. 1741, and introduced it into Europe. He published a paper de- scribing it in 1750. Platometek. — This apparatus for mea- suring areas of regular and irregular plane figures was invented by Mr. John Lang, of Kirkcaldy, Dec. 24, 1851. Plattsbukg (North America) . — The gov- ernor-general of Canada, Sir G. Prevost, having planned an expedition against this town, a flotilla from Lake Champlain, and thelandbatteries, opened fire simultaneously; but several assaults having failed, the enter- prise was abandoned Sept. 11, 1814. Plat-grounds. — In 1858 an attempt was made to form a society to provide play- grounds for the recreation of children of the humble class, and an act was passed April 19, 1859 (22 Vict. c. 27), to facilitate grants of land near populous places for the use of regulated recreation for adults and as play-grounds for children. Plebeians. — The people, as opposed to the patricians or nobles of Rome, revolted and obtained a decree of the senate to have two of their order elected annually as tribunes, B.C. 490. Three plebeians were created de- cemvirs about B.C. 450. Military tribunes were chosen from the plebeians about B.C. 400 ; and two plebeians were raised to the con- sulate about B.C. 365. A plebeian was chosen one of the censors B.C. 351, and two ple- beians were appointed B.C. 131. Plessis les Tours (France). — This castle was sui'rounded with a triple fortification by Louis XI., who retired here a.d. 1482, and died Aug. 30, 1483. An assembly of the states was held in the grand apartment of the castle, at which the deputy from Paris bestowed upon Louis XII. the title of "Father of his People," in May, 1506. Plots, Rebellions, &c. — The following are the most important conspiracies and insurrections connected with English his- tory : — 1051. Godwin, earl of Kent, rebels against Edward the Coufessov. 1071. Hereward de Walle rebels against William I. 1074. Earl Waltheof and other Norman barons rebel. 1088. Eobert, duke of Normandy, assisted by his uncle Odo, bishop of Bayeux, conspires against William II. 1095. Robert Mowbray heads a conspiracy for de- thi-uniug William II., and conterring the crown on his cuusin, the earl of Albemarle. 1102. Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, opposes ihe accession of Henry I. 1137. Several nobles conspire in favour of the em- press Matilda, and begin the civil wars of Stephen's reign. 2 X PLO IITS. Queen Eleanor and her sons conspire against Henry II. 1213. The barons take arms against King John 1222. ConstHntine Fitz-Arnulph heads an insur- rection for making Louis, son of Philip of France, king of England. 1233. Eichaid, earl of Pembroke, forms a confe- deracy against Henry ITL and his minister the bishop of Winchester. 1264 Simon de Montfort commences the Barons' war {q.v.). 1270. A rebellion of the Irish is suppressed. 1312. The barons league aiiainst Gaveston. 1322. The earl of Lancaster conspires with the Scotch against Edward II. 1326. Queen Isabella and the barons commence the conspiracy which results in the dethrone- ment of the king. 1329. An insurrection in the south of Ireland. 1381. "Wat Tyli^r's insurrection {q. v.). 1388. A conspiracy by the duke of Gloucester against his nephew Richard II., is alleged to have been formed this year. 1393. The Ii'i-h rebel. 1399. Hemy Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster, con- syires against and riethrones Richard II. 1401. The Welsh revolt under Owen 61enu is suppressed. 1608. Sir Cahir O'Doherty's insurrection breaks out. 1641. Oct. 23. Phetim O'NeU's Ulster rebellion (g. v.). 1642. The Great Rebellion commences. 1643. Edmund Waller, the poet, conspires agaUist the parliament. 1654. Gerrard, nicknamed " the Generous," con- spires against Cromwell. 1655. The insurrections of Pemuddock and Synder- comb are suppressed. 1658. Sexby conspire.-, to assassinate Cromwell. 1660. The insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against Charles II. is suppressed. 1661. Veuner's insuiTection is suppressed. 1665. The plot of Colonel Dauvers is frustrated. 1670. Dec. 6. Colonel Blix)d's conspiracy commences with the seizure of the duke of Ormoud. 1678. Aug. 12. Oates's Popish plot is disclosed. 1679. The Meal-tub plot [q.v.). 1683. June 12. Discovery of the Rye-house plot (q.v.). 1685. June 20. The duke of Monmouth rebels at Taunton. 1689. Claverhouse, Lortl Dundee, rebels In Scotland against William and Mary. 1696. Feb. 14. The Assassination plot is discovered. 1703. Simon Frazer'a plot for placing the son of James II. on the throne is frustrated. 1711. GuiscarU conspires against the ministers. 1715. Sept. 6. The earl of Mar's rebellion in favour of the Pretender breaks out iu Scotland. 1718. J.aines Shei>pard, a maduxan, conspires agauist the life of Ge'>J:ge I. 1722. Failure of Lnyer's conspiracy {g. v.). 1740. A Jacobite confederacy in favour of the Pre- tender is formefi in Scotland. 174.5. Aug. 19. The Scotch rebellion in favour- of the Pretender commences. 1761. The Whiteboy insurrectiun in Irelamd. 1762. The Levellers rise in Ireland. 1769. The bteelboy insurrection breaks out in Ireland. 1775. The American rebellion commences, 1784. The Iiish Peep-o'-Day boys rise. 1786. The Right-boys rebel in Ireland. 1794. Home Tooke and othei-s are tried on a charge of implication in the conspii-acies of the Con-espondiug Society {q. v.). 1798. A rebellion, under Lord Eaward Fitzgerald, breaks out in Ireland {g. v.). 1803. July 23. Emmett's in-ureection in Ireland. 1815. A rebellion breaks out in Tipperary. 1817. The Greer.-bag inquiry {q.v.). 1820. Failure of the Cato-stieet conspiracy {q. v.). 1837. Papineau's "Sons of Liberty" rebellion is suppressed in Canada. 1848. Smith O'Brien's insurrection is suppressed in Ireland. 1857. The native troops rebel in India {q.v.). 1858. The supposed conspiracy of the Phoenix Society is frustrated in Ireland. Plowcze (Battle).— The Teutonic knights were defeated by the Poles and Lithuanians at this place, in Poland, a.d. 1331. Accor- ding to Polish historians, 20,000 of the van- quished were left dead on the field, while they themselves only lost 500 men. Plum-tree. — It is behaved that some varieties of the plum are indigenous to England. Pliny states that it was brought from Syria to Greece, and that it was after- wards imported into Italy and France. Lord Cromwell imported several varieties from Italy during the reign of Henry VIII. The date-plum was introduced from Barbary before 1596, and the Pishamin plum from North America before 1629. The green-gage was introduced into Prance by Claude, POE founded in 1572 ; the Red-boys' school was established by will dated 1632 ; a school and asylum for orphans was founded in 1625 ; Charles's almshouses were built in 1679; the Grrey school was founded in 1713 ; and the Athenaeum was opened Feb. 4, 1819. A PLTT queen of Francis I. ; the American red-gage was first raised in 1790 ; and the Washington plum was imported from America in 1821. PlueaI/Ities. — The holdiog of more than one benefice with cure of souls was strictly prohibited by the council of Lateran, a.d. 1215, except in the case of men specially j mechanics' institute was established in De^ eminent for learning, who were sometimes | cember, 1827. permitted to enjoy more than one benefice, Plymouth (North America). — At this provided they were not more than thirty place, in Massachussetts, the Pilgrim Fathers mUes distant from each other, and he landed a.d. 1620. An annual festival is agreed to reside iu each of them for some i held Dec. 22, in what is termed the Pil- reasonable time every year. The holding ' grims' HaU, built in 1824, to commemorate of plurahties in the Anglican church was i the event. restrained by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529), | Pltmoxtth Beethben. — This section of which was amended by 57 G-eo. III. c. 99 1 the Christian church derives its name from (July 10, 1817). Both these statutes were having originated at Plymouth about a.d. repealed by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 14, 1830. The chief doctrinal peculiarities of the 1838), which prohibited more than two pre- ferments, or one preferment and one bene- fice, to be held together, and reduced the distance permitted between two benefices enjoyed at the same time to ten miles. The laws relating to pluralities were amended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 98 (Aug. 14, 1850) ; and provisions for the union of contiguous bene- fices were made by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 127 (Aug. 14, 1855). Plymouth (Devonshire) is supposed to have been the Tameorwerth of the Saxons. At the time of the Conquest (a.d. 1066) it was known as Sutton, or South Town ; acquired the name of Sutton Prior and Sutton Valletort in the reign of Edward I. ; and was incorporated by the name of Fly- mouth in 1439. Here Edward the Black Prince embarked on his expedition to France in 1355, and landed on his return with his royal captives. In the reigns of Edward III. and Henry IV., the French landed and attempted to burn the tovra, but were driven back to their ships. The plague committed great ravages in 1579 and 1581. A body of Spaniards made a descent on the coast in July, 1595 ; but their progress was soon checked, and twenty-two chests, full of papal buUs, dispensations, and pardons, were seized and burnt in the market-place of Plymouth. Charles I. and his court, with 120 ships and 6,000 troops from Portsmouth, remained here for ten days in 1625. The royahsts besieged the town from September, 1643, to the end of the year. It was afterwards blockaded for nearly a year and a half, but the parhament- arians kept possession of the town. After the Restoration the present citadel was built, and the fortifications improved. A fire occurred in the dockyard, and destroyed 500 tons of cordage, 700 sails, and 1,050 tons of hemp, on the night of July 3, 1761. Another fire broke out in the dockyard in five different places simultaneously, and con- sumed stores and buildings to the value of £149,880, on July 27, 1770. The last fire occurred on Sept. 27, 1840, when several ships and a large quantity of timber were destroyed. The celebrated breakwater at Plymouth, commenced Aug. 12, 1812, was completed in 1841. The grammar-school waa 675 brethren are their professed adherence to the Christianity of the New Testament, and their condemnation both of estabhshed and non- conformist churches, the former of which they consider too latitudinarian, in desiring to embrace within their pale the whole popu- lation of a country, and the latter too secta- rian, because they exclude all but the mem- bers of their own party = They hold that the presence of the Holy Ghost constitutes a church, and that doctrine, and not ordina- tion, is the test of a divinely-appointed minister. PoDESTA, termed by HaUam (Middle Ages, chap. iii. p. 1) " a new and singular species of magistracy," was introduced into the Lombard cities about the end of the 12th century. Frederick I. appointed podestas, instead of the elective consuls a.d. 1158, and this office was abolished in 1159. "When revived by the citizens themselves, after the peace of Constance in 1183, the podesta was made the criminal judge, and preserver of the peace. PoDOLiA (Russia). — This PoHsh province was ceded to the Turks a.d. 1672, andhaving^ been recovered by the Poles, was conquered and annexed to Russia in 1772. PoET-LAUEEATE. — Disracli remarks (Cu- riosities of Literature), "The custom of crowning poets is as ancient as poetry itself." Petrarch received the laurel crown at Rome on Easter-day, a.d. 1341. Maxi- milian I. founded a poetical college at Vienna in 1504. In England the king's versifier existed as early as 1251. Chau- cer assumed the title of poet-laureate about 1369. The title of king's poet-laureate first occurs in the reign of Edward IV. (1461 — 1483), when one John Kay held the office. The first patent was granted in 1630. POETS-LAUEEATE. Andrew Bernard, in the reigns of Henry VII. and Hemy Vlil. Jolin Skelton, torn about the middle of the 15th centuiy ; died June 25, 1529. Edmund Spenser, born, about 1553 ; died Jan. IS, 1599. Samuel Daniel, born in 1562 ; died Oct. 13, 1619. Ben Jouson, born in 1573 ; died Aug. 6, 1637. Sir WUliam Davenant, bom in Februaay,1605 ; died April 7, 1688. 2x2 POE John Dryden, bom in 1630 ; deposed from the office in 1688 ; and died May 1, 1700. Thomas ShadweU, bom in li>40 ; died in November, 1692. Nahum Tate, bom in 1652 ; died in 1715. Nicholas Kowe, bom in 1673 ; died Dec. 6, 1718. Eev. Laurence Euoden, bom (date uncertain) ; died Sept. 27, 1730. CoUey Gibber, bom Nov. 6, 1671 ; died Dec. 2, 1757. WiUiam Whitehead, bom in 1716 ; died April 14, 1785. Thomas Wharton, bom in 1728; died May 21, 1790. Henry James Pye, bom July 10, 1745 ; died Aug. 10, 1813. Robert Southey, bom Aug. 12, 1774 ; died March 21, 1843. William Wordsworth, born in 1771 ; died April 21, 1850. Alfred Tennyson, bom in 1809. POETET has in all ages and in every nation been the original form of literary composi- tion. "It is the first step by which our nature raises itself above the physical im- pulses to which we are subject in common with the lower order of creation, the first attempt to embody thought in a connected and permanent form." (Mure, Language and Literature of Greece, i. 146.) The song of thanksgiving uttered by Moses and the Israehtes after their dehverance from Pharaoh, b.c. 1491 (Exod. xv. 1—19), is usually regarded as the most ancient poetical composition extant. Among the Greeks poetry was coeval with their national existence. They referred its origin to Oi^jheus, who is reputed to have lived B.C. 1397 ; but the poetic period of the Greeks did not commence till the time of Homer, B.C. 907, and continued till b.c. 560. The early history of Eome was preserved in the rude Saturnian ballads of the reigns of TuUus Hostilius and Tarquinius Priscus, but the chief Roman poets did not flourish till a much later period, Virgil being born B.C. 70, andHoraceB.c. 65. Modern poetry may perhaps be regarded as commencing with the rude songs of the Germans, one of which, composed about a.d. 883, in honour of a victory over the ISTormans, possesses great merit, fhe Proven9al bards of France also contributed greatly to introduce modern poetry. Their productions date from about 1096. Lawrence Minot, whose poems on the wars of Edward III. were composed in 1352, is the earliest original Enghsh poet, and John Barbour, who com- pleted his great work " The Bruce " in 1373, produced the first Scotch poem. Geofirey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, died in 1400. The earl of Surrey, who was executed Jan, 21, 1547, was the first English author who wrote blank verse. Poisoning. — This crime prevailed to a great extent among the ancient Greeks and Romans. A vegetable poison for destroying life easUy and without pain was much used in Rome about b.c. 200. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1531), poisouers were ordered to be boiled to death. {See Boiling to Death.) A confederacy of poisoners was discovered at Eome in 1659. Margaret d'Aubray, the POL wife of the marquis of BrinviHiers, pursued her fatal career of poisoning in 1670, and the crime had beconae so prevalent in France at this period, that a special court was established to deal with the evil. The most notorious of modern poisoners in England was William Palmer, who poisoned his friend Cook IS^ov. 21, 1855. His wife and brother, it is supposed, previously suffered the same fate. He was executed at Stafford June 14, 1856. PoiTiEKS (France) , known to the Romans as Limonum, afterwards took the name of its inhabitants, the Pictavi or Pictones, who submitted to Jxilius Caesar. It was pillaged by the Vandals a.d. 410. A great battle between the Franks under Clovis I. and the Visigoths under Alaric, was fought in the neighbourhood in 507. The latter were defeated, and their king was slain by the hand of his rival. The Saracens were defeated here by Charles Martel in 732, and the English under the Black Prince gained a complete victory over the French under John II., who was taken prisoner, Sept. 19, 1356. Poitiers was surrendered to the English in 1360, but reverted to France in 1372. Durinfr the religious wars of the 16th century it was taken from the Hugue- nots by the Roman Catholics, who committed great cruelties. An unsuccessful attempt was made to retake it in 1569 by Coligny. The church of Montierneuf, which belonged to a Benedictine abbey, was finished in 1096, and the cathedral of St. Pierre, which was commenced by Henry II. of England in 1152, was not finished till 1379. Councils were held here in 590; Jan. 13, 1000; in 1023, 1073 ; Jan. 13, 1074 ; Jan. 15, 1078 ; Nov. 18, 1100 ; and June 25, 1106. PoiTOU (France). — This ancient province formed part of Aquitania Secunda, and was held successively by the Vandals, the Visi- goths, and the Franks, and came into tho possession of England by the marriage of Henry Plantagenet to Eleanor of Guienne, A.D. 1153. It was taken from them in 1294 by Philip II. ; was overrun by the Enghsh, under Edward the Black Prince, in 1356, and was ceded to England in 1360. It finally reverted to the crown of France in 1372. PoLA (Sea-fight). — The Venetian captain- general Vettore Pisani sustained a serious defeat off this town of Hlyria, from the Genoese fleet of Luciano Doria, May 7, 1379. The loss on both sides was heavy, the Genoese admiral being among the slain. Poland. — The Poles regard Duke Lech or Lesko I., who began to reign a.d. 550, as the founder of their nation. His successors held the country for about 300 years; but the history of their dynasty is so involved in myths as to be regarded as entirely fabulous. The authentic history of Poland commenced with the estabUshment of the Piast dynasty in 842. 842. The peasant Piastus is elevated to the throne, and founds tlie dynasty of the Pipsts. 965. Miecislaus L is convertea to Ohxisuaaiity. I POL POL A.D. 9t)8. He defeats the Saxons at Cidin. 986. He is compelled to submit to the emperor Otho II. The grand-duke Uladimir the Great invades Poland. 989. Miecislaus I. invades Bohemia. 1001. Poland is erected into a kingdom. 1034. The death of King Miecislaus II., whose eldest son is an infant, plunges the kingdom into civil anarchy. 1043. Casimir I. subdues the rebel Masos at the battle of Plocsko. 1079. Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow. 1081. He is expelled from Poland in consequence, and commits suicide. 1096. Sbigniew rebels against his father. 1109. Henry V. of Germany is compelled by the Poles to raise the siege of Glogaw. 1116. Sbigniew is assassinated by order of his brother Boleslaus IIL 1177. Miecislaus III. ^a deposed. 1227. Assassination of Lesko the White. 1233. The Teutonic knights sett'e in Poland. 1241. Poland is ravaged by the Tartars. 1264 Boleslaus V. snbaues the JadvingL 1289. The death of Lesko the Black is followed by frightful anarchy. 1296. King f remislaus is assassinated by his cousin, the mararave of Anhalt. 1322. Silesia is seized by the king of Bohemia. 1335. Casimir IIL cedes Pomerania to the Teutonic knights. 1347. A code of laws is prepared at Wisliza. 1370. At the death of Casimir IIL the Piast dynasty becomes extinct, and the crown is conferred upon Louis of Hungary. 1387. Ladislaus V. compels the Lithuanians to embrace Chribtiamty. 1439. John Corvinus, king of Hungary, bequeaths his throne to Ladislaus VL of Poland. 1498. The Wallachians invade Poland, and carry into captivity 100,000 of the inhabitants. 1569. Lithuania is finally united to Polaud. 1577. The Poles subdue the Cossacks of the Ukraine. 1582. Russia cedes Livonia to ■ Poland at the peace of Zapolia. 1586. Stephen organizes a militia composed of the barbarous Cossacks. 1620. Poland is invaded by the Turks. 1635. The Cossacks revolt 1654. The Russians invade Poland. 1655. Charles Gustavus of Sweden subjugates Po- laud. 1660. The Poles recover their independence. 1668. John. 11. abdicates the throne. 1673. Nov. 11. John Sobieski defeats an. immense army of Turkish invaders at Kotzim. 1674. John Sobieski is elected king. 1683. Sept. 12. John Sobieski deUvers Vienna fi-om the Turks. 1690. The Polish army mutinies. 1699. Jan. 26. The peace of Carlowitz restores Ka- minieck to Poland. 1704. Charles XIL of Sweden deposes Frederick Augustus. 1724 A severe conflict between the Jesuits and Lutherans takes place in the streets of Thorn. 1733. On the death of Frederick Augustus, the succession to the crown is disputed by Stanislaus Lesczinska, who is supported by the French, and Frederick Augustus, sou of the late king, whose cause is espoused by Russia, Prussia, and Germany, 1768. A confederation of patriots against the en- croachments of RussiA, is formed at Bar. 1772. Aug. 5. The first treaty for the partition of Polaud is signed at St. Petersburg by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 1769. The Poles declare themselves independent of the Russian yoke. 1790. March 29. An alliance is concluded with Prussia. 1791. May 3. A new constitution is granted. 1792. Wai- is declared by Russia. 17S3L The second pai-tition treaty is signed. 1794. March 24. Kosciusko expels the Russians from Cracow. May 15. He seeks aid from the French. June 15. Ciacow sunenders to the Prussians. Nov. 4 Suwarrow de- feats Kosciusko at Praga, where 12,000 Poles are slain. Nov. 9. He enters War- saw. 1795. The third treaty of partition is signed, by which the kingdom of Poland becomes extinct. Nov. 25. Stanislaus abdicates at Grodno. 1796. Nov. Kosciusko is set at liberty by the emperor Paul. 1798. Feb. 11. Death of the ex-king Stanislaus at St. Petersburg. 1804 Nbv. 27. Napoleon I. fixes his head-quarters at 1813. 1815. 1818. 1819. 1820. Dec. 18. Napoleon I. enters Warsaw. Jan. 14 A supreme legislative commission is opened at Warsaw. July 9. The treaty of Tilsit {q. V.) is concluded. The Poles assist the French in the wars of this year. April 15. The Austrian army, under the archduke Ferdinand, enters Po- land. April 19. The Austriaus defeat Poniatowski at the battle of Raszyn, and occupy Wai-saw. May 14. Dombrowskl defeats the Austrians at the battle of Thorn. June 1. The archduke Ferdinand evacuates Warsaw. June 28. The general diet at Warsaw pro- claims the re- establishment of the kingdom of Poland. Aug. and Sept. Owing to an inundation, the country suffers from a teixible famine. May 3. Cracow is made a free republic. June 20. The Czar Alexand^r. is solemnly proclaimed king of Poland at Warsaw. Dec. 21. A new constitution is completed. Personal slaver}' is abolished in Courland, and the first Polish diet is summoned. July 31. Liberty of the press is abolished in Poland. Sept. 13. The Polish diet is opened at Warsaw. Nov. 29. An insurrection breaks out at Warsaw. Dec. 20. General Chlopicki is made dictator. Jan. 25. The diet declares Poland inde- pendent, and proclaims that the throne is vacant. Jan. 30. Prince Adam Czar- toryski is elected president of the national government. Feb. 6. The Russian army enters Poland. Fe o. 19 & 20. The Poles main- tain their position against the Russians at the battle of Grochow. March 31. Generals Rybinl^ki and Kicki defeat the Russians under General Giesmar at the battle of Wurz. April 3. The czar pub- lishes a ukase against the insurgents ia Wilna. April 5. The Russians are com- pelled to evacuate Wilna, and Courland is declared in a state of war. April 6. The Russians are defeated with a loss of 12,000 men at the battle of Zelichow. April 10. The Poles are victorious at Iganie, and fix their head-quarters at Seidlitz. April 17. The Poles under Sierawski are defeated at Wronow. May 18. The Poles seize Ostro- lenkn. May 26. The Poles ai-e defeated at the battle of Ostrolenka. May 29. General Gielgud beats the Russians under General Sackeu at Raygrod. June 10. General Die- bitsch, commander in chief of the Russian forces, dies of cholera at Pultusk. Jime 19. The Russians defeat the Poles under Gene- ral Gieigud at WUna. July 8. The Russians are victorious at the battle of Schwawl. July 12. The Polish general Gielgud is shot by one of his own officers. July 14 The Poles under Chrzanowski are defeated by General Rudiger at Minsk. Aug. 15. Disturbances break out at Warsaw. Sept. 7. The Russians attack Warsaw, which sur- renders the following day. This event strikes the death-blow of Polish inde- pendence. 677 POL POL 1831. Oct. 20. The czar announces the termina- tion of the Polish war. 1832. Feb. 26. An imperial ukase is published, con- stituting Poland an integral part of the Russian empire. 1834 Feb. 10. A treaty for the surrender of Polish refugees is signed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 1836. Feb. 16. An insun'ection in Cracow is sup- pressed by the Austrians. 1841. The incorporation of Poland with the Rus- sian empire is rendered complete. Russian laws, taxes, and language, are iutroduced. 1845. A conspirticy for the restoration of Polish independence is discovered and suppressed. 1846. Feb. 22. A general insurrection against Rus- sia breaks out io Poland. The Austrians under General Collin are expelled from Cracow. Feb. 26. Collin defeats the insui^ents at Gdow. Feb. 27. They take refuge in Cracow. Nov. 6. The republic of Cracow is disfranchised, and is annexed to Austria. 1847. May. Poland is made a Russian province. 1848. April 26. A revolt breaks out at Cracow. May 11. The insurgent leader Mieroslaw- ski is taken prisoner. 1851. Jan. 13. The customs barrier between Russia and Poland is abolished. 1856. May 27. The emperor Alexander II. grants an amnesty in favour of Polish refugees. June 6. It is rejected by the central com- mittee "f the Pol sh Democratic Society. 1857. Sept. 7. The emperor visits Warsaw. Dec. 2. Decrees are issued for the amelioration of the position of the rural population of Poland. 1860. Oct. 22 to 26. The emperors of Russia and Austria, and the prince-regent of Prussia, have an interview at Warsaw. 1861. Feb. 25. Disturbances break out at Warsaw. Feb. 28. An address is delivered to the emperor, praying for the restoration of Polish nationality. March 9. The emperor refuses, but agrees to redress certain grievances. April 8. Warsaw is kept in order by a military force. May 30. Death of Prince Gortchakoff, lieutenant-general of Poland. ETJLEES OP POLAND. 842 Piastus Ziemovitus Lesko, or Lesciis IV. 892 Ziemomislaus .... 913 Miecislaus 1 964 Boleslaus 1 992 Miecislaus II 1025 Richense, or Richsa 1034 Interregnum 1037 Casimir 1 1041 Boleslaus II 1058 LadislausL 1081 Boleslaus IH 1102 Ladislaus II 1138 Boleslaus IV. 1146 Miecislaus III 1173 Casimir II 1177 Lesko V 1194 Miecislaus IV. 1200 Ladislaus III. .... 1203 Lesko V. (again) . . 1206 Boleslaus V 1227 Lesko VI 1279 Interregnum 1289 Premdslaus 1295 Ladislaus IV 1296 Wenceslaus 1300 Ladislaus IV. (again) 1304 Casimir III. (the Louis of Hungary.. 1370 Interregnum 1382 Hedwige and La- dislaus V 1385 678 A.D. Ladislaus V. (alone) 1399 Ladislaus VI 1434 Interregnum 1445 CasunirlV 1445 John (Albert) 1 1492 Alexander 1501 Sigismundl 1.506 Sigismundll 1548 Interregnum 1573 Henry of Valois .... 1574 Stephen Batthori.. 1575 Interregnum 158') Sigi?mund III ]587 Ladislaus VII le32 John II., or Casi- mir V 1648 Interregnum 1668 Michael- Koributh- Wiesnowlski 1669 John III. (Sobieski) 1674 Interregnum 1697 Frederick - Augus- tus 1 Stanislaus I. (Lezin' ski) F' ederick ■ Augus- tus I. (again) .... Frederick - Augus- tus II Interregnum ... . Stanislaus II. (Augus- tus Poniatowski) 1764 Extinction of the kingdom 1795 1697 1704 1709 1734 1763 PoiiAB Eegions. {See Aectic Cieclb, Fean-klik's Expeditions, Noeth-West Passage, &c.) PoLAE Stae, the name given to a star of the second magnitude, in the constellation called the Little Bear. It is the nearest visible star to the North Pole. Its discovery is ascribed by the Chinese to the emperor Tong-Cheng, who reigned in the year B.C. 1970. Police. — The celebrated writer Fielding introduced, a.d. 1753, a system of paid police, who were placed under the orders of the acting magistrate at Bow Street. The Thames poUce was estabhshed in 1798. The new police force for the metropolis was established by 10 Geo. IV. c. 44 (June 19, 1829), and was to extend to twelve mUes from Charing Cross. By 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47 (Aug. 17, 1839), this dis- tance was extended to fifteen miles from Charing Cross; and the force was placed under the control of two commissioners. The city police, though similar in organiza- tion, remains under the control of the cor- poration. By 19 Vict. c. 2 (Feb. 28, 1856), the metropoHtan poHce was placed under the management of one commissioner. The police for counties and boroughs is regulated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 69 (July 21, 1856), and the poUce for Scotland is regulated by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 72 (Aug. 25, 1857). Political Economt. — This science, which teaches the principles which govern the pro- duction and accumulation of wealth, and its distribution and consumption, was httle understood by the Greeks and Romans. It may be said to owe its origin practically to the free towns that rose in Europe in the Middle Ages, though the system was not ex- pounded untU a later period. The EngUsh claim to be the first who established the just principles of commercial intercourse, though some continental writers award the honour to the Itahans and the French. Sir Dudley xV^orth's " Discourses on Trade," published in 1691 ; Hume's "PoHtical Essays," published in 1752; Harris's "Essay on Money and Coins," and Adam Smith's "Wealth of Na- tions," published in 1766; and Mill's " Poli- tical Economy,'' in 1821, are the principal English works on this science. Politicians. — This term, at first applied during the religious wars in France, to both Huguenots andEoman Cathohcs of moderate opinions, was in 1574 given to the faction headed by the duke d'Alen^on and the sons of Montmorency. The duke was arrested, and the sons of Montmorency were sent to the Bastille, and several of their subordinates were executed. Polka. — The lavolta described by Sir John Davies in "The Orchestra" (1596), is sup- posed by a writer in "Notes and Queries" (xii. 152) to have resembled the modern polka, introduced into this country about A.D. 1842. Poll Act, putting a price upon the heads of many Irishmen ot distinction, was passed in Ireland a.d. 1465. This tyrannical law POL was first put in force by the earl of Des- mond. PoLLALORE (Battle). — Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at this place, in Hindos- tan, Aug. 27, 1781. The battle lasted from nine in the morning till simset, and was very hotly contested. PoLi/ENTiA (Battle). — A great victory was gained by the Koman general Stilicho over the Goths, under Alaric, at this place, in Italy, Easter-day (March 29), a.d. 403. Magnificent spoils, and the release of many thousand prisoners, were among the results of this triumph. Poll, or Capitation" Tax, was levied in the Eoman empire. It was first imposed in England by the parhament held at Northamp- ton, Not. 5, 1380. The severity employed by the tax-gatherers in its collection led to the rebellion of Wat the tyler, in 1381. The Kentish rebels assembled at Blackheath June 12, and entered London June 13. They plun- dered the city and seized on the Tower June 14. Thev destroyed the palace of the Savoy, the archbishop of Canterbury's palace, and the priory of St. John's, ClerkenweU. Wat Tyler was kiUed by Walworth, lord mayor of London, June 15, at the conference with Kichard II. in Smithfield. This put an end to the insurrection. In 1667 every subject was assessed by head according to his rank. The tax was abohshed by WHHam III. in 1690. PoLOTZK (Eussia). — This town was in ex- istence as early as the time of Euric, the founder of the Eussian power, who reigned from A.D. 847 to 879. It contains a ruiued castle and a handsome church and coUege, which formerly belonged to the Jesuits. The French seized the town in July, 1812, and it was retaken by the Eussians Oct. 20. Poltava, or Pultava (Eussia), was be- sieged by Charles XII. in May, 1709, with an army of about 18,000 men. Peter the Great came to its rehef with a force of between 50,000 and 60,000 men, and, on the 15th June, the celebrated battle of Poltava was fought, in which the Swedish monarch was defeated vrith great slaughter and com- pelled to take refuge in Turkey. PoLTGAMT was aUowed among the Jews ; has prevailed in Asia from time immemo- rial ; and IS still permitted among the Mo- hammedans. Polygamy was made felony in England by an act passed in 1604. Polyglot. — A name given to Bibles with the text printed in many languages. The idea appears to have originated with Origen, who arranged the Old Testament in several languages in the 3rd century. The princi- pal Polyglots are, — 1. the Complutensian Polyglot, in four languages, brought out under the superintendeuce of Cardinal Xi- menes in 1514 and 1515; 2. the Antwerp Polyglot, in 8 vols. foHo, edited by Monta- nus, and brought out in 1569-72; 3. the Parisian Polyglot, in 10 vols, foho, edited by Le Jay, and brought out in 1628-45; 4. the London Polyglot, ia 6 vols, folio, edited by Brian Walton, and brought out POM in 1654-7 (it consisted occasionally of nine languages) ; and 5. Bagster's Polyglot, in 1 vol. folio, pubhshed in London in 1831, the Old Testament being in eight, and the New in nine languages. Polynesia. — This term, signifying •' many islands," is apphed to the numerous islands scattered over a great part of the Pacific Ocean. The work of discovery in this region was commenced by Magelhaens, who reached the Ladrone Islands March 6, 1520. He was followed at the close of the same century by Mendana and other Spanish navigators. The Dutch made further discoveries in the 17th century, and these were considerably ex- tended by the English navigators, the most celebrated of whom. Captain Cook, was killed in a collision with the natives of Owhy- hee, Feb. 14, 1779. PoLYPLECTEOir. — This musical instrument was invented by Dietz about a.d. 1828. Polytechnic Institution (London), for scientific studies and amusements, was first opened to the pubhc Aug. 6, 1839. A serious accident occurred here, by the fall of a staircase, Jan. 3, 1859, when one person was killed and nearly forty injured. Polytheism appears to have originated from a superstitious feehng regarding the heavenly bodies, and the great powers of nature. The Egjrptians in the time of Moses (B.C. 1570) were polytheists. The Greeks and Eomans, though acknowledging a su- preme god, worshipped the lesser gods, and were essentially polytheists. In many parts of the world polytheism still prevails to a great extent. Pomegranate. — This tree, a native of most parts of the south of Europe, and of China, was cultivated in England by Gerard, A.D. 1596. PoMERANiA (Prussia) . — This province de- rives its name from the Wends, who settled here about the beginning of the 6th century, and called it Fo More (beside the sea). Mestibock, who flourished about a.d. 960, was the first prince of Pomerania. On the death of Sambor, in 1107, the eoiJntry was divided into two parts. The eastern part came into the possession of the Teutonic knights in 1296, and rather more than a century afterwards was annexed to the PoHsh crown. The princes of the other part of Pomerania were recognized as princes of the German empire and dukes of Pomerania in 1182. This dukedom was se- parated into two in 1295; was reunited in 1478 ; and the ducal fine became extinct on the death of Boleslaus XIII. in 1637. The country was divided between Prussia and Sweden. The latter gave up part of the territory in 1720, and the remainder in 1814, when the whole was incorporated in the Prussian kingdom. PoMEROY (North America).— This town of the state of Ohio was foimded a.d. 1841. Pomona, or Mainland (Orkney Islands), the largest of the group, is supposed to have 679 POM been colonized by the Picts. It was eon- qiiered by the H'ormans about a.d. 876, and remained subject to the kings of Norway and Denmark till the year 1468, when it was annexed to the Scottish crown by treaty. Pompeii (Italy).— The date of the founda- tion of this city is unknov.'n. It is said to have been conquered by the Samnites about B.C. MO, from whom it was taken by the Eomans about eighty years after. In the Social war, which began B.C. 91, Pompeii, with the other towns of Campania, reTolted and joined the Marcian confederacy ; but it escaped the punishment which was inflicted on some of the other cities. A quarrel be- tween its inhabitants and those of ]S"uceria, in which the latter were defeated, took place A.D. 59; and in 63 Pompeii was almost de- stroyed by an earthquake. Other shocks followed at intervals. The first recorded eruption of Vesuvius occurred Aug. 2.3, 79, and overwhelmed the town. It remained buried till 1755, when excavations were com- menced, and the whole city was at length recovered. PoMPTiNE or PoTTTiif E Makshes (Italy) . — The marshes in the south of Latium received this name from their proximity to the town of Suessa Pometia. They were first drained by the censor A. Claudius Csecus, B.C. 312. Trajan commenced a road through them A.D. 107, and it was opened in 110. Theo- doric drained them in 500. POiN'DiCHEEBY (Hindostan), the capital of the French possessions, was purchased by them from the rajah of Bejapore a.d. 1672, though they did not form a settlement tiU 1674. It was taken by the Dutch in 1693, but restored in 1697. Pondicherry, unsuc- cessfully attacked by the English in 1748, was taken by them in 1761, 1778, 1793, and 1803. It was restored to the French in 1815. Pont-a-Chijt, or TotrEifAY, (Battle,) was fought near Tournay, in Belgium, between the French, nearly 100,000 strong, under Piehegru» and the allies. May 23, 1794. After a desperate struggle, which lasted from five in the morning till nine at night, the allies made a gallant charge which drove the enemy from the field. It is sometimes erroneously called the battle of Espierres. PoNTEFEACT, or PoMEEET (Yorkshire). — In the time of the Saxons this town was called Kirkby. Its present name is derived fi'om the Latin pons fractus, from the breaking of a bridge over the Aire. Pom- fret Castle, the remains of which still exist, was built A.D. 1080. During the civil war, the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. It was attacked by the parHamentarians in 1644, and taken by them in 1645 ; retaken by the royahsts in 1648, and finally sur- rendered to Lambert, March 25, 1649, when it was destroyed by order of par- liament. PoNTiANAK (Borneo), the chief of the Dutch settlements in the island, was founded POO A.D. 1823. They founded a factory here as early as 1776. PoNTiEEX Maximus.— The office of chief pontiff among the Romans is said to have been instituted by Noma Pompilius. The emperor Augustus was made Pontifex Maxi- mus A.D, 12, and the ofl5ce was held by the emperors after his time until discon- tinued by Gratian in 375. Maximilian I., of Germany, assumed the title in 1511, and it la borne by the popes. PoimaifT (France). — To the hospitable care of the abbot of this monastery, some miles from Sens, the sovereign pontiff com- mended Thomas Becket, when he was exiled from England, a.d. 1164. Henry II. caused the fugitive to be driven from hia retreat in 1165. PoNTUs (Asia Minor) originally formed part of Cappadocia, and was a satrapy of the Persian empire. This satrapy, after- wards called Pontus by the Macedonians, was bestowed on one of the royal family of Persia, named Artabazes (b.c. 480). In the time of Mithridates the Great, Pontus in- cluded the whole of Paphlagonia and part of Bithynia. Mithridates assisted the Greeks against the Scythians B.C. 112 — 110, and after conquering many petty Scythian princes in Europe, formed connections with the Germanic nations as far as the Danube, B.C. 108 — 105. His first war with Rome, B.C. 89 — 85, arose through the attacks of his neighbour Nicomedes, at the instigation of the Romans. He lost Bithynia, Cappa- docia, and Paphlagonia. A second war with Rome took place B.C. 84 — 81, and a third war occurred B.C. 75 — 64, which ended in the destruction of Mithridates, and the reduction of Pontus to a Roman province. KINGS OF PONTUS. B.C. AriobaizanesT 1 1 Date Mithridates f nnknown I J Ariobarzanes II 363 Mitlu-idates n 337 Mithridates III 302 Ariobarzaues III. . . 266 B.C. Mithridates IV. 240 Phamaces 1 190 Mithridates V. .... 156 Mithridates -VI 120 Phamaces II 63 Made a Ft.oman pro- vtnce 47 Ponza (Mediterranean Sea). — This island, the ancient Pontia, was attacked by the British Feb. 26, 1813, and after a short conflict the governor capitiilated, and the garrison of the fortress surrendered as prisoners of war. PooNAH (Hindostan), chief town of the eoUectorate of the same name, was included in the estate of Shahjee, who built the palace for his own residence in the 17th century. The power of the minister was made supreme by Balajee, and that of the rajah merely nominal, a.d. 1740. The minister Bajee Rao allied himself with Scindia against Hol- kar ; but having been defeated in an engage- ment, he sought the aid of the British in 1802. Colonel Wellesley, after marching at the head of his horse a distance of upwards of sixty milea in thirty -two hours, took poa- POO session of the city in time to save it from being burnt by the enemy, April 19, 1803. Having leagued with the native powers against the British in 1817, a treaty was formed with him, by which the Mahratta confederacy was dissolved, his claims limited to his own possessions, and Ahmednuggur and other places were ceded to the Enghsh, June 13, 1817. In the progress of the war he was compelled to flee, and ultimately re- signed his office, and retired to Benares on a pension, June 3, 1818. An earthquake oc- curred June 10, 1819. Water -works were completed, chiefly at the expense of Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, in 1850. The govern- ment school is now \inited with the Sanscrit college, established a.d. 1821. Poor Knights of Windsoe. {See Cha- pel, Knights op the.) Poor-laws.— By 23 Edw. III. c.7 (1349), it was declared illegal to give anything to a beggar who was able to work. Poor people were ordered to abide in the place of their birth by 12 Eich II. c. 7 (1388). Appro- priators of benefices were ordered to distri- bute an annual sum to their poor parishion- ers by 15 Rich. II. c. 6 (1391). The first act enjoining the systematic maintenance of the aged and impotent poor was 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1535). The present system of poor- laws was commenced by 43 Ehz. c. 2 (1601), which appointed overseers of the poor, au- thorized the erection of poor-houses, and taxed the householders in order to raise a poor-rate. This was followed by nume- rous statutes, which were consolidated and amended by the Poor-Law Amendment Act, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 76 (Aug. 14, 1834). This act instituted the " Poor-Law Commis- sioners," whose period of office was ex- tended by subsequent acts to 1847, when they were superseded by the "Commis- sioners for administering the Laws for the Eelief of the Poor in England," who were appointed by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 109 (July 23, 1847) . Their name was changed to that of the "Poor-Law Board" by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. 1, 1849). The removal of the poor is regulated by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 66 (Aug. 26, 1846), and 11 & 12 Vict. c. 110 (Sept. 4, 1843). The first poor-law act for Ireland was 1 & 2 Vict. c. 56 (July 31, 1838). The Scotch poor are regu- lated by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 4, 1845), which has been amended by subsequent acts. PooRTTNDAH (Hindostan). — A treaty of peace was concluded here with the Mah- rattas, England acquiring the island of Salsette and other territory, June 3, 1776. PoPATAN (New Granada) was founded by Benalcazar, a.d. 1537. Pope. — From the Greek TruTrag, or iraira, signifying a father, was the common name of aU bishops in the early church. Gregory VII., at a council held at Eome in 1076, ordered the title to be restricted to the bishops of Eome. In the following list, POP taken from IS'ico tory," the name= those whose right Italics. BISH Peter,St las's oft is di OPS c A.D. 42 66 78 91 100 109 119 128 139 142 157 168 177 192 202 218 223 230 23.5 236 2.51 2.52 253 2.57 259 259 27.5 296 304 308 310 311 314 336 337 352 355 366 384 385 399 402 417 418 418 422 432 440 461 468 483 492 496 498 514 523 526 530 632 535 536 538 555 559 573 578 590 604 606 607 614 617 626 'Chronology o [le anti-popes, . sputed, are prin F ROME. Severinus John IV Theodoras I Martini Eugeuius L Vitalian Adeodatus Domnus I Ao-alho .... f His- mdof ted in A.D. .. 640 Linus .. 640 Clement I Anacletus Alexander L .. 649 . . 655 .. 658 . . 672 Tilesphorus Hyginus Pius I .. 676 .. 679 Leo II Anicetus . . ... Benedict II John V .. 684 Soter Eleutherus Victor L .. 685 Conon Sergius I Paschal John VI John VII '.. 687 Zephirinus Calixtus I .. 687 .. 701 Pontianus Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius Stephen I Sixtusit Denis Constantine .... Gregory II Gregory IIL .... Zachnry .-. Stephen II Stephen in Paul I Constantine Theophilactus .. Stephen IV. .... Adrian T .. 708 .. 715 .. 731 .. 741 .. 752 .. 752 .. 757 Dionysius Feltx I .. 767 .. 767 Eutychian Caius .. 768 • • 772 Marcel Itnus Interregnum MaicellusI Eusebius Miltiades, or Mel- chiades...., Sylvester I Mark . Stephen V .. 816 Paschal I Eugenius II .. 817 .. 824 Valentine Gregory IV Sergius n LeoIV Benedict III Anastasius Nicolas I Adiianll John VIII .. 827 .. 828 .. 844 Julius I Liberius .. 847 .. 855 .. 8-55 Damasus I Siricus Sericius Anastasius T Innocent I Zdsimus .. 858 .. 867 Marin, or Martin n. 882 Adrian III . . - - Rtw Stephen VI Foi-mosus .. .. 885 .. 891 Boniface I CoelestineL SixtusIII Leo L, the Great .. Hilary Simplicius Felix IL or m. .. GelasiusI Anastasius II. Lawrence Symmachus Hormisdas John I Felix IIL or IV. .. Boniface n Dioscorus John IT .. 891 Boniface VI Stephen VU Romanus .. 896 .. 896 .. 897 .. 893 Theodoras II. . . Benedict TV. .... Christopher .... Leo V .. 898 .. 900 .. 903 .. 903 Sergius III Anastasius m. .. Lando JohnX .. 905 .. 911 .. 913 Leo VT 928 Stephen Vm. .. John XI LeoVU. ........ Stephen IX Mai-tin III .. 929 .. 931 .. 936 Agapetus I SUverius Vigilius . . . 943 Agaprtus II John XII Leo VIII Benedict V. .... John XIII Benedict VI Boniface VII. .. Domnus II Benedict vn. .. John XIV JohnXV Gregory V JohnXri. 681 .. 946 PelagiusI John III . . 956 .. 963 Benedict I PelagiusIL Gregory I., the .. 964 .. 965 .. 972 .. 973 Sabinian .. 974 Boniface ILL Boniface IV. Deodatus I Boniface V Uonorius I. .. 975 .. 984 .. 986 .. 996 .. 997 POP POP BISHOPS OF EOME. A.D. Sylvestern Aprils, 999 John XVII June 13, 1003 John XVIII Dec. 26, 1003 Sergius IV. 1009 Benedict VIII July 6, 1012 John XIX Aug. 1024 Benedict IX 1033 Gregory VI May, 1044 Sylvester III 1044 Clement II Dec. 2.5, 1046 Benedict IX. restored Nov. 8, 1047 Dama^ns II July 17, 1048 Leo IX 1048 Interregnwm, April 19, 1054 Victor II March, 1055 Stephen IX Aug. 2, 10.57 Benedict X March 30, 10.58 Nicolas II Dec. 28, 1058 Alexander II Sept. 30, 1061 Gregory VII . . April 22, 1073 Clement III. 1080 Interregnum, 1085 Victor III May 24. 1086 Urban IL March 12, 1088 Pascal II Aug. 13, 1099 Gelasius II Jan. 25, 1118 Calixtus II Feb. 1, 1119 Honorius II Dec. 21, 1124 Innocent II Feb. 15, 1130 Anacletus Feb. 15, 1130 Victor ir. 1138 Coelestine TI Sept. 26, 1143 Lucius II March 12, 1144 Eugenius III Feb. 27, 1145 Anastasius IV July 9, 1153 Adrian IV Dec. 3, 1154 Alexander III Sept. 7, 1159 Victor IV. Jigg Paschal HI April 22, 1164 Calistus III. 11(58 Innocent III. 1178 Lucius ni Sept, 1, 1181 Urban III Nov. 25, 1185 Gregory VIII Oct. 20, 1187 Element III Dec. 19, 1187 Cffilestine III March 30, 1191 Innocent III jan. 1198 Honorius III July 18, 1216 Gregory IX March 19, 1227 Coelestine IV Oct. 1241 Interregnutn 1242 Innocent IV .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' ." .' June, 1243 Alexander IV Dec. 12, 1254 Urban IV. Aug. 29, 1261 Clement IV Feb. 5, 1265 Interregnum 1269-1270 Gregory X Sept. 1, 1271 Innocent V. Feb. 21, 1276 AdrianV. .. July 11, 1276 John XX. or XXI Sept. 13, 1976 Nicolas III jfov. 25, 1277 Martin IV Feb. 22, 1281 HononusIV. April 2, 1285 Nicolas IV. Feb. 15, 1288 Interregnum 1293 Coelestine V ■.■.'.■.■.■.■ July 5, 1294 Boniface VIII jje,, 24 1294 Benedict X. or XI ■.■.■.'.■.■.■. Oct. ii, 1303 Clement v.... June 15, 1305 InterregntMn \Z\5 John XXL or XXII \\ Aug.' 7, 1316 Benedict XI. or XII Dec. 20, 1334 Clement VI May 7, 1342 Innocent VI Dec. 18, 13.52 Urban V. Sept. 1362 Gregory XI Dec. 30, 1370 Urban VI April 9, 1378 Clement VII. Sept. 21, 1378 Boniface IX Nov 2 1389 Be^isdict XIII. Sept. 28,' 1394 Innocent VII Oct. 17 1404 Gregory XII Nov. 30, 1406 Alexander V June, 1409 John XXn May 17, 1410 Interregnum, 1416 Martin V Nov. 11, 1417 Eugenius IV March, 1433 I^elix V. Nov. 17, 14::J9 Nicolas V March 6, 1447 Calixtus III April 8, 1455 Pins II Aue. 1458 Paul II Aug. 31. 1464 SixtusIV Aug. 9, 1471 Innocent VIH Aug. 29, 1484 Alexander VI Aug. 11, 1492 Pius III Sept. 22, 1503 Julius II Nov. 1, 1503 LeoX Marchll, 1513 Adrian VI Jan. 2, 1522 Clement VII Nov. 19, 1523 Paul III Oct. 13. 1534 Julius III Feb 8, 1550 MarceUus II April 9, 1555 Paul IV May 23, 1.5.55 PiusIV Dec. 1559 Pius V Jan. 7, 1566 Gregory XIII May 13, 1572 Sixtus V April 24, 1585 Urban VII Sept. 15, 1.590 Gregory XIV Dec. 5, 1590 Innocent IX Oct 29, 1591 Clement VIII Jan. 30. 1592 Leo XI April 1, 1605 Paul V May 16, 1605 Gregory XV Feb. 2, 1621 Urban VIII Aug. 6, 1623 Innocent X Sept. 15, 1644 Alexander VII April 7, 1655 Clement IX. June 20. 1667 Clement X April 29, 1670 Innocent XI Sept. 21, 1676 Alexander VIII Oct. 6. 1689 Innocent XII July 12, 1691 Clement XI Nov. 23, 1700 InnocentXIII May 8, 1721 Benedict XIII May 29, 1724 Clement XII July 12, 1730 Benedict XIV Aug. 17, 1740 Clement XIII July 6, 1758 Clement XIV May 19, 1769 Pius VI Feb. 15, 1775 Pius Vri March 13, 1800 Leo XII Sept. 28, 1823 Pins VIII MarchSl, 1829 Gregory XVI Feb. 2, 1831 Pius IX June 16, 1846 Pope Joan. — Some chroniclers assert that in the 9th century a female named Joan assumed male attire, became a monk, and was elected pope on the death of Leo IV., A.D. 855. This story, with many variations, was believed until the Eeformation, and Joan's female statue long occupied a place among the popes in the cathedral of Sienna. Pope Joan. — This game of cards is of great antiquity, having been played in this country before the reign of Elizabeth, when it was known as Pope Julio. Popish Plots. — Titus Oates, who had been chaplain of a man-of-war, and dismissed the service for immoral conduct, invented a plot against the Roman Catholics, asserting that they had conspired to assassinate Charles II., and extirpate the Protestant religion. The particulars were laid before the lord-treasurer Danby, Aug. 12, 1678, and several Roman Catholics were, in con- sequence, accused, and upon false testimony convicted and executed; among them was the venerable Viscount Stafford, beheaded Dec. 29, 1680. Oates, who had caused the death of so many innocent men, was con- POP victed of perjury, May 8, 1685, and was fined, put in the pillory, and publicly whipped, William III. pardoned him June 6, 1689, and granted him a pension. The gunpowder plot and other conspiracies are known as popish plots. PopLAR-TKEE. — In ancient times the pub- lic places of Rome were adorned with rows of this tree ; hence it came to be called populi, as being a tree appropriated to the people. The grey poplar is indigenous to England ; the Lombardy poplar was brought from Italy about a.d. 1758. Pop IT L AT ION. — The population of the world is estimated as follows : — POPULATION OP THE GiOBE. Europe... Asia Africa ... America . Oceanica . 227,700,000 390,0110,000 60,000,000 39,000,000 20,000,000 736,700,000 Weimar Almanack. 221,906,000 461,196,000 107,til5,000. 42,164,000 2,695,000 835,576,000 "Wyld'3 Atlas. 240,724,113 413,844,300 100,000,000 46,492,000 22,000,000 823,060,413 POP POPULATION OP EUBOPEAN STATES. Pop. Austria 35,019,0.58 Baden 1,308,116 Belgium 4,671,187 Brunswick 269,209 Denmark 2,605,024 France 36,039,364 Great Britain and Ireland 29,334,788 Greece 1,067,216 Hanover 1,820,480 Hesse (Grand Duchy) 836,424 Hesse (Electorate) 736,392 Holsteiti and Ijauenberg 573.003 Italy 24,853,197 Luxemburg and Liraburg 402,969 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 541,091 Nassau 428,237 Netherlands 3,397,851 Norway 1,490,047 Oldenburg 265,479 Portugal 3,578,677 Pi-ussia 17,739,913 Eussia (in Europe) 66,891,493 Russia (in Asia) 8,203,197 Saxe-Weimar 263,755 Saxony 2,039,176 Spain 14,957,575 Sweden 3,734.240 Switzerland 2,534,240 Turkey (in Europe) 15,500,000 Turkey (in Asia) 16,050,000 Turkey (in Africa) 5,050,000 Wurtemberg 1,669,374 POPULATION OP ENGLISH COUNTIES. Bedford Berks Buckingham Cambridge Chester Cornwall Cumberland Derby Devon Dorset Durham Essex Gloucester Hereford Hertford Huntingdon Kent Lancaster Leicester Lincoln Middlesex Monmouth Morfolk Northampton Northumberland . . . Nottingham Oxford Kutland Salop Somerset Southampton Stafford Suffolk SuiTey Sussex "Warwick Westmorland Wilts Worcester York (East Riding) . York (North Riding) York (West Riding) . 110,480 108,132 89,346 192,305 192,281 117,230 161567 37,568 308,667 673,488 130,082 208.625 273,479 131,525 168.078 140,350 111,977 16,300 214,404 268,233 159,471 206.798 40,805 183,820 146,441 111,192 158,927 572.168 84,052 132,639 135,133 122,387 270,098 261,045 15tj,124 213,651 438,417 144,930 193,511 289,424 336,190 102,669 129,731 48,946 427,224 1,052,948 174,571 283,058 1,145,0.17 75,801 344,368 163,097 212,589 186,873 138,224 18,487 198, oil 355,789 282,897 345,972 271,541 399,417 233,328 274,482 51,:i59 219,574 194,074 154,643 188,178 107,936 161,759 166,439 164,459 395,660 342,159 178,038 272.202 532,9.')9 175,054 307,963 344 979 431,495 113,272 156,660 58,549 549,353 1,667,054 215,867 362,602 1,576.636 134,368 412,664 199,228 266,020 249,910 163,127 21,302 225,820 435,599 354,682 509.472 315,073 584,036 300,075 401,703 56,454 2.56,280 248.460 194,936 204,701 1,163,580 124,478 170,065 163,723 185,405 455,725 355,558 195,492 184,207 390,997 369,318 458,805 115,489 167,298 64,183 615,766 2,031,236 230,308 407,222 1,886,576 157,418 442,714 212,380 303,568 270,427 170,439 22,983 229,341 443,916 405,370 608,716 337,215 683,082 336,844 475,013 58,287 254 221 276,926 220,983 215,214 1,325,495 135,265 176,103 175 950 505,153 684,531 188,651 509,018 404,644 485,502 123,659 173,294 64,297 733,675 2,428,744 237,402 411,997 2,206,771 174,670 436,422 227,727 343,028 293,784 172,266 21,8.59 240,876 444,725 481,495 746,584 336,271 830,685 363,648 561,728 60,809 249,455 307,601 244,804 1,507,611 POP POP POPULATION OF lEISH COTJNTIES. Antrim Armagh . . . Carlow Cavan Clare Cork Donegal Down DubUn Fermanaghi . Galway Kerry Kildare Kilkeimy . . . King's Leitrim Limerick . . . Londonderry Longford . . . Louth Mayo Meath Monaghan... Queen's Koscommon . Sligo Tipperary . . . Tyrone Waterford . Westmeath . Wexford . . . Wicklow ..., 217,683 197,427 78,952 195.076 208,089 629,786 248,270 325,410 150,011 216,185 99,065 158,716 131,088 124,785 218,432 193,869 107,570 101,01Jl 293,112 159,183 174,697 134,275 208,729 146,229 346,896 261.865 127,842 128,819 170,806 110,767 220,134 227^933 258,322 703,716 289,149 352,012 176,012 149,763 381,564 263,126 108,424 169,945 144,225 141,524 248,801 222,012 112,558 107.481 366,328 176,826 195,536 145,851 249,613 171,765 402,563 304,468 148,233 136,872 182,713 121,557 276,188 232,393 86,228 243,158 286.394 773,398 296,448 361,446 140,047 156,481 293,880 114,488 183,349 146,857 155,297 222,174 115,491 111,979 253,591 180,886 435,553 312,956 172,971 141,300 202.033 126,143 251,381 196,085 68,059 174,071 212,428 563,326 255,160 320,817 146,731 116.007 298,136 238,239 138,773 112,080 111,841 208,688 191,868 82,350 90,812 274,612 140,750 141,813 111,623 173,417 128,510 331,487 255,734 138,754 111,409 POPTTLATIOlf OF SCOTCH COUNTIES. Aberdeen Argyll A3T.- Banff Berwick Bute Caithness Clackmannan Dumbarton Dumfries Edinburgh Elgin, or Moray Fife Forfar Haddington Inverness Kincardine Kinross Kirkcudbright (Stewarti-y) Lanark Linlithgow Nairn Orkney and Shetland Peebles Perth Renfrew Ross and Cromarty Roxburgh Selkirk Stirling Sutherland Wigtown 121,065 81,277 84,207 37,216 30,206 11,791 22,609 10,858 20,710 54,597 122,597 27,760 93,743 99,053 29,986 72,672 26,349 6,725 29,211 147,692 17,844 8,322 46,824 8,735 125,583 78,501 56,318 33,721 5,388 50,825 23,117 22.918 155,049 97,316 127,299 43,663 33,385 13,797 29.181 13,263 27,317 70,878 191,514 31,398 114,556 113,355 35,127 244,3 53,124 10,046 112,175 68,762 40,892 192,387 97,371 164,356 49,679 34,438 15,740 36,343 19.155 44,296 72,830 223,454 35,012 140,140 170,453 35,886 97,799 33,075 8,763 41,119 426,972 26,872 9,217 61,065 10,499 137,457 155.072 78.685 46,025 7,990 82.057 24,782 39,195 POP POP POPULATION OF WELSH COtTlHIIES. Anglesey . . . Brecon Cardigan ... Ca-rmavthen Caeruarvon . Denbigh . . . Flint Glamorgan . Merioneth . Montgomery Pembroke . . . Radnor 32,3-25 42,956 67,317 41,5'a 70,879 29.506 48,184 19^135 45,063 57784 90,239 58,099 7rt,428 53,893 102,073 34,382 60,243 73,788 22,533 55,603 68,766 106,326 81,093 88,478 66.919 171,188 88,044 25,458 57,327 61,474 70,796 110.632 87.870 92,583 68.156 231,849 38 843 67,335 94,140 24,716 54,546 61,«27 72,255 111,757 95,668 67,075 96,093 25,403 THE POPITLATION OP THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AKD TOWNS OF ENGLAND, PEOM MC CTJLLOCH'S "STATISTICAL ACCOITNT OF THE BEITISH EMPIRE." Ashton-under-Lyme Bath Birkenhead Birmingham Blackburn Bolton , Bradford Brighton Bristol Burnley Bury Cambridge Carlisle Chatham Cheltenham Chester Coventry Derby , Dover . , Dudley Exeter Gateshead Halifax , Hull..., Ipswich 5,727 33,196 110 70,670 11,980 17,966 13,264 7,440 61,153 3,918 9,152 10,087 9,415 12,940 3,076 15,052 16,034 10,832 7,084 10,107 17,412 8,597 12,010 7,268 29,580 11,277 Leicester 1 17,005 Liverpool ! 82,295 London i 958,863 Macclesfield i 13,255 Maidstone 8,027 Manchester and Salford 94,876 Merthyi- Ty dvil 10,127 Newcastle-upon-Tyne 33 ,048 Northampton 7,020 Norwich Nottingham Oldham 21,( Oxford 11,( Plymouth and Devonport Portsmouth Preston Beading ^ Kochdale South Shields . . . , Stalybridge Stockport Stoke -upon -Trent Sunderland Swansea 7.037 38,408 105 82.753 15.083 24,799 16,012 12,205 71,433 5,405 11,302 11,108 11,476 15,787 8,325 16,140 17,923 13 043 9,074 13,925 8782 12,766 9 671 37,005 13,670 62,534 23.453 104,104 1,138,815 17,143 9,443 115,874 14,945 32,573 8,427 36.748 34,253 29,479 12,931 50,886 41,587 17,360 10.788 10,392 53.231 9,617 15,165 17,545 31,557 25,821 11,963 9,222 46,700 200 101,722 21,940 32,045 26,307 24,741 85,108 8,242 13,480 14.142 14.416 19,177 13,396 19,949 21,448 17,423 10,327 18,211 23,479 11,767 17,056 13,284 44,520 17,186 83 796 31,038 138,354 1,378,947 23,154 12.508 163.635 20,959 41,794 10,793 49,705 40,415 38,201 16.364 55,169 46,743 24,859 12,867 12.998 65,275 13,353 16,503 21,726 40,237 12,441 50,800 2,569 143,986 27,091 42,243 43,527 41,994 104,408 10,026 19,140 20,917 18,865 21,124 22,942 21,344 27,298 23,627 11,922 23,430 28 242 15,177 21,552 19,035 43,510 20,201 123,393 40,639 201,751 1,654,994 30,911 15,790 237,832 27.281 53,613 15,351 60,505 50,680 50,513 20,649 33,871 15,595 18,351 91,692 19.324 18,756 4o'735 19,672 22,678 53,198 8,223 182,922 36,629 51,029 66,715 49 174 125,146 14,224 24,846 24,453 21,550 24,269 31,411 23,866 31,032 32,741 17,795 31,232 37,231 20,123 27.520 25,068 67,308 25,384 152,074 50,806 286,487 1,948,417 32,629 18,086 311,009 43,031 70,337 21,242 61,846 53,091 60,451 24,258 70,340 53,032 50,887 18,937 24,272 111 091 27,744 23,072 50,154 68,444 53,335 24,604 29,791 54.240 24,285 232,841 46,536 61,171 103,778 69,673 137,328 20,828 31,262 27,815 26,310 28,424 3.5,051 27,666 36,812 40,609 24,244 37,962 40,688 25,568 33,582 30,880 84,690 32 914 172.270 60,584 375,955 2,362 236 39,048 20,801 401,321 63,080 87,784 26,657 68,195 57,407 72,357 27,943 90,401 72,093 69,542 21,456 29,195 135,310 35,305 28,974 20,760 53,835 84,027 67,394 31,461 34,894 63,125 70,396 1116,218 77,693 154,093 37,564 26,351 29,436 36,177 39,590 31,101 40,937 43,091 24,970 44,975 33,737 37^015 34,874 207,153 68,052 443,874 2,803.034 36,095 22,984 440,760 83 ..844 109 291 32 813 74,414 74.531 72,334 27,561 113 327 94,546 82,961 24,965 38,164 185,157 46,970 54,681 101,-302 80,324 42,581 POP POE POPULATIOK OF PEINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS OF EN&LAND— ( continuet ). 1801. 1811. 1821. 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. 13,171 10,581 10,399 11,321 10,989 30,584 11,460 16,573 16,846 17,548 11,393 11,189 12,68-2 14.060 43,190 13,814 20.448 19,099 23,173 14,164 11,914 17;716 53,011 17,023 21,007 21,711 23.206 15,932 15,066 18,184 20,774 67,514 18,610 24,5:i5 26,260 25,416 18,842 19,857 21,116 25,517 93,245 27,004 27,865 28,842 29,170 22,057 25,680 23.361 31.941 119;748 27,528 30,879 36,303 33,991 23,181 25^953 37,657 60,858 31.123 34.803 40,377 Wigan: POPTJX.ATION OF THE PBINCIPAI, CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE WOELD. Pop. AlDerdeen 73,794 Aleppo 100,000 Amsterdam 243,755 Antwerp 108,975 Baltimore 214,037 Barcelona 252,000 Belfast 119,242 Berlin 445,240 Birmingham .. 295,955 78,001) 149,928 177,902 122,000 84,000 71,914 413,182 Bordeaux Boston .. Bradford 106,218 Breslau 129,747 Brooklyn 273.425 Bristol 154,093 Brussels 169,640 Buenos- Ayres , Bufialo Cadiz , Calcutta ..... Cairo 250.000 Canton ( esti- mated) 1.000.000 Chicago 109,420 Cincinnati 160,060 Cologne 114,721 Constantinople 800,000 Copenhagen .. 150,000 Cork 78,892 Damascus 150 000 Delhi 152.424 Dresden 117,750 Dublin 249,733 Dundee 90,425 Edinburgh .... 168,098 Florence 115,675 Genoa 119,610 Ghent 114,901 Glasgow 394,857 Granada Iu0,678 Hamburg. HuU Ispahan . . . Jeddo Konigsberg . 161, 3J 120 000 1,200,000 81.794 207,1.53 Iieipsic 74,209 I/emberg 70,384 lille 78,641 Li6ge 94,657 Lisbon 275,285 Liverpool 443,874 London 2,803 .034 LouisviUe 75,196 Lucknow 3^10,000 Lyons 378,803 Madeira 102,837 Madras Madrid Malaga Malta Manchester Marseilles Melbourne Merthyr Tydvil Mexico Milan Montreal Moscow Munich Nankin (esti- mated) Nantes Naples , Newcastle New Orleans . . New York Norwich Nottingham . , essa Oldham Palermo Paris Prkin Pesth Petersburg, St. Philadelphia . Portsmouth... Prague Puebla Riga Rio Janeiro . . . Rotterdam Rouen St. Etienne St. Louis . . Salford . . . . Seville Shangha Smyrna . . . Stockholm . Strasburg . Sunderland. Toulon Toulouse . . . Trieste Turin Valencia . . . Venice Vienna Pop. 300,000 475,785 113,050 131,401 338,346 250.000 83,844 94,13:< 170.000 180,000 75,000 386,370 137,112 400,000 108,519 419,850 109,291 170,766 814,277 74,414 74,531 104,169 72,334 186,170 1,525,535 2,000 000 131,705 520,131 568,034 94,546 142,588 71,631 72,136 205,906 179,950 105,984 103,223 , 94.432 162,179 102,414 ! 152,000 , 135,000 , 185,157 150,(100 . 116.972 . 77,656 , 80,324 . 82,705 . 103,144 . 104,707 . 179,635 . 145,512 . 118,120 . 476,222 . 158,120 PoECELAiN.— The finer parts of the pot- ter's art were brought to great perfection in China at a very early date {v. China- waee). Thence the manufacture of por- celain was carried to the Corea about B.C. 203, and thence again into Japan, where it was cultivated with great success. Orien- tal porcelain was introduced into London by the Portuguese, a.d. 1518, but isolated specimens had been imported through the Barbary states before that year. Soft porce- lain of inferior quality was made at St. Cloud in 1695, and at Chelsea before 1698, but no advance was made towards the manufacture of hard porcelain until 1706, when it was attempted in Saxony. In 1712 the Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'EntrecoUes sent a complete description of its details from China to France, and its production was prosecuted with success at Sevres in 1769. The principal English manufactures of por- celain, with the dates of their establishment, are as follows : — Derby 1750, Worcester 1751, Caughly (Shropshire) 1756, EocMngham 1757, Plymouth 1760, Bristol 1772, Nant- garrow (Glamorganshire) 1813, and Swansea 1814. The celebrated porcelain tower of Nankin was originally built by King A-you, about B.C. 833. It was rebuilt by Kien-wen- ti, about A.D. 373, and after being again de- stroyed, was a second time rebuilt by Hoang- . h-tai in 1431. (See China-waee, Ceockeet- WAEE, Deesden China, and Eaethen- WAEE.) PoECiAN Laws. — Three Eoman laws, brought forward by three different members of the Porcian fanuly, enacted that no ma- gistrate should pimish with death, or scourge ■with rods, a Eoman citizen when condemned, but allow him the alternative of exile. The period when these laws were passed cannot be ascertained with accuracy. Poet Egmont (Falkland Islands) was discovered by Commodore Byron, a.d. 1765, and a small settlement made by the English, who were expelled by the Spaniards, in 1770. This nearly led to a war, but Spain surren- dered the sovereignty of the islands to Eng- land Jan. 22, 1771. Poetee. — The generally received account of the origin of this beverage is, that a London brewer, named Harwood, succeeded, A.D. 1722, in brewing malt liquor which combined the flavours of ale and beer, or ale, beer, and twopenny, and called it " en- tire," or " entire butt," to show that it was POK dra^vn from one cock. It acquired the name of porter from its consumption by porters and labourers. Mr. Henry T. Kiley, in a communication to Notes and Queries (x. 123) , quotes a passage from liicliolas Am- herst's " Terrse Filius" for May 22, 1721, in which porter is mentioned. PoETEEAGE AcT for regulating the rates of porterage on smaU parcels in London, Westminster, and Southwark, was passed June 21, 1799. Poet Glasgow, or New Poet Glasgow (Scotland) . — This town was founded by the magistrates of Glasgow, a.d. 1668, as the seaport of that city. It received a munici- pal constitution in 1775. A graving dock was constructed in 1762 ; a chapel of ease was founded in 1774 ; and the parish church was buUt in 1823. PoBTici (Italy). — This town, at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, stands near the site of the ancient city of Herculaneum, destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, 79 a.b. Poet Jacksoit (Australia) , discovered by Captain Cook a.d. 1770, was colonized prin- cipally by convicts m 1788. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is situated on the southern shore of Port Jackson. POETLAND (Dorsetshire). — This island derives its name, according to some writers, from Port, a Saxon freebooter, who settled here about a.d. 501. A paries' of Danish robbers landed and slew the governor in 787, and it was plundered by Earl Godwin in 1052. The Prench invaded it and did great damage in May, 1416. Portland Cas- tle, the residence of the governor, was built by Henry VIII. about 1520. The stone for which this island is celebrated was first brought into repute in the reign of James I. The sea is perpetually encroaching on the land, and great falls of the cliff took place in 1665, 1734, and 1792. A breakwater is in course of construction here, the first stone of which was laid by Prince Albert July 18, 1849. PoETLAND (Sea-fight). — ^A Dutch fleet of seventy-three ships of war, commanded by Van Tromp, vrith a convoy of three hundred merchantmen returning from the Isle of Rhe, was encountered off" Portland by an English fleet of seventy sail, under Blake, Feb. 18, 1653, and a contest ensued which continued till dusk. The Dutch attempted to escape, but were pursued and overtaken off the Isle of Wight, Feb. 19, when the engagement was renewed. A running fight was con- tinued till the fleets were withm a few miles of Calais, when the enemy effected their escape, Feb. 20, having lost eleven ships of war, sixty merchantmen, 1,500 in killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners. PoETLAND Administeatiok, was formed on the dissolution of All the Talents adminis- tration {q.v.), March 25, 1807. The cabinet consisted of Treas\uy Drike of Portland. Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. President of the Council . .Lord Camden. Privy Seal Earl of Westmoreland. POR Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. Spencer Perceval. Home Secretary | ^"^'^^ Hawlcesbury, after- (. wards earl of Liverpool. Foreign Secretary Mr. Canning. Colonial Secretary Viscount Ctstlereagh. Admiralty Lord Mul^ave. Board of Control Mr. Dun das. Board of Trade Earl Bathurst. Lord Harrowby (created Earl Harrowby July 18) was made president of the Board of Trade July 11, 1809. Dissensions broke out in the cabinet. Viscount Castlereagh and Mr. Canning fought a duel, Sept. 22, having previously resigned their offices. Earl Bathurst becanie secretary of state for foreign affaks Oct. 11, 1809. The duke of Portland died Oct. 30, 1809, and after vari- ous negotiations, Mr. Spencer Perceval was appointed prime minister in November, 1809. {See Peeceval Administeation.) PoETLAND Vase, formerly known as the Barberini Vase, one of the choicest specimens of ancient art, was discovered at Monte del Grano, near Eome, about the middle of the 16th century, in a marble sarcophagus sup- posed to have been that of Alexander Seve- rus (a.d. 222 — 235) and his mother Julia Mamsea. It was placed in the Barberini palace at Rome, where it remained till 1770, when it was purchased by Sir W. Hamilton, and afterwards came into the possession of the duchess of Portland. The duke presented it to the British Museum in 1810, and it was broken to pieces by a man named Lloyd, Feb. 7, 1845. The fragments were skillfully put together, and the vase was restored. Poet Louis (Mauritius), the capital of the island, owes its origin to M. de la Bour- donnaye, the French governor, who fortified it and made it the seat of government a.d. 1734. It was taken by the English in 1810, and ceded to England in 1815. Port Louis was ravaged by fire in 1816, and by the cholera in 1819. PoetoBello (South America), discovered by Columbus a.d. 1502, was taken from the Spaniards by the British, under Admiral Vernon, Nov. 20, 1739. At this time the town was the great mart for the commerce of ChUi and Peru ; but in 1740 the galleons ceased to resort here, and it rapidly declined in importance. Poet d'Anzo (Sea-fight). — The Venetian admiral Vettore Pisani defeated the Genoese fleet, under Luigi de Fieschi, near the promontory of Antium, or Porto d'Anzo, in Italy, May 30, 1378. The engagement is remarkable as having taken place during a violent gale. PoETO Feeeajo (Elba), the capital of the island, was built and partly fortified by Cosmo I., duke of Florence, a.d. 1548. The fortifications were completed on a magnifi- cent scale by Cosmo II. in 1628. Porto Ferrajo is celebrated as having been the resi- dence of Napoleon I. from May 4, 1814, to Feb. 26, 1815, when he made his escape to France. PoBTOLONGO (Sea-fight). — The Venetian fleet, under the captain-general Pisani, was 687 POR attacked by the Genoese squadron of Paga- nino Doria, off this place, to the south of the Morea, and completely routed, 'So\. 4, 1354. PoETO Novo (Battle). — Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali near this sea-port town, in the presidency of Madras, July 1, 1781. The English force amounted to 9,500 men, with 55 Eght field-pieces, and Hyder Ali had under his command 80,000 men, with 47 pieces of heavy artillery. The former lost 587 men in MUed and wounded, and the latter 10,000 men. PoETO Eico (West Indies). — This island was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1493. Sir Francis Drate and Sir John Hawkins at- tempted to take it in 1595, but were repulsed. It was captured by the English towards the end of the 17th century, and abandoned in consequence of the prevalence of dysentery. It was unsuccessfully attacked by a British force under General Abercromby, in 1797. A revolt, that broke out against the Spanish government in 1820, was suppressed in 1823. Poet Philiip (IS'ew South "Wales) .—The harbour of Port Phillip was discovered by Lieutenant John Murray in the beginning of the year 1802, and was named after the first governor of the colony. Colonel CoUins, with a party of convicts, landed here in 1804, to found a settlement, but afterwards re- moved to Van Diem en's Land. Another settlement was formed in 1835. Melbourne, the capital of the colony of Victoria, called Port Phillip until 1839, is situated near this harbour. Poet Eepublicain (Hayti), formerly called Port-au-Prince, the capital of the re- public of Hayti, was founded a.d. 1749, and was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1770. The negroes who had revolted com- mitted great devastation in 1791, and it was taken by the English in 1794. A disastrous earthquake occurred May 7, 1842, and nearly one-third of the town was destroyed by fire Jan. 9, 1843. Poet Eotal (Jamaica) , formerly the com- mercial capital of the island, was nearly de- stroyed by an earthquake a.d. 1602. A new town was built, and it was destroyed by an earthquake June 7, 1692 ; and having been rebuilt, was again destroyed by a hurricane Aug. 28. 1722. The pubhc ofiiees were then removed to Kingston, and the town sank into insignificance. Poet Royalists.— This order of nuns was founded by Matilda de Garlande and Eudes de SuUy, who built the celebrated nunnery of Port Royal, near Chevreuse, in France, A.D. 1204. In 1609 its rules were reformed by the abbess Angelica, and in 1626 the community remoTed to Paris. The nuns added the title of Filles du St. Sacrament to their other names in 1647 ; and, in conse- quence of their increased numbers, re-esta- blished their old house at Chevreuse, to which they gave the name of Port Eoyal des Champs. The newly-constituted house em- braced the Jansenist heresy, and was, in con- sequence, separated from the Paris house. FOE established by royal letters patent in July, 1665. It continued a ceaseless source of trouble, till it was finally suppressed by a bull of Pope Clement XL, Oct. 29, 1709. The building was pulled down by Louis XIV. in 1710. The Paris establishment continued until the suppression of aU the religious houses in 1790. On the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, they inhabited a house in the Rue St. Antoine ; and in the early part of 1841 they formed two divisions, one of which settled at Lyons, and the other at Besan^on. {See Jaitsenists.) PoETSMOUTH (Hampshire) derives its name, according to some authorities, from its situation at the mouth of a capacious harbour on the southern coast. Other writers say that it was thus named from Port, who, with his sons Bieda and Msegia, landed here a.d. 501, and are supposed to have founded the ancient town of Por- chester, which stood about three miles to the north-west. On the retiring of the sea from this place, the inhabitants removed, and erected the present town. Alfred the Great fitted out a fleet here, and defeated the Danes in 893. It was a place of im- portance in the time of Henry I., and re- ceived its first charter from Eichard I. in 1193. A naval station was established here in the reign of John. The French attacked and burnt a considerable part of the town, and were afterwards repiflsed, with great loss, iu 1377. It was strongly fortified by Edward IV. A powerful French fleet, vrith a large mihtary force for the invasion of England, having anchored off St. Helen's, a British army assembled at Portsmouth ; and the British fleet, after a desperate engagement, repulsed the enemy, with great loss, in 1544. The fortifications were greatly strengthened in the reign of Ehzabeth. The duke of Buck- ingham was assassinated here by Felton, Aug. 28, 1628. Felton was hanged at Tyburn 'Sox. 19, 1628, and afterwards gib- beted on Southsea Common. During the civil war the town fell into the hands of the parhamentarians. Charles II. was married here to Catherine of Portugal, May 21, 16^.2. Disastrous fires occurred in the'dockvard July 3, 1761, and July 27, 1770. Another (the work of an incendiary named James Aitken, alias John the Painter) took place Dec. 7, 1776. It broke out in the day, several hours before the incendiary had purposed, and the damage was confined to the rope-house and a few adjoining store- houses. Painter confessed the crime, and waa hanged at Portsmouth d9ck-gate March 10, 1777. The fortifications were strengthened and extended in the time of Wilham III. The Royal George sank here Aug. 30, 1782, when Admiral Kempenfelt, with 400 men and as many women and children, perished. A bin was passed by Mr. Pitt in 1786 for the fortification of Portsmouth and Plymouth, which required an outlay of several hundred thousand pounds. Lord Palmerston, in his cabinet minute on the defences of the country, in 1846, said that 10,000 men were POE required for the garrisons of Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham ; and the duke of Wellington considered that, in the event of a declaration of war, Portsmouth ought to have a garrison of 10,000 men. The parish church of St. Thomas, founded about 1220, was rebuilt in 1693. The church of St. Paul's, Southsea, was built in 1822, and All Saints', Newtown, in 1827. A mechanics' institution was founded in 1825. PoRTSMOirTH (ISTorth America). — This town, in New Hampshire, was founded a.d. 1623, and received a charter of incorporation in 1633. A fire, which destroyed 102 build- ings, occurred in December, 1802 ; and a stSl more destructive one, destroying 397 buildings, took place in December, 1813. Portugal. — This kingdom, the ancient Lusitania, anciently underwent the same political changes as Spain, and was governed successively by the Vandals, Visigoths, and Moors. (See Spaist.) It became a distinct principaUty in 1095, and was erected into a kingdom in 1139. Alfonso VI., king of Leon, confers the earldom of Portugal on Count Henrique, who makes Guimaraes his capital. July 25. Alfonso is proclaimed king of Por- tugal at the battle of Ourique q. v.). Oct. 25. Alfonso I. takes Lisbon from the Moors. He takes Alcazar do Sal, and extends his rule beyond the Tagus. AJfonso L annexes the district of Limia to Port\igal. He is made prisoner by the king of Leon, at Badajos, and is coujpelled to resign his conquests in Galicia as his ransom. Alfonso II. defeats the Moors in the battle of Alcazar do Sal. The Moorish territory of Algarve is annexed to Portugal. Sancho II. is deposed by the council of Lyons, and compelled to take refuge in Castile. Alfonso III. marries Beatrice de Guzman, daughter of the king of Castile, during the lifetime of his former queen Matilda. Death of Queen MatUda. Bon Alfonso rebels against his father, Denis. An alliance is contracted with the king of Aragon. The king of Castile marries Maria, infanta of Portugal. Jan. 7. Inez de Castro, wife of the infant Don Pedro, is murdered at Coimbra (q. v.). Pedro I. causes the corpse of his murdered wife Inez to be solemnly crowned. On the death of Ferdinand I., the succession to the crown is disputed by the queen of Castile and Don Joam, natural son of Pedro I. Aug. 14. Joam, or John I., totally defeats the Castilians at the battle of Aljubarota 1147. 1158. 1167. 1168. 1217. 1223. 1245. 1254. 1355. 1361. 1383. 1387. 1403. 1415. John I. marries Philippa of Lancaster. Peace is established with Castile. John I. besieges Ceuta, and forms various set- tlements in Africa. The maritime celebrity of the Portuguese commences about this year by the disco- very of Madeii-a (q v.). Duarte sustains a disastrous defeat at Tan- gitrs from the Moors, who retain the infant, Don Ferdinand, as hostage. Duarte dies of the plague, and the crown is left to his infant son Alfonso, under the regency of his mother, Leonora. Don Pedro, duke of Coimbra, obtains the regency. POE 1446. Alfonso attains his majority. 1449. Civil war breaks out between the king and the late regent, and the latter is defeated and slain. 1483. The duke of Braganga, detected in treason- able practices, is executed. 1491. July 33. The infant, Don Alfonso, is killed by a fall from his horse. 1495. Accession of Emanuel, founder of the Viseo line of Portuguese sovereigns. 1497. Nov. 19. Vasco de Gama, in the service of Portugal, doubles the Cape of Good Hope (q.V.). 1500. Cabral discovers Brazil (q. v.). 1609. Albuquerque founds the Portuguese empire in India. 1521. Portugal attains its highest point of national greatness about this year. 1526. The Inquisition is introduced into Portugal. 1578. Aug. 4. King Sebastian, with the whole of his airmy, is defeated and slain by the Moors, at the battle of Alcazar, or Aicazar- quiver. 1580. On the death of Henry, the succession to the Portuguese throne is disputed by Antonio, prior of Crato, the duke of Bra- gan^a and Savoy, the prince of Parma, the pope, Elizabeth of Eugland, and Philip II. of Spain, and is secured for the last men- tioned by the duke of Alva. 1585. An impostor asserts himself to be King Sebastian who was slain at Alcazar. (See Sebastiamsts. ) 1640. Dec. 1. The Portuguese under the duke of Braganga expel the Spanish, and place on the throne John rV., duke of Braganga, and founder of the Braganga family of Portuguese mouarchs. 1641. The archbishop of Braga conspires to restore the Spaniards. 1644 The Spaniards are defeated at the battle of Monti jo. 1661. The Spaniards invade Portugal and seize Evora and other places. 1665. The Portuguese under General Schomberg totally defeat the Spaniards at the battle of Viliaviosa, or Montes Claros. which secures the sovereignty of Portugal to the house of Braganga. 1667. Alfonso VI. becomes odious from intem- perance, and is deposed by his brother Don Pedro, who assumes the regency. 1668. Feb. 13. Peace with Spain is restored by the treaty of Lisbon. 1697. The Cortes assemble for the last time. 1703. May 16. Portugal joins the grand alliance against Prance. 1736. "War is renewed with Spain. 1748. John V. assumes the title of " Most Faithful Majesty." 1755. Nov. 1. The great earthquake overwhelms Lisbon. (See Earthquakes. ) 1758. The duke of Aveiro conspires against the king, and is detected and executed. The Jesuits are expelled the kingdom on a charge of implication in the conspiracy. 1760. Don Pedro, prince of Brazil, marries his niece, the infanta Maria. 1762. The Spaniards invade Portugal, and seize Bra- ganga, Miranda, Almeida, and other places. 1763. Feb. 10. Peace is res cored by the treaty of Paris. 1777. Fall of the minister Pombal. 1778. March 31. A treaty of friendship and com- merce is concluded with Spain, at Pardo. 1792. Queen Maria Francesca becomes insane, and her son John, prince of Brazil, is declared regent. 1801. March 3. Spain declares war, and invades i-ortugal. June 6. Peace is restored by the treaty of Badajos. 1807. Oct. 22. An alliance with Great Britain its concluded at Loudon. 2 y POE 1807. Oct. 27. A treaty for the partition of Portugal Is concluded between France and Spain at Fontarnebleau. Nov. 27. A French army under Junot enters Lisbon. Nov. 29. In consequence of the approach of the French, The court sails for Brazil. 1808. June 19. The Portu^es-e revolt against the French. June 21. They are defeated by Loison at Castro d'Airo. July 4. Also at Alpedrinham. July 2.5. An English force under Sir Arthui- "WeUesley arrives at Oporto. Aug. 17. "WeUesley defeats Laborde at the battle of EoliQa. Aug. 21. He gains the battle of Vimeii-a {q.v.). Aug. 30. The French agree to evacuate Portugal by the convention of Cintra {q.v.). 1809. March 29. The French under Marshal Soult take Oporto. 1810. Aug. 27. Massena takes Almeida. Sept. 27. Wellington defeats Massena at Busaco (9- ^■). 1812. April 10. Sir Stapleton Cotton defeats Soult at the battle of Villa Franca. The English parliament grants £100 000 for the relief of the Portuguese sufferers by war this year-. 1820. Aug. 24. The garrison at Oporto revolts and foi-ms a provisional government. Sept. 1.5. The revolution reaches Lisbon. Oct. 1. The revolutionists of Oporto enter Lisbon and establish a constitutional junta. 1821. July 4. The court returns to Portugal, and is established at Lisbon. Aug. 21. Kiots take place at Lisbon. 1822. Jan. 25. The independence of Chili is acknow- ledged. Oct. 1. The king swears fidelity to the constitution. Oct. 12. Brazil shakes off its dependence onPortugaL (See Brazil.) 1823. May 27. The troops declare against the constitution. June 5. The king revokes the constitution. 1824. April 20. Prince Miguel publishes a manifest against Freemasons. May 9. Miguel is deprived of the commanderahip-in chief. May 13. He flees into France. 1825. May 13. Portugal recognizes the independence of Bi-azil. Aug. 29. A treaty is concluded with Brazil. 1826. Feb. 18. Death of John VT. Don Pedro, at the time absent in Brazil, is proclaimed king, and the infanta Isabella regent. April 26. Pedro confirms the regency. May 2. Pedro resigns the Portuguese crown to his daiTehter. Maria II., and retains the empire of Brazil. July 9. Popular insur- rections break out at Braganija and other places. Oct. 4. Don Miguel swears at Vienna to respect the Portuguese consti- tution. Oct. 6. The marquis of Chaves rebels at Lisbon. Oct. 29. Maria II. is be- trothed to Don Miguel. Dec. 3. The assist- ance of the British is soUeited. Dec. 10. The rebels are defeated by Villa Flor. Dec. 25. The English auxiliary force lands at Lisbon. 1827. Jan. 9. The rebels are defeated at the battle of Coiuches. Feb. 4. VUla Flor defeats them at Barca. April 29. The troops gar- risoned at Eivas mutiny. Dec. 7. The Bank of Lisbnn suspends payments. Dec. 19. The infant Don Miguel is proclaimed regent. Dec. 30. He arrives in London. 1828. Feb. 22. Don Miguel arrives at Lisbon. March 3. Pedro T., emperor of Brazil, for- mally renounces all claim to the Portu- guese crown. April 28. The British auxi- liary force quits Portugal. May 3. Miguel convokes the three estates of the realm. June 30. Miguel assumes the title of king. July 4. Queen Maria II. sails from Rio Ja- neiro to Lisbon. July 15. Miguel dissolves the three estates. Aug. 24. He seizes the Madeira islaurls. Sept. 2. Mai-ia II., queen of Portugal, arrives at Gibraltar. Oct. 6. She arrives in London. POE A.D. 1828. Nov. 9. Miguel is thrown from his carriage, and seriously hurt. Dec. 22. The exiled queen is received by (Jeorge IV. at Windsor. 1829. Aug. 11. Don Miguel is defeated in an attempt to take the island of Terceira, one of the . July 3. Miguel is appointed regent. Dec. 15. His life is attempted. , Aug. 21. An insurrection at Lisbon, in favour of Queen Maria II. , is instantly suppressed by Miguel. , Feb. 10. Don Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil {g. v.), sails from BeUe-Isle. March 3. He arrives at Terceira, and assumes the re- gency on behalf of his daughter Maria II. June 28. He sails from St. Michael for Portiigal. July 8. He disembarks near Oporto, and occupies tnat city the fol- lowing day. Sept. 9. Don Miguel's troops are defeated in an attempt to seize Oporto. Sept. 29. They again fail to take the city. , April 9. The Miguelites take Monte Cavello. June 8. Admiral Napier assumes the com- mand of Don Pedro's fleet. July 5. Napier captures Miguel's fleet at St. Vincent. July 23. The Miguelist general, the duke of Cadaval, evacuates Lisbon. July 28. Don Pedro enters Lisbon. Aug. 15. He summons a meeting of the cortes. Sept. 22. The queen enters Lisbon. April 21. Don Pedro concludes an alliance with Great Britain, France, and Spain. May 26. The IMiguelists capitulate at Eva- ramonte. M-^y 29. Ittiguel signs an agree- ment to abstain from interference in the affairs of Portugal. June 1. He quits Por- tugal and retires to Genoa. Aug. 18. The cortes meets. Sept. 20. Queen Maria U., having attained her majority, swears fidelity to the constitution. Sept. 24. Death of Don Pedi-o. Dec. 1. The queen marries Augustus, duke of Leuchtenberg. Mai-ch 28. Death of the prince consort Augustus. Jan. 1. The queen marries Ferdinand Au- gustus of Saxe-Coburg Gotha. Sept 10. The constitution of 1822 is proclaimed at Lisbon. Nov. 3. An outbreak in favour of Don Pedro's charter and the constitution of 1822 occurs at Lisbon. Nov. 18. An amnesty is decreed in favour of the insur- gents who took part in the late disturb- ance. Aug. 18. The duke of Terceira fails in an attempt to restore Don Pedro's charter. Sept. 20. He and his friends seek refuge in England, March 13. An insurrection breaks out in Lisbon. March 21. The cortes adopt a new constitution. April 4. The queen swears fidelity to the new constitution. April 7. The Oporto wine company is re-esta- blished. Nov. A misunderstanding takes place with Spain, respecting the navigation of the Douro. April 14. An insurrection breaks out in the northern districts of Guimaraes, Pi-ado, and Penella. May 16. A revolution breaks out at Coimbra, where a, junta and national guard are organized. May 21. Riots in Lis- bon are suppressed by force. June 16. Don Miguel is proclaimed king at Borey. June 24. Don Miguel publishes a letter asserting that he will never renounce his claim to the Portuguese throne on any condition whatever. Oct. 6 The Palmella ministry resigns. Oct. 7. The national guard is sup- pressed. Oct. 9. The duke of Terceira lands at Oporto, and is arrested. Oct. 12. A provisionary government isestfiblished at Oporto under the Count das Artas, who states to the queen that his object is to prevent civil war. POR 1846. Oct. 27. The queen publishes a proclamation stating that she will exercise absolute sovereignty until the restoration of order. Oct. 28. General Schwalbach defeats the rebels near Viana. Oct. 31. The royalists are victorious at Evora, and an English fleet, under Admiral Parker, anchors in the Tagus for the assistance of the queen. Nov. 26. Palmella is banished. Dec. 22. Marshal Saldanha gains a great victory over the rebel forces under the count of • Bomfln at Torres Vedras. 1847. Jan. 7. The insurgents, under Count das Artas, enter Oporto. Jan. 30. The rebels are defeated at Villaponca by General Cazal. April 28. The queen consents to grant a general amnesty and to concede some of the demands of the malcontents. May 21. England, France, Spain, and Por- tugal, hold a conference at London, at ■which the three former powers agree to assist the queen of Portugal to restore order in her kingdom. June 9. The queen publishes a conciliatory proclamation. June 15. The insurgent general Sa-da- Bandeira, with a large number of his oflBcers, submit to the queen. June 30. The junta of Oporto capitulate, and the town is entered by the Spaniards. 1850. June 22. An American squadron enters the Tagus to enforce the claims of the United States. 1851. April 8. The duke of Saldanha heads an in- surrection of the Soldiery. April 13. He enters Coimbra. April 24. Oporto declares ■in his favour. May 3. The revolt extends to Lisbon. May 4. Saldanha is made head of the administration. May 7. The king resigns the commandership-in-chief of the army. May 2-i. The queen dissolves the chamber of deputies. July 28. The elec- toral law is altered. Sept. 24. Don Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of Lowen- 1854, 1855 July 8. The hereditary prince of Portugal swears to respect the constitutiun. July 9. An important additional act of the consti- tution is publisfied, by which capital pun- ishment for political offences is abolished, and other reforms are introduced. Dec. 18. The interest on the public debt is converted from five to three per cent, by order of the queen. Nov. 15. Death of Queen Maria II., who is succeeded by her son Pedro V. , under the regency of his father. Dec. 19. The king regent takes the constitutional oaths. June 3. The young king visits London. Sept. 3. He visits France. Dec. 30. All the slaves of the Portuguese crown are declared free. Sept. 16. Pedro V. assumes the government in person. June 6. The Saldanha ministry resigns, and is succeeded by that of the marquis of Louie. The cholera rages in Lisbon this year. April 29. The marriage of the king with the Princess Stgphanie of HohenzoUern-Slg- maringen is celebrated by proxy at Berlin. Nov. 27. The French slaver Charles et Georges is seized by a Portuguese cruiser and taken to Mozambique. The Fi-ench government maintains that the negroes found on board were free labourers. May 27. The king receives the investiture of the Garter. Aug. 13. The Charles et Georges arrives at Lisbon. Oc^. 13. The French government demands the restora- tion of the vessel. Oct. 25. It is surren- dered by the Portuguese government. March 16. A new ministry is formed under the duke of Terceira. July 17. Death of the young quef-n, from diphtheria. April 26. Death of the duke of Terceira, pre- sident of the council. Aug. 3. A commer- cial treaty is concluded with Japan. POS 1861. Nov. 12. Death of Pedro V., who is succeeded by his brother, the duke of Oporto, under the title of Ferdinand II. COtriTTS OF POETUGAL. A.D. 109.5. Henrique, or Henry. 1112. Theresa, queen regent. 1128. Alfonso. 1139. 118.5. 1212. 1223. 1248. 1279. 132.5. 1357. 1367. 1383. 1433. 14-i8. 1481. 1495. 1521. 1557. 1578. 1.580. 1640. 1656. 1683. 1706. 1750. 1777. 1786. 1816. 1826. 1826. KINGS OP POETUGAL. Alfonso I. Sancho I. Alfonso II. Sancho II. Alfonso III. Denis, or Dionysius. Alfonso IV. Pedro I., the Severe. Ferdinand I. Joam, or John I., the Great. Edward. Alfonso V. Joam, or John II. Emanuel. Joam, or John III. t'ebastian. Henry the Cardinal. Portugal is tmited to Spain. Joam, or John IV., duke of Bragan?a Alfonso VI. Pedro II. Joam, or John V. Pedro III. and Maria I. (Francesca). Maria I., lYancesca (alone). Joam, or John VI. Pedro IV. Maria II. (da Gloria). Miguel. Maria II. (restored). Pedro V. Ferdinand II. PosEH- (Prussia). — This province formerly belonged to the kingdom of Poland. Part of it was annexed to Prussia a.d. 1772, and the remainder in 1793. It was taken from Prussia, and annexed to the duchy of Warsaw in 1807, and restored in 1815. The secret societies for the dehverance of Poland from foreign dominion, which led to the revolution of 1830, had their ramifica- tions ia the duchy of Posen. An insurrec- tion of the Poles took place in April, 1848, attended by fearful atrocities on the part of the peasants, which were retaliated by the German troops. The revolt was put down in May, 1848. PosEir, the capital of the province of the same name, was erected into a bishopric on the introduction of Christianity into Poland in the 10th century, and became the residence of the dukes of Poland in the 13th century. Napoleon I. gave an audience here to the deputies of Poland on behalf of that kingdom, Nov. 29, 1806. Murat threw up his command in the French army here, and abandoned the emperor's cause, Jan. 17, 1813. Eugene made a resolute stand at Posen for three weeks on the retreat of the French from Russia, and evacuated the city Feb. 12, 1813. An insurrection on behalf of Polish nationality broke out Feb. 14, 1846, but it was soon suppressed. Posting. — Cyrus, king of Persia, B.C. 559, 2 T 2 POS is believed to be the first who established a regular system of posting in his domin- ions, and Prescott states that the Peruvians and Mexicans possessed perfect institntious of the same kind, long before they were introduced into modern Europe. Edward lY. estabUshed post - stations at distances of twenty miles from each other between England and Scotland, about a.d. 1470. By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1548), the hire for post- horses was made a penny a mdle. The letting of post-horses was vested solely in the postmaster-general and his department by 12 Charles II. c. 35 (1660). The duty on Hcencea for letting post-horses was regu- lated by 25 Geo. III. c. 51 (1785). POSTMASTEE-GEITEEAI. — The first pOSt- master in England was Sir Thomas Eandolph, who received the appointment a.d. 1581. The office was regulated by 12 Charles II. c. 35 (1660), which was repealed by 9 Anne, c, 10 (June 1, 1711). This act ordered the estabhshment of one postmaster-general, to be made and constituted by letters patent tmder the great seal. PosT-oPFiCE (London). — A letter-office, in connection with the principal mails, was esta- bhshed a.d. 1635, under the superintendence of Thomas Witherings, whose receiving-house was in Sherborne Lane. By an act of the Long Parliament, passed in 1656, the erec- tion of a central general office was ordered, and after the Eestoration the measure was continued by 12 Charles 11. c. 35 (1660), and it was amended by 9 Anne, c. 10 (Junel, 1711). At the commencement of the last century, the General Post-office was situated in Cloak Lane, near Dowgate, whence it was transferred to Bishopsgate Street, and after- wards to Lombard Street. In 1765 four houses in Abchurch Street were added to the estabhshment ; but the accommodation proving insufficient, commissioners for choosing a new site were appointed by the private act, 55 Geo. III. c. 91 (1815), and a spot at the junction of Newgate Street and St. Martin's-le-Grand was selected. Exca- vations for the new building were commenced in 1818, but the proceedings were suspended, and the first stone was not laid till May, 1824. It was opened for business Sept. 23, 1829. Post-office Savings Banks. — By 24 & 25 Vict. c. 14 (May 17, 1861), the postmaster- general was empowered to direct his officers at various places to receive cash deposits for remittance to the general office at London, to be repaid at 2^ per cent, interest. No deposit may be of less value than one shilling, and all the existing acts relating to savings banks apply to the Post-office banks. In accordance with this act, Post-office savings banks were opened throughout Great Britain, Sept. 16, 1861. Posts a3n-d Postage. — Herodotus de- scribes the Persian mode of forwarding com- munications by what they called relays, cou- riers being stationed along the road, one man and horse to every day' s j oumey, B.C. 480. A somewhat similar course was pursued by the POS Komans in the time of Augustus, B.C. 31. Estabhshments of this kind existed in France under Charlemagne, Louis XI., and Charles V. In England royal messengers were em- ployed, under the name of cokinus, nuncius, and gareio, for the conveyance of letters as early as a.d. 1252 ; Sir Bryan Tuke exercised supervision over these officials, holding a situation analogous to the modern post- master-general, in 1533. An act was passed fixing the rate for post-horses at one penny per mile in 1548. Sir Thomas Eandolph was the first post-master of England, ap- pointed by Queen Ehzabeth in 1581 ; James I. constituted the office of post-master for foreign parts, which was bestowed upon Matthew de I'Equester, in 1619. This office he assigned to William FrizeU and Thomas Witherings, who were protected by royal denunciation against private adventurers, in 1632. The letter-office of England and Scotland was estabhshed in 1635, and a weekly conveyance to all parts of the king- dom was set on foot by Edmund Prideaux in 1649, which was opposed by the common council of London ; but parhament declared that the office was "in their sole power and at their disposal," March 21, 1649. The private undertakers, who performed the work for the pubhc at a cheaper rate, con- tinued to flourish, and expressed their de- termination, "by God's help," to go on; but John Manley, Esq., having farmed it for £10,000 per annimi, the adventurers were forcibly put down in 1653 ; and an ordinance of the House of Commons, in 1657, set forth that government, holding the monopoly of posts, would be the best means to discover and prevent many dangerous and wicked designs against the commonwealth. Farmed to Daniel O'Neal for £21,500, the revenue was settled upon the duke of York, the king's brother, in 1663. It was again farmed to Sir William Petty at £43,000 in 1674. The metropoUtan penny post (q.v.) was es- tablished in 1683, the net revenue being £65,000 in 1685. A distinct postal system had been organized for Scotland in 1662, and Sir Eobert Sinclair received a gi'ant from King WiUiam III. of the whole revenue, with a salary of £300 a year, to keep up the estabhshment, in 1698. The system was reorganized and consohdated by 9 Anne, e. 10 (June 1, 1711). The cross-posts were farmed in 1720, to Mr. Allen, who cleared out of his contract £12,000 a year, for forty- two years. The net revenue was £96,339 in 1724. The privilege of franking was con- firmed and regulated by parhament in 1764. Mr. Palmer's improvements were inaugu- rated Aug. 2, 1784. (S'ee Mail Coaches.) All previous post-office acts were repealed, their chief provisions being consolidated into one general statute, by 1 Vict. c. 32 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 33 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict, e. 34 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 35 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 36 (July 12, 1837), and 1 Vict. c. 76 (July 17, 1837). The Lon- don district postage was reduced to one peimy, Dec. 5, 1839, and the uniform rate POT PEiE of one penny came into operation Jan. 10, 1840. PoTASSixTM. — This metal was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy a.d. 1807. Potato. — This plant, a native of Chili and Peru, was, according to the generally received account, Ijrought into England from Virgi- nia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Kaleigh, a.d. 1584, who returned in July, 1586. This, however, is not correct, the plant having been first described by Caspar Bauhin in 1590, and afterwards introduced here. For along period the cultivation was limited to the garden, and it was not planted as a field crop in Scotland until 1732. By the middle of this century it was generally known throughout England. The failure of the potato crops in Ireland in 1845, and the four following years, caused one of the most terrible famines recorded in history. PoTOSi (South America). — The silver- mines, near this town of Bolivia, in Peru, were discovered by an Indian, a.d. 1545. Potsdam (Prussia). — The royal palace of Sans Souci, containing Frederick the Great's apartments in the state in which he left them, was commenced a.d. 1673. The town- haU was built in 1754. Over the tomb of Frederick the Great, at the hour of mid- night, the emperor Alexander of Russia and the king of Prussia vowed eternal friendship, Nov. 3, 1805. Ifapoleon I. visited the tomb precisely one year after, Nov. 3, 1806. PoTTEET. [See China -WAEE, Ceockeet- "WAEE, DEESDEIf ChINA, EaETHENWAEE, AND POECELAIN.) Poultey Comptee (London). — The date of the foundation of this, the old sheriffs' prison, is not known, but it was certainly very an- cient. It is stated that the name Comp- ter, apphed to debtors' prisons, is derived from computare, to account, because "who- soever sMppeth in there must be sure to account, and pay well too, ere he get out again." This prison was the only one spared in the Gordon riots of 1780, Pound.— By 31 Edw. I. c. 1 (1303), the weight of the London pound was settled at twelve and fifteen ounces in different cases. A standard brass weight of one pound troy, made in 1758, and preserved in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, was made the imperial standard pound by 5 Geo. rV. c. 74, s. 4 (June 17, 1824), which fixes the weight of the pound avoirdupois at 7,000 grains troy. Poundage. {See Tonnage and Pottnd- AGE.) PoTNiNGs' Act oe Law. — The statute of Drogheda, restricting legislation in the Irish parhament to measxires that had first been approved of by the English council, was passed a.d. 1494. It was named after Sir Edward Poynings, appointed deputy of Ireland, Sept. 13, 1494, and it was repealed in 1782. Pe^monsteatensians. — This order of canons was established by St. Norbert in the Isle of France, a.d. 1120, and called from that Norbertines. Adopting the rule of St. Augustine, they were approved by Pope Honorius II. in 1126. Nicholas IV. granted them permission to eat flesh when travelling, in 1288 ; and Pius II. extended the licence to a general use of that diet, except during Lent, in 1460. They came into England in 1146, and were called White Canons. Pe^muniee, from prcemuniri, a corrupt form of prcemoneri, to be forewarned, is the name of a writ issued for the prosecution of persons charged with certain offences, and it is also apphed to the offences for which the writ is issued, which were originally such as related to the dominion of the papacy in this country. Persons convicted imder writs of praemunire are placed out of the pale of the royal protection, their possessions are for- feited to the erovm, and they themselves are committed to prison during the sove- reign's pleasure. The first statute of prae- munire is 27 Edw. III. s. 1, c. 1 (1353), but the most important is 16 Eich. II. c. 5 (1392), which prohibits the purchase of papal bulla from Rome, and declares the Enghsh crown independent of the temporal sovereignty of the pope. The killing of a person attainted in a praemunire was first declared unlawful by 5 Ehz. c. 1, 3. 21 (1562). By 13 Charles II. c. 1 (1661), the assertion that parhament possesses legislative authority, independent of the royal sanction, is declared a praemu- nire, and by the Habeas Corpus Act, 31 Charles II. c. 2, s. 12 (1679), the iUegal con- finement of Enghsh subjects in foreign prisons submits the offender to the same penalties. Pe^toe. — This title, originally apphed to the Roman consuls, was specially appro- priated to a magistrate called the prcetor urbanus, B.C. 365. A plebeian first ob- tained the office b.c. 336. The prcetw peregrinus, for deciding questions in which foreigners were concerned, was created b.c. 247. Their number was increased by SyUa to eight, B.C. 80, and to sixteen by Tiberius. Pe^toeians were formed into nine co- horts, and made body-guards by Augustus. Claudius having been raised by them to the throne, gave to each a donation of £120, A.D. 41. Their expectations or demands in that respect rose so high that Hadrian com- plained that the promotion of a Caesar had cost him two millions and a half sterling in 117, The emperor Pertinax was murdered by them in 193, after which they openly put the empire up to auction, proclaiming from the ramparts that the Roman world was to be disposed of to the highest bidder, when it was " knocked down" to Didius Juhanus. Severus banished them, on pain of death, a hundred miles from the capital, and remo- delled the force, estabhshing the office of praetorian praefect, in 197. During a popular tumult, they were besieged by the citizens in their camp in 238. Diocletian abohshed their privileges, and reduced their numbers in 303. They were totally routed by Con- stantine I. near Rome in 312, and he sup- pressed them in 313. Pejetok Peeegeinus. — This officer, who administered justice between Roman citizens and foreigners, or between foreigners, was created B.C. 247. Peaga (Poland), a suburb of Warsaw, was destroyed by the Russians, S'ov. 5, 1794. The Poles, after a two days' conflict, were defeated here by the Russians, Feb. 25, 1831. Peagmatic San-ctigk. — An ordinance issued by Louis IX. of Prance, a.d. 1268, resisting the claim of the Roman pontiffs to nominate the bishops of Prance, was re- newed and confirmed by the states of the kingdom assembled by Charles Til. at Bourges, a.d. 1438. A concordat, abro- gating the chief provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction, was signed Aug. 18, 1516, in the reign of Francis I. Another ordinance bearing this title, to regulate the succession in his family, was issued by the emperor Charles VI. of Austria, a.d. 1724. The name has been conferred upon several edicts. Peague (Bohemia). — The old town was founded about a.d. 759, and the Neustadt, or new town, in 1348. Prague was captured by Henry the Fowler in 930. The Jews were nearly exterminated by the populace, in consequence of a rumour that they had insulted the Host, in 1290. The cathe- dral was commenced in 1344 ; the city was made the capital of Germany in 1347 ; the first university in Germany was founded here by the emperor Charles IV. in 1348, and the palace of the kings of Bohemia in 1353. The Hussite insurrection took place in 1419, and the famous articles of Prague were promulgated by Ziska in 1420. Sigis- mund captured Prague iu 1435. Maximihan of Bavaria defeated Frederick V., the' elector palatine, at the battle of Prague, fought ISov. 8, 1620. The peace of Prague was signed in 1635. Prague was taken by the Swedes in 1648, and was occupied, Nov. 26, 1741, by the French, under Marshal Brogho. They were blockaded by Prince Charles of Lorraine for nearly two years, when, most of the garrison having escaped, the rest capitulated (1742). In 1744 Prague was taken by Frederick II. of Prussia. He defeated the Austrians under the walls of Prague, May 6, 1757, and laid siege to the town, but was eventually obliged to retire and evacuate Bohemia. A congress of the allied powers and Napoleon I. met here July 5, 1813, and broke up Aug. 9. The people revolted against Austria June 12, 1848, and the insurrection was quelled June 19. The bishopric of Prague was founded byBoleslaus II. in 967, and councils were held here in 1355 ; April 29, 1381 ; June 17, 1392 ; and Jime 7, 1421. Peatees. — Bingham states that the cus- tom of holding morning and evening prayer daily in churches commenced in the 3rd century a.d. (See Common Phatee.) Peedestinatiow. — This doctrine was first taught in the Christian church by St. Au- gustine, A.D. 442. It led to bitter contro- versies, and in 469 Faustus protested against i it. Lueidus, a disciple of St. Augustine and PEE an advocate of predestination, was compelled to retract his opinion at the councils of Aries and Lyons, both held in 475. This is one of the doctrines maintained by the Calvinists. Peeez, or Peeetz (Denmark), owes its origin to a convent, founded a.d. 1216. Peenzlow, or Peenzlaij (Prussia). — St. Mary's Church, one of the most remarkable brick buildings in Germany, was buUt a.d. 1325. Twenty thousand Russians, under the prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered to the French at this town in October, 1806. PeeeogativeCouet. — This court was esta- blished for the trial of will cases, and was under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, who appointed its judge, and enjoyed by special prerogative a probate of aU wills made in his archbishopric. Appeals from this court were at one time made to the pope, but by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1533), they were ordered to be made to the king in Chancery. This act was repealed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92 (Aug. 7, 1832), which trans- ferred the appeal to the Privy Council, and by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 1S33) , it was ordered to be made to the Judicial Com- mittee of the Pi'ivy Council. This court was abolished by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1857). Peesbueg, or Peessbtieg (Hungary). — Ofen having fallen into the hands of the Turks, A.D. 1446, Presburg was declared the capital of Hungary, and the diets were held here. It was again made the capital after the capture of Buda by the Turks in 1541, but in 1784 Joseph II. again made Buda the capital. Presburg was taken by Beth- len Gabor in 1619, and was retaken in 1621 by the Imperialists under Boucquoi. A treaty was signed here Dec. 26, 1805, after the battle of Austerlitz, by which Venice was ceded to France, and the Tyrol to Bavaria. The royal palace was destroyed by fire in 1811. The defences of Presburg were strengthened in 1850. PEESBi'TEEiANisM appears to have been the early form of church pohty among the Waldenses, from the treatise of Archbishop Seyssel, of Turin, a.d. 1520, confirmed by a letter of Morel, a Waldensean minister, in 1530. Luther is found advising the Bohe- mians to elect their own pastor in 1523. John a Lasco estabhshed this form of church government at Embden in 1544, and its divine right was maintained in a conference held at Wesel in 1566, and also by the synod at Embden in 1571. It was introduced into Westphalia in 1588. The system was recog- nized by the Bohemian Book of Order, adopted in 1616, and has existed in Hun- gary since 1564. It was partially adopted in Switzerland -in 1541, and made way in France in 1555 ; the first national synod having been held at Paris in 1559, and the last at Loudun in 1669. The first Dutch synod met at Dort in 1574. A party, con- sisting of fifteen ministers and a number of laymen, met at Wandsworth to choose elders, Nov. 20, 1572. It was declared by parUa- ment to be "lawful, and agreeable to the PRE woi'd of God," and an order for the election of elders was made in March, 1646. With the exception of chapels for the king and peers, all parishes were declared to be under this form of church government in 1648. It was superseded by episcopacy at the Restoration in 1660. The first general assembly of the church of Scotland met in 1.560 ; the assembly was dissolved by Crom- well in 1653. The first meeting of a pres- bytery in Ireland took place at Carrickfer- gus in 1642. Peescott (Upper Canada). — A number of American sympathizers having landed here a.d. 1838, were attacked and compelled to surrender by the British under Captain Sandom and Colonel Young, April 16. PEESiDENT.^The first president of the United States of America, G-eorge Washing- ton, was elected a.d. 1789. Louis Napoleon was chosen president of the French republic Dec. 10, 1848. President oe the Cousrciii, the fourth great office of state in England, was at the new modelling of the privy council by Charles II., a.d. 1679, bestowed on Anthony Ashley, Lord Shaftesbury. This officer was styled Principahs et Capitalis Consiliarius in the time of King John. President Steamer. — This vessel, which left New York for Liverpool in April, 1841, was never heard of afterwards. Among the passengers were Lord WiUiam Lennox and Tyrone Power, the celebrated actor. Pressed to Death. — This mode of pun- ishment was instituted about the time of Edward I. Walter Calverley, of Calverley HaU, Yorkshire, was pressed to death Aug. 5, 1604, by iron weights placed on his breast, in York Castle, for the murder of his wife and two children; and Major George Strangways was pressed to death Feb. 28, 1657, in the press-yard, Newgate, for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. FusseU. Press-Gang. — "The uncertainties of raising troops by voluntary enlistment," says HaUam, "led to the usage of pressing soldiers for service," and in the preamble of an act empowering the king to levy troops by this compulsory method, for the sup- pression of the Irish rebellion, it is declared that no man should be compelled to go out of his country to serve as a soldier except in cases of urgent necessity, a.d. 1641. The practice of raising seamen for the Royal navy in this manner seems to have prevailed from an ancient date, and by 2 Rich. II. c. 4 (1378), a remedy is provided against their desertion. Various statutes have regu- lated the exemptions and penalties for con- ceahnent, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 24 (Aug. 21, 1835), the period of compulsory service is limited to five years. The first impressment of sailors in Ireland was made in 1678. It was decided by the judges and crown lawyers that the power was indispen- sably inherent in the crown in 1676. A de- bate on a bni brought into the House of Commons by William Pitt, for setting the press-gang to work, led to a duel between PRI the minister and Mr. Tierney, who opposed it, the hostile meeting having taken place on Putney Heath, Sunday, May 27, 1798. Preston (Lancashire) . — The parish church was erected a.d. 930, and dedicated to St. WUfred. James I. visited Preston Aug. 14, 1617. The plague broke out in 1630. Having declared for Charles I., it was taken by Sir J. Seaton after a desperate resistance, Feb. 12, 1643, and was retaken by the earl of Derby March 17. The royal forces under Sir Philip Musgrove were defeated here by Cromwell, Aug. 17, 1648. The rebels, par- tisans of the house of Stuart, were de- feated near this town by General Carpenter, Nov. 13, 1715, and many of them were executed in the beginning of 1716. Prince Charles Edward, the Pretender, passed through Preston in his retreat towards Scotland, Dec. 12, 1745. The first cotton- miH was built in 1777, A riot occurred here March 3, 1854. Prestonpans, (Battle,) was fought at this village, near Edinburgh, Sept. 21, 1745, between the royal army, under Sir John Cope, and the Highlanders, under Charles Stuart, the Young Pretender. The former were defeated. Pretenders. — James Francis Edwar^ Stuart, called the Old Pretender, or the Chevalier de St. George, a son of James 11.^ was born June 10, 1688. A bill of at. tatnder was passed against him in 1701. He landed at Peterhead, in Scotland, Dec. 22j 1715, and, after a vain attempt to obtaiA the crown, escaped from Montrose to France, Feb. 4, 1716. Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, landed ia Scotland Sept. 4, 1745. After gainiag the battles of Prestonpans and Falkirk, he was utterly routed at CuUoden, April 16, 1746. He wandered for six months among the High- lands, a price of £30,000 having been set upon his head. He escaped Sept. 20, 1746, and landed at a small port near Morlaix, in Britanny, on the 29th. He died at Rome March 3, 1788. Pride's Purge, so called from the activity with which Colonel Pride seized upon the members of the Long Parliament as they entered the House of Commons, Dec. 6, 1648. Many were taken prisoners, some fled to the country, and only fifty members remained (Dec. 8), who were afterwards styled the Rump (q.v.). Priest.— Melchizedek, king of Salem, is called " priest of the most high God " (Gen. xiv. 18), B.C. 1913 ; Aaron and his sous were consecrated to the office B.C. 1496 (Lev. viii. & ix.), and aU the tribe of Levi B.C. 1496 (Num. iii.). During the famine in Egypt, when Joseph bought up the land for Pharaoh, the priests were left in possession of their portion, B.C. 1706 (Gen. xlvii. 22) . The duties of the priests were con- nected with the kingly office among the early Greeks, and were performed by the heads of families, as appears from various passages in Homer. Five priests were selected from among so many aristocratic PKI families to superintend the oracle of DelpM about B.C. 596. Peimebs. — The first of these devotional works, in which the practice of prayiug to saints was denounced, with a design to weaken the papal system, was printed by John Byddyl, June 16, 1535. This was followed by a second ; and a third, under the express sanction of the king, was pub- lished in 1.545. The three primers, edited by Dr. Edward Burton, were pubHshed in an octavo volume by the university of Oxford in 1834. Peimogenituke. — In the times of the patriarchs the firstborn son always inherited his father's position as head of his family. The Eoman law did not acknowledge the principle of primogeniture, and it was not recognized in France until the time of the Capets. It was estabhshed in England by the Normans, and took effect almost in all cases, except where its operation was hin- dered by the customs of gavelkind and borough-Enghsh (q.v.). Peince Edwaed's Island (North Ame- rica), discovered by Cabot June 24, 1497, was afterwards included in the territory ot New France, and was granted in 1663 as a feudal tenure to Sieur Doublet, a French naval officer. It was taken by the British in 1745, but restored at the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle ; retaken by them m 1758 ; and, at the peace of 1763, confirmed, with Cape Breton, to England. In 1768 it was erected into a separate colony. The &cst house of assembly met in 1773. Peincb oe Wales' Island (Strait of Malacca). (See Penang.) Peince's Island (Atlantic Ocean). — This island, on the coast of Africa, was discovered a.d. 1471, and now belongs to Portugal. Feinting.— The art of block-printing was known in China as early as B.C. 202, and is said to have been introduced from that country into Europe by Marco Polo, in the latter part of the 13th century. It was first employed in this quarter of the globe in the manufacture of playing-cards and httle books of devotion, consisting in most cases of only one page, illustrated by rude pictures, and containing short scripture texts. The earliest date on these books is 1422. The invention of printing with movable type is claimed for several persons, the chief of whom are Laurence Coster, of Haarlem, John Guten- berg, John Faust, and Peter Schoefter, of Mentz. Coster is said to have printed by means of separate wooden types tied to- gether with thread as early as 1430 ; but the evidence of this is extremely doubtful. John Gutenberg, or Geinsfleisch, estabhshed him- self at Mentz in 1441, and printed two small books in 1442. In 1443 he took John Fust,' or Faust, into partnership ; and in 1450 he first employed cut metal types in the pro- duction of the Mazarin Bible, which ap- peared five years later. About the same year Peter Schoeffer, the servant of Guten- berg and Fust, invented cast metal types, which were first used in 1459. By 39 PRI Geo. III. c. 79, s. 23 (July 12, 1799), aU persons possessing printing materials were required to send a notice thereof to the clerk of the peace, for transmission to the secretary of state. This act was amended by 51 Geo. III. c. 65 (June 10, 1811), and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 12 (June 4, 1839). 14.55. 14.57. 1462. 1467. 1468. 1469. 1470. 1471. 147.5. 1476. 1488. 1495. 1500. 1515. 1529. 1540. 1542. 1551. 1637. 1720. 1725. 1776. 1778. 1780. 1784. 1790. 1800. 1804. 1811. 1814. 1815. The Mazarin Bible is printed by Gutenberg. Fust and Bchoeffer print the Psalter. Count Adolphus of Nassau takes Mentz, and compels ilie printers to remove to other towns, whereby the art is diffused. Greek characters are first employed this year. The use of them was at first confined to quotations. Printing was first practised in Italy this year, at Subiaco, iu the Papal states. Sweyuheym and Pannartz eatablish the first press at Rome. They introduce Roman types. A book is said to have been printed at Oxford this year. The first French press is established at Paris. " Signatures " are first employed by Antonio Zorat at Milan. Caxtou sets up the first press in England, at Westminster, and prints the " Game of Chess." Piiuting is introduced into Spain, at Bar- The first work wholly in Greek type is printed at Milan. The first Bible iu Hebrew characters is printed at Soricino, iu Italy. The art of printing music is introduced into England. Aldus Mauutius invents Italic type about this year. Ottavio de Petrucci invents music-printing from metal types. The first patent of king's printer is granted to Thomas Berthelet this year. The " Byrth of Maukynd," printed this year, ia the earliest English work iu which copper-plate printing is employed. The " Imprimerie Koyale" is established at Paris by Francis I. Humphrey Powell introduces printing into Ireland. By order of the Star Chamber, the businesses of printer and type-founder are ordered to be kept distinct, aud only four type- founders are permitted iu the kingdom. The first press in America is set up at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts. Type-fouuding is first practised with success in England, by William Caslon. Stereiitype printing is invented by William Ged, or Edinburgh. , The printing of maps with movable types is iuventeJ by Conrad Sweynbeyin. Henry Johnson invents logogi-aphic printing improved system of {q.v.,. Mr. Tilloch invents stereotvpe. Valentiue Haiiy invents embossed typo- graphy, and applies it to printing books for the blind. Mr. W. Nicholson patents a self-acting print- ing machine. Loi-d Stanhope invents the Stanhope press. M. Konig directs his attention towards the improvement of the piinting-press. April. The sheet H of the Annual Register, for 1810, pi in ted this month, is the fii-st work printed by a machine. Nov. 28. The Times of this day is the firat steam-printed newspaper, Konig's machine being the apparatus employed. Compositiou balls for inking type are in- vented by Mr. Benjamin Foster. PEI 1815. Mr. E. Cowper commences his inventions connected with the press, and introduces the inkingroller. 817. Mr. R. Ackerman introduces lithographic printing into England. 1818. Mr. George Clymer, of Philadelphia, patents the Columbian press in London. 1827. Mr. Gall, of Edinburgh, invents a system of printing for the blind. 1852. Andrew Worsing, of Vienna, invents Nature- printing {q. v.). 1858. Hoe's American machine is introduced into this country. Printing- in Colottes.— This art origi- nated in the desire of the old printers to enable their productions to vie with the illuminated MSS. of their predecessors the monks. The Psalter of Faust and Schoeffer, printed in 1457, is one of the earliest ex- amples, and in 1509 Lucas Cranach produced the first attempt in printing in chiaroscuro. A very fine German engraving in colours bears the date of 1543, but is of doubtful authenticity. Mr. J. B. Jackson devoted much time to the subject, and published a work on engraving and printing in chiaro- scuro in 1754, and in 1819 Mr. Wilham Savage commenced his " Hints on Decora- tive Printing." Mr. George Baxter's first efforts in printing in colours were made in 1835, and in 1837 M. Engelmann succeeded in effecting it by lithography. Printing-machine. — For a long period after the invention of printing, the press remained unaltered. About a. d. 1620, Wilham Jansen Blaew introduced several improvements. The first patent for ma- chine-printing was taken out by WilHam Nicholson in 1790, and in 1813 Donkin and Bacon introduced a new machine, in which the type was arranged on a piston. The first practically successful machine was Konig's, which was constructed in 1814. In 1816 Mr. Edward Cowper made a machine for using curved stereotype plates ; in 1818 one for ordinary type; and in 1827, con- jointly with Mr. Applegath, he invented a four-cylinder machine for the Times, which printed between 4,000 and 5,000 copies per hour. Applegarth's vertical machine, in- vented in May, 1848, produces no fewer than 15,000 impressions per hour. Hoe's Ame- rican machine, introduced into this country about 1858, prints about 20,000 sheets per hour. {See Printing.) Priories, originally offshoots from, and subordinate to, the great abbeys, were introduced into this country about the commencement of the 7th century. The alien priories (q.v.) were dissolved by act of parhament, and granted to the crown a.d. 1414. Cathedrals founded for priories, were turned into deaneries and prebends in 1540. The priory of Canterbury, with ethers, was dissolved about 1538. The priors of cells were granted pensions of £13 per annum by Henry VIII., in 1538. Priscilianists, followers of PrisciHan, bishop of AvUa, in Spain, a.d. 372. This doctrine was a strange compound of Gnos- tic and Manichaean opinions, and his foUow- PRI ers were excommunicated by the council of Saragossa, and sentenced to exUe by Gra- tian in 380. They were condemned by the council of Bordeaux in 384. Priscihan, and two of his adherents, were beheaded at Treves in 385, being the first reputed heretics who judicially suffered capital punishment. Prisoners of War. — Among the an- cients, prisoners of war were either sacri- ficed to appease the manes of such as had fallen in fighting against them, or, as was most frequent among the most poHshed na- tions, were made slaves. During the feudal ages they were redeemed by ransom, and the present custom of exchanging prisoners was not firmly established tiU about the middle of the 17th century. The Dutch were in the habit of selling the captives they made in Barbary to the Spaniards, as late as 1664, and in 1792 Christian prisoners of war were used as domestic slaves in Turkey. Prisons.— By 14 Edw. III. s. 1, e. 10 (1340), the custody of prisons was vested in the hands of the sheriiis, and heavy penal- ties on such as assisted prisoners to escape were imposed by 16 Geo. II. c. 31 (1743). John Howard's efforts to amehorate the condition of prisoners commenced in 1755, in consequence of the hardships he endured during a captivity at Brest as a prisoner of war, and Ehzabeth Fry began her benevo- lent exertions among the female prisoners at Newgate in 1808. The laws relating to the building and regulation of the prisons of England and Wales were consolidated and amended by 4 Geo. IV. c. 64 (July 10, 1823) . The four inspectors of prisons were first appointed by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 38 (Aug. 25, 1835). In addition to Bride- well, the Fleet prison, the King's (or Queen's) Bench, Newgate, and the Poultry Compter (q.v.), the chief prisons connected with London are the following : — Coldbath Fields Prison, or the Middlesex House of Correction, founded in 1615, and rebuilt in 1794. Giltspur Street Compter, a debtors' prison, built by Dance in 1791. HoUoway New City Prison was commenced Sept. 26, 1849. Horsemonger Lane Gaol, commenced in 1791, was completed iu 1798. House of Detpntion, Clerkenwell, founded in 1775, and rebuilt in 1818 and 1844. Marshalsea Prison, founded before 1376, and re- moved to the King's (or Queen's) Bench in 1842. MUlbauk Prison, or Penitentiary, established in 1812. Model Prison, Pentonville, the first stone of which was laid April 10, 1840, and the prison opened Dec. 21, 1842. This prison was established on the separate system. Tothill Fields Prison, founded in 1618, repaired in 1655, and rebuilt in 1836. Whitecross Street Prison, for debtors, built in 1813- 1815. Privas (France) was held for two months against Louis XIII. by St. Andre Montbrun, A.D. 1629, but was at last abandoned, when its fortifications were destroyed, and the gallant defender hanged. A sjmod of the reformed churches was held in the town in 1612. PEI Pkivateees. — The right of the king to grant letters of marque and reprisals was declared by 4 Hen. V. c. 7 (1417) ; and 4 Will. & Mary, c. 25 (1692), was passed for their encouragement. Peivt Coitxcil, originating in the ne- cessity felt by the monarch to seek ad-vice in important state affairs at a time when the great council of the realm, or the parHa- ment, was not assembled, existed in some form from the earliest period, but only began to be known by its present name in the early part of the reign of Henry VII., about 1488. Some authors declare that it was instituted by Alfred in 896. It assumed high arbitrary powers under Henry VIII., in 1540, of which it was deprived in the suc- ceeding reign, about 1547. By 16 Charles I. c. 10 (1641), its interference in civil cases was prohibited, and by 6 Anne, c. 7 (1707), it was enacted that it" should remain in ex- istence six months after the demise of the crown. The judicial committee of the privy council was instituted by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c 41 (Aug. 14, 1833). The "Privy Council Register" was commenced Aug. 18, 1540. Peivt Seal, which accompanies the royal sign manual, originated in the practice of persons using their armorial bearings to attest the mark made for their signature, when the art of writing was not veiy com- mon. A charter bearing the seal of Offa, king of Mercia, a.d. 794, and another with that of Ethelwulph, king of Wessex, were found at St. Denis in France, in 837. In Scot- land the practice began with King Duncan in 1094 ; and in Ireland in the 12th century. It was also used by dignified ecclesiastics in Trance and England, the earHest known being of the year 1128. The offices of clerks of the signet and privy seal were regulated by 2 AVill. IV. c. 49 (June 23, 1832). The Lord Privy Seal was called keeper of the privy seal in the tune of Edward III. The office was usually filled by ecclesiastics until 1538, when Lord Mamey succeeded Bishop Peize-Mois-et. — By an act passed a.d . 1404, the king claimed a fourth part, the remain- ing three-fourths to be equally divided among the captors. An act (2 WiU. IV. e. 53) for consohdating and amending the laws relating to army prize-money, received the royal assent Jime 23, 1832. A proclama- tion for the distribution of naval prize-money, by which flag officers were to have one-six- teenth, captams and commanders one-sixth of the remainder, and a scale was fixed for the shares of subalterns and men, was issued March 21, 1834. James Vaughan, a watch- man of Marylebone, for representing him- self as next of kin to Corporal Leason, deceased, in order fraudulently to obtain some prize-money due to him, was hanged at Newgate, Nov. 26, 1806. Peobate CotTET, for testamentary mat- ters, was constituted by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 25, 1857). Pboclamations.— By 31 Hen. VIII. c. 8 PRO (1539), the king's proclamations were deemed as vahd as acts of parHament. Peome (Burmah) was occupied by Eng- hsh troops, who held it all the summer, A.D. 1825. It was again captured by the Enghsh, July 9, 1852, and having been eva- cuated, was retaken Oct. 9, 1852. An inun- dation of the Irrawaddy nearly destroyed this town in 1856. Peomissoet Notes were probably intro- duced with bills of exchange (q.v.), to which they bear so much resemblance, in the 13th century. Peopaganda Fide. — The congregation was founded at Rome, for the propagation of Christianity, by Gregory XV., a.d. 1622; and the college was established in 1627. Peopagation of the Gospel in Foeeigh Paets. — This society, which grew out of the society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, estabUshed July 27, 1649, was incorporated by WiUiam III. June 16, 1701. Its operations were extended to the West Indies in 1710, to Austrahain 1795, toHindos- tan in 1818, to South Africa in 1820, to New Zealand in 1839, to Ceylon in 1840, and to Borneo in 1849. Peopebtt Tax. (See Income Tax.) Peophestings, or meetings of the clergy for prayer and the exposition of scripture, were commenced by the Puritans at North- ampton, about A.D. 1570, and were forbidden by Queen Ehzabeth, May 7, 1577. Peopontis, the modern Sea of Marmora, had many colonies planted on its shores by Greeks from Miletus, B.C. 750. The Goths passed the Bosphorus here to invade Greece, destroying the ancient city of Cyzicus, a.d. 259. Peotectionists, so named from the metropolitan society for the protection of agriculture, formed in opposition to the anti-corn law league, with the dukes of Richmond and Buckingham as president and vice-president, Feb. 17, 1844. They sepa- rated from Sir Robert Peel when he brought in a bin for the abohtion of the duty on com in 1846. Peotestants. — The second diet of Spires, A.D. 1529, decided that rehgious differences could only be settled by an ecclesiastical council, and hence entirely disallowed the right of private judgment. A solemn pro- test was made against this decision by the Lutheran princes of Germany, April 19, 1529, in consequence of which the members of the reformed churches have ever since been known as Protestants. The protest was drawn up by Luther and Melancthon, and was signed by the elector of Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, the prince of Anhalt, the duke of Brunswick, and Ernest, hereditary prince of Saxony, and by the representatives of thirteen imperial towns. Peovence (France), forming a portion of the Gallia Narbonensis of the Romans, was taken from that people by the Visigoths and the Burgundians, a.d. 416. It was partly recovered in 450, was conquered by PEO the Franks in 534, and subsequently in- tjluded inthe empire of Charlemagne, and passed by marriage to the count of Anjou m 1245. Having been made over to Louis XI. and his successors in 1481, it was re- united to the crown of France in 1487. !Pro VERBS. — Solomon's Proverbs were written about B.C. 984. Zenobius, a so- phist, made an epitome of the proverbs of Terraeus and Didymus about a.d. 200, and a collection was formed by Diogenianus also about the same time. Both of these were edited, with many additions, by Andrew Schott, at Antwerp, in 1612. A large col- lection, by Michael Apostolius, was pub- lished by the Elzevirs in 1653 ; Eay's col- lection appeared in 1672, and Oswald Dyke's in 1708. Pbovidewce (North America). — This town of Ehode Island was founded a.d. 1635, and incorporated in 1649. Brown University, belonging to the Baptists, found- ed at Warren in 1764, was removed to Providence in 1770. The Athenaeum was founded in 1836, Butler Hospital in 1848, and the normal school in 1854. Peovince Welleslet (Malay Penin- sula)- was obtained by purchase from the king of Quedah, a.d. 1802. PEOVisioifS, or reversionary grants of benefices, were made by Clement V. about A.D. 1307, on the plea that aU ecclesiastical benefices belonged to the pope. Pbotisoes (Statute of), forbidding ap- peals to the papal court, and making it penal to procure ecclesiastical appointments from Eome (25 Edw. III. s. 6), was en- acted A.D. 1350. Several statutes of a simi- lar nature were afterwards passed. Petjd'Hommes, a council was established by King Eene, to decide disputes between the fishermen of Marseilles, a.d. 1452. Louis XI. allowed the citizens of Lyons to appoint a prud'homme to settle questions that might arise between merchants attend- ing the fair in 1464. Napoleon I., by a decree dated March 18, 18U9, established a councU of nine members at Lyons to arbi- trate between workmen and employers, masters and apprentices. Since that time several have been formed in various parts of France. Petjsa (Asiatic Turkey), the modem Brusa, or Broussa, was built by Prusias, king of Bithynia, B.C. 187; taken by the Goths A.D. 259, and by Orchan, the son of Othman, in 1325. He allowed the Christian inhabitants to ransom their fives and pro- perty by a payment of thirty thousand crowns of gold, and made it the capital of the new Ottoman empire. , Pe ITS SI A. — The early history of this country, the Latin name of which is Bo- russia, is involved in that of the other districts of Central Europe. During the 10th century it was inhabited by a bar- barous tribe, known as the Porusses, be- cause they occupied a territory beyond the river Kuss, a tributary of the Memel -, Fo signifying behind. PEU 997. St. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, preaches Christianity to the barbarous Prussia.iis, by whom he is murdered. 101-5. Prussia is ravaged by Boleslaus I. , of Poland. 1163. Berlin is founded by Albert the Bear. 116-1. Boleslaus IV., of Poland, with his ai-my, perishes in a fruitless iuvasion of Prussia. 1192. Casiuiir II., assisted by the SUesians, carries on war victoi-iously against the Prussians. 1219. The Germans institute a crusade against them. 1283. The Teutonic knights complete the conciuest of Prussia. 1309. They fix their capital at Marienburg. 1415. Frederick VI. of Nuremberg acquires the margraviate of Brandenburg from the em- peror Sigismund by purchase. 1454 The Prussians revolt against the knights, and are assisted by the king of Poland. 1466. By the treaty of Thorn, West Prussia and Ermland are ceded to Polaud. 1525. April 8. By the treaty of Cracow, Albert of Brandenburg is invested with the sove- reignty of the possessions of the Teutonic knights, and establishes Lutheranism in his dominions. 1544. The university of Konigsberg is founded. 1609. Cleves, La Mark, and Eavensburg, are an- nexed to Pi-ussia. 1618. John Sigismund, elector of Brandenbiu-g, as- sumes the title of duke of Prus.-^ia. 1648. By the treaty of Westphalia, part of Pome- rania, the county of Hoheustein, the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics of Halberstadt and Minden, are an- nexed to Prussia. 1656. Prussia is declared independent of Poland by treaty. 1657. Sept. 19. By the treaty of Vehlau, Poland ac- knowledges the independence of Prussia. 1686. The Prussians assist the Hungarians against the Tui-ks. 1694 The elector, Frederick HE., founds the uni- versity of HaUe. 1701. Jan. 18. Frederick Til., elector of Branden- burg, crowns himself king of Prussia at Konigsberg, by the title of Frederick I. 1702. He joins the grand alliance against France. 1707. Neufchatel is annexed to Prussia. 1711. Pomerauia is invaded by the Kussiaus, Poles, and Danes. 1714. Prussia obtains Upper Guelders. 1715. "War is declared against Sweden. 1719. Aug. 14. An alliance is concluded with Great Britain. 1720. Jan. 20. Peace is concluded at Stockholm with. Sweden, which power cedes Stettin to Prussia. 1725. Sept. 3. Prussia, France, and England form the league of Herrenhausen, or Hanover, against Austria. 1726. Oct. 12. Pi-ussia secedes from the league of Herrenhausen, and concludes the treaty of Wusterhausen with the emperor. 1730. The king's eldest son, Charles Frederick, and his friend. Lieutenant Von Kiitte, are arrested and imprisoned at Custrin. Nov. 6. Katte is beheaded. 1731. The principality of Meurs, the county of Lingen, and the seigniories of Hei-istal and Tourneheut, are ceded to Prussia. 1740. Dec. 22. An expedition against Maria Theresa enters Silesia. 1741. April 10. The Austrians are defeated by the Priissians at Molwitz. 1742. June 11. By the peace of Breslau (q.v.), Glatz and Silesia are ceded to Prussia. 1744. Friesland is annexed to Prussia. 1745. June 4. The Austrians are defeated at the battle of Hohenfreiburg. Nov. 23. Fre- derick II. is victorious at Heunersdox-f. Dec. 15. He defeats the Austrians at Kes- seldorf. Dec. 25. Peace is restored by the treaty of Dresden. 1748. The Code Frederick is compiled by the king chancellor Cocceji, and other lawyers. A.D. 1751. 1756. 1772. 1778. 1794. 1795. PEU The crown peasants are emancipated. Jan. 16. An alliance is concluded with Eng- land. Aug. 31. Frederick II. invades Saxony and commences the Seven Tears' war. Oct. 1. He is victorious at Lowositz, in Bohemia. Oct. 13. The aaxon army capi- tulates at Lilienstein. May 1. A secret treaty for the partition of Prussia is concluded between France and Austria. June 18. Frederick II. sustains a severe defeat from the Saxons at Kolin. June. Prussia is invaded by the Kussians. Aug. 30. The indecisive battle of Gross- Jagersdorff is fought with the Russians. Nov. 4. Frederick It. is victorious at Bos- bach Nov. 22. He is defeated at Breslau (q. v.). Dec. 5. He defeats the Austrians at Leuthen {q. v.). Aug. 25. The Russians are defeated with immense slaughter at Zorndorf. Oct. 14. Frederick II. is defeated by Daun at Hochku-chen. July 23. The Prussians are defeated by the Russians at Zulichau. Aug. 1. The allies are victorious at Minden. Aug. 12. The Rus- sians defeat the Prussians with terrific slaughter at Ciinersdorf. Nov. 21. The PiTissians lose the battle of Maxen. Aug. 15. Frederick II. defeats the Austrians under Laudon at Liegnitz. Oct. 9. Berlin surrenders to the Russians, Austrians, and Saxons. Nov. 3. Daun is defeated by the Prussians at the battle of Torgau, which reduces all Saxony, except Dresden, to subjection to Fi-ederick. April 7. Peace is concluded with Sweden. May 5. Also with Russia. July 21. The Austrians are defeated at Burkersdorf . in Silesia. Aug. 16. The Austrians under Daun are defeated at Reichetibach. Oct. 29. Thfi Prussians under Prince Heni'y gain the battle of Freiberg. Feb. 15. Peace with Austria is restored by the treaty of Hubertsburg, which puts an end to the Seven Years' war, and confirms Prussia in the possession of Silesia. Aug. 25. Frederick II. and the emperor of Austria conclude a convention of neutrality at Neisse. Aug. 5. I'russia participates in the first treaty for the partition of Poland. July 4. Frederick II. has a dispute with Aus- tria respecting the Bavarian succession, and invades Bohemia. May 8. Prussia joins the armed neutrality. July 23. The Fiirsterbund alliance is con- cluded at Berlin, and commences the Germanic Confederation. Aug. 17. Death of Frederick II. Jan. 31. An alliance is concluded with Tur- key. March 29. A fictitious treaty is con- cluded with Poland. July 27. A conven- tion for the settlement of the Nether- lands is concluded with England and Austria. A new code of laws is intro- duced this year. Aug. 27. Prussia, Austria, and Saxony resolve to re-establish the French monarch at the conference of Pilnitz. The Prussians invade France. They invade Poland and seize Dantzic. By the second partition of Poland, Pi-ussia acquires Thorn, Posen, and other places. April 21. The Prussians fail in an attempt to take Wai-saw. AprU 5. The treaty of Basel is concluded with Fi-ance. By the third treaty for the parti- tion of Poland, concluded this year, Prussia acnuires Warsaw. April 3. The Prussians seize Hanover. March 8. The convents in Pi-ussia are sup- pressed. Dec. 15. By the treaty of Vienna, Prussia dissolves her alliance with England. 700 PEU 1805. Dec. 15. By the treaty of Vienna, Prussia cedes Anspach to Bavaria, and Neufchatel and Oeves to France, receiving in exchange Hiinover and Bayreuth. 1806. AprU 1. The Prussians seize Hanover and proclaim I'rederick - William III. king, whereupon England declares war. Sept. 24. In consequence of the occupation of Wesel and other towns by the French, war is declared against Napoleon I. Oct. 14. The Prussians are defeated by the French at the battle of Auerstadt or Jena (q. v.). Oct. 21. Berlin is occupied by the French. Nov. 20. Napoleon I. pub- lishes the Berlin decree (q. v.). 1807. July 7. Prussia is compelled to a^ee to the humiliating treaty of Tilsit (q. v.). 1808. Serfdom is abolished. 1812. March 14. Prussia is compelled to conclude an alliance with Fi-ance and Austria. 1813. Feb. 28. The treaty of Kalisch is concluded with Russia against France. March 4. The French evacuate Berlin. March 16. War is declared against France. May 31. Napoleon I. invades SUesia. Aug. 26. The French tmder Ney are defeated by Bluchpr at the battle of the Katzbach. 1814. Jan. 2. The allies cross the Rhine and invade France. Feb. 1 & 2. The battle of Brieime (q. v.). Feb. 14. Blucher is defeated at janvilliei-s. (See Craonnk and Laon.) June 6. The king visits England. 1815. May 2.5. The cougress of Vienna concludes its sittings, having ceded the Rhenish pro- vinces, Posen, Dantzic, Thorn, and h.alf of Saxony, to Prussia, which power obtained Swedish Pomevania and Rugen from Den- mark in exchange for Luxemburg, and Cletes and Berg from Bavaria in exchange for Anspach and Bayi-euth. Sept 26. The Holy AUiance is concluded with Russia and Austria. 1817. Aug. An insurrection in Breslaii is suppressed with gi'eat severity. 1819. Aug. 1. The congress of Carlsbad (q.v.). Sept. 12. Death of Marshal Blucher. 1823. Provincial parliaments are established. 1826. May 20. Commerce with England is per- mitted on the same terms as with other countries. 1831. The cholera appears in Prussia. 1833. March 22. The Zollverein (q. v.) is instituted. 1842. Jan. 25. The king of Prussia officiates as god- father on the occasion of the prince of Wales' baptism. 1844. July 26. The king's life is attempted by Tesch. 1848. March 14. An insurrection breaks out at Berlin. April 23. A militaiy insurrection is suppressed at Warsaw. Nov. J2. Berlin is declared in a state of siege. Nov. 29. The Constituent Assembly meets in the castle of Brandenburg. Dec. 5. A new constitu- tion is promulgated. 1849. March 28. The king of Prussia is elected hereditary emperor of the Germans. April 28. He declines to accept the title. May 10. Martial law is proclaimed. June 12. An attempt is made on the life of the prince of Prussia. June 23. The Pmssians occupy Carlsruhe. July 10. An armistice is concluded with Denmark. Sept. 8. The Frankfort assembly declares Frederick WUliam TV. the head of the Bavarian imperial constitution. Sept. 30. A treaty is concluded with Austria. Nov. 12. Aus- tria protests against the Bavarian consti- tution, and the alliance of Prussia with the minor states of Germany. Dec. 7. A convention is signed between the king of Prussia and the prince of HohenzoUern and Sigmai'ingen. 1850. Feb 6. The king swears fidelity to the con- stitution. Feb. 21. Hanover withdraws Iruui the Prussian alliance. PRU . March 20. Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is incor- porated with PiTissia. May 22. The king's life is attempted. June 20. Hesse-Darmstado secedes from the Prussian league. July 2. A treaty of peace is concluded with Den- mark. July 6. A congress of deputies from the Zollverein meets at Cassel. Aug. 25. The king refuses to acknowledge the Frankfort diet. Nov. 6. Death of the prime minister. Count Brandenburg. Nov. 7. The entire Prussian army is called out. Dec. 10. The army is reduced to its former footing. Jan. 18. The 150th anniversary of the Prussian monarchy is celebrated. May 18. The king visits the emperor of Russia. May 27. In company with theczarhe leaves Warsaw, to meet the emperor of Austria at Olmutz. May 31. The statue of Frederick the Great is erected at Berlin. Sept. 7. A commercial treaty is concluded with Hanover. . Jan. 12. The council of state is revived. May. 28. The industrial exhibition of Berlin is opened- June 7. A customs union with Austria is refused. Nov. 21. The minister of state, Greneral Thule, dies at Frankfort-on-the Oder. Feb. 19. A commercial treaty is concluded with Austria. March 26. A democratic plot is discovered at Berlin. May 19. The king visits Vienna. Nov. 14. The naval affairs of the kingdom are separated from the military department, and an admiralty board is established. Dec. 25. Death of General Radowitz at Berlin. Jan. 13. Protocols are signed with the allies. April 9. A new protocol is concluded. April 20. A treaty is signed with Austria. June 8. The king has an interview with the emperor of Austria at Tetschen. Sept. 6. The Prussian government declares its in- tention to remain neutral in the Eastern question. March 10. M. Hinckeldy, the superintendent of the Prussian police, is killed in a duel. March 18. Prussia is permitted to take part in the conference of Paris. May 4. Public rejoicings are held in Berlin in consequence of the end of the Russo- Turkish war. Sept. An insurrection com- mences in Neufchatel, and royalist subjects of Pnissia are imprisoned. Dec. 8. The Prussian government threatens war unless they are set at liberty. Jan. 15. The captives are released. March 5. A conference for the adjustment of the Neufchatel difficulty assembles at Paris. May 26. A treaty between Prussia and Switzerland is signed at Paris, and ter- minates the dispute. Sept. 9. A treaty with the Ai'gentine confederacy is signed at Parana. Oct. 23. In consequence of the severe illness of the king, the crown prince is appointed regent for three months. Jan. 6. The regency is continued. Jan. 25. Marriage of Prince Frederick -William, eldest son of the Crown Prince, to the Princess Royal of England. Aug. 10. The Queen and Prince Consort visit their daughter in Prussia. Oct. 7. The Crown Prince is made regent during the king's life. Oct. 25. The piince-regent swears fidelity to the constitution. Nov. 5. Baron de Manteuffel's ministry resigns, and is succeeded by that of the prince of Hohen- zollern-Sigmaringen. Jan. 27. Birtb of Frederick William Victor Albert, eldest son of the Princess Royal. May 5. The Prussian government asserts its intention of endeavouring to terminate the Italian war. June 19. The govern- ment states that the Prussian army has been called out for the protection of Ger- many. July 25. The army is restored to a peace footing. PRU 1860. Jan. 12. In opening the diet, the prince- regent announces important changes in. the military organization of the kingdom. March 27. Pinissia protests against the Fi-ench annexation of Savoy. April 25. Jews are admitted to judicial appoint- ments. May 4. The Prussian chambers express their intention of aiding the Sleswig-Holsteiners in the maintenance of their political rights. June 16. The prince- regent, with other German sovereigns, has an interview with Napoleon III. at Baden- Baden. Oct. 12. The queen of England has an interview with the prince-regent at Coblentz. 1861. Jan 2. Death of Frederick- William IV., who is succeeded by the prince-regent as Wil- liam I. Jan. 13. An amnesty is published in favour of political offenders. Jan. 24. A commercial treaty with Japan is signed at Jeddo. Feb. 6. The Baron de Vincke carries an amendment on the address of the chambers to the king, to the effect that Prussia should not oppose the consolidation of Italy. May 1. The Macdonald affiair is amicably adjusted. June 1. A general commercial code for Germany is adopted by the chambers. MAEGEAVES OP BEANDENBT7EG, A.I>. 1134. Albert I. 1170. Otho I. 1184. Otho II. 1206. Albert II. 1221. John I. and Otho III. 1266. John II. 1282. Otho IV. 1309. Waldemar. 1319. Henry I., le Jeune. 1320. Interregnum. 1323. Louis I. , of Bavaria. 1352. Loui« II., the Roman. 1365. Otho v., le Fain6ant. 1373. Wenceslaus. 1378. Sigismund. 1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 1411. Sigismund (again). 1415. Frederick I. (VI. of Nuremberg) 1440. Frederick II., Dent de Fer. 1470. Albert III. 1476. John III., Cicero (Margrave). 1486. John III. (Elector). 1499. Joachim I. 1535. Joachim II. 1571. John-George. 1598. Joachim-Frederick. 1608. John-Sigismund. DUKES OP PETTSSIA. A.D. 1618. John-Sigismund. 1619. George-WUliam. 1640. Frederick-WiUiam. 1688. Frederick. KINGS OP PEUSSIA, A.D. 1701. Frederick I. 1713. Frederick-William I. 1740. Frederick II., the Great. 1786. Frederick-William II. 1797. Frederick- WiUiain III. 1840. Frederick-William IV. 1861. William I. Peussic Acid, or Htdeocianic Acid, was procured by Scheele from Prussian blue, A.D. 1782. Berthollet showed its com- position to be carbon, nitrogen, and hy- drogen, in 1787 ; and Gray-Lussac isolated cyanogen itself, showing the true constitution of the acid, in 1815. 701 PRU Pbuth (Europe), from the Buckovrina to its mouth, was constituted the boundary between Russian and Turkish Moldavia by the treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. The river boundary was crossed by the hostile army of Russia, May 7, 1S28 ; and a second time, leading to a declaration of war by Turkey, July 2, 1853. (See Falczi.) Pettanis, the chief magistrate in many of the Grecian states. This office was instituted at Corinth, at the death of the last king, B.C. 745, and abolished by Cypselus when he gained absolute power, B.C. 655. Psalms as"d Psaltees. — The Book of Psahns is the production of various authors, the earMest of whom is Moses, who composed the 90th. David wrote the greatest number, andiSj^arexceZZewce, the psalmist. The Psalms were translated into the Saxon language A.D. 709; and the Latin Psalter, on vellum, published by Faust and Schoeffer, of Mentz, in 1457, is the earUest printed book to which a date is attached. Attempts were made to render the Psalms into metrical English verse as early as the reign of Henry II. or Richard I. ; and in 1540 they were translated into French verse by Clement Marot. Stern- hold and Hopkins's version of the Psalms was first published as part of the Prayer-book in 1562, and is known as the Old Version. The New "Version, by Tate and Brady, ap- peared in 1698. PsEUDoscoPE. — This apparatus was in- vented by Professor Wheatstone, who de- scribed it in the Bakerian Lecture read before the Royal Society Jan. 15, 1852. It is called the pseudoscope because it " con- veys to the mind false perceptions of aU external objects," — converting the appear- ance of a raised rehef into that of a hoUow cast, and producing many other illusions. PsKOW, or Pskov (Russia), capital of a Government of the same name, is said to ave been founded by the grand-duchess Olga in the 10th century. It was unsuccess- fully besieged by Gustavus Adolphus a.d. 1614, and fortified by Peter the Great in 1701. The Kremlin was erected by Priace Dowmont 1266—1299. Ptolemaic System, which maintained the immobihty of the earth and the revolution of the planets around it, was founded by Ptolemseus of Alexandria, a.d. 130 — 150, and prevailed till the time of Copernicus, a.d. 1473—1543. Publicans, denying all religious ordi- nances, and acknowledging only the exist- ence of God, were tried by a tribunal of archbishops, bishops, and eminent theolo- gians at A'ezelay, seven being condemned to be burned, a.d. 1134. The sect was excom- municated by the third council of the La- teran, in 1179. Public Good (League of). {See Leagues.) Public Safety. — ^A committee of pubhc safety, formed at Paris April 5, 1793, was invested with supreme power May 31, 1793. They decided that the queen, Marie An- 702 PUIiT tomette, should be brought to trial, which resulted in her execution, Oct. 16, 1793 ; resolved on the destruction of the Dantonist anarchists, the chief of whom were executed, April 5, 1794 ; issued a decree, refusing quarter to the English or Hanoverian sol- diers, in these woras, " No prisoner shall be taken from the English or Hanoverians," May 29, 1794 ; and sent aU the farmers- general to the revolutionary tribunal, where they were at once condemned. May 8, 1794. Their power gradually declined ; and they were defeated in an attempt to save Fouquier Tinville, July 30, 1794. PucKLECHUECH (Gloucestershire) was the court of the Saxon king Edmund I., who was assassinated here by an outlaw named Liofa, May 26, 946. Pulley. — The invention of the pulley is ascribed to Archimedes, B.C. 287 — 212. Pulpit. — The pulpitum of the Romans, where the actors on the stage recited their parts, is described by PoUux in his "Ono- masticon," dedicated to the emperor Corn- modus, A.D. 176. In churches it generally faced the west, that the people might sit facing the east, tiU the direction was changed by Sir Walter Mildmay on his foundation of the chapel of Emanuel College, Cambridge, A.D. 1584. It was ordered that clocks should be placed over the pulpits in 1483. PuLTUSK (Poland). — The united army of the Saxons and Poles was defeated here by Charles XII. May 1, 1703. An action, of which both claimed the victory, was fought here between the French and the Russians, Dec. 26, 1806. Pumps, according to the statement of Vitruvius, were invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, and thence called machinm CtesibiccB about B.C. 200. Ladles or cups for drinking were first attached to wells and springs by Edwin, king of Northumberland, A.D. 617—633. PujfCTUATioir was not introduced into Greek Mterature till b.c. 365. For some time after the invention of the art of priat- ing, arbitrary marks were employed to divide sentences. The conmion parenthesis, interrogation, and period were gradually introduced in the 16th century. The colon is found in the " Acts of Enghsh Worthies," pubhshed in 1550, and the semicolon in Hackluyt's Voyages, which appeared in 1599. Punic Waes.— The first of these wars between the Romans and Carthaginians commenced B.C. 264, and closed with con- ditions severely humiliating to the latter, B.C. 241. The second began by the capture of the island of Saguntum by Hannibal, B.C. 218, and closed with his defeat at Zama, B.C. 202. The third opened B.C. 149, and terminated with the destruction of Carthage B.C. 147. PuNJAUB (Hindostan) was invaded by Alexander, who defeated Porus, with his army of 30,000 foot, 4,000 horse, and 200 elephants, B.C. 327. The Mohammedans effected some conquests about A.D. 705. It . was overrun by Mahmoud of Ghizni in 1000. PUR The d3Tiasty of the slave kings, with Delhi for their capital, was founded in 1205. Ta- merlane invaded it in 1398; and Nanak founded the Sikh power in 1649. It was raised to an independent kingdom, under Kanjit, 1791—1839. Hostilities broke out between them and the British, and the battle of Moodkee was fought, in which Sir Hugh Gough commanded and Sir Robert Sale was wounded, Dec. 18, 1845. The battle of Goojerat, in which the Sikhs were totally routed, fought Feb. 21, 1849, was followed by the annexation of the country, March 29, 1849. PuKGATOET, " possible with St. Augus- tine," says Milman (Lat. Christ., vol. vi. b. xiv. ch. 2), "pi'obable with Gregory the Great, grew up, I am persuaded (its growth singularly indistinct and imtraceable) , out of the mercy and modesty of the priest- hood." Origen taught that the souls of good men will, at the judgment-day, pass through a purgatorial fire, a.d. 240; Augustine ex- pressed an opinion that this might take place in the interval between death and the day of judgment, in 407 ; and Gregory esta- blished it as an article of faith in 604. The Benedictine monks industriously dissemi- nated the doctrine in 625 ; and the duty of all persons to pray for souls in purgatory was enjoined by the pope in 1000. Peter Lombard taught that sins committed after baptism were so punished, in 1164. It was declared to be an article of faith by the council of Florence in 1439. The doctrine had gone out of fashion in England in 1547. " Yet," says HaUam, '* in the first liturgy put forth under Edward VI. (a.d. 1549), the prayers for de- parted souls were retained, whether out of respect to the prejudices of the people, or to the immemorial antiquity of the practice. But such prayers, if not necessarily imply- ing the doctrine of purgatory (which yet, in the main, they appear to do), are at least so closely connected with it, that the behef could never be eradicated while they re- mained. Hence, in the revision of the liturgy, two years afterwards, they were laid aside, and several other changes made to eradicate the vestiges of the ancient su- perstition." PuEiTAifs. — The name was first applied to persons who, in the time of Queen EHza- j beth, refused to adhere to the episcopal j form of worship. They returned in consi- i derable nimibers from the continent, a.d. i 1558. Many of the clergymen were deprived | of their benefices in 1565. Conferences were held with them by James I. at Hampton j Court, Jan. 14, 15, 16, 1604, and they were | forbidden to leave the kingdom without j licence, July 21, 1635. James II. pubhshed his declaration of indulgence, April 4, 1687 ; and the Toleration Act, passed May 24, 1689, relieved from the penal statutes aU Protes- tant dissenters except Unitarians. Purple was procured by the Phoenicians from several species of univalve sheU-fish, the Tyrians being famed for cloth dyed in this maimer, B.C. 2112. It is mentioned in PYD connection with the construction of the Jewish tabernacle (Exodus xxv. 4), B.C. 1491, and was worn in Greece B.C. 559. Its use was restricted to the person and palace of Justinian I,, under a penalty of death, in 532. After having been lost for ages, the method of producing the Tyrian purple was rediscovered in the 17th century. PuEVEYOBS for the royal household were subjected to some restrictions in the exer- cise of their arbitrary duties, by Magna Charta, June 15, 1215, and many subse- quent statutes. The prerogative was abo- hshed by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). PusEYiSM derives its name from Dr. Pusey, Hebrew professor at Oxford. The Puseyite movement commenced with the pubUcation of the Oxford tracts in 1833, and speedily attracted attention, from its alleged Romish tendencies. In 1839 Dr. Pusey ad- dressed a letter on the subject to the bishop of Oxford, wherein he repudiated this .im- putation ; but the secession to Rome of the Rev. John Henry Newman, one of the authors of the tracts, in 1845, and subse- quently of many other members of the party, proved that it was not altogether groundless. A meeting, composed of the vice-chancellor, h^ads of houses and proc- ters, assembled at Oxford March 15, 1841, and passed a resolution condemning these tracts. The receivers of this system are known as Anglo-Cathohcs, Puseyites, or Tractarians. PuTEOLi (Italy), the modern IVozzuoli, originally called Dicsearchia, was founded by a colony of Samians, B.C. 521; fortified by the Roman senate against Hannibal b.c. 215 ; became the principal port for landing supplies of corn for the Roman army b.c. 212, and received a Roman colony b.c. 194. St. Paul landed here on his journey to Rome a.d. 59 (Acts xxviii. 13) . It was captured by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and by Totila in 545. An eruption of the Soltatara caused much destruction in 1198, and a volcanic disturbance of the Monte N^uovo did considerable damage in 1538. It was a favourite resort of the Roman nobility towards the close of the republic, and here Cicero had a viUa, which.he named Academia, B.C. 45. In its theatre, capable of contain- ing 25,000 spectators, Augustus presided at the games, b.c. 31, and Nero entertained Tiridates I., king of Armenia, vrith combats of gladiators and wild beasts, a.d. 66. Ptdka (Greece), whence Themistocles took ship for Asia, b.c. 466 ; was captured by Archelaus, who removed its site twenty stadia from the sea, b.c. 411. It was be- trayed to Philip in the beginning of the Social war, when Demosthenes ransomed some Athenian citizens who had been sold into slavery, b.c. 358 — 356. Olympias took refuge here, and it was besieged, and she was made prisoner by Cassander, b.c. 316. The fate of the Macedonian monarchy was decided in a plain near this city, when Perseus was defeated and made prisoner by the Romans, June 22, b.c. 168. 703 PYL Ptlus. — The inhabitaiits of this city, the modern iJlavarino, emigrated to Cyllene at the close of the second Messenian war, B.C. 662. A fort was erected upon the pro- montory by Demosthenes, the Athenian commander, B.C. 424. Here, with five galleys allowed for his defence, he was besieged by the Spartans. Eurymedon came to his rehef, and he defeated the fleet of the be- siegers B.C. 425. A treaty was made by which the Athenians agreed to give up the fortress to the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 421 ; nevertheless they retained possession till B.C. 409. The Avars settled here, from whom it received its name of Avarino, sub- sequently corrupted into Navariao, in the 6th century. Pteamids (Egypt). — The great pyramid is ascribed to Cheops, who employed 100,000 men twenty years in building it, B.C. 1082; the second to Cephren or Cephrenes, B.C. 1032; and the third to Mycerinus, B.C. 960. They were explored by Mr. Davison, a.d. 1763 ; by Belzoni in 1815 ; by Captain Cavi- gha in 1816, and by Colonel Tyse in 1836. A victory gained here by Bonaparte over the Mamelukes, who lost 2,000 of their best troops, July 24, 1798, is called the battle of the Pyramids. Pyrenees (Treaty). — This peace between France and Spain, by which the former was confirmed in possession of Alsace and Pignerol, and received EoussiUon and Cer- dagne to the foot of the Alps, was concluded iN'ov. 7, 1659. Pyeometee, or fire-measurer, was in- vented by Musschenbroek, a.d. 1730. Eamsden's was described in 1785, and Wedgewood's in the " Philosophical Trans- actions" for 1782, 1784, and 1786. Professor Daniel constructed one, which gained him the Eumford medal, in 1830. Mr. Erics- son's was shown at the Great Exhibition in 1851. Pyeotechny. (See Eieewoeks.) Pyeehic, or Maetial Dance, in which the two performers were armed, and went through all the mihtary evolutions, is as- cribed to Minerva, and was revived by Pyr- rhus, B.C. 318 — 273. It formed a regular part of the discipHne of the Eoman legions, A.D. 98—180. Pyeehonism, or scepticism, was founded by Pyrrho of Elis, about B.C. 340, and his system was fully expounded by Sextus Em- piricus, about a.d. 180. Pythagoeean Philosophy, instituted by Pythagoras, who was bom in Samos B.C. 580, was carried into practice at Crotona, where he settled B.C. 535. A dispute having arisen regarding the spoil of the conquered Sybarites during the popular tumult that ensued, the house of Milo was fired, and many of the Pythagoreans perished in the flames, B.C. 510. The general persecution of the sect throughout Magna Grsecia, which followed, only ceased on the establishment of a democratic forna of government. Pytha- goras died, it is said, at Metapontum, about B.C. 507. Its distinguishing feature, the 704 QUA metempsychosis, or the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, prevailed amongst the Egyptians and the Hindoos. Pythian Games, originally musical con- tests'near Delphi, in celebration of the victory of Apollo over the Python, were said to have been established by Apollo himself. They were kept every ninth year tiU B.C. 589, and afterwards every fifth year, tiU about A.D. 394. Aflute contest and athletic sports were added B.C. 586, and chariot-races B.C. 582. Qtjackeey. — Impostors in the practice of medicine have abounded in all ages, and the ancient Greeks and Eomans were inundated with them. Hippocrates Eidens (May 17, 1686) sketches one thus : " His sagacity is re- markable; for he hath found out an art both to conceal his own ignorance and impose on that of other folks, to his own advantage. Has prime care is to get the names of diseases without book, and a bead-roU of ratthng terms of art, which he uses to beguile the mobile, — first of their senses, and next of their pence. He has an ex- cellent talent in persuading well people they are sick ; and, by giving them his trash, verifies the prediction, and is sure to make them so." A quack who exhibited upon a stage in Covent Garden in 1690, amused his spectators by taking thirteen grains of some poisonous drug, under the inspection of several surgeons and physicians. He con- trived by some means to prevent any visible iU-efiects from a dose that would have killed twenty men. St. John Long, a celebrated quack, was tried for the manslaughter of one of his patients (Miss Cashin) Oct. 30, 1830. He was found guilty, and fined £250. A coroner's inquest returned a verdict of manslaughter against the same quack Nov. 11, 1830, for having occasioned the death of Mrs. Catherine Lloyd. He was tried on this charge, and acquitted, Eeb. 19, 1831. QuADi. — This ancient people inhabited that part of Germany known as Moravia. They submitted to the Eomans in the reign of the emperor Titus Antoninus, about a.d. 168. At a later period they joined a con- federacy of German nations against Eome. They led the Eomans into a defile, where no water could be obtained, occupied every strong post, and left their enemies to perish, A.D. 174. The second war lasted three years, — from 178 to 180, — with no decisive result, and the Quadi remained unsubdued. In the reign of Constantius II. they invaded the Eoman empire, about 353 ; but the em- peror repelled them, and spread desolation and terror throughout their country. They overran Gaul in 407, and their name dis- appears from history about the 5th century. QuADEAGESiMA SUNDAY, SO Called bccause it is the fortieth day before Good Friday. The festival of the estabhshment of St. Peter's Chair at Antioch, instituted about A.D. 36, is kept on Quadragesima Sunday by QUA the Roman Catholic church. Edward III. celebrated a jubilee on this day in 1376. QuADBAKT. — The first astronomical quad- rant of which we have any account is that used by Ptolemy, a celebrated astronomer, who flourished in Egypt about the middle of the 2nd century. The instrument known as Davis's quadrant or back-staflp!, was invented by Captain John Davis a.d. 1590. A port- able quadrant was invented by Gunter in 1618. Hadley^s quadrant, supposed to have been invented by John Hadley, who died Feb. 15, 1744, is the chief instrument now in use for observing altitudes at sea. QuADEATUBE, or Squaeingthe Ciecle. — Archimedes (b.c. 250 — 212) is the first who attempted a practical solution of the ques- tion. Gregory of St. Vincent, an able mathematician, published his work on the quadrature of the circle a.d. 1647. It was refuted by Descartes and other eminent mathematicians. After the time of Wewton (born Dec. 25,1642; died March 20, 1727), mathematicians seem to have relinquished the attempt to solve the problem, though numerous pretended solutions were put for- ward. Mathulon, a Frenchman, in 1727 offered 3,000 livres to any one who should prove his solution wrong, and he was actually compelled by a court of law to pay the reward. Causans in 1753 offered to bet 300,000 francs on the correctness of his process, and de- posited 10,000 francs, which were claimed by several persons, and, amongst others, by a young lady, who brought an action for them ; but the bet was declared void. The French Academy of Sciences resolved in 1755 not to examine any more pretended solutions, — a course which was followed by the Royal Society in this country a few years afterwards. Quadeille, a dance of French origin, was introduced into this country about A.D. 1813. QuADETJPLE Alliance. — This treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France, and the emperor, for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning famihes in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy, was signed in London Aug. 2, 1718. On the accession of Holland to this treaty shortly afterwards, it obtained the name of the Quadruple Alliance. Spain acceded to the terms of this alliance Jan. 26, 1720. Qu^STOE. — This officer in ancient Rome had the management of the public treasure. Two qusestors were first appointed B.C. 485. Their number was doubled B.C. 420; and it was decided that the four qusestors should be chosen from the patricians and the plebeians. It was not, however, till b.c 409 that a plebeian succeeded in making his way to the quaestorship. After the Romans had made themselves masters of Italy, the number of quaestors was increased to eight, B.C. 389. During the time of the emperors their number varied ; and from the reign of the emperor Claudius (a.d. 41—54) it be- came customary for quaestors, on entering 705 QUA office, to give gladiatorial spectacles to the people ; so that none but the wealthiest Romans could aspire to the office. QUAKEES, or Society of FEiENDS.-^This sect was fovmded a.d. 1647 by George Fox, who was bom at Drayton, in "Lancashire, in I July, 1624, and died in London in 1691. Fox I was brought before Gervase Bennet at Derby I in 1650. " He," says Fox, " was the first I that called us Quakers, because I bid them ': quake at the word of the Lord." A Quaker j in Colchester starved himself to death upon I the presumption that he could fast forty days, in April, 1656. Another Quaker, who person- ated Jesus Christ at Bristol and other places, was found guilty of blasphemy, and was sen- tenced to be whipped, put in the pillory, and his tongue bored through vrith a hot iron, I Dec. 17, 1656. An address was presented to James II. by the Quakers in March, 1685. After congratulating him on his accession, it proceeded thus : " We are told thou art not of the persuasion of the Church of England any more than we, and therefore we hope that thou wilt grant unto us the same Hberty which thou allowest thyself." An act of indulgence to the Quakers, that their solemn affirmation should be accepted instead of an oath, was passed in 1696, and in 1828 their aSirmation was allowed in civil and criminal trials. In 1761 members engaged in the slave-trade were disowned. The Hicksite schism commenced in America in 1827, and the Beaconites arose soon after. Great changes have recently occurred amongst this sect. Mixed marriages were sanctioned Nov. 2, 1858. By 23 Vict. c. 18 (May 15, 1860), which came into force June 30, marriages solemnized according to the usage of Quakers, where only one of the parties is a Quaker, are declared valid. Quaeantine was devised for the purpose of preventing the communication from one country to another of contagious diseases. The term originally signified a period of forty days, during which persons coming from foreign parts were not permitted to land. It originated at Venice, where pest- houses, or lazarettos {q.v.), were esta- blished A.D. 1423. Regulations for ships to perform quarantine were passed in 1710. All former quarantine acts were repealed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 78 (July 27, 1825), and the ex- isting quarantine regulations depend upon its provisions and orders in council issued imder its authority. Qtjaeeies. — Bgypt in ancient times pos- sessed numerous quarries, those in the neighbourhood of Syene and in the island of Elephantine being the most famous. The masterpieces of Grecian sculpture were executed in the white marble obtained from the quarries of Attica and the islands of the Archipelago. The quarries at Ephesus con- stituted an immense labyrinth. One of these in the hill Epipolae, with the stone from which the edifices of Syracuse were built, about B.C. 732, was large enough to hold 7,000 Greek soldiers taken prisoners when Nicias retreated from that city, b.c. 413. QUA The Greek and Roman quarries were worked by slaves. The most celebrated quarries in England are those of Portland, which fur- nished Sir Christopher Wren with the stone for St. Paul's cathedral, the Monument, and most of the public edifices in London, bmlt after the Great Fire in 1666. The quar- ries near Plymouth, which were opened in 1812, furnished the stone for the construction of the breakwater. QuAETEELT REVIEW. — The first number appeared in April, 1809, under the editorship of William GifFord, a celebrated pohtical writer and critic, who was born at Ashburton, in Devonshiie, in April, 1757, and died in London, Dec. 31, 1826. QuAETEE Sessioi^s Cotiet was ordered to be held in every quarter of the year, or oftener if required, a.d. 13S8; and by sub- sequent statutes, quarter sessions were di- rected to be held at uniform periods. By 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 1830), these periods were fixed at the first week after Oct. 11, the first week after Dec. 28, the first week after March 31, al^d the first week after Jime 24. Qtiatee Beas, (battle,) fought at this village in Belgium, between the aUied army and the French, under Marshal Ney, June 16, 1815. The inferiority of the allies in num- bers, and their want of artillery and cavalry, the Belgian horse, 2,000 strong, having left the field in a panic early in the action, ren- dered the combat for a long time unequal. The British, however, received reinforcement, and after a most desperate struggle the battle ended in favour of the allies. Quebec (Canada), founded by the French, July 3, 1608, was captured in 1629 by the English, and restored March 17, 1632, to the French, who fortified it in 1690. A British army under General Wolfe attacked and defeated the French under Montcalm, on the Heights of Abraham, near Quebec, Sept. 13, 1759. Both armies lost their commanders, and the French surrendered the city Sept. IS. It was finally ceded to the English at the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1-763. During the revolutionary war, the Americans under Montgomery attempted to take the city by assault on the night of Dec. 31, 1775, but they were repulsed with great loss. A fire which destroyed 1,650 i&ouses, and rendered 12,000 persons home- less, occurred May 28, 1845, and another, which destroyed upwards of 1,200 dweUings in less than eight hours, and left 15,000 people without shelter, took place June 28, 1845. QuEEif.— The word, derived from the Saxon cwen, signifying wife, originally re- ferred exclusively to the wife of a king. The wives of the Roman emperors were distinguished by the title Augusta. By 25 Edw. III. St. 5, c, 2 (1350), it was made high treason to conspire the death of a queen consort, or to violate her chastity. The Salic law (q.v.) excluded females from ex- ercising royal authority ; but by 1 Mary, s. 3, c. 1 (1553), the dignity of queen-regnant was 706 QUE declared constitutional in this country. Queens-consort are regarded in law as single women in some respects, and may possess private property, which they are entitled to bequeath or sell. This hberty was confirmed by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88 (July 28, 1800). QtTEEa- Akn-e's Bouk-tt.— The first-fruits and tenths (see Aswates), which originally formed part of the papal exactions from the British clergy, were, by 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1534), annexed to the revenue of the crown, and continued to form part of the royal income until Queen Anne, in 1703, obtained the act 2 & 3 Anne, c. 11, authorizing her to devote them to the augmentation of the hvings of poor clergymen, which she did by letters patent, dated Nov. 3 in that year. By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 20 (April 11, 1838), the offices of first-fruits, tenths, and Queen Anne's bounty, were consolidated, and by 4 & 5 Vict. c. 39, s. 4 (June 21, 1841), pro- visions were made for substituting an equi- valent for the first-fruits and tenths paid by the ecclesiastical commissioners to the governors of the bounty. Queen AnjS^e's Faethings. — In accord- ance with a suggestion made by Dean Swift, A.D. 1712, that the copper money of the realm should be re-coined, and adorned with devices of a medaUic type, a few pattern farthings were struck. The most celebrated is the farthing of 1713, which bears a bi\st on the obverse, and a figure of peace in a car, with the legend "Pax missa per orbem"on the reverse. The farthing of 1714, known as the " canopy farthing," from the device of Britannia seated under a portal, was issued, but is now very rare. Another pattern farthing dated 1715, after the queen's death, has the motto " Bello et pace" in basso-relievo, and is the most scarce. Some impressions in gold and silver were struck from the same dies, but the designs were poor, and the project was abandoned. A Queen Anne's farthing of the ordinary type is worth from 14s. to £1 ; but much higher prices have been paid. QuEEX Chaelotte Islands (Worth Pa- cific). — This group of islands, forming part of British Columbia, was first observed by Captain Cook, while exploring the north- west coast of America, a.d. 1778, and were thought by him to form part of the con- tinent. They were discovered to be islands by Captain Dixon, in 1787, who gave them their present name. They were included in the colony of British Columbia by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 2, 1858). Queen Chaelotte Islands (South Pa- cific Ocean) were discovered by Mandana, a.d. 1595, and the principal one named Santa Cruz. They were visited by Captain Carteret in 1767, and, probably in ignorance of Mandana' s discovery, named by him Queen Charlotte Islands, which appellation they have since retained. Queen's Bench. {See King's (or Queen's) Bench.) Queen's College (Cambridge) was QUE founded by Margaret of Anjou, consort of Henry VI., a.d. 1448, or, according to some authorities, March 30, 1M9, and refounded by Elizabeth WoodviUe, consort of Edward IV., in 1465. It was at first called St. Bernard and St. Margaret's College, and took its present name in 1465. Richard III. granted the forfeited estates of John Vere, earl of Oxford, to the college ; but this grant was annulled on the accession of Henry VII. in 1485. A by-feUowship was founded in 1694. QtTEEif's College (Oxford) was founded by Robert Eglesfield, confessor to PhUippa, queen of Edward III., a.d. 1340, for a provost and twelve fellows, to be chosen in the first instance from the counties of Cum- berland and Westmoreland. Eight fellow- ships and four scholarships, open to aU, and four exhibitions, confined to the province of Canterbury, were also founded, from Property left for that purpose by John [ichel in 1739. The foundation-stone of the south quadrangle was laid by the provost, Dr. WiUiam Lancaster, Feb. 6, 1710. Queen Charlotte, in 1733, gave £1,000 towards its completion, which took place in 1759. The interior of the west side was consumed by fire in 1778. The library was begun in 1692, and the outside finished in 1694. The chapel, the foundation of which was laid in 1714, was dedicated on All Saints' day, 1719. The window over the altar contains the Holy Family, painted by Price in 1717. King Henry V. is supposed to have been educated here. QuEEif's Colleges (Ireland). — By 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 (July 31, 1845), the queen was authorized to endow new coUeges for the advancement of learning in Ireland. Charters were accordingly granted for the estabMshment of a college at Cork, Dec. 19, 1845, and at Belfast and Galway Dec. 30. In order to enable the students at these colleges to receive degrees, letters-patent were issued, Aug. 15, 1850, for the foun- dation of the " Queen's University in Ire- land," the seat of which was ordered to be in Dublin. The university held its first senate June 19, 1851, and conferred degrees for the first time in 1852. Qtjeensland (Australia). — Moreton Bay was separated from JSTew South Wales and erected into a colony, under the name of Queensland, by letters patent published Dec. 4, 1859. Queen's Lettee. {See Beief.) Queen's Peison. (-S'ee King's (or Queen's) Bench Peison.) Queen's Theatee (London) . — This theatre, in Tottenham Street, Tottenham Court Road, was built by Paschah for the concerts of ancient music, which were re- moved, A.D. 1794, to the King's Theatre, in the Haymarket. It was next hired by Colonel Grenville, for his entertainment, — the Pic-Kic Society, — in 1802 ; and it was converted into a theatre, under the name oi the Regency Theatre, in 1810. QUEENSTOWN (Canada).— The Americans 707 QUI were defeated here by the British, Oct. 13, 1812, their commander. General Wadsworth, with 900 men, being taken prisoners. It was occupied by the Americans in May, 1813 ; and in December of the same year they made an attempt to destroy the town with red-hot shot, but were defeated by a British force. It was again occupied by the Americans in June, 1814. QuEENSTOWN (Ireland) was so named by the queen on her first visit to Ireland, Aug. 3, 1849. It was previously called the Cove of Cork, and was, as recently as 1786, a small village, inhabited by a few pilots and fishermen. During the French war it became a place of some importance, and a rendezvous for shipping. A pier was built in 1805, and the handsome parish church was erected in 1810. Queen Victoeia Steamee, Capt. Church, sailed from Liverpool for Dublin, with 112 persons on board, Feb. 14, 1853. About midnight she passed the Bailey lighthouse, when a thick snow-storm commenced, which rendered surrounding objects nearly invi- sible. In a short time the ship struck upon the Howth rocks, at the entrance to Dublin harbour, and sank almost imme- diately. Eff'orts were made to use the boats, but, owing to the general panic, they proved of little service, and fifty -nine of the passengers were drowned. The calamity was attributed to the carelessness of the captain and his officers, who all perished. QuENTiN, St. (France), the ancient Au- gusta Veromanduorum, was the seat of a bishopric, which was transferred to ]S"oyon in the 6th century. It was besieged by a Spanish army of 50,000 men, with an aux- iliary corps of 8,000 English, in 1557, and was bravely defended by Admiral Cohgny. The constable, Montmorency, who came to its rehef with a considerable army, was defeated by the Spaniards, Aug. 10, 1557, whereupon the town surrendered. It was a strongly -fortified place at this time, and was considered one of the bulwarks of France on the north-eastern frontier. Queen. — This primitive hand-mUl, formed of two heavy stones, is said to have been used by the Romans. BosweU states that it was the ancient instrument of the High- landers, and that he and Dr. Johnson ob- served a woman using one in the Isle of Sky during their tour in the Hebrides, a.d. 1773. He adds that it had then almost entirely gone out of use. QuESNOY (France) . — A siege of this town, A.D. 1340, is mentioned by Froissart. It was captured by Turenne in 1654. The duke of Ormond besieged it June 8, 1712, and it surrendered July 4. It was recap- tured by the French Oct. 4 in the same year. The Austrians took it, after a short siege, Sept. 11, 1793 ; and the French were defeated in a great battle in the neigh- bourhood Sept. 13. The French regained possession Aug. 15, 1794. It was taken by che allied armies June 29, 1815. QuiBEEON Bax (France). — An English 2 z 2 QUI fleet destroyed some French ships and dis- mantled the forts in this bay in September, 1746. Admiral Hawke defeated the French fleet here Nov. 20, 1759. A body of French emigrants and soldiers, to the number of about 3,000, conveyed by a British fleet, landed in Quiberon Bay June 27, 1795. They took possession of lort Penthievre Jiine 30 ; but their hopes of support from the population of the surrounding country not being realized, they were expelled by the republican army, July 21, 1795. The British fleet, owing to stormy weather, could not approach the shore to succour them ; and the royahsts capitulated, on condition that the lives of the soldiers should be spared, and the emigrants allowed to em- bark. In spite of this, the National Con- vention decreed that all the prisoners should be put to death ; and 800 were shot, the I remainder being allowed to escape. The ■ forts in the bay were attacked and dis- 1 mantled by an Enghsh squadron under Sir i Edward Pellew, June i, 1800. A monument ^ to the memory of the victims of the expedi- tion of 1795 was erected, under the auspices of Marshal Soult, in 1814. QxiiCKSiLVEE was known to the ancients from the remotest ages. The most pro- ductive quicksilver-mine is that of Ahnaden, in Spain, mentioned by Pliny as producing, in his time, 10,000 Koman pounds annually. The next in importance is that of Idria, in Blyria, discovered accidentally by a peasant A.D. 1497. The mines of Guancaveha, in Peru, were discovered about 1566 or 1567. Its use for refining silver was discovered in the 16th century, and it was first employed for this purpose "in the silver-mines of Peru in 1571. QriETisir. — The views of this sect were embodied in the worlcs of Michael MoHnos, a Spanish priest in the 17th century. His books were condemned at Eome, and he was imprisoned, and died a. n. 1696. About the same time Madame Guyon, or Guion, became a great advocate of quietism in France. She fixed her residence at Paris in 1688 or 1689, and wrote several works in its favovir, which were condemned by Bossuet, who caused her to be confined in a monastery for six months. She was afterwards impri- soned in the Bastille for several years, and died in 1717. The archbishop of Paris called her writings "a monstrous" and diabohcal system." They were defended by Fenelon, which led to his condemnation by the pope in 1699. QuiLLOTA (Choi), founded A.n. 1726, has suffered severely from earthquakes, and was nearly destroyed by one in 1823. The copper- mines in its vicinity are the richest in Chili. Qtjills are said to have been first used for wi-iting in the 5th century. The earhest authentic account of their use is in the vrritings of Isidore, who died April 4, 636. QriLOA, or Keelwa (Africa), situated on an island close to the mainland, was taken by the Portuguese after repeated attacks, A,D. 1505. When they made Mozambique 708 QUI the centre of their settlements in Africa, the town fell into decay, and was ultimately wrested from them by the imam of Muscat. On its first occupation by the Portuguese it was the capital of Eastern Africa, but no traces of its ancient splendour existed when visited by Captain Beaver in 1812. QuiLoif (Hindostan). — This town on the coast of Travancore was formerly called Coulan, and is said to have been "founded A.D. 825. The Dutch wrested it from the Portuguese in 1662, and it afterwards fell into the hands of the English. QiJiMPEB, orQtiiMPEECoEENTiir (France), derives its present name from its first bishop in the 5th century, previously to which it was called Coriospitum. Charles of Blois took the town a.d. 1345, and put the greater part of the inhabitants to death. It was besieged and taken by the English auxiharies of de Montfort in 1364. In the Breton war, Quimper sided with the party of the duke of Mercceur, but was compelled to submit to Henry IV. in 1595. The cathedral dates from 1424. QriNCE. — Some writers regard the quince as a Phocaean importation into this country ; others say that it was introduced by the Eomans. It was cultivated in EagUsh gar- dens in the time of Gerard, a famous herb- ahst, born at Nantwich, in Cheshire, a.d. 1545. It is also mentioned in Peacham's Emblems as a feature of the fruit-garden in 1612. The Portugal quince was cultivated in England in 1729, and the Japan quince in 1796. QuiNDECEMviES, an order of priests ap- pointed by Tarquin the Proud, about B.C. 534, to take care of the Sibylline books. At first only two were appointed; but the number was increased to ten about B.C. 367, ! and to fifteen (hence their name) by SyUa, j B.C. 80. I QnifiifE.— This important vegetable alkali, contained principally in the yeUow bark, was discovered by PeUetier and Caventon A.D. 1820. QrisrisEXTATf CouifCiL, called also the council in Trvdlo, from the chamber in the imperial palace at Constantinople in which it was held, was summoned by the emperor Justinian II. a.d. 691. It is the great au- thority for the discipHne of the Greek church. Quilf QUAGESIITA SUNDAT, Or SHEOTE SUW- DAT, is so called because it occurs about the fiftieth day before Easter. Its observance was instituted by Pope Gregory XIII. about A.D. 1572. QxTiN-QrEifALiAN Games were instituted at Eome by Nero, a.d. 60, in imitation of the Greek festivals, and were celebrated every four years. They consisted of musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. The celebration of these games appears to have ceased after Nero's time. They were revived by Domitian in honour of Jupiter Capito- linus, A.D. 86, and were called Capitoline Games. QriNTiLiANS, a sect of heretics of the 2nd century, so called after their founder, a QUI female named Quintilia, of Carthage. They attributed extraordinary gifts to Eve, for having eaten of the tree of knowledge, and allowed women to be priests and bishops. They denied water-baptiam. Tertullian wrote against this heresy early in the 3rd century. QuiRiTES, the name given to the Sabines, who settled in Eome and built a new town on the Quirinal and Capitohne hills in the time of Komulus, B.C. 722. On the death of their chief, Titus Tatius, Eomulus became king over both Eomans and Quirites. QuiSTELLo (Battle). — The Austrians de- feated the French at this place, on the Secchia, Sept. 15, 1734. Quito (South America), the capital of the republic of Ecuador, founded by Sebastian Benalcasar a.d. 1534, was incorporated as a city by Charles V. in 1541, and made a bishop's see in 1545. A plain near the city was chosen by the French and Spanish astronomers in 1736 for measuring a degree of the meridian ; and their labours from that time till 1742 are commemorated by an alabaster slab, with a Latin inscription, placed in the church of the Jesuits. Earth- quakes are of frequent occurrence, and one Feb. 4, 1797, is said to have destroyed above 40,000 persons in the province. During the revolt against the mother covmtry, the leaders of the Junta of Quito, to the number of 300, were slaughtered by the Spanish viceroys of Santa Fe de Bogota and Peru in 1811. A dreadful earthquake oc- curred March 22, 1859, which reduced the city to ruins. QxJoiTS. — This game, called by the ancients discus, is said to have been invented by Perseus, a Greek, who, having inadvertently slain his grandfather, Acrisius, in throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos (to which he was heir on the death of Acrisius) for that of Tirynthus, and founded the king- dom of Mycenae about b.c. 1313. Quoits formed a favourite amusement amongst the lower classes of Londonin the reignof James I. In the country the rustics, not having round perforated quoits to play vrith, used horse- shoes ; and in many places the quoit itself is called a shoe. Quorum, a term derived from the words used in the commission issued to justices of the peace, the form of which was settled by all the judges a.d. 1590. The expression employed is quorum unum A. B. essevolumus, "ot whom we will that A. B. be one," thus rendering it necessary that certain indivi- duals (said to be of the quorum) should be present at the transaction of business. Hence, when in a meeting, &c., it is neces- sary that a certain number should be present to give vahdity to its acts, that number is said to form a quorum. Quo WAKBAifTO Act was passed Nov. 7, 1280. By this act a writ may be directed to any person who holds any office or fran- chise, to inquire by what authority he does so. A quo warranto was brought against the charter of the corporation of London EAC by Charles II., and the court of King's Bench gave judgment against the city, and declared their charter forfeited June 12, 1683. An act for reversing this judgment and for restoring the city to its ancient rights and privileges passed May 20, 1690. Eaab (Hungary).— a battle was fought near this town between the Austrians, under the archduke John, and the French, under Eugene Beauharnais, June 14, 1809. The former were defeated, and the tovra fell into the hands of the French Jime 24. They began building a fortress Aug. 15. Eaab was occupied by the Austrians under Win- disgratz, Dec. 26, 1848. The Hungarians took possession shortly afterwards, and were driven out by the Austrians under General Haynau, June 28, 1849. Eacing formed an important part of the Grecian games, the race for full-aged horses having been introduced b.c. 649; that for mares, called the Calpe, B.C. 493; and for under-aged horses b.c. 253. It is beheved to have been practised by the Anglo-Saxons, and King John held running horses in high estimation. Edward III. purchased running horses in 1326, and Henry VIII. took great pains to improve the royal stud in 1509. Eacing, which had languished in Elizabeth's reign, was revived under James I. at Gatley, in Yorkshire. Eaces took place at Chester in 1512 for two silver bells; and on St. George's day, in 1609, three silver bells of good value were offered as prizes. The first races at Newmarket took place in 1640, and the round course was made in 1666. Oliver Cromwell kept a stud of race-horses in 1653. A ladies' plate was advertised to be run for at Eippon-heath, Yorkshire, women to be riders, Tuesday, Sept. 14, 1725, A silver beU was the prize in the reign of James I. Camden speaks of a golden beU as the prize; whence the proverb, "bears the beU." Mr. Surtees, in his "Durham," mentions subscription purses in 1613; the beU was altered to a cup, with the exploits and pedigree of the horse engraved upon it, 1661 — 1685. At Pisa, the prize was a mantle of some kind of rich stuff in 1264. Eack. — This instrument of torture was used against the Christians in early times, and was employed by the Inquisition. It is said to have been introduced into the Tower by the duke of Exeter, when constable, a.d. 1447, and thence called the " duke of Exeter's daughter." Hollinshed makes mention of it in 1467. It was in common use in the reign of Henry VIII., and from that time till 1640, when it was aboHshed, it was the instrument of torture for prisoners confined in the Tower. Eacquet, or Eacket, hand-tennis, is said to have originated in the 14th century. This game was first played with the naked hand, and then with a glove. Afterwards thongs or corda were bound round the hand to make 709 EAD the ball rebound more forcibly, and from | this, according to St. Foix, the game derived its name. In 1424 a damsel named Margot played at hand-tennis at Paris better than any man. i Eadcliffe Libeaet. — ^Dr. John EadclifFe, | who died Nov. 1, 1714, bequeathed by wiU £40,000 to the university of Oxford for a ; library. The first stone of the building was i laid May 12, 1737, and it was opened April 13, 1749. An observatory, of which the foun- dation was laid June 22, 1772, was completed in 1786. The Lunatic Asylum on Head- ' ington Hill (1827) received a portion of the funds left by this benevolent man, and was called the Kadcliffe Asylum. ^ Kadcot Beidge (Battle).— De Vere, ere- ( ated duke of Ireland, who had raised an \ army in support of the cause of Kichard II., I was defeated at Eadcot Bridge, in Oxford- shire, Dec. 20, 1387. He made his escape [ into Ireland. Eadicals. — The extreme democrats in | England first received the name of Eadicals about A.D. 1819. i Eadstadt, or Eastadt (Baden). — The margrave of Baden, Louis William, fixed his residence at this place, then a small vil- lage, towards the end of the 17th century. Prince Eugene and Marshal ViUars signed a treaty of peace here March 6, 1714, which put an end to the war of the Spanish Succes- sion. The palace, buUt on the model of that of Versailles, was tiU 1771 the residence of the margraves of Baden. A congress as- sembled at Eadstadt Dec. 9, 1797, to negotiate a peace between Erance and the German empire. It was dissolved by the emperor of Germany April 7, 1799. During the insur- rection in Baden of 1849 the insurgents shut themselves up in Eadstadt. After a month's siege they surrendered to the Prussians, July 23. Eapts. — Hiram, king of Tyre, entered into a contract to supply Solomon with cedar of Lebanon for the building of the temple, which was to be brought to Jaffa in floats (1 Kings V. 9 5 and 2 Chron. ii. 16), B.C. 1014. The Eomans transported timber by water for building purposes and for firewood. It appears to have been conveyed in this manner to the river Saale, in Saxony, the duty being remitted to the monastery of Porta, A.D. 1258. The duty on floats on the same river was reduced in 1410. A citizen of Freiberg commenced the conveyance of timber on the Mulda by rafts in 1431, and the nobihty unsuccessfully attempted to pro- hibit it in i486. Timber was first floated on the Elbe for building the church of Aschers- leben, in 1495. The city of Paris having consumed all the wood in its neighbourhood, John Eouvel, a merchant, suggested bringing supplies by means of rafts in 1549, and his plans were carried out by Eene Arnoul in 1566. Bagged Schools. — Thomas Cranfield commenced what he called a fragment school in Mint Street, Southwark, early in the 19th century. Efforts were made to establish 710 EAI schools for the neglected and outcast, and in 1837 the first ragged school was opened in London. The Field-Lane ragged school was opened in 1843, and the Eagged School Union was formed in 1844. The Bristol ragged school for males and females was established in 1846, and schools of a like description were opened in the same year in Manchester, York, and other towns. A ragged school for boys was opened in Aber- deen in 1841. Eagman's Eoll, containing the legal at- testation of allegiance of the nobility and gentry of Scotland to Edward I., was sub- scribed A.D. 1296, and having been deposited " in the Tower, was pubhshed in Prynne's Eecords in 1666, and by the Bannatyne Club in 1834. Eagusa (Austria). — This town was en- larged and fortified in the 7th century. From 1260 to 1368 Eagusa was governed by Venetian rectors, who held office for two years, and were chosen from the patrician families of Venice. War broke out in 1368 between Venice and the king of Hungary, and Eagusa gained her independence and power to choose her own rectors. In 1414 the Eagusans purchased peace with the Ottomans by agreeing to pay an annual tri- bute of 500 ducats. The manufacture of woollens was introduced here in 1433 from Florence. The Turks ravaged the district of Canale in 1471, and Eagusa purchased safety by paying a tribute amounting to 8,000 ducats. The town was nearly destroyed in 1667 by an earthquake. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Eagusa continued to enjoy her independence. Napoleon I. seized the town May 27, 1806, and defeated the Eussians under its walls, Sept. 29. In 1814 it came into the possession of Austria. Eaid of Euthven. — A conspiracy, headed by Alexander Euthven, earl of Gowrie, against Lennox and Arran, favourites of James VI. of Scotland, having been formed, the Iring himself was seized at Euthven Cas- tle, and the obnoxious persons were removed, Aug. 23, 1582. James VI. remained in the power of the faction till he made his escape to the castle of St. Andrews, which he ac- complished June 27, 1583. Eailways. — Wooden rails for the trans- port of coal were constructed at the New- castle collieries about a.d. 1630, and in 1716 a surface of iron was laid upon the rails. Eails whoUy composed of cast iron were used at Whitehaven in 1738, and an edge-rail of similar materials was laid down at Colebrook- dale about 1767. In 1776 Mr. John Curr introduced an improved rail nailed to wooden sleepers, and in 1789 Mr. \\ illiam Jessop invented a rail and wheel, specially adapted for each other. Stone blocks were first employed instead of wooden sleepers in 1800 by Mr. Benjamin Outram, of Little Eaton, Derbyshire, and roads so constructed were known as " Outram roads," and afterwards as " tram roads." The first important edge-rail was that at Penrhyn slate-quarries, which was laid down in 1801, and the first line for EAI public use wrs that of the Surrey Iron Eail- way, incorporated the same year. The first patent for a locomotive steam-carriage was taken out by Eichard Trevithick and An- drew Vivian, March 24, 1802. This engine was adapted for traction on common roads, but in 1804 Trevithick invented an engine to work on iron rails, which was tried at Mer- thyr Tydvil the same year, and proved a scientific triumph, though its application to business purposes was impracticable. In 1811 Mr. Blenkinsop patented a locomotive with racked wheels, intended to work on cogged rails, and a line on this principle was actually opened at the Middleton collieries near Leeds, Aug. 12. 1812. A locomotive to work upon legs, moving alternately like those of a horse, was projected by Mr. Brunton, of the Butterley works, in 1813, but blew up during its construction, and the Heedlessness of all contrivances to increase the adhesion of wheels upon railroads was demonstrated by Mr. Blackett, of Wylam, the same year. George Stephenson's first engine was tried upon the Killingworth rail- way, July 25, 1814, and excelled all its pre- decessors, although its speed was not greater than that of a horse's walk. In 1815 Mr. Stephenson discovered the steam-blast, and appMed it in the construction of a second engine, and in 1829 he employed a multitu- bula,r boUer in the Socket, which proved the victor in the competition of engines, held at Eainhill in October of that year, attaining a maximum speed of 29 miles per hour, and an average of 15 miles. The Liverpool and Manchester railway was the first public Mne worked by steam power. It was opened Sept. 15, 1830. {See Liverpool.) Mr. Bru- nei introduced the broad gauge in 1838, and it was adopted in the Great Western railway. Stationary engines were originally employed on the Blackwall railway, which was opened July 4, 1840. They were afterwards aban- doned for locomotives. Trains worked by atmospheric pressure were started on the Kingston and Dalkey lines in 1843, on the Croydon line in 1845, and on the South Devon railway in 1847 ; but the system proved a failure. The mania for railway speculation reached its height in 1845, when prospectuses were issued, and warrant ob- tained for the construction of no less than 1,428 new lines. The conveyance of mails by railroad was regulated by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 98 (Aug. 14, 1838). Companies were compelled to provide proper gates and gate-keepers at places where railroads and public highways cross by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 45 (Aug. 17, 1839), and railways were placed under the super- vision of the Board of Trade by 3 & 4 Vict, e. 97 (Aug. 10, 1840). The phraseology of railway bills was much simplified by the Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, 8 & 9 Vict. c. 20 (May 8, 1845), and the gauge was regulated by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 57 (Aug. 18, 1846). The jurisdiction of the Board of Trade was transferred to a body of railway com- missioners by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 105 (Aug. 28, 1846). This act was repealed by 14 & 15 EAI Viet. 0. 64 (Aug. 7, 1851), which restored the authority ot the board. Malicious acts upon railways are punished by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 19 (July 3, 1851), and further mea- sures for the regulation of the railroad sys- tem were made by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 31 (July 10, 1854). Stephenson's engine was intro- duced into France in 1829. The first line in America was constructed in 1830 in Massa- chusetts, and was about four miles in length. A comprehensive railway system, extending over a distance of 347 nules, was sanctioned by the Belgian government. May 1, 1834. I^he English government authorized the con- struction of two lines in India in 1849. George Stephenson, the father of English railroads, died at Tapton, near Chesterfield, Aug. 12, 1848. The following is a list of the principal hnes in Great Britain and Ire- land : — A.D. Aberdeen and Huntley , Sept. 19, 18-54 Abingdon June 1.5, 1855 Alloa Branch Sept. 2, 1850 Ambergate and Rowsley June 4, 1849 Andover and Salisbury May, 1807 Ardsley Extension Oct. 10, 1854 Ascot and Wokingham July 9, 1856 Ayr and Dalmellington Aug. 1856 Ayr and Maybole Oct. 13, 1856 Bagenalstown to Kilkenny Nov. 14, 1850 Ballymena and Portrush Nov. 7, 1855 Bandon and Ballinhassig Aug. 1, 1849 Banflf, Macduflf, and Turriff Sept. 5, 1857 Bedale and Leybum Nov. 2, 1806 Bedford (London and North-Western) . . Nov. 1846 Belfast and Armagh March 1, 1848 Belfast and Ballymena April 11, 1848 Belfast and County Down Aug. 2, 1849 Bideford Extension • Nov. 2, 1855 Birmingham and Liverpool July 4, 1837 Birmingham, Worcester, and Derby Junc- tion Aug. 2, 1839 Bishopstoke and Gcsport Feb. 1842 Blackburn and Bolton June, 1848 Blackburn, Clitheroe, and Chatbum, June 22, 1850 Blaiigowjie Branch Aug. 1855 Blyth and Tyne 1852 Boston, Sleaford, & Midland Counties, June 16, 1856 Bradford, Wakefield, and Leeds Oct. 5, 1857 Bridport Nov. 12, 1857 Burscough and Southport AprU 9, 1855 Burston and Norwich Dec. 12, 1849 Caledonian Feb. 1848 Cannock Branch Nov. 2, 1857 Carlisle and Moffat Sept. 1847 Carlisle and Silloth Bay Sept. 4, 1856 Carlow Junction to Bagenalston July 24, 1848 Caterham Aug. 5, 1856 Cavan Feb. 8, 1856 Chester and Crewe 1848 Chipping-Norton Branch Aug. 10, 1855 Cockermouth and Workington April 28, 1847 Colchester and Ipswich June 15, 1846 Cork and Bandon Dec. 8, 1851 Cork, Blackrock, and Passage June 8, 1850 Crieff Junction March 16, 1856 Crystal Palace & Wandsworth Common Dec. 1, 1856 Cumnock to Gretna Oct. 28, 1850 Darlington and Bamard-Ca,tle July 8, 1850 Darlington and Stockton Dec. 27, 1825 Deeside Sept. 8, 1853 Derby and Ripley Sept. 1856 Dublin and Drogheda May 26, 1844 Dublin, Drogheda, and Howth July 30, 1846 Dublin and Galway Aug. 1, 1851 Dublin and Kingston Dec. 17, 1834 Duudalk and Newbliss Aug. 14, 1855 Dundee and Arbroath ApjU 1, 1846 Dundee and Newtyle 1832 Dundee and Perth May 24, 1847 711 EAI Diu-sley and Mid]and Junction Sept 22, 1856 East Fife Ang. 18, 1857 East Grinstead July 9, 1835 East Lancashire May 24, 1838 East Lmcolnshrre Oct. 1, 1848 EdlnbTLrgh and Berwick June 18, 1846 Edinburgh and Glasgow Feb. 18, 1842 Evesham and Campden March 19, 1855 Exeter and Crediton May 12, 1851 Fife to Strathmiglo Juiie 8, 1857 Forth and Clyde Junction M;..y 26, 1856 General Terminus & Glasgow Harbour March 30, 1849 Glasgow and Ayr Aug. 12, 1840 Glasgow and South -Western Oct. 28, 1850 Grand Junction July 6, 1837 Great South -'Westeni to Kosciea (Lre- land) Oct. 19, 18-57 Grunsby and Boston Oct. 1. 1848 Grimsby and Loutt March 1, 1848 Hales worth and Haddiscoe Kov. 30, 1852 Hammersmith May 1, 1857 Hartlepool July 1, 1835 Hanghley to Burston July 2, 1849 Hereford, Boss, and Gloucester June 1, 18.55 Hertford and Welwyn Junction Nov. 18-57 Homcastle and Kirkstead Aug. 11, 18.55 Huddersfield and Sheffield July 1, 18-50 Hull and Bridlington Oct. 1846 Hull and Holdemess June 27, 1854 Hull and Selby July 1, 1840 Huntly to Keith Oct. 11, 18-56 Inverness and Nairn Nov. 5, 18-55 Inverary and Old Meldi-unx July 5, 18-56 Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's Dec. 23, 1846 Jrdburgh July 17, 18-56 Kendal and "Windermere April 21, 1847 KUlamey Junction May, 1854 Kingston to Dalkey Oct. 11, 1355 Kirriemuir Branch Nov. 18-54 Lancaster and Carlisle Dec. 16, 1846 Lancaster and Preston June 30, 18M) Leeds and Bradford 1846 Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Aug. 1, 1855 Leicester and Hitchin May 8, 1858 Leicester and Swannlngton 1852 Leominster and Kington July 29, 18.57 Lesmahagow Dec. 1, 18-56 Leven July 3, 1^54 Limerick and Castle-Connel Nov. 1, 18-57 Liverpool and Bury Nov. 20, 1848 Liverpool and Manchester Sept. 15, 18:^0 Liverpool and Preston Oct. 31, 1838 London and Birmingham Sept. 17, 1838 London and Blackwall July 4, 1840 London and Bi-ighton Sept. 21, 1841 i Loijdon and Bristol June 30, 1841 I London and Cambridge July 30, 1845 I London and Colchester March 29, 184:3 London and Croydon June 1, 1839 I London and Deptford Dec. 14, 18;36 i London and Dover Feb. 7, 1844 ' London and Greenwich Dec. 28, 18:38 London and Hastings June 27, 1846 London and Liverpool Sept. 17, 1838 London and Peterborough Aug. 6, 1850 London and Eichmond July, 1846 London and Southampton May 11, 1840 London and Southend June, 18-56 London and Twyford (Great Western), July 1^ 1839 Louth and Firsby Sept. 3, 1848 Manchester and Birmingham Aug. 1842 Manchester and Leeds March 1, 1841 j Manchester and Normanton Oct. 1, 1844 ' Manchester and Southport AprU, 18-55 I Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire, Aug. 18-57 i Maybole and Girvan Aug. 18-56 Mid-Kent and North-Kent Junction .. Jan. 1, 18-57 ! Middlesborough and Guisborough Feb. 2-5, 1854 Midland Counties June 30, 1840 Mullingar and Longford Nov. 8, 18-55 ' Newcastle and Darlington April 1.5, 1844 j Newmarket and Bui-y April 1, 1854 j Newport to Brandon July 30, 1845 ! Newry to Warrenpoint May 28, 1849 | Norton Branch Nov. 2, 1857 712 ' EAL Nottingham and Derby May 30, 1839 Oldham Branch July, 185-5 Peebles July 4, laSa Perth and Dunkeld April 7, 1856 Perth and Fortar Sept. 11, 1843 Picton and Stoke-ley March, 1857 Port Carlisle June 22, 1854 Preston and Langridge 1849 Beading July 9, 1856 Eoyston and Hitcbin Oct. 21, 1850 St Andrew's July 1, 1832 Scottish Ceutnil May, 1848 Selkirk and Galashiels April 5, 1856 Sheffield and Rotherham Nov. 1, 1838 Shrew-bury and Birmingham Nov. 12, 1849 Somerset Central A\ig. 28, 18-54 South Devon 1850 Staines and Ascot June 4, 1356 Stamford and Essendlne Nov. 1, 1857 Stockton and Darlington Sept. 27, 1825 Stotfield and Lossiemouth to Elgin. . Aug. 10, 1852 Strood to Faversham Nov. 11, 1857 Sydenham and Wandsworth Oct. 30, 18-56 Torquay Branch Dec. 1843 Ulster Aug. 18:39 TJlverstone and Lancaster Aug. 10, 18.57 WeUs and Fakeuham Dec. 1, 1857 West Jx.ndnu May 27, 1844 Wintehaven, CUator, and Egi-emont, Jan. 11, 1857 Widne-ss and G.irston July 1, 18.52 Wimbledon and i.'roydon Oct. 22, 1855 Worcester and Stoke Feb. 18, 18.52 Yarmouth and Norwich May 1, 1844 York and North Midland June, 1840 Eaiit (Battle). — Gustavus Adolphns, at the head of a Swedish army, defeated Tilly, at Eain, on the banks of the Lech, in Ger- many, April 5, 16.j2. Tilly died of a wound received in this battle, and the victorious leader, Gustavus Adolphus, feU at Liitzen, !^^ov. 6 in the same year. The battle of Eain is sometimes called the battle of Lech, or Leek. Eaixbow. — Newton ascribes the first ex- planation of the rainbow to Antonio de Do- minus, archbishopofSpalatro, whose account, said to have been composed a.d. 1590, was pubhshed at Venice in 1611. The true theory was explained by Descartes, in his " Diop- trics." Mariotte, in 1686, considered it to be produced by refraction. Eajmahal (Hindostan), according to native authorities, was founded B.C. 3000. The Enghsh obtained possession a.d. 1765. The splendid palace, the ruins of which still exist, was built by the sultan Sujah, brother of the emperor Aurungzebe, in 1630, and was greatly injured by a fire, which also destroyed a large portion of the town, in 1631. Eajpootaka (Hindostan) . — This extensive district, so called from the Eajpoots, its early inhabitants, was conquered by the Mohammedans, but maintained a half inde- pendence, A.D. 1194. At the death of Au- rungzebe, in 1707, it became nominally subject to the emperor of Delhi, and its chiefs achieved their independence in 1748. Eakowitz (Battle). — A large army of Turks was defeated by Stephen, vaivode of Moldavia, in this battle, fought a.d. 1475. Raleigh's Conspieact.— Jamesl. having broken faith with the Eoman Catholics, to whom he had promised toleration and iudul- EAM gence, a design was formed, a.d. 1603, to take away his life and that of his eldest son. Prince Henry, and to place Arabella Stuart upon the throne. The conspirators, amongst ■whom were Kaleigh, Sir Grifiin Markham, lords Grey and Cobham, with many others, were arrested in July. They were removed to Winchester in Jfovember. Sir Griffin Mark- liam and others were found guilty Not. 15, Sir Walter Kaleigh ]Vov. 17, Lord Cobham I^ov. 25, and Lord Grey Nov. 26. IS'one of these were executed. William Clarke and William Watson, two priests concerned in the conspirac}'-, hanged Nov. 29, and Brooke, Lord Cobham's brother, beheaded Dec. 5, were the only persons who suflfered the extreme penalty of the law for their share in this plot. Eambotjillet (France). — The castle was the residence of the kings of France to the time of Charles X. Here Francis I. died in 1547, and Charles X. signed his abdication of the French throne Aug. 2, 1830. Napo- leon III. converted the castle into a semi- nary for ofticers' daughters in 1852. Eakillies (Battle). — The allies under the command of the duke of Marlborough defeated the French under Marshal de i Tiller oy with great slaughter, at this village in Belgium, May 12 (0. S.), 1706. | Eammekexs (Holland), constructed as a ' fortress, a.d. loj.7, and called Zeebourg, \ was one of the Cautionary towns {q. v.) given to Queen Elizabeth by the States-gene- ral, for the aid rendered by her against Spain : in July, 1585. EAMJ^rGGUR (Hindostan). — This town in | the Punjaub was stormed by Maha Singh, I father of Eunjeet, a.d. 1778. Several severe j skirmishes between the English under i Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Shere i Singh, took place in the neighbourhood, in | November, 1843, and Lord Gough gained a j signal victory here Dec. 3. | Eamsgate (Kent), called also Eiums Gate, ! or gate of Eium. After the Eevolution, : A.D. 1688, the inhabitants began to trade j with Eussia, and in the beginning of the 17th i century this place, at that time a small fish- ! ing village, gradually increased in importance. The pier was commenced in 1750, and is \ described by Pennant in 1787 as the finest existing. The harbour was formed in 1780 — 1795. A stone lighthouse was erected in ' the commencement of the present century, j and the parish church in 1827. I Eaxelagh Gardens (London). — This ; celebrated pla<'e of pubHe entertainment at | Chelsea was commenced about a.d. 1740, I on ground once the property of Viscount Eanelagh. The Eotunda, which constituted the principal attraction, was founded in 1741 i and opened April 5, 1742. Eanelagh was last used in 1802, when an installation ball of the knights of the Bath was held there. It is now completely obliterated, a portion of its site being occupied by the gardens of Chelsea Hospital. Eangoon (Hindostan). — This town, the name of which signifies " City of Victory," EAS built A.D. 1753, by Alompra, the founder of the Burmese monarchv, was occupied by the British May 11, 1824, during the first Burmese war. It was entii-elv destroyed by fire Dec. 28, 1850, and was shortly after- wards rebuilt nearly a nule from the" site of the old town. In the second Burmese war it was attacked by the British Jan. 2, 1S52, and was stormed and captured April 14. Eangoon suffered severely from conflagra- tions in February, 1853, and December, ISoo. Eantebs, a sect which sprung up a.d. 1645, received this name, which was also given to the Primitive Methodists, who sepa- rated from the old Methodist society June 28, 1808. The first general meeting after the society had been divided into circuits was held at Nottingham in 1819, and a society of Eanters was foimded in London in December, 1822. Eape. — The ancient Jewish laws punished this crime with death when the woman was betrothed to another man ; and in other cases compelled the ravisher to marry her, and pay a fine of 50 shekels to her father. The Eoman codes made it in every case a capital offence ; and it was treated with the same seve- rity by the laws of the Goths and the Anglo- Saxons. William the Conqueror conmiuted the penalty to mutilation and blinding, and by 3 Edw. I. c. 13 (1275), it was reduced to a mere misdemeanour, punished by two vears' imprisonment and a fine, unless the offender were prosecuted within forty days after the commission of the crime. In consequence of the inefficacv of this law, rape was made a capital felony by 13 Edw. I. c. 34 (1285) ; and by 18 EUz. c. 8 (1576), persons con- victed of this crime were deprived of benefit of clergy. The laws on the subject were consolidated by Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 27, 1828), which made the carnal abuse of a girl under ten years of age a capital felony, and of females of greater age a misdemeanour, punishable by imprisonment at tlie pleasure of the court. Transportation for fife was substituted for the capital penalty by 4 & 5 Vict. c. 56 (June 22, 1841). Eaphia (Syria). — A great battle was fought near this maritime city B.C. 217, between Ptolemy Philopater and Antiochus III., of Syria, in which the latter was de- feated with great loss. It was represented by its bishop in a cotmcU held at Ephesus A.D. 476, in one held at Constantinople in 536, and at the fifth general council held at Constantinople from May 4 to June 2, 553. Eaphoe (Bishopric). — This Ii'ish see is of great antiquity, and is said to have been founded bv St. Eunan in the 9th century. By the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), this see was annexed to Deny, Easpbeekt. — The Virginian raspberry was brought from North America before a.d. 1696, and the flowering raspberry from North America in 1700. Some seeds of this plant found in the cavity of the stomach of an an- cient Briton exhumed at Dorchester were sown, and germinated about 1835. 713 EAT Eatheitaf, or Eathenow (Battle).— Fre- 1 deriek William, elector of Brandenburg, ' defeated the Swedes, -who had been sub- j sidized by the French to invade his ter- : ritory, near this town of Prussia, in June, ' 1675. i Eathmines (Battle). — The marquis of Ormond, while besieging Dubhn, was attacked by Colonel Jones, at this place, in the vicinity, and after a struggle which 1 asted two hours, was totally defeated , Aug. 2, 1649. Eatibok (Prussia) became a principality , A.D. 1288, and was united to Oppeln iii the 15th century. EATioifALiSM, denying the possibility of a revealed religion, began to assume a systematic form in Germany under the advo- cacy of Eeimarus, professor of philosophy at Hamburg, who died March 1, 1768. Among theologians, Eichhorn took the lead in his Library of Bibhcal Literature (1788 — 1801). Afterwards the system was more fuUy developed by Dr. Paulus of Heidel- berg in his "Commentary on the New Testament" (1800—1804) and "Life of Jesus" (1828). An opposition was com- menced by Eeinhard, which continued from 1810 to 1817, producing a second form of the sceptical system that was fully applied by Dr. Strauss in his "Life of Christ," pubhshed in 1835 and 1836. Eatisbon (Bavaria). — A council was held here a.d. 768 or 769, and a stone bridge was built over the Danube in 1135. The Scotch Benedictine church of St. James was founded in 1165, and the Gothic cathe- dral, commenced in 1275, was completed in 1634. Eatisbon was made a free city in 1200. In the bishop's palace, now a brewery, the emperor Maximilian II. died, Oct. 12, 1576. Since the 10th century Eatisbon has sustained seventeen sieges. Near the cathedral is the old hall in which Ihe German diets held their meetings from 1663 tin 1806. In the middle of the 17th century, Eatisbon began to dechne. The German empire was governed by the diet of Eatisbon in 1792, and a congress of German princes met here Aug. 3, 1802. It was captured by the Austrians April 28, 1809. The WalhaUa, founded in 1830, was completed in 1848. A monument was erected in 1817 to Kepler, who died here in 1630. Councils were held here in August, 792, Jan. 20, 799, and Jan. 14, 932. Eatisbon (Treaties).— A peace was con- cluded at this place between France and the emperor, Oct. 13, 1630, which resulted in the settlement of the Mantuan succession. A truce for twenty years was agreed to at Eatisbon, between France and Spain and Germany, Aug. 15, 1684. A convention was also signed here between the emperor of Austria and the elector of Wiirtemberg, June 2, 1804. Eiucotrx, or Eocoux (Battle).— Marshal Saxe defeated the allies under Prince Charles of Lorraine at this village, in Belgium, Oct. 11, 1746. The loss of the allies was 714 EAV estimated at 12,000 men in kiUed and wounded, and 3,000 prisoners. EAVEfTNA (Italy). — Strabo relates that this city of Cispadane Gaul was of Thessalian origin. It became subject to Eome B.C. 234, and was occupied by Metellus, the general of SyUa, B.C. 82. Augustus made it the per- manent naval station of the Eoman Adriatic fleet, and erected a celebrated lighthouse or pharos at the mouth of its harbour. It was besieged and taken by Maximian a.d. 307, and was erected into the capital of the Western empire by Honorius in 404. Odoacer, king of Italy, was besieged here for three years by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, and a few days after his surrender was stabbed by his captor, March 5, 493. In December, 539, Behsarius took the city from the Gothic king Vitiges, and in 568 it was made the capital of an exarchate, comprising the provinces of Eome, Venice, and Naples, besides other territories. Luitprand, king of the Lombards, took the city and abolished the exarchate in 750, and in 754 it was wrested from the Lombard monarch Astolphus, and presented to the pope by king Pepin. From this time its prosperity declined. Pietro Traversari declared himself duke of Eavenna in 1218, and in 1275 it passed into the power of the Polenta family. In 1441 it was seized by the Venetian republic, by which it was finally ceded to the pope in 1509. A terrible battle between the French and the allied Spanish and papal forces was fought here on Easter Sunday, April 11, 1512, in which the French were victorious, though they lost their general, Gaston de Foix. The van- quished lost 800 men-at-arms, 1,300 light cavalry, and 7,000 infantry ; and the victors 700 men-at-arms, 880 archers, and 9,000 infantry. The result of the battle was the seizure of the city by the French. Ea- venna was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. The bishopric of Eavenna was founded by St. ApoUinaris, a disciple of St. Peter, a.d. 44, and it was erected into an archbishopric in 439. Councils were held at Eavenna in February, 419, 874 ; July 22 to September, 877 ; in 898 ; April 20, 967 ; in 968 ; May 1, 998 ; in 1014 ; April 30, 1016 ; in 1128 ; April 28, 1253 ; in 1261 ; July 8, 1286 ; June 17, 1310 ; June 17 to 21, 1311 ; Oct. 10, 1314 ; and Oct. 27, 1317. EXAECHS OP EAVBNKA. AD. Flavius LonginuB . . 568 Smaragdus 584 Eomanus 590 Callinious 697 Smaragdus (again) . . 602 Johauiies Lemigius 611 Eleutherim 616 Isaac 619 Plato 638 Theodorus I. (Callio- pas) 648 Olympius 649 Theodorus I. (again) 652 Gregory 666 Theodorus H 678 Johannes Platyn . . 687 Theophilactus 702 Johannes E-izocopus 710 Eutychius the Eu- nuch 711 Scholasticus 713 Paul 727 Eutychius (again) . . 728 Eavensbubg (Westphalia). — ^This ancient town and district of Germany were erected into a coimty by Hermann I. about a.d. 1071. EAV The family of its counts became extinct in 1346. It was afterwards conferred upon the duke of Juliers, and in 1666 it was an- nexed to Prussia. Kavenspue (Yorkshire) . — Edward IV., accompanied by his brother Kichard, duke of Gloucester, landed at this town, at the mouth of the Humber, vnth. 2,000 men from Zealand, March 14, 1471. Beading (Berkshire) was in possession of the Danes a.d. 871, who were compelled to evacuate it in 872. It was burned by them in 1006, and an abbey of nuns was destroyed. A councU was held at Beading July 30, 1279. Henry VI. summoned a par- liament to meet here March 6, 1453 ; and in consequence of the severity of the plague in London, the Michaelmas sittings of the courts of justice were transferred to Beading in 1625. During the civil war it was taken by the parhamentarian forces under the earl of Essex, Aijril 27, 1643. A Benedictine monastery was erected by Henry I. in 1121 ; in which he was buried in 1135. The church of St. Lawrence, a Norman structure, was repaired in 1434, St. Mary's was rebuilt in 1551 ; the Free Grammar-school was founded in 1556 ; the Oracle, for the em- ployment of the poor, was founded by Mr. John Kendrick in the 17th century ; and the Roman Catholic chapel was erected in 1840. Eealists. {See Nominalists.) Beal Presence. — The second council of Nicsea, Sept. 24 to Oct. 23, 787, determined that the elements in the Lord's supper were the real body and blood of Christ, and the doctrine that this was the effect of a miracu- lous change had gained ground in the Greek church as early as 813. Badbert, a monk, who became abbot of Corbey, defined and maintained it in 831. Scotus in his "De Eucharistia" opposed it in 844; and a violent controversy on the question took place between Lanfranc and Berengarius in 1059. It was opposed by Wycliffe in 1381. Luther maintained it under the name of consub- stantiation in 1524. Disputations on the doctrine were held at Oxford and Cambridge in 1549 and 1550. Beaping-Machine was invented by the Eev. Mr. Bell, Carmylie, Forfarshire, about A. D. 1836. At a trial of reaping-machines, held at Keillor farm, Forfarshire, Sept. 4, 1852, the unanimous verdict of the judges was given in favour of this machine. Hussey's American machine competed on this oc- casion. Beason (Temple). — The National Con- vention at Paris ordered the worship of the Goddess of Beason, Nov. 10, 1793. Gobel, archbishop of Paris, with a number of the clergy, abjured the Christian faith at the bar of the National Assembly, and soon after Madame MaiUard, a member of the opera corps, was driven in a magnificent car to the cathedral of Notre Dame, where she was elevated on the high altar, and received homage from the crowd. The sacred edifice was thenceforth styled the "Temple of " "A similar act of impiety was EEC afterwards enacted in the church of St. Sulpice, the Divinity beiag personated by Madame Momaro. Beate (Italy). — This ancient city, one of the chief strongholds of the Sabines, is first mentioned in history about the date of its subjection to Borne, B.C. 290. Its inhabitants sent many volunteers to serve under Scipio, B.C. 205, and they were as- sisted by Cicero in a legal contest with the citizens of Interamna, B.C. 54. Beate was erected into a bishopric at a very early date, St. Prosdocimus, who flourished a.b. 46, being its first bishop. Its modern name is Bieti, and it was the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Neapolitans in 1798. Bebecca Biots, against toll and turnpike gates, broke out in Wales in February, 1843, and spread from the rural districts of Pem- brokeshire and Caermarthenshire into the mining and manufacturing districts in July. An old woman, keeper of a toll-gate, having been murdered Sept. 10, a proclamation, offering £500 reward for the discovery of incendiaries, appeared in the Gazette Oct. 3, and a commission to inquire into the opera- tion of the turnpike laws in Wales was appointed Oct. 10. A special commission for the trial of the prisoners was opened at Cardiff Oct. 27, when several persons were sentenced to various terms of transportation • and imprisonment. It closed Oct. 30. Bebellions. (See Plots.) Beceipts. — Stamp duties were first laid upon receipts for money by 23 Geo. III. c. 49 (1783), which was amended by 24 Geo. III. c. 7 (1784), and 31 Geo. III. c. 25 (1791). Additional duties were imposed by 35 Geo. III. c. 55 (May 5, 1795), and a uniform stamp of one penny on all sums above £2 was imposed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (Aug. 4, 1853) . The forgery of receipts was made a capital felony by 45 Geo. III. c. 89 (Julv 10, 1805). Becipeocitt Teeatt, for commercial purposes, wasconcluded between the United States and Great Britain at Washington by Lord Elgin, June 7, and ratified by the senate Aug. 5, 1854. Becitative. — This mode of singing was first employed by Jacopo Peri in his opera of "Eurydice," which was performed at Florence a.d. 1600. It is supposed to be a restoration of the method of singing among the Greeks and Bomans, but there is no reason to believe the supposition is correct. Becoedee. — This officer acts as a legal adviser of the lord mayor and aldermen. As a judge in their courts, and in corpora- tions, he takes precedence of all who have not filled the office of mayor. The earhest known recorder of the city of London is John de Norton, who was appointed to the office A.D. 1298. Eecoeds, Public. — The public records of England were first preserved by order of Henry I., a.d. 1100, and a roll of his reign is stiU in existence. The pipe rolls extend in an imbroken series from the year 1156 715 EEC to 1831, and form a collection of public documents unequalled in the archives of Europe. The making of false entries in the records was declared punishable by fine by 8 Eich. II. c. 4 (1384). The records are mostly written on parchment, the earliest on paper being of the time of Edward II. They are generally in the Latin language, except during the Interregnvun, when English was substituted. Latin was finally abohshed in the keeping of the records, as well as in other legal matters, by 4 Geo. II. c. 26 (1731). Many efibrts have been made for the systematic arrangement of the records. A commission, to inquire into the best mea- sures to be adopted, was appointed Jvdy 19, 1800, and was frequently renewed, the last time being by royal letters dated March 12, 1831. The commissioners presented their report Feb. 7, 1837, and the result was the passing of the " Act for keeping safely the Public Eecords," 1 & 2 Vict. c. 94 (Aug. 14, 1838), which estabhshed the Public Eecords Office. Eecoveeies AisTD EiNES in fictitious suits were abohshed by 3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 74 (Aug. 28, 1833). Eectjlvee (Kent). — The ancient fortress of Eegulbium was erected by the Eomans towards the end of their occupation of Britain, and the Saxons changed its name to Eaculf Ceastic. Ethelbert, king of Kent, gave up his palace at Canterbury to St. Augustine, and retired to this place a.d. 597. In 669 Egbert conferred it upon Bassa, a mass-priest, that it might form the site of a monastery, and in 949 the castle and monas- tery were granted to Canterbury cathedral by Edred. The church was pulled down in 1809, and the only ruins remaining are the west towers, which are luiown as "the Sisters." The sea encroaches on the coast at this place at an average rate of two feet every year, and the beach beneath the old churchyard is strewn with the bones that have been washed out by the tide. Eecusants. — Persons who refused to attend church on Sundays and hohdays were so styled by 1 Ehz. c. 2 (1559). Dissenting Protestants were reheved from the penalties of this act by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1689), and Eoman Catholics in 1791. The act itself was repealed by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 102 (Aug. 9, 1844). Eedan (Sebastopol), one of the defences of this town, was attacked by the Enghsh, who were repulsed with loss by the Eus- sians, June 18, 1855. They experienced another repulse Sept. 8, 1855, and it was evacuated by the Eussians Sept. 9, 1855. Eedhill Eefoematoet (Surrey), for juvenile off'enders, was established by Eobert Young A.D. 1788, and incorporated in 1806. Its operations were for many years carried on in St. George' s-in-the-Fields. Land was purchased at Eedhill, and the school was opened in April, 1849. Forty-five of the boys were confirmed by the bishop of Win- chester in May, 1859. Eedhina (Battle).— Wellington defeated 716 EEP the French under Massena and 'Sej at this place in Portugal, March 12, 1812. Eed Eose. (See Lancasteians and YOEKISTS.) Eed EtrssiA. — Galicia and Lodomeria were generally known under this name until A.D. 1773. Eefoem AssociATioif, to insure the regis- tration of electors and protect them in the exercise of the franchise, was instituted at a meeting held in Westminster, May 20, 1835. Eefoemation.— The earhest efforts di- rected against the errors of the Eomish church were those of the Paulicians, in the 7th century. lol7. A reformation is attempted in France by the Albigeuses {q. v. ). 1377. John Wycliffe opposes papal tyranny in England. 1408. John Huss introduces reformed doctrines in Bohemia (g. v.). 1498. Jerome Savonarola, the Dominican precursor of the Reformation, is burnt for heresy. 1517. M.irtiu Luther commences the Beformation in Gerniauy. 1519. It is introduced into Switzerland by Ulrich Zuinglius. 1521. Andreas Bodenstein, better known as Carl- stadt, from the place of his bii-th, intro- duces the Reformation into Denmark. 1525. The progress of the Reformation in Germany liroduces the war of the peasants. 1526. Prussia receives the reformed faith. 1527. It is officially established in Denmark. 1528. Patrick Hamilton is burnt at St. Andrew's for preaching the Reformation in Scotland. 1529. The Reformation is established in England, and the receivers of the new views assume the title of Protestants {q. v.). 15.32. John Calvin preaches in France. 1534. The papal supremacy is abolished in England. 1535. George Browne, the first Protestantarchbishop of Dublin, introduces the Reformation into Ireland. 1536. The refoi-med views are widely adopted in Norway. 1539. The Kcfoimation is officialy recognized and adopted i n Saxony. 1541. Protestantism is preached in Venice and Naples. 1544. It is completed in Sweden. 1545. Hungary and Transylvania receive the prin- cix)les of the Reformation. 1547. John Knox preaches in Scotland. 1550. The Reformers are numerous in Spain. 1556. John i Lasco preaches the Beformation in Poland. 1559. Gustavus Vasa introduces reformed Chiis- tianity into Lapland. 1560. Protestantism is established in Scotland. 1567. The receivers of the Beformatiou are nu- merous in Holland, where they are per- secuted by the duke of Alva. 1614 It is adopted by the elector of Brandenburg. Eefoematoet Schools, for the better care and reformation of youthful criminals in England and Scotland, were estabhshed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 86 (Aug. 10, 1854). Eefoem Banquets (French) . — A reform banquet was held at Ma^on Sept. 20, 1847, and the leaders of the French opposition de- termined on holding a grand reform banquet at Paris, Jan. 19, 1848. The project was pro- hibited by the police, according to alaw passed Aug. 24, 1790; but they persisted in their design, and on the 14th of February an- nounced their intention of celebrating the REF ; feast the following Feb. 22. A large open space in the Champs Elysees was selected, and pre- parations made for the accomimodation of 6,000 guests, when a compromise was effected with government, by which the banquet was to be converted into a procession. Owing to the refusal of the opposition deputies to take part in the procession, addresses were published on the afternoon of Feb. 21, announcing the abandonment of the entire scheme. On the following day the people assembled, according to the first arrangements, and remained in order tUl the evening, when barricades were erected, and the revolution commenced, which resulted in the expulsion of Louis Philippe from France {q.v.). Reform Bills. — Mr. Pitt's bill for reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, May 7, 1782. His proposal was again de- feated by a majority of 144, May 7, 1783, and of 74, April 18, 1785. Sir Francis Burdett's plan was negatived by a majority of 69, June 15, 1809 ; and Mr. Daniel O'Connell's project for introducing imiversal suffrage, triennial parliaments, and the bal- lot, was rejected by 306 votes. May 28, 1830, The first reform bill introduced by govern- ment was that of the Grey administra- tion, which was brought before the House of Commons March 1, 1831. The first division took place March 22, when a ma- jority of one declared in favour of the second reading. On the question of a committee, General Gascoyne proposed as an amend- ment, " that the number of representatives for England and Wales ought not to be diminished," which was carried by a ma- jority of eight, April 19. The bill was relinquished in consequence, and parliament dissolved April 22. A new parliament as- sembled June 14, and the bill was again introduced June 24. The motion for its second reading passed by a majority of 136, July 6; and a majority of 109 de- clared in favour of the third reading, Sept. 21 ; but the bill was rejected in the Lords on the question of its second reading, by a majority of forty-one, Oct. 7. A new biU was introduced by Lord John Russell Dec. 12, and passed its first reading without a division. The motion for its second read- ing was carried by a majority of 162 (the number of assentients being just double that of the dissentients), Dec. 17; and it was read a third time by a majority of 116, March 22, 1832. This bill was read a first time in the Lords March 26 ; and the second reading was carried by a majority of 9, April 13. The biU was consequently carried into a committee of the Lords, where an amendment by Lord Lyndhurfet for consider- ing the question of enfranchisement before that of disfranchisement was carried against government by a majority of 35, May 7. The ministry resigned May 9, but resumed their offices May 18, having obtained powers to create a sufficient number of new peers to secure them a majority in the Lords. The bill passed the Lords' committee May 30, REG and was read for the third time by a majority of 84, June 4. It received the royal assent June 7, and appears in the statute-book as the " Act to amend the Representation of the People in England and Wales, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45 (June 7, 1832) ." The representation of Scotland was amended by 2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 65 (July 17, 1832), and that of Ireland by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 88 (Aug. 7, 1832). Lord John Russell received leave to introduce another re- form bill Feb. 13, 1854; which, in conse- quence of the Russian war, was withdrawn April 11. Mr. Disraeli introduced a bill Feb. 28, 1859, which was thrown out on the second reading by a majority of 39, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced another mea- sure March 1, 1860, which was withdrawn June 11. Refreshment-Hotjses in England were subjected to a licence duty by 23 Vict. c. 27 (June 14, 1860), and in Ireland by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 107 (Aug. 28, 1860). Regalia, or the Insignia of England, at present kept in the jewel-house of the Tower, were made for the coronation of Charles II., April 23, 1661, the former set having been destroyed in 1649 by order of the Long Par- liament. An attempt was made to carry off the regalia from the Tower by the notorious Colonel Blood, May 9, 1671. Regatta, from the Italian, meaning a race on the water, was first applied to a fete at Venice, in which the gondoliers contended for prizes. The term was introduced into this country and applied to boat-races about the end of last century, such a contest, which took place on the Thames June 23, 1775, being announced as a novelty. Reg ED (Scotland), corresponding to Annandale, in Dumfriesshire, formed one of the numerous small kingdoms into which the country was divided a.d. 626. Regeistct Bills. — ^A measure of this kind was passed, appointing the princess dowager of Wales regent, on the death of Frederick, prince of Wales, should the crown descend to a minor, a.d. 1751. During the first iLLness of George III. he himself proposed one, the name of his mother being included, April, 1765. The premier moved three resolutions in the House of Commons, when George III, was a second time attacked by his malady, to consider what steps should be taken to provide for the government, Dec. 10, 1788. The decision of the legislature as to what powers should be invested in the regent, was submitted to the prince of Wales, Dec. 30, 1788, and a biU, which passed the Commons, after a warm discussion, was introduced Feb. 3, 1789, and reached the second reading in the Lords, Feb. 19, 1789, after which it was abandoned, owing to the recovery of his majesty. It was, however, revived and passed Feb. 5, 1811, and the prince of Wales exercised the regency tiU the death of his father. By 1 Will. IV. c. 2 (Dec. 23, 1830), the administration of the government, in the event of the crown descending to the Princess Alexandrina Victoria in her mi- 717 EEG nority was provided for ; and by 3 & 4 Vict. (Aug. 4, 1840), Prince Albert was appointed regent in the event of the demise of the crown during the minority of the next ia succession. Eegents were first appointed in England by Henry III. under the name of Custodes regni, about A.D. 1230. The Black Prince, then duke of Cornwall, was left guardian of the kingdom in 1339, when he was but ten years of age, and his son Eichard, when still younger, during the absence iu France of Edward III. in 1372. During the mino- rity of Henry YI. the duke of Bedford was appointed protector, and the duke of Glou- cester in his absence in 1422; and when Henry's mental incapacity became decided, the peers elected the duke of Fork protec- tor in 1454. This regency terminated with the recovery of the king, but he relapsed after the affair at St. Alban's, and the duke was re-appointed by parliament, N'ov. 19, 1455. During the minority of Edward YI. his uncle, the earl of Hertford, created duke of Somerset, was declared protector, March 13, 1547. When George I. went to Germany, he left the prince of Wales guardian of the kingdom, July 7, 1716, and George II. appointed Queen Caroline regent when he visited Hanover, May 17, 1729. The prince of Wales (George lY.) assumed the regency on account of his father's mental incapacity, Eeb. 5, 1811. On the death of Louis XIY. of France, the duke of Orleans was recog- nized as regent of the kingdom, Sept. 2, 1715. Eegent's Cakal (London). — The new branch, uniting all the principal canals in the kingdom with the river Thames, which had been nearly seven years incomplete, was finished under the superintendence of J. Nash, and opened Aug. 1, 1820. EE&EifT's Park (London). — This park forms part of old Marylebone P ark, which has been long disforested. It was com- menced by Mr. James Morgan a.d. 1812, but the public were not admitted to the inner plantations until 1838. The terraces surrounding the park were designed by John ISTash and Decimus Burton. Eeggio, or Ehegiusi (Italy), was founded by the Chalcidians about b.c. 720 ; became the head-quarters of the Pythagoreans after the death of their master, b.c. 497; rose to great prosperity under Anaxilas, who died B.C. 476, expelled his two sons b.c. 461, and fitted out a large fleet and army against Dionysius of Syracuse B.C. 399. After sundry attempts he took the city, and destroyed it, slaughtering the citizens, or selling' them for slaves, B.C. 387. It was restored by the younger Dionysius, whose yoke was thrown off B.C. 351. Through fear of Pyrrhus, it formed an aUiance with the Eomans, received from them a garrison | of Campanian troops, who rose against the inhabitants, putting the men to the sword, i and reducing to slavery the women and children, B.C. 280. The Eomans took the city, and punished their rebel soldiers, b.c. I 718 EEG 270. An earthquake nearly destroyed it ; B.C. 91, and it became a Eoman municipium B.C. 88. Octaviusmade it the head-quarters for his fleet and army in the war with Sextus Pompeius, B.C. 38 — 36. It was captured by Alaric a.d. 410, and byTotUa in 549. Having been subject to the Greek emperors, and taken by the Saracens, it came into posses- sion of Eobert Guiscard in 1060. It was sacked by the Turks in 1543, again in 1558, and a third time in 1593. An earth- quake in 1783 did not leave a house un- injured, and a second did much damage in 1841. EEGiFrGirM, or Fugalia. — This festival, said by some writers to have been instituted in commemoration of Tarquin's flight from Eome, was held annually, in that city, Feb. 24 according to some authorities, and May 24 according to others. Eegillus. (See Lake EEGiLiiUS.) Eegimex TS appear to have been first con- stituted and so designated in France, about A.D. 1562. The French guards were raised by Charles IX. for his personal defence in 1563. In England mention is made of them during the threatened invasion in 1588, and in connection with the army in Ireland in 1598. Just after the restoration in 1661, the army having been disbanded, two regiments, one of foot and the other of horse, were re-formed in 1661. The Scotch corps, which returned from France in 1661, and was called the first, or royal regiment of infantry, is the oldest regiilar corps in Europe. The two regiments of hfeguards at the head of the army hst were raised in 1788. One regiment of infantry was raised in Ireland in 1684, afterwards called the Eoyal Irish, in honour of its gallant conduct at the siege of Wamur in 1695. Eegisteation" op Bieths, Deaths, and Maeeiages.— It was enjoined in the 12th article of Cromwell's injunctions, issued in September, 1538, that a record of these should be kept in each parish. Various sub- sequent injunctions having met %vith little attention, a biQ to enforce the performance of the royal mandate was introduced into parhament in March, 1563, but was not passed. The archbishop of Canterbury made some exertions in the matter in 1597, and again in 1603. By 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6 (1694), certain duties on marriages, births, and burials, also on bachelors and widowers, and for having them duly registered, were imposed, to enable the king to carry on the war with France. By 52 Geo. III. c. 146 (July 28, 1812), alterations were made in the existing law. The registration act, 6 & 7 WiU. lY. c. 86, passed Aug. 17, 1836, came into force July 1, 1837. This was amended by 1 Vict. e. 22 (June 30, 1837). The registration in Scotland was assimilated to that of England by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 80 (Aug. 7, 1854) . Eegisteation- of Deeds. — Bargains and sales of land were required to be registered by 27 Hen. YIII. c. 16 (1536) . A register was established for the West Eiding of York- REG shire by 2 & 3 Anne, c. 4 (1703) ; one in the East Eiding for wills and deeds by 6 Anne, c. 35 (1707) ; one for Middlesex by 7 Anne, c. 20 (1709) ; and one for the North Eiding by 8 Geo. II. c. 6 (1734). Bills of sale of per- sonal chattels, to prevent fraud upon cre- ditors, are required to be registered by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 36 (July 10, 1854) . Registeatioit op Votebs was established by 2 Wm. IV. c. 45, s. 26 (June 7, 1832). The law was amended by 6 Vict. c. 18 (May 31, 1843). The law in Scotland was amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 58 (July 21, 1856). Eegittm DomjM:, or Eoyal Gift, to the amount of £600, was granted as secret service money by Charles II., to be distri- buted annually among the Presbyterian clergymen of Ireland, a.d. 1672= Having been discontinued, it was renewed in 1690 by William III., who increased the sum to £1,200. George I. granted a considerable sum for the relief of ministers belonging to the Presbyterians, Independents, and Bap- tists, in 1723. It was further augmented to £2,200 in 1784, to £5,000 in 1792, and to £38,953 in 1856. Eeichenbach (Germany) . — Preliminaries of peace were signed between Prussia and Austria at this town, July 27, 1790. A con- gress was assembled here by the British ministry to form an alliance against Eussian aggression in 1791. The treaty that laid the foundation of the grand alliance against Napoleon I. was signed here June 14, 1813 ; and Austria gave her adherence to it July 27. Reichenbeeg (Germany). — The troops of the emperor Frederick, under the prince of Severn, drove the Austrians, commanded by Count Konigsegg, from a strong position near this town of Bohemia, a.d. 1757. It was occupied by the French in 1813. Reichseath, or council of the Austrian empire, was extended by an imperial patent March 5, 1860. It met in May, and a new constitution was promulgated Oct. 21. Both houses re-assembled May 1, 1861. Eeigate (Surrey), anciently called Cherch- feUe, or Churchfield, at which place a church existed a.d. 1199, in the reign of King John. Eeigate castle is said to have been buUt before the Norman conquest, and in 1216 was in possession of Louis, dauphin of Fi-ance. It was demolished by order of the Long Parliament, July 4, 1648. Eeigate priory is said to have been built by WilSam de Warren, who died in 1240. Eeigate received a charter from Edward II. in 1313, and another from Charles II. in 1673. It first sent two members to parliament in 1295, and continued to do so till 1832, when the number was reduced to one by the Reform Bill. Eeign of Teseoe. — The first period of anarchy, bloodshed, and confiscation, called the reign of terror, commenced in France after the fall of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and extended to Danton's death, March 31, 1794. The second period extended from April 5 till the fall of Robespierre, July 27, REM 1794. Nearly a million persons were put to death during this short time. Relics.— Those of St. Andrew, St. Luke, and Timothy, were traniported in pomp by Constantius II. to the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, a.d. 360; and what were called the ashes of Samuel, the prophet and judge of Israel, received a like distinction about 410. An immense trade in relics sprung up at Jerusalem, the articles consisting of dry bones, chips of wood, rusty nails, and rotten rags of cloth, which were said to possess the virtue of working every description of miracle, A.D. 604. At the taking of Constantinople by the Latins, April 9, 1204, these formed a valuable portion of the pillage, the abbot Martin securing as his share " a stain of the blood of the Lord, a piece of the holy cross, the arm of the apostle James, some of the bones of John the Baptist, some of the milk of the Blessed Virgin, and many more." Baldwin II. sold to St. Louis the crown of thorns which had been placed on the head of the Saviour for the sum of ten thousand marks of silver, the relic being transferred from Venice to Paris, where the king, bare- foot and in his shirt, carried it in triumph through the streets in 1261. When the council of Basel; met for the deposition of Pope Eugenius, and many bishops absented themselves through timidity, their place was supplied by the coUeeted reHcs of many famous saints, which were borne by the priests through the city, and introduced into the hall of council May 16, 1439. The shrine of Thomas Becket was plundered, and many objects of superstitious veneration in Eng- land were destroyed in 1538. The sale of relics was prohibited by Pope Innocent III., A.D. 1198. Religioh-s. — The following tables exhibit the numerical strength of the most important religious systems according to the best au- thorities. For the chronology see each ar- ticle separately. Clii-istiaiis Jews Mohammedans . Krahminists . . . Buddhists Other sects Malte- Brmi. 22S,00n,000 5,000.000 110,000,000 6,000,000 15,000,000 100.000,000 252,000,000 3,930,000 120,105,000 111.353,000 315,977,000 134.490'000 260,000,000 4,000,000 96,000,000 6,000.000 170,000,000 147,000,000 CHEISTIANS. Eomanists 148,300,000 Greek Church 63.520,000 Church of England 16,000.000 Methodists 2,100,000 Independents 2,000,000 Universalists 600,000 Quakers 245,000 Memnonites 150,000 Moravians 70.000 New Church 40,000 Mormonites 40,000 Remonsteaitce, called the Great Remon- strance, consisting of 206 articles, condemna- 719 EEM EEU tory of the acts of Charles I., was debated seventeen hours in the house of Commons, and carried by a majority of eleven, the numbers being 159 for, and 148 against, Ifov. 22, 1641. It was presented to the king Dec. 1. EEitoifSTEAirTS, SO Called from a remon- strance presented by the followers of James Arminius to the states of Holland, setting forth the grievances under which they suffered, and praying for redress, a.d. 1610. (See Aeminians.) EejS^dsbue& (Denmark) was encircled by walls A.D. 1539, and was till 1581 alternately in the hands of the Holsteiners and Danes. It was fortified anew by Frederick Til. of Denmark in 1669, and additional fortifica- tions were constructed in 1685 and 1695. The general assembly of the states met here April 3, 1848, and the town was taken by the Eussian and Holstein troops in 1848. The Danes regained possession and dis- mantled it in 1852. Eeniega, (Battle,) was fought a.d. 1521, between the French under Andre Lesparre and the Spaniards, in which the latter were victorious, capturing the French general, and recovering IS'avarre. Eenkes (France), captured a.d. 841, was the capital of a country till 992, and was the seat of the parliament instituted by Henry II. in 1555. Eenaes was devas- tated by a fire, which lasted from Dec. 22 to 29, 1720, consuming 850 houses. The par- hament house of the states of Britanny, now the Palais de Justice, was erected in 1670. In 1788 twelve hundred gentlemen of the states of Britanny met at Rennes and St. Brieux and chose twelve of their number as a deputation to bear the remonstrances of the various states to the king. An insur- rection broke out Jan. 26, 1789, A council was held here jlay 22, 1273. Eents. — The system of paying rents in money instead of in kind was introduced A.D. 1136. Sir Eichard Philips estimates the proportion of rents to produce as follows : *' In the age of the Plantagenets, rents were to produce as 1 to 30 ,: at the Eevolution, 1 to 12 ; under the funding system they rose as 1 to 7. In the paper-money times they became as 1 to 5 and 4 ; and under the fall of markets, have, since 1830, been as 3 '5, and 3'1" A great reduction in rents was made in 1621, owing to the cheapness of wheat, and in 1703 a sudden fall in prices rendered farmers unable to pay their rents. Eents experienced their greatest rise about the year 1812. By 8 Anne, c. 14 (1709), no goods could be taken in execution unless the sheriff has previously paid the landlord the rent due, and by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 (1731), arrears of all Idnds of rent were made recoverable by distress. I* o arrears can be recovered for more than six years by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, s. 42 (July 24, 1833). Eepeal of the Ujs-ioir.— Daniel O'Connell first commenced to form associations for the repeal of the union. a.d. 1829. The house of Commons by a majority of 4S5 rejected his motion for repeal, April 27, 1834, The National Loyal Eepeal Association, which had been formed in 18411, was again put into active operation early in 1843, and a monster meeting was held at Trim, March 16, 1843. O'Connell was tried and convicted Feb. 12, 1844', and was released Sept. 5. Eeqtjests (Court of). {See Co:-ishes under the government of the senator Brancaleone. 1278. Charles is compelled by the pope to abdicate. 1309. The pope removes to Avignon. 1341. April 8. Petrarch is crowned with laurel in the Capitol. A.D. 1347. May 20. Cola di Rienzi assumes the govern- ment of Rome as tribune. Aug. 1. He is invested with the order of the Holy Ghost in the Lateran with great pomp. Nov. 20. He puts to death Stephen and John Colonna. Dec. 15. He is compelled to abdicate. 1351. Rienzi finds an asylum at Avignon. 1354. He is restored to power by Pope Innocent VI., and is made senator of Rome. Sept. 8. He is murdered by the populace. 1420. Rome is restored by Martin V. 1434. May 29. The Romans revolt against the tem- poral authority of the pope. 1450. Nicholas V. commences the cathedral church of St. Peter. 1453. Jan. 9. Stephen Porcaro is hanged for sedi- tion. 1500. The papal authority is absolute at Rome from about this year. 1506. The building of St. Peter's is resumed by Pope Julius II. 1527. June 6. Rome is taken and sacked by the ex-constable de Boiirbon. 1626. Dedication of St. Peter's by Urban VIII. 1773. Aug. 16. The Jesuits are expelled from Rome. 1797. Dec. 27. An insurrection breaks out at Rome, in which General Duphot is killed. Dec. 29. The French embassy quits the city. 1798. Feb. 10. The Fi-ench army under Berthier enters Rome. Feb. 15. The pope is de- prived of his temporal authority, and is removed from Rome. Mai ch 20. The French proclaim the Roman republic. Nov. 29. They abandon the city to the Neapolitans. 1800. July 3. The pope returns to Rome. 1806. Feb. 13. Napoleon 1. asserts that he is emperor of Rome, and the ijope only his viceroy. 1808. Feb. 2. The French enter Rome. May 21. Napoleon I. annexes the papal states to the kingdom of Italy, of which he declares Rome the second city. 1809. May 17. Napoleon I. declares Rome a free and imperial city of the French emisire. July 5. Arrest of the pope by General Radet. 1811. March 20. Napoleon's infant son, born this day, receives the title of king of Rome. 1814. Jan. 23. The Pope retui-ns to Rome. Aug. 7. He restores the Jesuits and the luquisi- tfon. 1819. April 2. The emperor and empress of Austria visit Rome. 1823. July 15. The church of St. Paul is destroyed by fire. 1846. June 16. Cardinal Mastai Ferreti is raised to the popedom by the title of Pius IX. 1847. July 13. A plot to create a popular insurrec- tion at Rome is discovered. 1848. April 29. The pope declares war against Aus- tria. May 19. The Roman volunteers are defeated by the Austriaus at the battle of the Piave. Nov. 15. Count Rossi, minister of justice, is assassinated. Nov. 16. An insurrection breaks out at Rome, in which Cardinal Palma, the iDope's secretary, is killed. Nov. 24. The pope quits Rome in disguise. Nov. 27. He protests against the revolution. The French government dis- patches M. de Corcelles, with a force of 3,500 men, to his assistance. Dec. 11. A commission of regency is appointed. 1849. Feb. 5. The " Constituent Assembly" meets. Feb. 8. It declares the pope deprived of all temporal power, and proclaims the Roman republic. Feb. 14. The pope protests against iiis loss of temporal power. Feb. 18. He appeals for assistance to the Roman Ca- tholic powers. April 26. A French army under Marshal Oudinot occupies Civita Vecchia. April 30. The French fail in. an attack on the city. May 5. The Roman forces tmder General Garibaldi defeat the Neapolitans. 733 EOM 1849. June 3. The French commence the siege of Borne. June 21. They enter the city. June 30. Eome surrenders to the French. July 3. Oudinot enters the city and sends the keys to the pope. July 4. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. July 15. The papal authority is restored. Aug. 3. The French general proclaims the restoration of the pope, but states that the city will remain under the protection of a French army of occupation. Sept. 4. The pope visits the king of Naples at Portici. Sept. 12. He publishes an amnesty, and promises judi- cial and admiuistrative reforms. 1850. April 12. The pope returns to Rome. Sept. 24. He publishes a bull establishing a Eoman Catholic hierarchy in England. Assassina- tions are frequent at Eome this year. 1851. AprU 25. A concordat is signed with Tu=cany. 1853. Aug. 1.5. Alai-m is given of an iut*-nded insun-ectii 'n, in con? equence of which many arrests take place. 1855. Aug. 18. A coucoidat is signed with Austria. 1857. Mfiy 4. The pops leaves Rome on a tour through his dominions. Sept. 5. The pope returns to Rome. 1859. Feb. 22. The pope announces his readiness to make an-angements for the evacuation of his territories by the French and Aus- trians. June 15. The pope protests against the recent insurrections in Bologna, ler- rara, and other places. June 20. His forces bombard and take Perugia. July 12. The pope protests against Sai-dinian inter- ference in the atfau-s of the Romagua. Aug. 26. A concordat is signed witb the queen of Spain, who engages to send au army of occupation into the Roman states, in case of the withdrawal of the French troops. Sept. 1. Opening of the national assembly of the Romagna at Bologna. Sept. 7. The assembly unanimously votes in favour of separation from the temporal power of the pope. Sept. 2G. The pope an- nuls all the acts of the assembly. Oct. 1. A decree is publi^^hed ordering public acts to be proclaimed in the name of Kuig Victor Emanuel. Oct. 9. The Sardinian ambassador quits Eome. Nov. 6. Prince EugSne di Savoy- Carignan is invested with the regency of the Romagna. Nov. 14. He declines the office, which is confcn'ed upon General Buoncompagni. Dec. 7. The pope again protests against the interference of Sardinia. Dec. 24. Modena, Pai-ma, and the Romagna are formed ii.to the province of Emilia. Dec. 31. Napoleon III. insists upon the cession of the Legations by the pope. 1860. Jan. 8. The pope refuses to surrender the Legations. Jan. 27. The concordat with Tuscany is annulled. March 19. Rome is the scene of violent riots on the occasion of the anniversary of Garibaldi's birthday. March 20. Suppression of the Lombard con- cordat. March 26. Tne pope excommuni- cates all who have taken any part in the re- bellion of his provinces. May 1. The pope appeals to the Eoman Catholics of eveiy na- tion for a loan of 50,000,000 francs. May 19. An u-ruption of Tuscan volunteers under General Ziambianchi into the papal states is repulsed. Sept. 6. An insurection com- mences in the Marches. Sept 7. The Sar- dinian government demands ihe dismission of the foreign troops from the papal army. Sept. 9. The Sardinian general, Fantl, threatens to invade the Roman states. Sept. 11. Cardinal Antouelli, papal secre- tary of state, replies in the negative to the Sardinian ultimatum, in eonseriueuce of which generals Fanti and Cialdini enter the papal territories. Sept 12. Cialdini occupies Pe?aro. Sept. 13. He seizes Sini- gaglia. Sept. 14 Fanti takes Perugia, 734 EOM 1860. Sept. 18. The papal troops under Lamori- cidre are defeated by Cialdini, at Castel- fidardo. The Sardinian admiral, Persano, bombards Ancona. Sept. 28. The pope protests against the Sardinian invasion. Sept. 29. Ancona surrenders to the Sar- dinians. Oct. 6. The Sardinians evacuate the papal cities, which are occupied by the French. Nov. 3. The result of popular suffr.age in the Marches is published, and is greatly in favour of annexation to Pied- mont. Nov. 4. Protest of the papal govern- ment against it. 1861. Feb. 15. The pamphlet " La France, Rome.et r Italie," is published at Paris. Feb. 26. Car- dinal Antonelli replies to it in a note to the papal minister at Paris. March 27. Count Cavoui- states in the Sardinian chambers that it is essential to make Rome the capi- tal of Italy. April 15. The pajml govern- ment protests iigainst Victor Emanuel'a assumption of the title of " King of Italy." May 21. A petition for the with- drawal of the French troops, signed by 10,000 of the Luhabitauts, ia forwarded to Napoleon III. KINGS OF HOME. B.C. 753. Romulus. 715. Numa Pompilius. 673. Tnllus Hoatilius. 641. Aucus Martius. 616. Tarquiuius Priscus. 578. Servius 'inUlius. 5'M. Tai-quinius Superbus. 510. Consular government is established, under Brutus and Collatinus. ESIPEEOES OF EOME. 27. Augustus Caesar. Jl.D. 14. Tiberius. 37. Caligula. 41. Claudius L 54. Nero. 68. Galba. { Otho. 69. \ Vitellius. ( Vespasian, 79. Titus. 81. Domitian. 96. Nerva. 98. Trajan. 117. Adrian, or Hadrian. 138. Antoninus Pius. 161. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. 168. Marcuj Aurelius, alone. 180. Commodus. ( Pertinax. 193. < Juliauua. t Septimius Sevems. 211. Caracalla and Geta. 212. Caracalla, alone. 217. Macrinus. 218. Elgabalus. 222. Alexander Severus. 235. Maximinus. 237. The Gordians, father and son. 238. /Balbinus and Pupienus. (. Gordian, junior. 244. Philippus, the Arabian. 249. Decius. 251. 253. / Emilia n us. (. Valerianus aad Gallienus. 260. Gallienus, alone. 268. Claudius IL 270. Amelian. 275. Tacitus. 276. f Florianus. \ Probus. 282. Cams. EOM 283. Carinus and Numerianua. 284. Diocletian. 286. Diocletian and Maximian. 300. Coustantius Chlorus and G-alerius. 306. Constantine I., Galerius, Maximian (again), Maxentius, and Severus. 307. Constantine I., Galerius, Maximian, Maxen- tius, and Licinius. 308. Constantine I. , Galerius, Maximian, Maxen- tius, and Licinius. 310. Constantine I., Galerius, Maxentius, Licinius, and Maximian. 311. Constantine I., Maxentius, Licinius, and Galerius. 313. Constantine I., Licinius, and Maxentius. 313. Constantine I. and Licinius. 323. Constantine I. alone. 337. Constantius TI., Constans L, and Constan- tine II. 340. Constantius II. and Constans. 350. Constantius II., alone. 860. Julian, the Apostate. 363. Jovian. (See Easteen and Westeex Empiees, Italx, and Popes.) EoMHANY (Battle). — The Austrians defeated Eagotsky, the Hungarian rebel, in this encounter, which took place a.d. 1710. EoNCESTALLES (Spain). — This small vil- lage, in the valley of the same name, is cele- brated as the spot where Eoland and twelve peers of France, who had invaded Spain a.d. 778, were defeated and slain by the Navar- rese. The Spaniards were defeated here by the French in June, 1794, and again in Octo- ber, 1794. The pass of Eoncesvalles was forced by the French, under Marshal Soult, after an obstinate resistance by the Enghsh and Spaniards, July 25, 1813. EoNDA (Spain) was founded by the Moors and became the capital of the Moorish chief AbouMehc a.d. 1331. He built a castle, and strongly fortified the town, which was deemed impregnable xmtil taken by Ferdinand of Spain in 1485. The Spaniards were defeated here by the French in May, 1810. Eogt-aitd-Beanch Men. — The extreme republican party, who advocated the over- throw of the monarchy, and the destruction of the Church of England during the great rebellion, assumed this name about a.d. 1641 . Eope-Making. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans used the tendons of animals for their warhke machines. It was also customary to spin bark of trees, papyrus, and other sub- stances. Machinery to aid the manual ope- ration was first invented by Sylvester a.d. 1783, and patented in 1784. It has been succeeded by nimierous other inventions and patents. Wire was substituted for hemp at the silver-mines of the Harz Mountains in 1831, although a patent had prior to that time been taken out for the same purpose in England. RoQUB, San (Spain) .—This town, in An- dalusia, was built out of the ruins of the ancient Carteia, a.d. 1704. Eosamond's Bowee. — Eosamond, the daughter of Lord Chff"ord, became the mis- tress of Henry II. shortly before his acces- sion to the throne, a.d. 1154. To guard her EOS from injury, Henry kept her in a secret bower at Woodstock, the approaches to which formed a labyrinth so intricate that it could only be entered with the guidance of a silken thread which the king used for that purpose. Queen Eleanor is said to have discovered Eosamond' s retreat by means of this thread, and to have poisoned her rival. Eosamond was buried at Godstow church, whence her bones were removed to the com- mon cemetery by the bishop of Lincoln in 1191 ; but they were afterwards replaced in the church. EosAET. — A Eoman Catholic devotional practice, said to have been first instituted by St. Dominic about a.d. 1200, in honour of the Virgin Mary. It consists in reciting fifteen times the Paternoster, and 150 times the Ave Maria ; and as the computation is made by means of beads, the string of beads used for this purpose has acquired the name of a rosary. According to the Abbe Prevost, it consists of " fifteen tens said to be in honour of the fifteen mysteries in which the Virgin Mary bore a part." EosAS (Spain), anciently called Ehode, was besieged and taken by the French, Feb. 3, 1795. They were defeated here by the Spaniards, July 11, 1808. A French fleet of eleven armed vessels in the bay, protected by the powerful batteries of the town and cas- tle, were cut out by the boats of an English squadron, under Lieutenant Tailour, and the whole of them captured or destroyed, Nov. 1, 1809. Eosas, which had been occu- pied by the Spaniards, was besieged by the French, under Marshal St. Cyr, in Novem- ber, 1809; the town was soon taken, and the citadel and Fort Trinidad were breached, Nov. 27. The governor was about to sur- render, when Lord Cochrane arrived in the bay, threw himself into Fort Trinidad with a British force, and repulsed two assaults of the French with great slaughter. The cita- del, however, surrendered Dec. 4, and Loi'd Cochrane retired with the garrison of the fort on board his vessel. Eosas was sur- rendered by the French in April, 1814. Eos BACH (Battle). — A victory was gained at thi'fe place, in Prussia, by Frederick the Great, over 30,000 French and 20,000 Austrians, Nov. 5, 1757. The French and Austrians lost nearly 9,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The battle-field of Eosbach was visited by Napoleon I. in October, 1806, when he ordered the column, erected by the Prus- sians to commemorate the victory, to be sent as a trophy to Paris. EoscoMMON (Ireland). — The Auteri, a people mentioned by Ptolemy, a.d. 139, were the earhest inhabitants. At a later period it was occupied by the red and the brown O' Conors, the Macdermots, the O'Dalys, and the O'KeUys. Miles de Cogan, an English adventurer, assisted by Murrough, son of Eoderic, king of Ireland, having invaded it, was compelled to re- treat in 1073. It was ravaged by William de Burgo Fitzaldelin, lord of Limerick, in 735 EOS 1204.. Athlone Castle was built in 1216, and that of Eoseommon in 1268^ The power of the O' Conors was broten in a victory gained OTer them by the English in 1315. The county was divided into baronies in the reign of Elizabeth. The O'Conor Don having taken part with the Ulster insurgents, his estates were confiscated in 1641, but he was reinstated in possession of greater part of them at the Eestoration in 1660. The abbey of Boyle, now in ruins, was founded in 1148. Eoseommon, the chief town of the county, derived its origin from the abbey founded by St. Coman in 550. It formerly sent two members to parhament, but was disfran- chised Jan. 1, 1801. The abbey for the order of Preaching Friars was founded by O'Conor, king of Connaught, about 1257; and the castle, the ruins of which are still to be seen, was built by Sir Eobert de Ufford a few years later. EosE. — TheProvins rose was introduced from Italy before a.d. 1596; the damask rose, from the south of France, before 1573 ; the moss rose, from jSTorth America, before 1724; the rose without thorns, also from North America, before 1726 ; and the China rose, from China, about 1789. EosES (War of). {See Lancastrians andToEKisTS.) EosETTA (Egypt) is said to have been founded by the son of the celebrated Haroun- al-Eashid, about a.d. 875. It was taken and fortiiied by the French in 1798, and captured from them by the British and Turks, April 19, 1801. A British force was defeated here bv an overwhelming body of Tui-kish horse, April 22, 1807. EosETTA Stone is the name given to a stone in the British Museum, which was discovered by the French among the ruins of Fort St. Julien, near Eosetta, a.d. 1801. It came into the possession of the British on the capitulation of Alexandria, Aug. 22, 1801, and was brought to England in 1802. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long and 2% feet wide, with an inscription in three languages ; viz. hieroglyi^hic, excho- rial — or characters of the country — and Greek. The inscription in Greek eulogizes the virtues of Ptolemy Epiphanes, who suc- ceeded to the throne e.g. 205, when only four or five years old. It appears to have been erected about b.c. 193. Eosicetjcians. — ^A sect of visionary specu- lators in Germany, whose existence became first known to the public in the 17th century. In 1619 John Valentine Andreas, a German scholar, published a work containing an ac- count of Christian Eosenkreuz, a German noble of the 14th century, who after a long sojourn in the East, returned to Germany and founded a secret society of a few adepts who lived together in a building called Sancti Spiritus, where he died at the age of 106. The society renewed itself from time to time by the admission of new members in silence and obscurity, according to the last injvme- tions of its founder. The Eosicrucians have not been heard of as a separate order since 736 EOT a little after the middle of the 18th century, Mosheim contends that the name was applied to the Chemists, or Fire-worshippers. EosKiLD (Sweden). — Charles Gustavns, king of Sweden, after gaining several victo- ries over the king of Denmark, concluded a peace here, through the mediation of France and England, Feb. 25, 1658. Eoss (Hereford) was made a free borough by Henry III., and sent members to parha- ment A.D. 1305. This privilege was relinquish- ed on the petition of the inhabitants in 1306. Charles I. rested here on his way from Eagland Castle in 1645. John Kyrle, im- mortalized by Pope as the " Man of Eoss," died here at the age of 84, in 1724. Eoss, or New Eoss (Ireland), was sur- rounded with walls A.D, 1269. It was taken by Cromwell, and the fortifications demo- Hshed in 1649. Some insurgents who attacked the town were defeated with great slaughter by General Johnston, June 4, 1798. EosTOCK (Germany) was raised to the rank of a city a.d. 1030, and was taken and burnt by Valdemar I., king of Denmark, a.d. 1161. It was annexed to Mecklenburg in 1323, and joined the Hanseatic League, from which it separated in 1492. St. Peter's Church, remarkable for a steeple 420 feet in height, was founded at the end of the 12th century. The university of Eostock was founded in 1419. Eostock was repeatedly oc- cupied by hostile troops in the 18th century. EoTA Club. — This political society for contriving an equal government by rotation, was formed in London during the Inter- regnum. AH the principal officers of state were to be chosen bj' ballot, and a certain number of members of parliament were to be changed annually by rotation — whence the club took its name. EoTHENBUEG (Bavarfa) was anciently in the possession of the counts of Eothenburg, who became extinct about a.d. 1100, when the town was ceded to the emperor of Ger- many. It was mortgaged by Conrad IV. and Louis IV. to the house of Hohenlohe ; but on the last occasion the town redeemed itself, and obtained a promise from Louis IV. in 1335 that it should not be mortgaged again. This promise was confirmed by Charles IV. and Wenceslaus. Eothenburg remained in possession of the empire tiU 1802, when it was bestowed on the elector of Bavaria. EoTHEEHAM (Yorkshire) is supposed to have been founded early in the Saxon period, and possessed a weekly market and annual fair before the Conquest. A second market and fair were granted to the town by Edward I. in 1307. The parish church, a handsome Gothic structure, was built in the reign of Edward IV. A coUege, founded in 1482, was suppressed in the reign of Edward VI. ; the remains stiU exist, and are used as an inn. The Free Grammar-school was founded in 1584. Hollis's schools, for the education of thirty children, were founded in 1663. A meeting-house for Dissenters was built in 1705. Almshouses for four aged females were founded in 1780. A public library was EOT established in 1775, which, with the news- room and dispensary founded in 1806, oc- cupy a substantial building erected in 1828. RoTHERHiTHE (Surrey), commonly called Redriff, a parish and suburb of London, is noted for its numerous docks. The great dock, finished a.d. 1700, was leased by the South- Sea Company in 1725, and called Greenland dock. It was purchased by a company of merchants in 1807, and after- wards much enlarged, and caUed the Com- mercial dock. A iiew dock was added to it Jan. 22, 1812. The church was built in 1714 and 1715 ; but the tower was not finished tm 1739. It contains a monument to Lee Boo, prince of the Pelew Islands, who died of smaU-pox Dec. 27, 1784. A fire, which con- sumed 206 houses, occurred June 1, 1765. The Asiatic cholera broke out here in Feb- ruary, 1832. RoTHESAT Castle. — This steam-packet from Liverpool to Beaumaris was wrecked near the latter place Aug. 17, 1831. From 135 to 145 persons were supposed to have been on board, of whom only twenty-two were saved. EoTHWEiL (Germany) was seized by the French a.d. 1643. The imperial forces were defeated here by the French, under Turenne, in 1644, and it was taken by the French in 1796. It was bestowed on the duke of Wiir- temberg in 1802. Rotterdam (Holland) derives its name from the river Rotte, which runs through the town. It was surrounded by walls in the 13th century, and from this time its import- ance dates. Maximihan besieged it a.d. 1489, and after an obstinate defence of six months, the city surrendered, on condition of an amnesty. A body of Spaniards, retreat- ing from the siege of Briel in 1572, were allowed to pass through the town in bodies of fifty with unloaded arms. The first detach- ment on entering slew the guard at the gates ; the rest then rushed in, and all persons found in arms were slain. The inhabitants were treated as if the town had been taken by assault. The time of Rotter dam's greatest prosperity was the 17th and 18th centuries. It was occupied by the French in January, 1795. The Exchange was built in 1736, and the Academy of Sciences was founded in 1771. Rouen (France), anciently called Roto- magus, is first mentioned by Ptolemy, in the beginning of the 2nd century, as the capital of the Vellocasses, a Celtic people. It was taken and sacked by the Danes a.d. 841 ; and was ceded, with the whole of the province of Neustria, of which it was then the capital, to the Normans, under RoUo, about 911 or 912. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the count de Cotentin, in 930, and ' by Otho I. and Louis IV. of France in 948. Prince Arthur was murdered here by order of his uncle John, April 3, 1202. It was conquered by Philip II. June 4, 1204, and remained subject to the kings of France until taken by the Enghsh, under Henry V., Jan. 19, 1419. Joan of Arc was burned to death here May 30, 1431. The town was recovered by 737 EOX the French, under Charles VII., in 1449. It revolted against Louis XI. in 1465, and was retaken by him in 1466. The Huguenots captured it in 1562, and it was immediately besieged by the Royahsts, and captured by the duke of Guise, Oct. 20, 1562, when it was given up to pUlage for eight days. Four or five hundred Protestants were massacred here on the eve of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. It was besieged for eight months by Henry IV. in 1593, and at last taken by the treachery of its governor. A famine occurred in 1789 ; and the revolution gave rise to some troubles in 1792, 1793, and 1795. Louis PhUippe visited it in May, 1831, and again in 1832. The most remarkable building in Rouen is the cathedral of iN'otre-Dame, a splendid Gothic edifice commenced in the 13th cen- tury, but not completed till the 16th. The abbey church of St. Ouen, to which it was attached, was founded in the 6th century, was rebuilt in the 12th century, and having been destroyed by fire, was again rebuilt in the 14th and following centuries. It was much damaged by the Huguenots in 1562. The great clock- tower was built in 1389, and the court-house was completed in 1499. The railway to Havre was opened May 13, 1847. Rouen was made an archbishopric in 260 ; and councils were held here in 689, 1049, 1055, 1072, 1073, 1074; Feb. 1096; Oct. 7 to Nov. 5, 1118 ; in November, 1119 ; October, 1128; Feb. 11, 1190; March 27, 1223; in 1231 ; June 18, 1299 ; and Dec. 15, 1445. RouM. (See Iconium.) Roundheads. (See Cavaliers. ) Round WAT Down (Battle) . — An encounter between the Royalists and the Parliament- arians took place on Roundway Down, near Devizes, July 13, 1643, in which the latter were routed with great slaughter. RoussiLLON (Prance) . — This old province, nearly identical with the modern department of the Pyrenees-Orientales, obtained its name from the town of Ruscino, afterwards called RoscOiona, now Tour de EoussiUon, near Perpignan. The province was made subject to the Romans about B.C. 58. It was united in the 9th and 10th centuries with the county of Ampurius, in Spain ; but was separated towards the close of the latter century, and governed by its own counts, the last of whom bequeathed it to the kings of Aragon in 1178. John II. of Aragon ceded it to Louis XI. of France, in 1462, as security for money borrowed; but it was restored by Charles VIII. to Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1493. It was conquered by Louis XIII. in 1642, and was finally annexed to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Spaniards invaded it in 1793, and were expelled in 1794. RovEREDO (Battle). — The Austrians were defeated by the French near this town, in the Tyrol, Sept. 4, 1796. So close was the pursuit, that the republicans entered Rove- redo pell-mell with the fugitives. RoxBURG Castle (Scotland), supposed to have been built by the Saxons while they held the sovereignty of the ]N orthmnbrian kingdom, was made a royal palace bv David I. 3 B BOX on his accession to the throne, a.d. 1124. It was surrendered to the English by Wilh'am the Lion in 1174, as a part of the price of hia freedom, but was restored in 1189. The castle was seized by Edward I. ; and the court of King's Bench was held here in 1292. It was taken by Sir James Douglas by stra- tagem March 6, 1313, and was shortly afterwards demolished by Eobert Bruce. Edward III. restored the castle, and kept Christmas here in 1335. Sir Alexander Earn- say took it by escalade in 1342 ; but it was regained by the English in 1346, who held it tm Aug. 3, 1460, when James II. of Scotland lost his life in besieging it. His widowed queen, Mary of Gueldres, then captured the castle, and it was entirely demohshed. The duke of Somerset partly restored it in 1547. It was given up to the Scotch in 1550, and again destroyed. EoxBUEG (America). — This city of Massa- chusetts was incorporated a.d. 1630, and was made a city by charter in 1846. EoTAii AcADEirsr (London) was founded under the patronage of George III. Dec. 10, 1768. The first exhibition of the acade- micians took place in PaU-maU in 1769. George III. granted them apartments in old Somerset House, and afterwards in 1780 in new Somerset House. Their first exhibi- tion at the latter took place in May of that year. They removed to the National Gallery, where the first exhibition was opened May 1, 1838. PEESIDENTS OF THE HOTAL ACADEMY. Sir Joshua Reynolds 1768 Benjamin "R^est 1792 Sii- Thomas Lawrence 1820 Sir Martin A. Shee 1830 Sii- Charles Eastlake 1850 EoTAL Academy op Mxrsic— A society bearing this title was estabhshed at London A.D. 1720 for the encouragement of the Italian opera. George Frederick Handel, Giovanni Bononcini, and AttiUo Ariosto, the three most eminent composers of the day, were engaged to supply works and superintend arrangements, but the institu- tion was never very successful, and after an existence of about nine years was dissolved in consequence of the quarrels of the singers. The present Academy of Music was founded by the earl of Westmorland in 1S22. The first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828, and the charter of incorporation was eranted in 1830. EoYAi, Adelaide. — This steamer from Cork to London arrived at Plymouth March 28, 1850, and left on the following day, with about 180 passengers and a crew of 24 men. She was totally wrecked on the Tongue Sand off Margate, on the night of Saturday, March 30, when all on board perished. EoYAL Chaeteb screw steamer. Captain Taylor, bound/rom Port Phillip, Austraha, to Liverpool, was totally wrecked in Eed- wharf Bay, on the Anglesey coast, during the ni£fht, Oct. 25, 1859, and 459 Hves were 738 EOT lost. The vessel had from £500,000 to £800,000 worth of gold on board, much of which was recovered. EoYAL Exchange (Dublin) was founded Aug. 2, 1769, and opened in 1779, at a cost of £40,000. This sum was raised partly by parhamentary grants, partly by subscriptions, and partly by lotteries. EoYAL Exchange (London). — The foun- dation of the original edifice was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566. Queen Ehzabeth opened it Jan. 23, 1571, and by the sound of trumpets her herald named it the Eoyal Exchange. It was destroyed by the great fire in September, 1666. Charles II. laid the foundation of another structure, Oct. 23, 1667, and it was opened Sept. 28, 1669, having cost £58,962. It was repaired and beautified in 1769, parUament contributing £10,000 towards the expense. This edifice was destroyed by fire, Jan. 10, 1838. The new Eoyal Exchange, commenced in 1838, was opened by Queen Victoria in state, Oct. 28, 1844. Eoyal Geoege, of 108 guns, com- manded by Admiral Kempenfeldt, sank at Portsmouth, nearly a thousand lives being lost, at ten o'clock in the morning, Aug. 29, 1782. A court-martial which was held on Captain "V^'aghorne, relative to the catastrophe, acquitted him Sept. 9. Six- teen guns and other things were recovered by the diving-bell, 'Nov. 21. The wreck was surveyed by aid of the diving-bell, when the whole of the decks were found to have faUen in. May 24, 1817. Eoyal Household.— The duties of the different ofiieers of the royal household were first defined and reduced to order by Edward III. The expenses connected with it were fixed at £12,059 9«. lid. by the private act, 11 Hen. VII. c.36 (1494), which was amended by subsequent statutes. The duties of the great master of the king's household were regulated by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 39 (1540), which was repealed by 1 Mary, St. 3, c. 4 (1.553), {See Loed Stewaed op THE Household.) The purveyance system, which empowered the officers of the royal household to purchase goods for their master's use vrithout the consent of the vendors, was abohshed by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). Edmund Burke commenced his efforts against the extravagance of this department in 1780, and procured the sup- pression of several unnecessary offices by 22 Geo. IIL c. 82 (1782). Eoyal Institution of Gbeat Beitain. — This institution was founded by Count Eumford and Sir Joseph Banks, March 9, 1799, and received its charter of incorpora- tion, Jan. 13, 1800. Its laboratory is cele- brated as having been the scene of some of the most important discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy and Professor Faraday, who have both been officially connected with the institution. In 1833, John Fuller, of Eose HiU, endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physiology, and in 1838, Mrs. Acton, of Euston Square, gave £1,000 ROY towards establishing a septennial prize for the best essay on the goodness of Providence as exemplified by scientific research. Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. c. 11 (1772), prohibited members of the royal family from contracting marriage without the consent of the Mng, signified under the great seal, until they attaiaed the age of twenty-five years. RoTAL Prerogative. — Blackstone defines the sovereign's prerogative as "that special pre-eminence which the king has, over and above all other persons, and out of the ordi- nary course of the common law, in right of his regal dignity." He enjoys supreme sove- reignty in civil and ecclesiastical affairs, and he is declared politically perfect, it being a constitutional maxim " that he can do no wrong." He is the supreme head of the military and naval force of the kingdom, the fountain of justice, mercy, honour, office, and privilege, and the only persofi em- powered to send or receive ambassadors, to declare war or conclude peace, and to coin the money of the realm. The royal preroga- tive was defined by 17 Edw. II. stat. 1 (132-1), and was continued by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1535) . Constitutional limitation of the royal powers was secured by the Petition of Rights, 3 Charles I. (1627) , which placed the sole power of granting money to the sovereign in the hands of the people's representatives in par- liament. The feudal rights of the king were abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), and the dispensing power of the crown was de- stroyed by 1 Wm. & Mary, ss. 2, c. 2 (1689), Royal Society (London). — A number of gentlemen residing in London, among whom were Drs. Wilkins, Walhs, and God- dard, with Forster, professor of astronomy at Gresham College, associated themselves for scientific investigation, a.d. 1645. Some of them removed to Oxford in 1652, and formed a similar society there. The two were united, and held their meetings in London in 1659. They were suspended for some time, but at the Restoration in 1660 were resumed in Gresham CoUege. A code of rules was drawn up Nov. 28, and the first formal pro- ceedings took place Dee. 5. The society having presented a congratulatory address to Charles II., his majesty granted it a charter in 1662, which was amended and renewed in 1663. The king bestowed a mace upon the society in 1663; and signed his name in the charter-book as its founder, in 1664. The first number of the " Philoso- phical Transactions " was published March 6, 1665. The place of meeting was changed to Arundel House in January, 1667, and again to Gresham College in October, 1674. The delivery of lectures was commenced in 1674, and a sum of money for a lectureship was left by dame lady Sadlier, widow of Dr. Croone, in 1706, the first of which was delivered in 1738, The Bakerian lecture on electro- chemistry was founded in 1774. A legacy of £400, received on the death of the bishop of Chester (Dr. Wilkins), was expended in the purchase of certain farm rents at Lewes, in 739 EtTG January, 1675. The college and lands at Chelsea, which had been granted to the society, were sold, and the proceeds were invested in stock in January, 1682. A paid secretary was appointed at a salary of £50 per annum in 1686. The house in Crane Court, Fleet Street, whither the society re- moved, was purchased in 1701, and the go- vernment assigned it apartments in Somer- set House in 1782. Sir Isaac Nevrton was appointed president in 1703, holding the office tin his death in 1727. The society pubhshed the first edition of his Principia in 1686, Originally issued monthly, the " Philoso- phical Transactions " were collected and pub- lished in ninety volumes, embracing the period from 1665—1800. Sir Godfrey Copely founded a gold medal, purchased with the interest of £100, in 1709 ; Count Rumford presented a sum of £1,000 in the 3 per cents, for a like purpose in 1796 ; and George IV, made an annual grant of a hundred guineas for two medals in 1825. RuBicoif (Italy).— This river formed the northern boundary of Italy at the time Julius Caesar held the government of Cis-Alpine Gaul. The passage of this river was con- sidered as a declaration of hostilities, and precipitated the Social war B.C. 49, In the controversy regarding its identification, the arguments in favour of Fiumicino seem to preponderate, although a papal bull pro- nounced in favour of another stream, the Luso, A.D. 1756. RuEL, or RuEiL (France). — During the civil strife between the parliament on the one hand, and the queen mother with Maza- rin on the other, a treaty of peace was signed at this town March 11, 1649. Ruffles appear to have come into use as an article of 4ress in the reign of Henry VIII. Hand-ruffs were plaited and edged with lace in the time of Elizabeth. The Rev. "William Cole, in his journey to France in 1765, was taken for a clergyman because he did not wear ruffles. They seem to have gone out of fashion during the French revolution of 1789. Rugby (Warwickshire). — The school was founded by Lawrence Sheriff, a London tradesman, and native of the place, a.d. 1567. It was regulated by act of parlia- ment in 1777, and rose to great distinction under the mastership of Dr. Arnold, 1827 — 1842. The Elborow school was founded by Richard Elborow in the 18th century ; the parochial schools were built in 1830 ; St. Matthew's church was founded in 1841 ; and the Literary Institute in 1847. RtJGEN (Baltic Sea), the Holy Island of the Slavonic Varini, captured by the duke of Poland A.D. 1124, and by the Idng of Den- mark in 1169, was ceded to Sweden by the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 14, 1648. It was taken by the Danes in 1677. Having been restored to Sweden, Sept. 2, 1679, it was taken when Peter I. sent the Russian fleet against Charles XII., Nov. 17, 1715. Riigen was assigned to Sweden by the peace of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. It capitulated to 3 B 2 EUM the French Sept. 7, 1807, and was ceded by Sweden to the Danish crown, hy the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, and by Denmark to the king of Prussia, June 4, 1815. EuM.— This West-Indian spirit is the pro- duct of molasses and the refuse of the sugar- manufactory. It is not known when the manufacture of rum commenced, or whence the spirit derived its name. Ships carrying rum must be of at least fifty tons burden, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 107, s. 144 (Aug. 20, 1853), which prohibits the importation of the spirit in casks of less than twenty gallons, or in bottles of more than three pints. The duties charged upon its im- portation have undergone several changes. By 21 Vict. 'c. 16 (May 11, 1858), a rate of 8s. 2d. per gallon is charged on every gallon of rum brought into the United Kingdom. EuMP PAEi-iAMEifT.— After the Long Par- hament had been sitting eight years. Colonel Pride, invading the House of Commons, sent forty-seven members to prison and excluded ninetv-six more, leaving a remnant of about fifty, Dec. 6, 1648. It voted the late treaty with King Charles I. dishonourable and dangerous, Dec. 13 ; and that he should be tried for treason against the people, Dec. 23. On the peers refusing their concurrence, the Commons passed the ordinance for the king's trial, Jan. 6, 1649 ; and the members who vrished to accept the king's concessions were expelled the house Feb. 1. This par- liament voted the House of Lords " use- less and dangerous " Feb. 6, and the office of king unnecessary Feb. 7. It passed acts abolisMng the office of king and the peerage, March 17 and 19, 1649. It took the style of " Parhamentum Reipublicae Anghae " j Feb. 9, 1650. It passed the celebrated Navigation Act affisctiug Dutch commerce, ! Oct. 9, 1651, and in the same month fixed its j ovm dissolution at Nov. 3, 1654. An act ' prohibiting the use of titles conferred since j Jan. 4, 1643, was passed January, 1652 ; and I an act of amnesty was passed Feb. 24, 1652. j Between it and the council of officers con- ' siderable differences arose as to the con- stitution of the new legislature. Crom- Avell entered the house with a strong guard, and terminated its existence by expelling the members, April 20, 1653. Etjnic Chaeactees, the alphabet, con- sisting of sixteen letters, used by the Teu- tonic nations, were ascribed by tradition to the god Odin, B.C. 508, although it was probably introduced to the people on the coast of the Baltic by Phoenician traders long before the Christian sera. The invention has also been ascribed to UlpMlas, bishop of the Goths, a.d. 350. They ceased to be used in Sweden in 1001, and were con- demned in Spain by the councU of Toledo in 1115. Ettnu-tmede (Surrey).— King John met the barons on this plain, near Egham, and granted Magna Charta, June 15, 1215. Efscia (Italy), the navale Thurioricnif which had been transferred to Euscianum, 740 EUS I or Eossano, was besieged by Totila, x.v. 547, ^ and after two attempts on the part of the Eomans, under Belisarius, to relieve the garrison, fell in 548. EussELL Administkatiott was formed after the resignation of Sir Eobert Peel and his colleagues, announced in parliament June 29, 1846. Lord John Eussell com- pleted his arrangements early in Jxily, and the cabinet was thus constituted : — TVooa,,^ / Lord John Eiissell, made ^^^^"^ I E«l Kussell in 1861. T„-.^ ni,„„-.=ii„- /Lord, afterwards Earl, Lord Chancellor | CottcDbam. President of the Council. .Marquis of Lansdowne. Privy Seal Earl of Minto. Chancellor of Exchequer { ^^^^^ Barf '"' "^^ Home Secretary Sir George Grey, Bart. Foreign Secretary Viscount Palmerston. Colonial Secretary Earl Grey. Admiralty Eai 1 of Auckland. ( Sir John Hobhouse, cre- Board of Control < ated Lord Broughton ( Feb. 22, 1851. Duchy of Lancaster Lord Campbell. Woods and Forests ....{^-^^f JJ,Xc*^l,tr- Paymaster-Geueral • • • ■ { ^'M'aca':^^;""^ ""^^ Postmaster-General Marquis of Clanricarde. Boai-d of Trade Earl of Clarendon. Chief Secretary for Ire- ( Mr. Labouchere, after- land X wards Lord Taunton. The earl of Bessborough, lord lieutenant of Ireland, died May 16, 1847, and the earl of Clarendon succeeded him. May 20. Mr. Labouchere was appointed to the Board of Trade July 22, and his successor, as chief se- cretary for Ireland, did not receive a seat in the cabinet. The earl of Auckland died Jan. 1, and Sir Francis T. Baring became first lord of the Admiralty Jan. 15, 1849. The earl of Carhsle became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, March 6, 1850, in place of Lord Campbell, appointed lord chief justice. Sir Thomas AVilde, created Lord Truro, became lord chancellor July 15, 1850, Lord Cotten- ham having resigned June 19, and Mr. Fox Maule, afterwards Lord Panmure, obtained a seat in the cabinet as secretary at war. The government having been for some time in a precarious state, was defeated by 100 to 52, Feb. 20, 1851, upon a motion to bring in a bill to make the franchise in the coun- ties of England and Wales the same as that of the boroughs, and resigned office Feb. 21. The earl of Aberdeen and Sir James Gra- ham having refused to assist Lord John Eussell in the reconstitution of his cabinet, and Lord Stanley having dechned the task of forming an administration, the Eussell ministry finally resumed office, and the ministerial crisis terminated March 3. Earl Granville, who had succeeded Mr. Macaulay as paymaster of the forces, and Lord Sey- mour, made first commissioner of works April 15, 1850, obtained seats in the cabinet in 1851. Lord Palmerston resigned the foreign secretaryship, and Earl Granville was appointed as his successor, Dec. 26, 1851. Mr. Fox Maule replaced Lord Broughton at the Board of Control, Feb. 5, RUS 1852. A.n amendment proposed by Lord Palmerston to the government Militia Bill was carried by 135 to 126, Feb. 20; and the announcement of the dissolution of the RusseU administration was made in both branches of the legislature JFeb. 23. (See Derby (Fikst) Administration.) EussELL Institution (London) . — A lease for the ground was obtained from the duke of Bedford, July 26, 1802, by James Burton, who proposed to erect a suite of assembly and ball-rooms. The progress of the work was delayed by a fire, which oc- curred in 1802. The KusseU Assembly- rooms were opened in February, 1804. This speculation failed, and early in 1808 meet- ings were held for the establishment of a literary and scientific society, and it was agreed to raise 12,500 guineas in five hun- dred shares at twenty-five giiineas each. General meetings were held April 20 and July 7, and the property was transferred to trustees for the formation of the Eussell Institution, Oct.] 8. The news-room was opened June 4, 1808, the circulation of books commenced Jan. 2, 1809, and lectures were first dehvered in 1810. The baU-room was converted into a library, which was opened March 23, 1814. The first catalogue was pubMshed in 1809, the second in 1814, the third in 1820, the fourth in 1826, the fifth in 1835, and the sixth in 1849. Russia. — The kingdom, extending over great portions of Europe and Asia, partly corresponds with the ancient Sarmatia. It is said to derive its name from the Rhoxolani or Rhoxani, a Gothic people that settled there at a very early period, though several other derivations are given. It is first mentioned as Russia about a.d. 839. 862. Euric the Norman, chief of the Varangians, establishes his government at Novgorod. 865. The Russians attack. Constantinople, and are defeated by the emperor Michael III. 879. Death of Ruric, who is succeeded by his infant son Igor, under the regency of his kinsman Oleg. 882. Oleg makes Kief his capital. 907. Another expedition against Constantinople is conducted by Oleg. who receives a large tribute from the emperor Leo VI. 912. A commercial treaty is concluded with the Eastern empire. 941. Igor invades the Eastern empire, and is re- pulsed by the emperor Romanus. 945. A second tieaty is signed with the emperor. Igor is assassinated at Korosten, aud is succeeded by his son Sviatoslaf, his widow Olga acting as regent. 957. The queen regent, Olga, visits Constantinople, where she is baptized. 966. Sviatoslaf, prince oc Kief, overthrows the empire of the Khozars. 968. He defeats the EulgariHns.in a great battle. 970. He crosses the Balkan and invades Thrace. 971. July. He sustains a great defeat from John I. at Dorystolon or Durostole. 977. Civil war breaks out between the brothers Vladimir, Yaropolk, and Oleg. 980. Yaropolk is assassinated by his brother Vladimir. 988. Vladimir the Great takes Cherson from the Greek emperor Basil II., whose sister Anne he man-ies ; he also embraces Christianity. 1018. Yaroslaf promulgates a code of laws. RUS 1043. Vladimir, prince of Novgorod, attacks Con- stantinople and is defeated with great loss. 1158. Yuiy I. founds Vladimir and makes it his capital. 1223. The Tartars of the Golden Horde {q.v.) esta- blish themselves in the south-east parts of 1235. 1252. 1318. 1352. 1380. 1395. 1425. 1441. 1462. 1480. 1481. 1482. 1487. 1488. 1493. 1506. 1510. 1521. 1524. 1530. 1538. 1541. 1543. 1546. 1550. Russia is invaded by 1,500,000 Mongols, under Batou Khan. The Tartat khan of Kiptschak exercises the supreme power in Russia. Alexander Newski defeats an invading army of Swedes and Danes at the battle of the Neva (q.v.). He receives the title of Grand Duke from the Tartars. The Russians make Moscow their capital, and invade Finland. The priucipality of Kief is seized by Gedi- min, duke of Lithua,nia. Ivan I., surnamed Kalita, becomes grand prince, and establishes the principle of hereditary succession. Red Russia is conquered by the Poles and Hungarians. Red Russia is seized by the Lithuanians. Dimitri, or Demetrius III., defeats the Tar- tars at the great battle of the Don, and is surnamed Douskoi in consequence. War is carried on against the Tartars, who burn Moscow. Russia is invaded by Timour the Tartar. Death of VassUi Dimitrievitch, in whose reign the first Russian coinage was esta- blished. The empire of the Kiptschak Mongols is divided into four principalities. Accession of Ivan III., or John Basilowitz the Great, the real founder of the modem Rus- sian empire. Ivan III. marries Sophia, niece of the last Greek emperor Constantine XIII., and adopts the title of czar, and the two-headed eagle as his badge. The Russians discontinue paying tribute to the Tartars. War is commenced with the Tartars. Jan. 15. The republican city of Novgorod submits to Ivan III. The Mongol power in Russia is destroyed by Ivan III. Ambassadors are fii-st received at the Russian COlU't. The Russians employ artillery for the first time this year. Ivan III. defeats the khan of Cazan at the battle of Svi.aga. War breaks out with Sweden. A league against Denmark is concluded with Sweden. The punishment of the knout is introduced into Russia about this time. A war is \mdertaken against Poland. The Tartars invade Russia. The Ci-im Tartars are defeated at the battle of Razan. Peace is concluded with Poland. The Russians sustain a defeat from, the Tartars on the Volga. Peace is concluded with the Tartars. Death of the queen-regent Helena, whose young son, Ivan IV., is kept in tutelage by the three brothei-s Shuiski. A Tartar invasion, under the khan of the Crimea, is repelled. Ivan IV., at the age of 14, puts to death Andrew Shuiski aud assumes the govern- ment, which he conducts with great tya-anny. Ivan rv. is solemnly crowned czar by the patriarch, being the first Russian monarch whose coronation was a public and eccle- siastical ceremony. He establishes the *' Strelitzes," the first standing army in Russia. War is resumed with the Tartars. 741 A.D. 1552. 1554. 1555. 1557. 1558. 1562. 1570. 1571. 1576. 1579. 1604. 1605. 1612. 1613. 1618. 1634. 1649. 1651. 1654. EUS Oct. 2. Cazan is captured by the czar, and its inhabitants are massacred. The Eussians discover Siberia. The czar exacts tribute from the Siberians. The peasantry are declared the property of the landowners. War is commenced with the Teutonic knights. Russia and Sweden unite in a war against Poland. Jan. In consequence of a pretended insurrec- tion at Novgorod, Ivan IV. massacres 60,000 of the inhabitants. Russia is overrun by the Tartars, who bum The Cossacks are fonned into a regular army of defence against the Tartai-s. Ivan IV. solicits the hand of Elizabeth of England, and puts his eldest son to death. The Greek Church in Russia is declared in- dependent of the patriarch of Constan- tinople. Death of the czar Feodor, and extinction of the Ruric dynasty. A monk pretends to be Demetrius, a de- ceased son of the czar Ivan IV. On the death of Boris Godunow, the throne is seized by the pseudo Demetrius, who is murdered by his subjects. An alliance is concluded with Sweden. A second impostor asserts himself to be Demetrius. The Poles are expelled from Moscow. Accession of the Romanoff dynasty. Feb. 27. Fiulaud is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Stolbova. Ladislaus of Poland marches as far as Moscow. June 15. Peaoe with Poland is restored by the treaty of Wiasma. The laws are revised. English traders are excluded from Russia. The Co -sacks are taken under Russian protection, which occasions a war with Poland. Oct. 3. The truce of "Wilna, or Niemetz, is concluded with Poland. The czar refuses to receive an ambassador from Oliver Cromwell. July 1. The peace of OUva is concluded with Jan. 30. By the treaty of Andrussow, Russia cedes Servia, the Ukraine, and several towns, to Poland. Russian ambassadors are first sent to the courts of France and Spain. The ii surrection of Steuko Badzin termi- nates in his execution. Submission of the Tourgouth Tartars. War is commenced against the Turks. The Turks resign all claim to the Ukraine and the Cossack territoiy, and peace is restored. A mutiny breaks out among the Strelitzes. May 6. An alliance between Russia and Poland against Turkey is signed at 1673. 1678. 1688. The czar Ivan V. resigns his share of the go- vernment. 1697. Peter I. visits England and Holland. 1698. In conseijuence of a revolt Peter I. puts to death all the Strelitzes. 1700. Nov. 30. Peter I. sustains a severe defeat from the Swedes at Narva. He builds the first Russian frigate, and founds the navy. 1703. May 27. Foundation of St. Petersburg {q.v.). 1708. Revolt of the Cossacks under Mazeppa, who is assisted by Charles XII. of Sweden. 1709. May. Charles is defeated by Peter L at Poltava (g. v.). 1710. War is commenced with Turkey. 1711. July 10. The treaty of Falczi {g. v.). A direct- ing senate is established. 1712. Catheiine, the wife of Peter, receives the title of Czarina. 74Z EUS A.D. 1718. July 7. Death of the czarowitz Alexis, who is supposed to have been murdered by his father. 1721. Aug. 30. The peace of Nystadt is concluded with Sweden, which cedes Esthonia, Livo- nia, and other ten-itories to Russia. 1722. The czar Peter assumes the style of "Emperor of all the Russias." 1723. Persia cedes extensive territory to Russia. 1725. Feb. 8. Death of Peter I., or the Great. 1730. Jan. 29. Death of Peter II., and extinction of the Romanoff dynasty : the throne is con- ferred upon Anne of Courland. 1733. The Eiissians invade Poland. 1735. The Riissian possessions in Persia, are relin- quished. 1739. The Russian possessions in Turkey are re- stored by the treaty of Belgrade (g.v.). 1740. A conspiracy against the czarina is detected. 1742. Dec. 15. ITie army revolts and deposes Ivan VI. The throne is conferred on Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter I. and Catherine. 1748. An alliance is concluded with Austria. 1752. Sir Charles Hanbury Williams is sent to Warsaw by the English government, to effect a union between Russia, Poland, and Saxony. 1757. Russia takes part in the Seven Years' war, and invades Pnissia. 1760. Oct. 9. The Russians and Austrians take Berlin. 1762. May 5. Peace is concluded with Prussia at St. Petersburg. July 10. A revolution breaks out at St. Petersburg, where the czar Peter III. is deposed. July 19. He dies. 1764 The imprisoned czar, Ivan VI., is put to death. 1768. Tirrkey declares war against Russia. {See OrroMAN EiiPiRE.) 1772. Russia participates in the fii-st partition of Poland. 1773. Rebellion of the Cossack Pugatcheff, who claims to be the deceased czar, Peter III. 1774 July 10. Russia gains considerable acquisi- tions in Turkey by the treaty of Kout- chouk-Kainardji (q. v.). 1775. The impostor Pugatcheff is broken on the wheel. 1778. Piince Potemkin is made minister. 1788. War is commeuced with Sweden. 1790. The Swedes fail in an attack upon St. Peters- burg. Aug. 14 Peace is restored by the treaty of Werela. 1792. Jan. 9. The Crimea is finaUy ceded to Russia by the treaty of Jassy {q.v.). June 8. War is declared against Poland. 1793. March 25. An alliance is concluded with England against Fi-ance. Russia acquires considerable territory by the second parti- tion of Poland. 1795. Poland is finally divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 1797. Russia acquires con^ide^able territory in Per- sia by the treaty of Teflis. 1798. Dec. 29. Russia unites with England and Austria, in a coalition against Fi-ance. 1799. Suwarrow assists the Austrians in Italy. Russia secedes from the Anglo-Austrian alliance, and forms a co£^tion with France. 1800. Nov. 15. The emi)eror Paul lays an embargo on English ships. Dec. 16. A maritime confederacy is signed between Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. Dec. 30. The czar invites the contending sovereigns of Europe to meet at St. Petersburg, and settle their differences by a private combat, in which their ministers sboiild act as squires. 1801. March 23. Paul I. is assassinated by a party of noblemen under Greneral Benningsen and Pahlen. May 17. A convention is signed with England. 1805. April 11. Russia again joins the coalition against France. RUS RUS 1806. A Russian army occupies Moldavia and Wal- lachia. Nov. 28. The French enter Warsaw for the purpose of aiding the Poles against the Russians. 1807. June 2.5. The czar has an interview with the emperor Napoleon I. on the Niemeu, at Tilsit. July 9. Peace is restored by the treaty of Tilsit. Oct. 6. War is declared against Sweden. Nov. 8. War is declared against England. 1809. May 5. War is declared against Austria. Sept. 17. Peace with Sweden is restored by the treaty of Frederickshatnm. 1812. April 5. A coalition is formed with Sweden against France. June 24. The French, under Napoleon I., cross the Niemen. July 18. Peace is restored with England by the treaty of Orebro. Aug. 17. The Russians are defeated at Smolensko. Sept. 7. The French engage the Russians at Borodino (g. v.). Sept. 14. They enter Moscow, which is burnt by the inhabitants (see Mos- cow). Oct. 19. The French commence their retreat. Nov. 26—28. They are de- feated, with immense slaughter, at the Beresina {q.v.). 1813. Jan. 19. The French recross the Niemen, having lost about 257,000 men in the campaign. June 4. The armistice of Po- ischewitz is concluded with Napoleon I. June 14. The convention of Reichenbach is signed with Great Britain. 1814. March 31. The emperor Alexander I. and the allies enter Paris. June 6. He visits England. 1815. June 20. The emperor of Russia is proclaimed king of Poland. 1817. Dec. 27. The ministry of public instruction is united to that of religious affairs. 1820. The Jesuits are expelled from Russia. 1823. The grand-duke Constantine resigns his right to the throne. 1825. The emperor Alexander I. makes a tour through his dominions. Dec. 1. He dies at Taganrog, and is succeeded by his brother, Nicholas I. Dec 26. A military revolt, under Colonel Pestal, is suppressed at St. Petersburg. Dec. 29. The troops at Moscow proclaim Constantine, and 200 are slain. 1826. Feb. The duke of Wellington visits St. Petersburg. Sept. 3. Coronation of the emperor at Moscow. Sept. 28. War is declared against Persia {q. v.). 1827. July 9. Nicholas I. visits England, where he receives the investiture of the garter. 1828. Feb. 22. Peace with Persia is restored by the treaty of Turkmanshai. April 26. War is declared against the Ottoman empire ig.v.). 1829. May 24. Coronation of Nicholas T. at War- saw as king of Poland. Sept. 14. Peace with Turkey is restored by the treaty of Hadrianople {q. v.), by which Circassia is annexed to Russia. 1830. Nov. 29. A revolutionary war breaks out in Poland iq.v.). 1831. June 27. Death of the grand-duke Con- stantine. Sept. 8. The capture of Warsaw by the Russians reduces the Poles to sub- jection. 1834. Feb. 10. A treaty for the surrender of Polish refugees to the Russian authorities is con- cluded with Austria and Prussia. 1840. Jan. Failure of the expedition against the Turcomans of Khiva, in Central Asia. July 15. Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, and Turkey conclude 'a treaty at London for the expulsion of Ibrahim Pasha from Syria. 1841. The Circassian war commences. 1844. June 1. Nicholas I. visits England, where he remains eight days. An insurrectionary movement is suppressed in Poland (q.v.). 1846. June 9. The grand-duke Constantine visits Portsmouth. 1847. Poland is made a province of the empire. March 3. The French revolution occasions great excitement at St. Petersburg. April. An insurrection commences in White Rus- sia. May. A Russian force is sent to the assist- ance of the Austrians in Hungary (q. v.). Nov. Russia demands the expulsion of Hungarian refugees from Turkey. Jan. 6. A conspiracy against the emperor is detected. The St. Petersburg and Moscow railway is commenced. May 8. Nicholas I. visits Vienna. May 16. He goes to Potsdam. July 2. The Russians occupy the Danubian principalities. Sept. 24. The emperors of Russia and Austria have an interview at Olmiitz. Oct. 2. Nicholas T. meets the em- peror of Austria and the king of Prussia at Warsaw. Oct. 5. War is declared against Turkey. (See Rdsso-Tukkish Wab.) Feb. 7. Baron Brunow, the Russian ambas- sador, leaves England. March 5. Ten of the northern governments, inclusive of Poland, are declared in a state of siege. April 23. Nicholas I. issues a manifesto as- serting that his only object in the war i^ the defence of the Christian faith. , March 2. Death of the emperor Nicholas at St. Petersburg. Sept. 25. Alexander II. visits Nicolaieflf. Oct. 15. He orders a levy of 10 men in 1,000 throughout the empire, seven provinces only excepted. Nov. 9. He visits his forces at Sebastopol. Nov. 18. He returns to St. Petersburg. Nov. 21. A treaty is signed between France and England with Sweden, by which the latter power engages to cede no territory to Russia, and receives the promise of as- sistance from the other parties in the event of Russian aggression. , Feb. 1. Death of Prince Paskiewitch at Warsaw. March 30. Peace is restored by the treaty of Paris. May 17. The depart- ment of public instiTiction is placed under the immediate control of the emperor. May 22. The emperor visits Warsaw. May 27. He grants a political aminesty to the Poles. Sept. 2. He publishes a manifesto against English and French interference in the affairs of Naples. Sept. 7. He is solemnly crowned at Moscow. , Jan. 26. The works of the St. Petersbiurg and Warsaw railway are entrusted to a com- pany of Russian and foreign capitalists. Jvme 14. A commercial treaty is signed with France. Sept. 25. An interview be- tween the emperors of Russia and of France takes place at Stutgardt. Oct. 1. Alexander II. meets the emperor of Austria at Weimar. Dec. 16. The department of mUitary colonies is abolished. , Jan. 15. A committee is established under the presidency oi the emperor, to consider the best measures for ameliorating the condition of the serfs. May 28. A frontier treaty is concluded with the emperor of China at Aihun. June 9. A treaty of commerce and navigation is concluded with Belgium. July 2. The royal peasants are admitted to personal rights. Dec. 31. A commercial treaty is concluded with Great Britain. , May 27. The Russian government protests against any intervention on the part of the Germanic Confederation in the Italian question. July 27. An expedition against Schamyl is sent into Daghestan. Aug. 5. The stronghold of Ullu-Kale, in the Cau- casus, surrenders to the Russians. Aug. 8. Prince Bariatinski announces the sub- jection of the tribes of the Caucasus. Aug. 26. Extension of political rights among the serfs. Sept. 7. Capture of the Circassian leader Schamyl. Sept. 20. The czarowitz Nicholas attains his majority. 743 EUS 1860. Feb. 13. Russia rejects the principle of the sovereignty of the people. May 5. The Kussian government invites a conference of the European powers to assemble in Eussia for considering the condition of Christians in Tm-key. June 12. New regu- lations are made respecting the national bank. June 19. War recommences in the Caucasus. Sept. 14. A commercial treaty is concluded with Austria. Oct. 10. The Kussian ambassador is recalled from Turin. Oct. 22. The emperors of Russia and Austria, and the prince-regent of Pi-ussia, have an interview at Warsaw. 1861. Feb. Troubles in Poland {q.v.}. March 18. An imperial manifesto is published^ which decrees the total emancipatirin of the serfs of the empire within two years. April 10. A commission of the states of Finland is summoned to meet at Helsingfors in 1862. Hay 30. Death of Prince Goitschakoff. ETJLEKS OF ETJSSIA. DUKES AND GRAITD-DTJKES. A.D. Ruric 847 Oleg 879 Igor 1 913 Sviatoslav 1 943 Yaropolk 1 973 Vladimir I., the Great 980 Sviatopolkl 1015 Yaroslav 1 1018 Isaslav 1 1051 Sviatoslav IT. 1073 Wsewolod 1 1078 Sviatopolk II 1093 Vladimii-II 1113 Mistislav 1125 Yaropolk n 1132 Wsewolod II 1138 Isaslav IL 1146 YuryJ 1149 Anrej 1159 A.D. Michael 1 1175 Wsewolod III 1177 Yury n 1213 Constantine 1217 Yaroslav II 1238 Alexander Newski 1243 Yaroslav III 1262 Vassili 1 1270 Dimitri 1275 Andrew I ; 1281 DanUo 1294 Michael II 1305 Yury III 1317 Ivan 1 1328 Simeon 1340 Ivan IL 1353 Dimitrill 1359 Dimitri III 1363 Vassili IL 1389 VassiUIU 1425 Ivaa m Vassili rV. A.D. .. 1462 1505 Vassili Schuiskoi . Michael IIL Alexis A.D. . 1606 . 1613 1645 Ivan rV .. l.';:^ Feodor 1 1584 Boris Godunow 1598 EHPE Peter Lorthe Great 168.5 Catharine 1 1725 Peter II 17-27 Feodorll IvanV ROBii. Peterin Catharine II . 1676 . 1682 A.D. . 1762 . 1762 Alexander! Nicolas I . 1801 Ivan VI .. 1740 Elizabeth .. 1741 Alexander IL . . . . 1855 EiTssiA Company.— The English trade through Archangel was opened by some Englishmen who went on a voyage of dis- covery, A.D. 1553. They were sent for by Ivan rV., when international commerce was estabUshed, and a company formed in Lon- don, Eichard Chancellor and Anthony Jen- Mnson being the agents, in 1554. Eusso-TtTKKiSH War. — The sultan of Turkey finding it impossible to comply with the demands of the Czar respecting the holy places and the Turkish subjects professing the Greek religion, the Eussian embassy was recalled from Constantinople, May 21, 1853, 744 EUS 1853. May 28. A manifesto is issued to the great powers by the Sultan. June 8. The British fieet, under Admii-al Dundas, is ordered to the Dardanelles. July 2. The Russian army crosses the Pruth. Oct. 5. Turkey declares war. Oct. 23. l"he first encounter takes place at Isakcha. Oct. 30. The British fleet enters the Bosphorus. Nov. 4. The Turks are \'ictorious at Oltenitza, the Russians losing 1,000 men. Dec. 31. The "Identic Note " is accepted by the Sultan. 1854. Jan. 2. The neutrality of Sweden and Den- mark is assured. Jan. 4. The allied fleets of England and F^•ance enter the Black Sea. Jan. 6. The Turks are victorious at Citate, with a loss to the Russians of 3,000 men. Jan. 8. The Russians enter the Dohrudscha. Feb. 23. The erabaa-kation of British troops for the East. March 11. The Baltic fleet, under Napier, sails from Spit- head. March 19. The Freuch troops for the East begin to embark. March 20. The French Baltic fleet sails from Brest. March 28. Declaration of war by England and France. April 14. The siege of Si- listria is commenced by the Russians. April 15. A convention is agreed to between France, Turkey, and England. April 18. Liider is defeated by Omar Pastia near Rassova. April 20. Austria and Prus- sia agree to reruain neutral. April 22. Bombardment of Odessa by the French and English fleets. May 12. The Tiffer is lost oflT Odessa, and her crew made prison- ers by the Russians. June 14. Treaty of Boyadji-Keuy i^etween Austria and Turkey. June 23. The siege of Silistria is raised by the Russians. July 7. The Turks are victorious at Giurgevo. July 28. Wal- lachia is evacuated by the Russians. JvUy 29. The Turks are defeated by the Russians nearBayazid. Aug. 6. The TUrks are again defeated at Kurekdere. Aug. 13—16. Bomarsund is besieged by the allied fleets, and surrenders unconditionally. Aug. 20. The Austrians enter the prin- cipalities. Aug. 24. Kola, in the White Sea, is bombarded by the Miranda, and completely destroyed. Sept. 7. The allies are defeated at Petropaulovski. Sept. 14. The allies (25,000 Fi-ench, 25,000 British, and 8,000 Turks) land at Old Fort, in the Crimea. Sept. 15. Moldavia is evacuated by the Russians. Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma, the Russians defeated bv ihe French and English. Sept. 23. The Russian fleet is suiik in the harbour of Sebastopol by Menschikoff. Sept. 26. Balaclava Is oc- cupied by the EngUsh. Sept. 29. Death of Marshal St. Amaud, the French com- mander-in-chief. Oct. 2. The siege army encamps before Sebastopol. Oct. 17. Bom- bardment commences. Oct. 25. Battle of Balaclava, and femous charge of the Light Brigade. Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. Dec. 2. Tripartite treaty between Austria, England, and France against Russia is signed at Vienna. Dec. 22. Admiral Dundas is succeeded by Sir E. Lyons. Dec. 24. Admiral Bruat succeeds Admiral Hamelin. 1855. Jan. 26. Sardinia joins the allies. Jan. 29. The Sebastopol committee is appointed to inquire into state of the army. Feb. 6. A wanant is issued, giving commissions to sergeants and corporals. Feb. 24. The French are defeated at the White Works. March 2. The death of the emperor of Russia. March 15. Conferences are com- menced at Vienna. AprU 4. A fleet for the Baltic, under Admiral Sir R. S. Dundas, sails from Spithead. April 9. Sebastopol is again bombarded. Apiil 24. Embarkation of the Sardinian army at Genoa. The conferences at Vienna aa-e closed. EUS 1855. May 16. General Canrobert is succeeded in the Crimea by Pelissier. May 22. An expe- dition is sent to the Sea of Azof. May 25. Keitch and Yenikale are taken by the allies. May 26. The allies enter the Sea of Azof June 3. Taganrog ia cannonaded by the allies. June 5. Massacre at Hango by the Russians of a boat's crew, under a flag of truce. June 6. Sebastopol is a third time bombarded. June 8. The Mamelou, Quarries, and White Works are taken. June 17. Sebastopol is a fourth time bom- barded. June 18. The allies are repulsed at the Malaklioff and the Redan. June 28. Death of Lord Raglan. Aug. 9. Sweaborg is bombarded. Aug. 16. The Russians are defeated at the Tcheraaya. Sept. 8. Re- pulse of the English from the Redan ; the Malakho£f is taken by the French ; evacua- tion of Sebastopol by the Russians. Sept. 9. Entrance of the allies into Sebastopol. Sept. 24. Taman and Fanagoria are taken by the allies. Sept. 29. The Russians are defeated by the French in a cavalry action at Eupatoria. The Tui-kish garrison of Kars, under General Williams, repulses the Russians. Oct. 17. The forts of Kin- burn capitulate to the allies. Nov. 6. The Turks, under Omar Pasha, defeat the Russians, and force the passage of the Ingour. Nov. 25. Kars surrenders to General Mouravieif. Dec. 16. Proposals of peace, approved by the allies, are sent to St. Petersburg by Austria. 1856. Jan. 16. Bases for peace are agreed to by Russia. Feb. 1. A protocol is signed at Vienna by the ministers of Russia, France, England, Austria, and Turkey. Feb. 5. The report of Sir John M'Niell and Colonel Tulloch, commissioners to the Crimea to inquii-e into the state of the ai-my, is published. Feb. 25. The plenipotentiaries of France, Austria, Great Britain, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, Prussia being after- wards admitted, meet at Paris and agree to an armistice, to continue in force till the Slst of Marcn. Feb. 29. A suspension of hostilities is agreed upon in the Crimea. March 30. A treaty of peace is signed at Paris. April 16. The congress is closed. April 29. The treaty is ratified at Paris. Rtistchtjk (Turkey.) — This tovm was taken by the Russians under Generals Lan- geron and Markow, Oct. 14, 1811 ; and it again admitted a Russian force in 1828. Ruthenium. — Klaus proved the existence of this metal in platinum ores, a.d. 1844, RuTHVEN. {See Raib op Ruthvew.) Rye (Sussex), one of the Cinque Ports, supposed to be the Novus Portus of the Romans, was pillaged by a party of piratical Danes, under Hastings, a.d. 893. The castle was built by the earl of Kent, 1134 — 1154. A charter, conveying permis- sion to fortify the town, was granted by Richard I. in 1194. The Huguenots, driven from France by Catherine of Medicis, found refuge here in 1572. The harbour was nearly choked up in the 16th century, and an act was obtained for improving it in 1548. An attempt to form a new mouth by a canal in 1750, having been foimd useless, was aban- doned, and the old one was again resorted to and improved in 1778, The free grammar- school, founded by Thomas Peacock in 1638, and a school for poor children, by James Saunders, in 1702, are now united. RxE-HousB Plot, for an insurrection in SAB England and Scotland, in order to secure the succession to the duke of Monmouth, was discovered June 12, 1683. The earl of Essex, son of Lord Capel, was found in the Tower with his throat cut, July 13 ; Lord William Russell was executed July 21, and Algernon Sydney Dec. 7, 1683. The duke of Monmouth was pardoned, and Hampden fined £40,000 Feb. 6, 1684. The conspirators intended to murder Charles II. and the duke of York. Ryswick (Treaty). — Negotiations were opened at this village, in Holland, May 9, 1697, to terminate the war which had com- menced in 1688, with France against Hol- land, Germany, Spain, and England. This treaty, by which Louis XIV. resigned some of his conquests and recognized William III. as king of England, was signed Sept. 10, 1697 (O. S.). S- SaaIiFEI/D (Germany) . — This smaU walled town of Saxe-Meiningen contains the ruins of an old castle erected in the 8th century. The cathedral of St. John was built a.d. 1212, and is remarkable for its fine painted windows. Bavaria entered into an alliance with the confederates of Smalcald at this town, Oct. 24, 1531. Saarbettck, or Saeeebruck (Prussia).— Its palace, which at one time belonged to the princes of Nassau-Saarbriicken, was destroyed by the French a.b. 1793. Saabdam (Holland), celebrated as the place where Peter the Great resided when working as a common shipwright, a.d. 1696. Saaelouis (Prussia).— This strong fortress, erected by Vauban, a.d. 1681, was ceded to Prussia in 1815. Saaz, or Saatz (Battle). — Ziska defeated the Germans at this place in Bohemia, Sept. 1, 1421. Sabbataeians. — The term was applied in the 4th century to the followers of Sabba- tius. In the 16th century a division of the Anabaptists, who observed the seventh, instead of the first day of the week, received the name of Sabbatarians. It is uncertain when they first appeared in the Protestant church, but Fuller says they existed as early as 1633. There are two congregations of Sabbatarians in London, the first dating as far back as 1678. One is among the General, and the other among the Particular Baptists. A tract supporting this doctrine was pub- lished in 1740. They are sometimes called the Seventh-Day Baptists. Sabbath, as a name for Sunday, was, according to the elder Disraeh, first used in England a.d. 1554. In low Latin, and the languages derived from the Latin, the term designates Saturday. Sabbatical Yeae. — The Jews received the command for its observance every seventh year, in which they were neither to sow their fields nor prune their vineyards (Exod. xxiii. 10 & 11), b.c. 1491. The in- junction is repeated in Lev. xxx. SAB Sabellians. — The followers of Sabellins, according to some authorities a bishop, and according to others a presbyter of Upper Egypt, who flourished in the 3rd century, and taught that the Father suffered on the cross, and that there is but one person in the God- head. Pope Dionysius pronounced condem- nation of the doctrines of Sabellius in a council held at Kome a.d. 263. Marcellus, bishop of Aneyra, maintained the doctrine in 325. The "Historia SabelUna" was pubhshed by "VVormius in 1696. The SabeUians were also called Patripassians and ModaHsts. Hallam says that Servetus held what were nearly Sabellian opinions. Sabines, a most ancient people of Italy, , supposed to have been named from Sabus, ! one of their deities. Little is known of their history. They were at war with the Komans at a very early period. A war | broke out between them B.C. 504, when a j portion of the Sabines migrated in a body to | Eome, where they were welcomed as citi- | zens, and gave rise to the powerful family and tribe of Claudii. The Sabines carried ! their ravages to the very gates of Eome, ! B.C. 469, and, when defeated by Marcus ' Horatius, B.C. 449, their camp was found j fuU of plunder obtained in the Koman terri- tories. They were again at war with the Eomans B.C. 290, and were soon vanquished, j many having been sold as slaves. The re- j maining citizens were admitted to the Eoman | franchise, but without the rights of suffrage. These were granted to them B.C. 268, and j from that time they enjoyed all the privileges j of Eoman citizens. The last time they are | mentioned as a distinct people is during ; the second Punic war, when they served as j volunteers in the army of Scipio. j Sao (Bretheen of the). — This reHgious order, estabhshed in the beginning of the 13th century, had monasteries in France, Germany, Italy, and England. They never ate flesh or drank wine, and only wore wooden sandals, in addition to the sac, from which they took their name. Saccatoo (Africa). — A kingdom under this name was established in Soodan a.d. 1816. The town of Saccatoo was founded in 1803. The traveller Clapperton died here, April 13, 1827. Sacheverell Eiots. — Dr. Henry Sache- verell, rector ""f St. Saviour's, Southwark, preached two sermons, one at Derby and another at St. Paul's, the latter Nov. 5, 1709, of which Mr. Dolben complained as being contrary to revolution principles. The House of Commons voted them " scandalous and seditious," and ordered Dr. Sacheverell to be impeached, Dec. 13. Dr. Sacheverell, brought to trial Feb. 27, 1710, was found guilty March 23, and sentenced to suspen- sion for three years. The people, con- ceiving the church in danger, during the progress of the trial broke into several meeting-houses, tore down the pulpits and pews, and made a bonfire of them in Lin- coln' s-inn Fields. Soldiers were called upon to disperse the mob, and the London trained 746 SAC bands were kept on duty. In 1713 Sache- verell was presented to the living of St. Andrew's, Holborn, and he died in 1724. Sachament. — In the primitive ages of Christianity there were but two sacraments. Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Otho, bishop of Bamberg, was the first who, a.d. 1124, enumerated seven sacraments. Through the influence of Peter Lombard and of Gratian, this number was generally adopted by the Eomish clergy, and received the approval of Pope Eugenius IV. at the council of Florence .in 1439. The council of Trent, Dec. 13, 1545— Dec. 3, 1563, decided that there were seven instead of the two instituted by Jesus Christ. A sect sprung up in England early in the 18th century, found- ed by Dr. Deacon, who increased their number to twelve. The founder pubhshed his views on Christianity in 1748. Saceamextabies. — These hturgical books were used in the Eoman Catholic church, and contained the prayers and order of the celebration of mass and of the sacraments. The most celebrated sacramentaries are those of Pope Gelasius (492—496) and Pope Gregory the Great (590—604). About the 11th or 12th century they were incorporated with the mass-books or missals (q.v.). No sacramentaries were employed by the Greek church. Luther denounced Zuinglius and his followers as sacramentaries in 1521. Sacramento (California).— The city of Sacramento, founded in the spring of 1849, contained more than 10,000 inhabitants in 1852. Sacred. — The Christian emperors never used the term until the time of Justin II., A.D. 565. It was first added to the title of majesty, in this country, by James I. in 1603. Sacred Wars.— The first, in which the Amphictyonic council declared war against the Cirrhseans, B.C. 595, in defence of Del- phi, lasted until b.c. 586, when Cirrha was taken, razed to the ground, and the sur- rounding country dedicated to the god. A second lasted from B.C. 448 to B.C. 447. The Phocians having been sentenced by the Am- phictyonic council to pay a fine for having, as they pretended, cultivated the Cirrhaean plain, B.C. 357, seized the temple, which led to the third Sacred war. It was brought to a conclusion by Philip I. of Macedon B.C. 346, and the temple was restored to the Amphic- tyons. By some writers the first contest is termed the Cirrhsean war, and the two latter the first and second Sacred wars. Sacrifice. — Cain offered one of the fruit of the ground, and Abel of the firsthngs of his flock, B.C. 3875 (Genesis iv. 2 — 4). Noah, after leaving the ark, offered up a burnt- offering, B.C. 2347 (Genesis viii. 20). Abra- ham was commanded by God to offer up his son Isaac as a sacrifice, b.c. 1872 (Genesis xxii. 2) . The Jewish system of sacrifice was instituted b.c. 1496. A decree of the Eoman senate aboUshed human sacrifices B.C. 99. The Egyptians, says Herodotus, offered up swine to Dionysus, god of the Nile, and to SAC the Moon, b.c. 408; and the Scythians to their deities sacrificed chiefly horses, b.c. 408. Caesar found the Druids of Britain practising human sacrifices, B.C. 55. "The altars of Phoenicia and Egypt, of Eome and Carthage, have been polluted with human gore," and the Arab tribe of the Dumatians annually sacrificed a boy in the 3rd century. The Mohammedan pilgrimage to Mecca is consummated by a sacrifice of sheep and camels. The tribes of the Suevi were in the habit of resorting to the sacred wood or sonnenwald, in the marquisate of Lusace, and there offering human sacrifice, a.d. 243. Theodosius prohibited sacrifice at Eome in 381. Saceilege. — A statute was enacted against it (4 Hen. VIII. c. 2) a.d. 1512. It was made punishable with death by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 10 (1827), and with trans- portation for Hfe by 5 & 6 Will. IV, c. 81 (Sept. 10, 1835). The penalty was further reduced to a term of imprisonment for three years by 6 WiU. IV. c. 4 (1836). Saceipoetus (Battle). — The consuls Ma- rius the younger and Papirius Carbo were defeated at this place, in Italy, with the loss of 20,000 slain and 8,000 prisoners, by Sylla, B.C. 82. Saddles. — Zonaras relates that Constan- tino the younger was killed a.d. 340 by a faU from his saddle, which seems to be the first mention of them. They appear to have been made of wood in the time of the empe- ror Theodosius I. In 385 he ordered that saddles of more than sixty pounds weight should not be put upon post-horses. The emperor Maurice ordered those of the cavalry to have large coverings of fur in the 6th century. Etbelbert, £ng of Kent, bestowed one adorned with gems upon St. Augustine's abbey in 605. In a reformation of the Cluniacs, in 1233, it is ordered that no abbot or prior ride without one. Among the old Germans and Franks, carrying a saddle from place to place was an igno- minious punishment. Sadducees, who denied the existence of departed souls, and the resurrection from the dead, derived their name from Sadoc, a follower of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of the Jewish Sanhedrim about B.C. 250. The last-mentioned was the founder of the sect. Sadlee's "Wells (London). — A band of music was provided for the entertainment of the drinkers of the medicinal waters here, A.D. 1683. Mr. Eosoman sold three-fourths of his interest in the place for £7,000, June 10, 1771. The theatre was opened in 1765. An accident occurred through a false alarm of fire, by which eighteen persons were suffo- cated or trampled to deatl;, Oct. 19, 1807. Two benefits took place for the reHef of the sufferers, Nov. 2 and 3, and two brothers were convicted at the Middlesex sessions for having caused the riot wluch led to the catastrophe. Dee. 4, 1807. Safety Lamp. — The " Davy "was invented by Sir Humphrey Davy a.d. 1815, and the SAI " Geordy " by George Stephenson in 1815. It was decided to be sometimes a source of danger when ventilation was neglected, by a committee formed to inquire into the subject after the great explosion near Sun- derland in 1839. Saefeow, the same as the Latin crocus, which was much used by the ancients as a perfume and in cookery, was first introduced into Spain by the Arabs and into England ! by a pilgrim, who brought a bulb from the i Levant in the reign of Edward III. Its cul- tivation was an important feature of Euro- pean husbandry in the 15th and 16th cen- turies. In the neighbourhood of Saffron Walden it was much cultivated. Henry II., king of France, issued an order against its adulteration in 1550. Sagan (Prussia) was sold to WaUenstein by Ferdinand II. for 150,800 guilden, about a fourth of its value, a.d. 1627. It passed at his death in 1634 to the princes of Lobkowitz, who sold it to Peter, duke of Courland, in 1785. The duke abdicated his sovereignty in 1795, and his second daughter was created duchess of Sagan in 1845. Sage. — Mexican sage was introduced into this country from Mexico a.d. 1724, and blue African sage from the Cape in 1731. Sagone Bay (Corsica) is also called Lazone Bay. Here two French store-ships and a large transport were discovered lying under the protection of a battery, by Cap- tain Eobert Barrie. He attacked and destroyed the vessels and demohshed the for- tification. May 1, 1811. Sageamento, St., or Colonia del Sacea- mento ( Brazil) . — This Portuguese settlement on the Plata was founded by the governor of Eio Janeiro a.d. 1678, and was claimed by the Spaniards in 1680. They relinquished their claim by the treaty of Lisbon, June 18, 1701, and by a treaty signed at Utrecht Feb. 6, 1715, but at length it was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Lisbon, Jan. 13, 1750. Por- tugal recovered it by a convention signed Feb. 12, 1761 ; but on the commencement of war between the two countries in 1762 it was again seized by the Spaniards, who resigned it for the fourth time by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Hostihties recommenced, however, and continued until the Portuguese ceded it to Spain by the treaty of St. Ilde- fonso, Oct. 1, 1777. It was finally annexed to the empire of Brazil in 1825. Saguntum, or Sagxjntus (Spain), was besieged while in alhauce with the Eomans, by Hannibal, and taken after a brave resist- ance, when all the male adults were put to death, b.c 218. This led to the second Punic war. It was recovered by the Eomans, who restored and made it a colony, B.C. 210. A mosaic pavement of Bacchus was discovered A.D. 1745. The town of Murviedro {muri veteres) now occupies its site, and the con- vent of La Trinidad that of the great temple of Diana. Sailoes' Home (London Docks) was founded a.d. 1829, and the new building, by Mr. George Green, was opened in May, 1835. 747 SAI SAL Saiittes (France). — This ancient town contains a cathedral, built on the site of a church founded by Charlemagne. The church of St. Eutrope was founded in the 11th century. Councils were held here in 562; January, 1081; Nov. 4, 1089; March 2, 1097 ; and in 1282. Salamanca (Spain), the Eoman Salman- tica, and called by the Spaniards, from its fine architectural remains, Eoma la Chica, or Little Eome, was stormed and captured by Ordonno a.b. 862. It capitulated to the earl of Galway, June 7, 1706, and was oc- cupied by a Spanish force, under the dake del Parque, in October, 1809. Wellington reached it June 17, 1812 ; took the forts by assault on the 26th ; and totally defeated the French, near the town, July 22. The bridge of twenty-seven arches across the Tormeo rests on the piers of Trajan's bridge. The university was founded by Alfonso IX. of Leon, in 1200, and united with that of Pa- lencia in 12.39. It had 14,000 students in the 14th century. The schools of the university were buHt in 1415; the four colegios may ores were founded — San Bartolome, in 1410 ; Cuenca in 1506 ; Santiago in 1521 ; and King's College in 1625. Their pri-valeges were much curtailed in 1770. The Jesuits' college was bmlt in 1614. The old cathedral was erected in the 12th century ; the new one, begun in 1513, was finished in 1734. The Plaza Mayor, capable of containing nearly 20,000 persons, and sometimes used as a bull arena, was erected between 1700 and 1733. Twenty convents, and about twenty colleges, were destroyed by the French during their oc- cupation of the town before the retreat of 1812. Councils were held here Oct. 21, 1310 ; May 24, 1335 ; If ov. 23, 1380 to May 19, 1381, and in 1410. Saiamis (Greece), the modem Kuluri, was colonized by the .^acidse of ^gina at an early period;" Ajax, the son of Telamon, king of the island, accompanying the expe- dition against Troy with twelve ships, B.C. 1193. It continued independent tiU a dispute arose, b.c. 620, between the Athenians and the Megarians for its possession, both claim- ants citing the " Diad" in support of their pretensions, when it was finally adjudged to the Athenians. It voluntarily received a Ma- cedonian garrison B.C. 318, and they held it until it was purchased by the Athenians B.C. 232. The Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks oflFthe coast, b.c 480. Budorum, the western p}-omontory of the island, was taken by the Peloponnesians, B.C. 429. Salankemak (Battle). — A splendid vic- tory was gained, Aug. 19, 1691, at this place, in Himgary, by Louis, margrave of Baden, over the Turks, 20,000 of whom, the vizier Mustapha KioprUi being among the number, were slain. Salassi. — This powerful Alpine tribe, probably of Ligurian origin, is first men- tioned in history in connection with an un- provoked attack made upon it by the Eoman consul Appius Claudius, who suffered a 748 defeat and lost 5,000 men in the engagement. Having repaired his disaster in another at- tack, and slain a like number of his oppo- nents, he claimed a triumph, B.C. 143. To prevent the ravages of the tribe, a Eoman colony was estabhshed at Eporedia (Ivrea), at the mouth of the valley leading to their country, b.c. 100. They revolted B.C. 35, but were subdued by Valerius Mes- sala B.C. 34. Again revolting, Terentius Varro compelled them to lay down their arms, and sold the whole nation (36,000 persons) into slavery, B.C. 25. The gold- washings of the valley constituted the chief cause of dispute. SlLEAif (Battle). — The Persian general Sarbaraza having retired within the waUa of this town, it was suddenly attacked by the Eomans under HeracHus, and taken, after a brave defence, a.d. 624. Sarbaraza effected his escape. Saidanha Bat (Africa). — A Dutch fleet was captured by Commodore Johnstone in this bay, near the Cape of Good Hope, three ships, of 1,100 tons each, being saved from the fire, and afterwards brought to England, July 21, 1781. A Dutch squadron with 2,000 troops on board, destined to attack the Enghsh at the Cape of Good Hope, was captured in the same place by Admiral Elphinstone, Aug. 17, 1796. Salerno (Italy), the Eoman Salemum, capital of the province of Salerno, or Prin- cipato-Citra. The Eomans decided to es- tablish a colony here B.C. 197, the settle- ment being actually formed, B.C. 194. It was taken by Papius, the Samnite general, during the Social war, B.C. 90 — 88, and again by the Goths in the 6th century. Having faUen into the hands of the Lom- bards, it was besieged by the Saracens a.d. 872. The siege was raised by the em- peror Louis in 873. The Saracens eventu- ally succeeded in capturing it in 905. The Greek emperor dispossessed the Saracens in 920. Having reverted to the Lombards, the Saracens laid siege to it in 1005. In another attempt, in 1016, a force of Norman knights, on their way from Jerusalem, came to the rescue. It was captured, after a siege of eight months, by Eobert Guiscard, who deposed Gisulph, the last of the Lom- bard pi-inces, in 1077, and the city rose to great enainence, being classed with the opu- lentissimce urhes of Campania. Its school of medicine was celebrated as early as 1069. Pope Gregory VII. died here. May 25, 1085. An assembly of barons met and elected Eoger II., duke of ApuHa, king of Naples and Sicily, in 1130. The citizens betrayed the empress Constance to Tancred, king of Sicily, in 1191. It was sacked by the em- peror Henry VI. in 1193. Urban VI., in his struggles with Charles III., king of Naples, took refuge here in 1385. The crew of the Cagliari were undergoing their trial here when they were, with the vessel, dehvered up to the British government, June 8, 1858. The cathedral of St. Matthew was built by Eobert Guiscard in 1084, on the site of au SAL older edifice destroyed by the Saracens. The bronze doors were erected in 1099 ; the har- bour was commenced by John of Proeida in 1260 ; the tomb of Pope Gregory VII. was restored in 1578; and the university, probably the oldest in Europe, was replaced by the Lyceum in 1817. SaI/Ices (Battle), fought a.d. 377, near one of the mouths of the Danube, between the Eomans and the Goths, under Fritigern, was attended by great slaughter on both sides, without any decided advantage to either. Salic Law, supposed to have been insti- tuted by Clovis, to exclude females from in- heritance, is still in operation in France. Philip II. of Spain attempted, in defiance of this law, to secure the crown for his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia, niece of Henry III., in 1590. Charles VI. of Austria dying with- out male issue, Maria Theresa succeeded to the throne by virtue of the Pragmatic sanc- tion, in 1740. The Salic law was abohshed in Spain March 29, 1830. Queen Victoria was excluded from the throne of Hanover in 1837 by the operation of the SaHc law. Salisbuet (Bishopric) was originally esta- blished at Sherborne, a.d. 705, when St. Aldhelm was appointed its first bishop, and it was removed to Sahsbury, then known as Old Sarum, by Bishop Herman in 1072. By an order in council dated Oct. 5, 1836, the entire county of Berkshire was separated from the diocese of Salisbury, and annexed to Oxford. Salisbuet, or New Saeum (Wiltshire), had its origin in a quarrel between the bishop and canons of Old Sarum. The captain of the castle sided with the clerical party, and founded a cathedral at New Sarum a.d. 1220. It was completed in 1258, and the city re- ceived a charter from Henry III., and was walled in 1315. It has returned members to Earliament since 1294. A council was held ere by Edward II. Oct. 20, 1324 ; a parha- ment by Edward III. Oct. 16, 1328; and another by Kichard II, April 29, 1384. A rising in favour of Charles II. was made by Sir Joseph Wagstaffe, who surprised the judges March 11, 1655. During the great plague the court removed from London to Sahsbury, July 27, 1665. James II. having joined the main body of his army here, was deserted by the duke of Grafton and Lord Churchill Nov. 22, 1688. The poultry-market contains a hexagonal cross of the time of Edward III. Sallentines, or Salentines, inhabiting the southern part of the Itahan peninsula, are mentioned by Livy as having been de- feated by the consul L. Volumnius, who took some of their towns B.C. 306. According to some writers the historian confounds them with a neighbouring nation. In the fourth Samnite war they joined the confederacy against the Romans, and were defeated by L. uEmilius Barbula B.C. 281. War was de- clared against them by the Eomans B.C. 267 ; and their conquest was completed B.C. 266. Having revolted, they were subdued b . c . 213, SAL after which their name disappears from history. Salon- A, or Salok^ (Dalmatia), became the chief town of Dalmatia after the fall of Dalminium, B.C. 117, was taken by Cosconius B.C. 78, and by Asinius Pollio B.C. 39. M. Octavius, commanding a squadron for Pom- pey, was compelled to retreat from before it with loss B.C. 34. It maintained a siege against Bato, the native leader, a.d. 6. Dio- cletian built the palace, which gives its name to the modern town of Spalato, and many public buildings, when he retired here after his abdication in 305. Glycerins, emperor of the West, accepted its bishopric when he re- signed his sceptre in 474. It was taken by Odoacer, king of the Heruh, in 481. Belisa- rius made it his starting-point in the expedi- tion to Italy in 544, as did Narses in 552. It was pillaged and burned by the Avars in 639, A council was held here in October, 1076. Salonica, or Saloniki (European Turkey) , the ancient Thessalonica, in early times also called Emathia, Haha, and Therma, was the resting-place of Xerxes on his march to invade Greece, B.C. 481. It was taken by Pausanias about B.C. 479, occupied by the Athenians b.c. 421, and appears to have been rebuilt B.C. 315. It surrendered to the Ro- mans June 22, b.c. 168. Cicero found refuge here during his banishmemt, B.C. 58. It was the head-quarters of the Pompeian party in the first civil war, B.C. 649, and, siding with Octavius and Antoninus in the second, was made a free city B.C. 42. The apostle Paul addressed epistles to its church a.d. 52. It was made a Roman colonia in the middle of the 3rd century. The widow and daughter of the emperor Diocletian were beheaded here in 313. Its inhabitants were massacred for sedition by order of Theodosius the Great in 390, and it was besieged by the Ostro- goths, who were defeated by Sabinianus in 479. Salonica was stormed after a few days' fighting, and the citizens were slaughtered or sold into slavery by the Saracens, whose fleet appeared before the city July 29, 904. It was taken by the Normans of Sicily Aug. 15, 1185. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, founded the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica in 1204. Theodore Angelus expelled Deme- trius, the son of Boniface, and assumed the title of emperor in 1222. Vataces, emperor of Nicaea, united it to his own empire in 1234. On the marriage, in 1284, of Violante with An- dronicus, the Greek emperor, her father Wil- liam, marquis of Montferrat, gave up as her dowry the nominal sovereignty of Thessalo- nica. After various changes, it was taken from the Venetians by the sultan Amurath II. in 1430. Salsette (Hindostan). — This island, for- merly part of the Mongol empire, was taken by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The Mahrattas conquered the island in 1750, and the British Dec. 28, 1774. The cause- way connecting it vsdth the island of Bombay was constructed in 1813. The temple-caves of Kennery, the largest of which is a Budd- hist temple, are of great antiquity. 749 SAL SAM Salt was imported into this eountry by the Phcenicians, according to Fosbroke, and the Eomans made pits and mines here (those at Droitwich being mentioned) a.d. 816. The art of making common salt was published by Dr. Brownrigg in 1748. Beds of rock-salt were discovered in searching for coal at Marbury, near Worthwich, about 1670, and near Lawton in 1779. A second stratimi was found at XorthAvich in 1781. In Lower Iformandy it has been procured by filtration through sea-sand and evapora- tion from sea-water since the 9th century ; and in Sardinia since 1550, from which place the process was introduced into Saxony in 1559. The works at Ostia, on the Tiber, were formed B.C. 640 ; those at "VVilicska, in Poland, A.D. 1237 ; and at Bochnia, Galicia, in 1251. Those on the banks of the lagunes originated a quarrel between Tenice and Padua in 1336. A duty of 10s. per bushel was imposed in this country in 1798. It was increased to 15s. in 1805, reduced to 2s. in 1823, and abolished Jan. 5, 1825. Saltees' Coup ant (London). — A livery was granted to this company by Eichard II. A.D. 1394. The Salters' HaU, buUt in Bread Street about 1451, was destroyed by fire in 1533. Arms were granted by Henry VIII. in 1530. The company was incoi-porated by letters-patent of Elizabeth, July 20, 1558. The hall is mentioned in 1578 as having been rebuilt, but was again destroyed by fire in 1598. The present hall, commenced Oct. 16, 1823, was finished iu 1827. Saltpetee, or Nitee, is mentioned in the works of Eoger Bacon, who died a.d. 1278, Lulhus speaks of obtaining aquafortis from it before 1315. Gunther, archbishop of Magdeburg, granted the right of collecting it, as it occurred in the form of an incrusta- tion on walls of houses, in 1419. A burgher of Halle obtained a like grant in 1460 ; and another had a contract for collecting it from two heaps of rubbish before the gates of Halle in 1544. The magistrates of that town had a manufactory for saltpetre in 1545. In the Prussian states the royal right of collecting it was, on the urgent representation of the people, abohshed, — an indemnification being made to govern- ment in 1798. Saluzzo (Italy). — The French, under the duke of Montmorency, took possession of Saluzzo A.D. 1630. The marqidsate was annexed to the duchy of Savoy in the beginning of the 17th century ; and the ancient castle, once the residence of the marquises of Saluzzo, has been converted into a prison. Saltadoe, San" (Central America), was conquered by Alvarado, one of the officers of Cortes, a.d. 1-523. It remained under Spanish rule, attached to Guatemala, till united to Mexico by the revolution of 1821. A confederation was formed with Honduras, Guatemala, "Xicaragua, and Costa Eica, under the name of the Confederation of Central America, in 1823. It was dissolved in 184^"). The capital, bearing the same 750 I name, was totally destroyed by an earth- quake April 16, 1854. Saltadoe, St., or Cat Island (Bahama- or Lucayos Islands), called by the native Indians, Guanahani, or Cat Island, disco- j vered by Columbus in his first voyage to j America, Oct. 11, 1492, was the first land in j the New World reached by this enterprising j navigator. I Salzbach (Baden). — Turenne, who com- I manded the forces of Louis XIY., was killed ! near this town, as he was visiting a battery I on the eve of giving battle to the troops of i the emperor, under MontecuculH, Jvij 26, j 1675. Salzbtteg (Austria), the ancient Juvavum, I capital of the duchy of Salzburg, the resi- [ dence of the native kings of Noricum, was destroyed by the Heruli, on the decMne of the Eoman power, a.d. 448, but was restored in the 7th century. The Benedictine church contains fine painted glass windows of 1480. St. Margaret was built in 1485. Paracelsus, whose grave is in the churchyard of St. Sebas- tian, died here in 1541. The university church was built between 1696 and 1707 ; the cathe- dral, with a fa9ade of white marble, between 1614 and 1668. One of its eight gates, called the New Gate, was cut through the Monk's Hill, by Archbishop Sigismund, in 1767. By the treaty of Campo Formio, signed Oct. 17, 1797, Salzburg was ceded to Austria. The French were defeated here in a great battle, by the Austrians under Archduke John, Dec. 14, 1800. The university was abolished, and a lyceum or academy established, in 1806. Salzburg was ceded to the duke of Tuscany in December, 1802 ; was oc- cupied by the French in 1805 ; and again ceded to "Austria by the peace of Presburg, signed Dec. 26, 1805. The Austrian general Jellachich was defeated here by the French AprU 29, 1809 ; and by the peace of Vienna, signed Oct. 14, 1809, Salzburg was ceded to Bavaria. In 1818 the city was partly de- stroyed by fire. The botanic garden was opened in 1850. Councils were held here Jan. 26, 807 ; Feb. 1, 1178 ; in 1274, 1281, 1287 ; Nov. 11, 1288 ; in 1291, 1310, 1340 ; July, 1380 ; January, 1386 ; Nov. 18, 1418 ; Feb. 8, 1451 ; and Oct. 19, 1490. Salzbueg (Duchy). — This country having been wrested from the Celts by the Eomans, and reduced to a state of ruin on the fall of the empire, was visited by Hrodbert, or Eupert, a Scotsman, who converted the people to Christianity, and became their first bishop, a.d. 716. Arno, the seventh in succession, was made archbishop by Pope Leo III. in 798. The Protestants, having received permission, left the duchy in 1732, to the number of 30,000, and settled in Prussia, Wiii-temberg, and Georgia (North America). The see having been secularized, was given, with the title of elector, to the ex-diike of Tuscany in 1801, and was annexed to Austria in 1806. It came into the posses- sion of Bavaria in 1809, but reverted to Austria in 1815. Samanides. — Ismael, founder of this dy- SAM nasty, invited by the Abbassides, crossed the | Oxus with 10,000 horse, conquered the Sof- i farian army, and established himself in Persia, a.d. 874. He was recognized as padishah, or king, by the caliph in 900. After a duration of 125 years, the Sama- nides were conquered by the Gaznevides in 999. Samara (Kussia) was built a.d. 1591, as a defence against the Calmucks, and sur- rounded by a wall and moat. The fortifi- cations were destroyed in 1703. The country was formed into a government by a ukase issued in December, 1850, and Samara was mada the capital. Samarcand (Tartary), according to Strabo, was built by Alexander the G-reat. The manufacture of silk paper was known here a.d. 650. It was taken in 1219 by Zenghis-Khan, and in 1359 by Tamerlane. It was united to Bokhara by Abdullah at the close of the 16th century. Samaritans, a people brought from be- yond the Euphrates to inhabit Samaria when the ten tribes of the Israelites were carried into captivity by Shalmaneser, B.C. 721. The Jews destroyed the city and the temple of the Samaritans b.c. 109. They were re- built by Herod B.C. 25. A small remnant of the Samaritans still exists. They were visited by missionaries a.d. 1823, and again in 1838. Sambas (Borneo). — The Dutch began to trade here about a.d. 1604. In consequence of the piratical habits of the inhabitants, a British expedition was despatched against Sambas in 1812, but it was repulsed with great loss. Another expedition was sent in the following year, under Colonel Watson, who carried the fort by storm July 3, and compelled the rajah to retire into the in- terior of his dominions. Samian War, between the Athenians and the Samians, occurred about B.C. 440. In the beginning of this war Pericles, the Athenian commander, defeated the Samian fleet, landed his troops on the island, and be- sieged Samos. Having heard that a Phoeni- cian fleet was coming to the assistance of the Samians, he drew off part of his forces to intercept it. The besieged taking advan- tage of his absence, carried the naval encamp- ment of the Athenians by surprise. Pericles hastily returned, and again closely besieged the town. The Samians ventured upon another battle, in which they were defeated. They held the town for nine months, when they capitulated through famine. The Sa- mians were condemned to dismantle their fort, deliver up their ships, and pay the cost of the siege by instalments. Samnites.— This people, of Sabine origin, conquered Campania between B.c. 440 and B.C. 420, afterwards overran Lucania, and within a century spread themselves almost to the southern extremity of Italy. The Samnites concluded a treaty with Rome B.C. 354. The first Samnite war began B.C. 343, and after several victories gained by the Eomans was concluded B.C. 341. The second SAM Samnite war commenced B.C. 327. The Eoman army having been decoyed by the Samnites into a narrow pass called the Cau- dine Forks, b.c. 321, had to pass under the yoke in the presence of the whole Samnite army. After suffering many defeats, the Samnites were compelled to sue for peace, which was granted B.C. 304. The third Sam- nite war commenced B.C. 298. The Samnites with their allies the Gauls were defeated in a great battle b.c. 295, and were com- pelled to sue for peace b.c. 290. They joined Pyrrhus B.C. 282, and finally sub- mitted to Rome b.c. 272. The Samnites declared for Hannibal B.C. 216, but renewed their submission to Rome B.C. 209. They joined in the Social war, and many of them were in the army of the younger Marius, which was defeated at Sacriportus B.C. 82. The Samnites having again revolted, were defeated by Sylla at the battle of the Colline gate, Nov. 1, 82 B.C. Samoan Isles. {See Naviq-atoe's Is- lands.) Samosata (Syria) was taken by Marc Antony b.c. 39. It was the native place of Paul, bishop of Antioch, who denied the divinity of Christ, and was deposed A.D. 269. The town, captured by Chosroes II. in 609, was recovered by Heraclius in 625. Samos, or Samxts (Archipelago). — This island was occupied by Carians, lonians, &c., in the 10th century before Christ. The Sa- mians became remarkable for their com- merce about B.C. 776. During the reign of Polycrates, b.c 532 — 522, the Samian navy was the most powerful in Greece. Near this island was fought the celebrated battle of Mycale, B.C. 479, in which the Greeks gained a decisive victory over the Persians. The maritime strength of Samos was broken b.c. 440 (see Samian War), and from. b.c. 439 to b.c. 412 Samos re- mained without a fleet. It came under the sway of Rome B.C. 84, and was the residence of Antony and Cleopatra b.c. 32. It was plundered by the Arabs in the 8th century, and was recovered by the emperor Leo in the 13th century. Mohammed II. assailed it in 1453, and it was sacked by the Turks in 1550. A battle was fought here between the Greeks and Turks, Aug. 17, 1824, in which the latter were defeated. Samothrace (^gean Sea). — The inha- bitants of this island joined Xerxes in his expedition against Greece, and a Samo- thracian ship sank an Athenian ship at the battle of Salamis, in Cyprus, B.C. 449. Per- seus took refuge here after he was defeated by the Romans at the battle of Pydna (q.v.), B.C. 168. St. Paul passed a night here at anchor on his first voyage from Asia to Europe (Acts xvi. 11), a.d. 43. Sampeord-Courtenay (Battle). — The in- surgent Roman Catholics of Devon and Cornwall were defeated by the Protestant forces under Lord Russell, at Sampford- Courtenay, in Devonshire, Aug. 17, 1549. This action terminated the hopes of the 751 SAN SAN Cornish rebels, and most of them perished in the flight. Their leaders were taken prisoners and executed. Sanctttaet. — The custom of setting apart places where criminals were safe from legal penalties is of great antiquity, and was sanc- tioned by the Leritical appointment of cities of refuge. {See Asylum.) The right of sanctuary is said to have been introduced into this country by King Lucius about a.d. 181, and it was expressly recognized by the code of Ina, which was promulgated in 693. Alfred the Great in 887 allowed criminals to obtain safety for three days by fleeing to a church ; and in 1670 William the Conqueror made express laws on the subject. Sanc- tuary was understood to be merely a tem- porary privilege, and by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1529), felons or murderers availing them- selves of it were compelled to be branded with the letter A on the right thumb, in token that they abjured the reahn. {See Abjuration of the Kealm.) The privilege of sanctuary was taken away from aU per- sons guilty of high treason by 26 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1534), and from pirates by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1535). By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1535), aU persons in sanctuary were compelled to wear badges, and were prohi- bited from wearing weapons, and from going abroad before sunrise or after sunset. By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1540), many sanc- tuaries were abolished, and the only places permitted to retain the privilege were cathedrals, parish churches, and hospitals, together Avith WeUs, Westminster, Man- chester, Northampton, Norwich, York, Derby, and Lancaster. The same statute abohshed the privilege of sanctuary in cases of wilful murder, rape, burglary, highway robbery, and arson. Westchester was sub- stituted for Manchester as a sanctuary city by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 15 (1541). These acts were aU repealed by 1 James I. c. ^6, s. 34 (1604), and the abolition of sanctuary was again enforced by 21 James I. c. 28, s. 7 (1623). In the case of debtors, however, it continued to exist in a modified form until it was finally removed by 8 & 9 Wfll. III. c. 27 (1697). The London sanctuaries were the Minories ; Sahsbury Court, Whitefriars ; Eam Alley and Mitre Court, in Fleet Street ; Fulwood's Eents, Holborn ; Baldwin's Gar- dens, Gray' s-InnLane; the Savoy; Montague Close, Deadman's Place; and the Mint, in Southwark. Owing to the laxity of the authorities, the Mint retained some of its privileges as a sanctuary until the reign of George I. Sandals. — The ancient Egyptians wore sandals of papyrus and sometimes of leather, and people of rank are said to have carried magnificence in this article of dress to a great extent. The emperor Elagabalus wore sandals adorned with precious stones, never using the same pair twice. Sandemanians. {See Glasites.) Sandhuest (Berkshire). — The Eoyal Military College, estabhshed at High Wy- combe A.D. 1799, was removed to Great 752 Marlow in 1802 by its founder, the late duke of York, and to the splendid estabUshment erected for the purpose at Sandhurst in 1812. Sandwich (Kent) is first mentioned a.d. 665. The Danes, defeated here by Athelstan in 851, destroyed the town in 993, and again landed in 1011, when they besieged Canter- bury, which they burned. Canute visited the town on leaving England in 1014 ; landed here in 1016, and again in 1029. The Danes ravaged it in 1048, and William I. made it the chief of the Cinque Ports in 1067. The corporation held the power in 1315 of in- flicting capital punishment by drowning. The French, under Marshal de Brez^, plun- dered the town in 1438 and again in 1456. The castle was held in 1471 against Ed- ward IV. by Faleonbridge and his followers. A mole was constructed in 1493. The har- bour began to be difficult of access in 1500, and a century later was quite closed. A great number of Flemings set- tled here in 1561 and introduced sUk-weaving. St. Thomas's Hospital was founded in 1392, and the grammar-school in 1563. Queen Elizabeth visited the town in 1573, and the Guildhall was erected in 1579. Sandwich Islands (Pacific Ocean) were discovered by Captain Cook, Jan. 19, 1778, and again visited by him on his return from Behring's Strait in 1779. He was killed by the natives at Owhyhee {q.v.), Feb. 14, 1779. His bones were preserved by the priests, and continued to receive homage until 1819, when idolatry was abohshed and the natives embraced the Christian rehgion. The king and queen came to London in 1824, and died soon after their arrival. The Sandwich Islands are supposed to be identical with a group discovered by the Spanish navigator Gaetan in 1542, and named by him "the King's Islands." SanFeancisco (Cahfornia). — Its original name was Yerba Bueua, and it was con- nected with a Spanish settlement of mission- aries called San Francisco, founded a.d. 1776. The modern city was founded in 1839. Gold was discovered in the neighbourhood in 1847, and San Francisco was ceded to the United States in 1848. A mint was esta- bhshed in 1853. Sangala (Hindostan). — This ancient city was besieged and taken by Alexander the Great B.C. 326, when 17,000 Indians were killed and 70,000 made prisoners. The town itself was razed to the ground. Sanhedeim. — The great council of the Jews consisted of seventy-one or seventy -two members, and decided the most important affairs of church and state. It is usually considered to have originated in the seventy elders who were appointed by Moses (Num. xi. 16) to assist him in his judicial duties, B.C. 1490. It was in existence in the time of Jesus Christ. The Grand Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I. in July, 1806, and met at Paris to the num- ber of seventy-one, March 9, 1807. This was the first meeting of the kind since the dis- SAN- persion of the Israelites after the destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. Sanitary Science. — A writer in the "Encyclopedia Britannica" (xix. 602) re- marks, — "In the books of Moses we have a surprising instance of the care which was taken to prevent disease by the inculcation of hygienic precepts and the adoption of sanitary laws." Hippocrates, who died B.C. 357, embodied many valuable . directions for the preservation of health in his work on " Airs, Waters, and Places ; " and the Eoman physician Celsus, who is supposed to have flourished at the commencement of the Christian sera, devoted considerable at- tention to the same subject. The earliest measures for securing attention to the laws of hygiene in modern Europe arose from the frequent epidemics which repeatedly de- populated entire nations. (See Pla&ue and Lazaretto.) In 1802 the French govern- ment established a council of health for the sanitary regulation of Paris ; and in 1851 the entire country was brought under con- trol of a central council, with minor branches in each department. The public health movement in this country was commenced by Dr. Southwood Smith, who made several suggestions tending to sanitary reform in his work on fevers, published in 1830. In 1838 his report on the state of Bethnal Green and Whitecbapel excited considerable attention. Mr. Edvrin Chadvsdck's report on the condition of the labouring poor ap- peared in 1840, and his report on interment in towns in 1843. The Health of Towns Association was formed in November, 1844, and numerous legislative and popular mea- sures, amongst which the following deserve particular notice, have since been adopted. Baths and Wash-houses Act, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 74 (Aug. 26. 1846), amended by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 61 (July 2, 1847). Kuisances' Removal Act, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 28, 1846), renewed, amended, and made perpetual by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 123 (Sept. 4, 1848), and by 12 & 13 Vict. c. Ill (Aug. 1, 1849). The pro- visions on the subject were consolidated by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 121 (Aug. 14, 185.5), which was amended by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 6, 1860). Towns' Improvement Clauses Act, 10 & 11 Vict, c. 34 (June 21, 1847). Public Health Act, 11 & 12 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 31, 1848), amended by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 50 (Aug. 1, 1851), and by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 98 (Aug. 2, 1858). Metropolitan Interments Acts, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 5, 1850), repealed by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 85 (July 1, 1852), which was amended by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 134 (Aug. 20, 1853), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 128 (Aug. 14, 1855). Common Lodging-houses Act, 14 & 15 Vict. e. 28 (July 24, 1851), extended by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 41 (Aug. 4, 1853). Labouring Classes" Lodging-houses Act, 14 & 15 Vict. " 0. 34 (July 24, 1851). Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act, 16 & 17 Vict, c. 128 (Aug. 20, 18.53). Diseases' Prevention Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 116 (Aug. 14, 1855). Sanquhar (Scotland) is supposed to owe its origin to the old castle of Sanquhar, the ruins of which are still extant on an eminence to the south-east of the town. Taken by 753 SAP the English in the reign of Edward III., it was recreated a burgh in 1484, and was made a royal burgh by James VI., in 1596. The town-hall, a handsome edifice, was built and presented to the town by the duke of Queensberry in 1734. The old church, part of which is supposed to have been built by the Picts, was taken down, and a new one erected on its site, in 1823. Santa Cruz (Canary Isles), discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, a.d. 1486. A Spanish fleet of sixteen vessels, protected by the guns of the castle and seven batteries erected on the shore, was attacked and destroyed by Admiral Blake, April 20, 1657. An unsuccessful attempt to take Vera Cruz was made by Nelson, who lost his right arm in the engagement, July 24, 1797. Santa Maria. (See Leucadia.) Santander (Spain).— This seaport-town, capital of a small province of the same name, was taken and sacked by the French in June, and again in November, 1808. The Spaniards carried it by assault in the beginning of June, 1809 ; and it was retaken with great slaughter by the French on the 10th of the same month. It was evacuated by them Aug. 15, 1812. Santander was declared a free port by a government decree, March 30, 1818. Santia&o (S. America), the capital of Chili, was founded by Pedro de Valdivia, Feb. 24, 1541. It suffered severely from earthquakes in 1822 and 1829. Santiago, ©r Santiago de Composteha (Spain) , was one of the first towns wrested from the Moors by the successors of Pelayo, and was held by them until 997, when it was retaken by the Moors, who de- stroyed the temple, and placed its bells in the mosque at Cordova, where they re- mained tUI that town was taken by Ferdi- nand III. in 1235. They were then brought back to Santiago on the shoulders of his Moslem captives. On the building of the cathedral, about the end of the 9th century, the bodies of the apostle St. James, and two of his disciples, Athanasius and Theodorus, were, according to tradition, discovered, and placed in a subterranean chapel, , un- derneath the principal altar. This cir- cumstance brought pilgrims to Santiago from all parts of Europe ; and to protect them on their way from the attacks of the Moslems, the celebrated order of Santiago was founded in 1158 by Ferdinand II. No less than 916 pilgrims left England for Santiago in 1428, and this number increased to 2,280 in 1433. The offerings of the pilgrims Avere supposed to have made the church immensely rich. When the town was taken by the French in 1809, Marshal Ney ordered half of the money to be handed over to pay his troops, and it amounted to £40,000. The town was aban- doned by the French in 1814. An hospital for pilgrims was erected in the 15th century. Santiago is the see of an archbishop, and the seat of a university founded in 1533. Sapienza (Mediterranean). — This island on the south coast of the Morea, anciently 3 c SAP SAR called Sphacteria, is famous for a naval victory- obtained near it by the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians B.C. 435. The Genoese cap- tured and destroyed the Venetian fleet here Nov. 4, 1354. Sapphic Verse, attributed to the cele- brated poetess Sappho, who was born at Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, about B.C. 610. In consequence of a hopeless love for Phaon, a young Lesbian, Sappho is said to have thrown herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians paid her honour after her death, and stamped their coinage with her image. Sapphire. — This gem was known to the ancients as early as the time of Job, B.C. 1520 (Job xxviii. 6), and was one of the jewels employed in constructing Aaron's breast- plate, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18). It was also used in the costume of the Tyrian nobles. Sapphires are found in greatest abundance in Pegu, Ava, and Ceylon. A few specimens have been found in Bohemia, Prance, and Saxony. They are, next to diamonds, the hardest and most valuable of precious stones, although their constituents are almost entirely clay, with a httle iron as colouring matter. Saracens. — The name of this renowned Arab tribe is derived from Sarah, the wife of Abraham, whom they are said to claim as their foundress, to avert the stigma of their descent from the bond-woman Hagar. Bo- ehart denies this theory, and asserts that they were called Saracens in consequence of their nomadic and predatory habits, Saraka being the Arabic verb " to plunder." Reland states that the word simply denotes the eastern origin of the Saracens, Sharaka being a modification of the Arabic "to rise," and appUed in this case because the east is the quarter in which the sun rises. They are mentioned by the classical geographers, who do not define very exactly the locality they occupied. In consequence of their predatory encroachments, the emperor Decius caused a number of hons to be conveyed into their country from Africa, and turned loose among them, A.D. 251. The name was subsequently applied to all Moorish and Mohammedan people, and especially to the opponents of the Crusaders. {See Crusades, Moors, Mohammedans, &c.) Saragossa, or Zaragoza (Spain), capital of the old kingdom of Aragon, is said to have been founded by the Phoenicians or Cartha- ginians. It was rebuilt by the Eoman empe- ror Augustus, who gave it the name of Caesa- reia Augusta, and was taken a.d. 470 by the Goths, who were expelled by the Saracens in 712. It was made the capital of a separate Moorish state in 1017. Alfonso of Aragon besieged and took the town in 1018, and it was subsequently united to the kingdom of Castile. Saragossa is celebrated in mo- dern history for the two sieges it sustained during the Peninsular war. The French, who attempted to carry the town by assault, June 16, 1808, were repulsed with great loss. They then commenced a regular siege, and 754 succeeded in getting into the town Aug. 4, when a deadly struggle commenced, which lasted for eleven days. The Spanish com- inandei Palafox having been reinforced, the French abandoned the siege during the night of Aug. 14, with the loss of several thousand men. The second siege commenced Dec. 20, 1808. The outworks were soon taken by the French, and a series of sanguinary combats ensued day and night until Jan. 27, 1809, when a general assault was made, and the French succeeded in penetrating into the town. The garrison made an obstinate defence; but an epidemic fever broke out amongst them, and Palafox surrendered the town on honourable terms, Feb. 20, 1809. During the siege, 54,000 persons perished, of whom only 6,000 were killed by the enemy, the rest having been destroyed by the plague. The Spaniards were defeated near this town by the French, June 16, 1809. Saragossa was abandoned by the French in July, 1813. A body of Carhst troops pene- trated into the town, and occupied the prin- cipal posts, March 2, 1838. The inhabitants, without chiefs, and badly armed, attacked the assailants, made 2,000 prisoners, and expelled the remainder. Sarah Sands. — This iron screw steamer, with 300 soldiers on board, left Portsmouth for Calcutta in the middle of August, 1857. A fire broke out in the hold Nov. 11. The soldiers succeeded in clearing out the powder- magazine with the exception of two barrels, one of which exploded shortly afterwards, and the ship became a mass of flames. The fire, after raging twenty-four hours, was sub- dued by the exertions of the soldiers and the crew. A strong gale sprung up, and the vessel, with 15 i'eet of water in the hold, suc- ceeded in reaching the Mauritius Nov. 21, and not a single life was lost. Saratoga (North America). — Near this town, a British force under General Bur- govne surrendered to the Americans under General Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. Sarawak (Borneo), the capital of a settlement of the same name, was founded A.D. 1841 by Sir James Brooke, who was appointed its rajah. An outbreak of the Chinese settlers took place Feb. 18, 1857. They attacked and burnt the dwelling- houses of the Europeans in Sarawak, and kiUed several persons. Sir James Brooke and the greater part of the Enghsh escaped. The opportune arrival of a small steamer enabled the rajah to drive the Chinese out of the town, when they were attacked by the native Dyaks, and after a guerilla warfare of several days utterly routed. The Chinese settlements were destroyed, and out of a population of four or five thousand, not more than two thousand escaped. Sakdica. — This ancient town of Illyria was considerably enlarged by the emperor Trajan. According to Zonaras, the emperor Basil I. besieged it without success a.d. 876. A council, at which English bishops are said to have been present, was held here in 347. Saedinia (Mediterranean,, Sea) .— This SAR island, which was also called Ichnusa and Sandaliotis, is said to have been originally peopled by a colony of Libyans, who crossed over from Africa under the leadership of Sardus, — whence the name Sardinia, about B.C. 1200; but the traditions relating to its early history are obscure and conflicting. Its authentic history commences with its capture by the Carthaginians, of which the precise date is unknown. Sardinia was one of the chief corn-growing provinces of the Eoman empire. -480. Sardinia is conquered by the Cartha- ginians about this period. The Sardinians revolt against the Cartha- ginians. L. Cornelius Scipio defeats the Carthaginian fleet off Olbia, in Sardinia, and afterwards takes the city. The island is ravaged by the Romans, under C. Sulpicius. The Carthaginians cede their right to the island to the Romans. T. Manlius Torquatiis gains several victories over the natives. The inhabitants revolt under the native chief Hampsioora, who is subdued by Torquatus, and commits suicide. A revolt of the mountaineers is suppressed, with great severity, by the consul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. An insurrection is suppressed by M. Csecilius Metellus. Julius CfBsar visits Sardinia. It is ceded to Sextus Pompeius by the treaty of ' 739. 1000. 1022. 1164. 1165. 1309. 1324. 1325. 1395. 1409. Sardinia is wrested from the Roman empire by Genseric the Vandal. It is recovered for Justinian by Cyrillus. It is seized by the Goths, under Totila. Zabardus, governor of Sardinia, compels the barbarous mountaineers to embrace Chris- tianity. The Saracens obtain a footing in the island, and pUlage Cagliari. They are expelled. It is conquered by the Moor Musat, who assumes the tiHe of king of Sardinia. Musat is expelled by the allied forces of Genoa and Pisa. Fi-ederick Barbaros.sa sells Sardinia to Bari- sona, native prince or judge of the pro- vince of Arborea. He adopts the royal title, and is crowned at Pavia, but from want of funds is unable to support the diguity. The Pisans obtain the sovereignty of Sar- dinia. James II. of Aragon receives the investiture of Sardinia and Corsica from Pope Clement V. The infant Don Alfonso of Aragon con- quers the Pisan admiral Manfred, at the battle of Lucocistema. The defeat of the Pi.«an fleet, under Gaspar Doria, by the Aragonese admiral Francisco Carriiso, in the Bay of Cagliari, establishes the authority of the king of Aragon over the gj-eatev part of the island. April 15. Pedro IV. of Aragon establishes the representative govepiment of the Stamenti. The code of laws known as the "Carta de Logu " is promulgated. June 26. Don Martin, infant of Sicily, gains a great victory over the rebellious Sar- dinians near Cagliari. Alfonso V. of Ar;igou obtains tbe formal cession of the province of Arborea, and thereby extends his authority over the whole island. 755 SAR 1478. A rebellion, headed by the marquis of Oris- tano, is suppresoed. 1492. The Inquisition is established. 1527. Andrea Doria, with the combined fleet of the Holy League, fails in an attack upon Sar- dinia. 1540. The island is desolated by a terrible famine. 1637. Feb. 21. Sardinia is invaded by the French, under Count Harcr.urt. 1668. July 21. Assassination of the marquis of Camarussa, the Spanish viceroy, in Sar- dinia. 1708. Aug. 12. An English fleet, under Sir John Leake, anchors off Cagliari, and conquers the island. 1710. The Spaniards, under the duke of Tursis, fail in an attempt at its recapture. 1714. Sardinia is ceded to the empsror by the treaties of Utrecht, Radstadt, and Baden. 1717. Aug. 22. A Spanish fleet, under the marquis de Lede, arrives at Cagliari, and recovers the whole island in less than two months. 1720. Feb. 17. Sardinia is restored to the emperor Charles VI. , who cedes it the same day to Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in exchange for the island of Sicily. {See Sardinia, Kingdom.) Sasdinia, Kingdom (Italy), comprising Savoy, Piedmont, and the island of Sar- dinia, was established by Victor Amadeus I. (II. of Savoy) a.d. 1720. {See Sardinia and Savoy.) A.D. 1730. Sept. 2. Abdication of Victor Amadeus Lin fav^our of his son Charles Emanuel I. 1732. Oct. 31. He expires in prison, where he is confined for an attempt to regain the throne. 1733. Sept. 26. Charles Emanuel I. engages in the war of the Polish succession. 1736. June 6. Tortona and Novara are ceded to Sardinia by the treaty of Luxemburg. 1742. Feb. 1. A convention is signed at Turin with Maria Theresa. 1743. Sept. 13 By the alliance of "Worms, Sardinia obtains the marquisate of Finale on condi- tion of assisting Austria against Spain. 1745. Dec. 26. By the preliminary treaty of Turin, peace with France is restored, and Sardinia acquires the Milanese. 1748. Oct. 18. By the treaty of A±x-la-Chapelle Milan reverts to Austria, and Finale to Genoa. 1762. A decree is issued liberating the serfs in Savoy. 1770. A new code of laws is adopted in Savoy. 1792. The French invade the Sardinian territories, and occupy Savoy and Nice. 1796. May 15. Peace with France is restored by the treaty of Paris, which cedes Savoy and Nice to France. Oct 16. Death of Victor Amadeus II. 1798. Dec. 9. The king of Sai-diuia is deposed by the French, and compelled to retire to Leghorn. 1799. March 3. He removes to Ca«liari, and is acknowledged king by the Sardinian. islanders. May 27. Turin is occupied by the Austrians and Russians. 1802. June 4. Abdication of Charles Emanuel IT. in favour of his brother, the duke of Aosta. Sept. 11. Piedmont is incorporated with the Fi-ench republic. 1805. May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned king of Italy at Milan, and includes Sardinia in his kingdom. 1814. Victor Emanuel T. is restored, and returns to Turin. Dec. 12. Genoa is annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia. 1821. March 13. Abdication of Victor Emanuel L in consequence of a popular insurrection. 1824 Jan. 10. Death of the ex-king. 3 c 2 SAE 1830. The army is increased by the addition of 120,000 men. 1839. Nov. 28. A commercial treaty is concluded with Sweden. 1847. The department of public instruction is created. 1848. Feb. 8. A new constitution is granted, esta- blishiug a free press and two legislative chambers. March 23. Charles Albert joins Milan and Venice against Aus- tria. April 3 and 4. A revolution is suppressed in Savoy. April 8. The Aus- trians are defeated by the Sardinians at Goito. April 15. Charles Albert decrees that the national flag of Italy shall be a tricolour of gi'een, white, and red. May 30. Peschiera is surrendered by the Austrians to Charles Albert. June 28. The Sar- dinian chambers vote for the annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia. July 4. The Venetian assembly votes for the incorpora- tion of Venice with Sardinia. Aug. 5. Milan capitulates to the Austrian mai-shal Eadetzky. Aug. 9. An armistice is con- cluded between the Sardinian and Austrian 1849. Feb. 1. Meeting of the Sardinian parliament. March 12 Sardinia announces the termina- tion of the armistice. March 20. Hostilities are resumed. March 21. The Austrians defeat the Sardinians at Gambolo, and take Mortara. March 23. Radetzky gains an important victory at Novara, and Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son Victor Emanuel II. March 25. The new king has an interview with Radetzky, at Novara. March 26. They conclude an armistice. July 28. The ex-king Charles- Albert dies at Oporto. Aug. 6. A peace is concluded with Austria at Milan. Sept. 24. A commercial treaty is concluded with Tuscany. April 9. All ecclesiastical jurisdiction is abo- Ushed by the Siccardi law. April 18. The archbishop of Turin publishes a pastoral letter to his clergy enjoiidng regulations opposed to this law. May 4. He is arrested. May 14. The papal government protests against his imprisonment. Nov. 5. A com- mercial treaty is concluded with France. Jan. 20. The com laws are repealed in Sar- dinia. Jan. 10. Sardinia joins the allies against Russia. March 2. The chambers pass a bill for the abolition of convents. March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Turkey. May 9. A Sardinian army, under General de la Marmora, lands in the Crimea. Aug. 16. The Sardinian general Montevecchio is mortally wounded in the battle of the Tchernaya. Nov. 23. Vic- tor Emanuel II. visits Paris. Nov. 30. He visits London. April 16 The Sardinian plenipotentiaries re- quest England and France to decide against any military occupation of Italy by foreign powers. May 26. Lord Clarendon replies, condemning such occupation. March 16. In consequence of the attacks of the Sardinian press upon the Austrian government, the Austrian ambassador is recalled from Tm-in. March 23. Count Cavour recalls the Sardinian representative from Vienna. June 29. An insurrection is suppressed at Genoa. Oct. 30. Death of Count Joseph Siccardi. Jan. 30. Marriage of the Princess ClotUde, eldest daughter of Victor Emanuel IT., to Prince Napoleon, cousin of the emperor of the French. April 19. The Austrian government demands that the Sardinian army should be restored to a peace footing. April 25. A French force disembarks at Genoa to the assistance of the Sardi- 756 SAE April 26. The Sardinian government re- jects the Austrian ultimatum. April 29. The Austrians under General Gyulai enter the Sardinian territory. April 30. Victor Emanuel II. confides the government to his cousin. Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, and takes the command of his army in person. (See Austria and Italy.) July 11. The preliminary treaty of Villa Franca arranges that Lombardy is to be annexed to the Sardinian territories. July 13. Re- signation of the Cavour ministry. July 19. It is succeeded by the Ratazzi adminis- tration. Aug. 8. Victor Emanuel II. makes his solemn entry into Milan. Sept. 3. A deputation from Tuscany requests Victor Emanuel TI. to iniorporate that country with his own kingdom. Sept. 15. He receives the oaths of deputies from Parma and Modena. Sept. 24. A deputation from Bologna requests him to annex the Lega- tions. Oct. 10. The customs barriers be- tween Lombardy, Piedmont, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna, are abolished. Oct. 20. The emperor of the Fi-ench in a letter to Victor Emanuel II. advocates the formation of an Italian confederation, which the latter declares impracticable. Oct. 31. The enlarged kingdom of Sardinia is divided into seventeen provinces. Nov. 10. The preliminary articles of Villa Franca are confirmed by the treaty of Zurich. Dec. 7. The Sardinian consti- tution is proclaimed. , Jan. 15. Count Cavour undertakes the forma- tion of a new ministry. Feb. 25. The French government recommend-' the com- plete annexation of Pai-ma and Modena to Sardinia, the establishment of a pro- tectorate, administered by the king of Sardinia in the name of the pope, in the Romagna ; the re-estaMishment of the duchy of Tuscany, and the incorpora- tion of Savoy and Nice with the French empire. Feb. 29. Sardinia accedes to the French propositions, except in the case of Tuscany, Savoy, and Nice, which is re- feiTed to the votes of the people. March 11. A ijowerful public demonstration is made in Nice agaii st annexation to France. March 15. France repeats her desii-e for the preservation of the duchy of Tus- cany. March 16. The result of the public votes in Tuscany is declared to be in favour of annexation to Sardinia. March 18. .^Imilia is annexed to Sardinia. March 22. Tuscany is annexed to Sardinia March 24. Savoy and Nice are ceded to France by a treaty signed at Turin. March 27. Prussia protests against the annexation of Savoy and Nice by France. March 31. Victor Emanuel II. releases the inhabitants of the ceded provinces from their allegiance, and officially announces the approaching an- nexation to France. April 15. The inha- bitants of Nice vote in favour of annexation to France. April 22. The inhabitants of Savoy by a large majority declare in favour of annexation to France. May 18. The government asserts its disapprobation of Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily. May 29. The Chambers confirm the cession of Savoy and Nice. June 14. The French take possession of their Piedmontese acquisi- tions. July 31. Lord John Russell addresses a note to the Sardinian government, dis- suading it from attacking Austria and Naples. Sept. 7. Count Cavour demands that the foreign troops shall quit the Roman states. Sept. 11. The papal govern- ment rejects the Sardinian ultimatum, in consequence of which General Cialdtni enters the Roman states. (See Rome.) Sept. 18. The French ambassador quits Twin. SAE 1880. Sept. 23. The Sardinians, under Cialdini, invade Naijles {q.v.). Oct. 10. The Rus- sian ambassador is recalled from Turin. Oct. 26. The Spanish minister is summoned from Tuiin. Nov. 3. The results of the voting in Naples are published, and declare in favour of annexation to Sardinia. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel II. enters Naples, and announces his assumption of the sove- reignty of the country. Dec. 26. Four decrees are published, annexing the Marches, Ombria, Naples, and Sicily to the dominions of Victor Emanuel II. 1861. Feb. 18. The first national parliament of Italy assembles at Turin. March 7. A frontier treaty is concluded with France. March 17. Publication of the law con- ferring on Victor Emanuel and his descendants the title of king of Italy. June 6. Death of Count Cavour at Turin. {See Italy, &c.) KIKGS OF SAEDINIA. A.D. 1720. Victor- Amadeus I. 1730. Charles Emanuel I. 1773. Victor- Amadeus II. 1796. Charles-Emanuel II. 1802. Victor-Emanuel T. 1805. Continental Sardinia forms part of the kingdom of Italy. 1814. Victor-Emanuel I., again. 1821. Charles-Felix. 1831. Charles-Albert. 1849. Victor-Emanuel II. Saedis, or Sardes (Asia Minor), the ancient capital of Lydia, was taken by the Cimmerians about b.c. 635, and remained in their possession until Alyattes II. drove the Cimmerians out of Asia, b.c. 617. It be- came subject to the Persians b.c. 584, and was taken by the lonians, assisted by the Athenians, B.C. 504, the town being de- stroyed by fire. The Persians were de- feated by the Greeks in the plain before Sardis, B.C. 395. It surrendered to Alex- ander the Great b.c 334, and was taken by Seleucus, in his war against Lysimachus, B.C. 283. Antiochus the Great made him- self master of it B.C. 214, and held it for twenty-fiye years, when the inhabitants, in the absence of Antiochus, delivered it up to the Eomans, in whose custody it remained. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, and was rebuilt by order of the emperor. Sardis was one of the first towns to embrace Christianity, — having, it is said, been converted by the apostle John. It is one of the seven churches of Asia mentioned in the book of Revelations. The town was captured by the Turks in the 11th century, and again in the 14th century. It was also taken by Tamerlane. Sart, which now occupies the site of Sardis, is a miserable place, consisting of a few mud huts. Saeepta (Russia). — This fortified town, on the Volga, was founded by a colony of Moravian Brethren a.d. 1765. Saematia, a name given by the Romans to aU the country in Europe and Asia between the Vistula and the Caspian Sea. The people inhabiting this country were usually called Sauromatae by the Greeks, and Sarmatse by the Romans. The Sarma- tians first began to threaten the Roman SAR empire in the reign of Nero. They assem- bled on the borders of Thrace a.d. 64, for the purpose of invading that province ; some of them having been defeated by the Romans, the rest dispersed. They entered Moesia A.D. 69, defeated ten Roman cohorts and ravaged the country, but were defeated and driven across the Danube. Hadrian de- feated them in 119, and Marcus Aurehus in 161 ; and the emperor CaracaUa gained some victories over them in 215, assuming, on that accoimt, the surname of Sarmaticus. They were defeated by Aurelian in the reign of Claudius, and by the emperor Cams, 16,000 having been cut to pieces and com- pelled to recross the Danube in 282. They were subdued by Constantine the Great in 322 ; and he espoused their cause in 332 against the Goths, whom he defeated, and nearly 100,000 perished by famine and the sword. The Goths defeated them in 334. The Sarmatians joined the Goths against the Romans in 378, and were defeated with great slaughter by Theodosius I. They joined the Vandals and other barbarians in an invasion of Gaul in 407, and committed dreadful devastation. Those who remained in Sarmatia were afterwards subdued by Attila, and, vsdth their princes, served in his army when he invaded Gaul in 451. Upon his death, in 453, they recovered their liberty, and were allowed by the Roman emperor to settle in Pannonia, Moesia, and other pro- vinces on the Danube, where they remained in peace, tiU finally subdued by the Goths, with whom, in process of time, they became one nation. Saeno (Battles). — The first battle was fought near this river, in Italy, between the troops of Justinian, under Narses, and the Goths, under their king Teias, a.d. 553. The battle lasted two days, and ended in the defeat of the Goths, whose king fell in the encounter. John of Anjou defeated Fer- dinand II. of Naples near the Sarno, July 7, 1460. Saettm, or Old Saeum (Wiltshire), was originally a British settlement, and is sup- posed to have been taken by Vespasian (a.d. 48 — 50), and made a Roman station, called Sorbiodionum or Sorviodunum. The Saxons wrested it from the Britons in 552, and named it Searesbyrig. It was the re- sidence of the kings of Wessex till the octarchy. The town was fortified by Alfred the Great, and here Edgar convoked a wittenagemote in 960, to deliberate on the best means of defence against the incur- sions of the Danes. It was taken and burnt by Sweyn, afterwards king of Denmark, in 1003. The seat of the bishopric of Sherborne was removed to this place in 1072, and a cathedral founded, which was finished in 1092. On the completion of the Norman survey in 1086, Wihiam I. summoned all the bishops, abbots, barons, and knights of the kingdom to Sarum, to do homage for the lands they held by feudal tenure. William II. assembled a council here in 1095 or 1096, in which William, count of Eu, was im- 767 SAE peached for higli treason. Henry I. resided here in 1100, 1106, and 1116. The castle was repaired on the accession of Henry II. in 1154. The oppressions of the castellans, or captains of the castle, and their disputes with the bishops and clergy, led to the removal of the cathedral to its present site at New Sarum, or Sahsbury (q.v.), in 1220. The inhabitants gradually estabhshed them- selves in the vicinity of the new cathedral, and Old Sarum began to decay. SAEZAifA (Italy). — This town was taken from the Florentines by the Genoese a.d. 14<07, and ceded to Thomas de Campo Fregoso, on his abdication of the dignity of doge of Genoa in 1421. It was recovered for Florence by Lorenzo de Medici, May 22, 1487. It is the seat of a bishopric, which was founded at Luna, under Bishop Habet- deus, who flourished a.d. 4S4. Sassanides, a name given to the Persian dynasty, founded by Artaxerxes I. about A.D. 226. They governed Persia untd the Mohammedan conquest ui 651. Satii^. — This variety of silt is mentioned in the 13th century. It was originally imported into Europe from China. Satiee, from the Latin satura, originally signifying a collection of various things, is said to have been first written by Ennius (B.C. 235—169). Lucihus was the "first who used it in a regular poetical form B.C. 148, and formed the model which Horace avow- edly followed (B.C. 65— A.D. 8). Yarro, the most learned of all the Eomans, vrrote his *'Menippean," or cynical satires, B.C. 116 — 28. Juvenal adopted it to lash the vices of his age (a.d. 59—128). Persius, who lived in the reign of Nero, applied it with great cir- cumspection to that tyrant (a.d. 34—62). In this country it was used by Butler to ridicule the Puritans in his " Hudibras," the first part of which appeared in 1663. Dryden ' (1631—1700) and Pope (1688—1744) em- ployed it in numerous compositions. Saturday, the seventh and last day of the week, so called from the idol Seater, wor- shipped on tliis day by the ancient Saxons. Others say it derived its name from having been dedicated by the Eomans to Saturn. 4iSATTJEifALiA, festivals in honour of Satiirn, instituted, according to some authorities, • before the foundation of Eome. Others ] assert that the Saturnalia were first observed at Eome in the reign of TuUus Hostflius, i after a victory gained over the Sabines ; whilst some maintain that they were first celebrated b.c. 497, after a victory obtained j over the Latins by the dictator Posthunaius. j Satjgoe and Neebudda Teeeitoeies ' (Hindostan), conquered by Akbar and annexed to the empire of Delhi about a.d. 1599. The peishwa obtained a nominal su- premacy when Delhi fell in 1803. The coun- ' try was ceded to the British in 1818. In ' the fort of Saugor the 42nd native regiment ! attempted to incite the 31st to mutiny. The ' latter not only remained faithful, but had a i regular battle with their tempters, and drove j them from the station July 7, 1857. i 758 ' SAV Saumtte (France) was taken from the count of Blois by Fulk of Anjou, a.d. 1026, and was annexed to the French crown in 1570. It was taken by the Vendeans after a brilliant victory over the repubhcan army, June 10, 1793. They were forced to abandon it a few days afterwards. The castle was constructed at diff'erent periods between the 11th and 13th centuries. A Protestant aca- demy was founded by Duplessis Mornay, while governor of the town in the reign of Henry IV. It was dissolved by Louis XTV. in 1684. Councils were held at Saumur Dec. 2, 1253 ; Aug. 31, 1276 ; March 9, 1294 ; May 9, 1315 ; and in 1342. Satandeoog- (Hindostan). — This strong fortress of Mysore, seated on the top of a rock, was, notwithstanding its great strength, taken by the Enghsh, after a siege of seven days, in 1791. Savaitnah (North America). — This town in Georgia was founded by General Ogle- thorp, A.D. 1733. It was taken by the British in 1776, and held by them till 1782, when it was abandoned. A fire, which destroyed 463 buildings, and other property to the value of nearly £300,000, occurred June 10, 1820. Savigliano (Battle).— The French de- feated the Austrians at this town, in Sar- dinia, Nov. 5, 1799. It is also called the battle of Genola. Savings Banks. — Defoe, in his "Giving Alms no Charity," pubhshedA.D. 1704, sug- gested a substitution of savings for poor- rates, by passing acts of parliament " which shall make drunkards take care of wife and children ; spendthrifts lay up for a wet day ; lazy fellows diligent ; and thoughtless, sot- tish men careful and provident." Francis Maseres carried a bill through the Commons, which was, however, rejected by the Lords, to enable ratepayers of parishes to receive and invest savings, ia 1771. A savings-bank was established at Hamburg in 1778, and one at Berne about 1787. Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield opened one for children at Tottenham in 1798, and another for adults in 1804. The Eev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, issued propositions to his parishioners on the sub- ject in 1799. One was founded at Bath, by eight ladies and gentlemen, in 1808. The first institution carefully organized was the Parish Bank Friendly Society of Euthven, by the Eev. Henry Duncan, in 1817. Savings-banks were first placed under the protection of government by 57 Geo. III. c. 105 & 130 (July 11 & 12, 1817) . By 9 Geo. IV. c. 92 (July 28, 1828), the laws relating to savings-banks in England and Ireland were consohdated, and aU former statutes repealed. This act was shghtly amended by 3 & 4 WOl. IV. (June 10, 1833). These acts were extended to Scotland by 5 & 6 Will. IV. e. 37 (Sept. 9, 1835). Further amendments to the savings-banks acts were made by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 9, 1844), {See Post Office Satings-banks.) Savona (Italy) had formerly two harbours, but one was filled up by the Genoese, from SAV commercial jealousy, a.d. 1525. An explo- sion of gunpowder in the citadel destroyed half the houses in the town in 1648. A fleet of sixteen French and Spanish vessels, laden with munitions of war, was sunk in the har- bour, by a British squadron, in 1745. Savona was taken by the Sardinians in 1746. A corps of 10,000 Austrians and Piedmontese was defeated here by the French in 1794, and the town was occupied by the French in 1795. It was taken by the Austrians in April, 1800, and was surrendered by them to the French, June 15. Pope Pius VI. was detained here in 1810-11, by order of Napoleon I. The Sistine chapel at Savona was founded by Sixtus IV., and the cathedral was built in 1604. Savoy (Europe). — Part of the ancient Sapaudia, whence the name Saboia, or Savoy, is derived. 413. Savoy is annexed to Burgundy. 561. It is made a province of France. 888. It forms part of the duchy of Burgundy. 1027. Death of Berthold, count of Maurienne, and founder of the house of Savoy. 1034. Humbert receives large accessions of territory fronx the emperor Conrad II. 1111. Amadeus II. of Maurienne receives the title of count of Savoy from the emperor Hemy Y. 1174. Savoy and Piedmont are invaded by the eojperor Frederick I. 1207. Count Thomas receives large grants of land in Piedmont from Philip of Germany. 1262. Count Boniface is made prisoner by his sub- jects at Turin. 1266. Peter of Savoy acquires the city of Berne, which he greatly improves. 1316. Amadeus IV. , or the Grreat, receives Maulevrier in Normandy from Philip V., or the Long, of Fj-ance. 1401. Geneva is brought under the dominion of the counts of Savoy. 1417. Feb. 19. Savoy is erected into a duchy under Amadeus VITI. 1418. The territory of Piedmont is added to Savoy. 1419. Oct. 5. Nice and other territories are ceded to Savoy by the treaty of Chambery. 1482. Charlotte, queen of CjTprus, confers that island upon the dukes of Savoy, who assume the title of king of Cyprus, though they never take possession of their kingdom. 1534. The inhabitants of Geneva rebel against Charles III., and are assisted by Francis I. of France. 1537. Feb. Francis I. claims Piedmont as part of his hereditary kingdom. 1557. Aug. 10. Emanuel Philibert defeats the French at the important battle of St. Queutin. 1559. April 2. The French conquests in Savoy are restored by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis {q.v.). 1601. Jan. 17. By the treaty of Lyons the mar- quisate of Saluces is ceded to Savoy. 1656. Jan. 22. Death of Thomas Francis, founder of the house of Savoy-Carignan. 1703. Victor Amadeus IL declares war against France and Spain. 1706. Sept. 7. The French, under the duke of Orleans and Marshal Mai-siu, are de- feated by Victor Amadeus and Prince Eugene at the battle of Tm-in, and com- pelled to leave Italy. 1707. March 13. By the treaty of Turin, Victor Amadeus obtains considerable territoi-y in Lombardy. SAX 1713. April 11. Savoy is recognized as an indepen- dent state by the treaty of Utrecht, and Sicily is annexed. 1720. By the Quadruple alliance Sicily is ex- changed for the island of Sardinia, and the duke of Savoy assumes the title of king of Sardinia (q.v.). EULEES OP SAVOY. A.D. Bei-thold 1020 Humbert 1 1027 Amadeus 1 1048 Humbert II 1072 Amadeus II 1108 Humbert III 1148 Thomas 1188 Amadeus III 1233 Boniface 1233 Peter 12ti3 Philip 1 1268 Amadeus IV., the Great 1285 Edward 1323 Aimon 1329 Amadeus V. or VI. 1343 Amadeus VII 1383 {See Saedinia.) A D. Amadeus VIII 1391 Louis 1451 Amadeus IX 14(55 Philibert 1 1472 Charles T. 1482 Charles II 1489 Philip II 1498 Philibert II 1497 Charles III 1504 Emanuel Philibert 1553 Charles Emanuell. 1-580 Victor Amadeus I. 1630 Francis Hyacinth 1637 Charles Emanuel II 1638 Victor Amadeus II. 1675 Savoy Palace (London) was built by Peter, earl of Savoy and Eichmond, a.d. 1245. He bestowed it upon the friars of Montjoy, from whom it was bought by Queen Eleanor, wife of Henry III., for her son Edmund, earl of Lancaster. John II. , king of France, resided here, when a prisoner in England, in 1357, and again in 1363. It was destroyed by Wat Tyler, May 24, 1381, and was restored by Henry VII., who endowed it, in 1505, as the hospital of St. John the Baptist, for the relief of 100 poor people. Henry VIII. completed the building and granted the hospital a charter, July 5, 1513. Edward VI. (1547 to 1553) suppressed the hospital, but it was re-endowed by Queen Mary (1653 to 1558). The "Savoy Confer- ence," for the revision of the Liturgy, was held here from April 15 to July 25, 1661. The sick and wounded in the Dutch war of 1666 were lodged in the Savoy. It was re- moved to make way for Waterloo Bridge and the Strand approaches. Saw. — According to Pliny, the saw was in- vented by DsBdalus, an Athenian, who flou- rished about B.C. 1000. Others say it was invented by Talus, the nephew of Daedalus. Saws to work with water-power, first in- troduced at Augsburg in 1322, were erected in Madeira in 1420, at Breslau ia 1427, and in Norway about 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from Mary, queen of England, to the court of Rome, describes a sawmill he visited at Lyons ia 1555. The attempts to introduce them into England met with great opposition, and one erected near London, in 1663, had to be abandoned. When again introduced, in 1767 or 1768, the first mill erected at Limehouse was de- stroyed by the mob. The damage was made good by the government, and a new one erected. Saxa Eubea (Battle).— Constantine I. 759 SAX defeated his rival Maxentius at this place, about nine miles from Rome, Oct. 28, a.d. 312. Sase-Alteitbtteg- (Germany), a small duchy on the northern frontiers of the Thu- ringfian forest, formed part of the ancient Osterland, and appears to have been governed by the margraves of Meissen from a very early period. After under- going many changes, it was formed into a separate p^rincipahty a.d. 1603.- The house of Altenburg becoming extinct in 1672, the greater part of the principality fell to Ernest the Pious, duke of Gotha, and from this period it remained in the Saxe-Gotha family, till the decease without issue of Frederick IV. in February, 1825, when, by a compact be- tween the three junior branches of the house of Gotha (Meiningen, Hildenburghausen, and Coburg), the duke of Hildenburghausen resigned his own territory to Meiningen, and received in Heu the duchy of Altenburg, Nov. 15, 1826. The duke of Saxe-Alten- burg is a member of the Germanic confede- ration, and has one vote. S AXE - Cob TIE &- Gotha (Germany), formerly dependent upon the emperor, came into possession of the house of Meissen A.D. 1348, and fell to the house of Saxony in 1428. By the treaty of Leipsic m 1485, it was allotted to the Ernestine branch of that family. It was made a separate duchy in 1542, and first became an independent state in 1640. Ernest left seven sons, who reigned jointly from 1675 tiU 1680, when they parti- tioned the country and formed seven new lines. That of Coburg expired, and the division was annexed to Saalfeld ia 1699. The liueofEisenberg having become extinct, its possessions were united to Gotha in 1707. Frederick II. introduced the right of primo- geniture into Gotha in 1710. Gotha was joined to Coburg, and Saalfeld to Meiningen, in 1826. The constitution of the duchy was reformed by Ernest II., brother of Prince Albert, in 1846. Saxe-Meinin&ew (Germany), originally a portion of the domains of the counts of Henneberg, fell to Bernhard, third son of Ernest the Pious of Gotha, a.d. 1680. The Mneof Coburg became extinct in 1699, and a part of its territory was adjudged to Meinin- gen by the Aulie council in 1723, and it acquired nearly the whole of the duchy of Hildenburghausen in 1826. Saxe - Weiiiae - EisEifACH (Germany) formerly belonged to the electorate of Saxony, and was apportioned to the Ernes- tine Hne, A.D. 1485, John Frederick I. was deposed in 1547, and Weimar was given to his eldest son, the remaining portion being awarded to the second son in 1566. A sub- division took place in 1672 ; and a reunion by the extinction of the hne of Jena in 1690, and that of Eisenach in 1741. The right of primogeniture was introduced in 1719. Charles Augustus, who took part against Napoleon I., received some acquisition of territory and the title of grand-duke from the congress of Vienna, June 9, 1815. Ee- 760 SAX presentative government was introduced ia 1816. Saxons — the name probably derived from sahs or sacks, a knife, — are first mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes them as occu- pying the country now called Holstein, together with three islands off the coast, A.D. 140. Their descents upon the eastern shore of England became so troublesome, that the Eoman emperor appointed an officer, who afterwards received the title of " Count of the Saxon shore," in 286. Eutropiua represents them as infesting the coasts of Armorica and Belgica with the Franks in 287. A horde of Saxons in one of their predatory excursions to the coast of Gaul, was almost exterminated by the Eoman army under Yalentinian I. in 371. Stilicho erected several fortifications to defend Britain from their attacks in 399. A large body under Hengist and Horsa succeeded in forming permanent settlements in the country alter the departure of the Eomans about 450. Some Saxons, aided by the Franks, conquered, but afterwards aban- doned, the northern part of Thuringia about 530. The southernmost part was made tribu- tary to the Franks about 550. Their long contest with Charlemagne was brought to a close by the treaty of Salz on the Saale, by which they consented to become Christians, and were put on a footing of equahty with the Franks, 803. Saxony (Germany) was invaded by Charlemagne, who compelled the inhabitants to embrace Christianity, a.d. 804. Henry the Fowler, elected German emperor in 918, was the first of the Saxons who obtained that distinction. He erected the margra- viate of Meissen in 922, as a bulwark against the Slavonians, and so formed the nucleus of the present kingdom. The family of Wettin, in whom the office has become he- reditary, added their own possessions to the margraviate in 1130. The emperor Sigis- mund invested Frederick the Warlike with the electoral title and the duchy of Saxony in 1422. Ernest and Albert, sons of Fre- derick II., by the division of the country at their father's death, founded the two hues that bear their names in 1462. Fre- derick III. supported the cause of the Ee- formation and patronized Luther (1486 — 1525). John the Constant headed the Pro- testant princes at the diet of Spires in 1529. John Frederick the Magnanimous took a prominentpart in the war against Charles Y., and was defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Miihlberg, April 23, 1547. He was deprived of his dignities, which were trans- ferred to his cousin Maurice, of the Albertine line, in 1548. John George I., in whose reign the Thirty Years' war took place, remained on the emperor's side and obtained from him part of the see of Magdeburg, and the two Lusatian margraviates in 1635. Frederick the Strong brought about an invasion of his territory by Charies XII. of Sweden through turning Eoman Cathohc and obtaining the crown of Poland in 1697. His son Frederick SCA Augustus II. was also elected king of Poland in 1733. He took part with France and Prussia in the war of the Austrian Suc- cession in 1740, but sided with the empire in the Seven Years' war (1756—1763). A rising of the peasantry led to the redress of some of their grievances in 1790. Having supported Prussia against France for some time after the battle of Jena, Frederick Augustus allied himself with Napoleon I., taking the title of king, and becoming a member of the Confederacy of the Rhine in 1806. The territory was nearly doubled by other cessions from Austria in 1809. It became the theatre of the struggles with Napoleon I. in 1813 ; and the king was de- prived of upwards of one half of his do- minions by the treaty of peace with Prussia signed May 18, 1815. A new consti- tution was framed in 1831. Various changes were made, but the old state of things was restored by the diet elected in 1852. EULEES OP SAXONT. DUKES. A.D. Otho 1 880 Henry I. ,the Fowler 912 Otho II 936 Herman-BiUiiig . . 960 Bernard 1 973 Bernard II 1010 A.D. Bernard III 1180 1 Albert 1 1212 Albert II 1260 | Rodolph 1 1298 I Eodolph'll 1356 | EMfESTINB UCNE. A.D. Otho III 1062 Magnus 1073 Lothaire 1106 Henry IL.the Proud 1136 Henry TIL, the Lion 1139 A.D. Wenceslaus 1370 Eodolph III 1388 Albert III 1418 Frederick 1 1423 Frederick II 1428 AXBKRTINE LTITB. Ernest 1464 I Albert . . Fi-ederiuk III 1486 | George . . John 1525 Mauiice John Frederick 1532 Maurice Augustus 1553 Chrisdan 1 1586 Christian II 1591 John George 1 1611 John George II. . . 1656 John George ILL. . . 1680 I John George IV. .. 1691 Frederick Augustus 1 1694 Frederick Augustus n 1733 Frederick Augustus III 1763 A.D. A.B. Frederick Augustus I Frederick Augustus 1 1807 II 1836 Antony Clement . . 1827 | John 1854 Scalping appears to be aUuded to in Psalm Ixviii. 21, b.c. 1045, and according to Herodotus (book iv. 64) was prac- tised by the Scythians upon their enemies, B.C. 678. The custom was found to exist among the Indians of America on the disco- very of that country, a.d. 1492. ScANDALUM Magnaium, or Scandal SCH against peers, judges, or other officers of state, was defined with its penalties by 2 Rich. 11. c. 5 (1378) . Although this statute is stiU in force, it has not for a long period been resorted to, the last instance being that of the duke of Richmond against Cas- tellom in 1710. ScAK"DiNAViA, or ScANDiA (Europe), the ancient name of the country now occupied by Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, is first mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of it as an island, a.d. 72. The monarchies of Sweden and Norway were formed by a combination of numerous small sovereignties in the 12th and 13th centuries. Margaret, queen of Denmark, obtained Sweden by conquest and Norway by inheritance, and by the union of Calmar, concluded in June, 1397, they were never to be disjoined. ScAEBOEOUGH (Yorkshire), probably of Saxon origin, the name signifying a fortified rock, was incorporated by Henry II. The castle was built in the reign of Stephen. Tostig, earl of Northumberland, having failed in his attempt to efi'ect a landing on the isle of Thanet, arrived here a.d. 1066. Piers G-aveston, having been besieged by the barons in the castle, was obliged to sur- render, May 19, 1312. The town was made a bonding port in 1841. Christ's Church was erected in 1828. ScAELET, the oriental kermes dye, was known from the earliest times. The dye made from cochineal and tin was accident- ally discovered a.d. 1634. A baUifF of Shrewsbury, Mr. Thomas Edwards, refused, on religious grounds, to wear robes of that colour in 1599. It is recorded by Juhus Ferretus that soldiers commonly wore a short ■ red sagum to conceal the blood from their wounds, about 1550. Sceptics. — Socrates, who flourished b.c. 468 — B.C. 399, has been called the founder of this sect, from his acknowledgment that " all he knew was, that he knew nothing;" although its real founder was Pyrrho of Elis, B.C. 340. (See Pteehonism.) The school, called the " later sceptics," origi- nated with JEnesidemus, a physician, about the 3rd century. Of modern sceptics, the most noted are Montaigne (a.d. 1533 — 1592) ; Grlanville, a member of the Royal Society, about 1660; Peter Bayle (1647—1706), and David Hume (1711—1776). Sceptre, originally a mere walking-staff, came to be the symbol of sovereign authority, and is mentioned by the patriarch Jacob — " the sceptre shall not depart from Judah, &c.," when imparting counsels to his sons (Gen. xlix. 10), B.C. 1689. Achilles swears by his staff or sceptre (Iliad, i. 246), B.C. 1193. Cyrus, as related by Xenophon, was always attended by 300 sceptre-bearers, b.c. 401. It was first assumed among the Ro- mans by the elder Tarqum, b.c. 621. The sceptre of the Merovingian kings of France was a golden rod as tall as the king him- self, A.D. 448. ScHAFFHATjSBif (Switzerland), the prin- cipal town of the canton of the same name, 761 SCH originated in the building of a large monas- I tery in the neighbourhood in the 11th cen- j tury. It was walled in and received impe- rial rank in the 13th century. Austria ! acquired possession in 1330. It recovered | its independence, and joined the Swiss can- j tons in the 15th century ; became a member j of the confederation in 1501, and of the ' new league in 1815. The fine single arch 1 bridge across the Ehine was burned by ' the French in 1799. The constitution of the canton became democratic in 1831. SCHASSBUR& (Battle).— The Hungarian insurgents, commanded by Bern, were de- feated by the Eussians imder General Liiders, at this town, in Transylvania, July 31, 1849. ScHEHALLiEW (Perthshire). — The Royal Society having resolved to make some expe- riments to determine the mean density of the earth, a.d. 1772, Mr. Charles Mason selected this mountain for the purpose in 1773. Dr. Maskelyne effected the mea- surements between June 30 and Oct. 24, 1774. The subsequent calculations intrusted to Dr. Charles Hatton were published in the Philosophical Transactions of 1778. ScHEMNiTZ (Hungary). — In consequence of the importance of its mines, yielding 300 pounds of gold and 43,400 pounds of silver annually, a mining academy was founded here by Maria Theresa, a.d. 1760. Schism Act (13 Anne, c.7, 1713), requir- ing from those desirous of exercising the profession of a teacher, a hcense from the bishop, and a declaration of conformity to the established church, was repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4 (1719). ScHONBETJBTK, (Peace,) was signed at the palace of Schonbrunn, near Vienna, Oct. 14, 1809, between France and Austria. It consisted of six articles. France obtained possession of Trieste, Carniola, Friuli, and several other places. Russia, Saxony, and the Confederation of the Rhine gained some advantages, and the Tyrol was given up to Bavaria. Schools. (-See Education-, &c.) ScHUMLA (Turkey).— The Russian general Eudiger was driven from his intrenched position at this town, by the Turks under Hussein Pasha, August 25, 1828. ScHWABACH (Bavaria).— The earliest Pro- testant confession was drawn up here bv Luther, in October, 1529, and its articles were adopted by the Smalcald League in 1531. The handsome fountain in the market- place was erected in 1716. ScHWAEZBrEG (Germany). — A party of the electors assembled here and chose Gun- ther emperor, in opposition to Charles IV., A.D. 1347. The town, originally dependent upon Saxony, purchased its independence in 1699. The two present reigning families of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarz- burg-Sondershausen are descended from the two sons of Gunther IX., who died in 1552. Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt received a represen- tative constitution in 1816. ScHWEiDKiTZ (Prussia) having suffered 762 SCI several sieges during the Thirty Years' war, was fortified by Frederick II., a.d, 1747 ; taken by the Austrians, after a siege of sixteen days, Nov. 12, 1757; recovered by the Prussians April 16, 1758 ; and canned by assault by the Austrian Marshal Laudohn, Oct. 1, 1761. The Austrians under Mar- shal Daun were attacked and defeated near this town by Frederick II. of Prussia, May 16, 1762. On this occasion the Prussians put feathers in their caps to enable their wild Cossack allies to distinguish them frora the Austrians, an ornament since generally adopted in European armies. Frederick's campaign in Silesia was closed by the sui*- render of its garrison, after a siege of sixty- four days, Oct. 9, 1762. It was captured by the French in February, 1807. ScHWEiz, or ScHWTZ (Switzerland), which has given its name to the country, declared its independence of the house of Austria in January, 1303. It had a dispute with Zurich respecting the county of Toggenburg in 1436. The French defeated the Swiss here in 1799, and the Austrians Aug. 14, 1799. In a diet convoked here in 1802, the ancient demo- cratic constitution was re-estabhshed. It declared against Jfapoleon I. Dec. 31, 1813, and joined the Sonderbund (q.v.) in 1844. ScHYBEMOTES. — Covmty-courts held in English shires, twice every year by the bishop and the ealdorman or sheriff, during the Anglo-Saxon period. In the reign of Canute (a.d. 1016 to 1035) the Schyremotes were held thrice a year. Edward the Con- fessor, in 1065, appointed the Schyremote to be held twelve times a year. SciLLT Isles (Cornwall), known to the ancients under the name of Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, were used by the Eomans as a place of banishment. In the 10th century they were annexed to the English crown by Athelstan. They were held from the time of Elizabeth tiU 1830 by the family of Godol- phin. After the defeat of the royal cause in the west, in 1645, they afforded shelter to Prince Charles. They were fortified in 1649 by Sir John GrenviUe, the royalist, who con- verted the rocks into a stronghold for pri- vateers, and did so much damage to the trade of the Channel that the parhament fitted out a powerful fleet under Blake, which compelled Sir John to surrender in June, 1651. Sir Cloudesley Shovel was wrecked with all his fleet off these islands, Oct. 22, 1707, when upwards of 2,000 fives were lost. SciNDE (Hindostan) was occupied by the Aryan nation B.C. 1400, and they possessed the country when Alexander made his Indian expedition, B.C. 326. It was subdued by the Mohammedans a.d. 711, and held by the ca- fiphs tin conquered for Mahmoud of Ghiznee in 1026. The Sumna tribe acquired it about 1200. They were supplanted by another native tribe, the Sammao, in 1340. Shah Beg Arghun reduced them in 1541, and Akbar brought the country under Mongol sway in 1590. The KaUioras threw ofl' their allegiance to Delhi in 1736, and that of the kings of Cabul, which they had previously ! SCI acknowledged, was altogether renounced in 1813. It was conquered by the British and annexed March 24, 1843. Scio (-iEgean Sea), the ancient Chios (q.v.), was taken in the early part of the 14th century by the Turks, who massacred the inhabitauts. The Genoese seized it in 1346, and kept it nearly 250 years, when it was again taken by the Turks. They mas- sacred nearly all the inhabitants, April 11, 1822. Out of a population of 120,000, only 900 are said to have escaped. Scone (Scotland). — Edward I., king of England, brought away from this Tillage, near Perth, the stone upon which for many ages the kings of Scotland had been crowned, A.D. 1296, and placed it in Westminster Abbey. Charles II. was crowned here, Jan. 1, 1651. ScoEPiOM', a kind of tube for firing gun- powder, was in use about a.d. 1440. It was held in the hand, and called by the EngMsh liand-cannon, or hand-culverine, and was introduced into England by the Flemings in 1471. ScoTiSTS AND Thomists. — With reference to these parties, who long divided the schools, Milman (Lat. Christ, b. xiv. ch. iii.) remarks, "It is not easy to define in what consisted their implacable, unforgiven points of dif- ference. If each combatant had been com- pelled rigidly to define every word or term which he employed, concord might not perhaps have been impossible ; but words were their warfare, and the war of words their business, their occupation, their glory. The Coneep- tuahsm or Eclecticism of St. Thomas (he cannot be called a Nominalist) admitted so much Kealism under other forms of speech ; the Eeahsm of Duns Scotuswas so absolutely a Eeahsm of words, reality was with him something so thin and unsubstantial; the Augustinianism of St. Thomas was so guarded and tempered by his high ethical tone, by his assertion of the loftiest Christian morality ; the Pelagianism charged against Scotus is so purely metaphysical, so balanced by his constant, for him vehement, vindica- tion of Divine grace, only with notions pecu- liar to his philosophy, of its mode of operation, and with almost untraceable distinctions as to its mode of influence, that nothing less than the inveterate pugnacity of Scholastic Teaching, and the rivalry of the two Orders could have perpetuated the strife. That strife was no doubt heightened and embit- tered by their real difierences, which touched themost sensitive part of the Mediaeval Creed, the worship of the Virgin. This was coldly and irreverently limited by the refusal of the Dominican to acknowledge her Immacu- late Conception and birth,; wrought to a height above all former height by the maintenance of that tenet in every Fran- ciscan cloister by every Franciscan Theo- logian." Scotland. — According to tradition, the Scots derive their origin from Gathelus, son of the Athenian king Cecrops, who married Scota, daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, SCO and removed with his family into Spain in con- sequence of the preaching of Moses. Here he is said to have established a government over a nation whom he called Scots, in honour of his wife Scota. Under his descendants the Scots removed into Ireland, and subse- quently, about B.C. 600, into the northern part of Albion, which consequently received the name of Scotland. War afterwards broke out with the Picts (q.v.), and the Scots despatched an embassy to Ferquard, king of Ireland, who sent his son Fergus to their assistance. Fergus was acknowledged king by the Scots, and was crowned at Argyll, B.C. 330. 330. Establishment of the Celtic Caledonian moiiai-cby by Fergus I. 55. The Scots aasist the Britons against Julius 84. The Caledonians, under Gulgacus, sustain a terrible defeat from Julius Agricola, in the battle of Mount Grampivis. 360. The Scots and Picts invade Britain. 376. Kugenius, the last sovereign of the line of Fergus I., is slain in battle against the Roiuan general Maximus. 403. The monarchy is restored under Fergus II. 430. Clmstiauity is introduced into Scotland by St. Palladius. 562. St. ColumOa lauds in Scotland. 845. The Picts and Scots are united into one nation by Kenneth II. 933. Scotland is ravaged by Athelstan. 1031. It is invaded by Canute, who exacts tribute. 1040. Duncan is mui-dered by his cousin Macbeth, who usurps the crown. 1054. July '27. Siward, earl of Northumberland, invades Scotland, and defeats Macbeth at the battle of Dunsiuane. 1056. Macbeth is slain at Lauphananan. 1061. The Scotch invade Northumberland. 1067. Malcolm III. marries Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, the Saxon heir to the English throne. 1093. Nov. 13. Malcolm III. is slain by Boger de Mowbray at the battle of Alnwick. 1094. The throne is usurped by Duncan II., who is assassinated by his subjects after a reign of about six months. 1138. Aug. 22. D/ivid I. invades Northumberland, and is defeated at the battle of Cuton Moor, or NortJBallerton {q.v.}. 1139. By the ti-eaty of Durham the entire earldom of Northumberland, except Newcastle and Bamborough, is ceded to Scotland. 1174. William I., or the Lion.is made prisoner by the English at Alnwick. Dec. By the treaty of Falaise, Henry II. agrees to liberate him on condition of his paying homage to Eneland for his kingdom. 1181. ScotUnd .-, i<.ia U..UC. CO i,.,,ijal interdict. 1389. Eichard I., on his accession to the English thi-one releases William I. from his feudal sub dotion on the receipt of 10,000 marks. 1263. Hako iV., of Norway, invades Scot;and, and is defeated and compelled to resign his possessions in the Hebrides by Alexan- der III. 1281. Margaret, daughter of Alexander III., is married to Ei-ic II. , king of Norway. 129J. Sept. Margaret, the maid of Norway, dies at Orkney on her voyage to Scotland, and the question of the succession is referred to Edwai-d I. 1291. June 2. Eight competitors for the Scotch crown assemble at Norham, and submit their claims to the arbitration of Edward I. Aug. 3. Twelve competitors appear. 1292, Nov. 30. Edward I. decides in favour of John BallioU 763 SCO 1293. Balliol suppoi-ts his claim in presence of the English parliament. 1296. Balliol renounces his homage, in consequence of which he is dethroned by Edward I., who invades Scotland, and receives the submis- sion of the Scotch nobility. 1297. Sir William Wallace opposes the English, and defeats them at Cambuskenneth {q.v.). 1298. July 22. He is defeated at Falkirk (q.v). 1302. Feb. 24. Sir John Comyn and Sir Simon Eraser defeat an English army of 20,000 men near Roslin. 1305. Aug. 24. Execution of Sir William Wallace at Smithfield. 1306. Feb. Murder of Sir John Comyn by Robert Bruce at Dumfries. March 25. Bruce is crowned king, as Robert I. at Scone. 1307. May 10. He defeats the English. 1308. May 22. Robert I. defeats the earl of Buchan at Inverary. June 29. Edward Bruce expels the English from Galloway. 1310. Edward II. invades Scotland without success. 1312. Jan. 8. Robert I. takes Perth from the Eng- lish. 1313. March 6. Roxburgh Castle is taken from the English. March 14. Sir Thomas Randolph takes Edinburgh Castle. 1314 June 24. Robert I. defeats the army of Ed- ward II. at Bannockbui-n {q. v.). 1318. Oct. 5. Death of Edward Bruce at Dundalk, in Ireland. 1320. A conspiracy is formed against the king by his nephew, the earl of Brechin, and others, who are detected and exe- cuted. 1328. March 17. Peace with England is concluded at Edinburgh. May 4. It is ratified at North- ampton. 1329. June 7. End of the reign of Robert I. 1332. Edward III. invades Scotland. The battle of Dupplin Moor (q. v.). Sept. 24. Edward Balliol is crowned at Scone, and young David Bruce is sent to France, where he remains for nine years, although his rival only enjoys the crown for three months. 1333. The English are victorious at Halidon Hill 1336. A grievous famine desolates Scotland. 1341. June 4. David II. returns from France. 1346. He is made prisoner by the English at the battle of Dui-ham, or Neville's Cross (q.v.). 13-57. Oct. 3. He is released on payment of 100,000 marks as ransom. 1363. Death of Edward Balliol, the last of the family. Nov. 26. David II. acknowledges Edward III. of England as his successor in the event of his decease without male issue. 1371. Feb. 22. Death of David IT. without an heir. March 26. The Stuart line commences by the coronation at Scone of the lord high steward as Robert II. 1388. Aug. 10. The EngUsh encounter the Scotch, tinder Douglas, in the battle of Chevy Chase or Otterbm-n {q. v.). 1402. Robert ITT. sustains a severe defeat from the English at Homildon HiU {q.v.). 1405. Robert's only son, James, is made prisoner by the English off Flamborough Head. 1403. April 4. Death of Robert III., who is succeeded by his im)prisoued son, James I., imder the regency of the duke of Albany. 1411. July 24. The Highlanders, under Donald of the Isles, are defeated by the Lowland forces of the earl of Mar, at the battle of Harlaw, which establishes the superiority of the Lowlands. St. Andrew's university is founded. 1426. A treaty is concluded with Denmark, by which James I. agrees to pay an annual sum of 100 marks for the sovereignty of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. 1437. Feb. 21. James I. is murdered by a band of conspirators, under Sir Robert Graham. 764 A.D. 1452. 1502. 1513. 1528. 1532. 1537. 1545. 1546. 1547. 1548. 1554 1558. 1559. 1560. 1561. 1562. 1564 SCO Shrove Tuesday. The tyrannical and over- powerful earl of Douglas is murdered by James II. at Stirling Castle, in consequence of which civil contests commence between the king and his nobles. James II. is killed by the accidental bursting of a cannon. James III. is killed by his rebellious subjects at the battle of Sauchie Burn. Aug. 8. Marriage of James IV, with the princess Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. Aug. 22. James IV. invades England. Sept. 9. He is slain with the flower of the Scotch nobility at Flodden Field {q.v.). James V. banishes the Douglases, in conse- quence of the tyrannous treatment received by him from his stepfather, the earl of Angus. May 17. He founds the Court of Session. July 17. Lady Glamis is burnt for conspiring to poison the kiug. Dec. 7. Birth of Mary, celebrated in history as the queen of Scots. Dec. 13. Death of the king, her father, whom she succeeds. Jan. 20. Imprisonment of Cardinal Beaton, on a charge of treason, in consequence of which the clergy refuse to perform any ecclesiastical ceremonies. He is soon libe- rated, and seuures possession of the infant queen's person. Scotland is ravaged by an English army under the earl of Hertford. March 28. Execution of George Wishart for heresy, by order of Cardinal Beaton. May 28. The cardinal is assassinated at St. Andrew's. Sept. 10. The Scots are defeated by the EngUsh at Piukie. Aug. 7. The young queen Mary is removed to France. April 2. The queen dowager, Mary of Guise, is made regent. Marriage of Queen Mary to the French dauphin. May 31. Peace is concluded with England at Norham. Oct. 21. Deposition of the queen- regent. June 10. Death of the queen-regent. Aug. An act is passed abolishing the papal power. Dec. 6. Death of the French king Francis II., husband of Queen Mary. Aug. 19. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. Revolt and death of the earl of Huntley. Elizabeth proposes the earl of Leicester as a match for Mary. July 29, Sunday. Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darn ley. March 9, Saturday. Murder of the queen's favourite, David Rizzio, by Darnley and others. June •■19. Birth of James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, in Edinburgh Castle. Feb. 10, Monday. Lord Damley, the king- consort, is blown up by gunpowder at Edin- burgh. AprU 12. James Hepburn, earl of BothweU, is tried for the king's murder, and acquitted. AprU 21. BothweU seizes the queen, and conveys her to Dunbar. May 15. They are married at Holyrood. June 15, Sunday. Mary is made prisoner by the confederate lords at Carbeny Hill. She is confined in Lochleven Castle, and compelled to abdicate in favour of her son James VI. July 29. He is solemnly crowned at Stirling. Aug. 22. James Stewart, earl of Mm-ray, is declared regent. Sept. Both- well escapes to Norway. May 2. Mary escapes from Lochleven Castle. May 13. She is defeated by MmTay at the battle of Langside, and flees into England, where she arrives May 17. The rebellious earls of Northimiberland and Westmoreland seek shelter in Scot- land. 1570. 1571. 1572. 1578. 1-581. 1594. 1600. 1606. 1610. 1617. 1633. 1641. 1644. 1645. 1646. 1647. 1648. 1649. 1650. SCO Jan. 22. Mui-der of the regent Murray at Linlithgow, by James Hamilton of Both- wellhaugh. July 12. The regency is con- ferred upon the earl of Lennox. Sept. 4. Lennox is assassinated by Captain Calder. The earl of Mar is elected regent in his stead the following day. Oct. 28. Death of the regent Mar, who is suc- ceeded by the earl of Morton. Nov. 24. The earl of Morton is made regent, and John Knox, the Scotch reformer, expires at Edinburgh. The king dismisses the regent, and assumes the government in pei-son. June 2, Friday. Execution of the ex-regent Morton, for implication in the murder of Lord Damley. Aug. 23. The raid of Ruthven. James VI. is seized by a confederacy of the Scottish nobles, under the earls of Mar and Gowrie, at Ruthven Castle. Sept. 28. Death of George Buchanan. June. The king escapes from the Ruthven confederacy. Trial and execution of the earl of Gowrie. April. A treaty is concluded between James and Queen Elizabeth. Aug. 8. Mary queen of Scots is imprisoned on a charge of participating in Babyngton's conspiracy. Aug. 25. She is removed to Chartley, under the custody of Sir Amias Paulet. Oct. 14. Her trial commences at Fotheringay Castle, Northamptonshire, and the following day is adjourned. Oct. 25. It is resumed at "Westminster, and the queen is condemned to death. Feb. 8. Mary queen of Scots is beheaded at Fotheringay Castle. James suppresses a rebellion under the earl of Huntley. March 28. Episcopacy is established in the Scotch church. Aug. 5. Failure of the Gowrie conspiracy. March 24. James VI. ia proclaimed king of England. April 5. He leaves Edinburgh, and arrives in London May 26. July 25. He is crowned king of England at West- The English and Scotch parliaments reject a proposed union between the two nations. James I. establishes two courts of high com- mission in Scotland. James I. revisits Scotland. Charles I. visits Scotland, and is crowned at Edinburgh {q.v.). Charles I. fails in an attempt to introduce the church of England liturgy into Scotland. {See Edinbukgh.) March 1. The Solemn League and Covenant is bubscribed. The Scotch appeal to arms, and obtain the abolition of episcopacy June 7. Charles I. again visits Scotland. An army of 20,000 Scots enter England to assist the Parliamentarians. Sept. 13. The Royalists, under James Graham, marquis of Montrose, sustain a severe defeat at Philiphaugh (q.v.}. May 5. Charles I. takes refuge with the Scotch army. Jan. 30. He is surrendered to the Roundheads for £200,000. A Scotch force, under the duke of Hamilton, enters England for the liberation of Charles I. and is defeated by Cropiwell. March 9. Execution of Hamilton. May21. Bbcecution of themarciuis of Montrose at Edinburgh. June 23. Charles II. arrives in Scotland. July 32. Cromwell invades the countiy. Jan. 1. Charles TI. is crowned at Scone. Sept. 3. His Scottish adherents are defeated by Cromwell at Worcester (q.v.), and Scot- land is declared to be united with the English commonwealth. SCO A.D. 1661. May 27. Execution of the marquis of Argyll. 1666. The Scottish covenanters resort to arms and sustain a severe defeat from generals Dal- ziel and Drummond on the Pentland Hills iqv.). 1669. Oct. 19. A union with England is proposed and abandoned. 1678. Jan. The " Highland Host," an army of 10,000 men, chiefly from the Highlands, is em- ployed by government in suppressing con- venticles. 1679. May 3. Murder of James Sharpe, archbishop of St. Andrew's, by the covenanters. June 1. They defeat Claverhouse at Loudon Hill. {See Drumclog.) June 22. They are finally defeated at Both well Bridge {q.v.). 1685. A rebellion breaks out under the earl of Argyll, who is executed June 30. 1687. Feb. 12. James II. abolishes tests and penal laws throughout Scotland. 1689. March 14. Meetine of the Scotch convention, which accepts WUliam and Maiy and abo- lishes episcopacy. A rebellion in favour of James II. breaks out under John Graham of Claverhouse, who is killed at Killie- crankie (q. v.). 1692. The Glencoe massacre {q. v.). 1707. May 1. The legislative union of England and Scotland is completed by 5 Anne, c. 8 (1706). 1708. A French squadron in favour of the exiled Stuarts is driven from the Scottish shores by Admiral Byng. 1715, Sept. 6. A rebellion in favour of the Stuarts breaks out under the earl of Mar. Nov. The rebels are defeated at Preston and SheiTiff-muir {q.v.). The disaimament of the Scotch clans is ordered by 1 Geo. I. St. 2, c. 54. 1719. June 11. A rebellion under earls marischal Seaforth and TuUibardine is crushed at the battle of Glensheil. 1724. Numerous riots against the malt-tax take place in Scotland. 1736. April 14. Captain Porteous is hanged by the mob at Edinburgh. 1740. A Jacobite confederacy, in favour of the Pretender, is established in Scotland. 1745. July 25. The Young Pretender lands at Moidart. {See Ks'Glank.) 1746. The Highland costume is prohibited by 19 Geo. II. c. 39. 1747. Abolition of hereditary jurisdictions, by 20 Geo. IL c. 43. 1748. Death of James Thomson, the poet of the " Seasons." 1778. Lord George Gordon forms an anti-Catholic association in Scotland. 1782. The Highland costume is again permitted by 22 Geo. IIT. c 63. 1793. The Scotch National Convention is organized. 1796. June 21. Death of Robert Burns. 1797. The country is in a disturbed state on account of the militia act. 1807. Aug. 31. Death of Henry Benedict Stuart, cardinal duke of York, and claimant of the English crown as Henry IX. With him the unfortunate family of the Stuarts becomes extinct. 1822. George IV. visits Scotland. (See Edinbukch.) 1842. Queen Victoria visits Scotland. 1843. Establishment of the Free Church of Scot- land {q. v.). 1853. The association for the vindication of Scottish rights is founded at Edinburgh. 1854. July 31. The Scottish Jury Act is passed (17 & 18 Vict. c. 59). KINGS OP SCOTLAIfD OF THE SECOND EACE. Fergus II 403 Eugenius II 419 Dongardus 452 Constantine 1 457 Congallusl. 475 Goranus 501 Eugenius III 535 Congallus II 558 765 SCE Kinatellus Aidanus Kenneth I Eiigeniu? IV. . Ferchardus I BonaldIV Ferchaidus TI. . MaJduinus Ell gen ins V. . . . Engenius VI. . . . Amberkelethus . Engenius VII. . Mordacns Etfinns Engenius VIIL . Fergus III SolTathius Achaius CongallusIII. . Dougal Alpin Kenneth 11. . . . Donald V Constantine II. Gregory Donald VI Constantine III. Malcolm I Indulphus Duffus Cullenus Kenneth III Constantine IV. .. 994 Grinius 997 Malcolm II 10n4 Duncan I. 1034 Macbeth 1040 Malcolm III 1057 Donald VI 1093 Drmcanll 1094 Donald VI., again 1095 Edgar 1098 Alexander 1 1107 David 1 1124 Malcolm IV 1153 William I., or the Lion 1165 Alexander II 1214 Alexander III 1249 Margaret 1286 JohnBalliol 1292 Interregnum 1296 Robert 1 1306 David II 1329 Edward Balliol ... . 1332 David II., again .. 1332 Eobei-t II 1371 Robert III 1390 James 1 1406 James II. 1437 James in 1460 James IV 1488 James V. 1513 Mai-y 1542 James VI 1567 (See England.) ScEEW. — Archimedes is said to have in- vented a screw for facilitating irrigation in Egypt, about b.c. 250. A screw, called by the Germans a water-screw, was invented A.D. 1746, by Andrew Wirtz, a pewterer at Zurich. A patent was obtained in 1800 by Maullin for casting screws, and in 1817 a patent was obtained for making wire screws. Screw Pkopelleb. — A screw to work in water on the plan of a windmill, was invented by Eobert Hooke, a.d. 1680. This was im- proved by Wm. Lyttleton, Nov. 11, 1794; E. Wooderoft, Sept. 26, 1832, and many others. F. P. Smith, a farmer at Hendon, took out a patent for a screw propeller, May 31, 1836. It was first fitted to a model boat which worked on a pond at Hendon, and a boat of six tons burden, propelled by a screw, was exhibited to the pubhc on Paddington canal, Nov. 1, 1836. The Admi- ralty, vrishing the invention to be tested on a larger scale, built the Archimedes of 237 tons burden, which was launched Oct. 18, 1838, and made her first trip in 1839. The Satfler, 888 tons, the first screw vessel built for the Eoyal Navy, was laid down at Sheemess in 1841, and launched in 1843. ScEOFULA. (See King-'s Evil.) ScuLLABOGTJE Massacee. — During the rebeUion in Ireland, 184 Protestants, men, women, and children, were forced into a barn by the Eoman Cathohc rebels, who then set fire to it, and every soul perished, June 5, 1798. ScuLPTUEE. — The inventor of this art, and indeed the nation where it origiuated, are alike unknown. Sculptured monuments have been discovered in Egypt at as early a date as B.C. 1700, and the art was brought to its greatest perfection in that country SCT about B.C. 1850. Next to the Egyptian school of sculpture, in point of antiquity, must be ranked the Assyrian, and after that the Etruscan. The Greek school became celebrated in the 7th century b.c, and at- tained its greatest perfection about the middle of the 5th century, when Pheidias, or Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus flou- rished. Praxiteles, who Hved b.c. 360, and introduced statues of the nude female figure, and Cleomenes, who probably flourished about B.C. 220, are among the most cele- brated Greek sculptors. The reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines are usually regarded as the golden age of Eoman sculpture, though it is doubtful whether the art was ever practised by the natives. After the dechne of the arts, sculpture remained in abeyance till the early part of the 13th century a.d., when it was revived by Nicolo Pisano. Donatetto, born in 1383 ; Michael Angelo, in 1474 ; Eoubillac (1695—1762) ; Thomas Banks, E.A. (1735—1805) ; Joseph Nollekens (1737—1823) ; John Bacon (1740 —1799), and John Flaxman (1755 — 1826), are amongst the most celebrated of modern sculptors. ScuTAGE, or EscTJAGE, a pecuniary pay- ment instead of personal service, assessed at first only on military tenants who were ecclesiastics, but made general a.d. 1159. King John, by chapter 12 of Magna Charta (1215), consented that in future no scutage should be imposed without the consent of the great council of the kingdom. This clause was omitted by Henry III. in his confirmation of Magna Charta in 1225, and the 37th clause only provided that scutage should be taken as it was in the time of Henrv II. By 25 Edw. I. c. 5 & 6 (1297), it was enacted that no scutage should be taken by the king with- out the consent of the realm. ScuTAEi (Asiatic Turkey), the ancient Chrysopohs, was the scene of the defeat of Licinius, by Constantine I. a.d. 323. The Sultan Mahmoud's barracks were occupied in 1854 by the British troops on their march to the Crimea. They were turned into an hospital for the wounded of the allied armies Sept. 24, 1854, and Miss Nightingale and thirty-eight nurses arrived Nov. 6. ScTLLA (Italy). — This town of Naples was almost totally destroyed bv an earth- quake, Feb. 5, 1783. Most of the inhabit- ants, who, with the aged' prince of ScyUa, had sought refuge on the beach, perished from the effects of another shock in the evening. ScTEOS (iEgean Sea).— The original inha- bitants of this island were Pelasgians, Ca- rians, and Dolopians. According to tradition, Theseus, driven from Athens, retired to Scyros, where he was at first hospitably re- ceived, though he was afterwards treache- rously cast into the sea. The Macedonians subsequently obtained possession of the island, which the Eomans compelled them to restore to the Athenians, B.C. 196. ScTTHiA (Territory) , in the eastern half of northern Europe, and in western and central SEA Asia, but of very uncertain extent, was in- habited by the Scythse, who invaded Media, and defeated Cyaxeres b.c. 624, but were driven out B.C. 596. A battle, in which they were engaged with Croesus, was interrupted by an eclipse of the sun (foretold by Thales, May 28, B.C. 584). Darius made an unsuc- cessful inroad upon the country B.C. 507. Xenophon and his ten thousand, in their retreat, had to march four days through it, B.C. 400. Alexander gained a success over the people dweUing between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, B.C. 329. They merged into tribes of various names soon after their attack upon the king of Bosporus, about B.C. 63. Sea. — The Venetians claimed the sove- reignty of the Adriatic about a.d. 1400, and imposed a toll on all vessels navigating the same. Austria resisted this claim in 1508, and a war that lasted twenty years ensued. According to Selden, most of the maritime states of Europe admitted the claim of England to the sovereignty of the seas in the reign of Edward I. Holland ac- knowledged it by the treaty of Breda, July 10, 1667 (O.S.). Sea-fights. (See Index.) Seal. — The use of seals is very ancient. Jezebel sealed the orders for Naboth's death with the king's seal (1 Kings xxi. 8), B.C- 899. The first sealed charter extant is that of Edward the Confessor for the foun- dation of Westminster Abbey, a.d. 1065. The impression upon all laymen's seals until 1218 was a man on horseback. Only arch- bishops and bishops were allowed, by a decree dated 1237, to bear on their seals their title, office, dignity, and names. In 1540 it was ordered that all deeds, writs, &c., should be signed as well as sealed. Seal Islai^ds. (See Lobos.) Sebastianists. — Sebastian, king of Por- tugal, was supposed to have perished with his entire army at the battle of Alcazarquiver, in Africa, Aug. 4, 1578 ; but as his body was never identified, an opinion prevailed that he had escaped from the field, and was living in captivity among the Moors or in retire- ment in his ovra kingdom. In consequence of this notion, a native of Alcazova, of low birth and vicious character, asserted, in 1585, that he was the missing monarch. He was arrested, convicted of gross imposture, and condemned to the galleys for hfe. A second claimant appeared the same year, in the person of a stonecutter, named Alvares, who was made prisoner and hanged. In 1594 Gabriel de Spinosa claimed identity with the lost Se- bastian. He was also seized and publicly executed. The most remarkable of the pseudo- Sebastians was a person who asserted his claim at Venice in 1598, and who exhibited, in manners and features, a most wonderful resemblance to the king. His age corre- sponded vdth that of Sebastian, his body exhibited moles and other marks which the king was known to have possessed, and he related circumstances connected with the private life of the sovereign which afforded SED the strongest confirmation of his statements. His story was, that after the battle he had returned to Portugal, with the intention of assuming a religious hfe, in expiation of the distress in which he had involved Viis coimtry ; but the fear of discovery had induced him to visit Persia, where he had long been engaged in the service of the shah. Notwithstanding the plausibUity of this person's tales, and the interest his appearance excited, his ulti- mate fate is unknown. The strangest fact connected with the story of the lost sovereign is, that the behef in his re-appearance existed long after he must naturally have died, and even as late as the present century. The Sebastianists have been encouraged in their superstition by numerous prophecies, which asserted that the Hidden One, or the Unco- berto, was concealed in an undiscovered island, and that his return might be expected about the year 1808. Sebastian, St. (Spain), was captured by the French Aug. 19, 1719, and again Aug. 4, 1794, when the guillotine was erected, and the blood of many priests and nobles shed. It was again taken by the Erench in 1808. It was besieged by the British, under General Graham, June 29, 1813. An as- sault, which was repulsed, took place July 24. The siege was converted into a blockade, which was raised July 28. The siege was resumed Aug. 26. The town was captured Aug. 31, and the castle Sept. 8. The Carlists were defeated here by the queen's forces Oct. 1, 1836. Sebastoceatoe. — This title of honour was introduced by Alexius Comnenus, a.d. 1081, to reward the piety of his brother Isaac vrithout giving himself an equal. Sebastopol (Eussia), the Tatar Akhtiar, was founded by Catherine II. a.d. 1780. The docks and other important works, planned by Upton, at one time assistant to Telford, and carried on by him for nearly thirty years, were commenced about 1826. The land defences were begun in 1837. Its siege was commenced by the allies during the Eusso-Turkish war (q.v.), Sept. 26, 1854 ; and it was captured Sept. 9, 1855. The fortifications having been demo- Ushed, the town was restored to Eussia July 12, 1856. Sebastopolis (Battle). — Justinian II., having broken his truce vrith the Turks, collected an army near this town, on the Phasis, where he was defeated a.d. 692. Seceetaet of State.— This title occurs for the first time a.d. 1253. By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 11 (1535), all grants passed under the king's seal were to be first dehvered to the principal secretary of state. In the com- mencement of the reign of Charles I. there were two secretaries of state. The number has varied in difierent reigns. A secretary of state for India was added in 1858, which makes the number five. Sedan (France), for many years the capital of a principality belonging to the dukes of Bouillon, was forfeited to the crovra A.D, 1642. Near this town the count 767 SED SEL of Soissons, who perished in the encounter, defeated the army of KicheMeu in 1641. Mazarin took up his abode here in 1652. SEDAif Chaihs, iuTented at Sedan, in France, whence their name, were first used in England a.d. 1581, and in London in 1634. They were in general use in 1649. An act was passed in 1711, limiting the number of licensed sedan chairs to 200. It was in- creased to 400 in 1726. Sedgemook (Battle). — The duke of Mon- mouth was defeated on this plain, near Bridgewater, by the royal troops, under the earl of Faversham, July 6, 1685. Monmouth, who was taken after the battle, was beheaded July 15. Seekees. — This sect arose in England A.B. 1645. They derived their name from maintaining that the true Scripture and ordinances for which they pretended to be seeking were lost. Segeden (Treaty) .—The celebrated treaty of peace between Amurath II. and Ladislaus IV., king of Poland and Hungary, was con- cluded at this town in September, 1444. A truce of ten years was agreed upon, but it only lasted ten weeks. Cardinal Julian de- clared the treaty nuU and Toid, because it had been made without the consent of the pope, and Christian princes were not bound to keep faith with infidels. Segestah" (Asia). — This fertile and flourishing country, containing many large cities and towns, was devastated by Tamer- lane A.D. 1383. The first European traveller to visit Segestan was George Forster, who penetrated into the country in 1788. Cap- tain Christie traversed it from north to south in 1810. It is now called Seistan. Segovia (Spain), the capital of a province of the same name, contains one of the finest cathedrals in Spain. It was commenced A.D. 1525. The French captured Segovia in 1808, and occupied it until 1814. Seidlice (Battle).— The Poles defeated the Eussians at this village, near Warsaw, April 10, 1831. They captured two stand- ards, fifteen pieces of caimon, and 6,000 prisoners. Selbt, (Battle,) was fought at this town, in Yorkshire, between the royal troops, under John Bellasis, governor of York, and the parliamentarians, under Lord Fair- fax, April 11, 1644. The former was made prisoner, and his army defeated. Seieniusi. — This non-metaUic, sohd, ele- mentary body was discovered a.d. 1818 by Berzelius. Seleucia Pieeia (Syria), " rivers of water," according to Strabo, was founded by Seleucus Xicator, prior to B.C. 280. Ptolemy Euergetes, having captured it during his Syrian expedition, B.C. 245, held it by an Egyptian garrison until Antiochus the Great, forming a siege by sea and by land, compelled it to surrender about B.C. 220. Paul and Barnabas embarked from this port on their first mission to Asia Minor in May, a.d. 44 (Acts xiii. 4). The only communication between the city and the sea was by means of an extraordinary excavation through the sohd rock, upwards of twenty feet in width and height, and nearly 1,100 yards long, which was surveyed by Captain Allen in 1850. Seleucia Teacheotis (COicia), repre- sented by the modem town of SelefHeh, was founded by Seleucus Nicator, some time prior to B.C. 280. Under the Komans, it remamed a free city from the time of Augustus, A.D. 14. The Isaurians made an unsuccessful attack upon it in 355. It was the birthplace of Xenarchus, B.C. 40, and Athenaeus the Peripatetic, B.C. 30. Selettcid^.— This sera commenced with the estabhshment of the kingdom of Syria by the Seleucidae, B.C. 311. {See AiEX- AlfDEE, .a^EA OF.) Self-Dentikg OEDrN-ATTCE. — A resolu- tion to the eff'ect that, dui'ing the war, no member of either house should hold any ofiice or command, military or civU, con- ferred by either house of Parliament, or any authority derived from them, passed the House of Commons on Monday, Dec. 9, 1644 ; and an ordinance to this effect was ordered to be introduced. It was passed Dec. 19, and sent up to the Lords, who rejected the third reading, Jan. 13, 1645. After much controversy, the ordinance was, with certain amendments, agreed to by the Lords, April 3, 1645. Selgae (Battle).— Tribigild the Ostrogoth, having rebelled against the Eastern empire, was attacked by the peasants of Pamphyha in this narrow pass and defeated, with the loss of his bravest troops, a.d. 399. Selinus (Sicily) was founded by a colony from Megara about B.C. 628. The inhabitants were engaged in war with the people of Segesta b.c. 580. They joined the Cartha- ginians B.C. 480, and assisted the Syracusans to eject Thrasybulus B.C. 466. They were again at war with the Segestans B.C. 416. The latter, having sought aid from the Carthaginians, defeated the people of Sehnus B.C. 410. The Carthaginians sent an army, under Hannibal, and, after a siege of only ten days, the city was taken and most of the inhabitants were slain, B.C. 409. Hannibal destroyed the walls, but allowed the surviving inhabitants to return and occupy it as tributaries to Carthage. They took part with Dionysius in his war against Carthage, B.C. 397. They submitted to Pvrrhus B.C. 276. Before the close of the first Punic war the Carthaginians removed all the inha- bitants of Selinus to Lilybseum, and de- stroyed the city. Sellasia (Battle).— Cleomenes, king of Sparta, was defeated near this ancient town of Laconia, B.C. 221, by the Achaean League, under Antigonus, king of Macedon. This victory extinguished the power of Sparta. Selset (Sussex). — Wilfrid, archbishop of York, was wrecked on the coast near this town, A.D. 680, when Christianity was in- troduced, and a bishopric established. It was removed to Chichester about 1082. SELYiiBEiA (Turkey), the modem Si- SEM livri, is believed to have been founded by a colony from Megara, about B.C. 662. Alci- biades received pecuniary aid from the inhabitants B.C. 410, and took the town by treachery B.C. 408. Xenophon met Medo- sades, the envoy of Seuthes, here, B.C. 400. It was in alUance with the Athenians B.C. 351, blockaded by Philip II. B.C. 343, and captured by the Turks, after a vigorous re- sistance, A.D. 1453. Semi-Abians.— The Arian sect separated into two divisions a.d. 321. The Arians maintained that the Son of God was unlike the Father ; the Semi- Arians refused to re- ceive the word substantially, but acknow- ledged the Son of God to be of a hke sub- stance with the Father. From this they were called Semi-Arians. Seminaba (Battles). — A body of Spani- ards sent to aid the king of Naples, under the command of Gonsalvo of Cordova, was completely defeated by a small body of French and Swiss, under Stuart d'Aubigny, A.D. 1495. The Spanish general, Andrades, defeated d'Aubigny here, and compelled him. to retire into the fortress of Angitola, April 21, 1503. Semi-Pelagians, at first called MassHians, took their rise from John Cassian, a pupil of Chrysostom, at Marseilles, a.d. 425. The monks of southern Gaul, including Vincent, had generally adopted the tenets by 434; and their doctrines were sanctioned by councils held at Aries and Lyons in 475. The council of Orange estabhshed the Au- gustinian doctrines in opposition to those of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, July 3, 529 ; and Pope Boniface II. confirmed the decree in 530. Sempach (Battle). — Leopold, duke of Austria, in an attempt to reduce Lucerne to obedience, was defeated at this town in Switzerland, by the Swiss, July 9, 1386. Leopold and 2,000 of his men, a third of whom were nobles and knights, fell in the battle. Senate. — That of Eome, which consisted at first of a hundred mejnbers, was raised by Tarquinius Prisons to the number of 300. Tarquinius Superbus put many to death, and sent some of them into exile. The principal plebeians of the equestrian order were admitted, under the name of " conscripti," after the expulsion of Tar- quin, B.C. 509. Sylla raised the number to 600, B.C. 82, and Caesar to 900, b.c. 59. Augustus purified it, and reduced the number to 600, taking upon himself the title of " prince of the senate." Severus deprived it of all legislative, as well as exe- cutive power, A.D. 193. Sosemias, the mother of Elagabalus, having sat by the side of the consuls and subscribed the de- crees as a regular member, a law was after- wards enacted, excluding women for ever from the senate, and devoting to the infernal gods the head of whoever should violate it. Alexander Severus restored its lost dignity and authority in 222. They met in the temple of Castor, according to an 769 SEN" ancient form of secrecy, and ratified the election of the two Gordians, once more as- suming the reins of government in 238. On the death of the Gordians, they elected two of their own body, Maximus and Bal- binus, to be joint emperors, July 9, 238. A decree was issued by Gallienus prohibit- ing senators from holding any military em- ployment, or even approaching the camp of the legions, in 259. It regained its most important prerogatives in 275, refusing the emperor's request to nominate his brother, Florianus, to the consulship. Diocletian and Maximian took measiires to degrade the body and abolish its power, getting up imaginary plots against its most illustrious members, in 303. At a fuU meeting of the senate, the question whether paganism or Christianity should be the reli- gion of the state, was decided in favour of Christianity in 388. A warm discussion took place in 488, on the demand of Alaric the Goth for a ransom, which resulted in the payment, under the name of a subsidy, of four thousand pounds of gold. In the reign of Justinian I., about 553, it seems to have become altogether extinct. The institution was restored in 1144. Senegal (Africa) was partly settled by the French, a.d. 1626. Two forts erected by the Dutch were taken by the French in 1678, and by the EngUsh in 1692. They were retaken by the French in 1693. They built Fort Louis in 1692. Their fort commanding the mouth of the river surrendered to the British, April 22, 1758. Commodore Keppel took possession of the island of Goree, with its forts, Dec. 29, 1758. Goree was restored to France, the British retaining St. Louis, by the treaty signed at Paris Feb. 10, 1763. St. Louis was taken by the French, who, there- upon, abandoned Goree in January, 1779. Sir Edward Hughes seized and garrisoned Goree, Aug. 8, 1799. The whole of the settlements ceded to France by the treaty signed at Versailles Sept, 3, 1783, were retaken by the British, July 13, 1809. They were finally restored to France in 1815. Senegambia (Africa), said to have been visited by Hanno, the Carthaginian general, about B.C. 260, was discovered by the Por- tuguese A.D. 1444 — 1469. Their settlements were neglected after the discovery of the route to the East Indies by the Cape in 1497. A settlement was formed at Senegal by the French in 1626, and one at Gambia by the English in 1686. A large portion of the country was, in 1817 — 1820, traversed by an expedition sent out by the British govern- ment. Explorations were made by Laing in 1822, and by the French travellers MoUien in 1813, and CaiUie in 1827. Senlac (Sussex), supposed to be the modern " Battle," near Hastings (q. v.). Senlis (France). — The ancient Augusto- magus. A treaty of peace between Charles VIII. of France and Maximilian I. was concluded here, May 23, 1493. Coun- cils were [held here in 873 j July, 9b8; .3 D SEN SEE Nov. 14, 1235 ; in 1310 ; October, 1315 ; Marcli 27, 1318 ; and AprU 11, 1326. Sennaae (Africa), at one time forming a portion of Abyssinia and subsequently of Nubia, was wrested from the latter by a family wMcli came from Soudan about the 14th century. The vizier appointed to transact business possessed himself of su- preme power about 1650. The country was conquered by the pasha of Egypt and re- duced to a state of vassalage in 1822. The capital of the same name was destroyed during the invasion of the Egyptians in 1822, Sen'os'es, a Gaulish nation settled on the coast of the Adriatic, laid siege to Clusium B.C. 390, and afterwards advancing towards Eome, defeated the Eomans at the con- fluence of the Allia and the Tiber. They entered Eome and besieged the Capitol, but, withdrawing to a distance of eight miles from the city, were defeated by Camillus. In a second attack upon Eome they were driven off, B.C. 367. From that time their attempts upon Eome were almost annual occurrences, until, having laid siege to Aretinus and gained a victory over a body of Eoman troops, they were utterly routed in a pitched battle by the consul Dolabella, B.C. 2S5. Greece was invaded by them, and Macedon plundered, B.C. 279. They were slaughtered by the Greeks near the banks of the Sperchius, B.C. 278 ; and, having returned with reinforcements, suf- fered severely in an engagement with Anti- gonus Gouatas, and sued for peace, B.C. 277. In combination with the transalpine Gauls they invaded the Eoman territory, and, quarrelling over the division of the booty, turned their arms against each other, B.C. 237. On the coast of Pisse they were routed by the Eomans, with a loss of 40,000 men, theii* king Congolitanus being among the slain, B.C. 225- Marcellus completed their overthrow at Clastidium, where their king Viridomarus fell, B.C. 223. SBifs (France), the ancient Agendicum, chief town of the Senones, formed the winter quarters of Julian, where he was besieged for thirty days by the Germans, A.D. 357. On payment of a ransom by Charles II., the Danes, who were be- sieging Paris, retired to this town in 886. Thomas Becket retired to Sens when he fled from England in 1164, and his canonical vestments are still exhibited. It was taken by Henry V. of England in 1420, and by the allies on their march to Paris in 1814. It was made a bishopric about 1(X). The country of which it was the capital was united to the French crown about 1031. Councils were held here in 601, 846, 1045 ; June 2, 1140 ; in 1239 ; Nov. 15, 1252 ; Oct. 24, 1256 ; Oct. 26, 1269 ; Sept. 25, 1280 ; May 22, 1320 ; and June 23, 1485. SENTiifTJM, (Battle,) fought b.c. 295, during the third Samnite war, near this city of Umbria. In this battle the united forces of the Sabines and Gauls were defeated by the Eomans under Quintus Fabius. ' 770 Sepots (Hindustani sjpa^i, soldier). — The native troops of the East-India Company were so called a.d. 1708. Great alterations were made in their constitution, and a larger pro- portion of British officers introduced in 1796. A serious mutiny broke out amongst them at VeUore in 1806, when eight hundred were executed. Another took place at Bar- rackpore, the troops refusing to march to the Burmese territory, Nov. 1 and 2, 1824. [See India.) Septa, or Septem. {See Ceuta.) Septembee, the seventh month of the Eoman year, was introduced into the ca- lendar by Eomulus B.C. 753. Septembkitzees, or SEPTEsiBEiSTS.-After the news of the capture of Verdun in 1792, arrived at Paris, an indiscriminate slaughter of the unfortunate nobles and priests confined in the Abbaye and other prisons of Paris commenced." It was contimied Sept. 2, 3, and 4, and the perpetrators of the massacre were called Septembritzers. Septennial Pabliaments were enacted by 1 Geo. I. st. 2, c. 38, called the Septennial Act (May 7, 1716). A motion for its repeal in the House of Commons was negatived by 247 to 184, March 13, 1734. Mr. Tennyson D'Eyncourt's motion for leave to bring in a biU for its repeal was refused by 96 to 87, May 8, 1837. Septuagesima Sunday. — The Sundays previous to Lent were first set apart for the purposes of preparation for that solemn fast hy Pope Gregory the Great (1572 — 1585). The first Sunday in Lent was called Quadra- gesima Sunday, and, reckoning by decades, the Sunday preceding Quadragesima was called Quinquagesima, the second Sexa- gesima, and the third Septuagesima. Septuagint. — The Alexandrine version of the Old Testament in Greek was made for the benefit of the captive Jews in Egypt, by order, itissaid, of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B.C. 277 ; but there is much uncertainty as to the precise time. A splendid fac-siroile of the Alexandrine codex was edited by the Eev. H. H. Baber (1S;6— 1820). The iildine edi- tion was published at Venice in 1518 ; the Grabe edition at Oxford, 1707 — 1720 ; and Hohnes and Parson's edition at Oxford, 1798 — 1827. The Septuagint version of the book of Daniel was supposed to have been lost till it was discovered and pubhshed at Eome in 1772. Sepulchee. {See Holy Septilchke.) SEEAPiEUM, or Seeapion, the temple of Serapis, erected at Alexandria by Ptolemy I., surpassing in beauty and magnificence all the temples of the world, except the Capitol at Eome, received the image of the god from Pontus, B.C. 284. It was burned a.d. 181. That portion of the building devoted to the immediate service of the god, was destroyed by Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria, in 390. It was totally destroyed by the Sara- cens in 640. Seepdoji. — A capitulary of Charles the Bald of France permitted serfs to be re- deemed at an eq^uitable price, a.d. 864. SEE 25,000 serfs, or one-eleventh of the popula- tion of England, were registered in the Domesday Book in 1086. The emperor Frederick II. emancipated all those on his own estates in 1230, and those in Italy- all became free early in the 15th century. In some countries of Germany the greater part had acquired their liberty before the end of the 13th century. In France, Louis X. emancipated the serfs on the royal domains, on payment of a composition, in 1315. An edict with the same object was issued by Philip V. in 1318. Predial service was not abohshed in all parts of France till the revolution of 1789. A decree for its gradual abohtion in Denmark was issued in 1766. The alteration in the land-tax by the emperor Joseph II. of Austria to effect the same object, was made in 1782. A ukase was issued by the emperor of Eussia, to ameliorate the condition of the serfs, April 14, 1842 ; and the gradual aboli- tion of serfdom in that country was decreed by the emperor Alexander II. in 1862. Sekiitgapatam (Hindostan) is said to have been founded by a devotee of Vishnu, A.B. 1454, and was in the possession of Eaj Wadegar, a Mysore chief, in 1610. An ineffectual attempt was made by the Mah- rattas to capture it in 1697. It was again attacked, and the city paid a ransom of £150,000 in 1772. It was stormed by the British, under Major-General Baird, and Tippoo was killed, May 4, 1799. Serjeant-at-Law, serviens ad legem, was estabhshed as a legal degree, when the pro- fessors of law formed themselves into a society about a.d. 1216. Sekpent-wokship, Obeahism, or OpHr- OLATREiA. — The Eev. John Bathurst Deane, in his treatise on the " Worship of the Serpent," p. 357, states that "in every known country of the ancient world, the serpent formed a prominent feature in the ordinary worship, and made no incon- siderable figure in their hagiographia, enter- ing alike into legendary and astronomical mythology." He traces its origin from the traditions connecting the serpent with the fall of man, and asserts that it preceded antediluvian polytheism, and originated in Babylonia, whence it found its way into Persia, China, Phoenicia, Mexico, Britain, Scandinavia, Africa, and indeed over the entire globe. Tradition asserts that it was re-introduced into Egypt after the Deluge by Taautus Tboth, or Hermes, the great founder of Egyptian civilization. Seevants. — The apparel and diet of ser- vants were regulated by 37 Edw. III. c. 8 (1363). By 5 Eliz. c. 4 (1562), they were protected from sudden discharge or prohi- bited from sudden desertion of their situ- ations, by the rule that a quarter's warning might be claimed by the master or servant ; and by 32 Geo. III. e. 56 (1792), penalties were prescribed for persons ofiering them- selves as servants under false representations. Persons employing domestic servants are guilty of a misdemeanour if they neglect to 771 SEV supply them with necessary food, or if they assault them, by 14 & 15 Vict, c, 11 (May 20, 1851). A duty was imposed upon male ser- vants by 17 Geo. III. c. 39 (1777), and other acts, which were repealed by 25 Geo. III. c. 43 (1785). This act altered all the existing duties on male servants, and also taxed the employers of female servants. The duties on female servants were abolished by 32 Geo. III. c. 3 (1792). Seevia (Europe). — The Servi, a tribe of Slavonians, received some land south of the Danube from the emperor Leo VI. in the 10th century. The Greeks failed in an at- tempt to take Servia under their control in the 11th century. The Greek army pene- trated into Servia in order to re-estabhsh their dominion, but were utterly annihilated A.D. 1043. Pope Honorius III. erected Servia into an independent kingdom in 1217. The Servians, Hungarians, and other Christian nations, were defeated in the plain of Cos- sova in September, 1389, by the Turks, who, in the next century, reduced the whole country under their sway, and it remained a province of the Turkish empire until 1717. Austria having conquered part of Servia in 1718, was obhged to resign it in 1739. Mar- shal Landohn retook Belgrade in 1789. Austria restored it to the sultan in 1791. In 1805 the Servians rose against the Turks and drove them out of Servia. The Turks re- gained what they had lost in 1814, and Ser- via again became a pashalic. Another insurrection broke out in 1815, when the country gained its independence. By the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856, Servia was placed imder the protection of the Great Powers. Session, Court of, the principal tri- bunal of civil jurisdiction in Scotland, was constituted a.d. 1532, being based upon in- stitutions of a much earlier date. The Court of Session was divided into two divisions in 1808, the lord president presiduig in one, and the lord justice clerk in the other. The practice of jury trial was united with that of the Court of Session in 1830. Settlement. {See Act oe Settlement.) Sevabambians. — In 1676 a work was printed in England, entitled "History of the Sevarites," and purporting to narrate the adventures of one Captain Siden, or Liden, among a people of that name, inha- biting an unknown country in the Southern Ocean. The book was, in fact, a very clever romance, and formed the basis of a " His- toire des Sev^rambes," published at Amster- dam, in three vols., between 1677 and 1679. Both works have attracted considerable at- tention on account of the uncei-tainty as to their authors, the Enghsh edition being as- cribed to Denis Vairasse d'Alais, Algernon Sidney, and Isaac Vossius, and the French, with much greater certainty, to Vairasse. The subject of the authorship was discussed in Notes and Queries, vols. iii. & iv. Seven Churches of Asia, addressed by the apostle John from the isle of Patmos, A.D. 96 (Revelation i. 4, &c.), were,— 1. at 3 D 2 SEV Ephesus, in Asia Minor, founded by St. Paul, A.D. 53, of which he ordained Timothy first bishop ; 2. Smyrna, settled by a colony of Ephesians, the first bishop, Polycarp, having been put to death in the Stadium, A.D. 166. 3. Pergamus, in Mysia, which rose into importance under Lysimachus, B.C. 283. 4. Thyatira, in Lydia, which ex- isted Tinder other names prior to receiv- ing this designation from Seleucus Ni- cator, about B.C. 321. Lydia, a seller of purple, converted by St. Paul, at PhUippi. was a native of this city (Acts xvi. 14), a.d. 48. 5. Sardis, capital of Lydia, under Croesus, B.C. 560. The two Greek servants of a Turkish miller were the only remaining representatives of the church here a.d. 1826. 6. Philadelphia, in Lydia, founded by Atta- lus PhUadelphus, B.C. 159. It contained twenty-four churches, mostly in ruins, in 1827 ; and 7. Laodicea, in Phrygia, called Diospolis and Ehoas, until rebuUt by Antio- chus Theos, and named after his wife, B.C. 260. St. Paul mentions the church here (Colossians iv. 16), a.d. 62. SEVEifOAKS (Kent). — The grammar-school was founded a.d. 1418, by Sir William de Se- venoke, or Sennocke. Here Jack Cade and his rebel army defeated the king's troops, under Sir Humpkrey Stafford, who fell in the action, Jvme 27, 1450. A school for poor children was founded in 1675, by Lady Margaret BosweU. Seven-shilling Pieces. — Gold coins of this value were first issued in England, Nov, 29, 1797. Seven- Tears' Wae, carried on in Ger- many by Prussia against Austria, lasted from 1756 to 1763. It was brought to a close by a treaty of peace signed at Huberts- burg Feb. 15, 1763. Sevebus' Wall. {See Hadrian's Wall.) Seville (Spain), the capital of a pro- vince of the same name, was the ancient Hispahs. Julius Caesar made it his capital, B.C. 45. The Goths wrested it from the Eomans, and it was taken by the Moors A.D. 711. Abderahman made it his capital in 756, and it continued subject to his dy- nasty tiU 1031. It was besieged, Aug. 20, 1247, by Ferdinand III., kiag of Castile, and taken by him Nov. 23, 1248. Fi-om that time it formed a part of the kingdom of Castile, vmtil the whole of Spain became one kingdom. The cathedral, occupying the site of a Moorish mosque, was commenced in 1349, and opened in 1519. The giralda, a lofty tower, part of the ancient mosque, and built in 1196, serves as a belfry to the cathedral. Seville was greatly injured by an earthquake in 1395. The university was founded in 1502, and the exchange erected by PhiKp II. in 1523. A junta was formed at Seville in 1808, which issued a proclama- tion against Napoleon I., June 6. It surrendered to the French, Jan. 31, 1810, was occupied by Soult in May, 1810, and again July 7, 1811. Seville was bombarded by Espartero, July 21, 1848. Sevres (France) .—The porcelain-works of 772 SHA Vincennes were transferred to this small town A.D. 1755. Sewers. — The remains of sewers have been discovered in the ruins of the great palace of the Assyrian kings at Nimroud. The earhest known to the classic authors were those at Pheax, in Sicily, which were constructed of freestone. The cele- brated cloaca maxima, the chief sewer of ancicDt Eome, was constructed by Tarqui- nius Priscus (B.C. 600), and is one of the most stupendous monuments of antiquity. It is still used in the drainage of the city. Commissioners of sewers were first appointed by 6 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1427), aud their autho- rity was regulated and defined by 23 Hen. YIII. c. 5 (1531). This act, after having been continued by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 8 (1549), and 13 Eliz. c. 9 (1570), was amended by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 22 (June 28, 1833). {See Drainage.) Sewing-machines. — Thimonnier pa- tented a sewing-machine at Paris a.d. 1831, and Heilman exhibited an embroidering sew- ing-machine in 1834. The first machine for producing what is called the mail-bag stitch was invented by Walter Hind, of New York, in 1834. It was greatly improved by Thomas, of London, who took out a patent in June, 1846. Great improvements have been eifected of late years in the sewing, machine. Sexagesima Sunday. {See Septuagesima Sunday.) Sextant. — Newton made some improve- ments on the old instrument used for taking altitudes at sea a.d. 1699. Hadley's quad- rant was invented in 1730. Sextilis. — The month of August was called by the Eomans SextiUs, i. e., the sixth month from March, from which they began their computation. It was changed to August in honour of the emperor Augus- tus, B.C. 8. Seychelles (Indian Ocean) were disco- vered by Vasco de Gama a.d. 1502, and were explored by Lazarus Picault in 1743. A French colony was formed on the island of Mahe, the largest of the group, about 1768. They capitulated to the English in 1794, were not occupied tiU 1810, and were formally ceded to England by the treaty of Paris in 1815. Shaetesbuey (Dorsetshire) was built A.D. 880 by Alfred the Great, who founded a monastery here in 887. Two mints were erected here in the reign of Athelstan. This town was made the see of a suffragan bishop by Henry VIII. , John Bradley being consecrated first bishop Feb. 23, 1538. The town-hall was built in 1578. Shahjehanpore (Hindostan). — The pro- vince and town formed part of the posses- sions of the Eohilla Patans previous to their total overthrow by the British, a.d. 1774. Shahjehanpore was then transferred to Oude, and was ceded to the East-India Com- pany in 1801. Shakespeare's Works. — William Shake- speare, the son of John Shakespeare, and SHA his wife, Mary Arden, was born at Strat- ford-upon-Avon, April 23, 1564, and bap- tized April 26. He married Anne Hatha- way in 1582, and repaired to London about 1586. He died at Stratford-upon-Avon, April 23, 1616, and was buried in the chan- cel of Stratford church, April 25. The first collected edition of his works was published in folio in 1623 ; tue second edition appeared in 1632 ; the third in 1664, and the fourth in 1685. The Shakespearian forgeries were exe- cuted by Samuel William Henry Ireland, son of a dealer in curiosities in Norfolk Street, Strand. He first conceived the idea of committing the fraud in 1795, while on a visit with his father at Stratford. One of the plays, " Vortigern," was purchased by Sheridan for Drury Lane, and produced, with John Kemble as Vortigern, in 1796, when it failed. Ireland acknowledged the fraud, and exonerated his father from any participation in the same, in his " Confes- sions," published in 1805. The first great festival, called the jubilee in honour of Shakespeare, was projected by David Gar- rick, and was celebrated at Stratford-upon- Avon, Sept. 6 to 8, 1769. The entertain- ment, which comprised a pubhc breakfast in the town-haU, a performance of the oratorio of Judith in the church, an as- sembly, a masquerade, a recitation by Garrick in praise of Shakespeare, a display of fireworks, and a horse-race, was severely ridiculed by many contemporary writers. A similar festival was celebrated in Sep- tember, 1770, April 23, 1830, and on other occasions. The house in which the poet is supposed to have been born was sold by auction, Sept. 16, 1847, and purchased for £3,000, by an association formed for the purpose. Two amateur performances were held at the Haymarket theatre, in aid of the project, in May, 1848; and it was proposed to establish Mr. James Sheridan Knowles in the office of curator; but this portion of the plan was abandoned. In May, 1856, Mr. John Shakespear, professor of Oriental languages at Addiscombe, sig- nified his wiUingness to give £2,500 for the purpose of purchasing and pulling down the contiguous houses, to remove the danger of fixe ; and the gift was accepted, and ap- plied as proposed. This gentleman, who was not related to the poet, died June 10, 1858. DEAMATIC WOEKS. SHE Works. Written. First known edition. All 's Well that Ends Well . . Antony and Cleopatra As You Like It ' A.D. Uncertain Ditto 1599 Uncertain 1610 1609 Uncertain 1603 A.D. 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 1623 Hamlet 1604 1623 King Henry rv., Pt. I King Henry IV., Pt. 11. ... King Henry V King Henry VI., Pt. I King Henry VI., Pt. II. . . . King Henry VT., Pt. III. . . . King Henry VIII King John King Lear King Richard II. . , King Kichard III Love's Labour 's Lost Macbeth Measure for Measure Merchant of Venice Merry Wives of Windsor . . . Midsummer Night's Dream . Much Ado about Nothing . . . OtheUo Pericles Eomeo and Juliet Taming of the Shrew Tempest Timon of Athens Titus Andi-onicus Troilus and Cressida Twelfth Night Two Gentlemen of Verona Winter's Tale 1591 Uncertain Ditto Ditto Ditto 1606 1593 1593 About 1590 Uncertain Ditto 1594 1592 1594 1598 1604 Uncertain 1591 Uncei-tain Before 1611 1610 Uncertain Ditto 1600 About 1591 1611 First known edition. 1598 1600 1600 1623 1623 1623 1597 1597 >598 1623 1623 1600 1602 1600 1600 1622 1609 1597 1623 1623 1623 1594 1609 1623 1623 1623 MISCELLANEOTTS WOEKS. A Lover's Complaint Passionate Pilgrim . Sonnets Venus and Adonis , Lucrece Fii-st Written, known edition. A.D. Uncertain Ditto / Various ") (, times J Uncertain Ditto Shaldieam- (Battle). — Ishmael, Shah of Persia, was defeated in the valley of Shal- diran, in Persia, by Selim I., sultan of the Ottomans, a.d. 1515. Shameock, used by the Druids for curing diseases, and by the Irish as food, is said to have been employed to symbolize the Trinity by St. Patrick, a.d. 433. Shanghai, or Shanghae (China). — This city, captured by the British June 19, 1842, was restored to the Chinese in the following year. It was captured by the insurgents Sept. 7, 1853, but was soon after regained by the Imperialists. Shawxs. — The manufacture of shawls originated in Cashmere, whence the finest kinds are still imported, and it was intro- duced into this country by Barrow & Watson, of Norwich, a.d. 1784. A shawl- manufactory was estabMshed at Paris in 1802, and in 1805 the Norwich makers suc- ceeded in producing an article entirely wrought at the loom, the pattern having been previously embroidered by hand. Shechem, or Sichem (Palestine), also called Sychar, NeapoHs, and Naplous, the first city in the land of Canaan visited by 773 SHE SHE Abraham, and the place where he received a renewal of the promise that his posterity- should inherit the land (Gen. xii. 7), b.c. 1921, was appointed as one of the cities of refuge (Josh. xx. 7), B.C. 1444, and Joshua assembled the tribes of Israel, and dehvered to them his Taledictory address here (Josh. xxiv. 1), B.C. 1427. Abimelech was elected king by its inhabitants (Judges ix. 6), B.C. 1235, and "aU Israel" came there to make Rehoboam king (1 Kings xii. 1), B.C. 975. At Jacob's weU, near this city, our Saviour talked with the woman of Samaria (John iv. 5), May 13, a.d. 27. It was the birthplace of Justin Martyr, about the beginning of the 1st century. Sheep. — Cotswold sheep were sent by Ed- ward IV. to Henry IV. of Castile and John II. of Aragon, a.d. 1464. Merino sheep were first introduced into Sweden in 1723. The Leicester breed of sheep first came into notice in 1755, and in 1780 the South Downs were introduced. Merino sheep were brought to England in 1791. Sheepshanks CoLLECTioif. — This fine collection of paintings, which embraces many of the best productions of Sir Edwin Landseer, Mulready, Leslie, and other leading English artists, was presented to the British people by John Sheepshanks, Eeb. 2, 1857, and has been deposited in the gallery erected for the purpose at South Kensington Museum. Sheeeness (Kent). — A fort was built here, mounting twelve guns, a.d. 1667. The Dutch entered the river Medway, and captured this fort, July 10, 1667. The docks were much improved in 1815. A great fire, which destroyed fifty houses and much property, occurred here, July 31, 1827. Shefeield (Yorkshire). — Early in the reign of Henry I. the manor of Sheffield was in the possession of the family of De Lovetot, who built a bridge over the Don, and formed the nucleus of a town. The castle was built A.D. 1237, and Edward I. granted the town a charter to hold a weekly market Nov. 12, 1296. The wooden bridge was replaced by one of stone in 1485. Cardinal Wolsey was detained prisoner, Nov. 8, 1530, and Mary Queen of Scots was brought to Sheffield castle in 1570. The earl of Shrewsbury's hospital was built in 1616, and in 1624 the cutlers obtained an act of incorporation. Sheffield castle surrendered to the ParHamentary army Aug. 10, 1644. It was demolished by order of the Long Pariiament, April 23, 1648. The town- hall was erected in 1700, and St. Paul's church in 1720. The first silk-miU, which proved a failure, was erected in 1758. The first bank was opened in 1770, and a cotton-miU, started in 1792, was soon after abandoned. The general infirmary was erected in 1798, and the town received its charter of incor- poration as a municipal borough, Aug. 24, 1843. The railroad to Manchester was opened Dec. 22, 1845. John Arthur Roe- buck, whose family was connected with the 774. town, was first returned as its member in May, 1849. Shelbueu-e Administeatiotj- was formed soon after the death of the marquis of Rock- ingham, which occurred Monday, July 1, 1782. This ministry, gazetted Jvlj 10, waa thus constituted : — Treasury Earl of Shelbume. Lord ChanceUor Lord Thiirlow. i'resident of the Council. .Lord Camden. Privy Seal Duke of Grafton. Chancellor of Exchequer. .■Willianj Pitt. {Lord Grautham and Mr. Thomas Town^heiid, created Baron Sydney March 4, 1783. . ,„._„,i^ f Viscount, afterwards ^^°^'*y i Earl, Keppel. Secretary at War Sir G. Yonge, Bart. Tre.-isurer of the Navy. . . .Mr. Henry Buudas. Ordnance Duke of Richmond. This ministry was dissolved in consequence of the vote of censure passed on the peace of Versailles, Feb. 21, 1783. {See Coalitiom- [Nobth and Fox] Admixisteation.) Shendt (Nubia). — Little is known of the history of this place, formerly of much im- portance. It was laid waste by the Egyptian forces A.D. 1822. Shepheed Kings. (See Htcsos.) Sheppet (Kent) . — This island was ravaged by the Danes a.d. 832. They wintered here in 855, and in 1052 it was plundered by I Earl Godwin. Queenborough Castle was built by Edward III. in 1340, and so named in honour of Philippa. It was rebuilt by him in 1361, William of Wickham, after- wards bishop of Winchester, being the archi- tect. The castle was repaired by Henry VIII. in 1536. The Long Parliament passed an ordinance (July 16, 1650) for the sale and destruction of the castle, which was soon afterwards demolished. SHEBBOEiirE (Bishopric). — This town in Dorsetshire was made an episcopal see a.d. 705 by Ina, king of Wessex. The council of London, held in 1078, decreed that several bishops' sees should be removed from ob- scure places to more important towns. The bishopric of Sherborne was transferred to Old Sarum. Sheeiff, Shiee-eeve, from the Saxon rea- fan, to levy, to seize, was appointed by Alfred to assist the alderman and the bishop in the discharge of their judicial functions in coun- ties. One of the " Provisions of Oxford," June 11, 1258, required that the freeholders shovild have the privilege of electing a sheriff annually. This privilege appears to have been confirmed or renewed by 28 Edw. I. c. 8 (1300). _ In making the period- ical circuit of his shire he was attended by the nobles until thev were reheved from the duty by 52 Hen. III. c. 10 (1267). By 14 Edw. III. c. 7, it was enacted that he should be " ordained on the morrow of AU Souls, November 3, by the chancellor, treasurer, and chief baron of the Exchequer" (1341). Although the sheriffs are now nominated on the morrow of St. Martin's (Nov. 12), the SHE "pricking" takes place on the morrow of the Purification (Feb, 3). The office for Durham was hereditary in the bishop till 1836. By 1 Edw. IV. c. 2, all sheriffs except those of London were forbidden to proceed judicially (1461% Shekiff-muir (Scotland). — The Scotch rebel army, under the earl of Mar, was at- tacked on this plain, near Diunblane, by the royal troops, under the duke of ArgyU, Sun- day, Nov. 13, 1715. The loss was nearly equal on both sides, and no advantage was gained by either. Shetland Isles. {See Oekn-et Isles.) Shibboleth, in Hebrew a stream or flood, was the test applied by the Gileadites to the fugitive Ephraimites. When required to utter the word, they pronounced it Sibboleth, and were put to death, 42,000 falling victims on that occasion, B.C. 1187 (Judges xii. 6). Shiites, the followers of Ah, cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, are called by the Somnites, Shiites, or reprobates. Ah became cahph in 651, and reigned four years and nine months, when he was assassinated. The Somnites are the established sect in Turkey, and the Shiites in Persia and parts of India. Picart enumerates the various points of difference between them. They were afterwards called Fatimites. Shillibtg, or Testoon-, was first coined by Henry VII. a.d. 1503, although Pinkerton says coins of that name were struck at Ham- burg in 1407. Henry VIII. caused the pound of silver, one-third fine, to be coined into forty-eight shillings in 1547. The ministers of Edward VI. produced seventy-two out of the pound, three-fourths being alloy (1547 — 1553). It was first completely milled in 1651. Ship-building. — This art is said to have originated in Egypt, whence it was imported into Greece by Danaus, B.C. 1485. The Phoenicians practised it at an early date, and were the first people who ventured on long sea-voyages. Masts and sails are said to have been invented by the Athenian mechanician Daedalus, about b.c. 1240, and triremes, or galleys with three banks of oars, by the Corinthians, B.C. 786. The Eomans constructed three classes of ships : the naves longas, used in war ; the naves oneraricB, or ships of burden, employed in commerce ; and the naves liburnce, vessels of great speed, which served as dispatch- boats. Oak was first employed in marine architecture by the Veneti. Copper and brass fastenings were substituted for iron in the reign of Nero (a.d. 54—68), and caulking with flax and sheathing with metal were also practised at the same time. The ancient Britons used coracles of leather and wicker- work ; and the Danes and Saxons used stout single-masted ships, adorned at the prow with the sculptured head of some animal as an ensign. Alfred, the Great constructed a fleet ot long galleys, like the war-ships of the Eomans, in 897 ; and, owing to their success, they were generally adopted in the northern seas, and continued to be the SHI general pattern of the English navy until the reign of Edward III., when saihng* vessels became general. Fore and stern- castles, and top-castles at the mast-head, were also introduced about this time. Car- racks, an important class of large vessels, are first mentioned about 1449 ; and lateen sails were used in small ships in 1483. The Great Harry, built by Henry VII. in 1488, is memorable as the first ship of the royal navy, and had five masts. Port- holes were invented in France by Des- charges about the year 1500, and in 1572 sprit-sails are mentioned. The first three- decker on record is a Spanish vessel engaged in an action with Sir Kichard Grenville off the Azores in 1591. The Shipwrights' Com- pany was founded in 1605, and incorporated by royal charter in May, 1612. The Sove- reign of the Seas, launched in 1637, was the first Enghsh three-decker ; and the Constant Warwick, built in 1649, the first EngHsli frigate. The earliest Enghsh work on ship- building is "The Invention of Shipping," published by Sir Walter Kaleigh in 1650. A Society for the Improvement of Naval Archi- tecture was instituted in 1791 ; and in 1811 a government school of naval architecture was established at Portsmouth dockyards. Steam- ships (q. V.) were first constructed, with suc- cess, in 1812 ; and in 1833 Mr. Fairbairn commenced the manufacture of iron ships {q.v.}. Ship-money.— Ethelred II. ordered a fleet to be prepared to oppose the Danes by a levy on all land throughout England, a.d, 1008. The impost was also collected under Elizabeth in 1588. Under Charles I, a writ from the council ordered it to be enforced in. London and other seaport towns in October, 1635. The sum thus raised being insufficient, writs were issued to all counties and towns aUke, and the judges supported it by the opinion that it was legal, in 1636. John Hampden, refusing to pay it, was cited in the court of Exchequer, when aU the twelve judges, with the exception of Croke and Hutton, gave judgment for the crown, June 12, 1637. A bill was passed in parha- ment, annulling this judgment and declaring the tax illegal, five of the judges who had argued in favour of it being imprisoned in 1641 (16 Charles I. c. 14). Shibaz (Persia), once the capital of the kingdom, and residence of the Shahs, is said to have been founded a.d. 697. The principal mosque was built in 1226. It suf- fered from earthquakes in 1812 and 1824, and was nearly destroyed in April, 1853. Shi BE. — The division of England into shires or counties existed as early as the time of Ina, who reigned in Wessex from A.D. 688 to 727, Shiet. — This article of dress was in gene- ral use in the 4th century. The Anglo- Saxons wore shirts in the 8th century, and were attired in them when dead. They were embroidered with silk and gold and silver thread in the 16th, and the doublets were greatly shortened, so that a large por- 775 SHI tion of tlie shirt might be seen, in the 17th century. Shievan (Kussia in Asia) . — This province formed part of the Armenian monarchy, until the 6th century, when it came under the sway of Persia. At a subsequent period it recovered its independence, and in the 9th century passed under the sway of the cahphs. It was conquered by the Persians in 1580, and was ceded to Kussia in 1812. It was divided into two governments in 1847. Shoeblacks. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans cleaned shoes with a sponge, and the mediaeval Europeans by washing. Oil and other kinds of grease, and soap, were emploj'ed as preservatives of the leather, previous to the invention of blacking, which was originally composed of soot, and pro- duced no pohsh. Owing to the unpaved condition of the streets, shoeblacks were common in London during the 18th century, but gradually became extinct. Charles Knight aUudes to " the last of the shoeblacks" as plying his vocation in Fleet Street about the year 1820. The existing ragged school shoeblack brigade was founded in 1851, to provide for the foreign visitors to the Great Exhibition. Eive boys were sent out Mon- day, March 31 in that year, and by March 31, 1854, 256 boys pUed their vocation as shoeblacks under the auspices of the Eagged School Union. Shoemakers, among the Eomans wrought in stalls, which proved so obstructive to the streets of the city, that an order for their removal was issued by Domitian (a.d. 81 — 96). The " cobblers' wax " of. the present day was employed by the ancients, and bristles appear to have been substituted for needles at least as early as the 12th cen- tury. {See COEDWAINERS.) Shoes. — The ancients usually wore san- dals (q.v.), which are frequently mentioned under the title of buskins and cothurni, and were often of extreme magnificence. The crescent was employed as an ornament in the shoes of Eomans of exalted rank, who appear to have carried on the art of shoe- making with great taste and skUl. Only one instance is known of an ancient moniiment exhibiting shoes with separate heel-pieces. The custom of making shoes right and left was common in classical times. The earliest coverings for the feet used by the Britons were brogues of raw cow-hide, with the hairy side turned outward, and known as esgi- diau; they also wore a species of buskin, called the bwutais, or butis. The Saxon and Norman shoes mostly covered the ankles, and were convenient in form and tasteful in appearance ; but in the reign of WUham II. absurd boots and shoes with peak toes, called ocrea rostrata, were intro- duced. The reign of Edward III. is memo- rable in the annals of shoemaking, on ac- count of the remarkable elegance of the decorations employed. In the time of Eichard II. the peak-toed shoes were car- ried to such an excess that the toes were chained to the knees of the wearer, to en- 776 SHO able him to walk with freedom. This fashion gave way to the opposite extreme, towards the end of the reign of Edward IV., when shoes with extremely broad toes were intro- duced and worn till the reign of Ehzabeth. Slashed shoes with large rosettes were then introduced, and maintained their ground tin the Puritanic period of the EebeUion. Philip Stubbes enumerates, among the ex- cesses of the gentry, that " they have corked shoes, puisnets, pantofles, and sHppers ; some of them of black velvet, some of white, some of green, and some of yellow ; some of Spanish leather, and some of English, stitched vrith silk, and embroidered with gold and silver all over the foot, with other gewgaws innimierable." Chopines, or Chop- ineys, a kind of over-shoe with very thick soles, were introduced from the East in the 17th centuiy, and are mentioned by Thomas Coryate as forming a remarkable part of Venetian female attire in 1611, and as being " of a great height, even half a yard high ; and by how much the nobler a wo- man is, by so much the higher are her cha- pineys." He adds that the wearers of these chopines " are assisted and supported either by men or women when they walk abroad, to the end that they may not faU." They were discontinued in Venice in 1670. At the Eestoration an ugly shoe with high heels, square toes, and enormous stiff ties, which stood out on both sides for some inches, was introduced ; and in the reign of William III. small buckles were substi- tuted for the ties. At this period the fashion of colouring the high heels red be- came general, and continued tiU about 1790, when ladies ran into the other extreme, and adopted shoes without raised heels. Shoe- strings were substituted for buckles about 1800. {See Boots.) SnoLAPOkE (Hindostan) is mentioned A.D. 1478 as one of the principal strongholds of the Bahmani sovereigns. Aurungzebe took it in 1685. In the early part of the ISth century it fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, and was taken by the British in January, 1818. It was formed into a sepa- rate coUectorate in 1838. Shop-tax. — ^A system of duties on all shops except those occupied by bakers was prepared by 25 Geo. III. c. 30 (1785). This act was explained and amended by 26 Geo. III. c. 9 (1786), and the duties'were repealed by 29 Geo. III. c. 9 (1789). SHOKTHAifD, or Stenogkaphy. — Amoug the Greeks its invention was variously as- cribed to Pythagoras, B.C. 555, and to Xeno- phon, B.C. 424. Ennius, the Latin poet, also enjoys the distinction of being the inventor, B.C. 239 — 169. It is likewise ascribed to Cicero, B.C. 106— 43, who certainly practised it and taught the art to his freedjnan Tiro, the oration on the conspiracy of Catiline having been preserved by this means B.C. 63. The first English work on the subject by Dr. Timothy Dwight, dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, appeared in 1588, Another, by Peter Bale, was published in 1600. The SHO first regular alphabet was published by John Willis in 1602. Treatises on the art, by Ed- mund Willis, appeared in 1618 ; by Witt in 1630; and by Dix in 1633. One by Rich, which received the commendation of John Locke, was issued in 1654. Mason's system was published in 1682. The system of Mr. Thomas Gurney was published in 1753. That of Dr. Byrom was perfected in 1720. Fifty copies for his friends were printed in 1749, and having been secured b;y act of par- liament was published after his death in 1767. Taylor's system appeared in 1786 ; Mavor's in 1789 ; and Lewis's in 1815. Mr. Isaac Pitman's system, under the name of phonography, was published in 1857. Shoet-Lived Administeation. (See LONG-LlVED ADMINISTEATIOIf.) Shot. — Stone shot was employed in China as early as a.d. 757, and a cannon to fire square shot was tried at Bruges in 1846. Bullets of iron, lead, brass, and stone, are mentioned during the 14th century. The method of making shot by pouring melted lead from a great height into cold water was invented about 1782 by Watts, a plumber of Bristol. Sheewsbuet (Battle). (See Hatelet Field.) Sheewsbttet Administeatioit. — Two days previous to her death (July 30, 1714), Queen Anne appointed Charles, duke of Shrewsbury (at that time lord chamber- lain and lord lieutenant of Ireland), lord treasurer, in place of the earl of Oxford, who had been compelled to resign on the 27th. The other members of the Oxford ministry (see Haeley Administeat»n) re- mained in office. No sooner had Queen Anne expired (Aug. 1, 1714) than, by order of the elector of Brunswick, the following nineteen peers were appointed under the Eegency Bill as lords justices of the kingdom. The Archbishop of York. Duke of Shrewsbury. Duke of Somerset. Duke of Bolton. Duke of Devonshire. Duke of Kent. Duke of Argyll. Duke of Montrose. Duke of Roxburgh, Earl of Pembroke. Earl of Anglesey. Earl of Carlisle. Earl of Nottingham. Earl of Abingdon. Earl of Scarborough. Earl of Orford. Lord Townshend. Lord Halifax. Lord Cowper. By the eleventh clause of the Eegency Act the administration of the government until the sovereign arrived devolved upon the fol- io vdng seven great officers : — Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury. Lord Harcourt, Lord Chancellor. Duke of Buckingham, Lord President. Duke of Shrewsbury, Lord High Treasurer. Earl of Dartmouth, Privy Seal. , Earl of Strafford, First Lord of Admiralty. Sir Thomas Parker, afterwards Lord Parker, Lord Chief Justice. The lords of the regency appointed Joseph Addison their secretary Aug. 3. Lord Bo- lingbroke was dismissed by order of the new king ; and three of the lords of the regency went to receive his seal of office Aug. 31. SIA Lord Townshend was appointed in his place, Sept. 17. Lord Harcourt was removed from the lord chancellorship Sept. 19. George I. entered London Sept. 20. Other changes were made, and a ministry was formed by Lord Hahfax, Oct. 5. (See Halifax Admi- nisteation.) Sheove -Tuesday. — This day was for- merly known as Fasguntide, Fastingtide, Fastens, or Fastmass, from its having been a time of fasting, and Confession-Tuesday because it was a day on which it was cus- tomary for Eoman Catholics to confess themselves. The custom of eating pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday originated in the cir- cumstance that penitents were permitted to indulge in amusements after confession, but not to exceed any of the usual substi- tutes for flesh-meat in their repasts. In 1445 Simon Eyer, lord mayor of London, commenced the practice of giving a pancake- feast to the apprentices of the city on this day, and the custom was continued by several of his successors. The Monday preceding Shrove-Tuesday was vulgarly known as Col-. lop-Monday, from a peculiar dish which was usually eaten on that day. Shitmla. (See Schxtmla.) SiAM (Asia). — The Portuguese, after the conquest of Malacca, established communi- cations with Siam, a.d. 1511. Having been subjected by the Burmese, it recovered its independence about the close of the 16th century. The Dutch obtained a footing here in the early part of the 17th century. The first English vessel visited Ayuthia in 1612. Phaulkon, a, native of Cephalonia, who had been a sailor on board English vessels, gained considerable influence with the king, and was promoted to an important ofl&ce about the end of the 17th century. He per- suaded the king to send an embassy to Louis XIV., which he did, and it reached France in 1684. The embassy also visited London, and concluded a commercial treaty with the government of Charles II. in 1684. A French embassy was dispatched with the view of convertmg the king to the Eoman CathoMc religion, in 1685; and another, accompanied by a corps of 500 soldiers, in 1687. The French soldiers having been put in possession of the fort of Bangkok, by Phaulkon, a revolution took place. The king was dethroned, the ministers were slain, and the French driven from the country in 1690. It was invaded by the Burmese, who captured Ayuthia, the capital, in 1766. The king having lost his life, a Chinese adventurer seized upon supreme power, but was dispossessed in 1782. A truce was concluded between the Burmese and the Siamese in 1793. The marquis of Hastings, while governor-general of India, endeavoxired to estabhsh com- mercial relations with Siam in 1822, but with little success. The EngHsh received its support in their war with the Burmese in 1824, and negotiated a commercial treaty in 1826. A new treaty was concluded with England by Sir John Bovyxing, April 30, 777 SIB 1855, aud it was ratified April 5, 1856. Am- bassadors from Siam having arrived at Portsmouth, Oct. 27, 1857, her Majesty Queen Victoria held a court for their recep- tion, Nov. 16, when they presented letters and presents from the two kings of the country. Siberia (Asia) was invaded by the Mon- gols, who, to the number of 15,000 families, settled here, a.d. 1242. Termak Timofeyew, a Cossack, crossed the Ural and made consi- derable conquests in 1580. He was drowned in the Irtish in 1584. The Kussian power gradually extended, and the city of Tomsk was buUt in 1604. An expedition conquered the Yakutes, and reached the Sea of Ok- hotsk in 1639. The nation of the Buriates, partly subdued in 1620, was conquered in 1658. The town of Irkutsk was built by Iwan Pochaboff in 1661 . Disputes with the Chinese government respecting the eon- quest of Da-Uria were settled by treaty in 1689. It was confirmed by another, which fixed the boundaries between the two coun- tries in 1727. The Swedish prisoners taken in the war were exiled to Siberia by Peter I., in 1710. Sibyl. — The sibyl of Cumse is the most famous of these female soothsayers. Ac- cording to the legend, " A woman of strange appearance presented herself to King Tar- quinius, offering him nine books of the pro- pheciesof the Sibyl, for 300piecesof gold. The offer was contemptuously refused; where- upon the prophetess burned three of the books, and offering the remainder for the same price, these were again scornfully re- fused. The Sibyl then retired, and having burnedthree other books, again returned, ask- ing the same price for the remaining three. The king, much amazed, demanded of the augurs what he should do. They said that he had acted unwisely in refusing them, and commanded him by all means to purchase the remaining hooks. The sacred volumes were put into a stone chest, which was deposited under-ground in the Capitol, and two per- sons, called the guardians of the sacred books, were appointed in charge of them." A new collection of sibylline verses was made when the temple of Jupiter was burned down, B.C. 83. They were again burned and restored in the reign of Nero. A proposal was made in the senate to consult them, A.D. 270. The collection was burned in 363, and again in 395. A complete collection was published at Amsterdam in 1609. Some fragments, discovered in the Ubrary of Milan, were published in 1817, and some others by Struve in 1818. SiCAMBEi. — This German tribe having re- treated before Caesar, returned and gained some successes over the Romans on the left bank of the Rhine, B.C. 51. Driven across the Rhine, they again invaded GaUia Bel- giea, B.C. 16. Drusus compelled them to retire into their own country b. c. 10, Tiberius I. obtained considerable success against them B.C. 8. Marcus Vinicius, when holding command in Germany, was attacked 778 SIC by them a.d. 1, and they joined the Frank- ish confederation in 240. SiciLiiir Vespers. — The brother of the French king, Charles of Anjou, having seized Sicily by virtue of a grant from Pope Alexander IV., the natives rose against the French, March 30, 1282. The massacre which ensued commenced at Palermo, and is known in history as the Sicilian Vespers. SiciLT (Mediterranean Sea). — A tradition exists that this island was originally called Triuacria, in consequence of its triangular form, and that it was originally peopled by the Sicani, a people whom Thucydides re- gards as of Iberian extraction. It received the name Sicily from its ancient inhabitants, the Siculi, who crossed over from Italy about B.C. 1290. Naxos is foTirded by the Carians. The Corinthians found Syracuse {q. v.). Gela is founded by the Rhodians and Cretans. The syi-acusans found Camarina (q. v.). A colony from Gela founds Agrigentum (Sir John Bushey. 1398. ) 1399. Sir John Cheney. 1400. Sir Arnold Sivage. 1403. Sir Henry Bedeford. 1404. sir Arnold Savage. 1405. Sir William Esturmy. 1406. Sir John Tiptoft. 1408.) 1409. > Thomas Chaucer. 1412. 1413. 1414. 1415. 1416. 1417. 1419. 1421. 1422. 1423. 1425. 1426. 1428. 1430. 1431. 1432. 1433. 1436. 1440. 1445. 1447. 1449. 1450. 1455. 1459. 1460. 1463. 1467. 1472. 1482. 1483. /William Stourton. ( John Dorewood. Walter Huii gerford. ( Thomas Chaucer. < Bichard Redman. ( Sir Walter Beauchamp. V Roger Flower. Richard Baynard. Richard Flower. John Russell Sii- Thomas Waughton, or Wauton. Richard Vernon. John Tyrrell. William Allington. John Tyrrell. John RusseU. Roger Hunt. John Bowes. f Sir John Tyrrell. 1 William Boerley. William Tresham. William Boerley. William Tresham. John Saye. /John Popham. I, William Ti-esham. Sir William Oldhall. /Thomas Thorpe. X Sir Tiiomas Charlton. Sir John Wenlock. Sir William Tresham. / John Green, t Sir James Strangeways. [■John Saye. William Allington. John Wode. William Catesby. SPE 1483. Thomas Lovel. 1488. John Mordaimt. 1489. Sir Thomas Fitzwilliam. 1492. Kichard Empson. lAQfi / Si^ Keginald Bray. ^*^^- \ Robert Drury. 1497. Thomas Englefleld. 1.504. Edmund Dudley. 1509. Sir Thomas Englefield. 1.512. Sir Thomas Sheffield. 1.514. Sir Thomas Nevill. 1523. Sir Thomas More. 1530. Sir Thomas Audley. 1537. Richard Rich. 1540. Sir Nicholas Hare. 1.542. Thomas Moyle. 1.547. Sir John Baker. 1553. James Dyer. 15.54. Robert Brooke. 1555. Clement Higham. 1556. John Pollard. 1558. William Cordell. 1559. Sir Thomas Gargrave. -, -(..J / Thomas Williams, ■^^'''^•t Richard Onslow. 1571. Chi-istopher Wray. 1572. Robert Bell. 1577. John Popham. 1.585. John Puckeiing. 1589. Thomas Snagg. 1592. Edward Coke. 1597. Christopher Yelverton. 1601. JohnCroke. 1603. Edward Philipps. 1614. Randolph Crewe. 1620. Thomas Richardson. 1623. Thomas Crewe. 1626. Sir Henea^e Finch. 1628. Sir John Finch. 1640. John GlanvUle. 1641. William Lenthal. 1653. Francis Rous. 1654. William Lenthal. 1656. Sir Thomas Widcli-ingtou. ( Chaloner Chute, Sen. 1659. < Sii- Lisleborne Long. ( Thomas Bampfield. 1660. Six- Harbottle Grimstone, Bart. 1661. Sir- Edward Tumor, Bai-t. 1688. Jan. Henry Powle. 1689. March. Sir John Trevor. 1694. March. Paul Foley. 1698. Aug. Sir Thomas Lyttelton. 1700. Feb. Robert Harley. 1702. Aug. John Smith. 1708. July. Sir Richard Onslow. 1710. Nov. William Bromley. 1713. Nov. Sir Thomas Hanmer. 1715. March. Hon. Spencer Compton. 1727. Nov. Ai-thuT Onslow. 1761. May. Sir John Oust. 1770. Jan. 23. Sir Fletcher Norton. 1780. Nov. Charles Wolfran Cornwall. 1789. Jan. 5. Rt. Hon. William WyndhamGrenville. 1789. May 8. Heui-y Addlngton. 1801. Dec. 11. Sir John Mitford. 1802. Feb. 10. Charles Abbot. 1817. June. Charles Manners-Sutton. 1835. Feb. James Abercromby. 1839. May. Charles Shaw Lefevre. 1857. April 30. John Evelyn Denison. SPEAKiifG - Trumpet. — The great horn used by Alexander the Great (b.c. 336 to 323) to assemble his army is considered by some to be the oldest speaking-trumpet on record. A similar instrument was also known to the natives of Peru, in America, A.B. 1595. The invention of the modern speaking-trumpet is generally ascribed to Sir Samuel Morland in 1670, though Atha- nasius Kirchir, a Jesuit, in the preface to his " Phonurgia," published in 1673, claimed SPI it for himself, and asserted that he had described the trumpet invented in England in his " Musurgia," printed in 1650. Spectacles were first used about the end of the 13th century. Some authorities are of opinion that the first hint of their con- struction and use was taken, either from the writings of Alhagen, who lived in the 12th century, or of Eoger Bacon, who died about 1292. Others affirm that they were invented by Salvino Armati, a Florentine, who died in 1317, and that the invention ^ was rendered common by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, about 1285. ,; Jordan de Kivalto, in a sermon preached in | 1305, calls them an invention of twenty years before. Spectatoe was commenced March 1, 1711, and continued to Dec. 6, 1712. It was re- vived June 18, 1714, and terminated Dec. 20 in the same year, Addison and Steele were the principal contributors. Spectktjh. — The phenomenon of the pris- matic spectrum, although well known to philosophers, was first explained by Xewton about A.D. 1700; the colours into which he found the ray of hght divided by dispersion ; being red, orange, yeUow, green, blue, in- - digo, and violet. Similar phenomena are ' observable in the case of diffraction, the laws of which were investigated by Dr.> . Young in 1802, and by Fresnel in 1821. It has received an important practical apphca- • tion to chemical analysis, by which, amongst other discoveries, Professors Bunsen and Kirchoff showed, in 1860, that the solar at- mosphere contains the metals potassiiun and sodium. Spheres. — The celestial and terrestrial globes were invented by Anaximander, who was born b.c. 610 and died b.c. 546. The armiUary sphere is said to have been in- vented by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (born B.C. 276, died b.c. 194), and the planeta- rium was invented by Archimedes (born B.C. 287, died B.C. 212). Spielberg (Moravia). — This castle, for- merly the citadel of Briinn, has, since its fortifications were destroyed by the French, A.D. 1809, been converted into a prison for state prisoners. General Mack, who sur- rendered Ulm to the French Oct. 20, 1805, was imprisoned here. Spinning. — The ancient mode of spinning was by means of the spindle and distaft'. Areas, king of Arcadia, taught the art to hia subjects about b.c 1500 ; and representa- tions of it are found among the sculptures of the early Egyptian tombs. The spindle and distaiF were superseded in England by the spinning-wheel about the end of the reign of Henry VIII. The next improvement in the art was the invention of the spinning-jenny by James Hargraves in 1767. This was followed by the introduction of the spinning- frame by Arkwright, who obtained his first patent July 3, 1769. It was originally worked by horse-power, but this was found I too expensive for machinery on an extensive i scale } and the first water spinniiig-miU was SPI SPI erected in 1771 at Cromford, in Derbyshire, which is styled " the nursing-place of the factory, opulence, and power of Great Britain." The next great invention was the mule-jenny, which combined the drawing- roller of Arkwright with the jenny of Har- graves, made by Crompton in 1779 ; but it was not brought into general use before 1786, owing to its interference with the patent of Arkwright. Parliament rewarded the inventor with £5,000 ; and he made a survey of the cotton-manufactories in Eng- land in 1812, when he found between four and five millions of spindles at work on his system. Spikes (Bavaria), called Noviomagus by the Komans, was the seat of the superior court of appeal for the Germanic empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. The diet of the empire was also frequently held here. The most important of these was that of 1529, when a protest made by the Eeform- ers, April 19, against the proceedings of the emperor, procured them the name of Pro- testants. It was taken and almost destroyed by the French in 1689, previous to which the town had five suburbs inclosed within the ramparts, and thirteen gates and sixty-four towers protected with artillery. The ca- thedral, which withstood the attempts of the French, was founded by the emperor Conrad II. in 1030, and completed by Henry IV. in 1061. Spires was rebuilt about 1699, but it never regained its former prosperity. It was taken by the French Sept. 29, 1792, and again Jan. 19, 1794. SpiEiT-EAPPiifG-. — Voltaire notices a case of a sentence passed upon some monks of Orleans, Feb. 18, 1535, for having resorted to spirit-rapping for the purpose of extort- ing money. * An account of the extra- ordinary case was found in a manuscript of 1770, in the royal hbrary of the king of France. Sir Thomas Tresham, of Kushton Hall, near Kettering, Northamptonshire, left a letter written by himself about a.d. 1584), in which he states that on one of his commitments for recusancy, being in an old lodge near his mansion, " I usually having my servants here allowed me to read nightly an hour to me after supper, it fortuned that Fulcis, my then servant, reading in the Christian Resolution, in the treatise of "Proof that there is a God, ^c, there was upon a wainscot table at that instant three loud knocks (as if it had been vrith an iron hammer) given, to the great amazing of me and my two servants, Fulchis and Nilkton ; " and De Foe, referring to a story of spirit- rapping in Eichard Baxter's " Certainty of the Worlds of Spirits, &c.," published in 1691, remarks : " What in nature can be more trivial than for a spirit to employ himself in knocking on a morning at the wainscot by the bed's head of a man who got di'unk over-night, according to the way that such things are ordinarily explained ? And yet I shall give you such a relation as this, that not even the most devout and . precise Presbyterian will offer to call in I 803 question." The modern spirit-rapping ori- ginated in America, in the family of John D Fox, in March, 1848. Spirits. — Distilled spirits were first used in Europe about a.d. 1150. {See Distil- lation.) In consequence of the excessive quantities of ardent spirits drunk by the Eng- lish working classes in the reigns of George I. and George II., a duty of 20s. a gallon was imposed on all spirits by 9 Geo. II. c. 23 (1736) ; but as this restriction merely in- creased the illicit sale of contraband Mquors, the duty was repealed by 16 Geo. II. c. 8 (1743). The chief acts relating to the duties on spirits were 4 Geo. IV. c. 94 (July 18, 1823), regulating the duties in Ireland and Scotland, and 6 Geo. IV. c. 80 (June 27, 1825), which referred to England. The dis- tillation of spirits from mangold wurzel was permitted by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 74 (Aug. 1, 1832) ; and the scale of duties was again al- tered by 5 Vict. sess. 2, c. 25 (May 31, 1842). Spirits of wine were allowed to be used in the arts and manufactures free of duty by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 38 (June 26, 1855). A uni- form duty of 8s. per gallon for the United Kingdom was imposed by 21 Vict. c. 15 (May 11, 1858), and the excise regulations relating to the distiUing, rectifying, and dealing in spirits, were amended and consolidated into one act by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 114 (Aug. 28, 1860). Spieititalists, called also the Zealous, or the Spirituals, formed a portion of the great order of Franciscans, who, about 1245, under the name of Spiritualists, advocated the strict observance of the rule and vow of po- verty, which had been one of their funda- mental laws. In 1282 they had become an influential body, and were, after the year 1294, subjected to great persecution. Spitaleields (London) . — In 1235 Walter Brune founded the priory of St. Mary Spit- tle, which was dissolved by Henry VIII. in 1534. At the north-east corner of Spital Square formerly stood a pulpit for open air preaching. Here the celebrated Spital ser- mons on Easter Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, were dehvered. On the revo- cation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. in 1685, numbers of the Huguenots driven from France settled in Spitalfields, and com- menced the manufacture of silk. Eiots against the introduction of foreign silks took place in Spitalfields Oct. 14, 1767, and Oct. 7, 1769. Spithead (Hampshire) .—This famous roadstead is named from the Spit, a sand- bank about three miles long, between Ports- mouth and the Isle of Wight. A grand naval review took place here in presence of Queen Victoria, Aug. 11, 1853. Sir Charles Napier arrived at Spithead, on his return from the Baltic, Dec. 17, 1854 ; and another grand naval review took place here before the queen, April 23, 1856. Spitzbeeg-en (Arctic Ocean). — This group of islands, observed by Sir Hugh WUloughby a.d. 1553, was discovered by Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in 1596. The 3 s 2 SPO Dutch commenced whale-fishing in 1613. The king of Denmark sent a squadron to assert his exclusive right to the island of this name, the chief of the group, in 1618, but afterwards gave up the point. The South- Sea Company embarked largely in whale-fishing here in 1724. Spoleto (Italy). — The ancient Spoletium was colonized by the Romans B.C. 240. Hannibal was repulsed from its gates B.C. 217, and it was distinguished for its fidehty to Eome b.c. 209. A battle was fought be- neath its walls between Pompey and Crassus, in which the latter was defeated, B.C. 82. About A.D. 570 it became the seat of a duchy which lasted till the 12th century. Spontaneous Combustion. — Numerous instances of what is called spontaneous com- bustion have been recorded, though pro- fessor Liebig contends that it is absolutely impossible. Dr. Lindsley has compiled a table from the " Dictionnaire de Medecine," containing nineteen cases, the first of which is said to have occurred at Copenhagen in 1692. Spokts. (See Book of Sports.) Speingeield (North America). — This town of Massachusetts was incorporated A.B. 1645. Spues with rowels are said to have been invented in the reign of Henry III. (a.d. 1216 — 1272). They were worn on foot as well as on horseback, anij in the last par- liament of Ehzabeth, in 1601, the speaker ordered members of the House of Commons not to come with spurs. Spues (Battle). (5'ee Guinegate.) Stab AT Matee Doloeosa. — This cele- brated Latin hymn, performed in the Romish churches during Holy Week, was written by a monk named Jacopone in the 14th century. The Bianchi (q.v.), or White Penitents, sang it as they passed through Italy in 1399. Stade Tolls. — These dues, levied by the Hanoverian government on vessels and goods passing up the Elbe, take their name from the httle town of Stade, situated on the Schwinge, near its junction with the Elbe ; and they were first levied by the archbishops of Bremen, according to a grant made to them by the emperor Conrad II., a.d. 1038. By the treaty of Westphalia, signed at Osnaburg Oct. 24, 1648, the toll was ceded to Sweden. In 1712 it passed, with the duchy of Bremen, into the possession of Denmark ; and subsequently it was ceded to Hanover, by a treaty with Deimiark, in 1717, and a further treaty -with Sweden in 1719. George II., as elector of Hanover, issued a proclamation permitting British vessels to proceed directly to Hamburg, without detention at Stade, Dec. 1, 1736 ; and the dues were revised and amended, according to a convention signed between Hanover and other states bordering on the Elbe, April 13, 1844. The British govern- ment proposed the abohtion of the toU, June 2, 1860, on terms approved by the Hanoverian administration, Hanover receiv- ing £3,000,000 as compensation. The Stade 604, STA dues are frequently styled the Brunshausen tolls, from the village where the duties are collected. Staff College (Sandhurst). — The first stone of this college was laid by the duke of Cambridge, Dec. 14, 1859. The object of the institution is to enable military officers who have served a probationary course of regimental duties to qualify themselves for promotion to staff appointments. Staffoed (Staffordshire), the ancient Stadford or Stadeford, to which St. BertMn, son of a Mercian king, retired a.d. 705, when several houses were built, which formed the nucleus of the present town. Ethelflelda, countess of Mercia, erected a castle in 913. A priory of Black Canons was founded in 1181. King John granted the town its first charter in 1207, and it has exercised the elective franchise since 1295. The grammar- school was rebuilt and endowed by Ed- ward VI. in 1550. Noel's Almshouses were founded in 1640. An indecisive battle was fought between the royahst and parhament- ary troops at Hopton Heath, near this town, March 19, 1643. The County Infirmary was instituted in 1766, and the present building erected in 1772. The County Lunatic Asylum was estabhshed in 1818. Stage Caeeiages, or Coaches, were introduced into England in the 17th centui-y, and the earhest pubhc document in which they are mentioned, is dated April 26, 1658. In 1678 a six-horse stage-coach was estabhshed between Edinburgh and Glasgow, and a through communication between London and Edinburgh was established before 1754. Mail-coaches {q. v.) were introduced in 1784, and omnibusses (q.v.), which are included under the legal term of stage-carriages, in 1829. The duty on stage-carriages was first imposed by 5 & 6 WiU. & Mary, c. 22 (1694). The number of passengers to be carried in such vehicles, and the measures ■ to be taken to insure their safety, were regu- lated by 50 Geo. IIL c. 48 (June 9, 1810). The old duties were repealed, and new ones imposed, by 55 Geo. III. c. 185 (July 11, 1815), and the laws relating to the subject were consolidated by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 120 (Aug. 16, 1832), which was amended by 3 &4 Will. IV. c. 48 (Aug. 23, 1833) . They were again amended by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 5, 1842). Stalimene (^gean Sea), the ancient Lemnos (q. v.), was taken from the Eastern empire by the Venetian repubhc, and erected into a grand-duchy in favour of Philocole Navagier, a.d. 1207. In 1478 it was ceded to the Tui'ks, from whom it was retaken by the Venetians in 1656. In 1657 it was again taken by the Turks, who still retain posses- sion. Stamfoed (Lincolnshire). — The Picts and Scots were defeated here by the Britons and Saxons, a.d. 449. Edward the Elder took it in 922 from the Danes, who afterwards re- gained possession. Edmund I. recovered it in 942. The Danes again obtained possession soon after, and held it tiU 1041. The monas- STA STA to be made of standard metal. The standard was regulated by 12 Geo. II. c. 26 (1739), and was reduced, as far as gold wares are concerned, by 38 Geo. III. c. 69 (June 21, 1798), and by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 10, 1854). Wedding-rings are exempted from restrictions as to standard by 18 & 19 Vict, c. 60 (July 23, 1855). Standards were first used by the Egyp- tians, who carried some animal at the end of a spear. The earlier Greeks set up a piece of armour as a rallying signal. In later times each state assumed some distinctive badge. The earliest standard employed by the Eomans was a bundle of hay fixed to a pole ; but in after-years effigies of the gods and emperors, and of animals and birds, es- pecially of the eagle, were adopted. The bar- barians generally used the figure of a dragon, and this also was employed by the Eoman legions during the Empire, and was for many years the chief ensign of the Western em- pire, and of the English and Norman sove- reigns. {See Banner, Eagle, Flags, &c.) Stanfobd Bridge (Battle). — Tostig, with an army of Enghsh and Flemish, and his ally Harold Hardrada, with an army of Norwegians, were defeated at this place, on the river Derwent, in Yorkshire, by Harold II., king of England, Sept. 25, 1066. Tostig and Harold Hardrada were killed in the en- counter. Stangebbo (Battle). — The duke Charles, uncle of Sigismund III., king of Poland and Sweden, to whom the administration of af- fairs in the latter country had been intrusted, usurped sovereign power, and defeated the king in an engagement at this place, in Swe- den, A.D. 1598. Stanhope, or German Administration, under the direction of James, created Earl Stanhope April 7, 1718, and the earl of Sun- derland, was formed April 15, 1717. In the earlier part of its existence, Earl Stanhope was first lord of the Treasury and chancellor of the Exchequer, but he subsequently re- signed the leadership to the earl of Sunder- land. The ministry was thus constituted : — First Lord of the Treasury 1 and Chancellor of the >Mr. Stanhope. Exchequer ) T„,./i r-i,„«„on«^ /Lord, afterwards Earl Lord Chancellor | Cowper. Privy Seal Duke of Kingston. Pi'incipal Secretaries of f Earl of Sunderland and State I Joseph Addison. Secretaiy at War Mr. Craggs. Admiralty Earl of Berkeley. Addison resigned on account of ill health, March 18, 1718, and the earl of Sunderland became first lord of the Treasury and presi- dent of the council March 20. (-See Sun- derland Administration.) Stanmore (Middlesex). — The manor of Stanmore became the property of the abbey of St. Albans a.d. 1221. Archbishop Boyle was rector of Stanmore from 1610 to 1618. The church, restored in 1630, was conse- crated by Archliishop Laud Jiily 16, 1632. Stannary Courts.— These courts were tery of Grey Friars was founded in 1206; St. ! Michael's church in 1230 ; the monastery of Black Friars in 1241 ; St. George's church was rebuilt in 1450, upon the site of a much older edifice; St. John's was founded in 1450; All Saints about 1465 ; and Brown's Hospital in 1485. Eadcliffe's School was estabhshed by the bequest of W. Kadcliflfe, who died in 1530; the grammar-school was founded in 1548, and in 1572 Lord Burleigh settled a number of Flemish Protestant refugees, who introduced the art of silk and serge weaving. The town- hall was rebuilt in 1776, and the girls' national schools were founded in 1815. Stamp Act. — The celebrated " Act for granting and applying certain Stamp Duties, and other Duties in the British Colonies and Plantations in America, &c.," 5 Geo. III. c. 12 (March 22, 1765), passed both houses of parliament with scarcely any discussion. It took eifect from Nov. 1, 1765, and was re- pealed by 6 Geo. III. c.ll (March 18, 1766). {See American Stamp Act.) Stamp Duties.— By 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 9 (1670), certain duties were imposed on deeds enrolled, crown grants, and law pro- ceedings, but they were not denoted by stamps. Stamp duties, properly so called, were introduced into this country from Hol- land, and were first imposed by 5 Will. & Mary, c. 21 (1694). By 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6 (1694), they were granted on marriages, births, and burials, and by 8 Anne, c. 9 (1709), on premiums with apprentices. Newspapers were first taxed by 10 Anne, c. 19 (1711). Stamp duties were introduced into Ireland in 1774. Bills of exchange and notes were subjected to the stamp laws by 22 Geo. III. c. 33 (1782), and patent medicines bv 23 Geo. III. c. 62 (1783). AH the stamp duties were repealed by 44 Geo. III. c. 98 (July 28, 1804), which was amended by 48 Geo. III. c. 149 (July 4, 1808). Both these statutes were repealed by the general stamp act, 55 Geo. III. c. 184 (July 11, 1815). By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 55 (July 2, 1827), the stamp offices of Great Britain and Ireland were consolidated, and by 4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 60 (Aug. 13, 1834), the boards of stamps and taxes were united. The stamp laws were amended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 14, 1850) ; 16 & 17 Viet. c. 59 (Aug 4, 1853) ; 16 & 17 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853) ; 17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 9, 1854) ; and by 23 & 24 Vict. c. Ill (Aug. 28, 1860). Standard (Battle).— The battle of Cuton Moor, or Northallerton {q.v.), is so called because the Enghsh barons rallied round a sacred standard, consisting of a ship's mast fixed in a four-wheeled vehicle, and bearing the barmers of St. Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Ripon, sur- mounted by a pyx containing the consecrated host. Standard fob Gold and Silver.— The appointment of a fixed standard of fineness for the precious metals is very ancient, as the method of testing known as the Trial of the Pix, is mentioned as early as 1282 ; and by 25 Edw. III. c. 13 (1350), aU coin is ordered STA instituted at a very remote period for the ! convenience of the Cornish tin -miners. They I are mentioned in charters of the reign of John, and their privileges were confirmed by Edward III. a.d. 1359. Their jurisdiction was regulated by 16 Charles I. c. 15 (1641), ! and the courts themselves were remodelled by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 106 (Aug. 20, 1836). ! The Stannary laws were amended by 2 & 3 | Viet. c. 58 (Aug. 17, 1839), and by 18 & 19 1 Viet. c. 32 (June 15, 1855). Staples Inw (London). — This inn of; chancery was formerly a frequent resort of wool-merchants, in consequence of which j it was called Staple HaU. Dugdale states that it became an inn of chancery in or before the reign of Henry V. (1413—14=22) ; but it did not become the property of a law society until the time of Henry VIII. (1509 i —1547). Staech. — A patent was obtained, a.d. ' 1796, by Lord Wilham Murray, for making ! starch from horse-chestnuts, and Wickham j obtained a patent in 1824 for making it from rice. O. Jones, in 1840, produced starch from rice by a new process, and in 1841 Berger took out a patent for making rice starch by the action of an alkahne salt. James Colman obtained a patent in Decem- ber, 1841, for making starch from Indian j corn. I Stae Chasibee. — The etymology of the '■ name of this celebrated court is very un- j certain. Some contend that the chamber ' where it held its sitting received its name from the starry decorations of its roof, and others that Star Chamber is a corruption of " Starrs " Chamber ; and that the room was so called because it was used as a repository for contracts made with Jews — " Starrs" i being the old name for such contracts. HaUam considers that this court originated ! in the Consilium Ordinarium, which had been the subject of numerous statutes from the time of Edward III. ; but the usual opinion is that it was erected by 3 Hen. VII. | c. 1 (14S6). Its constitution and authority were defined more particularly by 21 Hen. 1 VIII. c. 20 (1529), by which the president of } the council was made one of its judges, and I it was finally abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 10 (1640). An attempt to restore the jurisdic- [ tion of the court of Star Chamber was made without success in 1662. j Stae op India (Order). — This order of! knighthood was instituted by Queen Vic- toria by letters patent dated Feb. 23, 1861. ! It consists of twenty knights, exclusive of the sovereign. The first and principal knight and grand master of the order, is the viceroy and governor- general of India for the time being. States- Islakd (United States), about eleven miles S.W. of New York, was occu- pied by the British army imder General Howe, July 9, 1776. State-Papee Office. — This office was established a.d. 1578, and is the depository of the official correspondence of the coxmtry from the reign of Henry VIII. An attempt STA to improve the catalogues was made in 1764 and in 1800 the office was placed under an improved system of management. Thepub- hcation of the calendar of State Papers was commenced in 1857. States-Geneeal of Feastce. (See Pab- LiAMENT (French) and National Assem- BLT.) States op the Chuech. {See Papal States.) Stationees. — The company of stationers or text-writers were formed into a guild a.d. 1403, and received their first charter May 4, 1557. It was confirmed by Ehzabeth in 1558, The entries of copies commenced in 1558, and the delivery of books in 1662. The first haU, in Milk Street, was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was rebuilt in 1670. Statistical Society. — The government, A.D. 1793, established a Board of AgricultiTre in England, which collected and published many statistics referring to the state of agriculture. Nothing of a practical cha- racter, however, was accomplished until 1832, when Lord Auckland and Mr. Poulett Thompson, who then presided over the Board of Trade, established a statistical office in that department. The Statistical Society of London was established March 15, 1834. Statistic s. — HaUam (Literature of Europe, pt. iv. sec. 109) states that "the Itahans were the first who laid anything like a foundation for statistics or political arith- metic." They were succeeded by the Eng- lish, whose earliest work on the subject is Graunt's "Observations on the Bills of Mortality," pubhshed in 1661. The earhest attempt to comprehend aU the details of sta- tistical science within the limits of one work was made in the " Statistical Accoimt of Scot- land," which was published by Sir John Sin- clair in 1791. In 1832 Lord Auckland and Mr. Poulett Thompson estabUshed a statis- tical office in connection with the Board of Trade ; and in 1833 a similar department was instituted by the British Association. The Statistical Society of London was founded March 15, 1834, and commenced the pubhcation of its journal in May, 1838. A central statistical commission was estab- lished in Belgium by a royal decree, in October, 1841 ; and international statistical congresses have been since held under its auspices. The first of these congresses as- sembled at Brussels, Sept. 19, 1853 ; the second at Paris, in September, 1855; the third at Vienna, in September, 1857 ; and the fourth at London, July 16, 1860. Statues. — Phidias, the greatest sculptor who ever hved, was bom at Athens about B.C. 500. The first statue executed by an Englishman was that of Thomas Sutton by Nicholas Stone, in 1615. The first eques- trian statue erected in England was that of Charles I. by Le Seur, in 1678. Public statues within the metropohtan police dis- trict were placed under the control of the commissioners of public works and buUdinga by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 33 (July 10, 1854). STA Statutes. — The statutes of the English parliament were first ordered to be printed A.D. 1483. By 13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 (June 10, 1850), provisions were made for shortening the language used in parliamentary statutes. A list of all the statutes referred to in this work is given in the Index. — {See Acts of Paeliamestt.) Steam-Caeeiag-e. — The earliest example of a carriage propelled by steam was one invented by Theophilus Cugnot, a.d. 1763, which proved a failure. In 1784 James Watt suggested a plan for a steam-carriage, but it was not carried into eflt'ect. In 1786 William Symington, in Scotland, and Oliver Evans, in North America, both la- boured to introduce steam-propelled vehi- cles on common roads, and in 1802 Messrs. Trevithick and Vivian patented an engine which was partially successful. Julius Grif- fith's carriage was patented in 1821, the experiments of David Gordon commenced in 1822, and Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's patent was taken out May 14, 1825. In con- sequence of the conflicting claims of differ- ent inventors, a committee of the House of Commons was nominated, which presented a report, Oct. 12, 1831, favourable to the introduction of steam-carriages on common roads. In 1860 a carriage, invented by the earl of Caithness, attained very satisfactory results. (See Eaileoads.) Steam, Steam-engiu-e, &c. — Hero of Alexandria, writing about B.C. 120, describes some apparatus in which motion was pro- duced by the force of steam. The ItaUan architect Branca imparted a rotatory mo- tion to a series of wheels by means of the forcible emission of steam from an orifice in a boiler, a.d. 1629. The first work in which steam is scientifically treated, was pubhshed at Basel by John Ziegler, in 1769. Dr. Eo- bison's experiments on the temperature and elasticity of steam were made in 1778, and Dr. Dalton pubhshed a valuable series of discoveries in 1793. The following table ex- hibits a chronological view of the leading inventions connected with the steam-en- gine :— 1663. The marquis of Worcester constructs a rude steam-eDgine, which he describes in the " Century of Inventions." 1680. Dr. Denys Papin invents the safety-valve. 1690. He invents the cylinder and piston. 1695. He suggests an atmospheric steam-engine. 1698. July. Captain Thomas Savery patents an invention for raising water by steam power. 1705. Invention of Thomas Newcomen's engine. 1717. Henry Beighton perfects self-actiug valve- gear. 1720. Leupold produces the first idea of a high- pressure engine. 1759. James Watt directs his attention to the subject of the steam-engine. 1765. James Watt invents the condenser. 1769. Jan. 5. James Watt takes out his first patent. 1770. Smeaton improves the atmospheric engine. 1774. Watt and Boulton commence their partner- ship. 1775. Watt's patent is extended for twenty-five years. STE 1781. Mr. Steed patents the crank motion, and Hornblower invents the double-cylinder engine. 1784. Watt invents the parallel motion. 1785. He invents the governor and throttle-valve. The oscillating cylinder is invented by Willianx Murdock. 1797. Dr. Edmund Cartwright patents the metallic piston. 1799. Matthew Murray proposes the slide-valve. 1802. Trevithick and Vivian Invent the high-pres- sure engine. 1804. Arthur ^W oolf perfects the double-cylinder engine. 1830. The Messrs. Dakeyne patent the first disc engine. 1845. George Daniel Bishopp patents his disc en- gine. STEAM-Guif. — ^A gxin of large size, steam being used instead of gunpowder, was in- vented by Mr. Jacob Perkins, May 15, 1824, but it proved of little use. Steam-Hammee was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth, of Manchester, and pa- tented by him June 9, 1842. Steam Navigation. — The following are the most important dates connected with this important subject : — 1543. Blasco de Gavay propels a boat at Barcelona by means of a "large kettle of boiling water." 1736. Dec. 21. Jonathan Hulls patents a machine for carrying ships out of harbour against wind or tide, or in a calm, by means of steam. 1752. Daniel Bernouilli invents a screw propeller, to be worked by steam. 1770. James Watt proposes the screw propeller. 1774. The count d'Aniiron constructs a steamer, which fails, on the Seine. 1775. Mr. Ellicot proposes steam navigation in the United States. 1778. The ijotorious Thomas Paine suggests steam as a means of propelling vessels. 1782. A steamboat is built by the Marquis Jouffroy, and is tried on the Sa6ue without success. 1783. Mr. Fitch moves a vessel by steam power on the Delaware, North America. 1785. Mr. William Murdock invents the oscillating cylinder. 1789. Dec. 26. Mr. William Symington constructs a steamer, which attains a speed of seven miles an hour, on the Forth of Clyde canal. 1801. Symington constructs the Charlotte Dundas, " the first practical steamboat." 1807. Oct. 3. Mr. Robert Fulton establishes the Clermont, as a regular steam - packet between New York and Albany. The engines were furnished by Watt & Boulton. 1812. Jan. 18. Mr. Heni-y Bell institutes the steam-navigation of the Clyde, by starting the Comet between Glasgow and Gree- nock. 1815. Jan. 23. The Margery plies between London and Gravesend, and is the first Thames steamer. Steam-packets are established between Glasgow and London. 1817. Oct. 14. Mr. James Watt, Juu., crosses the Channel in the Caledonia, and .ascends the Rhine, thus making the first steam voyage on the sea. 1819. The Savannah steamer crosses from America to Liverpool. 1822. The Comet steamer is built for the Eoyal Navy. 1829. The Cura^oa makes two voyages between Holland and the West Indies. 807 STE 1836. The Fcrew propeller is patented by F. P. Smith. 1838. April 4. The Sirius steam packet sails from London to New York, and completes the Toyage in seventeen days. April 7. The Great Western packet leaves Bristol for New York, and makes the passage in fifteen days. 1840. Smith constructs the Archimedes screw steamer. 1843. The Messrs. Rnthven, of Edinburgh, introduce the water-jet system of steam pvopuUing. July 19. Launch of the Great Britain. 1845. Screw steamers are adopted in the navy. 1851. Aug. 7. Passing of the Steam Navigation Act. 1854. May 1. The buUiling of the Great Eastern is commenced at Mill wall. 1857. Nov. 3. The launch of the Great Eastern commences. It is completed Jan 31, 1858. 1859. Sept. 14. A terrific explosion occurs on the Great Eastern, and ten men are killed. The English government orders an immei)se steam valve of 1,250 horse-power to be built. 1860. June. Captain CoviTper Phipps Coles proposes his shot-proof gun shields for iron steamei-s. Dec. 29. Launch of the British iron-cased screw steamer Warrior. Steaeine, a solid transparent substance, was first made knovFn by Chevreul a.d. 1823. Stedingees, so called from a district in the ducby of Oldenburg where these heretics were most numerous. They flourished in the early part of the 12th century, and were nearly exterminated in 1234 by an army of 40,000 crusaders. They refused to pay tithes, and were charged vrith holding vari- ous absurd notions by their papal perse- cutors. They were also called HaUean heretics, from a town of that name in Swabia. Steel. — One kind, called stomoma by the Greeks, and another chalybs, manufactured by the Chalybes, was in use in the time of Homer, B.C. 962. Diodorus describes a process followed by the Celtiberians, in Spain, for oxydizing the iron to make steel, which was afterwards forged into weapons, B.C. 43. Japan has long been famed for the quahty of this metal used in the manufacture of sabres. The method of hardening by immersion in water was practised in the 11th or 12th century. Oils and other fluids were used for the same pur- pose, the archduke Cosmo, of Tuscany, enjoying the credit of having discovered a valuable one a.d. 1555. The art of con- verting bar-iron into steel, by dipping into other fused iron, is described by Eeaumur, about 1730, although it was known much earlier. A costly description of the metal was the ferriim Indicum, a hundred talents of which were presented to Alexander in India, B.C. 327. Some pieces, under the name of wootz, were sent from that country to the Eoyal Society in 1795. Damasked steel, a famous quality, was early obtained from the Levant. Cast steel was first made by Huntsman, at Atterclifi^, Sheffield, in 1770. Faraday and Stodart pubUshed a se- ries of experiments, showing how the quality might be improved by alloy with silver and STE other metals, in 1822. Heath, who spent a fortune on his experiments, devised a mode of combining carbon with manganese to pro- duce a carburet, by which good steel was made from English iron, in 1839. Besse- mer' s process for converting pig-iron into malleable iron, and that again into steel, without any additional consumption of fuel, for which he has taken out several patents, was announced at the meeting of the British Association in 1856. Steel Pens were first brought into use about 1803. They have since undergone various improvements, and are the subject of numerous patents. Steelyard was known to the Eomans under the name of statera, and frequently made of brass, as described by Vitruvius, B.C. 27. From the manner in which it is spoken of in a tract of the time, it seems to have been little known in England in 1578. Martins' " Index Weighing-Machine " and many other modifications have been devised ; and'M. Hanin, a Frenchman, received a prize from the Society of Arts for one in 1790. Steeltabd, or Stilltaed. — The Ger- mans of the Steelyard were located in Lon- don A.D. 979, but the company was erected, according to some authors, in 1215, according to others, by Henry III. in 1232. Their privi- leges were extended in 1260, and Edward I. granted them a charter in 1280. It was con- firmed by Henry V. in 1413, and renewed by Edward IV. in 1466. Their privileges were revoked by Edward VI. in 1552, restored by Mary in 1554, and finally abrogated by Eli- zabeth in 1578. Their house was shut up in 1597, and its German inhabitants sent away. Steenkiek, or Steinkiek (Battle). — At this village, in France, Wifliam III. of Eng- land was defeated by the French, under Marshal Luxemburg, Aug. 3, 1692. Stenogeapht. {See Shoethand.) Stephen, third son of Stephen, count of Blois, and Adela, daughter of Wniiam I., was born about a.d. 1096, and was crowned king of England, Thursday, Dec. 26, 1135. Stephen married Matilda, daughter of the count of Boulogne, by whom he had three sons and two daughters. He waged a long war against the empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I., she having claimed the crown. She was recognized as " Lady of England," at a council held at Winchester, April 7, 1141. This was brought to a close by the treaty of Winchester, signed Nov. 7, 1153, which provided for the succession to the throne of her son Henry, on the death of Stephen, which occurred Oct. 25, 1154. Stephen's Chapel (London), built by King Stephen about a.d. 1135, and rebuilt by Edward III. in 1347, became the seat of the English parhament in September, 1552. It was totally destroyed by fire Oct. 16, 1834. Steeeometee, an instrument for deter- mining the specific gravity of liquid and other bodies, was invented by Say, a French officer of engineers, a.d. 1797. STE Steeeoscop e. — Professor Wheatstone read a treatise before the Eoyal Society, on the phenomena of binocular vision, and illustrated his theories with what he called the " reflecting stereoscope," a.d. 1838. Sir David Brewster communicated to the same society his lenticular, or re- fracting stereoscope, in 1843. M. Duboscq, of Paris, manufactured a very fine one, which, with a set of daguerreotypes, was presented to Queen Victoria in 1851. The principle on which the instrument depends was known to Euclid, b.c. 300, and de- scribed by Galen a.d. 174. Steeeottpe is said to have been invented in Holland, bibles having been printed at Leyden from stereotype plates a.d. 1711. The art was, however, brought to perfection in England. Books were printed from stereo- type plates by Ged of Edinburgh, in 1725 ; and plates for bibles and prayer-books were cast at Cambridge in 1729. Earl Stanhope introduced it into London in 1803. Apple- gath obtained a patent in 1818 for improve- ments in stereotype plates. Stethoscope, a wooden cylinder used by medical men to ascertain the condition of the lungs, was invented by M. Laennec of Paris, A.D. 1823. Stettin (Prussia) owes its origin to a Wendish castle, and a large village existed here as early as a.d. 830. A Wendish temple erected here was destroyed and rebuilt several times during the struggle between Christian- ity and Paganism, and was finally destroyed on the triumph of the former in the 13th cen- tury. A treaty of peace was concluded at Stettin, in 1570, between IS'orway and Sweden, the principal articles being that John III., king of Sweden, should restore his Norwegian conquests, and that Frederick II., king of Norway, should also restore his conquests, receiving, however, Elfsburg and a large sum of money. The ancient castle was the residence of the dukes of Pomerania from 1575 to 1637, when the line became extinct. Stettin, with the rest of Pomerania, was con- quered by Kussia in 1713, and, after under- going various changes, was finally ceded to Prussia in 1814. Sticklastadt (Battle).— Olaf II., king of Norway, having been driven from his throne by Canute the Great, was defeated and slain in this battle, fought for the recovery of his kingdom, July 29, 1030. Stielikg (Scotland) . — The earliest charter given by Alexander I. is dated a.d. 1119. The castle, of the early history of which nothing is known, was, in the 12th and 13th centuries, one of the strongest fortresses in Scotland. It was besieged by Robert Bruce in 1313. James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas here in 1452. The church, formerly a Franciscan monastery, was founded by James IV. in 1494. James VI. was crowned at Stirling July 24, 1567. The earl of Len- nox was murdered in the castle Sept. 4, 1571. Gowan's hospital was erected in 1639. The remnant of the Scottish army having re- treated to Stirling after the battle of Dunbar, STO Sept. 3, 1650, surrendered to General Monk Aug. 14, 1651. Stiebups were not used before the 6th century. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease of the feet and ancles from suspen- sion without a resting-place when riding. Stockholm (Sweden) was founded by Birger Jarl about a.d. 1260. Christian I., king of Denmark, was crowned here in 1457, and John II., king of Denmark and Norway, was crowned king of Sweden, at Stockholm, in 1497. It was strongly fortified and defended by Queen Christina of Denmark, against the Swedish insurgents, from Oct. 7, 1501, to March27, 1502 ; and a still more heroic defence was that made by Christina Gyllenslierna in 1520, against Christian II. of Denmark. Stockholm replaced Upsala as the capital of Sweden in the 17th century. The palace, commenced in 1697, was finished in 1753. The royal library in the palace was destroyed by fire in 1697. A granite obelisk was erected by Gustavus IV. in 1793, to commemorate the zeal and fidelity of the citizens in the war against Eussia from 1788 to 1790. A revolu- tion took place at Stockholm March 13, 1809, when Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, was de- posed. — A treaty of peace with Eussia was signed here March 3, 1813, by which Sweden bound herself to employ a body of 30,000 men to act with the Eussian's against the French in North Germany. A treaty between England, France, and Sweden, was concluded here Nov. 21, 1855. Stockings were unknown to the Romans tin after the time of Hadrian, a.d. 138. They were used by the Anglo-Saxons in the 8th century, and made of cloth in the 12th century. The ladies of the time of Edward II. wore them of precisely the modern form. Henry VIII. wore silk stockings. A Spanish pair, which included breeches, stockings, and shoes, was presented to Edward VI. A pair of knitted silk stockings made in Eng- land was presented in 1601 to Queen Elizabeth, who afterwards refused to wear any other sort. A London apprentice made the first worsted knitted stockings in England, taking the hint from a pair that were brought from Mantua in 1564. In France young men of fashion wore them of different patterns upon each leg in the 16th century. A com- pany of stocking-knitters was formed at Paris in 1527. Stock-jobbing Act. — By 7 Geo. II. e. 8 (March 28, 1734), provisions were made for the prevention of stock -jobbing, and by 10 Geo. II. c. 8 (1737), these provisions were rendered perpetual. Stockpoet (Cheshire). — The castle was held A.D. 1173 by Geoffrey de Costentyn against Henry II. The free school was founded in 1487. Stockport was taken by Prince Eupert in 1644, and retaken by the Parliament army, under Leshe, in 1645. It was occupied on two occasions in 1745 by Prince Charles-Edward, the Pretender. Stocks. — It was enacted by 7 Hen. IV. c. 17 (1405), that every viUage and town should have a pair of stocks ; and by 4 James I. STO c. 5 (1606) , that every person convicted of drunkenness should be fined five shillings, or spend six hours in the stocks. This last act was confirmed by 21 James I. c. 7 (1623). Stocktoi]" (Durham). — This town is sup- posed to have received its first charter from King John, a.d. 1201. In 1310 Bishop An- thony Beke granted a weekly market to Stockton ; and in 1322 the town was btimed and plundered by the Scotch. They held the castle in 164ri. The parhament ordered it to be dismantled in 1647, and it was entirely destroyed in 1652. The church, coromenced June 5, 1710, upon the site of an old chapel dating as far back as 1234, was finished and consecrated Aug. 21, 1712. The bridge over the Tees, commenced Aug. 23, 1764, was finished in April, 1771. The Stockton and Darlington Eailway was opened for traffic in Septembei-, 1825. Stoics. — The disciples of Zeno, a Greek philosopher, were called Stoics, because he taught in the 'S.Toa, or porch. Zeno was bom at Citium, a small town in the island of Cyprus, about b.c. 357, taught at Athens B.C. 299, and died about b.c. 263. STOKE-rpoN-TEENT (Staflfordshire) .—The old church of St. Peter is mentioned as early as A.D. 1291. Lambert Simnel was defeated and made prisoner in a battle fought near this town, June 16, 14S7. The completion of the Grand Junction canal to Stoke in 1777 gave a great increase to the trade. The first newspaper published in this town appeared Jan. 1, 1809. St. Peter's church was pulled down and a new one erected in 1829. Stolbova (Russia), celebrated for the peace between Eussia and Sweden, signed here Jan. 26, 1617. It was purchased by Russia on the following terms ; viz., the surrender to Sweden of Ingria, Careha, the whole country between Ingria and Xovgo- rod, the renunciation of Livonia and Estho- nia, and a large sum of money. It was re- newed by the treaty of Cardis {q.v.). Stoxe. — The Egyptians chiefly used granite in their buildings, the Assyrians alabaster, and the Greeks and Eomans marble. The ancient Britons used stone in their remarkable Druidical circles {see STOifEHEif&E), and stone circular towers of a very early date exist in Scotland and Ire- land. During the Eoman occupation of this island, numerous stone edifices were erected, and in a.d. 296 the British builders are mentioned as the most skilful masons known. After the departure of the Eomans, how- ever, the art of building in stone declined, and was not restored until the year 674, when it was revived by Wilfred, bishop of York, and Benedict Biscop. The first stone church in Scotland was erected in 710. A commission to inquire into the kinds of stone most suitable for building purposes was appointed in 1839, in order to insure a sound material for the new house of par- liament, but the result has not proved satis- factory. Frederick Eansome patented his artificial stone Oct. 22, 1844!. Hutchinson's 810 STO process for the preservation of stone was patented in 1847, Barrett's in 1851, and Daines's ra April, 1856. F. Eansome's system of coating stone with an insoluble sihcate was patented Sept. 27, 1856. Stoite. — The operation for this disease is mentioned by Hippocrates (b.c. 460 — 357). Celsus gave an exact description of it a.d. 17. Germain Colot, a French physician, performed it on a criminal at Paris m 1474. The present method was first taught at Paris by Frere Jacques in 1697. The operation by crushing the stone, called hthotrity {q. v.), was first proposed in 1812. Stoxehenge ("Wiltshire), on Salisbury Plain, is beheved to be the remains of a Druidical temple. Owing to a rapid thaw, three of the large stones, the smallest weigh- ing about twenty tons, fell from their place, Jan. 3, 1797. Geoffrey of Monmouth states that it was erected by Aurelius Ambrosius in memory of 460 Britons put to death by Hengist. Polydore TirgU says the Britons erected this monument in memory of AureHus Ambrosius. Inigo Jones beUeved it to be a Eoman temple. Stonet Point (North America), taken by the English after a sharp cannonade June 1, 1779, was retaken by the American brigadier Wayne, July 15. The latter eva- cuated the fort after having destroyed the works, and it was again occupied by the English. Stoems. — The earhest attempt to arrive at a scientific knowledge of the law of storms was made by Captain Langford, who published a paper on the West-Indian hur- ricanes in the Philosophical Transactions for 1698. In 1743 Don Juan de UUoa described the rotary storms of the Pacific, and in 1801 Colonel Capper made some observations on the hurricanes of Malabar. William Eedfield, of New York, pubhshed a valuable paper on the management of ships in storms and the use of the barometer, in 1831 ; and in 1838 the law of storms was estabhshed on a deflinite scientific basis by Lieutenant- Colonel William Eeid, of the Eoyal En- gineers. Henry Piddington's publications on the subject commenced in 1839. Stoething, or Norwegian parliament, was first held at Bergen by Hako IV., a.d. 1223. By an agreement made with the king of Sweden, the two crowns were united May 17, 1814. Both chambers passed a motion to abohsh hereditary nobfiity in 1815. The royal assent was refused, but the chambers carried their point in 1821. Stoueeeidge (Worcestershire). — The free grammar-school, at which Dr. Johnson was a scholar, a.d. 1726, was founded by Ed- ward VI. in 1551. The church was bmlt by subscription in 1742. A riot took place among the colliers, Nov. 14, 1767, when they compelled the farmers to seU their com at five sh il l in gs a bushel. The railway to Dudley was opened in 1852. Stove.— The ancient Greeks and Eomans usually employed charcoal braziers for heat- ing their apartments. The first important STO STR scientific work on stoves was published in France by Cardinal Polignae, a.d. 1713. Dr. Neil Arnot patented his stove Nov. 14, 1821, and Wilham Jeakes patented a method of applying a ventilating apparatus to the Arnot stoves, Oct. 22, 1838. Stow -OK -THE -Wold (Battle). — Lord Astley, with 3,000 cavaliers, marching from Worcester to join Charles I. at Oxford, was defeated at this place, in Gloucestershire, by Colonel Morgan. His men were killed, captured, or dispersed, and he was taken prisoner, March 22, 1646. Steaffokdians. — Lord Digby and fifty- four other members of the House of Com- mons voted against the bill of attainder against the earl of Strafford, April 21, 1641. Their names were posted in the streets as " Straffordians, who, to save a traitor, would betray their country." Stealsund (Prussia) was founded by Jaromar I., prince of Riigen, a.d. 1209. It became a free imperial town and a member of the Hanseatic League, and was besieged by Wallenstein, who, notwithstanding his boast that he would " take it if it were bound to heaven with chains," had to abandon the attempt, after losing 12,000 men, in 1628. Sweden obtained possession at the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. It was captured, after a bombardment, by Frederick-William of Brandenburg in 1678, and was restored to Sweden in 1679. Charles XII., on his return to Europe, arrived here Nov. 22, 1714. It surrendered to the combined forces of Prussia, Denmark, and Saxony, Dec. 21, 1715, and was again restored to Sweden in 1720. The Prussian general Dohna blockaded the place, but left to foUow the Russian army, in February, 1758. By a convention with Sweden, Eng- land paid £50,000 to put it in a state of defence, Oct. 3, 1805. General Essen, com- mander of the fortress, issued forth, and attacked and defeated the French blockading force in April, 1807. The French having collected an overwhelming army under its walls, the Swedish monarch listened to the entreaties of the inhabitants and surrendered it, Aug. 22. Colonel Schill, a Prussian officer, took possession in 1809. The French, imder General Gratien, recovered it by assault, SchiU falling in the defence. May 31. Napoleon I. seized it with aU the ships in the harbour, arming them as pri- vateers against the commerce of England, in January, 1812. A treaty with Sweden se- cured to England the right of an entrepot in the harbour for twenty years, March 3, 1813, It was finally ceded to Prussia in 1815. Steand (London) . — Henry III. granted this important thoroughfare to his uncle, Peter of Savoy, a.d. 1245, and the result was the erection of the Savoy Palace (q.v.). The Strand was first paved in 1532. Somerset House {q. v.) was commenced in 1549 ; Sahs- bury House was finished in 1602, and pulled down in 1695 ; and Northtunberland House was built about 1605. The Strand, or Waterloo Bridge (q.v.), was commenced in 1811, and various improvements in the road were authorized by the Strand Im- provement Act, 7 Geo. IV. c. 77 (May 31, 1826). SteasbtjeGt (France), the ancient Argen- toratum, originally a town of the Tribocci, where the Romans had a manufactory of arms, was the scene of a victory gained by Julian over the Alemanni a.d. 357. It fell into the hands of the Alemanni in 455, and after the victory gained over them by Ciovis, in 496, a fort, called Strateburgum, was built on the site of the city, which had been re- duced to ruins. An improvement in its condi- tion took place after the abbey of St. Etienne was founded by Adelbert, duke of Alsace, in 718. It was annexed to the German empire in 870. Louis II. the Germ an and Charles the Bald renewed their alliance here in 842, the oath taken by Charles on the occasion being the most ancient existing specimen of the Romance language. It obtained important privileges from the emperor Philip in 1205, and formed, with other cities on the Rhine, a league to protect, the navigation of the river in 1253. Protestantism having gained ground, its adherents obtained a number of the churches in 1523. A contest for the bishopric took place between the two reli- gious parties in 1593. With the province of Alsace, it was ceded to France, Louis XIV, making a solemn entry into the city Oct. 23, 1681. Dreadful atrocities were perpetrated by the mob during the revolution in 1789, and still greater by the Convention, upon the inhabitants, on account of a royalist reaction in 1793. Moreau, with his army, crossed the Rhine near Strasburg, June 23, 1796. Louis Napoleon was foiled in an at- tempt to create a revolution here, Oct. 29, 1836, and sent off to America. The cathe- dral of Notre Dame was founded in 1015, and completed in 1439. The tower, of which Erwin of Steinbach was the architect, was carried on by his son and his daughter after his death in 1318, The famous clock was constructed in 1571. STEATFOED-TiPO]sr-Avo3sr (Warwickshire) was a place of importance as early as a.d. 700. The long stone bridge was bmlt by Sir Hugh Clopton, lord mayor of London, in 1491, during the reign of Henry VII. The free grammar-school, at which Shakespeare was a pupU, was founded in 1482. The town-haU was bmlt in 1768, and the ancient church" was repaired at considerable cost in 1840. It is celebrated as the birthplace of Shake- speare (q. v.). Stbathcltttd, — This kingdom, between the Roman walls extending from Cumber- land to the Clyde, was occupied by an inde- pendent British tribe about a.d. 600. It was ravaged by Halfdane, a Northman, in 875, and the people chose Edward the Elder for their king in 924. Steathfieldsate (Hampshire). — This estate, near Silchester, was purchased for the duke of Wellington by the British nation for the sum of £263,000, Nov. 6, 1817. 811 STE SUB Steatton (Battle). — The Cornisli-men who took up arms for Charles I. defeated Henry Grey, earl of Stamford, at this place in Cornwall, May 16, 1643. The parliament- arians suffered severely in the battle. Stkawbeket Hill (Surrey). — This house at Twickenham, near London, was built by Mrs. Chevenix, who let it to Horace Walpole, earl of Orford, in May, 1747, and sold it to him the following year. In 1750 he commenced his improvements for con- verting the building into a miniature Gothic castle, and in 1757 he estabhshed the Straw- berry Hill private printing-press. The ex- tensive collection of articles of taste accu- mulated here by Walpole was sold by auction in AprU and May, 1842, the total proceeds amounting to £29,615. 8s. 9d. Steeet Kailwaxs. — Stone tramways for carriages were introduced in the Commercial Eoad, London, a.d. 1830, and subsequently in many other streets. Iron tramways were estabhshed in America, and introduced at Bir- kenhead in 1860. The first London hue, ex- tending from the Marble Arch to Bayswater, was opened March 23, 1861 ; the hue from the Victoria station to Westminster Abbey was first used April 15; and the Une from Westminster Bridge to Kennington in the same year. They were aU removed in 1862. ' Steelitz, a miUtary body resembhng the Janissaries of Turkey, was instituted by Ivan IV., of Russia, about a.d. 1547. A serious revolt broke out among them in 1682. They took up arms in favour of Sophia, step-sister to Peter L, in 1689. This revolt was suppressed, but they re- belled again in 1698, when Peter I. abolished the corps, and substituted regular troops in their place. _ Steikes. — The practice adopted by opera- tives of endeavouring to compel employers to accede to their demands by " striking," or refusing to work, was introduced by the Trades Unions {q. v.). 1810. About 30,000 spinners remain on strike in Lancashire for four months, and at length return to work at reduced wages. 1834. March 18. Ahout 3,000 weavers strike at Leeds. Nov. to March 1, 18b5. The Staf- fordshire potters strike for wages, and obtain an advance, after a loss of £27,000 in wages alone. 1836. Nov. 5. The operatives at Preston unite in an imavailing strike, which continues thii-- teen weeks, and occasions a total loss of £107,196. 1837. AprU 8 to Aug. 5. The Glasgow cotton- spinners strike for an increase of wages, but are compelled by necessity to return to work without gaiuing their object. The strike occasioned a loss of £194,540. 1852. A strike takes place among the operative engineers. 1853. July 27 — 30. Strike of the London cabmen. 1854. Nov. 5. to April 30. About 18,000 factory hands strike at Preston, which incurs a total loss of £628,216. 1859. July. The London builders strike in favom- of the nine hours' movement. Oct. 31. The masons return to work. The total loss caused by this strike was £446,873. 812 I860. The Coventry ribbon-weavers remain on strike for a short time in the middle of the year, in cons-eqnence of the increased intro- duction of French ribbons. Stetchis^ia. — This poison was discovered A.D. 1818, by Pelletier and Caventou, in the seed of the stryclinus ignatia and mix vomica. WillJam Palmer, a surgeon of Rugeley, was executed at Stafford June 14, 1856, for hav- ing poisoned a person named Cook with strychnia. Stucco. — The Greek tombs in Asia Minor were embelUshed, in low rehef, with this composition. It was employed by the Ro- mans for temples, floors, waUs, and also for covering columns of brick to imitate marble, and has been found in the remains of ancient British settlements. Stuhlweissenbtjeg, or Alba Reg-ia (Hungary). — This town, bmlt in the 11th century, is the seat of a bishop, and was formerly the place of coronation of the kings of Hungar'v . Maximilian I. seized it Nov. 19, 1490. It was taken by the Turks in 1543, and was dismantled in 1792. S T TJ E M. — Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, gained a great victory over the Poles, under Sigismund, at tms town in Prussia, a.d. 1628. Stuttgaed (Wiirtemberg), the capital, first mentioned a. d. 1229, was besieged for seven weeks by the emperor Rodolph I. in 1286. The coimts of AViirtemberg fixed their residence here in 1320, and it has been the capital of all the possessions of the house of Wiirtemberg since 1482. The old castle, now used as government offices, was built in 1570. The Standehaus, where the parhament meet, was built in 1580, but only adopted to its present purpose in 1819. The new palace, commenced in 1746, was finished in 1806. Alexander II. of Russia, and ]S'a- poleon III., had an interview here, Sept. 25, 1857. Style. {See I^Tew Style and Old Style.) Stylites, anchorites, who took up their abode on the top of various columns in Syria and Egypt, rose in the 2nd century. The most famous was St. Simeon (with whom, according to some authors, these anchorites originated) , who lived thirty-seven years on the tops of various columns near Antioch. He began the practice about 395. Some of these fanatics were called Pillar Saints. Sttbiaco (Italy), the ancient Subla- queum, the site of the well-known monas- tery of St. Benedict, to which that saint retired about a.d. 450. It was rebuilt in 847. The celebrated monastery of Santa Scholastica was founded in the 5th century, and restored in 981 by the abbot Stefano. The lower church of the monastery of St. Benedict dates from 1053, the upper from 1066, and the cloisters from 1235. SuBMAEiifE Telegeaph. — The first suc- cessful transmission of an electric discharge through water was effected by Dr. Watson, between Westminster and Lambeth, July 14, 1747, and in 1848 successful subaqueous SUB telegraphs were laid across the Ehine, by Werner Siemens. Charles V. Walker at- tached two miles of gutta-percha covered wire to the hne at Folkestone, and after steaming out into the open sea, transmitted messages to London, thus proving the prac- ticabihty of submarine telegraphy, Jan. 10, 184.9. Jacob Brett laid an experimental wire between Dover and Calais, Aug. 28, 1850, and the permanent cable was laid Sept. 25, 1851. The line from Holyhead to Dublin was completed June 1, 1852; and that from the South Foreland to Ostend, May 4, 1853. The first hne of any length was from Varna to Balaclava, which was laid during the Crimean war in 1855, and established communication through a dis- tance of 310 miles. In 1854 Whitehouse commenced his researches on the possibihty of an Atlantic telegraph, and 2,500 miles of cable were prepared, and stowed in equal quantities on board the Enghsh screw steamer Agamemnon, and the American man-of-war Niagara. The Niagara com- menced paying out her cable from Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, Aug. 7, 1857, but the cable snapped Aug. 11, and opera- tions had to be suspended. The two vessels again saUed from Queenstown, May 29, 1858, on an experimental trip, after which they returned to Plymouth, and Thursday, June 10, they left Plymouth for the purpose of laying the cable. They reached the middle of the Atlantic June 26, and having joined their cables, commenced paying the mout, but after a series of breakages, they were again compelled to return to Queenstown, whence they once more set sail July 17. They reached the point of junction July 28, and on the following day they parted, the Agamemnon steering for Valentia, and the Niagara for Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. Both vessels arrived in safety at their re- spective ports, Aug. 6, and on the 7th, Cyrus W. Field announced the successful completion of the enterprise. The first public despatch, a message from the Queen to President Buchanan, was received Aug. 17, and the cable continued effective until September 1, when the signals became unin- telligible. Subsidies, or duties imposed by parlia- ment on certain staple commodities in addi- tion to the custuma antiqua et magna, were first levied by Ethelred II. to defray the expense of the Danegelt, a.d. 991. They were also demanded by WUliam I. By 14 Edw. III. Stat. 1, c. 20 (1340), the Commons granted liberal subsidies of wool to defray the expenses of the French wars, and by 11 Hen. IV. c. 7 (1409), they are confounded with the ordinary customs. In 1588 the parliament made the unusually large grant of two subsidies and four-fifteenths, in con- sequence of the Spanish armada. The last acts granting subsidies to the sovereign, were 15 Charles II. cc. 9 & 10 (1663), SuccADANA, or Sacadina (Borneo). — The chief town of a state of the same name^ to which the Dutch began to trade SUE A.D. 1604. In 1623 thej abandoned their factory here. They jomed the sultan of Pontianak in fitting out an expedition against this place, which they took and utterly de- stroyed in 1786. Succession. {See Act of Settlement and Hanoveeian Succession.) Succession Duty.— By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 51 (Aug. 4, 1853), real property was made subject to the legacy duty, paid on suc- cession to every kind of property. This act was to be taken to have come into ope- ration May 19, 1853. Succession War. — In anticipation of the death of Charles II. of Spain, a treaty was signed Aug. 19, 1698, by England, the Ger- man empire, Holland, France, and smaller states, partitioning his empire amongst the competitors for the crown — the prince of Bavaria, the dauphin of France, and the archduke Charles — in certain proportions. Charles II., however, bequeathed, by wiU, his empire to the prince of Bavaria. He died suddenly, Feb. 6, 1699, and another secret partition treaty was signed March 25, 1700. Charles II., by advice of the papal court, declared Philip, duke of Anjou, his sole heir, and died Oct. 21, 1700 (O. S.). The new monarch having been crowned as Philip v., his title was generally acknow- ledged, except by the emperor Leopold I., when war commenced in Italy, and the French were defeated by Prince Eugene, at Carpi, in August, 1701. England and Hol- land afterwards joined the emperor, and the triple treaty of the Grand AUiance was signed Sept. 7, 1701. Marlborough was despatched to Holland, and war was de- clared against France and Spain on the same day. May 4, 1702, at the Hague, Vienna, and London. It was brought to a close by the treaty of Utrecht, signed by France, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy, the United Provinces, and England, March 31, 1713 (O. S.). The emperor acknowledged Philip V. by the peace of Kadstadt, signed March 6, 1714 (O. S.). SuDBUEY (Suffolk). — A convent of Domi- nican friars was estabhshed here a.d, 1272. The grammar-school was founded in 1491. The town received its first charter of incor- poration from Queen Mary in 1554. It was confirmed by Elizabeth in 1559. Sudbury was disfranchised by 7 <& 8 Vict c. 53 (July 29, 1844). SuEVi. — This powerful Gothic tribe, known to the Romans as early as B.C. 125, invaded Gaul B.C. 71, and were defeated and driven across the RWcb.c. 53. They joined Rada- gaisus A.D. 405, and, having been defeated, recrossed the Rhine in 406. They entered Spain in 409, and founded a kingdom. Part of their territory was WTested from them by WaUia, general of the Goths, in 417, and other parts were captured by the Vandals in 429. They were almost exterminated in a great battle fought near Astorga by the Visi- goths in 456, and the remnant of the tribe was incorporated with them in 584. Suez Canal.— In 1852, M. de Lesseps, a 813 SUF Frencli engineer, formed the idea of obtaining funds by means of a joint-stock company for cutting a ship canal across the Isthmus of Suez . He received a firman from Mohammed Said in 1854, and he came to England to give information on the scheme in 1855. The charter of concession was granted by the viceroy of Egypt Jan. 5, 1856. The subscrip- tion vrks opened in ]S"ovember, 1858, and the company was definitely constituted Jan. 5, 1859. Stjfpide, Sepi, Soofee, or Seefatean DxifASTT, was founded in Persia by Ismael Shah, descended from Ali, cousin and son-in- law of Mohammed, a.d. 1502. It was expelled by Nadir Shah in 1736. Suffolk (England) formed part of the kingdom of the East Angles a.d . 570. Alfred planted a colony of Danes in Suffolk in 879. The archdeaconry was erected in 1127. SuFFEAG-AN BisHOPS, before the Eefor- mation, consecrated to serve in the absence of the diocesans on embassies, were esta- blished by 26 Hen. YIII. c. 14, which named twenty-six places as their nominal seats, A.D. 1535. This act was repealed by 1 & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 8 (1555), but re-enacted by Elizabeth. They are named as minister- ing holy orders in the thirty-fifth canon of 1603; and Charles II., in his Breda declara- tion (1660), expressed his intention to esta- bhsh them in every diocese. A catalogue of those who had fiUed the oifices in England was draTvn up by "\Miarton, and pubhshed in Dr. Pegge's dissertation on bishops ij2 parti- 6zfA (Persia). — ^Alexander the Great entered this extensive province in southern Asia, and captured its chief tcsvu, Susa, B.C. 331. SusPEKDiifG PowEE to nuUify the opera- tion of any statute was claimed by Charles II. as inherent in him, and was exercised with the professed object of mitigating the rigours of the Act of Uniformity, Dec. 26, 1663 ; and again in regard to the penal laws against Nonconformists, March 15, 1672, Suspension Beid&es of chain are found in China, and of rope in Bootan and South America. A suspension bridge was proposed for crossing the Ehine a.d. 1807, and one for the Mersey, at Euneorn Gap, in 1814. The Union Bridge across the Tweed, near Ber- wick, was constructed upon the improved principles of Sir Samuel Brown, and opened in 1820. Telford's suspension bridge across the Menai Strait was opened Jan. 20, 1826. The first erected near London was at Ham- mersmith, commenced in 1824. Hungerford suspension bridge, designed by I. K. Brunei, was opened May 1, 1845; Chelsea suspension bridge, March 23, 1S58. A suspension bridge 818 SWA of steel was erected over the Danube at Vienna in 1827 and 1828, and an iron one across the same river, constructed by Tiemey Clark, in 1849, is considered the finest iu the world. Sussex (England) was held by the Eegni at the Eoman invasion B.C. 55. Ella, with his three sons, landed and commenced to found the South Saxon kingdom a.d. 477. Having taken Andreds-cester, he assumed the title of king ia 491, and was chosen Bretwalda in 492. Wilfred, archbishop of York, introduced Christianity about 680. SuTLEJ (Hindostan), variously called, in ancient times, Hyphasis, HjTDasis, Bibasis, Hypanis, and in the Sanscrit, Satadru, form- ing the limit of Alexander's march, B.C. 327, when he erected twelve altars, equal to the highest fortifications, on its banks, as mo- numents of his victories, and to define the extent of his empire. {See Aliwal and SoBEAOIf.) SuTEi (Italy), the ancient Sutrium, at one time an Etruscan city, was attacked with uncertain success by the Eomans, B.C. 391. It was taken by them B.C. 390, was besieged and taken by the Etruscans, and on the same day recovered by the Eomans, B.C. 389. It received a Eoman colony B.C. 383. The Etruscans again besieged it, and ■ were defeated in an engagement under its walls, B.C. 311. It was occupied by Agrippa at the outbreak of the Perusian war, B.C. 41. A council held here a.d. 1046 afllrmed the right of the emperor to nominate to the Holy See, and deposed three rival popes. The anti-pope Gregory VILE, was besieged here by Pope Calixtus II. in 1121, taken prisoner, and carried to Eome seated on a I camel, with his face to the tail, and a bristling hog -skin for a robe. Another council was held here in January, 1059. Suttee, meaning in the Sanscrit a chaste and virtuous wife, is a term apphed to the act of self-immolation on the husband's fu- neral pile, practised by the Hindoo women in India. It is spoken of by writers of the age of Alexander the Great. Diodorus re- lates an instance b.c. 300. A regulation passed by the governor-general. Lord W. Ben- tinck, in council, Dec. 14, 1829, declared the practice of burning the widows of Hin- doos illegal. Suzdal, or Wolodomie (Eussia). — This province was erected into a distinct princi- pality by Anrej, a.d. 1157, and was con- quered by the Golden Horde in 1238. Swab I A (Germany), originally called Alemannia, took its present name when subdued by the Franks, under Clovis, a.d. 496. It was united to Austrasia, under Siegbert, son of Clotaire I., in 561. Chris- tianity was introduced by St. Columba, about 600. Charles the Fat obtained it as part of his kingdom of East France in 876. It was included in the country of Franconia in 890, and erected into a duchy in 916. The duchy was made hereditary in the fa- mily of Frederick of Hohenstauffen, by Henry IV. in lOSO. The line became extinct SWA on the execution of Conrad in 1268. Swabia was made one of the six circles of the em- pire in 1501. SwABiAN League, to put down private wars and maintain the public peace, was formed under the auspices of the emperor Frederick III. a.d. 1488, and, together with the troops of the empire, made such a de- monstration against Albert, duke of Bava- ria, as reduced him to submission and brought him into their alliance, a.d. 1492. The League deprived Ulrich Wiirtemberg of his duchy, for breach of the public peace in 1519, and sold the territory to Austria in 1520. Its army, numbering 16,000 men, under the command of George Truchsess, destroyed several castles of the Franconian knights in 1523. The peasants arose in insurrection against the nobles in June, 1524. After several engagements they were finally crushed by the army of the League, united vdth the troops of the elec- tor Palatine, at Konigshofen, June 2, 1525. The League effected the destruction of above 140 strongholds of nobles and banditti, from its establishment to its dissolution in 1533. SwANWic (Sea-fight). — Alfred defeated the Danish fleet off this place, supposed to be the modern Swansea, a.d. 877. Swan Kiyeb (Western Austraha). — The first settlement was made in August, 1829, under very unfavourable circumstances, by a number of English emigrants, Captain Stirling having arrived out in the capacity of lieutenant-governor. Upwards of 2,000 settlers had reached the colony by March, 1830, and the site of the township of Perth was marked out towards the close of that year. The condition of the colony appeared so hopeless that serious thoughts were en- tertained of abandoning it in 1848. The in- habitants petitioned for a supply of convict labour, which they received in 1849. Swans were only allowed to be kept by possessors of freehold lands and tenements valued at five marks per annum, free of charge, according to 22Edw. IV. c. 6 (1483). By 11 Hen. VII. c. 17 (1497), the taking of their eggs was prohibited. Swansea (Glamorganshire), called Aber- taw in Welsh, from its position at the mouth of the river Tawy, was made a cor- porate town A.D. 1835. The castle, built by Henry Beaumont, earl of Warwick, in 1100, was used as a debtors' prison till abohshed for that purpose in 1859. The first copper- works were established in 1719, and the first cargo of foreign ore arrived in 1827. An act was passed for improving the har- bour in 1791. The free grammar-school was founded in 1682; the town-hall was erected in 1827 ; the market-place, built at a cost of £20,000, was opened in 1830 ; the Wesleyan Methodist Chapel was erected in 1846, the Unitarian Chapel in 1847, and the National Schools were opened in 1848. SwEABOEG (Finland) was built by Gus- tavus I. of Sweden, and burned during the war with Russia, a.d. 1728. Admiral Greig attacked the Swedes in the roads off the 819 SWE town, capturing and burning the Gustavus Adolphus of 68 guns, whilst the Russians blockading the harbour effectually prevented the egress of their fleet, in 1788. It was in- vested by the Russians in the first week of March, and surrendered by the Swedish commander, after a three weeks' siege, with 2,000 pieces of cannon and a large flotilla, in 1808. Admirals Dundas and Penaud brought their vessels into battle-array before it Aug. 8, 1855, the bombardment commenced on the morning of the 9th, and, after destroying a great amount of property but producing small impression on the fortifications, the French and Enghsh fleets returned to Nargen Aug. 11 . SwEABiNG. — Swearing on the Gospels was introduced about a.d. 528. By 21 James I. c. 20 (1623), cursing and swearing are an offence punishable by law, and a series of fines may be imposed on such as practise them, by 19 Geo. 11. c. 21 (1746). The last- mentioned act contained a clause ordering it to be read in churches four times a year. This provision was abolished by 4 Geo. IV. c. 31 (May 30, 1823). By the second article of war, 22 Geo. II. c. 33 (1749), seamen in the royal navy guilty of this vice are liable to trial by court-martial. Sweating Sickness first appeared in the army of the earl of Richmond when he landed at Milford Haven, a.d. 1485. It reached London Sept. 21, and after carry- ing off several thousand victims, ceased its ravages in October. In the summers of 1506, 1507, and 1528, it reappeared in this country, its final outbreak having been at Shrewsbury, where it raged from April to September, 1551. Holland, Germany, Den- mark, Sweden, Poland, and part of Russia, were visited by it between the years 1525 and 1530. It broke out in Amsterdam, where it proved very fatal, Sept. 27, 1529. Sweden. — This country was anciently in- habited by the Gothones, and the people, Hke the other Scandinavian nations, regard the mythical Odin as the author of their civilization : — 70. Odin arrives in the north. A.J). 813. According to Swedish historians, Christianity is introduced this year. 1000. The Swedes and Danes defeat Olaf I. of Nor- way, and divide his kingdom between them. 1001. Olaf Skotkonung ascends the throne and establishes Chriatiauity. 1279. Valdemar I. is compelled to abdicate. 1319. On the death of Hako V. of Norway, the sceptre of that kingdom devolves on Magnus VII. of Sweden. 1389. Albei-t I. is defeated and made prisoner by Margaret of Denmark. 1397. June. Sweden Is united to Denmark and Norway by the Union of Calmar. 1439. The Swedes depose Eric of Pomerania. 1448. Sweden recovers her independence under Charles Kuutson. 1470. Sten Sture obtains the protectorate of 1476. The university of Upsal is founded by Sten Sture. 1477. Chi-istiau I. of Denmark relinquishes his claim to the Swedish thi-one 3 g2 SWE A.D. 1481. Sten Stiire, administrator of Sweden, opposes Johu of Deumaik. 1497. Nov. 19. Sweden is again reduced to sub- mission by John of Denmark. 1500. Feb. John invades Sweden and is defeated by the iaisuigents, at the battle of Meldorp, with the loss of 11,000 men. 1503. Death of Sten Sture. 1517. Sten Sture the younger heads the Swedes in arms for abolishing the Union of Calmar. 1520. Christian II. of Denmark invades Sweden, kills Sten Stui-e in battle at BogesunU {q. v.), and massacres the Swedish no- bility. 1521. May. Gustavns Vasa lands at Calmar and takes the field against the Danes at the head of 3,000 men. 1523. Gustavis Vasa expels the Danes and is called to the throne. 1525. Gustavus Vasa establishes the independence of Sweden. 1527. Gustavus Vasa establishes Lutheranism. 1529. The Romish worship is formally abolished. 1532. Christian II. of Denmark makes a useless attempt to recover Sweden. 1544. The Swedish crown is declared hereditary. 1566. Eric XIV. assassinates Nils Stutre and goes mad from remorse. 1667. The Swedes invade Norway. 1568. Eric XIV. is compelled to abdicate by his brother John, duke of Finland. 1576. John Ill.maii-ies the Roman Catholic Princess Catherine of Poland, and becomes involved in religious difficulties with his subjects in consequence. 1592. Sigismund III. of Poland succeeds to the Swedish crown. 1594 Duke Charles, brother of John III., com- pels Sigismund III. to quit Sweden. 1597. Sigismund III. is restored by the diet of Ar- boga. 1600. The States refuse their allegiance to Sigis- mund III., owing to his Roman Catholic tendencies. 1628. Gustavus Adolphus is made general of the Protestant allies during the Thirty Years' war. 1629. Gustavus Adolphus agrees to a six years' truce with Poland. 1630. June 24. Giistavus Adolphus invades Ger- many with 15,000 men. 1632. Nov. 16. Gustavus Adolphus is slain at the battle of Lutzen {q. v. ). 1635. The truce with Poland is renewed for twenty- six years. 1636. March 20. An alliance against Austria is con- cluded with Fiance at Wismar. 1643. War is commenced with Germany and Den- mark. 1648. Swedeu is raised to a high position by the peace of Westphalia. 1654. June 16. Queen Christina abdicates in favour of her cousin Charles Gustavus. 1655. Charles X. subjugates Poland. 1658. He invades Denmark and obtains the cession of important territories. 1660. May 3. Peace with Poland is restored by the treaty of Oliva {q. v.). 1668. Jan. 13. Sweden unites with England and Holland against France. 1672. AprU 14. Sweden withdraws from the triple alliance and concludes a treaty with France at Stockholm. 1674. Charles XI. invades Brandenburg. 1675. War is commenced with Denmark. 1679. Oct. 6. Peace with Denmark is restored by the treaty of Lund. 1680. The senate is deprived of its legislative power. 1689. The ex-Queen Chiistina dies at Rome. 1693. An act is passed declaring the king's autho- rity absolute. 1699. The kings of Denmark and Poland unite with the Czar against Sweden. 1700. Nov. 30. Charles XII. gains a splendid victory over the Russians at Narva (g. v.). 1701. Charles XII. invades Poland, 820- SWE 1706. Sept. 24 (O. S.). Peace with Poland is restored by the treaty of Alt-Ranstadt. 1709. The suiJremacy of Sweden is finally destroved by the battle of Pultowa (g. v.). uharles XII. retreats to Bender {q. r.). 1714. Charles XII. leaves Bender and retui-na to Sweden. 1716. Charles XII. fails in an invasion of Norway. 1718. Dec. 11. Charles XII. is killed at the siege of Frederickshall (9 v.). He is succeeded by his sister Ulrica Eleanora, who restores the free constitution. 1719. Jan. 26. The crown is declared elective. Nov. 20. Bremen and Verden are ceded to Han- over by the treaty of Stockholm. 1720. June 14. Tlie peace of Stockholm is concluded with Denmark. 1721. Aug. 30. Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Nystadt, which establishes Russian superiority over Sweden. 1738. Rise of the factious of the Caps and Hats {q. v.). 1739. The Royal Academy of Arts is founded under the presidency of Liniifeus. 1741. August. War is declared against Russia. 1743. Aug. 18 (O. S.). Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Abo. 1756. Execution of Count BrahS, Baron Horn, and six other noblemen, for conspiring to re- store absolute monarchy. 1772. Aug. 1. The senate is abolished, and abso- lutism is restored. 1788. War is declared against Russia and Denmark. 1789. Most of the nobles are imprisoned, and the king assumes the sole arbitration of peace and war. 1790. Aug. 14. Peace with Russia is restored by treaty. 1792. March 16. Gustavus TIT. is shot at a mas- querade by Count Ankerstrom. March 29. Gustavus III. dies. 1802. A censorship of the press is established in Sweden. 1805. Sweden joins England and Russia against France. 1807. The Swedes invade Norway without success. 1809. March 13. Gustavus IV. is deposed by his uncle, the duke of Sudennania, who suc- ceeds as Charles XIII. Sept. 17. Peace with Rus-oia is restored by the treaty of Frederickshamm, by which Russia gains Finland and other territories. 1810. June 20. The Swedish government prohibits intercourse with England. Aug. 21. 3Iar- shal Bernadott* is declared crown prince of Sweden. Nov. 17. Sweden declares war against Great Britain. 1812. Jan. 9. Napoleon I. seizes Pomerania and Riigen. July 18. Sweden concludes an alliance with Great Britain at Orebro. 1813. Sept. 5. Denmark declares war against Sweden. 1814. Jan. 14. By the peace of Kiel Sweden re- ceives Norway from Denmark, in exchange for Riigen and Swedish Pomerania. [See Norway). 1818. Feb. 5. Death of Charles XITI., who is suc- ceeded by Bernadotte, under the title of Charles John XIV. 1826. May 18. A treaty of commerce and naviga- tion is concluded with Great Britain. 1827. The government is very unpopular. 1837. Feb. 7. Death of the ex-king Gustavus IV. 1844. March 8. Death of Bernadotte, who is suc- ceeded by his son Os ar. 1852. Sept. 5. A violent outbreak against the Jews is suppressed at Stockholm. 1854 Jan. 2. Sweden announces her neutrality in the Eastern question. Dec. 23. The army is ordered to be placed on a war footing. 1855. Nov. 21. An alliance is concluded with Eng- land and France. 1857. Sept. 11. In consequence of the illness of King Oscar, the hereditary prince is de- clared regent of the kingdom. 1859. July 8. Death of King Oscar, who is suc- ceeded by his son Charles XV. SWE I860. May 3. Charles XV. and his queen, Louisa, are solemnly crowned at Stockholm. May 21. The laws prohibiting secession from the established (Lutheran) religion axe abolished, KINGS OP SWEDEM-. A.D. A.n. Olaf Skotkonung . . 1001 Gustavus Vasa 1523 Edmund Colbrenner 1026 Eric XIV. 1560 Edmund Slemme . . 1051 John III 1568 Steukie 1056 Sigismund III. , of Halstan 1066 Poland 1592 lugoL, the Good.. 1090 Charles IX 1604 Philip 1112 Gustavus Adolphus 1611 Ingoll 1118 luteriegnum 1632 Swerkerl 1129 Christina 1633 EricX 1150 Charles X., Gus- CharlesVII 1162 tavus 1654 Canute 1168 CharlesXI 1660 Swerker II 1192 Charles XII 1697 Eric XI 1210 Ulrica Leonora and John 1 1220 Frederick of Hesse EricXII 1223 Cassel 1719 Interregnum— Bir- Frederick, alone . . 1741 gar Jarl, regent.. 1250 Adolphus Frederick 1751 ValdemarL ...... 1251 Gustavus III 1771 Magnus 1 1279 Gustavus IV 1792 Birger II 1 290 Charles XIII 1809 Magnus IL 1320 Charles John XIV. 1 818 Albert 1 1365 Oscar 1844 Mariiaretof Norway Charles XV 1859 {«ee Norway) 1389 SwEDEKBORGiANS, named after Emanuel Swedenborg, born at Stockhobn, Jan. 29, 1688, who professed to have immediate in- tercourse with the inhabitants of the invisi- ble world. He died in London, March 29, 1772. Swedenborgians are those who beUeve in the mission of Emanuel Swedenborg to promulgate the doctrines of the New Church, signified by the New Jerusalem in the Apo- calypse. They numbered five persons in 1783, and had increased to thirty in 1787. Their first public association took place in Great Eastcheap in 1788. The Swedenbor- gian Printing Society was established in 1810, and the Swedenborgian Missionary and Tract Society in 1821. Swedish East-Iijdia Company was formed at Gottenburg a.d. 1731. SwENKA Sound (Sea-fight). — The Eus- sians, under the prince of Nassau, were defeated in this bay with a loss of 4,500 men, by Gustavus III., king of Sweden, July 9 and 10, 1790. Swiss Guards were created by Louis XL of France. A number of them were murdered by the mob that attacked Mar- seilles, Oct. 6, 1789, and they were nearly exterminated in their defence of the Tuile- ries, Oct. 10, 1792. The corps was reorgan- ized by Louis XVIII., Sept. 1, 1815. It was defeated during the three days' insurrection, July 28, and the last of them were dismissed at Valognes by Charles X. on his flight, Aug. 10, 1830. Swithin's (St.) Day. — The saint, who was tutor to King Ethelwulph, was ordained priest by Helmstan, bishop of Winchester, A.D. 830, and was raised to the see of Win- chester in 852. His death took place July 2, 862. He was buried, by his own request, in the churchyard of Winchester, and having SWI been canonized within a century, the monks wished to transfer his remains to the cathe- dral, and selected July 15th for that pur- pose. The proceeding was delayed for forty days by rain, and hence the popular tradi- tion connected with his day. His festival in the Eoman martyrology is July 2, but in England it was July 15. Switzerland (Europe). — This country was, in ancient times, inhabited by the Hel- vetii, a Celtic people, and from them it afterwards received the name of Helvetia. 120. Is inhabited by a confederation of four tribes of the Helvetii. 107. One of the tribes, the Figurini, defeat the Roman consul, C. Cassius Longinus, on the banks of the Lake of Geneva. 61. They set out in a body to settle in the fertile districts of Gaul. 58. They are encountered by the Romans under Julius Caesar, who defeat them with great slaughter. A.D. 69. Having been completely subjugated by the Romans, an insurrection breaks out, which is suppressed with great cruelty. 450. The Bui-gundians form a settlement in one part, and the Alemanni in another part of the country, reducing the inhabitants to a state of serfdom. 534. The Franks conquer the country, and establish Christianity, which had been introduced in the time of the Roman domination. 840. It is divided between Louis of Bavaria and Lothaire I., emperor and king of Italy. 889. Count Rodolph is proclaimed king of Bur- guudiau Helvetia. 1016. It is bequeathed to the emperor Henry II. 'by Rodolph III. 1032. The whole country is incoi-porated with the German empire under Conrad II. 1097. Henry IV. appointed Berttiold of Zahi-ingen imperial warden. 1264. Rodolph of Habsburg by various inheritances became one of the most powerful lords. 1273. Rodolph is elected emperor, and exercises a tyrannical rule over the coimtry. 1308. The cantons of Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwal- den, irritated by the tyranny of Gessler, who was killed by William Tell, throw off the yoke of Albert I., and form the con- federation of Schwyz, which afterwards gave its name to the whole country. 1315. Nov. 16. They defeat the Austrians with great slaughter at Morgarten. 1386. July 9. Leopold of Austria is defeated and slain at the battle of Sempach. 1388. April 9. The Austrians sustain a severe defeat at Nafels. 1389. A twenty years' truce is concluded with Austria. 1415. The cantons invade and divide the Aareau. 1436. A civil war breaks out between Zurich and the cantons. 1444 Zurich is besieged by the cantons. A de- sperate engagement takes place outside the walls of Basel, between the troops of the French king, Charles VII., under the dau- phin Louis, and the Swiss, which resulted in the defeat of the latter, followed by a truce. 1452. Sigismund, duke of Austria, mortgages to Zurich the town of Winter thur, his last remaining possession in the country. 1476. Apiil 5. Charles of Burgundy is defeated at Granson. June 22. Charles of Bm-gundy ia defeated at Morat. 1477. Jan. 4. Charles of Burgundy is defeated and slain at Nanci. The states of Upper Bur- gundy piu-chase peace by payment of 150,000 florins. 821 SWI STC 1480. 1481. 3499. 1513. 1531. 1648. 1712. 1738. 1793. 1797. 1798. 1799. 1800. 1801. 1844. 1845. 1846. Owing to the disbanding of troops, the cotmtry is in such a lawless condition, that nearly 1,-500 assassins and robbers are condemned to death. The federal constitution of the Swiss cantons is first defined and regulated this year by the covenant of Stanby. Maximilian I., after several defeats, makes peace with the Swiss, and thus terminates their struggle for independence. The admission of Appenzel intn the confede- ration completes The number of thirteen cantons. The Reformed doctrines begin to spread. Some cantons adopt the Eeformed faith, and a war takes place. Oct. 11. The battle of Cappel is fought, at which the Kefonners are defeated, and Zwinglius is slain. The confederation is acknowledged as an independent state by the peace of West- phalia. Aug. The third and last religious war termi- nates by the Boman Catholics suing for peace, which is accordingly concluded at Aargau. A new constitution is adopted at Geneva. The territory of Basel is invaded and annexed by the Fre-nch. Valtelina, Chiavenna, and Bormio, a^e an- nexed by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Cisal- pine republic. The Bernese having been defeated by the French, Geneva is annexed. April. The Helvetian republic is established. The Fi-ench are driven from the central cantons by the Russians and Austrians. Massena defeats ttie Russians at Zurich. The Helvetian directory is suppressed. The French evacuate Switzerland. A gene- ral diet is called to re-organize the con- stitution. A general insuiTection having broken out. Napoleon I. offei-s his assistance to restore order, and the Act of Mediation is promul- gated Feb. 20. The act is repudiated by the allied powers, whose armies pass through the country on their way to France after the battle of Leipsic. March 20. The independence of the country is acki'owledgtd by the congress of Vienna. Aug. 7. A new federal compact is signed by all the deputies at Zuiich. The revision of the constitution is effected in most of the cantons peaceably. In others it is attended with popular commotion and bloodshed. Peace is disturbed by the proceedings of a number of Polish, German, and Italian refugees, who are expelled the country. A law of the diet comes into operation to establish a system of education indepen- dent of the clergy. It creates intense excitement, and caused the dissolution of the government at Zurich. A proposition from Aai-gau, for the expulsion of the Jesuits, is brought before the diet and rejected. The disappointed party, raising a body called the Free Corps, invaded Lucerne, and under the command of Colonel Ochsenbein, sus- tain a severe defeat in April. The Sonderbund, or separate league, is formed by the seven Roman Catholic cantons. Lu- cerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden. Freiburg, Zug, and Valay, to defend themselves against the Free Corps. July 20. A resolution of the diet declares the Sonderbund illegal. July 29. It decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits. Sept. 3. The Sonderbund resist the decree of the diet. Nov. 13. Its army is defeated at Freiburg. Nov. 24. And at Lucerne. This is fol- lowed by the entire submission of the league, the suppression of the monasteries, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. 1848. Sept. 12. A new constitution is promulgated, the basis of which is a federal assembly, a federal conncU, and a federal tribunal. Both chambers of the federal assembly chose Berne as the feder.al city. 1859. March 14. The cantons declare their neutrality on the Italian ques'ion. July 15. The fedei-al council suppresses all foreign eccle- siastical jurisdiction on Swiss tenitoiy. July 30. The Swiss are prohibited from en- listing under foreign governments. 1860. March 14. The cantons protest against the annexation of Savoy to France. March SO. A band of from fifty to eighty persona, leaving Geneva for Chablais, are arrested by Swiss troops. Oct. 12. The French am- bassador leaves Berne. Sword. — This weapon, among the ancient Greeks, was straight, and frequently had both blade and hilt inlaid with gold, as mentioned by Herodotus, B.C. 409. It waa made of brass by the ancient Eomans, and afterwards of iron. The right to wear it was confined to military men and certain magistrates, under Augustus. The ancient Britons had a two-edged sword, and in Wales brass swords have been dug up. The claymore, a two-handed sword, was used by the ancient Highlauders. The Toledo blade was famed in Eoman times, but is surpassed by the celebrity of that of Damascus. A company of sword-cutlers was incorporated in England a.d. 1689. The London sword- dealers petitioned the lords of the Treasury for permission to import German swords^ duty free, on account of the bad quality of those of English manufacture, in 1783. This stigma on our skill in that branch of manu- facture was, however, entirely removed by Gill, of Birmingham, in 1786. Swords were used as an article of dress in England at the commencement of the ISth century ; and, after faUing somewhat into disuse, seem to have again come into fashion about 1790. An order was issued by the earl marshal, prohibiting footmen from wearing them, Dec. 30, 1701. Stbaris (Magna Grseeia), one of the oldest of the Greek colonies in this part of Italy, was founded by the Achaeans B.C. 720. It attained the height of its power about B.C. 580. A number of the leading citizens having been driven from the town, took refuge in Crotona, whereupon the Sybarites marched against the place with an army of 300,000 men, but were totally defeated, the victors turning the course of the river Crathis through their city, and utterly de- stroying it, B.C. 510. An attempt made by the surviving inhabitants to establish them- selves on the site was defeated by the Crotoniats, B.C. 452. They were devoted to luxury, — hence the modem use of the term Sybarite. Stcamoee-teee. — Some botanists regard this tree as indigenous to Britain ; but others state that it is a native of the mountainous districts of Switzerland, Ger- many, and Italy. It is first mentioned as an object of culture in this country a.d. 1551 ; and in 1597 Gerard alludes to it as a stranger, much used in gardens for its SYD umbrageous foliage. The sycamore is a species of maple ; and experiments for ascertaining the quantity and quality of the sugar contained in its sap were made at Cannon Park, StirKngshire, March 7 and 8, 1818. It was found that 116 parts of sap yielded one part of sugar. The purple- leaved sycamore originated in Jersey about 2188. SYDifET (New South Wales), capital of the colony, was founded and named after Viscount Sydney, then secretary for the colonies, Jan. 26, 1788. A printing-press and the Sydney Gazette were estabhshed by George Howe, March 5, 1803. The plans upon which the town is built were laid down in 1809. A legislative council was appointed in 1829 ; a bishopric was established in 1836 ; the museum was founded in 1838, and incor- porated in 1853 ; and its university, founded m 1850, was opened Oct. 11, 1852. A branch of the royal mint was established here in May, 1855. Bv 18 & 19 Vict. c. 54 (July 16, 1855) , a new constitution was conferred, and it was proclaimed in November following. St. Phihp's, the oldest church in the colony, was built in 1798. Sybnet Sussex College (Cambridge) was founded by Lady Frances Sydney, widow of the earl of Sussex, a.d. 1598. Stmonds' Inn (London). — This inn of court, in Chancery Lane, is supposed to derive its name from Thomas Symonds, who died in June, 1621. It was formerly the seat of the offices of the masters in chan- cery. Sympathetic Ink. {See Ink.) Synagogues, or Jewish places of wor- ship, are of uncertain origin, ascribed, by some, to the period of the promulgation of the ceremonial law, e.g. 1491, and by others to the return from the Babylonish captivity, B.C. 536. Jerusalem is said to have con- tained 480. Syndekcombe's Plot. — John Synder- combe was employed by Colonel Sexby to assassinate Cromwell, and he made the at- tempt Jan. 19, 1657. He was tried and condemned Feb. 9, and died in prison Feb. 13. Synod. {See Council.) Syka (^gean Sea). — The ancient Syros was noticed by Homer for its agricultural wealth B.C. 962. Syracuse (Sicily), the most ancient of the Greek colonies in the island, was founded by the Corinthians, under Archias, B.C. 734. B.C. 648. A ijarty called the Myletid?e are expelled. 486. An oligarchy called the Geomori, or Gamori, who had usurped the goverument, are overthrown, and they withdraw to Cas- menK, 485. Gelon, despot of Gela, restores them, and obtains for himself the supreme autho- rity. 478—467. Hieron patronizes literature and the arts. 466. Thrasybulus, his brother, is expelled, and a popular government established. 414 The siege is commenced by the Athenians. STE 413. The Athenians are compelled to lay down their arms, 7,000 being made prisoners, and not a ship of their fleet escipes. 405. Dionysius, taking advantage of the popular alarm consequent, on the successes of the Carthaginians, raises himself to despotic power, and soon after concludes a peace with them. 405—387. Dionysius fortifies the town, constiucta new harbours, and greatly increases the naval force. 397. War is commenced against Carthage. Aided by a pestilence which broke out in the camp of their enemies, the Syracusaus are completely victorious. 356. Dion makes himself master of Syi-acuse. 344. Timoleon obtains possession after a severe struggle, and introduces 60,000 immigrants. 275—216. Hieron II. reigns as king, ccjncludes a treaty with the Komans, and raises the city to its highest degree of wealth and splendour. 214 The siege is formed by the Eoman general Marcellus. 212. A portion of the city is taken by the be- siegers. The Carthaginians come to its assistance but afterwards abandon it, and the other portion surrenders. 'I he magni- ficent works of art which are carried as plunder to Rome give the first impulse to the love of Greek art among the con- querors. 21. The city having fallen into decay, Au- gustus endeavours to restore it by sending a Roman colony. X.T>. 535. It is taken from the Goths by Belisarius. 669. The Saracens having captured it, accept a ransom. 878. It is again taken by the Saracens after a siege of nine months. The inhabitants are put to death, and the city is burned. 1088. Count Roger of Sicily makes himself master of Syracuse. 1542. With other towns on the island it is nearly destroyed by an earthquake. 1693. The eruption of Mt\ivi, accompanied by an earthquake, commits great havoc. 1798. July 18. Nelson, after his unsuccessful search for the French fleet, puts into the port for water and provisions, and is joined bj aU his missing frigates. 1848. The revolutionists select Sjrracuse as one of the seven towns in which military camps are to be formed. 1849. April 8. It surrenders without resistance to the Neapolitan fleet. 1860. Sept. 2. The gaiTison espouse the cause of Garibaldi. Syria (Asia), the ancient Aram, derived its name from the patriarch Aram (Gen. x. 22). The appellation Syria is supposed to be an abbreviation of Assyria, and it is first employed by Herodotus. B.C. 1921. Abraham, having left his home at the com- mand of God (Geu. xii. 1—4), ai-rives in Aram. 1047. Hiram, king of lyre, sends workmen, and they buUd a house for King David (2 Sam. V. 11). 1040. David wages war against the Syrians and subdues them (2 Sam. viii.). 975. The country recovered its independence after the death of Solomon. 838-836. Jehoash, or Joash, king of Israel, obtains three important victories over Eeuhadad (2 Kings xiii. 25). 740. Resin, the last independent i-uler, having formed an alliance with Israel against Judah, Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, takes the field, slays Resin, and reduces the country to a dependency. SYR SZI 604 Having been for some time a province of Assyria, and afterwards seized by Pharaoh- Necho, king of Egypt, it is captui-ed by Nebuchadnezzar. 333. After a subjection to the Babylonian and Persian powere of three centuries' duraiioii, it falls under the rule of Alexander the Great by his victory at Issus. 323. Seleucus Nicator assumes the sovereignty, founding the dynasty of the Seleucidas. 301. His right, which has been disputed by Antigonus, is decided by the battle of Ipsus, and Autioch is foimded as the capital. 114 The kingdom is rent by dissensions, and Antiochus Cyzicenus, brother of the reign- ing monarch, establishes a new sovereignty at Damascus. 65. The descendants of the Seleucidte having con- tinued to occupy the throne, Antiochus XIII. is defeated by Pompey, and the country subjected to the Romans. 63. A great number of the cities receive the gift of freedom from the Romans. 57. Gabinius, proconsul, restores many of the cities which had been destroyed. 47. The rights which had been granted to the cities are confirmed by Julius Casaa- .&.S. t>. Judah and Samaria are added to the pro- vince. 117. Under the C^sars it flourishes greatly, and the eastern boundary is fixed by Hadrian at the Euphrates. 258. It is ovenuu and nearly conquered by Sapor I king 01 Persia. 261-264. Odenathus effects its deliverance. 611. The Persian Chosroes II., having reduced several other towns, takes Antioch, which he nearJy destroys. 614. Chosroes II. conquers Palestine. 622. Heraclius takes the field against Chos- roes II. 627. Heraclius drives him across the Tigris. 628. Su-oes, the son of Chosroes II., makes a treaty of peace with HeracUus, one of its con- ditions being the restoration of the " true cross." 630. Some of the towns of Syria are taken by Mo- hammed. 632. His successor, Abu Bekr, summons the Arab tribes to its invasion, 633. A large ai-my having responded to the caU. siege is laid to Damascus. 634 July 30. The battle of Aizuadin is fought, in which the Greeks under Vardan, general of Heiachus, are almost annihilated by the Arabs. Aug. 23 Another army of Greeks meet a similar fate on the banks of the Yermak. 635. Januaiy. Damascus is taken after an obsti- nate resistance. 637. Jerusalem is allowed an honoui-able capitula- 638. Aleppo submits, Antioch pays a ransom of three hundred thousand pieces of gold, and Heraclius flees to Constantinople, leaving «ci -n ^ P™"^iiice in the hands of the Sai-acens ^S' J^i^ascus IS made the seat of government 768. The seat of government is removed to Bagdad by the Abbassides. «68. The Tuikish usurper Ahmed Ebn e' Tooloon subdues the province, together with Eoypt and establishes the Tooloonides dynasty ' 906. It IS recovered by Caliph Moktafee. 936. Is subj ected byAkshed Mohammed Ebn Tu^ho- another usurper. " "' 970. Moez conquers it after makiughimself master of Egypt, and founds the Fatimite dynasty with Cairo for a capital. 1076. Syi-ia is invaded by the Turks, who established an independent kingdom under the princes of the house of Ortok. 1096. The caliph MosUli is dispossessed of a large poi-tion by ihe Crusadei-s, 824 1099. The Christian kingdom of Jerusalem is esta- blished. 1187. Saladin conquers it, and founds the Eyoobite dynasty. 1250. It is partially destroyed by the revolt of the Baharite Memlooks. 1260. Damascus is recovertd by Seifed Deen, who is afterwaids slain in an invasion of the Mongols. 1400. Syria is invaded by Tamerlane. 1401. Jan. 23. Damascus is sacked. 1516. The Circassian Memlooks are overthrown by the Turks, and the country is united to the Ottoman emtiire by the sultan Selim I. 1799. Feb. 6. Syria is invaded by Napoleon Bona- parte from Egypt. May 20. Napoleon Bo- napai-te abandons it after having been foiled in his attempt to take St. Jean d'Acre. 1831. Dec. 9. Ibrahim Pasha having invaded it and taken Gaza, attacks Acre. 1832. April 15. The sultan declares war against Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, who had refused to withdraw the forces under com- mand of his son Ibrahim. May 21. Ibrahim Pasha reduces Acre. June 13. Ibrahim Pasha takes Damascus. July 7. He defeats the sultan s army at Hems. Aug. 1. He takes Autioch. Dec. 21. Ibrahim routs the army of the sultan at Kouiah. 1833. May 6. The sultan having claimed the assist- ance of Russia, France and England in- terpose, and peace is concluded. 1839. May. Hostilities are renewed. June 25. The Turkish army i.t defeated by Ibrahim at Nezib. July 4. Tlie Turkish fleet desert to Mehemet Ali. 1840. July 15. England, Austria, Russia, and Prus- sia, conclude a treaty to enforce the sub- mission of Mehemet to Turkey. 1841. Jan. 11. After hostilities of some duration, and much negotiation, Mehemet consents to give up Syria, and receives from the sultan the hereditary govei-nment of Egypt. 1860. May 28. A general attack is made upon the Marouites in the neighbourhood of Bey- rout and the Lebanon by the Druses, when about 1,201 1 persons are massacred, the Turkish soldiei-s offering no protection to the unfortunate victims. June 21. Through the treacherous conduct of the governor of Deir ■ el - Kammar, another shocking butchery of Maronites is perpetrated at that place. July 9. Similar atrocities are per- petrated at Damascus. July 14. A body of 2,000 Turkish troops set out from Beyrout to Damascus ; but before they anive the murderous work has ceased. Aug. 3. The Turkish govemment, professing itself in- competent to put down the outbreak, a con- vention is entered into between England, Austria, Russia, France, and Prussia, to' restore order. Fuad Pasha is invested by the sultan with plenary powei-s to execute summary vengeance upon the assassins, and sets out from Constantinople. 167 persons are publicly executed at Damascus for being concerned in the massacres. It is estimated that about 12,000 persons lost their lives, 200 of whom were priests. 163 villages' 220 cnm-ches, and seven convents were also destroyed. STEo-MACEDOJTiAif ^EA, Called also the sera of tlie Greeks, the sera of the Seleuci- dae, and the sera of Alexander (q. v.), is the second of the two epochs adopted by the Greeks. SzENTA, or Zenta (Battle).— A victory was gained over the Turks, by Prince Eu- gene, at this town of Hungary, Sept. 11, 1696. SziSTOVA. (See Sistota.) TAB TAL Tabasco (Mexico), the capital of the department of Tabasco, is celebrated as the scene of a great victory gained by the Spa- niards, under Cortes, over the Indians, March 25, 1519. {See Ceutla.) TABERifACLE. — Three sacred tabernacles are mentioned in the Old Testament. — 1. The ante-Sinaitic tabernacle, which was probably the dwelling of Moses, and was placed by the camp of the Israelites in the desert for the transaction of public busi- ness, B.C. 1491. 2. The Sinaitic taber- nacle, which was set up on the first day of the first month in the second year after leaving Egypt, B.C. 1489. This is pre-emi- nently the tabernacle. 3. The Davidic ta- bernacle, which was erected by David, in Jerusalem, B.C. 1045, for the reception of the ark, while the old tabernacle remained at Gibeon, as the place where sacrifices were offered, until the days of Solomon. Table Bat (Atlantic Ocean), near the southern extremity of Africa, was disco- vered by Bartholomew Diaz, a.d. 1486. Table Tuening and Moving is referred to in a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus (1. xxix. c. 1), who relates that two persons were brought before a court of justice for disseminating prophecies injurious to the emperor Valens, a.b. 370. It was first per- formed in modern times by two American girls, Margaret and Catherine Fox, at village near New York, a.d. 1849. A German merchant at the latter place com- municated the mystery to his brother, in Bremen, and by the beginning of 1853 it had become a mania throughout Europe. The Eev. N". S. Godfrey, and other divines, ascribed the phenomenon to Satanic agency, others attributed it to elecrricity, while M. Arago, in France (July, 1853), and Far- raday, and others in England, considered it the resiilt of mechanical force. Tabokites, a violent sect of Hussites {q.v.), so named from their stronghold on Mount Tabor, in Bohemia, which they for- tified on being compelled to quit Prague, A.D. 1419. Under the command of their leader, John Ziska, they demolished mo- nasteries, burned the priests alive, and then returned to Prague, May 20, 1420, and de- stroyed all that remained of the former magnificence of the churches. They de- feated the imperiaUsts near Kolin, Jan. 1, 1422, and again at Deutschbrod, Jan. 8, which town they burned, putting aUthe inha- bitants to the sword. Their leader, Ziska, died Oct. 12, 1424. A civil war broke out between the Taborites and Calixtines {q.v.), another sect of Hussites, in 1433, and the latter, aided by the Eoman Catholics, stormed and drove the Taborites out of New Prague in 1434, and defeated them with great slaughter at Boehmischgrod, May 28, 1434. Their leaders, the two Procops, fell in this battle, and two days after 10,000 pri- soners, who had been promised safety, were slain in cold blood. The Taborites rose again, but were completely annihilated by the emperor Sigismund in 1436. Tabriz, or Tabbeez (Persia), is said to have been founded by the wife of Haroun-al- Eashid, a.d. 791. The castle, formerly a mosque, was built about 1250. Tadmoe. {See Palmyra.) Taffett, a fine smooth silken stuff used in the 16th century for various articles of dress, and considered as a luxury. John Tyce, of London, brought its manufacture to a high state of perfection about 1571 or 1572. Taganeog (Eussia). — This seaport was founded by Peter the Great, a.d. 1697. It was given up to the Turks, by treaty, in 1711, but was restored to the Eussians, and rebuilt by them, in 1769. The emperor Alexander I. died here Dec. 1, 1825, and it was bombarded by the allied fleet, June 3, 1855. Tagliamento (B attle) . — The French, under Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, on the banks of this river in Italy, March 16, 1797. TAGiiiocozzo (Battle). — The French, under Charles of Anjou, defeated Conredin, the son of the emperor Conrad IV., of Ger- many, at this town of Naples, Aug. 23, 1268. Taherites. — This dynasty was founded in the province of Khorassan, in Persia, by the Mohammedan general Taher, a.d. 820. It was supplanted by the Soffarides dynasty ia872. Tahiti, {See Otaheite.) Taillebourg (Battle). — Henry III. of England, having passed over to France, ad- vanced against this town, and sustained a defeat from Louis IX., July 20, 1242. Tailors, among the Eomans, were only required for mending, as the toga came from the loom ready for use. A thimble, similar to that now in use, 'was found in Herculaneum, destroyed in the Vesuvian eruption of a.d. 79. Tailors worked cross- legged upon boards in the 14th century. A strike amongst the journeymen tailors in the metropohs, which lasted several weeks, was brought to a termination by their ac- ceptance of the masters' terms, April 27, 1834. Talaveea-de-la-Eetna (Spain). — This ancient town of Spain, called by the Eo- mans Ebora Talabriga, was taken by the Moors A.D. 714, and again taken and de- stroyed by them in 1109. It was soon rebmlt, and became an appanage of the queens of Spain. Here 22,000 English, under Wellington, engaged and defeated about 45,000 French, under Marshals Victor and Jourdain, July 27 and 28, 1809. Cuesta, the Spanish general, was left in command of the town, but he abandoned it, together with the English wounded, on the approach of the French, in August, 1809. It was evacuated by the French Aug. 15, 1812. Talbotxpe, the name given to a process 825 TAL of photography on paper, discoTered by Fox Talbot, a.d. 1840, and patented by Mm in February, 1841. Tally-Office.— The Tally Court in the Exchequer derived its name from the French taille, or tailler, to cut or notch. A tally is a piece of wood written upon both sides, containing an acquittance for money received, which, being cleft asunder by an officer of the exchequer, one part was deh- vered to the person who had paid the money, and the other was preserved in the exche- quer. The use of tallies was abolished by 23 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782), but the old tallies were preserved in the exchequer, until the remodelhng of that office by 4 Wm. IV. c. 15 (May 22, 1834), when they were or- dered to be destroyed. They were accord- ingly used to heat the stoves in the House of Lords, and are said to have been the cause, from having been burned in too large quantities, of the fire which destroyed the two houses of parhament, Oct. 16, 1834. Talmud. — The Jews have been ac- customed to divide their law into written and unwritten — the former contained in the Pentateuch, the latter handed down orally, vmtil the restoration of Jerusa- lem, under Hadrian, a. d. 135. The oral law is an interpretation of the written, and con- stitutes the text of the Tahnud, which was first permanently composed by the rabbi Judah Hakkadosh, a.d. 190 or 220. A two- fold commentary was subsequently added to it, one called the Jerusalem Gemara, composed in the 3rd century, and the other the Babylonian Gemara, completed A.D. 500. TA3r5r2ir.s; (Euboea) was taten by the Persians when they attacked Eretria, B.C. 490. A great victory was gained here by the Athenian general Phocion, over Callias of Chalcis, b.c. 350. TA?fAGE A (Greece) . — This town in Boeotia, also called Poemandria, from the fertihty of its neighbourhood, was the scene of a defeat of the Athenians, by the Lacedasmonians, B.C. 457. The Athenians invaded the coun- try, and gained a decisive victory over the Boeotians, near Tanagra, B.C. 456 {nee (Enophtta), and again B.C. 426. Tanagra continued to flourish in the 6th century. Taxgier (Morocco).— This seaport, on the site of the ancient Tingis, which became a Eoman colony and the capital of the province of Tingitana in the reign of the emperor Claudius (a.d. 41 — 54), was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese in 1471, and ceded by them to the Enghsh, as a gift to Charles II. on his marriage with Catharine of Bragan^a, May 20, 1662. The Enghsh retained possession for twenty-two years. It was almost destroyed by an earthquake April 12, 1773 ; was ravaged by the plague in September, 1818 ; and was bombarded by the French Aug. 6, 1844. Tanjoee (Hindostan), the capital of a district of the same name in the Madras presidency, was conquered by the Mahratta chief Veneajee, a.d. 1675, and from him the TAP line of rajahs was descended. The English were repulsed here in 1749, and the French in 1758. It was besieged and taken by the Enghsh in 1773. The nabob of Arcot, supported by the Madras government, claimed tribute from Tanjore, and the rajah was deposed ; but he was restored on consenting to pay tribute and a subsidy for an English force "in Tanjore in .1781. _ A dispute for the succession between Serfojee and Ameer Sing was decided by the English in favour of the latter in April, 1787. He was, however, deposed, and Serfojee elevated to the throne in 1798. The new rajah vielded Tanjore to the East-India Company for an annual subsidy in 1799, retaining only sovereign authority in the fort. He died in 1832, and was succeeded by his son Sevajee, who died in 1855, when the dignity of rajah of Tanjore became extinct. Tanu-enbitbg (Battle). — Ladislaus V., king of Poland, defeated the Teutonic knights at this place, in Prussia, July 15, 1410. The knights lost, it is said, 40,000 in killed and 30,000 taken prisoners. Tanniitg.- This art is of oriental origin, and is mentioned by Moses. In England tanners had been accustomed to keep hides in the tan-pit a year or more ; but owing to alterations in the process in the 16th century, complaints were made that they were "tanned in three weeks ; and in consequence an act was passed, 2 & 3 Edw. VI. e. 11 (1548), prohibiting tanners from selling hides that had not been nine months in the tan-pit. Tanners were pro- hibited from carrying on the trade of shoe- makers by 13 Rich. II. c. 12 (1389), or that of curriers by 1 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1485). Butchers were "prevented from being tanners by 5 Eliz. c. 8 (1562). AH restrictions were removed from the trade by 11 Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 29, 1830). Great improvements were introduced in the process of tanning by Seguin, a French chemist, in 1795 ; and the art was first reduced to scientific principles by Sir H. Davy in 1803. TAiTTALtrM. — This name was given to a sup- posed new metal discovered by Ekeberg in some Swedish minerals. Dr. WoUaston, in 1809, proved it to be identical with the metal discovered in 1801 by Hatchett in a ferruginous mineral from North America, and called columbiTmi {q-v.). Tapestet. — The invention of tapestry has been ascribed to Attains III., king of Per- gamus, who died B.C. 133. The ordinary kind of tapestry was borrowed from the Saracens, and hence the early manufacturers in France were called Sarazinois. It was introduced there about the 9th century, and was made for the church of Auxerre prior to 840. Poitiers was noted for its manu- facture as early as 1025. The Flemings were celebrated for tapestry from the 12th century, and its manufacture attained its highest perfection in Flanders in the 15th cen- tury. Tapestry was introduced into England as furniture by Eleanor, wife of Prince Ed- ward, in 1255. The supply came principally from the continent. Tapestry-^veaving was brought into England by Sheldon, late in the reign of Henry VIII. ; and a manu- factory was set up at Mortlake by Sir F. Crane in 1619. It was for the use of this establishment that Charles I. purchased the famous cartoons of Ealfaelle. After the Eestoration, Charles II. endeavoured to revive the manufacture, but without success. Henry IV. of France re-established the manufacture of tapestry in Paris in 1597, and the art made great progress in France in the reign of Louis XIV. The G-obelin tapestry dates its origin from this time. {See Bateux Tapesxby.) Tae. — Becher, a German chemist, who died in London a.d. 1685, was the first to propose the making of coal-tar. An account of the manufacture of tar from a blackish stone in Shropshire was given by the in- ventor, Martin Erie, in the " Philosophical Transactions " published in May, 1697. Owing to the inconvenience caused by the refusal of the Swedish Tar Company to supply it, excepting in such quantities and at such prices as they might choose, the English parliament offered bounties for its importation from the British colonies in North America in 1703. In consequence of the American war, some lamp-black manu- facturers at Bristol turned their attention to its manufacture from pit- coal about 1779, and Lord Dimdonald obtained a patent for improvements in these processes in 1781. Tara (Ireland). — At this place, in Meath, the Irish gained a great victory over the Danes, a.d. 980. The HOI of Tara was in ancient times the chief seat of the Irish kings. Here the insurgent Irish were de- feated by the royahsts, May 26, 1789 ; and here a monster meeting of the " repealers," computed at 1,000,000 persons, according to the highest calculation, and 250,000 at the lowest, was held by O'Connell, Aug. 15, 1843. Taeanto (Italy) . — This town occupies the site of the acropolis or citadel of the ancient town of Tarentum {q.v.), and is situated on an island in the Gulf of Taranto. It was founded after the sacking of Tarentum by the Saracens, a.d. 830, was taken by Robert Guiscard in 1063, and from that time it formed part of the kingdom of Naples. It was taken by the French in April, 1801. Tarbes (France), anciently caUed Bigorra, was the capital of the country of Bigorre in the Middle Ages. It came into the possession of the English monarchs as part of the dowry of Queen Eleanor a.d. 1152, and remained under their sway for 300 years. Edward the Black Prince occasion- ally resided here. The' French were de- feated here by the Enghsh, March 20, 1814. Tarentum (Italy) was founded by a Spartan colony, B.C. 708. Of its early history httle is known. The forces of Tarentum and Rhegium were defeated by the Messapians, B.C. 473. Soon after the Tarentines engaged in a war with the Thurians, to prevent them occupying the TAR district of the Siritis. The dispute was settled by the establishment of a joint colony named Heracleia in the contested territory. A war vdth their neighbours, the Lucanians, caused them to apply to Archi- damus, king of Sparta, for assistance. He landed b.c. 346, and was defeated and slain B.C. 338. They then sought the aid of Alexander of Epirus, who arrived b.c. 332, and, after defeating the enemies of Ta- rentum, turned against his allies and took Heracleia. They were relieved from this new antagonist by his death, B.C. 326, and again applied to Sparta for aid, B.C. 303, when Cleonymus came to their assistance, and compelled the Lucanians and Messapians to sue for peace. The Tarentines now made a treaty with Rome, by which vessels of that nation were not permitted to enter the Gulf of Tarentum. It was violated when a Roman fleet was sent to assist the Thurians, B.C. 282. The Tarentines attacked the fleet and destroyed and captured five vessels, and then took Thuria and expelled the Roman garrison. War was declared against them by the Romans B.C. 281, and the Tarentines applied to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for assistance. Though at first successful, he was finally defeated by Curius, and withdrew from Italy B.C. 274, leaving his general, Milo, to protect Tarentum. It surrendered to the Romans B.C. 272, from which time it remained subject to them. In the second Punic war, Tarentum was seized by Han- nibal, B.C. 212. The citadel, however, held out, and the Carthaginian general tried in vain to take it by storm. He then block- aded it for two years. Fabius came to the assistance of the Romans, took the city, and put the Carthaginian garrison and a large part of the inhabitants to the sword, B.C. 209. Tarentum, taken by Belisarius, was retaken by Totila, a.d. 549, and continued in the hands of the Goths till captured by Narses in 553. The Lombards took it in 661. The Saracens landed at Tarentum in 830. Taeifa (Spain), a seaport deriving its name from Tarif Ibn Mahk, who landed here when sent by Musa, the Mussulman emir, to reconnoitre before his invasion from Africa, a.d. 712. It was taken by Sancho IV. in 1292, and was held by Alonzo Perez de Guzman against the Moors in 1294. He would not surrender it, though they threat- ened to behead his only son, and actually carried out the threat before his eyes. The kings of Castile and Portugal gained a great victory here over the Moors, Oct. 28, 1340, when the latter were besieging the town. It was successfully defended by 1,800 British and 700 Spaniards against a 'French force 13,000 strong, from Dec. 19, 1811, to Jan. 4, 1812, when the French raised the siege, having lost about 1,000 men. Tariff. — These duties were originally f ranted for the use of the king, as is shown y25 Edw. I. c. 7 (1296). Thev were con- tained in two books tiU 27 Geo. III. c. 13 (1786), when all the duties were ordered to TAR be paid according to a new book of rates annexed to that statute. The Britisli tariff has undergone several important alterations during the present century. It was much simplified, and the duty on a great number of articles abolished by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47 (July 9, 1842), and 8 Vict. c. 13 (May 8, 1845). Taepeian- Eock (Eome). — According to the legend, Tarpeia, the daughter of the fovernor of the citadel of Eome, surren- ered it to the Sabines, who were advancing against Eomulus (b.c. 722) to avenge the abduction of the Sabine virgins — on con- dition of receiving the gold bracelets they wore upon their left arras. Tatius, the Sabine king, to pimish her perfidy, as he entered the gates, cast not only his bracelet, but his shield upon her. This example was followed by his soldiers, and Tarpeia was crushed to death. Tarpeia was buried in the Capitol, and her memory was rendered still more infamous by naming that rock the Tarpeian, from whence traitors were after- wards hurled. Taeeagoita (Spain) . — The ancient Tarraeo was originally settled by the Phceniciaus, and became a Roman colony during the se- cond Punic war (b.c. 218— b.c. 202), when the town was enlarged and fortified. It was made the capital of a province by the em- peror Augustus, was taken by the Goths A.D. 467, and by the Moors in 714. They completely destroyed it, and it remained in ruins for four centuries. The town, rebuilt in the beginning of the 12th century, was taken by Alfonso of Arragon in 1220. It ■was captured by the Enghsh in 1705, but afterwards abandoned by them, and was taken by the French, June 7, 1808, and again June 29, 1811. The Enghsh, having attempted to retake it in the end of July, 1813, raised the siege Aug. 17, on the ap- proach of the French, under Marshal Sachet, who entered the town and destroyed the fortifications, Aug. 18. It surrendered to the French in the Spanish revolutionary war in June, 1823. Councils were held here in 464 ; Nov. 6, 516 ; May 1, 1230 ; April 19, 1239 ; May 8, 1240 ; May 13, 1242 ; in 1244 ; May 1, 1247 ; in 1248 ; AprH 8, 1253 ; March 22, 1282; in 1294; Feb. 22, 1305; in 1307; and Feb. 22, 1317. Taeshish. — It is considered probable that the references to Tarshish in the Scriptures point to two distinct emporixmis, one situ- ated at the extremity of the Mediterranean, and the other in the Indian Ocean. Tartes- sus, in Spain, is supposed to have been the western, and Point de GaUe, in Ceylon, the eastern Tarshish. The prophet Ezekiel, writing in the 6th century B.C., describes Tarshish as the "Merchant of Tyre by reason of the multitude of all riches." Taesus (Asia Minor), the metropolis of Cilicia, is said to have been founded by Sar- danapalus, B.C. 820. It was a great and flourishing city when taken and plundered by the younger Cyrus, b.c. 401. Alexander the Great took it B.C. 333, and was detained TAS here some time with a dangerous fever. In the war between Csesar and Pompey (e.g. 47) Tarsus sided with the former, and took the name of Juhopolis. It was made a free city by Augustus. The apostle Paul (" Saul of Tarsus," Acts ix. 11) was a native of the city (a.d. 33). It was seized by the Saracens in the early days of their empire, but was taken from them, after an obstinate resistance, in the second half of the 10th century. Soon afterwards it was restored to them, and haa remained under their sway ever since. Coun- cils were held here in November, 431 ; 435 j and 1177. Taetaeic Acid, first discovered in a se- parate state by the celebrated chemist Scheele, who was born at Stralsund, in Sweden, Dec. 19, 1742, and died at Kioping, May 24, 1786. Liebig formed tartaric acid by artificial means in 1859. Tabtaes. — According to Pritchard, the Tatars, or Tartars, were a tribe nearly al- lied to the Mongols in race, who dwelt near Lake Bouyir, to the eastward of Mongolia. They were among the first of the Mongol conquests, and they took afterwards so con- spicuous a place in the army of Zenghis Khan, that their name became synonymous with that of the Mongols. Their proper name was Tatars. It is said to have been changed into Tartar in consequence of an expression of St. Louis, who, when the devastations of Zenghis Khan were heard of with horror in western Europe, is reported to have ex- claimed, " Erigat nos, mater, cceleste sola- tium, quia si proveniant ipsi, vel nos ipsos quos vocamus Tartaros ad suas Tartareas sedes, unde exierunt, retrudemus, vel ipsi nos omnes ad ccelum advehent." Taetaey (Asia). — This tract of country, bounded on the north by Eussia, on the east by China, on the south by Affghanistan and ( Persia, and on the west by the Caspian Sea, was conquered by Toulun, who assumed the title of khan of Tartary, about a.d. 405. The name of Tartary has disappeared from geography, and the greater part of the country is known by the name of Turkestan. (See ScTTHiA.) Tasmania (Australia). — This island, for- merly called Van Diemen's Land, was dis- covered by Tasman, Dec. 1, 1642, and named after Van Diemen, the governor of the Dutch East-India settlements. The coast was explored by Marion, Fumeaux, Cook, Prune d'Entrecasteaux, and Kermandee, between 1772 and 1792, and the island was taken possession of by the British for a penal settlement, in connection with the penal head-quarters at Sydney, in August, 1803. Collins landed vdth a party of con- victs Feb. 19, 1804, and foimded the city of Hobart Town, of which he was the first governor. He died in 1810. It became a distinct colony in 1825. An anti-transpor- tation society was formed in 1851. Their efforts to abolish transportation were suc- cessful ; and by permission of the Queen its name was changed from Van Diemen's Land to Tasmania. The present system of self- TAU gOTernment was established in 1855 and 1856. Tattntow (N"orth America). — This town in Massachussets was founded a.d. 1637. TAUifTON- (Somersetshire), originally called Tantun, and subsequently Tawnton and Thoneton, from its situation on the river Thone, is supposed to have been a Koman station; but the earhest authentic account of the place refers to the period of the Oc- tarchy, when a castle was built by In a, king of Wessex, a.d. 700. It was destroyed by his queen, Ethelburga, in 722, and remained in ruins tiU the reign of William the Con- queror, when it was rebuilt by the bishops of Winchester, to whom the town and manor were granted. It was taken in 1497 by Per- kin Warbeck, who abandoned it on the ap- proach of the royal troops. Colonel, after- wards Admiral Blake, defended it against 10,000 Eoyahsts until relieved by Fairfax in 1645. James, duke of Monmouth, was pro- claimed king here June 21, 1685, and many of his followers were put to death by General Kirke, Aug. 27. -A charter, granted to the town in 1627, was taken away at the Eestoration (1660), and its walls were razed to the ground in consequennce of the zeal displayed by the inhabitants for the parhament. The charter, subsequently re- stored, was forfeited in 1792. Taunton has returned two members to parliament since 1625. The church of St. Mary Magdalen, built in the 14th century, was richly decorated by Henry VII., in return for the support given by the town to the Lancastrian cause. The free grammar-school was founded in 1522, and endowed in 1554. The almshouses at East Gate were founded in 1635 ; the hos- pital was founded in 1809, and opened March 25, 1812; and the eye infirmary was esta- blished in 1816. The canal between Taunton and Bridgewater, projected in 1811, added much to the prosperity of the town. The museum, library, &c., were erected in 1821, and the Taunton and Somerset Institution was estabhshed in 1823. The railway from Bristol to Exeter was opened as far as Taun- ton in July, 1842. Taueomem-ixtm (Sicily), the modern Taor- mina, was founded by the remaining inhabit- ants of Naxos, who were driven into exile after the destruction of that town by Diony- sius I., B.C. 396. It was ineffectually besieged by Dionysius I. B.C. 394, and submitted to him B.C. 392. It is considered, however, to have first become truly a Greek city when Andromachus, father of the historian Ti- meeus, brought together the exiled Naxians who were scattered over the island, and located them here, b.c. 358. It had risen to a considerable degree of opulence, when Timoleon landed, B.C. 345', and was incor- porated with the kingdom of Syracuse shortly after b.c. 278. Having passed with the island under Eoman domination, it was held by the insurgent slaves, and suffered severely B.C. 134 — 132. Sextus Pompeius made it one of his chief strongholds of defence against Octavius, and gained an important naval TEA victory over him, B.C. 36. Augustus expelled its former inhabitants, and settled a Roman colony in their place, B.C. 35. Tauss (Battle). — The Hussites defeated the Imperialists near this town, in Bohemia, Aug. 14, 1431. Taveeks.— Places of entertainment so called, can be traced in England to the 13th century. They were ordered to be closed at curfew by 13 Edw. I. c. 5 (1284). The oldest tavern in London is said to have been the " Boar's Head," in Eastcheap, where Shakespeare represents Prince Henry and his dissolute companions indulging in their revels, before 1413. The "White Hart" tavern, in Bishopsgate Street, was esta- blished in 1480. The number was hmited in London to forty, and in Westminster to three, by 7 Edw. VI. c. 5 (1553), in conse- quence of complaints having been made of their great increase, "to the hurt and de- bauching of the morals of the people." Taverns were first hcensed in 1752. TAXATioif . — The Greeks and Romans pos- sessed systems of taxation almost as com- prehensive and varied as those which exist at the present day ; but at the decHne of the Roman empire the feudal system of personal service was introduced. The modern insti- tution of taxes originated in the practice of compounding for feudal service by pay- ments of money. Immunity from arbitrary taxation was established by 25 Edw. I. cc, 5 & 6 (1297), and by the BiU of Rights, 1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 2 (1689). (See Customs, Excise, Income and Propeety Tax, Land Tax, Stamp Duties, &c.) Tchad, or Tsad (Africa). — This lake, in the central regions of the continent, 120 miles in length, with an average breadth of about 70, was discovered and partly explored by Clapperton and Denham, a.d. 1823. Over- weg and Barth made further explorations in 1851, and Dr. Vogel in 1854. TcHEENATA (Battle). — The Russians, under General Liprandi, were defeated by the French and Sardinians, under Marshal Pelissier and General La Marmora, on the banks of this river, near Sebastopol, in the Crimea, Aug. 16, 1855. TcHEENiGov, or CzEENiGOF (Russia), capital of the province of that name, the oldest town in the European portion of the empire, was built a.d. 1024. TcHESME (Sea-fight).— The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Russians, near this smaU town of Anatoha, in Asia Minor, in July, 1770. Tea. — The tea-plant, supposed to be indi- genous to China, according to their writers, was first discovered in the Sth century. An impost was levied on tea by the emperor Te-Tsang, a.d. 781. Japanese writers main- tain that it was brought there from China in the 9th century. It was introduced into Europe by the Dutch in 1591, and was used in England, on rare occasions, some years prior to 1657, and sold at from £6 to £10 the pound. Thomas Garway, the first English tea-dealer, retailed it in 1657, to the public. TEA in the leaf, at from 15«. to 508. the pound, and also in the infusion. It was first imported by the East-India Company in 1677, when they received from China 4,713 pounds, which glutted the market for seve- ral years. Green tea was first used in England in 1715. A duty of 8^. per gallon on all ready-made tea prepared for sale was imposed by 12 Charles II. c. 23 (1660), but the leaf was fii-st taxed by 1 Will. & Mary, sess. 2, e. 6 (1689), which imposed a duty of 5s. per lb. and 5 per cent, on the value. By 10 Geo. I. c. 10 (1723), the duty was reduced to 4s. per lb. ; and by 18 Geo. II. c. 26 (1745), it was again reduced to Is. per lb. and £25 per cent, on the value. All previous duties were repealed by 24 Geo. III. sess. 2, c. 38 (1784) , which effected an average reduction of 106| per cent, by imposing a window-tax. The dutv was nearlv doubled by 35 Geo. III. c, 13 (March 16, 1795) ; and by 59 Geo. III. c. 53 (July 2, 1819), it was raised to £96 per cent, on tea worth less than 2s. per lb., and to £100 per cent, on tea above that price. These ad valorem duties were repealed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 101 (Aug. 29, 1833), which ordered that, after April 22, 1834, rates of Is. &d., 2s. 2d., and d». per lb. should be charged on teas according to their quahties. This arrangement proving unsatisfactory, owing to the difficulty of deciding the quahty of the article, an equal duty of 2s. Id. on every lb. of tea imported was imposed by 5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 32 (Aug. 21, 1835). An addition of 5 per cent, was imposed by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 17 (June 19, 1840). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 20, 1853), it was arranged that till April 5, 1854, the duty should be 1«. lOd. per lb. ; that it should then remain at Is, Qd. till Apx'il 5, 1855, when it should faU to Is. M. ; and that after April 5, 1856, it should be Is. per lb. In consequence of the expenses attending the Russian war, these provisions were repealed by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 9 (March 16, 1855), which raised the duty to Is. 6d. ; and by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 21 (May 25, 1855), it was increased to Is. 9d. It was reduced to Is. 5d. by 20 & 21 Vict. C.61 (Aug. 25, 1857). Teaeless Victoet.— When the news of a great battle, gained by the Spartan king Archidamus over the Arcadians, B.C. 368, or, as it came to be called " the tearless battle," reached Sparta, aU the Spartans who heard it burst into tears. Te Deum, a kind of hymn, or song of thanks, supposed to have been composed by St. Augustine and St. Ambrose, is sung in the Eomish church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity upon the gaining of a battle or other happy event. It was also sruig in Protestant churches on days of thauks- giving for a victory, peace, or other national event. A Te Deum was performed at St. Paul's cathedral when Queen Anne went in state to give thanks for the victory of Blen- heim, a.d. 1704; and one was performed there, with vocal and instrumental music, on the thanksgiving day for the battle of Eanuhies, in 1706. This was the first time an instru- TEI mental band was permitted to accompany the voices in St. Paxil's. Handel's Te Deum for the battle of Dettingen, in 1743, and Graun's for the king of Prussia's victory at Kolin, in 1757, ai-e celebrated composi- tions. Teeth. — The Mathematical Jewel, pub- hshed A.D. 1585, contains an account of one Sir John Blagrave, " who caused his teeth to be all drawne out, and after had a sett of ivory teeth in agayne." Artificial teeth were in common use in England in 1609. Teetotallee. — This term was first used in September, 1833, by Eichard Turner, a working man of Preston, in addressing temperance meetings, to describe his thorough abstiuence from intoxicating be- verages. Teflis, or TiFLis (Asia), the capital of Georgia, and of all the Transcaucasian pro- vinces of Eussia, was built by Vachtang, the founder of a dynasty which ruled from the Euxine to the Caspian, a.d. 469. It was taken by Tamerlane ia 1386, and by the Turks in 1576, and again in 1723. Kouli Khan retook it in 1734, and it was captured and destroyed by Aga Mohammed in 1795. The Eussians became masters of it in 1801. It was devastated by the cholera in 1830. Tegea (Greece), one of the most power- ful cities of Arcadia, is said to have been founded by Tegeates, a son of Lycaon, and is mentioned by Homer in connection with the siege of Troy, b.c. 1184. The Spartans were defeated in an attempt to acquire do- minion over it, and ChariUus, their king, and all the survivors of the army, made prisoners, B.C. 850. It submitted to Sparta B.C. 560. A contingent of 500 men fought at Thermo- pvlae B.C. 480, and one of 3,000 at the battle of Platsea, B.C. 479. Leotychides, king of Sparta, found refuge here B.C. 469, and Pau- sanias B.C. 394. In the Cleomenic war it was taken by Antigonus Doson, and annexed to the Achaean League B.C. 222. It was com- pletely destroyed by Alaric about a.d. 400. Tegyea (Battle). — The Thebans under Pelopidas gained a victory over the Lacedae- monians at this town of Bceotia, B.C. 375. Teheean, or Tehean (Persia) , the modem capital, was, previous to the present century, an insignificant town. It was made the me- tropohs of the empire by Aga Mohammed Khan about a.d. 1790. A body of French engineers was sent here by ]S"apoleon I. in 1807, to organize the military resources of Persia. The Eussian minister was assassin- ated here Feb. 12, 1829. Xear the towa. are the ruins of the ancient Ehages, the capital of the Parthian kings, where Alexander halted for five days in his pursuit of Darius, b.c. 330. Teigkhottth (Devonshire) was originally an insignificant village, and is said to have been the first landing-place of the Danes in England, a.d. 787. It contributed seven ships towards the expedition against Calais in 1347. The town was burned by a French pirate in 1350, and was plundered in July, 1690, by the French, who also burned 116 TEL TEM h^ouses, with a number of ships and small craft in the harbour. Being threatened with a similar attack in 1744, the inhabitants ob- tained permission to erect a fort on the beach at East Teignmouth. A market and fair were granted the town in the reign of Henry III. The school for the gratuitous instruction of poor children was founded in 1731. The quay was constructed in 1820. Telamon- (Italy).— This city of Etruria is first mentioned B.C. 225, as the scene of the defeat by the Eomans of the Cisalpine Gauls. Marius landed here on his return from exile B.C. 87. The town was in existence as late as the 4th century, but from this time all trace of it disappears till the 14th century, when a castle was built on its site. Tklegeaph. — The word telegraph, from TTjXs, at a distance, and ypa(p(jj, I write, signifies any method of communicating iu- telMgence to a distance by means of visible signals, and was brought into use about a.d. 1793. The ancients employed fire and flags for the purpose. Polybius (b.c. 204 — 122) states that a rude system of telegraphy had been invented by Cleoxenes and Demochtus, and improved by himself. The marquis of Worcester describes some ingenious tele- graphic inventions of his own in the " Cen- tury of Inventions," 1663. Dr. Hooke described a clever plate telegraph May 21, 1684 ; but no practical advantage was taken of the invention until 1793, when Chappe in- troduced a system of semaphore telegraphs in France. In 1801 John Boaz of Glasgow patented a nocturnal telegraph. In 1806 a new plan was adopted, and in 1816 Sir Home Popham introduced great improvements. The principle of these telegraphs was the same as that of the various semaphore signals employed on railways, (See Electeig and Submarine Telegraphs.) Telescope is said to have been invented by Zacharias Jansen, an optician of Mid- dleburg, a.d. 1590. Another account assigns the discovery to 1610 ; and HaUam states that the date of the invention, or at least of its publicity, is referred beyond dis- pute to 1609. Others ascribe the invention to Adrian Metius, at Alckmaar, about 1607. GaHleo heard of the discovery while at Venice in 1609, and from the description constructed an instrument of the kind, with which he discovered the four satellites of Jupiter in 1610. The astronomical telescope was greatly improved by Huyghens about 1655. James Gregory published suggestions for forming a telescope on a new plan in 1663. Newton made one on this principle, which is known as the Gregorian telescope, and also com- pleted his reflecting telescope in 1672. This last was further improved, by Dr. Hooke in 1674, and by Hadley in 1718. Achromatic telescopes were made by Chester More Hall in 1729. Sir Wilham Herschel perfected the reflecting telescope, and commenced one of the jS'ewtonian kind in the end of 1783, which was finished Aug. 28, 1789. Lord Kosse's monster reflecting telescope, erected at Birr Castle, near Parsonstown, Ireland,; was finished in 1844. Tellxtkium, a scarce metal, discovered by MiiUer, of Eeichenstein, in Germany, a.b. 1782. Klaproth, who, about 1798, ascer- tained its properties more minutely, gave it the name it now bears. Temeswak (Hungary), the capital of the Banat, is supposed to be identical with the ancient Tibiscus, to which Ovid was banished A.B. 8. It was taken and sacked by the Turks in 1552, in whose possession it re- mained tiU 1718, when it was regained by Prince Eugene, and strongly fortified. It was incorporated with Hungary in 1778. The Hungarians besieged it in April, 1849 ; but it was bravely defended by General Eukawina for 107 days, when the garrison were reHeved by General Haynau. He de- feated the Hungarian army in a well-con- tested battle Aug. 10, and entered the town in the evening of the same day. Tempe (Greece), the ancient name of a beautiful valley in Thessaly, between Mounts Olympus and Ossa, through which the waters of the Peneius force their way into the sea. When Xerxes invaded Greece, b.c. 480, the Greeks sent a force of 10,000 men to Tempe, to defend the pass against the Persians ; but having learnt that there was another pass across Mount Olympus into Thessaly, they withdrew to Thermopylae. The Eomans, under Q. Marcius Philippus, dislodged Per- seus, king of Macedon, from a position here, and opened the pass B.C. 169. Tempebance Societies. — The first society on the principle of entire abstinence from spirits was estabhshed at Moreau, in North America, a.d. 1806. The next was the American Temperance Society, founded at Boston Feb. 13, 1826. A thousand societies were in existence in the United States at the end of 1829. A society was founded at New Eoss in Wexford, Ireland, in August, 1829. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Associa- tion was formed Nov. 12, 1829 ; and the society at Bradford, in Yorkshire, in Feb. 1830. The British and Foreign Temperance Society was organized in London June 29, 1831, and by this time societies had been formed in the chief towns throughout the kingdom. The Preston society was the first to adopt a pledge renouncing " all Hquors of an intoxicating quality" in March, 1833. The British Teetotal Society was formed in Lon- don in 1835, and this was merged into the New British and Foreign Society for the Suppression of Intemperance, Aug. 20, 1836. The old partial abstinence societies were either dissolved or joined the new move- ment, and the exertions of the Eev. Father Mathew in Ireland in 1839, 1840, and 1841, and in England in 1843, gave a great impetus to the cause. The parent societies of London were merged into the National Temperance Society in June, 1843. The Maine suppres- sionary law in America was passed June 2, 1851. The London Temperance League was formed in Jidy, 1851, and the United King- dom 4Iiiance,'for the legislative sui-"-iressioii TEM of the traffic in intoxicating drinks, was founded at Manchester June 1, 1853. Templars, or Knights of the Temple, first called the " Poor of the Holy City," were instituted for the protection of pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, a.d. 1118 or 1119. Their first systematic embodiment was made by Houo- rius II. in 1128. Jerusalem was the head province and residence of the grand master till 1187, Antioch tiU 1191, and Acre till 1217. They took refuge in the town of Limisso or Limasol, in Cyprus, when the Latin power was destroyed in Palestine in 1192. Phi- lip IV. of France assisted Clement V. to the papal chair in 1305, on the understanding that he would lend him his aid in destroying the order. Jaques de Molay, their grand master, was summoned to Europe to con- sult with the pope concerning the union of the Templars and Hospitallers in 1306. Accusations of unspeakable enormities were made agamst them, nearly all the knights in France, including De Molay, were seized, and their stronghold in Paris taken posses- sion of by the king, Sept. 13, 1307. The knights in England were thrown into prison by Edward II. in December of the same year. Pope Clement V. issued a bull requiring all authorities to aid him in discovering the guilt of the accused, in August, 1308, and acommis- sion of ecclesiastics met at Paris to try the case Aug. 7, 1309. Cruel tortures extracted so-called confessions from the accused in France, many of whom were condemned to the ilames in 1309. Fifty-four who had been entrapped by Philip TV. into making confes- sions and afterwards retracted, were burned in a field behind the abbey of St. Antoine, May 13, 1310. Clement V., in a secret consistory at Yienne, abohshed the order by his own authority, March 22, 1312. The bull was formally published May 2 following. On a small island of the Seine, near the site occupied by the statue of Henry IV., De Molay, grand mas- ter, and Guy, grand prior of Normandy, were burned to death, March 18, 1314. The king of France seized most of their pro- perty. In England their landed possessions were transferred to the Hospitallers in 1324. In Portugal the society took the new name of the Order of Christ. In Spain their pro- perty was given to the knights of Our Lady of Montessa, a society founded in 1317. The chief seat of the order in England was the Temple, whither they removed from Holborn in 1185. Temple (London). — A house was founded here by the Knights Templars a.d. 1185. The church was built in 1240. The building was purchased and formed into inns of court after the suppression of the order in 1311. The outer court was founded in 1560, and the Middle Temple Hall was built in 1572. The hbrary was founded by Eobert Ashley in 1641. The church was repaired in 1828. The new library of the Middle Temple was erected at a cost of £14,000, from designs by H. E. Abraham, and was opened by the TEE prince of Wales, who was, on the occasion, called to the bar and admitted as bencher, Oct. 31, 1861. Temple Bae (London) was erected by Sir Christopher Wren a.d. 1670—1672. A petition for its removal was presented by certain merchants and others of the city of London to the lord mayor and corporation in 1853. Temples. — The classical authors state that temples originated in the sepulchres built for the dead, and that they were tii-st erected by the Egyptians. Constantine I. ordered the destruction of the heathen templea throughout the Eoman empire a.d. 331. {See Baalbec, Delphi, Ephesus, Oltm- piA, and Solomon's Temple.) Tenasseeim (Hindostan) came into the pos- session of the Burmese a.d. 1760, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of Tanda- boo, Feb. 24, 1826. ■ Tenet (Pembrokeshire) was built by Flemish settlers, who sought refuge from the inundations of the Low Countries about A.D. 1108. Its fortifications were strength- ened on the approach of the Spanish Ar- mada in 1588. It was garrisoned for Charles I. and besieged by the parhamentarian forces in 1643, and again in 1648. A new fish-mar- ket was opened in 1847. Tenedos. — This island, originally called Leucophrys, from its white cliffs, an ^olian settlement, was sacked by Achilles and oc- cupied by the Greeks after the siege of Troy, B.C. 1184. It became subject to Persia B.C. 493, and siding with Athens in the Pelopon- nesian war, paid an annual tribute of 3,426 drachmae B.C. 431. The Lacedaemonians in- vaded it B.C. 389. The island threw off the Persian yoke about 331. Teneeiffe (Canary Isles), first dis- covered by a French ship, driven among the group by stress of weather, about a.d. 1330, was taken formal possession of for the Spanish crown in 1461. At Santa Cruz, the chief town. Admiral Blake destroyed six richly-laden Spanish galleons April 20, 1657. Nelson failed in an attempt to take it July 24, 1797. Tennessee (North America) was first settled about a.d. 1750. The settlements were destroyed by the Cherokee Indians, then possessors of the country, in 1760. They were in great part expelled in 1780. It was ceded by North Carolina to the L^nited States and converted into a territory, Aug. 14, 1790. It constituted a state in 1796. The original constitution was amended in 1834. Tennis appears to have been imported from France about the middle of the 16th century. The game was revived and brought into fashion in England by Charles II. Teeeacin A (Italy) , called by the Volscians, its ancient inhabitants, Anxur, was a de- pendency of Eome B.C. 509. It was takea by N. Fabius Ambustus b.c. 406. The Vol- scians recovered it b.c. 402. It was re-cap- tured by the Romans b.c. 400, and a colony estabhshed B.C. 329. The town was occupied by the troops of Pompey in the civil war TEE TEX about B.C. 50, and by those of Vespasiani A.D. 69. Teeka del Fuego (Soutli America), "the land of fire," so eallea by Magelhaens, from the number of watch-fires on its coast by night, was discovered by that navigator a.d. 1520. Teschen (Treaty).— Through the inter- vention of France and Kussia, a treaty was concluded at this place, in Upper Silesia, be- tween Austria and Prussia when on the eve of war, May 13, 1779. Austria renounced a claim she had made on the dominions of the elector of Saxony, receiving a tract of territory between the Danube, the Inn, and the Salza, and paying compensation to Saxony. Test Act (25 Charles II. c. 2), compeUing persons holding office to take the sacrament and subscribe a declaration against transub- stantiation, was passed March 29, 1673. The duke of York, Lord Chfford, and others resigned their posts. It was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. c, 17 (May 9, 1828). A test act was framed for Scotland by the duke of York in 1681. Testes, Testone, or Testook. — Le Blanc says, this coin, struck in France hy Louis XII., A.D. 1513, was so called because his bust was engraved upon it. They were first coined in England by Henry VIII. in 1543, being of the value of twelve pence. A pro- clamation was issued, April 10, 154<8, caUing them in, on account of the great number of counterfeits in circulation. Testey (Battle). — Invited by the exiled nobles, Pepin of Heristal marched an army into the Vermandois, defeated Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and took him prisoner, A.D. 690. TETEAEoiiiTAW CoNFESsioiT, which dif- fered from the Augsburg confession in a word or two respecting the Lord's Supper, was presented to the diet of Augsburg A.D. 1530. It was drawn up by the four towns, Strasburg, Memmingen, Constance, and Lindau, whence its name Confessio Tetropolitana. Tetten-hall (Battle). — A force of West Saxons and Mercians, sent out by Edward I. or the Elder, against the Danes, defeated them at this place, in Stafibrdshire, Aug. 6, 910. Tetttan (Morocco) . — ^A battle was fought near this town, March 23, 1860, in which, after an obstinate resistance, the Moors were de- feated by the Spaniards . Tetuan was held by Spain as security for payment of the indem- nity agreed upon by the treaty of peace signed June 15, 1860. The claims of Spain having been satisfied, the garrison was withdrawn in 1862. TETJTOBUE& (Battle). — Herman, a young German chief, called Arminius by Koman writers, attacked the legions of Eome in this forest, the modern Hippische Wald, b.c. 9, and utterly annihilated them. P. Quinti- lius Varus, the commander, and many of his officers, feU on their swords to avoid being made prisoners. Teutowes. — This powerful German tribe, in alliance with the Cimbri, advanced into Ulyria, and defeated the consul Cn. Pa- pirius Carbo, B.C. 113. They afterwards forced their way into Eoman Gaul, and de- feated Mahhus and Scipio, b.c, 105, and they invaded Spain b.c. 104. On their retreat from Spain, they were met by the Eomans, under Marius, at Aquag Sextiae, the modern Aix, and totally defeated, b.c. 102. Teutokic Oedee took its rise about A.D. 1189, during the crusades. Frederick I., on his arrival with his army before Acre, in 1191, under the sanction of a bull of Pope Ccelestine III., named it the order of the German House of the Holy Virgin of Jeru- salem. After their return to Germany, they were, in 1226, invited by Conrad, duke of Masovia, to assist him in conquering the heathen Prussians. This they aceompMshed in 1283 ; but insurrections afterwards broke out, and they were defeated by the Poles and Lithuanians in a great battle near Tannen- burg, in Germany, July 15, 1410, when the grand master and 40,000 of his followers were slain. The order, dissolved by the peace of Cracow in 1525, was fimaUy abohshed by lifapoleon I. in 1809. Tewkesbtjet (Gloucestershire). — A mo- nastery was foimded here about a.d. 725. A charter, confirming and extending the privileges of the burgesses, was granted by Edward III., Aug. 12, 1338. The celebrated battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Yorkites gained a victory over the Lancastrians, was fought at the Bloody Meadow, near this town, Saturday, May 4, 1471. Ehzabeth granted a charter of incorporation in 1574, and the free grammar-school was founded in 1576. This town suffered greatly in the ciril wars, and was captured by the ParHament- arians, June 5, 1644. Its present charter was granted by William III. in 1698. The town-haUwas erected in 1788, the market- house in 1789, and the theatre in 1823. Texas (North America). — A French co- lony that had estabhshed itself here was expelled by the Spaniards, a.d. 1690. The Americans laid claim to portions of Texas in 1830, and it separated from Mexico in 1836, the first Texan congress having been held Oct. 3, 1836. War ensued, in which the Mexicans were defeated. The United States recognized the independence of Texas, March 3, 1837 ; France, Sept. 25, 1839 ; and England subscribed a treaty with Texas, Nov. 13, 1840. Texas was admitted into the Union in 1845. Texel (German Ocean). — Several naval engagements have taken place off" this island in the Zuyder Zee. The EngUsh fleet, under Monk, gained a victory here over the Dutch, under Van Tromp, who fell in the action, July 31, 1653. Another was fought vrith doubtful results between the combined fleets of England and France and the Dutch in 1673. A Dutch fleet, in a state of insubordination, surrendered to the British fleet here, Aug. 30, 1799. Part of TEX Napoleon's immense army for tlie inTasion of England occupied Texel in August, 1805. The sea broke down the dykes of the Texel, and laid the greater portion of the island under water in 1825. Texts.— In the early church the text was most commonly taken from some paragraph of the Psalms or Lessons. Elfric, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, required the priest on Sunday to explain the gospel of the day, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer about A.D. 957. Preaching from a text in England appears to have originated in 1204, with Stephen Langton, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, though some continued to preach without texts as late as the 15th century. Thames (England), the Eoman Tamesa or Tamesis, was crossed by Caesar after he had routed the Britons under their king Cas- sivellaunus, B.C. 54. ThelSTorthmen entered it with 350 ships, took Canterbury and London by storm, and were afterwards de- feated at Ockley by the West Saxons, a.d. 851. The first stone bridge across the river was commenced by Peter Coleman in 1176. Extraordinary floods occiirred in 1235, and Eeb. 16, 1736 (when counsel were carried out of Westminster Hall to their carriages in boats), June 4, 1767 (on which occasion the water reached Kenuington Common) ; March 5, 1828 ; 'No\. 2, 1833 ; and Jan. 29, 1834 (requiring watermen to convey people from street to street). The conservancy from Staines to Yenlade was assured to the city of London in 1489. It was frozen over and fairs held upon the ice in the winters of 1683-4, 1739-40, and 1813-14. Much damage was sustained by the shipping from the breaking up of the ice, Jan. 26, 1829. Navigation was resumed after a sus- pension of several weeks from the ice, Feb. 8, 1838. A tunnel from Gravesend to Tilbury Eort was proposed in 1798, and an effort made to carry it into execution in 1801. The tunnel at Rotherhithe was opened for traffic March 25, 1843 {see Thames TuisrifEL). A committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider the question of an em- bankment from London bridge to Vauxhall, March 27, 1840; and with that object a survey was made, Nov. 8, 1841. By 20 & 21 Yict. c. 47 (Aug 17, 1857), the conservancy was vested in the corporation of the city of London. It came into operation Sept. 29, 1857. Thames Embaneimeu't. — Plans for the embankment of the Thames at London were proposed by Sir Frederick Trench, a.b. 1828, and by John Martin, the painter, in 1856; but no measures were taken for carrying the work into effect. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 2, 1858), the Metropohtan Board of Works received power to construct embank- ments ; and in consequence of their repre- sentations a parKamentary committee was nominated in 1860, to consider the plans proposed by different architects. The com- mittee held their first meeting April 30, 1861, and presented their report, in which THA they approved of the design of F. W. Sheilds, July 2, 1861. Thames Tui^^kel (London) was designed by I. K. Brunei. By 4 & 5 Geo. TV. 0. 156 (June 24, 1824) a company was em- powered to make and maintain a tunnel under the Thames from Wapping, Middle- sex, to Rotherhithe in Surrey. A shaft was sunk, and the first brick laid, March 2, 1825. The river broke in May 18, 1827, 544 feet of the tunnel being constructed. The second irruption took place Jan. 12, 1828, when six workmen perished, and the fifth and last irruption happened March 6, 1838. It was opened for passenger traffic March 25, 1843. THAinE, or Thak^^s. — This title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, indicating pro- bably the possession of a certain amoimt of landed property, gradually fell into disuse after the Conquest, a.d. 1066. In Scotland the title was recogmzed tiU near the end of the 15th century, A thane of Cawdor is mentioned in 1492. . THAifET (Kent), the ancient Tanatis or Tanatos, at which the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa first landed, a.d. 449. A band of Danes \vintered here in 851. They invaded the island in 853 ; in the autumn of 865 ; in 980 ; and in 988 ; when they burnt a nun- nery with the nuns, the clergy, and people who had taken refuge there. Ethel- red II. levied an army to give the Danes battle in 1002, and some fled to the Isle of Thanet, where he could not follow them. The Danes again landed on this island in 1009, and after committing great ravages in Kent, retreated here to winter. Sweyn, king of Denmark laid the Isle of Thanet waste in 1011. Edward III. ordered the island to be fortified in 1369. THAPSAcrs, or Thapsacum (Syria), pro- bably the Tiphsah mentioned as subject to Solomon, B.C. 1014 (1 Kings iv. 24). The Euphrates was forded here by the army of Cyrus the younger, the water reaching up to the waists of the troops, B.C. 401. It wag also crossed by Darius when he was advan- cing against Alexander, B.C. 333, and by Alexander in pursuit of Darius, the same year. Thasos (.3Sgean Sea). — This island was first inhabited by the Phcenicians, under Thasos, — hence its name. It was colonized B.C. 720 or B.C. 708 by settlers from Paros. The Thasians were compelled by Darius to puU down their fortifications and remove their ships of war to Abdera, B.C. 492. Disputes arose between the Thasians and the Athenians. The latter having defeated the Thasians at sea, B.C. 465, laid siege to their city, which, after a blockade of three years' duration, was taken, the fortifications raised, and the Thasians compelled to pay a large simi of money, B.C. 463. Thasos, which had submitted to Philip V., received its freedom from Eome B.C. 197. Thavie's IifN- (London) is of great an- tiquity. In the reign of Edward III. it belonged to John Thavie, from whose will it THE appears to have been an inn for law-students as early as 134<7. It was demised to Lin- coln's Inn about 1549. Theatines. — This religious order in the Roman Catholic church was founded by John Peter Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in N"aples, a.d. 1524. He was after- wards pope, under the title of Paul IV. Theatres. — The earliest dramatic per- formances took place on waggons and tempo- rary platforms, and there is no record of a permanent building until the erection of the stone theatre in the temple of Dionysius, at Athens, B.C. 500. The finest Greek theatre was that erected by Polycletes, at Epidaurus, about B.C. 436 . A temporary theatre was bmlt at Rome by M. -^milius Scaurus, B.C. 68, which contained accommodation for 80,000 spectators, and was also remarkable for the splendour of its decorations ; and the first g3rmanent theatre at Rome was built by ompey, B.C. 54. The theatre of Marcellus was completed by Augustus B.C. 11. The mystery plays of the Middle Ages were mostly performed in temporary structures in the open air. The stage for this purpose in England was erected at Dunstable in 1119. Stage scenery was introduced by Baldassari Peruzzi, of Siena, who died in 1536. The earliest theatrical hcense was granted to Burbage and others in 1574, and the first public theatre in London was the Blackfriars theatre (q.v.), which was built ia 1576. In 1583 Palladio built a theatre on the classic model at Vicenza, and in 1588 Scamozzi at- tempted to reyive the same system at Sab- bionetta. The first play-biU was issued from Drmy Lane theatre, April 8, 1663, and an- nounced the performance of the " Humour- ous Lieutenant," to commence at 3 o'clock. Theatres are regulated by 6 & 7 Yict. c. 68 (Aug. 22, 1843) . The most important thea- tres are separately treated. (iSee Dkama.) Thebes (Italy) was founded, according to tradition, by a colony of Phoenicians, under Cadmus, B.C. 1500 or B.C. 1400. They were driven out by the Boeotians b . c . 1124. Platsea, one of the Boeotian cities, revolted from Thebes B.C. 510, and applied for help to Athens. A war ensued between Thebes and Athens, in which the latter was victorious. This caused serious animosity between Thebes and Athens ; and in the Persian war, B.C. 480, the Thebans deserted the cause of Greece and fought against the Athenians at Platsea, B.C. 479. The Athe- nians invaded Bceotia, and established a democratic government in Thebes, B.C. 456. The aristocratic leaders went into exile, but returned b.c. 447, defeated the Athenians, and re-established the former government. The Thebans were allies of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war, b.c. 431 — 404. Sparta having claimed supremacy over the whole of Greece, the Thebans joined the Athenians, B.C. 395. The peace of Antalcidas put an end to the war, b.c 387, and deprived Thebes of her supremacy over Boeotia. The Spartans treacherously seized the citadel of Thebes B.C. 382, and were defeated at 836 THE Leuctra b.c. 371 ; and the Thebans regained their power in Greece. In the Sacred war, which lasted from b.c. 357 to B.C. 346, the Thebans, supported by Philip II. ot'Macedon, were opposed to Athens and Sparta. Thebes was razed to the ground by Alexander the Great b.c, 335, after which it never again formed an independent state. Cassander restored the city b.c. 315, and it was taken by Demetrius B.C. 293, and again b.c. 290. The Thebans were defeated in an attempt to expel the Bulgarians from Greece a.d. 1040, and their city was plundered by the ISTor- mans of SicHy in 1146. It was one of the most flourishing cities of Greece during the 10th and 11th centuries. Thebes, or Luxor (Egypt), called 'No (Ezekiel xxx. 14, and ISTahum iii. 8), had its foundation ascribed by the Egyptians to Menes, the fii'st king of Egypt, b.c. 2717. It reached its greatest splendour, having 100 gates, " as sung by Homer," and 20,000 war-chariots, and was the residence of the kings, whose tombs are still extant, B.C. 1600. It was captured by the Persians B.C. 525. Having revolted, it was taken, after a three years' siege, by Ptolemy Soter II., or Lathyrus, about b.c 87. Strabo visited it, with the expedition of ^lius Gallus, B.C. 24. The city began to decline about b.c 890. The great tablet of Karnak was shown and expounded by the priests to Caesar Ger- manicus, a.d. 16. Theft was forbidden ■ by the eighth com- mandment of the decalogue, delivered to 3Ioses by J ehovah on Mount Sinai (Exodus XX. 15). By the civil law the thief was re- quired to make restitution of stolen pro- perty several fold, according to the nature of the object, or, failing in abihty to do so, was to be sold into slavery (Exodus xxii. 1—4), B.C. 1491. The second of the "Twelve Tables" of Roman laws treated of this crime, B.C. 447. At common law, in former times, petty theft {i. e.. not above twelve pence in value) was punished by whipping and imprisonment, and grand theft (i. e. over twelve pence in value) by death. Both were made punishable by transportation by 4 Geo. I. e. 11 (1717). The distinction be- tween the two was abolished by 7 & 8 Geo, IV. c. 28 (1827). Theodolite. — The first used was in the surs'ey of Zealand made by Bugge, A.D. 1762-8. Ramsden finished his theodolite in 1787, for the use of General Ray, in the great trigo- nometrical survey of England and Wales. Theodosia (Crimea), the modern Caffa (q.v.), named by Leucon, king of the Bos- pborus (B.C. 393 — B.C. 353), after his wife Theodosia, was a flourishing colony. It was ruined before the beginning of the 2nd cen- tury. THEODosiAif Code. — Theodosius II., a.d. 429, appointed a committee of eight persons, at the head of whom was Antiochus, to form a code from aU the constitutions and laws which had been promulgated since the time of Constantine the Great. This committee was renewed in 435, and the code, consisting 3 h2 THE of sixteen books, was published at Constan- tinople, Feb. 15, 438. Theolo&t. — The word was first employed in its present signification by Peter Abellard, who died a.d. 1142, and wrote a work entitled " Theologia Christiana." The scholastic theo- logy was founded by Eoscehn of Compiegne about 1100 ; and pubHc schools for the study of the science were estabhshed in Italy soon after 1360. Lord Bacon's system of natural theology was embodied in the "De Aug- mentis Scientiarum," pubHshed in 1623, and Dr. William Paley's "ITatural Theology" was published in 1802. Theophilantheopists. — This sect sprung up during the French revolution a.d. 1794. They opened four temples in Paris, where a sort of hturgy was chanted, and, instead of an altar, they had an immense basket of ilowers as an emblem of the creation. Lepaux, one of the first five directors in France, put him- self at their head in 1797. They became ex- tiact ia 1802. Theosophists, or Fiee-Psilosophees. — This sect of philosophers, which rose in the 16th century, followed the teaching of Theo- phrastus Paracelsus. They attributed very little to human reason and reflection, and ascribed everything to experience and divine illumination. In the beginnmg of the 17th century considerable animosity prevailed between the Theosophists and the Peripa- tetics. Great numbers of the Theosophists joined the Eosierucians. Theba (JEgean Sea). — This island is said to have received the name of Calliste when it emerged from the sea, and to have been first inhabited by the Phcenieians. It was colonized by the Lacedsemonians and Minyag, B.C. 1074, under Theras, from whom the island received the name of Thera. Another small island was thrown up by a submarine volcano near Thera, a.d. 726. THEEAPEUT-ae.— This sect, a branch of the Essenes (g.v.), arose in Egypt in the 1st centm-y. They were more rigid in their ob- servances and frequented solitudes. Theresa (Order). — This female order was founded by Theresa, queen of Bavaria, Dec. 12, 1827, for unmarried noble ladies of all Christian sects. Theemidoeians. — A name given to a large party in the repubhcan convention of France, on account of their triumph in the counter- revolution of the 9th Thermidor, July 27, 1795. They chose TaUien as their chief, en- deavoured to put a stop to the revolutionary passion for bloodshed, and opposed the con- stitution of 1795. Their power soon declined. Theemometee was invented about the beginning of the 17th century, though some ascribe it to Gahleo, who is said to have constructed one prior to 1597. Sautorio of Padua, in his Commentaries on Avicenna (1629), also claims the invention. Sir Isaac Newton used an oil thermometer in 1701. Eomer's thermometer was known all over Europe in the beginning of the 18th century. The centigrade thermometer used in France was invented by Celsius, a Swedish astro- THE nomer, in 1742. A self-registering thermo- meter, filled with alcohol, was invented in 1782. The scale generally used in this coun- try was invented by Fahrenheit in 1724. Theemopyt.^ (Greece). — This narrow pass, leading from Thessaly into Locris, is cele- brated as the scene of the battle in which Leonidas, king of Sparta, with 300 men, arrested the progress of the whole army of the Persians until they found another path over the mountains, Aug. 7-9, B.C. 480. The aUied army of the Greeks assembled at the pass to oppose the Gauls under Brennus, B.C. 279. The invaders having been con- ducted across the mountains by the same path the Persians had followed, the Greeks retired to their ships. Philip V. of Macedon forced the fortifications which had been made by the ^tohans, B.C. 207. Antiochua, when at war with the Eomans, fortified the pass, B.C. 181. Theemtjm, Theemus, orTHEEMA (Greece), was, on account of its strength, considered impregnable. It was surprised, B.C. 218, by Phihp V. of Macedon, who carried off the most valuable portion of the spoil, and de- stroyed the remainder, A few years later, the ^tohans having sided with the Eomans, Phihp V. again surprised Thermum B.C. 206, and destroyed everything that had escaped his former invasion. THESPI2E (Greece). — This city of Bceotia is said to have derived its name from Thespia, a daughter of Asopus, or from Thespius, a son of Erechtheus, who migrated from Athens. It was burnt by Xerxes, was rebuilt, and the Thespians fought against the Athenians at the battle of Dehum, B.C. 424. In the next year the Thebans destroyed the walls of Thespiae. An ineffectual at- tempt was made to overthrow the govern- ment B.C. 414. The walls were again de- stroyed by the Thebans b.c. 372. THESSALoifiAirs (Epistlcs to). — These two epistles were written at Corinth by St. Paul to the chiirch and brethren at Thessalonica, about A.D. 52. • Thessalonica, (See Salom-ica.) Thessaly (Greece). — After the battle of (Enophyta, B.C. 456, the Athenians endea- voured to extend their power over Thessaly. They marched into the country under the command of Myrouides, B.C. 454, but were compelled to retreat. The Spartans under Brasidas marched through Thessaly B.C. 424. The Thessalonians joined the Boeotians against the Spartans B.C. 395. Jason, the son of Lycophron, was elected Tagus of Thessaly b.c. 374; and, after the battle of Leuctra, b.c. 371, the Thebans invited him to join in an attack upon the Spartan camp ; but he declined, and was shortly afterwards assassinated. Pelopidas invaded Thessaly B.C. 369, and again in b.c. 368. Philip II. of Macedon marched into Thessaly B.C. 353, but was defeated and driven out. He re- turned, and Thessaly fell entirely under his rule. Thessaly was declared a Eoman pro- vince B.C. 197. THEiroBD (Norfolk), — ^A synod was held THI at this place, the Sitomagus of the Komans, ' A.D. 669. The Danes wintered here in 866, | and again in 870, when they sacked the town. Thetford was plundered and burned by the Danes in 1004, and again in 1010. Herfast removed the bishopric of the East Angles from Elmham to Thetford in 1078, where it remained till 1092, when it was removed to Norwich. The grammar-school was founded before 1328. Thetford was made the see of a suffragan bishopric by Henry VIII., March 19, 1536. Its first charter was granted by Elizabeth, March 12, 1573, and it was re- newed by Charles II. March 6, 1683. Thimble. — Bronze thimbles, similar to those stiU in use, were employed by the ancients, and thimbles open at the end were discovered among the ruins of Herculaneum, A.D. 79. Thirty-nine Aeticles.— Ten articles to establish Christian quietness and unity were adopted by the Keformed Church of Eng- land A.D. 1536, but owing to their unpopu- larity tbey were superseded, in 1537, by a formulary known as the " Institution of a Christian Man." In 1538 a series of thirteen articles, proposed to Henry VIII. by the German reformers, was declined, and the following year six articles were enforced by the statute known as the Bloody Bill, 81 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1539). In 1551 forty- two outlines were prepared, and, after seve- ral modifications, a mandate was published for their subscription, June 19, 1553. During the reign of Mary, G-ardiner introduced a series of fifteen articles in 1555, and the houses of Convocation four articles in 1558, both of which systems favoured popery. In 1559 eleven Protestant articles were esta- blished, and in 1563 the forty-two articles of Edward VI. were revised by Convocation and reduced in number to thirty-nine. In 1595 Archbishop Whitgift attempted to in- troduce a system of Calvinistic tenets known as the Lambeth articles (q.v.), but they were immediately suppressed in consequence of the royal disapprobation. A separate series of 104 articles was adopted in Ireland in 1615, and in 1635 the Irish church accepted the thirty-nine English articles. In 1643 the articles were revised by the assembly of divines, and in 1660 and 1689 they were the subject of violent popular agitation. Thirty Tyrants.— When Athens sur- rendered to Lysander, b.c. 404, the supreme power was vested in thirty persons chosen by the Lacedaemonians. Thrasybulus, who had been sent into exile by them, collected a small company of followers, and, after gaining several victories over the troops sent against him, drove the " thirty" from Athens B.C. 403. In the Eoman empire a series of usurpers rose and fell in rapid succession, A.D. 248 — 268, to whom this appellation has been appHed, although, excluding women and children, the number did not exceed nineteen. Thirty Years' War, between the Pro. testants and Eoman CalhoHcs of Germanyf was brought about by Matthias, king o THO Hungary and Bohemia, who, on account of his cruel treatment of the Protestants, caused a revolt of his Bohemian subjects. The first overt act of hostility occurred in Bohemia, where the two royal ministers, Slawata and Martinitz, with their secretary Fabricius, were thrown out of the window of the coun- cil-house at Prague, May 23, 1618. On the death of the emperor Matthias, the insurgents declared the throne vacant, and crowned Frederick V. elector-palatinate, son-in-law of James I. of England, at Prague, Nov. 4, 1619. The cause of Frederick II., archduke of Austria, who had succeeded his cousin Matthias, and claimed the Bohemian crown, was espoused by the Eoman Catholic princes, while those of the Protestant states took the side of Ferdinand. The Bavarians, com- manded by their duke and the celebrated TiUy, defeated the Bohemians at Prague, Nov. 9, 1620. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and WaUenstein figured conspicu- ously in the long struggle that ensued, and which was brought to a close by the peace of Westphalia, signed at Miinster Oct. 24, 1648. ThistI/E (Order). — This order of knight- hood is said to be of ancient date, though little is known respecting its origin. It was revived by James II., who issued letters patent under the great seal of Scotland, May 29, 1687. (See Andrew, St., Order of.) Thistlewood's Conspiracy. (See Cato- STREET Conspiracy.) Thomas's (St.) Hospitad (London) was founded a.d. 1213, by Eichard, prior of Ber- mondsey. It was purchased at the dissolu- tion of the religious houses by the citizens of London, and opened as an hospital in November, 1552. A large part of the edifice was rebuilt in 1693, and additions were made in 1732. The north wing was com- pleted in 1836 and the south wing in 1842. Thomists. {See Scotists and Molinists.) Thomites. — A lunatic named John Thom, a native of Cornwall, who resided at Can- terbury, assumed the name of Sir William Courtenay, professed to be entitled to some of the finest estates in Kent, and having collected a number of the peasantry, per- suaded them that he held a divine commis- sion. May 23, 1838. They marched through several villages, and with an increased force returned to Bossenden farm May 31, where Thom shot a constable who had come to take him into custody. A party of mili- tary was thereupon brought from Canter- bury. They found the madman and his followers sheltered in a sequestered part of Bossenden Wood. As they advanced. Lieu- tenant Bennett, of the 45th regiment, was shot dead by the soi-disant prophet. The soldiers fired a volley, when Thom and ten of his infatuated followers were kUled, and the mob dispersed. Thorinum, or Thorina.— This metallic body was discovered by Berzelius a.d. 1829. Thorn (Prussia) was founded, a.d. 1331, by the Teutonic knights, who became feuda- THE tories of Poland by the peace of Thorn, eon- I eluded Oct. 19, 1466. A conference was held j here between the Pohsh Koman CathoHcs j and the Dissidents m 1645. Thorn was taken ! after a siege of four months by Charles XII, | of Sweden in 1703. The Protestants here | were massacred in 1724. Thorn fell into the possession of the Prussians in 1793, and was captured by the French under Marshal Ney in jS"oTember, 1806. The French garrisoned it in January, 1813, and it was blockaded by the Kussians till it siirrendered, April 17, 1813. Thorn was finally ceded to Prussia in 1815. Theace (Turkey), the modern Eoumelia, is said to have been peopled by a tribe of Pelasgians ; but there is no authentic history of the country imtil the formation of the Greek settlements in the 6tb century B.C. 522. The Greeks colonize the Thracian Cher- 5:3. 493. 480. 479. Darius iuvades Thrace. It is reduced to subjection by the Phoenicians. Xerxes crosses over the Hellespont into Thrace by means of a bridge of boats. The Thracians assist the Persians at Platsea. 478. The Athenians invade the Thracian teni- tory. 437. Amphipolis is founded by the Athenians. 429. The Thracian leaaer Sitalces, king of the OdrysEe, invades Macedonia. 399. The Thracians assist the Spartans against the Persians. 390. The Athenian influence is predominant in Thrace. 387. By the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta acquires the chief power in Thrace. 358. Philip II. of Macedon seizes Amphipolis. 357. Cersobleptes, king of Eastern Thrace, cedes the Thracian Chersonese to ihe Athenians. 343. Philip II. renders Cersobleptes tributary to hi.-, power, and establishes numerous colo- nies in Thrace. 323. Thrace is allotted to Lysimachus. 309. He founds Lysimachia, and makes it his capital. 281. Lysimachus is defeated and slain at Coru- pedion by Seleucus of Syria, who seizes Thrace. 279. Thrace is invaded by the Gauls under Brennus. 247. Ptolemy Eurgetes annexes Lysimachia and other Thracian cities to Egypt. 211. Philip V. of Macedon invades Thrace. 20.5. Philip V. seizes Lysimachia. 200. Philip V. makes himself master of the entire south coast. 196. Philip V. is defeated by the Romans, and compelled to relinquish his Thi-acian con- quests, which are seized by Antiochus the Great, of Syria. 188. Antiochus abandons Thi-ace to the Eomans. 184. PhUip V. again invades Thrace. 181. Philip V. ascends Mount H»mus, the mo- dem Balkan, and erects altai-s to Jupiter and the sun on its summit. 171. "War commences between Perseus of Macedon and the Eomans, for the supremacy in Thrace. 84 Sylla carries on war successfully against the Thracians. 75. C. Sia'ibonius Curio invades Thrace and pene- trates to the Danube. 14. The Thi-acians under Vologsesus rebel against the Romans. A.D. 18. Thrace is visited by Germanicus, who reforms the administration. 26. A c inscription system is introduced into Thrace. THU 69—79. Thrace is made a Roman province be- tween these years. 255. It is invaded by the Goths. 280. Probus establishes 100,000 Bastemae in Thrace. 334. Constaiitine colonizes it with Sarmatians. 376. Valeus permits the Goths to settle in Thrace. 395. It is ravaged by Alaric. 447. AttUa invades Thrace. 475. It is devastated by Theodoric the Ostrogoth. 581. The Slavonians ravage Thi-ace. 1356. Thrace is seized by the Turks. 1453. After the capture of Constantiople, Thrace is annexed to the Ottoman empire. Theastmeh-e (Battle). — Hannibal defeated the Eomans under the consul C. Flaminius Nepos, on the banks of this lake, in Etruria, B.C. 217. Theeatewin-g- Lettebs. — By 8 Hen. TI. c. 6 (1430), the sending or dehvering of threatening letters was declared high trea- son, and by 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1723), it was made a capital felony. By 4 Geo. IV. c. 54 (Julys, 1823), the sentence was commuted to transportation for life, or imprisonment not exceeding seven years. This act was repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27 (June 21, 1827), and further provisions were enforced by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 66 (July 9, 1847). Theeshing Machine, invented a.d. 1758 by a farmer of Dumblane, in Perthshire, was improved by Meikle, a millwright of Haddingtonshire, in 1786. Thundeei:xg Legion. — During the expe- dition of Marcus Antoninus against the Mar- comanni, a.d. 174, a Christian legion in his army are said to have prayed for rain, whereupon a plentiful shower descended. At the same time a storm of thunder and hghtning threw their enemies into confusion, and enabled Antoninus to obtain a decisive victory. The legion consequently received the name of the thundering legion. Thuegait, or Thitegovia (Switzerland). — This canton, once governed by its ovra counts, came under the sway of the house of Habsburg a.d. 1264. It was conquered by the Swiss in 1460. It was admitted into the confederation as a distinct state in 1798, and received a constitution in 1831, which was revised in 1837. Thueingia (Germany). — This kingdom of Central Germany, founded by the Thuringi, or Doringi, a Gothic tribe, about a.d. 426, was annexed to the kingdom of the Franks, by Thierry, in 530. In 630 it was erected into a duchy, and iu 843 it was in- corporated with the German kingdom. It was again made a duchy in 849, and in 1023 it was united with Hesse into a landgraviate. The two countries were again separated in 1247, and in 1439 Thuringia was added to Saxony. By the treaties of 1814 and 1815 it was annexed to Prussia. Thtjeium, or Thueii (Italy), was founded near the site of the ancient Sybaris by some Sybarite exiles, B.C. 443. The Thurians were defeated by the Lucanians in a great battle near Laiis, B.C. 390, when above 10,000 were cut to pieces. Thurium joined the Carthaginians, and again returned to its THU alliance with Rome, B.C. 213, and received a Eoman garrison. Hannibal gave up the city to plunder B.C. 204, having first re- moved 3,500 of its principal citizens to Cro- tona. A Eoman colony was established here B.C. 194. It was taken by Spartacus, and subjected to a heavy fine, B.C. 72. Thueles (Ireland) . — In the 10th century a battle was fought here between the Irish and the Danes, in which the former were vic- torious. The castle, which is of ancient date, was besieged and taken, a.d. 1208, by Hugh de Lacey. A monastery of Carmel- ites was founded in 1300. St. Patrick's college was erected in 1836. A synod of the Eoman Catholic clergy was held here Aug. 22, 1850, under the presidency of Dr. Cullen. It condemned the Queen's colleges, and recommended the foundation of a Eoman Cathohc university. The statutes of the synod were published Jan. 1, 1852. Thueot's Expedition. — Thurot, an Irish adventurer in the French service, sailed from Dunkirk, Oct. 5, 1759, intending to make a diversion either in Scotland or Ire- land. He landed at Carrickfergus, Feb. 21, 1760, took the town after a short blockade, and plundered it. Having sailed from Car- rickfergus, he was pursued by Captain ElMot, with three ships, who came up with him in the Irish Channel. An engagement ensued, Feb. 28, Thurot fell covered with wounds, and his ships were taken. Thursday. — Among aU the ancient na- tions of northern Europe, the fifth day of the week was consecrated to Thor, the king of heaven, and the thunderer. It is a remark- able coincidence that in the Eoman week the same day was known as Dies Jovis, or the day of Jupiter, who occupied, in classical mythology, the same position as was assigned to Thor by the Teutons. {See Maundy Thuesday.) Thyatiea (Battle). — ^Valens, the Eoman emperor of the East, gained a victory over his rival Procopius at this town of Lydia, A.D. 366. Thymbea (Battle) was gained by the Per- sians, under Cyrus, over Croesus, king of Lydia, at this town of Lydia, b.c. 548. This victory made Cyrus the undisputed master of Asia. TiAEA. — The first crown, or regnum, on the episcopal mitre of the popes, is said to have been the gift either of Constantine I., or of Clovis. The second was added, as an emblem of temporal power, by Boniface VIII. The triple crown was introduced by John XXII., or by Benedict XII. TiBEE (Italy). — An inundation of this river is said to have swept away all the houses and buildings at Eome, in the lower part of the city, b.c. 241. , Another took place B.C. 54. Augustus first instituted ma- gistrates whose duty it was to restrain the river within due bounds, and preserve the embankments, &c. This office was regarded as one of the most honourable in the state. An inundation caused such serious damage A.D. 15, that it was proposed in the senate to TIC diminish the waters by diverting some of the chief tributaries of the stream. In ancient times the Tiber was occasionally frozen, but this was an event of extreme rarity. Livy notices its having been frozen over in the extraordinary winter of B.C. 398. TiBEEiAS (Palestine).— This town of Ga- Ulee, on the shore of Lake Tiberias, was built by Herod Antipas, before B.C. 44, and named in honour of the emperor Tiberius. It was taken and destroyed by the emperor Vespasian, but sprung up again after the destruction of Jerusalem, Sept. 8, a.d. 70, and was the seat of a succession of Hebrew judges and doctors tiU the 4th century. Epi- phanius, bishop of Salamis, in 367, states that a Hebrew translation of St. John and of the Acts of the Apostles was kept here. The modern town, called Tabarieh, was almost destroyed by an earthquake Jan. 1, 1837. Tibet, or Thibet (Central Asia). — This extensive region, chiefiy comprised within the Chinese empire, was first erected into a kingdom B.C. 313. Buddhism was intro- duced A.D. 407, and Tibet was compelled to pay tribute to China in 821. It was con- quered and ravaged by the Mongols, under Zenghis Khan, in 1206. The easternmost parts of Tibet were gradually conquered by the Chinese in 1125, 1362, and 1371, and the whole of the kingdom was made subject to them in 1720. The Ghoorkhas of Nepaul invaded it 1790, but they were repulsed with great loss by the emperor Keen-lung. TiciNO, or Tessin (Switzerland). — Before the time of the Eomans, this canton was inhabited by the Lepontii, and other aboriginal tribes of mountaineers, who were subdued by the emperor Augustus. It was conquered by the Longobards in the 6th century, and was subsequently occupied by the dukes of Milan, and the barons of Saxe and other Ehsetian lords, till the 15th cen- tury, when it was conquered by Switzer- land. Its subjection was completed in the 16th century. It was not admitted into the Swiss confederation till 1815. Its govern- ment underwent a considerable modification in June, 1830. Tickets oe Leave. — In consequence of the difficulty experienced in transporting felons, an act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 99) was passed providing other punishment, Aug. 20, 1853. It empowered the sovereign, by an order in writing from the secretary of state, to grant Mcences — caUed tickets of leave — to convicts under sentence of transportation, or penal servitude, to be at large in the United King- dom. These licences can be revoked if necessary, and the convict apprehended and committed to prison for the residue of hia original sentence. Ticondeeoga (North America). — The fortress of Ticonderoga was built by the French a.d. 1755. The English, under Aber- cromby, assailed it unsuccessfully July 8, 1758. It was taken by them, under Am- herst, July 26, 1759. The revolted Ameri- cans surprised it May 10, 1775, and they TID evacuated it on the approacli of the English, | under Burgoyne, July 6, 1777. General I Lincoln made a vain attempt to recover it, Sept. 13, 1777, and soon after the garrison destroyed their cannon and vrithdrew into Canada. Tides. — The earliest author who notices the tides is Homer, who probably flourished about B.C. 962, and the first who says any- thing of their cause is Pytheas of Mar- seilles, who lived about the time of Alexander the Great. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, and a more complete explanation was given by Sir Isaac Newton in his " Principia," pub- lished in 1687. It was still further improved by Bernoulli, Maelaurin, and Euler, m their treatises written when the subject was pro- posed as a prize by the French Academy of Sciences in 1738. TiEN-TSiN (China). — A treaty was con- cluded at this town, with China, by Lord Elgin, on behalf of England, June 26, 1858, and at the same time separate treaties were made by the plenipotentiaries of France, Kussia, and the United States. Tien-tsin was occupied by the French and Enghsh, Aug. 21, 1860. TiFEENUM (Battle). — The Eomans de- feated the Samnites at this town of Umbria, B.C. 305. TiGEANOCEBTA (Asia), the capital of Ar- menia, built by Tigranes during the Mithri- datic war, was besieged by the Roman consul LucuUus, and Tigranes marched to its relief with an army consisting of 150,000 infantry, 17,000 heavy and 33,000 light ca- valry, 20,000 archers and shngers, besides a multitude of pioneers, &c. Lucullus, with 11,000 men, defeated this host with prodigious slaughter, and the city surrendered, B.C. 70. TiGEis (Asiatic Turkey). — Many famous cities, such as Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad, and Mosul, stood upon the banks of this river. In ancient times dams were constructed across the stream to irrigate the country ; but these were cut through by Alexander to improve the navigation. The English steamer Euphrates ascended the Tigris to within twenty miles of Mosul in 1838. TiiiBTJKT (Essex) . — The fort was built as a block-house by Henry VIII., and EUza- beth lodged here, formed a camp, and reviewed the troops, on the apprehended Spanish invasion, a.d. 1588. It was regu- larly fortified in 1677. Tiles. — Marble tiles were introduced by Byzes of Naxos, b.c. 620. Wooden tUes were used in Rome till b.c. 284. Tiles were first used in England a.d. 1246, and pantiles were in general use in Europe in the 15th century. Decorative paving-tUes of baked pottery were much used in the Mid- dle Ages, but their manufacture in England was almost lost until revived by Minton, and employed in the restoration of the Temple Church, London, in 1842. Tiles were taxed in 1784. This tax was abolished by 3 Will, IV, c. 11 (May 17, 1833). TIM Tilsit (Prussia). — This town, on the river Niemen, contains a castle, built a.d. 1537. It was occupied by the French, June 20, 1807, and is celebrated for the meeting of Napoleon I. and Alexander I. of Russia on the " Raft of Tilsit," June 25, 1807. A se- cond meeting took place in the town June 26, at which the king of Prussia was present. The peace of Tilsit was signed here between France and Russia, July 7, and between France and Prussia, July 9, 1807. The latter treaty was ratified July 19. Tilts, Touewaments, Jousts, &c.— The origin of these warlike games has been re- ferred to the time of the Trojan war, and may be traced with certainty as far back a3 the Roman period. They revived under the feudal system ; and the earliest on record is one held a.d. 841, at the interview between Louis of Germany and Charles the Bald of France, atStrasburg. Theemperor Henryl., who died in 936, was much addicted to this species of amusement, and made several laws for its regulation. Tournaments were intro- duced into England during the reign of Ste- phen. They were prohibited by Henry II., and were not finally established in this country until the reign of Richard I. Henry VIII, and the duke of Suffolk maintained the field against aU comers in May, 1513, and Henry II. of France lost his e^'e in a tilt with Count Montgomery, and died shortly afterwards of the wound in 1559. This incident contributed greatly to suppress the taste for tournaments. Timber. — A tax was laid on European timber, in order to encourage the trade of British America, a.d. 1809. When the tim- ber duties were consolidated by 59 Geo. III. c. 52 (July 2, 1819), European timber was taxed at £3. 58. per load. This duty was reduced to dE2. 15s. by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 37 (May 28, 1821), which imposed an additional 10s. on Canadian timber. Further attempts at equalization were made by 5 & 6 Vict, c. 47 (July 9, 1842), and by 14 & 15 Vict, c. 62 (Aug. 7, 1851). Bethell's method of preserving timber by means of creosote was patented in 1848. TiMBUCTOO (Africa). — This town, near the border of the desert of Sahara, said to have been founded by Mausa Suleiman, a.d. 1213, became a powerful state, and was seized by the rulers of Morocco in 1396. It regained its independence about 1500, was again sub- dued by Morocco in 1672, and remained under its sway till 1727. Since that time it has been alternately independent and subject to the neighbouring states. Dr. Barth, the cele- brated traveller, reached Timbuctoo Sept. 7, 1853, and remained here till July 12, 1854. Time. — Pythagoras, the celebrated philo- sopher of Samos, who flourished in the 5th century B.C., maintained that time was a sub- stance. Archytas, the famous Pythagorean, defiuedit as a continued and indivisible flux of nows or instants, B.C. 400. Locke, who per- haps thought more profoundly on this subject than any other philosopher, says, " The more I set myself to think of it, the less I under- stand it." The ancient Egyptians and other TIM eastern nations measured time by means of an instrument called Clepsydra (q.v.), or water- clock, the principle of which was a constant dropping of water through a small aperture out of one vessel into another. The ancients also measured time by means of the hour-glass and sundial. The Druids, at the period of the Roman invasion, B.C. 55, com- puted their time by nights, and not by days, and measured it by the motions of the moon, (See Clock.) Timothy (Epistles to) . — The first epistle of the apostle Paul to Timothy appears to have been written shortly after Paul left Ephesus to go into Macedonia, a.d. 57 or 58. The second epistle was written by Paul when a prisoner at Eome, according to Lardner, in May, 61. Tin. — This metal, one of the most ancient known to man, is mentioned by Moses B.C. 1451 (Num. xxxi. 22), and was imported into Tyre from Britain as early as b.c. 588. (See Cassiterides.) Spain was also a tin- producing country visited by the ancients. The Cornish tin-mines were worked by the ancient Britons during the Roman occupa- tion, but were neglected by the Saxons. The Norman sovereigns derived immense profit from exporting the metal, as during their reigns England was the only country in which it was found ; but the discovery of tin-mines in Bohemia A.D. 1241, tended to diminish the British trade. Edward III. claimed a mono- poly of the tin-mines of Devon and Cornwall, May 10, 1338, and in 1458 extensive supphes were discovered at Altenberg, in Saxony. In 1640 tin-mines were discovered in Barbary, in consequence of which the importation of the metal into this country was prohibited by a proclamation of Charles I. The tin-mines of Banca were discovered in 1710, and their produce was first imported into England in 1787. In 1665 an attempt was made to intro- duce the manufacture of tin plate into Eng- land from Germany, where it had been long estabhshed, and in 1681 some success was attained by Andrew Yarranton, who was compelled to relinquish the business by the interference of a courtier. The manufacture was permanently established about 1730, when Pontypool in Monmouthshire was made its chief seat. The composition known as Britannia metal, of which tin forms the principal ingredient, was first made at Shef- field about 1770. By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 120 (Aug. 16, 1838), the duties were settled at 10s. per hundredweight for tin ore, and 158. for the manufactured metal. TiKCHEBKAT (Battle). — Henry I. of England defeated his brother Robert, and took him prisoner before the castle of Tin- chebray, in Normandy, Sept. 28, 1106. TiNTEEif Abbey (Monmouthshire) was founded for Cistercian monks by Walter de Clare, a.d. 1131. The church was commenced by Roger de Bigod, earl of Norfolk, and mass was first celebrated within it in 1268. The site was granted to the earl of Worcester by Henry VIII. in 1536, and is now the property of the duke of Beaufort. . TIT TipPEEMUiE (Battle).— The marquis of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under Lord Elcho at this village near Perth, in Scotland, Sept. 1, 1644. TiRLEMONT (Belgium). — This town was taken by the Erench a.d. 1635. They de- feated the Austrians here in Nov. 1792, and again March 16, 1793. The Gothic church, founded towards the end of the 13th, was rebuilt in the 15th century. Titanium, a metal first discovered by Gregor in the grains of a black mineral found in the bed of a rivulet in Cornwall, A.D. 1791. Klaproth found it in some other minerals in 1795, and gave it the name it now bears. Its properties were first satisfactorily determined by WoUaston in 1822. TiTCHFiELD, or TiCHFiELD (Hampshire). — The marriage of Henry VI. with Mar- garet of Anjou is said to have taken place here April 18, 1445. Near the town are the ruins of Titchfield House, erected on the site and with the materials of the Premonstra- tensian abbey, founded in 1231. In this mansion Charles I. took refuge after making his escape from Hampton Court in 1647. The free school for boys and girls is sup- ported by a fund bequeathed by Henry, earl of Southampton, in 1620. Tithes, or Tenths. — Abraham gave Melchizedek tithes of all the spoil he had taken from the five kings, B.C. 1913 (Gen. xiv. 20), and the Levitical law ordered the Jews to set apart a tenth of all their goods to the service of the Lord, B.C. 1491 (Lev. xxvii. 30 — 32) . Among the early Christians, the payment of tithes was re- garded as a matter of conscience, and no laws were passed for its enforcement until the council of Macon, Oct. 23, 585. The cus- tom of devoting a tenth part of all property to the service of the clergy is mentioned in the canons of Egbert, archbishop of York, in 750, and in the ordinances of the council of Celchyth in 787. In 794, Offa, king of Mercia, endowed the church with tithes of all his kingdom, and Charlemagne made several laws regulating their payment about the year 800. The tithe system was sanctioned and amended by the general Lateran coun- cil of 1215. By 37 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1545), the inhabitants of London were ordered to pay 2s. 9d. in the pound on rent as tithes. Numerous amendments in the tithe laws were made by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1548) , and subsequent statutes. By the Tithe Com- mutation Act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 71 (Aug. 13, 1836), commissioners were appointed to effect a commutation of tithes for a rent- charge based upon the average prices of wheat, barley, and oats for seven years. This act was amended by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict, c. 69 (July 15, 1837), 1 & 2 Vict. c. 64 (Aug. 4, 1838), 2 & 3 Vict. c. 62 (Aug. 17, 1839), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 15 (June 4, 1840), 5 & 6 Vict. c. 54 (July 30, 1842), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 26, 1846), and 10 & 11 Vict. c. 104 (July 22, 1847). Titles. (See Nobility, Peers, &e.) Titus (Epistle).— The date of Paul's 841 TIV epistle to Titus has been a subject of much 1 controversy, some placing it as early as a.d. 52, and others as late as a.d. 65. Trom the striking verbal resemblances between it and the first epistle to Timothy, it is considered probable that they were written about the same time (a.d. 57 or 58). TiTEEToif (Devonshire), anciently called Twy-ford-ton and Two-ford-ton, from its situation between the rivers Exe and Low- man, was known as the village of Twyford as early as a.d. 872, and had a market and three annual fairs in 1200. The wool trade was introduced in 1353. Its prosperity was greatly checked by the plague in 1571, and the town was almost destroyed by fire in 1598. Tiverton was considered the chief manufacturing town in the west of England in 1612, about which time a second confla- gration destroyed nearly all the property of the inhabitants. A third fire destroved'300 houses in 1731, and a twelfth part "of the population was cut off by an epidemic fever in 1741. The woollen trade was destroyed by the introduction of Norwich stuifs in 1745, and this was superseded by the patent net manufactui-e in 1815. The lace trade was introduced in 1816. The castle, erected in 1106, was stormed by Fairfax in 1645, and afterwards dismantled. Almshouses were founded by John Greenway in 1529, by John Walsden in 1579, and by George Slee in 1613. The free grammar-school was founded in 1604, and the free English school in 1611. A charitable fund for granting immunities to sisty-seven poor persons was estabhshed in 1697, and the charity school was founded in 1713. The town-hall and corn market were buQt in 1830. Tlemecex, or Tlemsek (Africa), is a place of considerable antiquity, and many Eomau remains are to be foimd in its vici- nity. The greater part of the town was destroyed by the dey of Algiers as a punish- ment for the disaifection of its inhabitants, about A.D. 1670. The French took it in 1836, and evacuated it, by treaty vrith Abd-el- Kader, in 1837. It was again taken by the French in 1842, and forms part of their colony of Algeria. Tobacco.— The use of this plant by the American Indians was first discovered by the Spaniards, at Cuba, in November, 1492", when two of the companions of Columbus observed the natives puffing smoke from their mouths and noses. In 1494 the Indian habit of snuff-taking was remarked by the Spaniards, and in 1503 the natives of Para- guay astonished them by chewing the weed and spitting the juice towards them as a mode of repeUing their invasion. Oriedo published an account of the use of the weed by the inhabitants of Hispaniola in 1526, and in 1560 Francesco Hernandez brought some plants to Europe, and presented them to PhiMp II. of Spain. In 1561 Jean Nieoti pre- sented some specimens toCatherine de Medicis of France, and from him the plant received its scientific name of Nicotiana. It was first brought to England by Sir John Hawkms in 842 TOE 1565, and in 1586 Mr. Ealph Lane intro- duced the practice of smoking, which was adopted and rendered fashionable by Sir "Walter Ealeigh. In 1598 Paul Hentzner visited England and, speaking of the Bear Gardens, says, "At these spectacles, and everywhere else, the Enghsh are constantly smoking tobacco," and Decker, in his " Satiro-mastix," printed in 1602, mentions smoking as a habit of his lady contempora- ries. Li 1603 James I. pubhshed his cele- brated " Counterblast to Tobacco," and in 1604 he issued a proclamation against its use, and charged a duty of 6s. lOd. per lb. on all that was sold. In 1624 he pubhshed a second document, prohibiting its impor- tation except from British colonies, and forbidding its culture in England or Ireland, and Urban VIII. the same year denounced excommunication against such as should smoke in church. Tobacco was introduced into Java by the Dutch in 1601, was con- veyed from Brazil to India in 1617, and it is now universally used in the eastern hemisphere. In 1634 Charles I. repeated the prohibitions of his father, and extended them to the importation of tobacco seed, and in 1652 the Long Parliament passed an act embodving these regulations, which were finally confirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 34 (1660) . Cigars are first mentioned as a form of to- bacco used by the Indians in 1699, and in 1796 they became fashionable at Hamburg, and thence were difi'used throughout Europe, The growth of tobacco in Ireland was per- mitted by 19 Geo. III. c. 35 (1779), but it was again prohibited by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 13 (Aug. 23, 1831). The first duties imposed on tobacco by act of parhament were levied by 1 James II. c. 4 (1685), and after many changes, the duties on foreign and British colonial tobacco were equalized at 3s. per lb. by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47 (July 9, 1842). Tobago (Atlantic Ocean), one of the West-Indian islands belonging to Great Britain, was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1496, and was first colonized by the Dutch in 1632. They were expelled by the Span- iards, and having returned to the island, abandoned it in 1683. By the treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1743, Tobago was de- clared neutral, and by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, it was assigned to Great Bri- tain. It was taken by the French in 1781, and was ceded to them by the treaty of Versailles in 1783. The English captured it in 1793, and again July 17, 1803, and it was finally ceded to them by the congress of Vienna in 1814. Tobolsk (Asiatic Eussia), the capital of a government of the same name, was founded by the Eussians a.d. 1587. Many of the Swedish officers who had been taken prisoners at the battle of Pultavain 1709 were sent here. Louis XV. of France sent the Abbe Chappe d'Auteroche here to observe the transit of Venus in 1756. The town was almost destroyed by fire in 1786. ToKAT (Hungary). — This town of upper Hungary, on the river Theiss, celebrated for TOK TON its wine3, is situated at the foot of the Heg- yalla hills. They are planted with vines which Bela IV. (a.d. 1235 to 1270) had brought into Hungary by Italian colonists. Tokay was taken from the Turks in 1685. The town was formerly defended by a castle, which was demolished in 1705. The Mag- yars were driven from their position here, on the Theiss, by the Cossacks, in July, 1849. TOKEN'S. — The use of private tokens to supply the want of small coin, prevailed in England at the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. The issue of tokens for money, by inferior traders, caused many complaints A.D. 1574. They were made of lead, tin, latten, and leather, and caused great loss to the poor, as they were only taken at the shops where first issued. Private traders struck farthing tokens in lead for some years prior to 1613, in which year they were abolished. Silver tokens of the value of 5s. were issued by the Bank of England Jan. 1, 1798, and from the scarcity of small coin, the bank again issued a large quantity of silver tokens at 5s. 6d., 8s., and U. 6d., in 1811. The issue of gold and silver tokens, except by the banks of England and Ireland, was prohibited by 52 Geo. III. c. 157 (July 29, 1812). ToLBiAC (Battle). — On this plain of Ger- many, in the neighbourhood of Cologne, Clovis, king of the Franks, totally defeated the Alemanni, a.d. 496. Toledo (Spain) is said to have been founded by some Jews who migrated to Spain during the period of the second tem- ple in Jerusalem (finished B.C. 515). The Komans took it B.C. 193. Leovigild, king of the Visigoths, made it the seat of his empire A.D. 577. It was enlarged and surrounded by walls by King Wamba in the 7th century, and was taken by the Arabs in April, 712. Alphonso VI., of Castile and Leon, captured it, after a siege of three years. May 25, 1085, and bunt an outer wall to the town in 1109. During the civil wars between Peter the Cruel and his bastard brothers (1354 to 1369) the town was frequently taken and retaken, and the inhabitants — chiefly Jews — were ill- treated, Toledo was celebrated for the manufacture of sword-blades in the 15th and 16th centuries. The cathedral, standing on the site of an old Moorish mosque, was founded by Ferdinand III. of Castile, in 1258, and completed in 1492. The chapel, called Capilla Muzarabe, because mass is still said daily according to the Muzarabic ritual, was founded by Cardinal Ximenes in 1510. The royal palace, originally built by King Wamba in the 7th century, was almost entirely rebuilt by the emperor Charles V. (1519 to 1556). The con- vent and church of San Juan de los Eeyes was erected by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1476, and the manacles and fetters worn by the Christian captives of Granada — ^libe- rated at the taking of that city in 1492 — suspended to the outside of the walls of this building, remain there to the present time. The foundling hospital of Santa Cruz was founded by Cardinal Mendoza in 1304, and La Iglesia del Transito, formerly a Jewish synagogue, built in the reign of Peter the Cruel (1350 to 1369), is a curious specimen of Saracenic architecture. Toledo was taken by the French in Dec. 1808, and evacuated by them in 1813. Councils were held here, Sept. 7, 400 ; in 447 ; May 17, 527 ; in 581 or 582 ; 589 ; May 17, 597 ; Oct. 23, 610 ; Dec. 9, 633 ; Jan. 9, 636 ; Jan. 9, 638 ; in 646 ; Jan. 653 ; Nov. 2, 655 ; Dec. 1, 656; Nov. 7, 675; Jan. 9 to 25, 681 ; Nov. 4, 683 ; Nov. 14 to 20, 684 ; May II, 688 ; May 2, 693 ; Nov. 9, 694 ; in 701 ; Nov. 21, 1324 ; Mav 19, 1339 ; in April, 1347 ; and Oct. 1, 1355. ToLEJfTisro (Italy). — Alarmed at the pro- gress of the French arms in the papal states, Pius VI. despatched Cardinal Mattel, who, at this place, concluded a treaty of neu- trality, which granted to the conquerors a cession of territory, money contributions, together with some of the finest works of art in the world, Feb. 19, 1797. Murat, king of Naples, having taken up arms in the cause of Napoleon I., was totally defeated here by the Austrians, May 3, 1815. Toleration. {See Act oe Toleeation.) ToLEA (Italy). — John di Castro, convinced that a mineral, fit to yield alum, was to be had at this place, instituted experiments which proved successful, and he established the weU-known manufactory about a.d. 1459. Tolls. — A grant of a penny for every waggon passing through a manor in Glou- cestershire was made a.d. 1267. Edward III. granted permission to levy a toll on vehicles passing along the road from the hos- pital of St. Giles's in the Fields to Temple Bar in 1346, and another on all goods con- veyed by land or water to the market at Westminster in 1353. {See EebeccaEiots.) ToLOSA (Spain). — On the plains of Tolosa, Mohammed, cahph of Spain, was defeated by the Christians, July 16, 1212. The French gained a victory over the Spaniards here in July, 1794. The town, occupied by the French from 1808 to 1813, was cap- tured by the English, tmder Sir Thomas Graham, in July, 1813. ToN&A (Pacific Ocean), the chief of the Friendly Isles (q.v.), was discovered by Tasman, a.d. 1643. An excellent roadstead was discovered by Cook, on the north side, when he visited it in 1773. Ten English missionaries, sent out by the London so- ciety, landed here in 1797. ToNGEES (Belgimn). — ^A mineral spring in the neighbourhood was known in the time of Phny, a.d. 72. A bishop's see, es- I tablished here in 97, was transferred to I Maastricht in 383. The church, said to be the first dedicated to the Virgin north of the Alps, was bmlt in 1240. The town was wrested from the French by the archduke Charles in March, 1793, and evacuated by the allies July 15, 1794. On the road be- tween Hasselt and this town the Belgians were defeated by the Dutch troops, under jS43 T01ln is inaugurated presi- dent of the United States. April 6. Ar- kansas leaves the Union. April 12. The confederates under General Beauregard attack the federals in Fort Sumpter, and coHxpel them to surrender after a bom- bardment of forty hours. April 15. Presi- dent Lincoln arms the militia, and grants the confederates a dehiy of twenty days in which to consider their position. April 18. Tennessee and Virginia secede. April 19. Lincoln proclaims the southern ports in a state of blockade. May 13. The federals, under General Butler, occupy Baltimore. May 16. Lincoln states his determination to cease all diplomatic relations with such foreign powers as acknowledge the confederates. May 18. Kentucky declares itself neutral. May 23. The federalists enter Virginia. May 31. Postal communication ceases between the northern and southern states. June 13. Secession of Missouri. June 18. The fede- ralists under General Lyon defeat the Missouri confederates under General Jackson at Booneville. July 4. Defeat of the confederates at Paoh Mountain. July 5. An engagement takes place near Carthage, Missouri. July 20. The confederate con- gress assembles at Eichmond, Virginia. July 21. Battle of Manassas {q.v.), or BuU's Bun. Aug. 10. The federals sustain severe losses in the battle of Dug Spring. Aug. 28. The forts on Hatteras Inlet are seized by the federals. Aug. 29. An en- gagement takes place near Summersville. Sept. 16. The confederates are defeated at Lexington. Sept. 18. And at Blue Mills. Sept. 20. Lexington, Missouri, suiTenders to the confederates. Sept. 2(j. The northern states observe a gener.il fast. Oct. 21. Defeat of the federalists at Ball's Blutf. Oct. 31. General M'Olellan is appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the Union. Nov. 8. The federalists seize Beaufort, and capture nearly 2,000,000 dollars worth, of cotton. Slidell and Mason, commissioners from the confede- rate states to the French coiu-t, are forcibly taken from the English mail steamer Trent. Nov. 9. The news of the seizure of Mason and Slidell is received with great rejoicings at the principal northern towns. Nov. 13. The federalists are defeated by a superior confederate force at Guyandotte. Nov. 14. Defeat of the con- federates at Piketown, Kentucky. Nov. 20. General M'Clellan reviews 70,000 federal troops at Washington. Dec. 2. Congress passes a vote of thanks to Captain Wilkes, for the seizure of Slidell and Mason. Dec. 10. The confederates sustain a severe defeat in Pocahontas county, Virginia. Dec. 23. Lord Lyons, British minister at Washington, demands the suiTeuder of Mason and Slidell. Dec. 27. The United States goveriunent accedes to the de- mand. Dec. 26. A destructive fire breaks out at the government stables, Washington. Dec. 30. The New York bankers suspend cash payments. 1862. Jan. 1. Mason and Slidell are set at liberty. Jan. 17. Death of ex-president Tyler at Eichmond, Virginia. Jan. 18. The con- federates are defeated at Mill Spring, Ken- tucky. Feb. 6. Fort Henry, Kentucky, surrenders to the federalists. Feb. 8. Eoanoke Island is taken by the federalists at the point of the bayonet. Feb. 9. Ax- rest of the federal general Stone on a charge of treason. Feb. 16. Fort Dounel- Bon, with 15,000 confederate prisoners, is taken by the federals. VNI 1862. Feb. 24. Nashville, Tennessee, Is occupied by the federalists. March 8. The con' federate ii-on- plated steam-ship Merri- mac destroys the federal sailing frigates Cuinherland and Congress in Hampton Roads. March 9. An engagement takes place between the Merrimac and the federal floating-battei-y Monitor, in which the former is compelled to retire. March 24. The confederates are defeated at Winchester, Virginia. March 26. The confederates are driven from Warring- ton Junction. April 6 and 7. Two severe battles are fought at Pittsburg Landing, near Corinth, -which are won by the con- federates. April 11. Fort Pulaski, on the Savannah, surrenders to the federals. April 26. The federalists occupy New Orleans. May 3. The confederates evacuate Torktown. May 5. ITie federals are vic- torious at Williamsburg. May 10. Norfolk, Virginia, sun-enders to the feder.al troops. May 11. The confederates blow up the Mer- rimac to prevent its captui-e by the enemy. May 27. The confederates lose Hanover Court-house and 1,000 men. May 29. The confederates evacuate Corinth. PEESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. The president holds the office for a term of four years, but is ehgible for re-election at the expiration of that period. The official year commences on the 4th of March. George Washing- ton 1789 John Adams 17S»7 Thomas Jefferson . . 1801 James Madison 1809 James Monroe .... 1817 John Quincy Adams 182.5 Andrew Jackson . . 1829 Martin Van Buren 1837 A.D. William Henry Harrison 1841 John Tyler 1841 James Knox Polk.. 184.5 Zachary Taylor 1849 Millard Fillmore . . 1850 Pierce Franklin . , 1853 James Buchanan . . 1857 Abraham Lincoln.. 1861 Fniteesalists, who held the doctrine of the ultimate salvation of all mankind, existed at an early age in the Christian church. They are divided into Universalists, Hypo- thetical Universalists, and semi- Universalists. They formed several societies in America A.D. 1780. Univeesal Suffeage.— This system of Toting existed in the republics of an- cient Greece and in Eome. It was esta- bHshed in France a.d. 1791, and was abo- lished on the faU of the empire. It formed one of the provisions of Daniel O'Connell's Eeform Bill, which was rejected by the House of Commons May 28, 1830, and it was adopted as the jfirst point of the people's charter in 1838. It was again established m France March 5, 1848, and was modified May 31, 1850. It was adopted by the pre- sident, Louis Napoleon, Dec, 2, 1851, and again in the election of deputies by the new French constitution, Jan. 15, 1852. The voting of the Itahan states for and against annex- ation to Sardinia in 1860 was also by uni- versal suffrage. UifiVEESiTiES.— The ancient Eomans apphed the term university to any corpo- ration of traders or professional men, and in ecclesiastical language it was used to de- note a number of churches under the govern- ment of one archdeacon. An instance of 861 tJlfl this employment of the word occurs a.d. 688. Academically it signifies " a universal school, in which are taught all branches of learning, or the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and the arts, and in which degrees are conferred in these faculties," The university system of education origi- nated in the schools attached to the churches and monasteries, and was estabhshed during the 11th century. The following is a hst of the most important universities, with the dates of their foundation. Additional information is frequently given under the title of the town in which they are situ- ated : — A.D. Aberdeen 1494 Abo 1609 Aix 1413 Alcala de H6nar6s 1508 Almagro 15-53 Altorf 1622 Andrew's, St 1411 Angers 1246 Athens 1837 AvUa 1482 Baeza 1565 Barcelona 1430 Basel 1459 Berlin 1810 1834 1676 Bologna 1116 Bonn 1784 Bordeaux 1441 Bourges 1463 Breslau 1702 Brussels 1834 Buda before 1490 Cuen 1436 Cagliari 1626 Cahors 1320 Cambridge 636 Camerino 1727 Catania 1445 Cervera 1714 Charkov 1803 Christiana 1811 Coimbra 1537 Cologne 1388 Copenhagen 1479 Corfu 1824 Cracow 1364 Dijon 1722 DUlengen 1554 D61e 1426 Dorpat 1632 Douai 1562 Dublin 1591 Durham 1831 Edinburgh 1582 Elbing 1542 Erfurt 1392 Ei'langen 1743 Evora 1578 Ferrara 1390 Florence 1438 Franeker 1585 Frankfort -on- Oder 1506 Freiburg 14.57 Gandia 1547 Geneva 1368 Genoa 1812 Ghent 1816 Giessen 1607 Girona, or Gerona 1446 Glasgow 1451 Gottingen 1734 Granada 1531 Gratz 1586 Greif swald 1456 Grenoble 1339 A.I>. Groningen 1614 Guatemala 1628 Halle 1694 Harvard (Cam- bridge, U.S.) .... 1638 Heidelberg 1386 Helmstadt 1576 Helsingfors 1828 Huesca 1354 Ingoldstadt 1472 Innspriick 1672 Jena 1547 Kasan 1803 Kiel 1663 Kiev 1834 Konigsberg 1544 Leipsic 1409 Lemberg 1784 Lerida 1300 Leyden 1575 Li6ge 1817 Lima 1614 Lisbon 1290 London 1828 Louvain 1423 Luchente 1423 Lund 1668 Macerata 1290 Madrid 1836 Majorca 1483 Marburg 1527 Mayence 1477 Messina 1548 Mexico 1553 Montpellier 1284 Moscow 1755 Munich 1826 Murcia 1310 Nanci 1769 Nantes 1464 Naples 1220 Olmutz 1581 Onate 1542 Oi-auge 1365 Orihuela 1568 Orleans 1305 Osma 1550 Osuna 1549 Oviedo .\ 1604 Oxford 879 Paderbom 1623 Padua 1228 Palencia 1212 Palermo 1447 Pampelona Estella 1563 Paris 1169 Parma 1422 Pau 1722 Pa via 774 Perpignan 1349 Perugia 1320 Pesth 1784 Petersburg, St 1819 Piacenza 1249 Pisa 1338 Poitiers 1431 UNI A.D. Pont-4-MouEsoii .. 1572 Prague 1948 Quito 1586 Rheiins 1548 Rome 1303 Bostock 1419 Sa'amanca 1240 Salzburg 1623 Santiago 1532 Saragossa 1474 Sassari 1766 hevUle 1502 Siena 1203 Toledo 1520 Tortosa 1645 Toulouse 1223 Treves 1454 Tubingen 1477 Turin 1412 Upsal, or Upsala . . 1478 TJrbino 1671 Utrecht 1634 Valence 1464 Viilencia 1410 , Valladolid 1346 I Vienna 1365 1 Vilna 1803 I Weissemberg 3607 1 "Wittenberg 1502 Wurzbui-g 1403 Zuiich 1834 Siguenza 1472 Siut»gard 1775 Suhagun-Irache .. 1534 Tarragona 1572 Teneriffe 1744 Univeesitt College (London). — This institution, in Gower Street, was erected into a distinct college of London University (q. v.)hj a charter dated Nov. 28, 1836. University College (Oxford), said to have been founded by Alfred, a.d. 879, was endowed by William of Durham, rector of Bishopwearmouth, a.d. 1253. The first statutes are dated 1280. The hall was com- menced in 164^, the chapel was completed in 1665, and the library in 1669. Univehsity op London. (See London Uniyeesity.) Unkiae-Skelessi (Treaty), between Eus- sia and Turkey, was signed at Constantinople July 8, 1833. By a secret article the straits of the Dardanelles were closed against aU foreign ships of war. A motion for its pro- duction in the House of Commons by Lord Dudley Stuart, who characterized it as in- imical to British interests, was agreed to Feb. 19, 1836. Unknown Tongite. (See Ievingites.) Unteewalden (Switzerland) formed the two separate communities of Nidwalden and Obwalden, a.d. 1150. It entered into a temporary confederacy with Schwyz and Uri, in August, 1291 ; took part in the insur- tion of 1308 ; and was recognized as one canton at the federal union, Dec. 8, 1315. Upsal, or Upsala (Sweden), was taken by Ivar Vidfadme, a Danish king, who united the thrones of Denmark and Sweden, a.d. 722. From this town the kings received their title till 1015. It was created an archbishopric in 1164. The cathedral was built between the years 1258 and 1435 ; the university was founded by Sten Sture, in 1478 ; and the Society of Sciences was in- stituted in 1719. Six miles from the town are the monasteries where the kings were elected from 1140 to 1520. Ueanittm was obtained from the mineral pitchblende, by KJaproth, who named the new metal after the planet Uranus, a.d. 1789. Ueanus. (See G-eoegium Sidus.) Uebicus (Battles) . — On the banks of this Spanish river, the modern Orbega, Theodoric, ting of the Visigoths, defeated and almost annihilated the Suevi, under their king Kechiarius, a.d. 456. The Moorish prince Almondhir was defeated near its baiis by 865 UES Alphonso III., king of Leon, in 874, but with such loss to himself that, according to the Arab chroniclers, the Christians wei-e em- ployed during more than eleven days in burying their dead. Uebino (Italy), the ancient Urbinum Hortense, a municipal town where Fabius Valens, the general of ViteUius, was put to death a.d. 69, was besieged and taken by BeUsarius in 538, and became the capital of a duchy about 1320. Csesar Borgia treacher- ously obtained possession by requesting the duke, as a friend, to lend him his ar- tillery, with which he entered the town as a conqueror in 1502. It was wrested from him by Pope Julius II. in 1503. Leo X. captured it in 1516. The efforts of the duke to recover it in 1517 proved ineffectual, and Leo X. annexed it to the States of the Church in 1519. It was recovered by the duke in 1522, and was finally incorporated with the papal states in 1632. Uegel (Spain) was created a bishopric A.D. 820. It was captured by the Moorish king Abderahman in 822, by the French in 1691, and again when the duke of Berwick commanded, Oct. 12, 1719. After a few days' siege, the royahsts took it by assault, putting the greater part of the garrison to the sword, June 21, 1822. A regency, which professed to administer the government in the name of Ferdinand VII., was formed here Sept. 14, 1822. On the approach of Mina, the regency fled from the town, Nov. 10. Uei (Switzerland). — This canton was one of the three which revolted against Austria, A.D. 1307, and which contracted the federal compact of Brunnen, Dec. 8, 1315. In 1775 the Val Levantina revolted against the juris- diction of Uri, but was compelled to return to its allegiance. Ueiconium, or Weoxbtee (Shropshire) . — About A.D. 1700 a person digging in a field at Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, dis- covered a Roman tessellated pavement and other interesting remains. Other discoveries were afterwards made, but no systematic plan of exploration was adopted until a committee of excavation was appointed at Shrewsbury, Nov. 11, 1858. Excavations were commenced Feb. 3, 1859 ; and the result was the discovery of the ruins of the Roman city of Uriconium, which has been called, in consequence, the British Pompeii. Ueim and Thummim, commanded by Jehovah to form part of the breastplate of judgment worn by the Jewish high priest on certain occasions, b.c. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 30). It was consulted before entering upon any important enterprise, as by Da^ad when he inquired if he should go up against any of the cities of Judah (2 Sam. ii. 1), B.C. 1053. According to Josephus, it ceased to return responses about B.C. 110. Uesuline Nitns, founded by Angela da Brescia about a.d. 1537. The order took its name from the English saint Ursula, when the institution was confirmed by Pope Paul III. in 1544. Madame de Sainte B ^uve esta- 3 K UKU blished the first house of the order at Paris 1 in 1604. I Uetjgttat, or Banda Oeientai, (South America), formed part of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, under the Spaniards, and ; was taken possession of by Brazil a.d. 1815. < A war between the two countries ensued in ' consequence in 1825. A settlement was effected, by which a portion of Uruguay was erected into an independent republic in 1828 ; and a constitution was published August, j 1830. Ships of war were sent by England and France into the Eio de la Plata, in con- sequence of the lawless state of the country, under Eosas, in 1845 ; and Monte Video was blockaded by the EngHsh till 1848 ; and by the French till 1849. Arrangements were made, and treaties formed with Prance and England at the conclusion of the blockade ; but after the withdrawal of those powers the war was renewed with Brazil, and prosecuted till 1851. Ushant (France). — An engagement took place off Ushant, July 27, 1778, between the English fleet, under Admiral Keppel, and the French, under d'Orvilliers. It was of an indecisive character, and Keppel was tried by court-martial. Off the island, Captain "Williams, of the -PZor«, captured the Nymphe, commanded by Chevalier du Eomain, after a severe struggle, Aug. 10, 1780. Lord Howe gained a signal victory over the French fleet off the coast, June 1, 1794. UsiPETES, or UsiPi. — This German tribe, having crossed the lower Ehine, were treach- erously attacked and defeated by Juhus Cassar, b.c. 55. They opposed the progress of Germanicus on his return from the country of the Marsi, a.d. 14; and took part in the siege of Moguntiacum, about 70. A de- tachment of the nation served in the Eoman army in Britain in 83 ; after which then- name disappears from history. UsTJRT. — The Jews were prohibited by the Mosaic law to exact usury from those of their own nation, B.C. 1451 (Deut. xxiii. 20). In Greece it was not regulated by law, and ranged from ten to eighteen per cent. With the Eomans the legal rate was twelve per cent., senators being allowed to recover one half of that rate by the Theodosian code, A.D. 438. Li England usury was prohibited by 15 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 5 (1341). It was limited to ten per cent, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1545) ; reduced to eight per cent, in 1624; to six in 1660 ; and by 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 16 (1713), was lowered to five per cent. By 2 & 3 Vict. c. 37 (July 29, 1839), all bills of exchange and promissory notes not having more than twelve months to run, and all contracts for sums above ten pounds, were exempted from the operation of the usury laws. All restrictions were repealed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (Aug. 10, 1854). In France the rate was fixed at five per cent, in 1665 ; but the laws affecting usury were abohshed at the revolution of 1789. Utah (North America) was acquired by the United States government from Mexico, A.D. 184S, and constituted a territory, with UXE Brigham Young as governor, Sept. 9, 1850. Previous to the formal transfer in 1847, the Mormons had estabhshed themselves here. A force was despatched against them by the federal government in 1857. Brigham Young submitted to authority, and received them peaceably in May, 1858. Utica (Africa) was founded by the Tyrians about B.C. 1165, and is mentioned as an ally of Carthage B.C. 348. At the close of the third Punic war it concluded terms with the Eoman conquerors, B.C. 147. Cato the younger committed suicide here, B.C. 46. It was presented by Augustus with the Eoman civitas, B.C. 31. It appears to have fallen into the hands of the Vandals about A.D. 439 ; and, after undergoing various vicissitudes, was destroyed by the Saracens about 700. Uteecht (Holland), the Trajectum of the Eomans, capital of the province of that name, is mentioned in the Itinerary of An- toninus, A.D. 138. An independent bishopric was founded here in 696. It entered into the Dutch confederation in 1579, and was taken in 1672 by Louis XIV., who was com- pelled to abandon it in 1673. The French, under General Salm, occupied Utrecht Jan. 17, 1795. The cathedral of St. Martin, built in 1382, was much injured by a storm in 1674. The imiversity was founded in 1634. Uteecht (Treaty), which closed the war of the second Graiid Alliance that broke out A.D. 1701, was signed at Utrecht between France, Great Britain, Spain, Prussia, Por- tugal, and the States-General, April 11, 1718 (IS'.S. ) . Gibraltar, Minorca, N"ova Scotia, and St. Christopher, were ceded to England, Hudson's Bay was restored, and the French settlements in jS^ewfoundland were aban- doned. The emperor Charles VI., who re- fused to make peace, was given to June 1 to join in the treaty. His forces were de- feated, and conferences were opened Nov. 26, which resulted in the peace of Alt- Eanstadt {q. v.). Uttoxetee (Stafford).— The duke of Ha- milton having entered Lancashire with a body of Scotch troops in support of the cause of Charles I., was defeated near Preston by Cromwell, who pursued him to this town^ where he was captured, Aug. 20, 1648. UxBBiDGE (Middlesex) . — Commissioners met here to discuss terms of peace between Charles I. and his parliament, Jan. 30, 1645. The parliamentary party demanded the abo- lition of episcopacy and the Uturgy, and that the absolute control of the army and navy- should be vested in them. These conditions were rejected on behalf of the king, and the negotiations terminated without result, Feb. 22. UxELLODTiifuir (France). — This town of the Cadarci was the scene of Caesar's last great mihtary exploit in Gaul. It was be- sieged by him, and only surrendered after a desperate resistance, from want of water, B.C. 51. The conqueror sullied his victory uz by causing the hands of all the fighting men left alive to be cut off. Uz, supposed to have been in the south of Arabia Deserta, is mentioned as the land where the patriarch Job lived (Job i. 1), B.C. 2130. •V. Vaccination. — Dr. Edvrard Jenner's at- tention vras first directed to this subject A.D. 1768, and he tried it on a boy with matter procured from the hand of a dairy- maid who had contracted cow-pox. May 14, 1796. The boy was inoculated with small- pox matter by way of experiment, July 1, 1796, and no disease followed. An act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 29) to extend its practice was passed July 23, 1840 ; and another (4 & 5 Vict. c. 24) provided for its gratuitous perform- ance to the poor, June 21, 1841. An act to extend and enforce the practice of it (16 & 17 Vict. c. 100) was passed Aug. 20, 1853. The Koyal Jennerian Institution was founded in 1806, and the JS'ational Vaccine Establish- ment in 1809. Jenner's services to the country were acknowledged by a grant of £10,000, voted by the House of Commons, June 3, 1802, and by another of £20,000 in 1807. Vaccoli (Battle), between the Pisans and the Luccans, in which the latter were , defeated, was fought a.d. 1055. Vadimonian Lake (Battles). — The Etrus- cans were defeated, and their power fibrst broken, near this lake, in Italy, in an en- gagement with the Romans, under Q. Fabius Maximus, B.C. 310. In alliance with the Gauls, they were defeated by the consul P. Cornelius DolabeUa at the same place, B.C. 283. Va&eants, or Vagabonds. — This class of wanderers is referred to in the " Statute of Labourers " (23 Edw. III. c. 1), passed A.D. 1349. Numerous penal enactments were made to prevent the increase of va- grancy. By 1 & 2 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1547), any person who had offered them work which they refused, was authorized to brand them on the breast with a V, hold them in slavery for two years, feed them during that period on bread and water, and hire them out to others. Inoperative from its severity, this act was repealed in 1549. The privy council having issued circular letters to the sheriffs of counties to apprehend aU " vagabonds and sturdy beggars, commonly called Egyp- tians," 13,000 were taken up in 1,569. All previous laws on the subject were remodelled by 17 Geo. II. c. 5 (1744), which distributed them into the three classes of — idle and disorderly persons, rogues and vagabonds, f and incorrigible rogues. The law is at present regulated by 5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (1824), amended by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 38 (July 27, 1838). VAiiiA (Battle), called by the Frerivsh the Battle of Agnadello, was fought between the Venetians and the French on the banks of the Adda, May 14, 1509, when the latter, 867 VAL commanded by Louis XII. in person, gained a decided victory. Valais (Svritzerland), having been con- quered by the Eomans, was seized by the Burgundians on the decline of the empire. They were supplanted by the Franks, vfho engaged in a civil war ; and the lower district was subjected by the upper, a.d. 1475. It was aUied vrith Switzerland in 1495, and joined the confederacy in 1529. The two districts were formed into one canton in 1798. N'apoleon Bonaparte constituted it a separate republic in 1802, and united it to the French empire Nov. 12, 1810. It be- came part of the new confederation, under the constitution framed by the congress of Vienna, May 27, 1815. Several political changes of a democratic character took place in 1830. Valdenses, or Waldenses, also called VaUenses, Valdesii, and Vaudois, Christians dwelling in the Cottian Alps, who, accord- ing to the best authorities, retained their faith unsullied during prevailing corruption, and form the connecting link between the primitive church of the apostolic age and the reformed church of modern times. They occupy the valleys of Lucerna, Perosa, and San Martino, in Piedmont ; and their ancestors are said to have possessed an ec- clesiastical system of their own as early as A.D. 820. A confession of their faith, bear- ing date 1120, is extant ; and the " JSTobla Ley9zon," an exposition of their principles, was written in 1100. They were ordered by Alphonso II. of Aragon to depart out of his dominions in 1194, and their first persecu- tion commenced in 1210, A colony profess- ing their tenets settled in Calabria, and founded several towns in the 14th century. Innocent VIII. ordered a crusade against them in 1487. Commissioners, monks, and soldiers, were sent by the duke of Alcala, viceroy of Naples, with instructions to con- vert or destroy them, in 1561. Instigated by the pope and the court of Spain, Duke Emanuel Phihbert sent troops into their quiet valleys in 1560. Neither women nor children were spared, and many, taken prisoners, were consigned to the flames. Terrible per- secutions followed at different times. Charles Emanuel I. guaranteed them the exercise of their religion, under certain restrictions, in 1603 and 1620 ; and Charles I. of England sent two embassies to intercede for them in 1627 and in 1629. A merciless crusade was commenced against them by Charles Ema- nuel II. in 1655. His cruelties elicited pro- tests from several European states. Crom- well induced Louis XIV. to mediate, and an amnesty was granted in August, 1656. Fresh persecutions followed in 1663 and 16G4. Under the advice of Louis XIV. of France, Victor Amadeus II. issued an edict com- manding them to abjure their tenets, in Janu- ary, 1686. Numbers were put to the sword, their whole property confiscated ; others were thrown into prison, where they died ; and many families migrated into Switzerland. Eight hundred of these exiles, under their 3x2 VAL pastor, Henri Arnaud, undertook a roman- tic expedition to their native valleys, where they arrived Sept. 16, 1688. In return for their bravery in defending the passes of the Alps against the French, Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia, in June, 179i, published an ordi- nance redressing many of their grievances. They were placed by Napoleon Bonaparte on an equal footing with Eoman Cathohcs in 1802; but again subjected to disabilities by their king in 1814. Charles Fehx, however, showed them some degree of indulgence in 1821. Permission was granted them by Victor Emanuel II. to erect a church at Turin, Dec. 15, 1853. Valencat (France). — Napoleon I. impri- soned Ferdinand VII. of Spain in the palace at this town. May 9, 1808. An attempt to procure his hberation was made by the English government, but without success, in 1810. A treaty for the same object was | concluded belween Napoleon I. and the royal captive Dec. 11, 1813. The Cortes refused to ratify the treaty ; the king, how- ver, was set free, and arrived in Spain March 19, 1814. Valekce (France). — Pius VI. was con- veyed to this town a prisoner by the French, Aug. 19, and he died here Aug. 29, 1799. Councils were held here, July 12, 374 ; May 23, 585 ; Jan. 8, 855 ; in 890 ; Sept. 30, 1100 ; in June, 1209, and Dec. 5, 1248. Valencia (Spain), capital of the province of the same name, became a Eoman colony about B.C. 138. It was taken and destroyed by Pompey about B.C. 77. Adolphus, king of the Goths, assailed it a.d. 414; and the Sara- cens obtained possession by treaty with Theo- demir of Murcia in 713. They erected the province into a kingdom in 1009. Ferdi- nand I. defeated the Moors here in 1064. It was taken hj the king of Toledo, who deposed its sovereign in 1065. Prince Aleadir perished, with his Christian allies, in defending it against the Almoravides in 1092. It was delivered from the Moors by the Cid in 1094, on which account it is sometimes called Valencia del Cid. The Moors re- gained possession in 1099. Incursions were made into the province by the Christians in 1224. The city was assailed by Gaycum of Aragon in 1236. He capture^ it and an- nexed it to his kingdom Sept. 29, 1238. The earl of Peterborough seized it in 1705 ; but it was recovered for Phihp V. by the duke of Berwick in 1707. The French, who failed in an attack upon it in 1808, succeeded in capturing it Jan. 9, 1812. They abandoned their conquest in June, 1813, A decree issued by Ferdinand VII. from this place annulled the acts of the Cortes, restoring absolute government over Spain, May 4, 1814. An insurrection, caused by the imposition of a coal-tax, broke out Jan. 17, 1817. Another, with the object of assassinating the governor-general, Elio, suppressed under circumstances of great cruelty, broke out Jan. 21, 1819. The civil war was carried on with great fierceness in the province in 1836. The cathedral was VAL erected on the site of a Eoman temple and a Moorish mosque in 1262, and received ad- ditions in 1482. The wall surrounding the city was built by Pedro IV. in 1356 ; the university was founded in 1410 ; and the Lonja de Seda, or hall of silk, was built in 1482. CouncUs were held here in July or August, 530, and Dec. 4, 546. Valencien]s^es (France) was taken by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, a.d. 1006, and by the French musqueteers in 1677. The allied troops, under the duke of York and the prince of Coburg, captured it, after an heroic defence extending over forty-three days, July 28, 1793. It capitulated to the French Aug. 27, 1794. Valentine's Day, Feb. 14, "a Christian commutation," says Fosbroke, " of the ceremony in the Lupercaha, in which the names of young women were put into a box, from which they were drawn by the men as chance directed. It was continued by ladies, who chose knights for a twelvemonth, mostly during carnival time." The earliest known poetical valentines were written by Charles, duke of Orleans, taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, Oct. 25, 1415. They are in the library of the British Museum. The saint who gives name to the day was martyred at Eome about a.d. 270. Valentinians, the followers of Valen- tinus, supposed to be of Jewish origin, who introduced a strange compound of Gnosti- cism and Judaism at Eome, in the 2nd century. Mosheim says this heresy grew to maturity in the island of Cyprus, and with wonderful celerity traversed Asia, Africa, and Europe. Valetta. {See La Valetta.) Valladolid (Spain), the Pintia of the Eomans, the Belad "Walid of the Moors, and capital of the province of the same name, was chosen as a royal residence by Juan II. of Aragon in the loth century. Philip II., who was born here, induced Pope Clement VIII, to raise it to a bishopric in 1595. A French army tmder Dupont occupied it in January, 1808. The Spaniards captured a French detachment here in 1812, and it was taken by the English, June 4, 1813. The univer- sity was founded in 1346 ; the cathedral, commenced in 1585, is unfinished. One of" its towers fell to the ground m 1841. Colum- bus died at VaUadolid, May 20, 15(^6. Valls (Spain). — The Fi-ench, commanded by St. Cyr, gained a complete victory over the Spanish troops at this town, in Catalonia, Nov. 18, 1809. Macdonald was defeated here by Sarstield in 1811. Valmy (Battle). — The Prussians were defeated by the French under Kellermann, at this town, in France, Sept. 2'\ 1792. For this success Napoleo i I. conferred on this general the title of duke of Valmy, in 18C8. Valois (France). — The county was be- stowed by Philip III. of France on his second son Charles, a.d. 12S5. It fell to Louis, duke of Orleans, second son of Charles V. of France, in 1392. On the accession to the throne of the duke of VAL VAJS" Orleans, under the title of Louis XII., in 1498, it was reunited to the royal domains. Valteline (Italy). — This small district was ceded to the Grisons a.d. 1530, and was the scene of the cruel massacre of the Pro- testants by the Koman Catholic rebels, July 19, 1620. In 1624 the French resisted the attempts of the Spaniards to establish their authority here. Napoleon Bonaparte an- nexed the Valteline to the Cisalpine re- public Oct. 10, 1797, and erected it into the department of the Adda, in the French kingdom of Italy, in 1807, In 1814 it was ceded to Austria. Valvassok, or Vavassoe. — Persons holding fiefs not immediately under the king, but under some intermediate lord, and having subordinate freeholders under them, existed in England, Scotland, France, Lombardy, and Aragon, and are twice mentioned in Domesday Book, a.d. 1086. A writ was issued in 1220 to the sheriff of Wiltshire, directing him to give seisin of three vavas- sories to the persons specified. In his deed of renunciation, Sept. 29, 1399, Eichard II. absolves, amongst others, aU vavassors from their oath of allegiance. It was proposed to revive the name in the new dignity created by James I. in 1611. It, however, took that of baronet. VA3if, or Wan (Armenia). — Tradition re- fers the origin of this town to Semiramis, and it undoubtedly exhibits traces of ex- treme antiquity. It is said to have been rebuilt about the time of Alexander the Great, by an Armenian prince named Wan, from whom it is named, and Valarsaces I. (B.C. 149 — 127) made it the strongest place in his dominions. It was taken by Togrul Beg A.D. 1032, by Tamerlane in 1392, and by Abbas the Great of Persia in 1585. In 1639 it was ceded to the Ottoman empire. M. Schulz examined the antiquities of this place in 1827, and in 1850 the inscrip- tions were copied by Mr. Layard, Vanadium. — This metal was discovered by Del Rio, A.D. 1801, and received its present name from Sefstrom in 1830. Van couvEE Island (North America) was supposed to form part of the mainland tiU an American captain sailed round it, a.d. 1789. Captain Vancouver visited it and gave it the name of Quadra and Vancouver Island, the former in honour of the Spanish com- mandant at Nootka Sound, in 1792. It was made over to the Hudson Bay Company, on condition that they should colonize it, in 1846. Gold was discovered here in 1856. VANCOtfVER's Voyage. — Captain Van- couver having been ordered by the British government to proceed to Nootka Sound to receive a formal cession of the territory from Spain, set sail in the Discovery, April 4, 1791, accompanied by Captain Broughton in the Chatham, a small vessel of 135 tons burthen. He arrived on the coast of New Albion in April, 1792. On the outward voyage he surveyed the southern coast of New HoUand, and part of New Zealand, while Broughton discovered Chatham Islands. Broughton having been despatched home with intelligence of the evasive conduct of the Spaniards, Vancouver proceeded, in January, 1793, to winter in the Sandwich Islands. In the spring he resumed the survey of the American coast, and returned to the Sandwich Islands, where he obtained from the chiefs a formal cession of Owyhee to Great Britain, Feb. 25, 1794. The survey of the north-west coast of America was completed Aug. 22, 1794 ; and he entered the Shannon on his return, Sept. 13, 1795, with the loss of only two men out of both crews. The narrative of his labours, written by himself, was in course of preparation for the press when he died, May, 1798. Vandals, a Slavonic, or a Germanic tribe, existed on the banks of the Oder, and the sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburg, about A.D. 250. A considerable number were transported into Britain by Probus in 279. With the Sarmatians in Hungary they formed a union in 331, and joined the forces of Radagaisus for the invasion of Italy in 405. Having separated from their allies, they were attacked by the Franks, 20,000 with their king falling on the field ot battle. The Alani came to their aid, and they marched without opposition into the provinces of Gaul, Dec. 31, 405. They established them- selves in Spain in 428 ; from which country, on the invitation of Count Boniface, they passed into Africa under their king Gen- seric, in May, 429. After a career of con- quest on that continent, during which they embraced Christianity, Carthage fell under their victorious arms, Oct. 9, 439, Here they commenced the formation of a power- ful navy, and having fitted out an expedition against Rome, they landed at the mouth of the Tiber, and sacked the capital of the empire, June 15—29, 455. The whole of the Mediterranean coast was subjected to their piratical depredations between the years 461 and 467. Having embraced the Arian heresy in 530, they carried on a cruel and re- lentless persecution against the members of the orthodox faith. They were converted from Arianism, and their rule in Africa destroyed by Belisarius, who was declared sole consul Jan. 1, 535. The entire nation had disap- peared from Africa by 558. VANDAL KINGS OP AFEICA. A.D. 429. Genseric. 477. Huiineric (son of Grenseric). 484 Guudamund (nephew of Himneric). 496. Thrasimuud (brother of Guudamund). 523. Hilderic (son of Huniieric). 530. Gelimer (cousin of Hilderic, and last of the Vandal kings). Van Diemen's Land. (See Tasmania.) Vane. — The marble tower built at Athens by Andronicus Cyrrhestes was surmounted by a vane, and Varro had an apparatus at his farm to indicate the direction of the wind, B.C. 37, A costly pillar was erected at Con- stantinople for a similar purpose in the 8th century. A vane in the form of a horseman was placed on the top of a tower at Hems, in Syria, in 1151. In Europe vanes are men- tioned as early as the 9th century. In France none but noblemen were allowed to have them on their houses in the 12th century. The Danish fleet under Sweyn, in 1013, carried vanes in the shape of birds or dra- gons at their mastheads. Vannes (France) was besieged by Ed- ward III. A.D. 1342. He failed in his enter- prise, and concluded a three years' truce, through the intervention of the pope's legate, in 1343. An insurrection of pea- sants was put down by the national guard with great slaughter inFebruary, 1790. The French emigrants, under the Chevalier de SOz, attempted to take Vannes by surprise, but were defeated by General Hoche in May, 1795. A tower in the centre of the town is the only remaining vestige of the Chateau de I'Hermine, built in 1387. Vannes is sup- posed by some to occupy the site of the ancient Dariorigum, the capital of the an- cient Veneti, whence its modern appella- tion. The Bretons stiU call it Wenet or Guenet. Vaeenwes (France). — Louis XVI., his queen, and their two children, were arrested here on their flight from Paris, during the night of June 21, 1791. Vaena (European Turkey) was occupied by the Biilgarians a.d. 679, and plundered by them in 1193. Ladislaus IV., king of Hungary, was defeated and slain in a battle fought here with the Turks, commanded by Amurath II., when 10,000 Christians fell, Nov. 10, 1444. The Eussians failed in an attack upon it in 1773, but succeeded in capturing it, after a siege of three months, Oct. 11, 1828. It was restored to Turkey Sept. 14, 1829. A council of war was held at Varna by the Turkish minister of war, Kiza Pasha, the Turkish generahssimo, Omer Pasha, and the allied generals and admirals. May 18, 1854. The troops from Scutari and other places arrived here in the early part of June, and by the end of the month a camp of 60,000 English, French, and Turkish soldiers had been formed. Sickness broke out and prevailed to an alarming extent in August. The French portion of the army began to embark for the Crimea, Sept. 5, the English, Sept. 7, and the combined fleets -with their transports, amounting to 700 vessels, set sail Sept. 10. Vaenish. — The art of making varnish was imported into Europe from China and the East during the 16th century. Dr. Cattell proposed certain improvements in the me- thod of preparing varnish in 1860. Vassalage. (See Feudal Laws, Seep- DOM, and Slaveet,) Vassy (France). — The duke of Guise massacred a Protestant congregation here, Sunday, March 1, 1562. Vatican, the modem H Borgo, and the ancient Mons Vaticanus, outside the walls of ancient Rome, gave name to the palace which was commenced near the church of St. Peter by Eugenius III. a.d. 1146, a pile of buildings which gradually increased, and 870 VAV now forms the Papal palace, the court and garden of the Belvidere, the library and the museum. Gregory XI. fixed his permanent residence here in 1376. It continued to be the papal abode till Paul III. built the palace on the Quirinal Mount about the middle of the 16th century. The new church of St. Peter's was projected by Nicolas V. in 1450 ; but no progress was made with it till the time of Julius II., who laid the foundation-stone April 18, 1506. The library was built by Sixtus V. Vaucelles (France). — A treaty between Philip II. of Spain and Henry II. of France, the principal clause being a five years' truce, was signed here Feb. 5, 1556. Vaud (Switzerland) formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy a.d. 887, was con- quered by Peter, count of Savoy, and annexed to his dominions as a barony, in 1263, reverted to Amadeus VI. in 1359, and having been parcelled out into a number of petty lordships under the name of the Pays de Vaud, was conquered and in part annexed by the Bernese in 1476. They com- pleted its subjugation in 1536. The French Directory demanded that it should be made independent of Berne in 1798. It was con- stituted a sovereign canton by Napoleon I. in 1803 ; and entered the confederation in 1815. A new constitution was adopted in 1830. Vaitdois, the inhabitants of three high valleys in Piedmont, on the eastern side of the Cottian Alps, formed a communion separate from the Romish church in the early ages of Christianity. They have been called the perse -uted Protestants of Savoy. {See Valdenses or Waldenses.) Vauxhall Beidge (London). — This iron bridge was commenced May 9, 1811, and opened June 4, 1816. Vauxhall Gabdens (London) . — Fulke de Breaute built a haU in South Lambeth, about A.D. 1282, which was called Fulke'a Hall, afterwards corrupted into FaukeshaU, FoxhaU, and finally Vauxhall. The gardens, opened in 1661, under the title of the New Spring Gardens, were notorious for the licentiousness of the company by which they were frequented during the Stuart period. About the year 1712 they appear to have declined in popularity. They were purchased by Jonathan Tyers and re-opened with an alfresco entertainment, June 7, 1732, and under the management { of the new proprietor proved successful The name Spring Gardens was not finally- abandoned till 1785, and the firework exhi- bitions, which for a long period constituted the chief feature of the place, were com- menced in 1798. Vauxhall Gardens were sold by auction for £20,200, Sept. 9, 1841. They again passed under the hammer Aug. 20, 1859, when the ground was used for building. Vaveio (Battle).— The combined Nea- pohtan and papal armies were defeated at this town of Italy by Galeazzo Visconte, A.D. 1324. VED Vedas, the four principal sacred books of the Hindoos, ascribed to Brahma, having in the course of time become scattered, were arranged or edited by a sage about B.C. 3000. Such is the native tradition, but these writings are now generally assigned to B.C. 1300 or B.C. 1400. Vehmic or Fehmic Cotjets, also called the Vehm-Gericht, formed a secret tribunal of Westphaha. Its principal seat was in the town of Dortmund, and it possessed rami- fications throughout Germany. It is said to have been formed on account of the severe laws respecting religion enacted by Charlemagne, a.d. 800. This tribunal reached its greatest prominence in the 13th century. Its members, who were bound by an oath of secrecy, numbered at one time 100,000 persons. It continued to exercise judicial functions till the end of the 15th century. Veii (Etruria). — ^The inhabitants of this city are first mentioned in history as en- gaged in hostilities with Romulus, who gained a decisive victory over them, and, after exacting severe terms from the van- quished, concluded a treaty of peace for 100 years, B.C. 722. War, however, again broke out between them, in which the Romans under Tullus Hostilius gained the mastery, B.C. 673 — 641 ; and a like result followed hos- tilities in the reign of Ancus Martius, B.C. 641 — 617. Under L. Tarquinius, Veii was again vanquished, together with eleven other Etruscan cities, its allies, a success which the victor commemorated, it is said, by the institution of the twelve lietors and their fasces, B.C. 535 — 510. Aided by a great number of volunteers, the Veientes again took the field against their old enemy, and a drawn battle ensued, when the Romans lost their eonsid, with many tribunes and centurions, B.C. 481. The Fabii having offered their services to the state, established a permanent camp to stop the marauding expeditions from Veii, but were drawn into an ambuscade and slain, July 16, B.C. 477. After much desultory warfare, the Romans resolved to besiege the town, and at length took it by means of a mine, slaughtered or sold into slavery the inhabitants, carried off the image of Juno, the tutelary deity, and divided the territory amongst Roman citizens, B.C. 396. After the burning of Rome by the Gauls, B.C. 390, it was proposed to con- vert Veii into a new capital. From this period Veii gradualUy fell into decay, and seems to have been divided by Caesar among his soldiers, B.C. 45. The castle, known by the name of Isola Farnese, was built on the south side of the city in the beginning of the 11th century. Many relics of Etruscan art have been found in the ruins. Velletei (Italy). — The ancient Velitrae, included within the limits of Latium, was besieged and taken by the consul P. Vir- ginius, B.C. 494. The population having been reduced by pestilence, a Roman colony was sent, B.C. 492, which was followed by another settlement B.C. 404, Velletri was VEN" taken by the Romans in consequence of a revolt, B.C. 380. It was occupied by Beli- sarius a.d. 538. Near the town Carlo Borbone defeated the Austrians, and was subsequently proclaimed king of Naples, May 25, 1734. The cathedral of San Clemente was erected in 1660, and the church of Santa Maria in 1353. Vellore (Hindostan). — Major Lawrence wrested this fort from the French, July 8, 1752. During the wars in India, it was frequently besieged. Sir Eyre Coote relieved it by a brilliant victory, Sept. 27, 1781, and it was selected by government as the resi- dence of Tippoo's family, after the fall of Seringapatam, May 4, 1799. A mutiny amongst the native troops broke out here July 10, 1806. It was speedily suppressed, and 800 of them were executed. Velocipede, a kind of vehicle which the occupant moves by his feet, was introduced A.D. 1819. Velvet, formerly called vellet, is men- tioned by Joinville a.d. 1272 ; and in the wiU of Richard II. in 1399. Strutt names many varieties of the stuff in use in the reign of Edward IV. Vendee. {See La Vendee.) Vbneti, the inhabitants of the country called Venetia by Caesar. It nearly corres- ponds to the French departmentof Morbihan, and was the most powerful maritime state on the Atlantic. The Veneti rose against the Romans, and sent to Britain for assistance, B.C. 57. After a severe naval engagement they were utterly defeated, and surrendered unconditionally to Caesar, B.C. 56. He sold those who had escaped slaughter, and put to death all the members of the state as- sembly. Venetian Republic. — This famous re- public of Northern Italy derives its name from the Veneti, who regarded themselves as a tribe of Trojan origin, which settled at the head of the Adriatic under the leadership of Antenor, and dispossessed the Euganeans, the original possessors of the soil. {See Padua.) Other authorities regard them as a branch of the Slavonian race, and regard the name Veneti, or Venedi, as a cor- ruption of the German Wends, which was apphed to all Slavonian tribes. The Vene- tian territory was invaded by the Gauls B.C. 349, and in consequence of the repeated encroachments of that people, the inhabitants concluded an alliance with the Romans B.C. 215. Some Gauls attempted to settle here B.C. 186, but were compelled to return to their own country by the Romans. The Veneti were admitted to the privileges of Roman citizens about B.C. 49. Venetia and latria were subsequently united into one Roman province, the capital of which was Aquileia. The city of Venice was founded by fugitives who escaped to the lagunes after the destruction of their own cities by Attila, a.d. 421 — 452. In this manner the inhabitants of Aquileia founded Grado {q.v.), and the Paduans Venice, or Venezia. 871 TEIf 452. Completion of the foTindation of the city, and establishment of a consular government. 457. The administration is intrusted to tribunes. 520. The inhabitants are relieved dmlng a famine by Theodoric the Great. 697. March. In consequence of the tyranny of the tribunes, the Venetians elect Paul Luka Anafesto of Her acleia to conduct the govem- meut as doge. 735. The Venetians assist the ex-arch Eutychius to recover Ravenna from the Lombards. 737. The tyrann of the doge Orso occasions an insurrection, in which he is miu-dered by the mob. The government is vested in a master of the militia. 742. Restoration of the ducal government in favour of Diodato Or.-o. 778. Giovanni Galbaio is associated ■with his father Maurizio in the dogeship. 797. The doge Galbaio II. murders the patriarch of Grado, in consequence of which a civil •war commences. 804. Banishment of the Galbaii. 809. Pepiu, son of the emperor Charlemagne, in- varies Venice, and is defeated in the battle of Albiola ig.v.). 829. The body of St. Mark is transferred from Alexandria to Venice. 840. The Venetians send a force of nearly 12,000 men to assist the Eastern empire against the Siraceus. 854. Pope Benedict III. seeks shelter from his rival Auastasius in Venice. 8.56. The emperor Louis II. visits Venice. 887. Death of the doge Pietro Sanudo in a naval battle against the Nareutine coreairs at Mucole. 906. Defeat uf the Huns at Albiola {q. v.). 970. The tyrannical and licentious doge Sanudo IV. is murdered by the populace. 978. Sept. 1. Abdication of Orsnolo I., the holy, ■who retires to a monastery. 992. July 19. A treaty with the emperor Otho III. is entered into at Mulhausen. 997. May 18. On the invitation of the inhabitants, the doge Orseolo II. embarks for the con- quest of Illjria and Dalmatia. 998. Orseolo TI. assumes the title of doge of Venice aud Dalmaria. 1004. Oct. 16. The Venetians compel the Saracens to raise the siege of Bari. 1033. The principles of association and hereditary succession, in reference to the dogeship, are abolished. 1084 Nov. The Venetians sustain a terrible defeat from the Normans under Robert Guiscard in the naval battle of Corfu. 1083. The emperor Alexius T. acknowledges the doge of Venice as lord of Dalmatia and Croatia. 1094. Institution of the Magistrato del Proprio. 1101. A league is concluded with Hung try. 1110. Oct. 4. Victory of the Venetians over the Paduans in the naval battle of Brenta. 1115. Aug. War is commenced with Hungary. 1123. June 29. Tyre surrenders to the doge. 1124. The Venetians sack all the Ionian isles and treat their inhabitants -with great cruelty, on account of their allegiance to the Eastern empire. 1141. Fano is annexed to the Venetian republic. 1143. A short war breaks out with Padua. 1148. Corfu and SicOy are ravaged by the Vene- tians. 1154. An alliance is concluded with Sicily. 1171. Sept. 1. Michiele III. embarks with a lai^e fleet for the invasion of the Eastern em- pire. The plague breaks out among his crew, and the following year extends to the city. 1172. May 27. Assassination of Michiele III. in con- sequence of the failure of his enterprise aud the public distress. Important po- litical refoims are the result. 1174. Nov. The Venetians raise the siege of Ancona. 872 YEN A.D. 1177. March 23. Pope Alexander III. seeks refuge in Venice from the power of Frederick I. (Barbarijssa). May 26. The imperial fleet, assisted by the navies of Genoa and An- cona, sustains a terrible defeat from the Venetians, at Salboro. July 24. Frederick I. does homage to the pope at St. Mark's. 1192. War is renewed against Pisa. 1201. Feb. 27. A tre-tty is concluded between the republic and the French b,^rous of the fifth crusade, by which the Venetians agree to assist the crusadei's ■with large aids nf ships, men, and horses, in return for about £170,000. 1202. Nov. 18. Capture of Zara by the Venetians. 1204. April 9. Constantinople suxTenders to the Crusaders under the doge Dandolo and the Latin leaders. Aug. 12. Cnndia is purchased by the republic for thirty pounds' weight of gold, equal to about £10,8aiii guai'aufeeU th^ Pragmatic Sanction, and Germany agreed to furnish a force for re- Bering Giliraltjir to Spiin, and to endea- vour to restore the Stuai-ts to the English throne. 1726. Aug. 6. An alliance between the emperor CliailesVr. and Cathar'ne I., empress of Rns»i:i, is concluded at Vienna 1731. March 10. A treat, is concluded at Vienna brtweeii Great Britain, Germany, and • Holland. By this tre«ty Great BriUin guaranteed I he Priigmatic Sanction. Si>alQ acceded to it July '2'i. 1738. Nov. 18. A d-finiiive \teAie between France and Gemmny is concluded xt Vienna. By thi* treaty L'rraine is reded to France, which agrees to th-- Pragmatic Sanction. 1757. Oct. 30 Maria Iheresa giianint^e- tl'e po«- fessi'^n of Berg ai d Juliers to th" e'e«.tor palatine, by a treaty ►i(rnen I. and Anstrfa la signed ntPchOenbnnm, an imiHirial palace in the 8Ui>nr)i8 of Vienna. Austria cedea Dalmatia, tlie Tyrol, 4c., to Franc-, and unites with France and Russia in their pri'hibito'y py teni with regard to Rngland. 1815. Maicti 2.5. Ore*«t Bri'aln, Austria, Ru-r»'o- batida. (See Fkidal Laws and Slavkhy.) Villingshauskn (Battle). (See Kirch- DENKEHN.) ViLNA, or WiLNA (Russia), is the capital ] of a government of the same name. A treaty by which Gotherrl Kettler, last grand master of the Livonian knights, ceded Livo- nia to Polantl, was signed here a.d. 1.561. Pro- : testants were admitted to equal privileges with Roman Catholics by the diet assembled ' at Vilna in 1563. A truce between Russia < and Poland was agreed to here in 1656. It was occupied by Napoleon I. on his march to Moscow, June 28, 1812 ; and the remnant I of his army, on their return in December, ' were driven from the city by the Cossacks. ViMEiRA (Battle). — General Junot, who received from Napoleon I. the title of due j d'Abrantes, attacked Wellington near this j town, Aug. 21, 1808. The French were com- I pletely defeated, with a loss of fourteen guns I and many prisoners. I ViMOBi (Battle). — A German army raised VIN VIS in the cause of Henry of Navarre, was attacked here by the duke of G-uise, and dispersed Oct. 27, 1587. ViNCENNES (France). — Henry V. of Eng- land having fallen ill at Corbeuil, was removed to the Bois de Vincennes, where he expired, Aug. 31, 1422. In its state prison Conde was confined Jan. 18, 1650 ; the cardinal de Eetz Dec. 19, 1652 ; and Mirabeau for three years and a half. The castle was attacked by a Parisian mob Feb. 28, 1791. The duke d'Enghien was shot here by order of Napo- leon I., March 20, 1804. When the allies appeared before it in 1815, the governor- general Daumenil saved it by threatening to blow it up. Vincent. (See Cape St. Vincent.) Vincent, St. (West Indies), was disco- vered by Columbus a.d. 1498. Charles II. in- cluded it with the Barbadoes and several other islands under one government, in 1672 ; the French began to colonize the island in 1714 ; it was ceded to England in 1763 ; captured by the French, June 17, 1779 ; and restored to England in 1783. An insurrection of the Caribs was put down Oct. 1, 1795. Another, aided by the French republicans, terminated in the surrender of 5,000 blacks to General Hunter. They were transported to the island of Eattan in November, 1796. An alarming eruption of the volcano Souffriere took place in 1812. ViNCT (Battle). — Charles Martel, son of Pepin d'Heristal, encountered the Neu- strians under Eaginfried at this plaec, near Cambray, May 21, 717, and gained a victory which made him master of all Jn eustria. Vindelicia (Germany), inhabited by a Celtic tribe, the VindeHci, was conquered by Tiberius I., and many of the people were transported into other countries, B.C. 15. Vine and Vine Disease. — Noah is said to have planted a vineyard, B.C. 2247 (Gen. ix. 20). It is supposed that the culture of the vine passed from Persia into Asia Minor, and thence into Greece and Southern Europe, and it is known to have been introduced into France by the Phocsean founders of Mar- seilles, B.C. 600. It is supposed that vines were first brought to England by command of the emperor Probus, about a.d. 280, and the Venerable Bede speaks of vineyards as common objects in this country in 731. Vines were planted at Tokay, in Hungary, in the I3th century. They were introduced into Madeira about the year 1421, and were first planted at the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch in 1650. The Catawba vine of Ame- rica first attracted attention about 1826. The vine disease, Oidium Tuckeri, first ap- peared in an English hothouse in 1845. In L847 it was noticed in France ; and in 1851 ts destructive ravages extended to Italy. Vinegar Hill (Battle).— The Irish rebels vere defeated at "Vinegar Hill, Wexford, heir principal camp or station, by General Lake, June 21, 1798. Vintneks' Company. — The vintners of London were incorporated by Edward III. Il.d. 1365, and coniirmed by Henry VI. in 881 1436. The site of their hall in Thames Street was granted by Sir John Stodie in 1357. The present building is of modern date. Vioi,, Violin, &c.— The viol, a six- stringed fretted instrument played with a bow, existed as early as the 8th century a.d., and the violin, which differs in having only four strings, dates from about the same period. During the Middle Ages the violin was regarded as a vulgar instrument un- worthy the attention of musicians of refine- ment, and it was not till the Italian Balta- zarini was sent as a leader of a band of violins to France, for the gratification of Catherine of Medicis, that it became fa- shionable. About the beginning of the 17th century it became an important instru- ment in concerted pieces, and the celebrated violins of the Amati family, of Cremona, were made in great quantities as early as 1620. Charles II. rendered the violin a fashionable EngHsh instrument soon after his resto- ration in 1660. Nicolo Paganini, the most eminent viohnist of any age, was born at Genoa in 1784. He visited England in 1831, and died at Nice in 1840. ViEGiNiA (North America) received its name from Queen Elizabeth after the return of Sir Walter Ealeigh, a.d. 1584, James I. granted a patent of the southern part of the state to a London company in 1606; and the first colonists, one hundred and five in number, settled on the banks of the James river, calling the place James Town, in honour of the king. May 13, 1607. The colony met with many disasters, but was recruited by fresh emigrants, who arrived with Lord Delaware as governor June 10, 1610, and by another batch, under Sir Thomas Gates, in August, 1611. A consti- tution was given to the colony in July, 1621. A general slaughter of the settlers was conunitted March 22, 1622, by the Indians, who attempted a similar atrocity, but only partially succeeded, April 18, 1644. The first constitution was adopted for legislative purposes June 29, 1776. The importation of slaves was forbidden by the state legisla- ture, under heavy penalties, in 1778. Its constitution was revised in 1830. Virginia seceded from the United States April 18, 1861. Virgin Islands (Atlantic), called Las Virgines, in honour of the virgins of the Eomish ritual, by Columbus, who discovered them on his second voyage, a.d. 1494. Dutch buccaneers, who settled in Tortola in 1648, were expelled by the Enghsh in 1666. St. Thomas's was settled by the Danes in 1672. St. John's was also appropriated by the Danes, who were dispossessed of both islands by the EngHsh in 1801 ; they were, however, restored in 1802. This group, again captured by the English in 1807, was restored to Denmark in 1815. Cholera ra- vaged the islands in 1853 and 1854. A new constitution was granted them in 1854. Viscount. — The title, created by patent, was first conferred on John, Lord Beaumont, 3 L VIS accompanied with a grant of landsinFrance, I by Henry VI., Yeh. 10, 144^. VisEtr (Portugal) . — Alfonso V. of Leon was MUed while besieging this town, a.d. ' 1028. It was captured by Perdinand I. of : Castile in 1040. Visigoths, or Thi?:ettngi.— The division 1 of the great Gothic nation into the Eastern | or Ostrogoths (q.v.), and Western, or Visi- j goths, took place about a.d. 330. In 365 the 1 Visigoths assisted Procopius against the ! Eomans. Valens permitted them to settle 1 south of the Danube in 376, and in 382 they tendered their submission to the Romans, I when Theodosius I. granted them permis- j sion to occupy Thrace. In 395 they ravaged Thessaly, under their leader Alaric, whom i they elected king in 398, and in 400 they i invaded Italy. They took Eome Aug. 24, 1 410, and established a kingdom in the ! south of Gaul in 412. They penetrated into Spain, and estabhshed a monarchy in that country in 419. Clovis expelled them from France in 507, and the Moors overthrew ' their power in Spain in 711. Vitebsk, or Witepsk (Russia). — The Russians, to the number of 80,000, under Barclay de Tolly, retreated to this place on the left bank of the Dwina, July 25, 1812. Tliey broke up their camp within sight of the French army, and commenced their march towards Smolensko to etfect a junction vrith Bagrathion, July 27. The French having taken possession, were driven out by Wittgenstein, Nov. 7. An engage- ment between the troops in its neighbour- hood, resulting in a loss on each side of 3,000 men, proved rather favourable to the Russians, ^S'ov. 14, 1812. ViTEEBO (Italy), capital of a legation of the same name, supposed to occupy the site of the Fanum Voltumnae, where the ancient Etruscans held their confederate assemblies, is said to have been built or enclosed by Desiderius, the last of the Lombard kings (a.d. 757 — 774). Having main- tained its indejpendence as a free munici- pality, it was obhged to submit to Rome about 1200. The Romans marched against it and were ignominiously defeated by the Viterbans, led by the count of Toulouse and the bishop of Winchester, in 1234. A treaty was concluded here in 1267, between Charles of Anjou and Baldwin II., who had fled to Italy after the fall of Constantinople. It was captured by Ladislaus, king of Naples, Jnl413. A defensive alliance was also formed here between Pope Leo X. and Francis I., king of France, in Oct. 1515. The town-haU was com- menced in 1264, and the episcopal palace, containing the great haU, where several popes of the Middle Ages were elected, was built in the 13th century. There is a tradi- tion that Prince Henry, son of the earl of Cornwall, was murdered at the high altar of the cathedral by Guy de Montfort, who fell at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265. Pope Adrian IV., an Englishman, compelled the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) to hold the stirrup of his mule while he dis- VOL mounted at the piazza before the cathedral in 1155. ViTBT (France). — This tovm, formerly- a place of considerable importance, was seized and burned by Louis VII. a.d. 1144, when 1,300 of the inhabitants perished from fire in a church. In expiation of this offence the Idng undertook the second crusade in 1146. Vitry, after having been gradually restored, was again destroyed by Charles V. in 1544, | in consequence of which Francis I. founded Vitry-le-Francois at ahttle distance from the original town' in 1545. The new city vt-as seized by the allies in 1814. ViTTORiA (Spain) was so named by Sancho IV. of Navarre, to commemorate a victory over the Moors, about a.d. 1180. It was occupied by the French in 1808. A signal victory was gained here by Welhngton over the French, under the command of Jo3e])h Bonaparte and Jourdan, June 21, 1813. So complete was their rout, that of the 71^,00'^ men who marched under the French standard, not one man remained on Spanish soil June 27. ViYAEiuir. (See Aquativakium.) ViziEK. — "Who among you will be my vizier ?" (i. e. burden-bearer) asked Mo- hammed among forty of his followers at the commencement of his career, a.d. 609. Among the Turks the office of grand vizier was created for Aladin, the brother of Orchan, in 1326. So precarious was their position, that three years and a half was the average tenure of 115 who had filled it down to 1683. The office of grand vizier was abohshed in Turkey in 1838. Vladimik, orWLADiMiH (Russia).— This city, founded a.d. 1158, is one of the most ancient in Russia. It was originally a place of great importance, and, until 1318, was the seat of the government, and the residence of the grand duke, but it is now sunk into insignificance. Vlissingen-. {See Flushing.) VocoNiAN Law, aboKshing the right of female inheritance, and restricting legacies to women to the sum of 100,000 sesterces, was enacted at Rome B.C. 169. VoiEosr (Battle) . — Clodomir having killed Sigismund, king of the Burgundians, was defeated and slain at this place, on the Rhone, by Gondemar, the brother of Sigis- mund, who was acknowledged king in his stead, A.D. 524. VoLCAifo. — Monte Nuovo, a Neapolitan volcano, was thrown up during an eruption of Vesuvius a.d. 1538. Jorullo, in Mexico, suddenly rose to a height of 1,600 feet in 1759, and has remained quiescent ever since ; and the volcano of Izaleo, in Central America, was thrown up Feb. 23, 1770, and has been in action from that time till the present. Graham's Island, or Ferdinandea, a volcanic island in the Mediterranean Sea, was heaved up from a depth of 100 fathoms to a height of 230 feet above the water, July 31, 1831, and remained visible for three months, when it again sank below the surface. {See Mis a, Hecla, and Vesuvius.) VOL Vols CI, a branch of the same family as the Umbrians and Oscans, inhabiting a por- tion of ancient Latium, first appear in Ko- man history as a numerous and warlilce people, whose capital city, Suessa Pometia, was captured by Tarquin II. The spoils taken from it were employed to build the Capitol. An army sent by them to besiege Eome was completely routed. The consul Virginius and Coriolanus defeated them in different engagements, B.C. 487. Coriolanus is said to have found refuge with them after his banishment from Kome, and to have led them against the Komans, who were compelled to sue for peace, as the city was about to be invested by his victorious troops, B.C. 490. Having leagued with the ^qui, both nations were defeated by the Romans, B.C. 431. CamiUus routed them and took their capital, b.c. 388; and again at Satri- cum he took their camp by storm and cap- tured a great number of prisoners, B.C. 381. A coalition of the Volsci and the Latins was Bubdued by the Romans b.c. 377. Valerius Corvus defeated them, storming and burning the town of Satricum, B.C. 346. The whole of the Volscian people having submitted to Eome, received the privilege of citizens be- fore B.C. 304. VoLSciwiANS, or ViTLSciH-iANS, an ancient Etrurian people, who made an incursion into Roman territory during a famine, B.C. 391. They were beaten, and lost five thousand in prisoners, and were finally subjugated by the Romans B.C. 280. The conquerors razed their town, and compelled the re- maining inhabitants to migrate to another spot. Voltaic Pile, Voltaic Electeicitt, or Galvanism {q. v.), was first erected into a science in consequence of Alessandro Volta's publication of the contact theory of galvan- ism, A.D. 1793. The pile was first constructed by Volta in 1800, and has undergone nume- rous improvements by Grove, Bimsen, and other men of science. VoLTEEBA (Italy), on the site of Vola- terrse, one of the most ancient of the Etrus- can cities, offered a brave resistance to the consul L. Scipio b.c. 298. It was afterwards admitted as a dependent ally of Rome, and furnished suppHes for the fleet of Scipio in the second Punic war, b.c. 205. It opened its gates to Sylla after a two years' blockade, B.C. 88. Upon the fall of the empire, it passed successively under the power of the Vandals and the Lombards. The latter were driven out by Charlemagne in the 8th cen- tury. Its palace was constructed in the 10th century. The town-hall, with its museum of Etruscan remains, the most valuable in Italy, was built a.d. 1208-1257. The cathedral was built about 1254. The citadel was con- verted into a house of correction in 1818. A bed of alum discovered near the city was claimed by the Florentine government in 1472. VoLTEi (Italy) was occupied by the allied Austrian and Sardinian forces a.d. 1795. A series of combats between them and the VOL French, extending over fifteen days, took place in its neighbourhood in the month of April. Both sides suffered severe loss. The French, under Massena, sustained a com- plete defeat here from the Austrians, com- manded by Melas, April 18, 1800. VoLUNTEEES. — The oldest volunteer corps connected with the British army is the Honourable Artillery Company, which was first raised a.d. 1585, and restored in 1610. A.D. 1778. 1779. 1782. 1794 1799. 1853. 1859. Volunteer regiments for service in the Ameri- can war are enrolled in some of the chief English cities. Oct. 12. A regiment of Irish volunteers under the earl of Leinster, musters 20,000 strong at Dublin to support the parliament in de- manding free trade. The earl of Shelbui-ne proposes the formation March. Volunteer corps are raised in England in consequence of^an anticipated invasion by the French republicans. June 4. George III. reviews upwards of 8,000 volunteers in Hyde Park. Numerous volunteer corps, enrolled for the defence of the country against Napoleon I., are regulated by 44 Geo. III. c. 54. Aug. 10. The volunteers receive the thanks of the House of Commons. Oct. 26. George III. reviews 12,401 London volunteers in Hyde Park. Oct. 28. He reviews 14,676 Westminster, Lambeth, and Southwark volunteers. June 5. The volunteer system is regulated by 44 Geo. IIL c. 54. March 26. The Exeter and South Devon Volunteer Rifle Battalion is formed. Aug. 3. The Victoria Rifles are enrolled. May 12. The Secretary of Vfar publishes a circular announcing the intended establish- ment of volunteer rifle corps under the provisions of the act of 1803. June. Rifle corps are formed throughout the United Kingdom. Ang. 10. Rules for the govern- ment of rifle corps not in actual service, and formed by a committee of volunteers, are issued by the War Oflace. Nov. The National Rifle Association is fonned at London under the presidency of Mr. Sid- ney (afterwards Lord) Herbert, secretary for war, and with the Queen and Prince Albert for its patrons. March 7. The Queen receives 2,500 oflicers of volunteer rifle brigades at a lev§e at St. James's. June 23. About 21,000 volunteers are reviewed by the Queen in Hyde Park. July 2. The first meeting of the National Rifle Association takes place on Wimbledon Common, when Mi-. Edward Ross gains the fli-st prize, and M. Thorel of Geneva greatly distinguishes himself. July 14. A sham fight of the London volunteers is held at Camden Park, Chiselhurst. Aug. 7. The Queen reviews the Scotch volunteers in the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. Sept. 1. The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire volunteers at Koowsley. Feb. 16. Lord Herbert of Lea resigns the pre- sidency of the National Rifle Association. April 1 (Easter Monday). Volunteer sham fights take place at Brighton, Wimbledon, &c. July 4 to 14. The second meeting of the National Association takes place .it Wimbledon, when the Queen's cup, worth £250, is won by Mr. Jopling, of the South Middlesex corps. April 21 (Easter Monday). Lord Clyde re- views about 20,000 volunteers at Brighton. July. The third meeting of the National Kifle Association is held at Wimbledon, 3 L 2 vos WAF VossEM (Treaty). — A peace was con- cluded between France and the elector of Brandenburg at this town of Brabant, June 6, 1673. VouGLE (Battle). — Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, ting of the Franks, at this place, near Poitiers, in France, a.d. 507. Voyages. [See CiEcuirifAviGATiON, &c.) Vulgate, the name of the Latin transla- tion of the Bible sanctioned by the Romish church, was commenced by St. Jerome about A.D. 385. The Gospels were completed in 387, and the Old Testament about 405. The first printed edition of the Vulgate was that of Guttenberg, published at Mentz in 1462, and an attempt to restore the text to the state in which it was left by Jerome was made by Eobert Stephens in 1528. The council of Trent declared the Vulgate authen- tic, April 8, 1546, and iu 1589 an edition was printed at the Vatican, and sanctioned by a bull of Pope Sixtus V. This edition was superseded by another, which was printed by order of Clement Vlil. in 1592, and this is the version still used by Koman Catholics. Waal (Holland).— The French defeated the advanced posts of the English army on the banks of this river, Oct. 19, 1794, and were in turn defeated here by the EngHsh and Dutch towards the end of the same month. It was crossed by the French on the ice, to make a winter campaign in Hol- land, towards the end of December, 1794. A skirmish between the English, under Wel- lington, and the French, took place here Jan. 15, 1795. Wadham College (Oxford) was founded by l^icholas Wadham and Dorothy his wife, A.D. 1613, for a warden, fifteen fellows, fifteen scholars, two chaplains, and two clerks. Dr. Humphi-ey Hody founded ten exhibitions— foui- for the study of Hebrew, and six for the study of Greek — in 1706. Eichard Warner bequeathed an exhibition for the study of botany in 1775. John Goodridge left lands, &c., to the value of £60 a year to the college, Nov. 25, 1654 ; and Lord Wyndham bequeathed £2,000 in 1745. Its greatest benefactor was the Eev. John Wills, who, in 1806, bequeathed £90 a year for a law exhibition to a fellow, £18 a year for a law exhiMtion to a scholar, £90 a year for a medical exhibition to a fellow, and £18 a year for a medical exhibition to a scholar, besides bequests to a fund for the purchase of livings. The chapel was consecrated April 29, 1613. The altar was paved with black and white marble in 1677, and the rest of the chapel in 1678. An additional building was erected on the south side of the college in 1694. Wafer. — The bread used in the Eucharist by the Lutherans and Eoman Catholics is called a wafer. It is in the shape of a denarius, or penny, to represent, according to some, the money for which Jesus was betrayed; and its use was first introduced in the llth century. Bernoldus, in his " De Ordine Eomano," written in 1089, condemns the substitution of the wafer for bread. Wafers. — The oldest seal with red wafers, according to Beckmann, is dated a.d. 1624. A writer in Notes and Queries (ii. 410) mentions a letter, dated April, 1607, in his possession, sealed with a red wafer. Wafers were only used by private persons in the 17th century. Their use on public seals commenced in the ISth century. Wagee of Battel. {See Assize of Battel.) Wages. — The earHest attempts to regulate the price of labour in this country arose in consequence of the depopulation occasioned, A.D. 1346 and the following years, by the plague, which reduced the number of the working class to such an extent that the supply of labour proved inadequate to the demand, and an immediate rise of wages was the result. The consequence was, the passing of the Statute of Labourers, 25 Edw. III. Stat. 1 (1350), which limited the rate of wages. Further regulations were imposed by 13 Eich. II. c.8 (1389), 23 Hen. VI. c. 12 (1444), and 11 Hen. VII. c. 22 (1496). These statutes were amended by 5Eliz. c. 4 (1562), and 1 James I. c. 6 (1604), which entrusted the decision of disputes respecting wages, to justices, sheriffs, mayors, &c. This jurisdiction was abohshed by 53 Geo. IIL c. 40 (April 15, 1813). By 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 37 (Oct. 15, 1831), numerous statutes prohibiting the payment of wages in goods were repealed, and by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 1, 1849), clerks and servants of bankrupts are entitled to at least one quar- ter's wages in fuU, provided the amount does not exceed £30. The following table, ex- tracted from Tooke's " History of Prices," vi. 389, exhibits the average daily wages of agricultural laboxirers in England during the periods stated : — Wages A.D. per Day. 1200—1299 4d. 1300—1399 5\d. 14€0-1499 6id. 1500-1599 64d. 1600—1699 10|d. 1700—1799 15d. Wages A.D. per l>ay. 1701-1766 12.1. 1767—1789 15d. 1767—1800 17d. 1790-1803 20d. 1804-1810 24d. 1811 25M. {See Labotjeees, &c.) Waggons. — Pharaoh sent waggons to convey Jacob and his family from Canaan to Egypt, B.C. 1706 (Gen. xlv. 19), and some rude vehicle existed among all the nations of antiquity, and was employed for agricultui-al purposes during the Middle Ages. Long waggons, for the conveyance of passengers and goods from London to some of the principal provincial towns, were started iu 1605, but did not meet with much success. They were supplanted by waggon-coaches, which continued to be the chief means of conveyance until the establishment of stage- coaches {q. v). Waggoners, or common car- riers, were regulated by 3 WiU. & Mary, c. 12 WAG WAL (1691), which was amended by 21 Geo. II. c. 28 (1748). Wagkam, (Battle,) fought at this village, near Vienna, between the French, under Napoleon I., and the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, July 6, 1809. The former were victorious. This led to the peace of Schonbrunn {q.v.), and the marriage of Kapoleon I. with the Archduchess Maria Louisa. Wahabees, a Mohammedan reforming sect, originated by Abd el Wahab, in Arabia, about A.D. 1748. They made a successful campaign against Ghaleb, the grand sheik of Mecca, in 1792 and 1793 ; repelled an attack by Soliman, pasha of Bagdad, in 1797 ; and totally destroyed a Turkish army sent against them in 1801. They took Mecca in 1803, and Medina the same year ; conquered the greater part of Arabia, and overran Syria. Slohammed Ali sent an army against them, which they defeated near Medina, in 1812 ; but the Egyptians took that town in the same year. The Wahabees, defeated at Zohran, were victorious at Brissel, in 1815, when a peace was concluded. Ibrahim Pasha made war upon them in 1816, and, after an obstinate resistance, drove them into Derayeh in 1818, which he took in December of the same year, and sent Abdullah, their chief, and several of his family, to Constantinople, where they were beheaded. The greater part of the terri- tories conquered by the Wahabees fell under the authority of Mohammed Ali ; but they gave him much trouble, by fomenting insur- rections, in 1827, 1834, 1838, and 1839. Wahlstatt (Battles). — This Prussian village was the scene of a great victory gained by the duke of Silesia over the Mongol Tartars, a.d. 1241. Blucher defeated the French at the same place, Aug. 26, 1813, and received, in consequence, the title of Prince of Wahlstatt. The latter battle is frequently spoken of as the battle of Katz- bach (q.v.), from a small stream that runs through the plain in which it was fought. Waistcoat. — This term originally sig- nified an under-garment, reaching to the waist. The waistcoat afterwards became the principal male garment, and superseded the doublet; but in the 17th century it resumed its original meaning, and acquired the same character which it still possesses. Pepys, in 1663, mentions seeing the queen " in a white laced waistcoat." During the reign of Charles II., gentlemen wore waistcoats reaching to the knees, and this fashion continued till about 1772, when the members of the Macaroni club (q.v.) intro- duced short waistcoats. Wait ZEN (Hungary). — The Hungarian insurgents took this town by .storm April 9, 1849, and repulsed the Russians with great slaughter July 15. They were defeated the next day by the Russians, who entered the town. Wakefield (Yorkshire), supposed to have existed in the time of the Romans, formed part of the royal demesne in the reign of Edward the Confessor. The manor was granted by Henry I., about A.D. 1107, to WilUam, Earl Warren in whose family it remained till the middle of the 14th century, when it reverted to the crown. It was granted to the earl of Holland by Charles I., and was purchased by the duke of Leeds in 1700. A sanguinary battle was fought here Dec. 30, 1460, between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists, in which the latter were defeated, and Richard, duke of York, father of Edward IV., was slain. The Royalists were defeated here by Fairfax May 21, 1643. The parish church of All Saints was built in the reign of Henry III. The font bears the initials of Charles II., and the date is 1611. The bridge was built in the reign of Edward III. The Free Grammar- school was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1592. The Green -coat school was esta- blished in 1707. The church of St. John was built in 1795, and was made parochial in 1815. The Court-house was erected in 1806, a corn-exchange in 1823, and a more commodius building in 1837. The Literary and Philosophical Society was founded in 1827 ; the Proprietary school was opened in 1834 ; and Trinity church was built in 18-40. WALCHEKEif Expedition. — This expedi- tion, for checking the growing influence of JSTapoleon I. in Holland, and preventing the consequent injury apprehended to Enghsh commerce, consisted of 30,000 men, under the command of Lord Chatham, brother of the great William Pitt. Lord Chatham received his instructions July 16, 1809. The expedition sailed from England, in a fleet of thirty-seven ships of the line and twenty -three frigates, besides numerous smaller vessels, July 28, 1809, and landed in Walcheren, the principal island of the Dutch province of Zealand, July 30. Mid- dleburg, the chief town of the island, and Goes, the capital of South Beveland, were immediately occupied, and Balitz was eva- cuated by the French Aug. 2, and seized the following day. Instead of proceeding to capture Antwerp, which was the grand object of the expedition, Lord Chatham next invested Flushing, which surrendered, after a vigorous bombardment, Aug. 16. In the mean time, however, the French forces had I assembled around Antwerp ; and as the I marsh fever of the Low Countries began to ! appear among the English troops, it was i decided, in the beginning of September, to withdraw into the island of Walcheren. As the mortality continued on the in- crease, orders were issued for the evacuation of the island Nov. 23 ; and before Christmas the entire force had embarked. The total number of deaths during the occupation amounted to 7,000, and the sick sent home at various times to 12,863. Considerable indignation having been felt at the failure of the expedition, a select committee of inquiry was nominated by the House of Com- mons Feb. 6, 1810. After a long adjourned debate, a majority of forty-eight declared in favour of the ministerial policy March 30. WAL Waldeck (Grermany). — This small prin- ' cipality was created a.d. 1682. Its first prince was George Frederick, a celebrated imperial general, who was born in 1620, and died in 1692. Prince Christian Augustus, \ born in 1744, signalized himself in the wars j against the French during the Eevolution, and is said to have originated the plan of the successful attack on the French lines of Weissenburg, in Alsace, Oct. 13, 1793. The prince of Waldeck granted a constitution to his subjects in August, 1852. Waldenses. (See Valdenses.) Wales, the ancient Cambria, or Britannia Septentrionahs, or Secunda, was a distincc principality before the invasion of Ceesar, and maintained its independence through- out the Eoman, Saxon, and Danish inva- sions. The modern Welsh are said to be descendants of the ancient Britons, who fled to the fastnesses of "V^^ales in order to escape from the Saxon tyrants. 58. Suetonius Paulinus invades "Wales. 60. Christianity is said to have been first preached in Wales about this year. 61. Paulinus takes Moua, or Anglesey (q.v.). 75. Julius Frontinus conquers the Silures, inha- bitants of Monmouthshire and the adjacent country. 78. Julius Agricola invades Wales and takes Moiia. 429. The Welsh Britons, under St. Germanus, de- feat the Saxons at Maes-Gannon. {See Haixelujah.) 443. Caswallon establishes an independent mon- archy in North Wales. 445. The Britons are di-iven into the mountainous regions of Wales by the Picts and Scots. 517. Arthur is elected king of the Britons in Wales, and commences war against the Saxons. 542. Arthur is slain at Camelford {q. v.). 560. Maelgwyn, king of North Wales, is acknow- ledged sovereign by the minor princes of the countiy. 603. Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, invades Wales and massacres the monks of Bangor-iscoed ig.v.). 607. St. David dies in Wales. 610. Tewdrick, a Welsh chieftain, defeats Ceol- wulph, king of Wessex. 676. Cadwallader is elected king of the Welsh Britons. 688. Cadwallader retires into Armorica, or Bil- tanny. 703. Death of Cadwallader, whose throne is con- tested by his infant son Edwal, and Ivor, son of the king of Armorica. 776. The inhabitants of South Wales invade Mercia. 779. Olfa, king of Mercia, constructs a dyke and rampart between his territories and those of the Welsh. {See Offa's Dvke.) 813. The western parts of Wales are devastated by Egbert. 833. The Danes land in Wales and conclude an alliance with the inhabitants against the Saxuns. 846. The Mercian prince Berthred ravages North Wales. 873. The Danes invade South Wales. 877. On the death of Roderick the Great, Wales is divided into the three principalities of North Wales, or GwjTiedh, South Wales, or Deheubarth, and Powys. 895. Wales is ravaged by the Danes. 900. On the death of Mervyn, prince of Powys, his kingdom is annexed to South Wales. 913. The Irish invade North Wales. 915. The Danes again invade Wales. WAL A.D. 933. Athelstan invades Wales and exacts a heavy annual tribute. 940. Wales is re-united into one kingdom by Howel Dha the Good, the great lawgiver. 948. On his death it is again divided by his sons, who commence a civil war. 952. The sons of Edwal Yoel defeat the sons of Howel Dha in the great battle of Llanrwst. 961. Edgar invades North Wales. 969. North Wales is devastated by the Danes. 973. Edgar again ravages Wales. 981. Einiou, son of oVen, king of South Wales, defeats the Danes in a great battle at Llauwanoc. 984. Howel, king of North Wales, invades Eng- land and falls in battle. 990. Edwin, sou of Eiuion, invades South Wales. 997. V/ales is again invaded by the Danes. 1003. iEdan ap Blegored iisurps the sovereignty of North Wales. 1015. Llewelyn ap Seisyllt invades North Wales, defeats and slays jEdan, and annexes his kingdom to South Wales. 1020. JElhim, a Scot of low birth, usurps the throne of South Wales, and is vigorously supported by the inhabitants. He is defeated and slain by Llewelyn. 1021. Llewelyn is assassinated by the sons of Edwin. 1037. lago, king of North Wales, is defeated and slain by Grylfydh, sou of Llewelyn, who ascends the throne and gains a victory nver an invading army of English and Danes at Crosford, on the Severn. 1038. Gi-ylTydh defeats Howel, king of South Wales, in a great battle fought at Pencadaer, iu Caermarthenshire. 1042. Howel, prince of South Wales, is defeated and slain by Gryffjdh, king of North Wales, on the banks of the Towi. 1055. Harold, son of Earl Godwiu, invades North Wales. 1063. It is again ravaged by Harold and his brother Tostig, who compel Gryffydh to leave the country for a time, and exact a tribute from the people. 1079. William L of England invades Wales, and compels the native princes to take the oath of fealty. 1087. Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of South Wales, de- feats a rebellion of the sons of Bleddyn ap Cynvyn, in tlie battle of Lhechiyd, "in Kaduorshtre. 1088. The Welsh rebel against William 11. 1091. Wales is in^•aded by an English army under Robert Fitzhanunon, who defeats and slays Rhys ap Tewdwr near Brecknock. 1094. The English inhabitants of South Wales are massacred by the natives. 1096. Wales is invaded by a large army under the earls of Chester and Shrewsbury. 1101. Henry I. invades Wales, and crushes a con- spiracy of the native princes. 1108. Owen, son of Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, king of Powys, forcibly abducts Nest, the wife of Gei-ald, governor of Pembroke Castle. 1109. Strongbow, earl of Strigill, seizes Cardigan. 1112. Henry I. establishes a colony of Flemings in South Wales. 1114. Wales is unsuccessfully invaded by a formid- able army under Henry I. of England, Alexander I. of Scotland, and the earl of Pembroke. 1121. Henry T. again invades Wales. 1135. On the death of Henry I. a formidable revolt breaks out under Owen Gwynedh and his brother Cadwallader. 1136. Ranulph, earl of Chester, invades Wales, and sustains a severe defeat from the rebels. 1150. The earl of Chester is again defeated in an attempted invasion of Wales. 1155. After the death of Stephen, the Flemish mer- cenaries, who formed part of his army, settle iu Waies. A-n. 1157. 1163. 1164. 117-2. 1177. 1184. 1195. 1196. 1202. 1204 1211. 1212. 1215. 1218. 1219. 1234. 1240. 1244 1245. 1255. 1264. 1267. WAL Henry IL invades North "Wales with au im- mense army, and compels Owen Gwynedh to do homage. On the death of Madnc, prince of Powys, his kingdom is divided into minor principali- ties. Henry II. invades South Wales, and exacts homage from Rhys ap Gryffydh. Rhys ap Gryffydh rebels, aud is joined by aU the native Welsh princes. Death of Owen Gwynedh, prince of North Walts, who is succeeded by his son David. Another son, Madoc, embarks with a few ships, aud is asserted by some to have reached America. Dissolution of the Welsh confederacy against Hem-y IT., who makes a friendly progi-ess through South Wales. William de Bruce, lord of Brecknock, mas- sacres a large number of the Welsh nobility at Abergavenny Castle. The children of the slain lords, having ar- rived at years of maturity, sack Aber- gaveuiry and Monmouth castles, and mur- der their English garrisons. Rhys ap Gryfiydh rebels against Richard I. On the death of Bhys ap Grytlydh, king of South Wales, his kingdom becomes extinct, though nominally governed by his de- A treaty of peace is concluded between King John and the Welsh. King John gives his natural daughter in mar- riage to Llewelyn ap loi-werth, prince of North Wales. John invades North Wales, and compel.i his son-in-law to surrender all his inland ter- ritories, aud to pay heavy tribute. Llewelyn organizes a jiowerful confederacy against John.and seizes the English castles in North Wales. The English barons form an alliance with the Welsh princes. Llewelyn does homage to Henry IIL at Glou- cester. The Welsh Flemings revolt. Llewelyn ravages the English possessions in South Wales. Henry III. invades Wales withoiit success. William, earl of Pembroke, and other English lords, rebel against Henry IIL, and con- clude an alliance with Llewelyn. He is made prisoner by the English. Death of Llewelyn ap lorwerth, sumamed the Great His successor, David, rebels against Henry III., and invades the English frontier. Aug. Henry III. invades Wales at the head of a powerful army. A confederacy of Welsh princes against the Engl.sh is headed by Llewelyn ap Gryffydh, who recoveis the inland territories of North Wales. Llewelyn defeats a large English army in a, great battle at Dinevawr. Prince Edward, son of Henry IIL, invades Wales. Simon de Montfort and the rebellious barons assist the Welsh against Henry III. On the death of De Montfoit, Llewelyn con- cludes a ti«aty with the king, who acknow- ledges him prince of Wales. Eleanor de Montfort, daughter of the earl of Leicester, and affianced bride of Llewelyn, is made prisoner by Edward I. while on her way into Wales to be mar- ried. Llewelyn consequently breaks out into open rebellion. Edward L encamjjs with a large army on Saltney Marsh, near Chester, and Llewelyn retreats to Snowdon. Late in the year, a peace is concluded at Conway, on teims most humiliating to the Welsh prince. Oct 13. Marriage of Llewelyn and Eleanor de Montfort. WAL 1282. Palm Sunday. A general insurrection breaks out in Wales under Prince David, brother ofLlevyelyu. March 22. He takes Hawarden Castle. June. Edward I. invades Wales. Dec. 10. Llewelyn, the last Welsh prince of the blood, is defeated and slain at the battle of Port Orewyn. 1283. June 21. Prince David, brother of the late king, is captured by the English. Sept. 20. He is condemned iis a traitor, and is after- wards executed with shocking barbarity. 1284. April 25. Edward's eldest son is born in Caer- narvon Castle, and receives the title of prince of Wales and the homage of the native chieftains. The statutes of Ehud- dlau (12 Edw. I. c. 5), for the government of Wales, are enacted. 1287. Rhjs ap Meredydh rebels against Edward I. 1290. He is made prisoner and executed. 1295. A dangerous insm-rection breaks out under Madoc, a natural son of Llewelyn, who is defeated and imprisoned in the Tower. 1315. Another rebellion is suppressed. 1354. By2S Edw. III. c. 2, the Marches of Wales are annexed to the English crown. 1400. Owen Glendower, or Glendourdy, rebels in Wales, assxunes the royal dignity, and imprisons Lorrl Grey and Edmtind Mor- timer, earl of Marcli. Sept. 20. He burns the town ofRuthyn. Nov. 30. Henry IV. offers pardon to the Welsh. 1401. Henry IV. invades Walts, and compels Owen to retreat to the mountains. 1403. Glendower assists the Percies in their rebel- lion. 1405. A French force of 12,000 men lands in Wales to assist Glendower ; but on the approach of the king they re-embark. 1408. Glendower is again in open rebellion with tho earl of Northumberland. 1415. Sept. 20. Death of Owen Glendower. 1535. By 27 Henry VIII. c. 26, Wales is united to England, English laws are ordered to be used , and a commission is appnluted for dividing the province into counties. 1543. Wales is divided into twelve counties by 34 & 35 Henry VIII. c. 26. 1830. July 23. The separate jurisdiction of the Welsh courts is abolished by 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70. 1843. Wales is distm-bed by Rebecca riots ((?. v.). EtJLEES OF WALES, AD. A.D. Cynedda Wledig .. 340 Edwal Iwreh 703 EiuionYrth 389 EoderickMolwynog 720 Caswallon Law-hir 443 Cynau Tindaethwj^ 755 Maelgwii Gwynedh 517 Merfyn Frych and Rhuii ap Maelgwyn 560 Essylt 817 BeliapRhun 586 Rodri Mawr, or Ro- lago ap Beli 599 derick the Great 843 Cadfan 603 Division of the Cadwallon eao kingdom 877 CadwaUader 676 KORTH WALES. A.D. A.D. Anarawd 877 Bleddyn and Rhi- EdwalFoel 913 wallon 1064 Howel Dha, the Bleddyn, alone .... 1068 Good 940 Trahaearn ap Ca- lenaf and lago 948 radoc 1073 Howel ap leuaf and Gi-yffydh ap Cynan 1079 lago 972 Owain, or Owen Cadwallon ap lenaf 984 Gwynedh 1137 Meredydd, or Mere- Dafydd, or David dith apOwen 985 ap Owain 1169 Edwal ap Meirig . . 992 Llewelyn ap lor- Mdsm ap Blegored 1003 werth, the Great 1194 Llewelyn ap Sei- Dafydd ap Llewelyn 1240 syllt 1015 Owen and Llewelyn 1246 lago ap Edwal 1021 Llewelyn ap Gryf- Giyffydh ap Lle- fydh 1254 welyn 1037 WAL WAL SOUTH WALES. the Cadell Howel Diia, Goud 907 Owea ap Howel . . 948 Tenaf and lago .... 958 Owen ap Howel . . 966 Meredydd ap Owen 987 Llewelyn ap Sei- syllt 998 Ehydderch ap Jes- tyn 1021 Howel and Mere- dydd 1031 Howel, alone 1032 Merfyn, or Merryn Cadell Howel Dha, the Good Edwin and Kode- rick Edwin, alone lenaf and lago Meredydd ap Owen Llewelyn ap Sei- syllt A.D. Gryffydh ap Lle- welyn 1042 Meredydd ap Owen 1064 Caradoc ap Gryf- fydh 1068 Khydderch ap Ca- radoc 1069 Rhys ap Owen 1072 Rhys ap Tewdwa- Mawr 1077 Cadwgau ap Bled- dyn 1092 Gryffydh ap Rhys 1116 Rhys ap Giyffydh 1187 A.D. Bleddyn and Rhi- wallon 1021 Bleddyn, alone 1068 Meredydd, Cadw- gan,andIorwei-th 1973 Meredydd and Ca- dwgan 1108 Meredydd, alone . . 1110 Madoc ap Meredydd 1133 "Waihalia. — This edifice, which derives its name from the Hall of AVoden, the para- dise of the Scandinayian mythology, was built by Louis Charles, king of Bavaria, upon a hill on the north bank of the Danube, near Eatisbon, for the reception of the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany. Commenced Oct. 18, 1830, it was finished and solemnly inaugurated Oct. 18, 1842. "VValiachia (Europe) formed part of the kingdom of Dacia, when it was conquered and colonized by the Eoman emperor Tra- jan, A.D. 106. The Wallachians are sup- posed by some to be the descendants of these colonists. They were, however, recalled from Dacia when that kingdom was ceded to the Goths by the emperor Aurelian, in 270. This name belonged to some people in Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, in the 9th century, a portion of whom settled north of the Danube in the 12th century. The inha- bitants of Dacia were nearly exterminated by the Mongols in the 13th century; and, after they had withdrawn, the Wallachians and other foreign colonists settled in Wal- lachia, and were governed by their o\vn princes, who were called waiwodes, or des- pots. The kings of Hungary compelled them to pay tribute in the 14th century. The Turks greatly harassed them in 1391 and 1394, devastated the whole country in 1415, and obliged them to pay an annual tri- bute. They put themselves under the pro- tection of the emperor of Germany in 1608, but were again resigned to Turkish domi- nion by the treaty of Carlowitz, Jan. 26, 1699. The country suffered from civH war and the plague in the beginning of the 17th j century, and the western part was ceded to the emperor by the treaty of Passarowitz, July 21, 1718 : he lost it again in 1739. Turkey covenanted with Eussia not to re- move the waiwode for the space of seven years, bv the treaty of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792; 8S8 and further stipulated not to do so without the consent of Eussia, September 24, 1802. Through French influence, the sultan de- posed the waiwode, without the knowledge of Eussia, Aug. 30, 1807, and, in conse- quence, a Eussian army entered Wallachia. defeated the Turks, and occupied Bucharest, in Dec. 1807. They remained in the country until it was formally annexed to Eussia by an imperial ukase, Jan. 21, 1810. It was restored to Turkey by the peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. The principahties of Waliachia and Moldavia were united, vrith the privilege of self-government, under the suzerainty of the sultan, by a convention signed by the prin- cipal European powers at Paris, Aug. 19, 1858. Wallee's Plot, contrived by Edmund Waller, the poet, to deliver London into the power of Charles I., was discovered May 31, 1643. His principal confederates, Tom- kins, his brother-in-law, and Chaloner, a wealthy citizen, were hanged, July 5, 1643, but Waller escaped with banishment and a fine of £10,000. Wallingfoed (Berkshire), supposed to have existed in the time of the Eomans, was taken and burned by the Danes a.d. 1006. In Domesday Book it is called Walingeford, and is described as a borough with 276 houses. William I. received the homage of Archbishop Stigand and the principal nobles here in 1066. A strong castle was built in 1067, which was held for the empress Maud in the civil war with Stephen, who unsuccess- fully besieged it several times. It was taken by the Parhamentarians in 1646, and the castle was completely demolished in 1653. WaUingford received its first charter in the reign of Henry I., and has returned two members to parhament since 1294. A Bene- dictine priory, founded here in the reign of WiUiam I., was suppressed in 1535. St. Leonard's church, much damaged in the siege of 1646, was afterwards rebuilt. St. Peter's, also ruined in the same siege, was rebuilt in 1769, and the tower was erected in 1777. The free school was founded in 1659, the almshouses in 1681, and a school for 20 boys and 30 girls was established in 1819. Wallis's Yotage. — Captain WaUis sailed from Plymouth in the Dolphin, Aug. 22, 1766. He visited Tahiti, which he named King George's Island, June 19, 1767 j reached Batavia !N'ov. 30, the Cape of Good Hope Peb. 4, 1768, and returned to the Downs May 20, 1768 ; having accomphshed the cir- cumnavigation of the globe in one year and nine months. Walloons, the name given to the ancient Celtic inhabitants of Flanders, and also to the Flemish refugees who settled in Eng- land in consequence of the persecutions of the duke of Alva, a.d. 1567. A Walloon church was estabHshed in Threadneedle Street, London, in the building of the hos- pital of St. Anthony, once a Jews' syna- gogue, erected in 1231. This building was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, and the Walloons erected their present church. WAL About fifty Walloons who wrought and dyed fine woollen cloths were brought over to instruct the English in their manufacture, May 4, 1668. Walls. — The great wall in Egypt to pre- vent the incursions of the Syrians and Ara- bians was built by Sesostris. The ancient cities of Greece were surrounded by massive walls in the time of Homer, b.c. 962. The great wall of China was completed about B.C. 211 ; Caesar's wall between Geneva and Mount Jura, B.c, 58; and the long wall of Constantinople, a.d. 507. (See Egman- Walls.) Walkut-teee was cultivated in Europe by the Eomans before B.C. 37. The black walnut-tree was introduced into England from North America before a.d. 1629. Walpole Administkations. — Eobert Walpole was appointed first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, Oct. 10, 1715. The other members of the ministry remained the same as in the Halifax and Carlisle administrations (q.v.), the earl of Lincoln being appointed paymaster-gene- ral in place of Mr. Walpole, Oct, 17, and Joseph Addison one of the commissioners for trade and plantations, Dec. 15, 1715. The earl of Nottingham, president of the council, resigned Eeb. 28, 1716. The duke of Argyll was removed from all his offices June 30 ; the duke of Devonshire was appointed president of the council July 6 ; Lord To-vrashend re- signed Dec. 11 ; and the duke of Kingston was made lord privy seal, in place of the earl of Sunderland, Dec. 14, 1716. This adminis- tration was dissolved April 10, 1717. (See Stanhope, or Gekman Admim-isteatign'.) Walpole' s second administration was formed April 4, 1721. It was thus constituted : First Lord of the Trea- ) q. . t,„^^. w„i^ ^ r sury and Chancellor of ^^'^.^"^ji^ff^Jl^J ^I" the Exchequer j terwards earl of Orford. Lord Chancellor Lord Parker. President of the Council.. Lord Carleton. Privy Seal Duke of Kingston. Principal Secretaiies of "(Viscount To wnshend aad State J Lord Carteret. Admiralty Earl of Berkeley. Secretary at War Mr. Treby. Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. Lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, resigned the lord-chancellorship Jan. 4, 1725, and his office was filled by Lord King, June 1. He resigned in November, 1733, and was succeeded, Nov. 29, by Lord Talbot, who died in February, 1737, and Lord Hardwicke was appointed Feb. 21. The duke of Devon- shire, who succeeded Lord Carleton as presi- dent of the council, March 27, 1725, was followed by Lord Trevor, May 8, 1730, and he was succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, Dec. 31, 1730. Lord Trevor became privy seal March 11, 1726, and was succeeded by the earl of Wilmington May 8, 1730. The duke of Devonshire took the office June 12, 1731 ; Viscount Lonsdale, May 5, 1733 ; the earl of Godolphin, in May, 1735 ; and Lord Hervey, April 7, 1740. Lord Carteret was succeeded as one of the principal secretaries WAE of state, by the duke of Newcastle, April 14, 1724 ; and Viscount Towushend was replaced by Lord Harrington, June 27, 1730. The earl of Berkeley was succeeded at the Admi- ralty, Aug. 2, 1727, by Viscount Torrington, who was succeeded by Sir Charles Wager, Jan. 25, 1733. The office of secretary at war was filled by Mr. Henry Pelham, from April 1, 1724; by Sir W. Strickland, Bart., from Jan. 11, 1730; and by Sir W. Yonge, Bart., from May 9, 1735. The earl of Cado- gan succeeded the duke of Marlborough at the Ordnance, July 1, 1722. He was replaced by the duke of Argyll July 1, 1725 ; and the duke of Montagu took the office July 1, 1740. Sir Eobert Walpole resigned Feb. 3, 1742, and was created earl of Orford Feb. 6. {See Wilmington Administration.) Waltham Abbey, or Holt Cross (Essex), originally founded in the reign of Canute, derives its name from the celebrated abbey founded by Harold, son of Earl Godwin, A.D. 1062. This abbey had a yearly revenue of £1,079. 12s. Id. when it was surrendered to Henry VIII., March 23, 1540. There are few remains of the abbey left. The church, formerly the nave of the church of the monastery, has an embattled tower bearing the date of 1558. The government gunpowder-mills were establishedat Waltham Abbey in 1787. Waltz. — This dance, of German origin, was introduced into England a.d. 1813. Wandewash (Hindostan). — This town in the Carnatic was attacked by the Enghsh without success in September, 1759, and was taken by Colonel Coote after a siege of three days, Nov. 29. M. LaUy afterwards made con- siderable efforts to take it, and a great battle was fought between his French force and the English army under Coote, July 22, 1760. The Enghsh forces comprised 1,700 Euro- peans and 3,000 sepoys, and the French, 2,200 Europeans and 10,000 sepoys ; but, in spite of their superior numbers, the French sustained a severe defeat, and were com- pelled to retreat to Pondicherry. Wandsworth (Surrey) is called Wan- deforde and Wendleforde in Domesday Book (1086) . All Saints Church was restored in 1780. A bridge over the Wandle, built by order of Queen Elizabeth in July, 1602, was rebuilt in 1757. The first puritan presbytery was formed here in 1572. (See Nonconfor- mists. ) Garrett, a hamlet within this parish, was formerly the scene of a mock election on the meeting of every new parliament. This was made famous by Foote's play of "The Mayor of Garratt " (1763). Wantage (Berkshire). — This town is celebrated as the birthplace of Alfred the Great, Oct. 25, 849. The 1000th anniversary of this event was celebrated here by a public banquet Oct. 25, 1849. Warbeck's Insurrection. — Perkin War- beck, said to have been the son of John Osbeck, or Olbeck, a converted Jew of Tour- nay, was a godson of Edward IV., and a young man of great personal attractions and good manners. He was instructed by Margaret, WAK WAR dowager duchess of Burgundy, and sister of Edward IV., to pass liimself off as the young duke of York, who was supposed to have been murdered in the Tower by Eichard III. She first sent him to Portugal, where he remained for a year ; but on the commencement of war between France and England, a.d. 1492, she despatched him to Ireland, where he was re- ceived with welcome by the inhabitants of Cork. Charles YIII. of France next invited him to his court, and received him as the young duke and the rightful heir to the Eng- lish crown ; but when peace became probable he dismissed him, l>rov. 3. Perkin repaired to Flanders, where his cause was openly espoused by the dowager Margaret, who acknowledged him as her nephew, and gave him the cognomen of the White Eose of England. News of this arrived in England in the early part of 1493, and was eagerly beUeved by many who were discontented with the avaricious government of Henry VII., and a conspiracy in favour of Perkin was formed by the lord chamberlain, Sir WiUiam Stanley, Sir Eobert CUfford, and others. Henry VII. sent spies into Flanders, who obtained a knowledge of Warbeck's an- tecedents, and by diut of bribes he induced Clifford to betray his companions and to reveal aU he knew of the conspiracy. Sir Simon Mountford, Sir Thomas Thwaites, and Eobert EatcUfF were immediately exe- cuted ; but the others received a commu- tation of sentence. Sir William Stanley was executed Feb. 16, 1495. Warbeck, who at- tempted to land at Deal July 3, 1495, was repulsed, and 169 of his adherents were made prisoners, and hanged by order of the king. Having subsequently besieged Waterford, in Ireland, he was compeUed to flee by Sir Edward Poynings, July 23. After this failure he again retired to Flan- ders, where he remained till March, 1496, when he visited Scotland, and was favourably received by James IV., who gave him in marriage has kinswoman, the lady Catherine Gordon, and invaded the northern counties of England in his behalf, A war breaking out in consequence between the two coun- tries, Warbeck was obliged to retire to Ire- land July 26, 1497, and subsequently to Whitsand Bay, Cornwall, where he landed Sept, 7, and was placed at the head of a large body of Cornish rebels. He retired to Taun- ton Sept. 20. Being apprised of the approach of Lord Daubeney with a numerous army, he fled during the night to the sanctuary of Beauheu, in Hampshire, Sept. 21. His wife. Lady Catheriue Gordon, fell into the hands of the royal troops, and became an attendant on the queen. Warbeck surren- dered to Henry VII. Oct. 5, and was led ia triumph through London Nov. 27. He was subsequently kept prisoner in the royal palace, and afterwards in the Tower, whence he escaped June 8, 1498, and took shelter with the prior of Shene. He again surren- dered on the promise that his lS"e should be spared, and was exhibited in the stocks at Westminster HaU, June 14, and the following day in Cheapside ; after which he was again removed to the Tower. Here he formed an intimacy with his fellow prisoner the imbe- cile young earl of Warwick, son of George, duke of Clarence, with whom he planned an escape and a renewal of his claims. The attempt failed, Aug. 2, 1499, and Warbeck was tried at Westminster Hall Nov. 16, and hanged Nov. 23. Warwick was tried Nov. 21, and executed Nov. 28. The account of Perkin (Piers or Peter) Warbeck's parent- age is derived from his enemies. By some authorities he is believed to have been, if not Eichard, duke of York, at any rate a son of Edward IV. Wabbtjkg (Battle). — The French were defeated by the Enghsh and their allies, under the prince of Brunswick, at this town, in Prussia, Aug. 7, 1760. Wak-Chaeiots are said to have been in- vented by Ninus, king of Assyria, B.C. 2059, and are mentioned Exod. xiv. 7 (b.c. 1491); Josh. xi. 4 (B.C. 1444) ; 1 Sam. xiii. 5 (b.c. 1093)'; and in other passages of the Old Tes- tament. Cassivellaunus, the commander- i in-chief of the ancient Britons, had 4,000 ' war-chariots in his army, B.C. 54. The Chi- | nese used chariots of war armed with can- \ non A.D. 1453. [ Waeds and Liyeeies (Court of). — This | court, erected by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 46 (1540), was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). Waeeham (Dorsetshire) existed in the time of the Britons, and, subsequently oc- cupied by the Eomans, was taken by the Danes, the inhabitants massacred, and the town reduced to ruins, a.d. 800. It was again ravaged by them in 998. The castle and town were seized for the empress Maud in 1138, and were retaken and burned by Stephen. The town, almost destroyed by fire in 1762, was completely rebuilt within two years, A priory was founded here in the 9th century. Wae Office. — The department of the Secretary of War was established a.d. 1666, for the management of the finance business of the army. The Secretary of State for War was made a distinct ofiice in 1854. Waeeants. {See Geneeal Waeeants.) Waeeingtost (Lancashire) is supposed to have been a Eoman station a.d. 79. After its occupation by the Saxons it ob- tained the name of Werington, from the Saxon wering, a fortification, and tun, a town, from which its present name is derived. It was besieged and taken by the Parhament- arians in May or June, 1643. General Lam- bert defeated the Scots here in 1648, and Prmce, afterwards Charles II. repulsed the Parliamentarians here in 1651. The bridge was cut down to intercept the passage of the Jacobite army under Charles Edward, and part of the rebel force captured it in 1745. The duke of Cumberland passed through the town in his march to the north ia 1746. A wooden bridge, erected in the end of the 14th century, was replaced by a bridge of stone by Thomas, first earl of Derby, in comphment to Henry VII., on his visit to WAR WAS Latham and Knowsley, in 1496. A new bridge of wood on stone piers was erected in 1812. The parish church of St. Helen's is of Saxon origin, and existed at the time of the Conquest, The tower was rebuilt in 1696. ,The free grammar-school was founded in 1526; the Blue-coat school in 1677; the subscription library was esta- blished in 1758, the dispensary in 1810, and a building was erected for it in 1818. The town-haU was built in 1820. Waksaw, the principal city of Eussian Poland, became the capital of Poland a.d. 1566 ; was taken by the Swedes in the middle of the 17th century, and was retaken by the Poles in 1656. It fell again into the hands of the Swedes in the same year, when they destroyed the fortifications. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1703. The Poles rose against the Russians and expelled them from the city, April 17, 1794. Unsuccessfully be- sieged by the Prussians in July and August, it was taken by the Russians with great slaughter, Nov. 4, 1794. It was evacuated by the Russians Nov. 28, 1806, and occupied by the Freoch two days afterwards. Napo- leon I. arrived here Dec. 18, 1806, and re- ceived embassies from Turkey and Persia in the beginning of March, 1807. It was cap- tured by the Austrians April 23, 1809, and was retaken by the Poles in the following month. Napoleon I. arrived here, on his retreat from Russia, Dec. 10, 1812. The town was evacuated by the Austrians in the beginning of February, 1813, and was occu- pied by the Russians. The Pohsh insurrec- tion broke out Nov. 29, 1830, and the Russian grand-duke Constantine having retired from the city Nov, 30, a provisional government was formed. The Polish army withdrew into the town after the battle of Praga, Feb. 24 and 25, 1831. The prisons were broken into and aU the state prisoners, Russian prisoners and others, were mur- dered by the mob, Aug. 15 and 16, 1831. After a sanguinary battle, which lasted two days, the town was taken by the Russians, Sept. 7, 1831. A strong citadel was erected by them after the close of the revolution. A royal palace was built here by Sigismund III, The church of the Holy Cross was erected 1696, the beautiful Lutheran church in 1781, the church of St. Alexander in 1814, and the Dominican church in 1823. The university was abolished in 1834, and the library of 150,000 volumes and other valuable collections were removed to St. Petersburg. Disturbances broke out at Warsaw Feb. 21, 1861. {See Poland.) Waesaw (Battle). — The Poles were de- feated here by the Swedes in a battle which lasted three days, a.d. 1656. The Russian and Prussian troops were , beaten by the Polish guards and the populace in the town, April 17, 1794. The Poles under Kosciusko were defeated by the Russians, Oct, 4, 1794, and again with a loss of 10,000 slain and 9,000 in prisoners, Nov. 4, 1794. In the battle between the Poles and the Russians at the village of Grochow near Warsaw, Feb. 19 and 20, 1831, the former were vic- torious ; and in the contest at the suburb of Praga, Feb. 24 and 25, 1831, the result was indecisive. The Poles gained a victory over the Russians at Warsaw, March 31, 1831, but were defeated by them here in a great battle Sept. 6 and 7, 1831, Warwick (Warwickshire), supposed by some to have been a town of importance prior to the Roman invasion, having been destroyed by the Danes, was restored, and a fort erected by Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great, a.d. 913. Queen EHza- beth visited it on her way to Kenilworth Castle in 1572. More than half the town was destroyed by an accidental fire in 1694, and it was rebuilt by a national contribu- tion, which amounted to £110,000, of which Queen Anne gave £1,000. William III. visited it in 1695. Its earliest charter dates from 1260, but it was not regularly in- corporated tiU 1553. Warwick Castle, one of the most splendid and entire specimens of feudal grandeur in the kingdom, is sup- posed to have been founded by Ethelfleda (913), but no authentic trace of the origi- nal building remains. Ctesar's Town, built at least 700 years ago, and Guy's Tower, built in 1394, are both in fine preservation. St. Mary's church, which stands on the site of an older structure, was built in the 14th century. Having been nearly destroyed by fire in 1694, it was rebuilt in 1704. The tower, 130 feet high, was designed by Sir Christopher Wren. The Beauchamp chapel was erected in 1464. Washing-ton (North America), sur- veyed and laid out by three commissioners A.D. 1791, was founded by the laying of the corner-stone of the Capitol, Sept. 18, 1793. The seat of the federal govern- ment was transferred from Philadelphia to this place in 1800, and the president and the other chief officers of the government have since resided here. It was captured by a small English force under Ross, Aug. 24, 1814, and a proposition to ransom the public buildings having been rejected by the American authorities, they were fired, and the English withdrew Aug. 25. A de- structive fire in which part of the Capitol and the whole of the hbrary were destroyed, occurred Dec. 24, 1851. The prince of Wales visited the president here in September, 1860. The Capitol, commenced in 1793, was finished in 1827, at a cost of £400,000. Columbian College was incorporated by Congress in 1821. Wassail Bowl. — The term wassail is derived from the Anglo-Saxon was-hcel, be in health, and the wassail bowl was com- pounded of ale, nutmeg, sugar, toast, and roasted crabs or apples, which formed an aggregate, sometimes called lamb's wool. The custom of wassaihng on New Year's eve is derived by some antiquaries from the presentation of a loving cup to Vortigern by Rowena, a.d. 499 ; but others assert, and with greater probability, that it is of earlier origin. WAS WAT Waste Lands were first inclosed in England in order to promote agriculture, A.D. 1547. This caused an insurrection in various parts of England in June, July, and August, 1549. (/SeeKET'slNSUEEECTioif.) Inclosures of commons and waste lands are generally made by local statutes, which are regulated by the General Inelosure Act, 41 Geo. III. c. 109 (1800), amended by 1 & 2 Geo. IV.c. 23 (1821). Watch (London) was established in ac- cordance with an order issued by Henry III. A.D. 1253. The duty was performed by the citizens themselves, and they had stately processions yearly. Henry VIII. came into the city disguised as a yeoman of the guard to see this nocturnal pomp on the eve of St. John, 1510, and was so weU pleased that he brought his queen, attended by the prin- cipal nobihty, into Cheapside to see it on the eve of St. Peter following. The caval- cade of the city watch was abolished, and a stated watch appointed at the charge of each ward, in the summer of 1570. An armed watch of the inhabitants of London during the civil war was appointed by the common council Oct. 2, 1643. The regulation of the city watch was vested in the common council by 10 Geo. 11. (1736). The watch of Lon- don was superseded bv the pohce by 10 Geo. IV. c. 44 (June 19," 1829). Watches are said to have been first in- vented at !N'uremberg, in Germany, towards the end of the 15th century. Eobert I., king of Scotland (1306 to 1329), is said to have possessed a watch. The earhest known watch was in Sir Ashton Lever's museum ; it bears the date of 1541, Watches were common in France before 1544. Henry VIII. is said to have had a watch ; and one, set in an armlet, was presented to Queen Elizabeth in 1572. They were not in general request in England till the end of her reign. The invention of spring watches has been ascribed to Dr. Hooke, and by some to Huyghens, about 1658. The anchor escape- ment was invented by Clement, a London clockmaker, in 1680, and the horizontal watch by Graham in 1724. Harrison finished his longitude watch in 1736, for which he received a government reward of £20,000. Eepeaters were invented in the reign of Charles II., and the smallest one of this kind ever known — it was the size of a silver twopence, and its weight that of a sixpence — was made by Arnold for Geo. III., and was presented to him on his birthday, June 4, 1764. The duties on wrought gold and silver watch-eases were abolished by 38 Geo. III. c. 24 (March 9, 1798). Watchet (Somersetshire), anciently eaUed Weced-poort, was plundered by the Danes a.d. 886. Having been defeated in the vicinity in 918, they took and plundered the town in 988. The pier, erected by the Wyndham family, was repaired previously to 1740. Watee. — The composition of water was discovered by Mr. Henry Cavendish in 1784. {See Htdbostatics.) Wateh-Clock. (See Clepstdea.) Water- Colours. — All the ancient modes of painting, as fresco-painting (q.v.), &c., were systems of water-colour ; but the existing mode of water-colour painting did not become a popular branch of art untU about the latter part of the 18th century. The Society of Painters in Water- Colours was instituted in 1805, and the New Society in 1832. Both these associations have held exhibitions since the date of their institution. Paul Sandby (1732 — 1808), Thomas Gistin (1773—1802), Joseph Mal- lord Wilham Turner (1775 — 1851), and Samuel Prout (1783 — 1852), are regarded aa the founders of the art of water-colour painting. Watee Cure. {See Htdeopatht.) Waterfoed (Ireland), capital of the county of Waterford, is said to have been founded by the Danes about a.d. 850. Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, took it by assault in 1170. Henry II. landed here on his invasion of Ireland, Oct. 18, 1171. King John granted its first charter, and resided here for some months, in 1210. The citi- zens, led by the mayor, were defeated by the Poers and O'Driscolls in 1368. Water- ford was visited by Eichard II. in 1394, and again when he went to redress some dis- orders consequent on the death of the lord- heutenant, earl of March, who had fallen in a skirmish with the natives, in 1399. The motto of the city, " Urbs intacta manet," was bestowed upon it in consequence of having successfully resisted Perkin War- beck in 1495. It was unsuccessfully besieged by Cromwell in 1649, and submitted to Ireton in 1650. It sided with James II., who em- barked here for France, after the battle of the Boyne, July 2, 1690. General Kirk com- pelled it to surrender July 25, 1690. The cathedral, founded in 1076, has been since altogether rebuilt. The chamber of com- merce was incorporated in 1815. Watee-Glass, or Oil of Flint. — Stereo- chromy, or the process of painting with this mixture, which is a soluble alkaline silicate, was invented by Dr. Johann N. Von Fuchs, whopubhshed an account of it a.d. 1825. It has recently been employed by Messrs. Machse and Herbert, E.A., in the fres- coes at the new palace of Westminster. In 1840 Professor F. Kuhhnann, of LiUe, directed his attention to the material, with a view to its employment as a preservative for stone ; and in 1859 a translation of a report on its application to the fine arts was privately printed by order of Prince Albert. F. Eansome asserts the identity of Kuhl- mann's process with his own inventions for preserving stone, and claims the merit of priority. (See Stone.) Wateekloof (Cape of Good Hope). — The camp of the Caffre chief Macomo, at this place, was destroyed by an expedition under Major-General Somerset, Oct. 16, 1851. Waterloo (Battle).— This great battle, which proved the death-blow to the ambitious WAT WAT schemes of Napoleon I., was commenced near Waterloo, in Belgium, at half-past eleven o'clock in the morning, June 18, 1815, by an attack of the French, under Prince Jerome, upon the chateau Hougo- mont, which was set on fire about two o'clock. The French cavalry, under Ney, was repeatedly driven back by the English infantry, but the farm of La Haye Sainte was compelled to surrender, owing to the scanty ammunition of its brave defenders. Late in the afternoon. Marshal Blucher ar- rived with the Prussian army, and attacked the French right flank. The grand attack of the Lnperial Guard commenced at a quarter past seven, and was defeated by the English foot-guards, under Major-General Maitland. Just as the sun vanished below the horizon, WeUiugton gave the order for the whole of the English hne to advance, which occasioned a panic and general flight in the French army. The Old Guard still stood firm, but at length yielded to the attack of Adam's brigade and the Osnaburg battalion of Colonel Halket ; and at half- past eight the duke relinquished the pursuit and returned to the village of Waterloo. At the hamlet of La Belle Alliance he met Blucher, who, after mutual congratulations, continued the pursuit. The following table, taken from Captain Siborne's history of the Waterloo campaign, exhibits the effective force of the aUied army in this memorable battle : — Infantry, Cavalry. ArtiUery. Total Men. Gtms. British 15,181 3,301 10,258 4,586 2,880 13,402 5,843 1,997 497 866 3"205 2,967 526 465 510 1,177 23,991 5,824 11,220 5,962 2,880 17.784 78 18 12 16 32 King's Gernian Legion Dutch-Belgians Total 49,608 12,408 5,645 67,661 156 The Dutch-Belgian forces acted vnth great lukewarmness, and were of but slight service during the battle. The Prussian forces en- gaged amounted to 41,283 infantry, 8,858 cavalry, and 1,803 artillery, making a total of 51,944 men, with 104 guns. The effective French army consisted of 47,579 infantry, 13,792 cavalry, and 7,529 artillery, forming a force of 68,900 men, with 246 guns. The following table exhibits the English loss : — Killed. Missing. Wounded. Total. Officers.. Men .... 85 1,334 10 365 4,564 460 6,480 Total 1,419 592 4,929 6,940 Among the killed were Generals Sir Wil- liam Ponsonby and Sir Thomas Picton, who fell pierced by a musket -baU at the beginning of the battle. Lord Uxbridge, afterwards the earl of Uxbridge, and Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Eaglan, were both severely wounded. The total loss of the allies exceeded 22,000 men ; and the French are said to have lost no less than 40,000 men. The battle was called by the Prussians the battle of La Belle Alliance, and by the French the battle of Mont St. Jean. It has received its English name from the adjoining village ' of Waterloo, where Wellington fixed his head-quarters, and reposed after the fatigues of the day. Waterloo Bridge (London). — The first stone was laid Oct. 11, 1811, and the bridge was opened to the public June 18, 1817. It was built by John Kennie, at a cost of upwards of a miUion sterling. The toll for foot passengers was reduced from a penny to a halfpenny Feb. 29, 1841. A committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider the expediency of abolishing the toU April 26, 1841. Watermill. (See Mill/.) Waterspout. — These remarkable meteo- rological phenomena are regarded as belong- ing to the same class as the moving sand- piUars of the desert, but their cause and nature are imperfectly understood. One burst in Lancashire in 1718, and occasioned considerable damage. Another, at Brack- enthwaite, in Cumberland, Sept. 9, 1760, tore away the gravel and soil from a field. A great waterspout descended upon Dungavel HiU, in Scotland, July 2, 1768, and made an opening about twenty- four yards broad and three feet deep. A similar phenomenon occurred at Clapham Common, during a violent thunderstorm, June 18, 1782 ; and at Eamsgate, where it produced a depth of four feet of water in several cellars, July 14, 1798. One burst over the Wheal Abraham and Creuve mines, in Cornwall, in Nov. 1806, and choked up the shaft, causing the death of several miners and considerable destruction of property. The town of Silkstone, in Yorkshire, was similarly visited May 9, 1807, when a torrent of water, nearly six feet in diameter, de- scended on the town and drowned several of the inhabitants. The appearance of the temporary island Sabrina, in the Azores, Jan. 12, 1811, was attended with numerous waterspouts and volcanic phenomena. A waterspout of very destructive character overwhelmed the village of Kingscourt, county Cavan, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1838 ; and WAT "V^^A mucli injury was occasioned in Provence, France, by a similar cause. May 30, 1841. A ship was struck by one near Gozo, Oct. 14, 1850, wben she foundered, and all on board perisbed, with the exception of one man. The island of Sicily was visited by two waterspouts, attended by a hurricane, Dec. 8, 1851. Five vessels were sunk in Tunis harbour by similar means ISTov. 18, 1855. Major Sherwill made numerous observations on waterspouts in India, where they are fre- quent. One which fell at Dum-Dum, near Calcutta, Oct. 7, 1859, measured 1,500 feet in height, and covered half a square mile with about six inches of water. Watee ToFAifA, or Aqtja Tofana, so named from its inventor, Tofana, the secret poisoner, an Italian woman, who resided at Palermo, and afterwards at IS'aples, about the middle of the 17th century. Many hus- bands died suddenly at Eome in 1569, and suspicion having been excited, a society of young wives was discovered. An old woman named Sparawas the president, and she sup- plied them with small phials, bearing the in- scription " Manna of St. jS'icholas of Barri," by the use of which husbands were removed. Spara and four others were executed ; and Tofana, who manufactured the poison, was dragged from a monastery where she had taken sanctuary, and put to the torture. She confessed to having been instrumental in the deaths of six hundred persons. Watlixg Stbeex, extending from Kent to Cardigan Bay, or probably to the Firth of Forth, one "of the four great roads in South Britain, was constructed by the Eo- mans during their occupation, B.C. 57 — A.D. 418. Wattigities (Battle), between the troops under the duke of Coburg and the French commanded by General Jourdan, com- menced in an affair between the outposts near Avesnes, Oct. 14, 1793. It resulted in the triumph of the republican army, after a loss on each side of about 3,000 men, Oct. 15. Wat Ttlee's Inst7EEECTion-.— One of the collectors of the poll-tax, who had insulted the daughter of a man called Wat the Tyler, at Deptford, was killed by her father on the spot : this took place early in June, 1381. A rising ensued, and the insurgents met on Blackheath June 12. They proceeded to Lon- don, burned the duke of Lancaster's palace, and committed many atrocities, June 13. The Tower was seized; the archbishop of Can- terbiiry and Sir Eobert Hales were executed by them June 14 ; and some of the autho- rities met them in Smithfield, June 15, when the leader, Wat, was killed by William Wal- worth, the lord mayor. A body of armed men, under Sir Eobert KnoUys, suddenly attacked the malcontents, who were quickly- dispersed. WATE-LiifE Pbikcipie. — The system of building ships with contours scientifically adapted to the curves of the waves of the sea was originated by Scott EusseU, who commenced a series of experiments on the 894 subject in 1834. His theory attracted con- siderable attention, and in 1836 the British Association appointed a Committee on Waves, who presented their first report the following year, and continued their labours for several years. The victory of the United States schooner America over Mr. E. Ste- phenson's iron yacht Titania in the grand race of Aug. 28, 1851, established the supe- riority of the principle, which has since been applied in the Great Eastern and other vessels. Wavee (Battle). — The Prussians, under Thielman, engaged the French, under Mar- shal Grouchy, at this place, in Belgium, and prevented them from joining the emperor at Waterloo, June 18, 1815. The battle lasted from four o'clock till midnight, and was re- newed by Thielman on the following morn- ing. Grouchy received orders to retire upon Namur, which he reached on the 20th. Wawz, or Wawee (Battle).— The ad- vanced guard of the Eussians, under General Geismar, was attacked at this place, in Po- land, by the Poles, and forced to fall back upon Dembe-Wielkie. Here the Poles routed them, after fighting from five in the after- noon till ten at night, March 31, 1S31. Wax. — The ancients used wax for torches, for covering the tablets on which they wrote, for encaustic painting, for sealing, and for modelling. Pliny states it was customary for the wealthy Eomans to preserve waxen effigies of their dead relatives, which were exhibited on occasions of great interest, and were borne in procession in the funerals of distinguished members of their family. Apuleius, writing in the 2nd century, men- tions wax candles. The Wax Chandlers* company of London was incorporated in 1484. Seahng-wax, or Spanish wax, has been found on documents dated 1574 and 1620. Gaetano GiuHo Zvimmo (1656 — 1701) intro- duced the art of preparing anatomical models in wax. The wax-tree was imported into this country from China in 1794. A new kind of wax-producing insect was described in 1857 as inhabiting China, where its wax is used for candles, which are said to be much superior to ordinary wax tapers. Provisions for the regulation of the wax- trade were made by 11 Hen. VI. c. 12 (1433), and by 23 Eliz. c. 8 (1581). The duties on imported wax were finally repealed by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 12 (May 8, 1845). WEAViifG. — A writer in the "English Cyclopaedia" (Arts, viii. 797), remarks: — " In all probabiHty weaving was practised before spinning; that is, the combination of reeds, strips of leather, or rude fibres into a material for dress, by a process analogous to that of weaving, preceded the practice of spioning yam from a congeries of elementary fibres." It was practised in Egypt at least as early as B.C. 2000, and in China and India from an equally remote period. The Scriptures contain similes drawn from the art of weaving, and the Homeric poems and other relics of classical antiquity exhibit its universal extension ia the most ancient WED times. "Weavers settled in England a.d. 1132 and 1331, and were much encouraged by- Edward III. (See Calico, Cloth, Cotton, Linen, Silk, Wool, &c.) Wedgewood Waee was invented by Josiab Wedgewood, of Burslem, potter to Queen Charlotte, and patented a.d. 1762. His imitation of the Portland vase, fifty copies of which were produced and sold at fifty guineas each, was executed in 1787. Wednesday received its name from the ancient Saxons, who called it Wodnes-daeg, or Woden's day, after their conversion to Christianity, about a.d. 785. It was ap- pointed a fast-day by the primitive church, on account of its having been the day on which our Saviour was betrayed. Week. — According to Dion Cassius, this division of time was first made by the Egypt- ians, from whom other nations borrowed it. The Jews had a week of days, reckoned from sabbath to sabbath ; a week of years, con- sisting of seven years ; and a week of seven times seven years, reckoned from one jubilee to another. Among the ancient Greeks and Eomans the week was unknown. It was only gradually introduced with Christianity, under the later emperors. Weights. — A national standard of weight was first estabhslied in England A.D. 1197, and a uniformity of weight throughout the king- dom was ordered by 9 Hen. III. c. 25 (1225). Ey 51 Hen. III. st. 1, c. 3 (1266), an English penny, weighing thirty-two wheat corns from the midst of the ear, was made the standard weight. The weight of the pound {q. v.) was regulated by 31 Edw. I. c. 1 (1303), and a uniform weight throughout the realm was ordered by 27 Edw. III. st. 2, c. 10 (1353). By 8 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1429), every city was ordered to have a common balance and weights, for the free use of the inhabitants. Standard weights of brass were ordered to be made and sent to every city and borough by 7 Hen. VII. c. 4 (1490), which was ex- tended and confirmed by 11 Hen. VII. c. 4 (1494). Avoirdupois weight is first men- tioned by 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1532), where it is ordered to be used in the sale of butchers' meat. Uniformity of weights and measures was again enjoined by 16 Charles I. c. 19 (1648). The House of Commons appointed committees in 1758, 1759, and 1790, to exa- mine the best means of securing an accurate standard of weights and measures. By 35 Geo. III. c. 102 (June 22, 1795), the justices at quarter sessions were empowered to ap- point examiners of weights and scales, and in 1814 parliament appointed another com- mittee to consider the question of standard. The prince regent instituted a commission for the same purpose in 1819, which pre- sented reports in 1819, 1820,, and 1821, and procured the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 (June 17, 1824), for estabMshing uniformity of weights and measures. This was amended by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 49 (Aug. 13, 1834), and both acts were repealed by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 63 (Sept. 9, 1835). Troy weight is ordered to be used in sales of bullion and precious stones WEL by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29 (June 14, 1853). Fur- ther provisions for legalizing and preserving the standard were made by 18 & 19 Vict, c. 72 (July 30, 1855), and 22 & 23 Vict. e. 56 (Aug. 13, 1859). {See Measuees and Found.) Weimae, capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, was taken by the French Oct. 14, 1806. The emperors Alex- ander I. of Russia and Napoleon I. were entertained here by the grand-duke Oct. 6 — 14, 1808. The city church was built in 1400, the court theatre in 1825, and the Falk's Institution, for pubhc education, in 1829. The colossal bronze statue to Herder was erected Aug. 25, 1850. Weinsberg (Battle). — Duke Guelph was defeated here in defending his castle in Swabia against the emperor Conrad III., A.D. 1140. The famous Guelph and Ghibel« line factions originated at this battle. Weissenbeeg (Battle). — Matthias Cor- vinus. Icing of Hungary, defeated the Turks at this toAvn of Transylvania, a.d. 1479. Weissenbueg (Alsace) . — Wiirmser forced the French fines at this place Oct. 13, 1793. It was recovered by the French Dec. 27 the same year. Wellington ( Somersetshire) . — The manor, bestowed upon Asser, bishop of Sherborne, by Alfred the Great, was trans- ferred to the diocese of Wells a.d. 910. It occurs as " Walintone " in Domesday Book in 1086. From it the duke of Wellington received his title, May 3, 1814. A lofty column, raised on Blackdown HiU by pubhc subscription, commemorates the battle of Waterloo. Wellington Administeation was formed on the dissolution of the Goderich adminis- tration iq.v.), Jan. 8, 1829. The cabinet was thus constituted : — Duke of "Wellington. Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhurst. President of the Council .. Earl Bathurst. Privy Seal .... Lord Ellenborough. Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Henry Goulburn. Home Secretaiy Sir Robert Peel, Bart. Foreign Secretary Earl of Dudley. Colonial Secretary Mr. "William Huskisson. Board of Control Viscount Melville. Secretary at War "Viscount Palmerston. Duchy of Lancaster Earl of Aberdeen. Master of the Mint Mr. J. C. Herries. Treasurer of the Navy \ and President of the >Mr. Charles Grant. Board of Trade ) Mr. Huskisson resigned May 20, and was followed by the earl of Dudley, Lord Pal- merston, and Mr. Charles Grant. Their places were supplied as follows : — Foreign Secretaiy Earl of Aberdeen. Colonial Secretary Sir George Murray. Treasurer of the Navy ) and President of the VMr. "W. V. Fitzgerald. Board of Trade ) The secretary at war. Sir Henry Hardinge, and the chancellor of the duchy of Lancas- ter, Mr. Charles Arbuthnot, did not receive seats in the cabinet. The duke of Clarence, WEL who remained lord high admiral on the formation of the ministry, resigned office Aug. 12, 1828, when Lord Melville left the Board of Control and became first lord of the Admiralty, and Lord Ellenborough took the Board of Control. Earl Eosslyn became privy seal June 4, 1829, Lord Ellenborough retaining only the Board of Control. Par- liament was dissolved July 24, 1830. The new parHament met Oct. 26, and William TV. dehvered his first speech from the throne Nov. 2. Ministers were beaten by a majority of 233 to 204, on a motion for a select com- mittee on the civil list, Nov. 15, and their resignation was annoxmced in both houses of parliament Nov. 16. {See Geet Adminis- TBATION-.) "Wellington' College (Hampshire), for the support and education of the orphan children of soldiers, was erected at Sand- hurst in honour of the illustrious duke whose name it bears, the funds for the purpose — upwards of £109,000 — having been raised by private subscription. The foundation-stone was laid July 2, 1856, by her Majesty Queen Victoria, who also performed the inaugura- tion ceremony Jan. 29, 1859. Wells. — The art of boring wells was prac- tised in the East at least 4,000 years ago. Abraham's servant encountered Eebekah beside a well, b.c. 1859 (Gen. xxiv.). Da- naus is stated by Pliny to have introduced wells into Greece from Egypt about B.C. 1500. The superstitious veneration of wells and fountains was prohibited by Athelstan in 960, and the immemorial custom of de- corating wells with garlands and flowers on Holy Thursday, or at Whitsuntide, is still preserved at Tissiugton, Wirksworth, and other villages in Derbyshire. Wells (Somersetshire). — This city and borough originated in a collegiate church founded by Ina, king of Wessex, towards the end of the 7th century. It became the seat of a bishopric a.d. 909 (see Bath and Wells), and is chiefly remarkable for its beautiful cathedral, which was founded by Bishop Wulfehn, or Wyff'ehne (923 to 928), and re- stored or refounded by Bishop Jocehne (1206 to 1244) . The two west towers were added about the end of the 14th century. The Yicar's Close was founded by W" alter de Hull, sub-dean, in 1335, and was much en- larged by Ralph de Salopia in 1348. Bishop Beckingtou erected a fine cross in 1450, which was replaced by another in 1780. Weklock (Shropshire), the first town in England the charter of incorporation of which expressly gave it a right to return members to parHament, a privilege conferred by Edward IV. The abbey was founded by Millburga, related to the kings of Mercia, about A.D. 680. The ruins belong to the 13th century. Wesletans. (See Methodists.) Wessex, or the kingdom of the West Saxons, was founded by Cerdic a.d. 519. Western Austealia, comprising nearly one fourth of the entire continent, was esta- blished under the name of the Swan Eiver WES settlement, a.d. 1829. An extensive bed of coal was discovered here by Dr. Van Sommer in 1847. At the request of the colonists, convicts were sent out to supply the labour market in 1849. The colony received a representative constitution Aug. 5, 1850. Westeen Chuech was also called the Latin or Roman church. Milman (Lat. Christ, vol. ii. book iv. ch. 9, p. 203) re- marks : "In the 8th century Rome suddenly, as it were, burst the bonds of her connection with the older state of things, disjoined her- self for ever from the effete and hopeless East, and placed herself at the head of the rude as yet, and dimly descried and remote, but more promising and vigorous civilization of the West. The Byzantine empire became a separate world, Greek Christianity a sepa- rate rehgion. The AVest, after some struggle, created its own empire : its natives formed an independent system, either of warring or of confederate nations. Latin Christianity was the hfe, the principle of union, of all the West ; its centre, papal Rome." Differences of opinion between the Church of Rome and the church at Constantinople (see Greek Chuech) existed from a very early period. The Arian controversy in the 4th century ; the disputes concerning the Fdioque in the 6th century ; the Monothelite controversy in the 7th century ; and the Iconoclast controversy early in the 8th century, paved the way for the final separation which occurred a.d. 876. (For the hst of bishops, nee Popes ; and for its history, see Roman Catholics, Rome, &e.) Westeen Empiee. — The division of the Roman territory into the Eastern and Western empires was first effected by Valentinian I., a.d. 364, and was completed by Arcadius and Honorius in 395. 378. May. The Alemanni invade the Western empire and are defeated by Gratian, near Argeutaria, or Colm.ar, in Alsace. 388. Aug. 25. Gratian is assassinated at Lyons by Andragathius, general of the usurper Maximus. 387. Maximus invades Italy and expels Valen- tuiian II., who is in conseriuence assisted by Theodosius I. 388. Maximus is defeated by Theodosius I. at Aquileia, and is beheaded by the army. 392. May 15. Aigobastes the Frank murders Valentinian II., and bestows the purple upon the rhetorician Eugenius. 394. Sept. 6. Theodosius I. defeats and beheads Eugenius on the plains of Aquileia. Argo- bastes escapes capture by suicide, and the two empires are reunited under Theodosius I., or the Great. 395. Jan. 17. Death of Theodosius I., whose do- minions are again divided, the Western empire falling to his youngest son Ho- norius, aged eleven years, who governs under the regency of his uncle Stilicho. The seat of government is removed to Milan. 400. Alaric invades Italy. 403. He expels Honorius from Milaij. March 29. He sustains a severe defeat froln Stilicho at PoUentia (q. v.). 404. Honorius celebrates a pompous triumph at Kome, and removes his court to iUvyeiiua. WES WES 406. Radagaisus invades Italy at the head of an immense army of German barbarians, and is defeated by Stilicho. 408. Aug. 23. Fall and execution of Stilicho. Alaric besieges Rome {q. v.). 409. The Goths and Bomans elect Attalus em- peror. 411. He is degraded by Alaric. 412. A peace is concluded between Honorius and Adolpbus, king of the Goths. 423. On the death of Honorius, his throne is usurped by the state secretary, John. 431. A rebellion in Africa under Boniface is sup- pressed. 451. The Huns under Attila invade the Western empire. 455. March 16. Valentin ian III. is assassinated by the partisans ofthe senator Maximus, whose ■wife he had debauched. June 12. The Van- dals under Genseric invade Italy at the in- vitation of the empress Eudoxia, widow of Valentiuian Til., and wife of Maximus. Maximus is stoned to death by the infu- riated Romans. 461. Majorian is deposed by Bicimer, general of the barbarians, who elevates Libius Severus to the throne, and governs in his name. 467. April 12. On the death of Libius Severus, Leo I. of Constantinople confers the West- em empire upon Anthemius. 472. Aug. 20. Death of Ricimer. 476. Odoacer takes Rome and compels Augustulus to abdicate, thus terminating the Western empire. EMPEROBS OF THE WEST. A.D. Valentinian 1 364 Valentinian I. and Gratian 367 Gratian and Valen- tinian II 375 Valentinian II. alone 383 Eugeuius 392 Theodoslus I., or the Great 394 Honorius 395 John 423 A.D. Valentinian III 425 Maximus 455 Avitus 455 Majorian 457 Libius Severus 461 Authemius 467 Olybrius 472 Glycerius 473 Julius Nepos 474 Romulus, called Au- gustulus 476 West Indies, or Colttmbiak" Akchi- PEiiAGO (Atlantic Ocean). — These islands were for the most part discovered by Colum- bus, who first sighted American land at San Salvador, one of the Bahamas, Oct. 11, 1492, and are consequently termed the Columbian Archipelago. Columbus called them the West Indies, because he believed that he had simply discovered a western passage to Hindostan, and for the same reason the name was originally apphed to the whole of America. {See Antilles, Bahamas, Cuba, Domingo, St , Guadaloupe, Jamaica, Porto Kico, Trinidad, &c.) Westmeath (Ireland) originally formed part of the kingdom of Meath, was included m the county palatine granted by Henry II. to Hugh de Lacy, a.d. 1173. It was sepa- rated from Eastmeath in 1543, and Long- ford was detached from it in 1569. The abbey of Multifernan near Tristernagh was in the possession of the Franciscan friars tiU 1641, notwithstanding the suppression of monasteries by Henry VIII. An old Danish fort at Ballymore was fortified by the rebels and held in the wars of 1641 and 1688. Westminster (Middlesex). — This city, which now joins London, was anciently known as Thorney Island, and received its present name from the Benedictine monas- tery of Sebert. (See Westminster Abbey.) The palace, which was the principal resi- dence of the English sovereigns from Edward the Confessor to Edward VI., was destroyed by fire a.d. 1512. St. Stephen's chapel, foundedby King Stephen in 1150, and rebuilt between 1320 and 1352, was, until its destruc- tion by fire, Oct. 16, 1834, the seat of the English parliament. (See Houses op Par- liament.) Westminster was first repre- sented in parhament in 1547. A procla- mation for cleansing its streets was pub- lished March 29, 1672. _ The Westminster Hospital was founded in 1719. Councils were held at Westminster, Dec. 7, 1141 ; May 26, 1162 ; in 1173 ; and April 29, 1229. Westminster (Bishopric). — Henry VIII. erected the see of Westminster by letters patent, dated Dec. 17, 1540, and appointed Thomas Thirlby the first bishop. Thirlby resigned the office March 29, 1550, when the see was dissolved and re-united to London by Edward VI. Pius IX.'s bull for esta- Wishing a Koman CathoHe hierarchy in Great Britain, dated Sept. 30, 1850, erected Westminster into an archbishopric under Cardinal Wiseman, who issued his first pastoral letter Oct. 7. Westminster (Treaties). — One was con- cluded between Henry VIII. and Francis I., April 30, 1527. It provided for carrying on the war in the Netherlands against the emperor, the liberation of the French princes, and the payment of the debt due to England. Henry VIII. renounced his claim to the French throne, on condition of receiving a pension of 50,000 gold crowns. It was modified by another treaty signed May 29. Wolsey went to France in July, and concluded the treaty of Amiens Aug. 18. This confirmed and extended the treaty of Westminster. A treaty was concluded at Westminster with France, Feb. 3, 1659; vrith Holland, Feb. 19, 1674; and an alli- ance was formed with Prussia Nov. 29, 1742. Westminster Abbey. — According to tra- dition, St. Peter visited Britain a.d. 65, and founded a church on Thorney Isle, which formed the origin of Westminster Abbey. Another account is that it occupies the site of a Koman temple of Apollo, destroyed by an earthquake during the reign of Antoninus Pius; but no authentic record places its erection earher than about 604, when Sebert, king of Essex, embraced Christianity, and founded a church in honour of God and St. Peter, to the west of London. This church having fallen into decay, was restored by Edgar, soon after his accession, in 957, at the request of St. Dunstan, and was rebuilt by Edward the Confessor between 1050 and Dec. 28, 1065, when the new building was consecrated. Henry III. commenced the erection of additional buildings May 16, 1220, and continued the enlargement until nearly the end of his long reign, the new abbey being opened Oct. 13, 1269. Edward I. deposited the celebrated Scotch coronation 3 M WES WES stone and otlier trophies of tlie Scottish kingdom in the abbey in 1297 ; and it was partially destroyed by fire March 29, 1298. A murder was committed in the church Aug. 11, 1378, in consequence of which it was closed for four months. The great western window was set up in 1490. The beautiful chapel of Henry VII. was founded by that sovereign Jan. 24, 1503, and on his death in 1509 became his place of sepulture. Henry YIII. dissolved the abbey Jan. 16, 1540, and restored it as a cathedral church the 17th of December following. Queen Mary refounded the monastery of West- miQster, Sept. 7, 1556. Elizabeth again re- moved the monks, July 12, 1559, and made the abbey a coUegiate church, May 21, 1560. The puritan parliament appointed a com- mittee to demolish all monuments of super- stition and idolatry in this church, April 24, 1643, and it is said to have been used as a military barrack the same year. The House of Commons voted a sum^ of money for the repair and restoration of Westminster Abbey in 1697, and employed Sir Christopher Wren to carry out the proposed reparation. The erection of the west front was commenced in 1715, the great rose window was finished in 1722, and the towers were completed in 1735. A fire which broke out in the roof of the tower July 9, 1803, occasioned serious injury to the woodwork of the choir. Henry the Seventh's Chapel was restored between 1S09 and 1S22 by Benjamin Wyatt. Ano- ther fire occurred April 27, 1829, but was extinguished before it had had time to do much damage. The woodwork of the choir was restored in 1847. Evening services were first celebrated in Westminster Abbey in January, 1858. Westmixstek Assemblt. (See AssEir- BLT OF Divines.) "V\ ESTiiixsTEE Beid&e. — The first bridge at Westminster, founded Jan. 29, 1739, was bunt from the designs of Charles Labelye, a Swiss. It was opened Nov. 18, 1750, and consisted of fifteen arches, containing, according to the architect's report, twice the amount of stone used in St. Paul's ca- thedral. Owing to the sinking of the piles, the bridge was closed to carriages Aug. 15, 1846, and to foot-passengers Aug. 27, and it was lightened of much of its stonework and reduced in height before it was again opened. These measures having proved ineifectual, a local act of parliament was passed in 1850 for the construction of a temporary bridge, but was never carried into eff'ect. By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853), the man- agement of the bridge was transferred to the Commissioners of Works and Pubhe Buildings, who were authorized to remove it and erect a new one. The design of Thomas Page was accepted; and in May, 1854, the works commenced, under an agree- ment that they should be completed in three years. Owing to the proposed erection of new government offices at Westminster, and the consequent alterations of plan that might be necessary, they were suspended, March 20, 1856. They were, howeyer, re- newed the following year, and in 1860 a portion of the bridge was opened for carriage traffic. The expense of the bridge up to July, 1861, was £316,936, and a further outlay of £60,692 was voted by parliament. It consists of seven iron arches, and is eighty-five feet wide. It was formally opened throughout May 24, 1862. Westiiinstee Hall. — This fine haU, said to be, with the single exception of the haU of justice at Padua, the largest room in Europe which is not supported by pillars, was founded by William Rufus, a.d. 1097. In 1224 it was made the permanent seat of the English law courts, and in 1397 it waa repaired by Richard II. A fire which broke out Feb. 20, 1631, was checked before it had time to extend its ravages. The haU was repaired at a cost of £13,000 in 1802. Westminster School, or St. Petek's College (Westminster). — Henry VIII. foimded an educational establishment in connection with the abbey of Westminster about A.D. 1540. The present institution was founded by Queen EHzabeth in 1560. The dormitory was built by the earl of Burlington in 1722. William Camden, the antiquary, was master of this school from 1593 to 1599, and Dr. Richard Busby from 163S to 1695. Westmoreland (England), partly occu- pied by the Brigantines, was comprised in the Ifaxima Ccesariensis of the Romans, after the subjugation of South Britain, about A.D. 204. It was conquered by the Angles of Northumbria about 685. William I. divided it between two of his vassals in 1068. It had long been an object of con- tention between England and Scotland ; and the king of Scotland, in consideration of a grant of lands in Cumberland and ISTorth- umberland, abandoned his claim to the county in 1237. Westphalia (Germany). — The ancient duchy of Westphaha was separated from western Saxony by Frederick I. a.d. 1180. In 1613 Prussia obtained possession of part of the country, and in 1801 it was ceded to the duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. Napoleon I. erected Westphalia into a kingdom, under his brother Jerome, Aug. 18, 1806. Bruns- wick -Wolfenbiittel, Hesse-Cassel, and Mag- deburg were annexed by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807 ; and Hanover, March 16, 1810. This kingdom was overthrown by the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, and 19, 1813 ; and the following year its constituent provinces were restored to their former possessors. Westphalia (Treaty). — The name of Public Peace of Westphalia was given to a compact made a.d. 1371, between the em- peror Charles IV. and the States of the empire, for maintaining the peace of Ger- many. The celebrated treaty of Westphalia, which terminated the Thirty Years' war,' was signed at Miinster and Osnaburg by the plenipotentiaries of France, Germany, and Sweden, Oct. 24, 1648. By this treaty France acquired Alsace, and Sweden Pomerania, Riigen, Bremen, and Verden j and the inde- WEX pendence of Holland and Switzerland was formally recognized. Wexford (Ireland), cMef town of the county of the same name, was founded by the Danes, and surrendered to Fitzstephen, the English adventurer, a.d. 1169. It ob- tained a charter in 1318. A parhament was held here by the earl of Desmond in 1463. James I. confirmed and extended its charter in 1608. The town was seized by the insur- gents, who received their principal foreign supphes at its port, in 1641. Cromwell having reduced it, military execution was in- flicted upon the inhabitants in 1649. It was garrisoned by the troops of William III. in 1688, and was taken hj the rebels in 1798. St. Selsker Abbey was founded about 1190. Weymouth (Dorsetshire), an important commercial place in the 14th century, was united with the borough of Melcombe Eegis A.D. 1571. Kalph Allen, of Bath, brought it into repute as a bathing-place about 1763. George III. paid his first visit to the place July 16, 1789. A naval fete and Dutch fair were got up for the entertaiament of the king and queen, Sept. 29, 1804. WHALEBOifE. — Braeton and Britton, who flourished during the 12th century, state that it was an ancient feudal right of the queen of England to claim the tail of every whale caught on the British coast ; but the earhest mention of whalebone, which is contained in the head of the animal, occurs a.d. 1593, when some English sailors brought a large number of fins, as the pieces of baleen are erroneously called, from Cape Breton. A riding-whip of whalebone, possessed by Queen Ehzabeth, is mentioned as a valuable article. The fiirst instance of the bone being systematically sought for as an article of commerce occurs in 1617 ; and by 9 & 10 Wm. III. c. 23 (1698), the importation of ready-cut whalebone was prohibited. Lau- rence Kortwright patented certain improve- ments in the preparation of this useful material in March, 1841. Whale-fisheet. — The capture of the whale was practised by the Norwegians as early as a.d. 887, and was systematically pursued as a calling by the Biseayans during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. By 17 Edw. II. c. 11 (1324), the king was entitled to all whales and great sturgeons taken in British seas; and in 1388 Edward III. re- warded Peter Bayune for his expense in providing a fleet for the royal use, by granting him a tax of £6 on every whale carried into the port of Biarritz. The Dutch discovered the abundance of whales in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen in 1596, and thus opened the way for a profitable fishery by the merchants of HoUand iu the northern seas. In 1611 the first Eng- lish whahng exxjedition sailed from HuU, which remained for a long period the cen- tre of the English whale-fishery. In 1614 the Dutch trade was monopohzed by a single company, but in 1642 it was thrown open, with immense benefit to the national com- merce of Holland. The American whale- WHI fishery commenced in 1690, and the fishery of the Enghsh South- Sea Company in 1724. The harpoon-gun was invented in 1731. Se- veral acts of parhament have been passed for the encouragement of the whale-fisheries, the chief being 22 Geo. II. c. 45 (1749). Louis XVI. revived the French fishery in 1784. Owing to the decreasing demand for whale oils, in consequence of the use of gas and the scarcity of fish, the whaling trade is declining. Wheat. (See Beead, Coen-, &c.) Wheelbaebow. — This simple vehicle is said to have been invented by Blaise Pascal, the geometrician (1623—1662). Wheels.— The first wheels were, doubt- less, plain disks of wood, probably composed of segments of the circular boles of trees. The custom of using an iron tire was prac- tised by the Eomans, and wheels entirely of metal were sometimes employed in classic war-chariots. The wheel has been variously apphed by different nations as an instrument of punishment. The Greeks bound the cri- minal to the circumference, and whirled him round until death was the result. Breaking on the wheel was introduced in Germany, and was legally adopted in France by Fran- cis I. in 1534. Whig-. (See Toet.) Whist. — This game originated ia England, and is mentioned as a common pastime A.D. 1680, though no regular science was usual in playing it till about 1730, when it was studied by a card -party that met at the Crown coffee-house, in Bedford Eow. Hoyle's celebrated work flrst appeared in 1743, when he taught the game at a guinea a lesson. The name is said to have originated in the silence which the intricacy of the game renders indispensable. Whitby (Yorkshire) probably took its rise from the abbey founded by Oswy, king of Forthumbria, a.d. 658. The abbey and town were both destroyed by the Danes about 867. They were restored after the Norman conquest. he alum-works in the neigh- bourhood raised the port to some distinction in the reign of Ehzabeth. The chapel of ease was erected in 1788. The central tower of the abbey ruins fell to the ground in 1830. Whitebait Dinnees. — The annual minis- terial whitebait dinner is said to have origin- ated about A.D. 1721, when Captain Perry was employed in repairing Dagenham Breach, in Essex, and a body of parhament- ary commissioners was appointed to super- intend his labours. These gentlemen held a board meeting every year at the Breach House, and concluded their business pro- ceedings by a fish dinner, to which, on one occasion, they invited the great commoner Wilham Pitt, The experiment proved very successful, and became a precedent for a similar annual festival, the scene of which was afterwards removed to Greenwich. White-boys, or Boxtghaleen Bawiits. — This Irish party derives its name from the white shirt wmch its members wore over 3 K 2 WHI their dress during their depredations. The society was formed in October, 1761, and in 1762 a military force under Lord Drogheda was sent for its suppression. Father Nicholas Sheehy, one of their most violent leaders, was executed at Clonmel, March 15, 1766. In 1786 another Eoraan Cathohc party ap- peared, known as the Right-boys, who also proved very dangerous. The White-boys were again in insurrection in 1822, when they committed many shocking outrages. Whitefeiaes (London) . — This precinct of London, situated between Fleet Street and the Thames, derived its name from the White Friars' church of the Carmehtes (q. v.), which was founded here by Sir Eichard Grey a.d. 1241. It was one of the most notorious of the old London sanctu- aries, and, under the slang name Alsatia, was the resort of the lowest dregs of society. Its privileges as a sanctuary were confirmed and enlarged by a special charter in 1608. WTiitefriars Theatre was built about 1580, and was pulled down in 1613. Sahsbury- court Theatre was erected near the original site in 1629, and was destroved by the Puri- tans March 24, 1649; and the Duke's The- atre, in Dorset Gardens, which supphed the place of the two former edifices, was'opened Nov. 9, 1671, and finally removed soon after 1720. Whitehall (London). — The fiirst palace on the site of the modern "Uliitehall was erected by Hubert de Burgh, the celebrated chamberlain of King John and chief justi- ciary of England under Henry III., who bequeathed it on his death, in 1243, to the convent of the Black Friars in Holbom. In 1248 it was purchased by Walter de Grey, archbishop of York, who made it the town palace of that see, on which account it was called York Place. Its magnificence was greatly increased by Cardinal Wolsey, who resigned it toHenry Ylll.by a charter dated Feb. 7, 1530, when its name was changed to Whitehall, and the building became the regular royal palace of the English sovereigns. The old banque ting-house was destroyed by fire Tuesday, Jan. 12, 1619, and the present edifice, commenced by Inigo Jones June 1, 1619, was completed March 31, 1622. The ceiling was painted abroad by Eubens in 1635. "^Tiitehall is chiefly famous in history as the scene of the execution of Charles I., Jan. 30, 1649. The scaflFold was erected in the street, and, according to some contemporary authors, a passage was opened through the wall of the palace for the egress of the king. Grinling Gib- bons' statue of James II. was erected Dec. 31, 1686. A considerable portion of the old palace was destroyed by a fire which broke out April 10, 1691, and it was at length completely destroyed by a fire which com- menced Tuesday, Jan. 4, 1698, and lasted seventeen hours. The Banqueting-house was converted into a chapel by George I. in 1724, and Holbein's Gate was removed to make room for Parliament Street, in August, 1759. The fine facade of the Treasury, Whitehall, 900 WHI opposite the Banqueting-house, was erected by Sir Charles Barry in 1847. White Hats. — The name given to some extreme democrats who formed a party at Ghent, a.d. 1377. Headed by Hyons, they revolted against Count Louis in 1378, and took Bruges. Hyons was poisoned at Damme the same year, and through the mediation of Philip I., duke of Burgundy, a peace was concluded in December, 1379. The struggle, renewed in 1380, was not finally terminated until Philip II. of Burgundy obtained power in 1384. Whitehavest (Cumberland) consisted of half a dozen fishermen's huts a.d. 1566. It was attacked by the pirate Paul Jonea in 1778. White Pes-itents. (See Bianchi.) White Plains (Battle). — The Americans were defeated at this place, near New York, by the Enghsh imder General Howe, Oct. 28, 1776. White Sheep. — A tribe of Turkomans, so called from the figure on their banner, led by their chief Azan Hasoun, acquired possession of western Persia a.d. 1468. They were conquered by Shah Ismail in 1501. White Towee. — This most celebrated portion of the Tower of London (q.v.) was erected by William I. about a.d. 1078, and designed by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, It measures 116 feet by 96, and is 92 feet in height. Whitfieldites, or Lady Huntingdon's Connection, the followers of the Rev. George Wliitfield, or Whitefield, who waa born at the Bell inn, Gloucester, Dec. 16, 1714. In 1732 he was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, as a servitor, and here he formed an intimacy with the brothers John and Charles Wesley, who were attracting attention from the strictness of their hfe. In 1736 he was ordained a deacon of the established church, and in a short time his eloquence created intense excitement in London and the principal provincial cities in the south of England. In December, 1737, he accompanied the Wesleys on a missionary tour to Georgia; and in 1738 he returned for the purpose of being admitted to priest's orders, and to coUect funds for the support of the rehgious eflforts being made in Ame- rica. During this visit the orthodox clergy excluded him from their pulpits, in conse- quence of which he commenced preaching in the open air to the Bristol coUiers, and in August, 1739, he returned to Georgia, where he remained two years. On his re- turn he separated from the Wesleys, in con- sequence of their rejection of Calvinism, and in June, 1741, his admirers built him a large temporary shed in Moorfields, which he called the Tabernacle. In August, 1744, he made a third voyage to America, where he remained nearly four years, after which he was appointed chaplain to the countess of Huntingdon, at whose suggestion the Taber- nacle was rebuilt, and opened in June, 1755. The Tabernacle in the Tottenham Court Road WHI WIG was opened in Nov. , 1756 ; and in 1767 Lady- Huntingdon established a college for the edu- cation of young ministers in the doctrines of Calvinistic Methodism at Trevecca, in South Wales. Whitfield's life was devoted to long and arduous preaching excursions through England, Scotland, and Ireland. He made seven voyages to America, and died at New- bury, in New England, Sept. 29, 1770. The first ordination of Whitfieldite ministers took place in 1783, when the connection seceded from the Church of England, of which, how- ever, it retained the forms and most of the doctrines, the chief difference being the ab- sence of episcopacy. Rules for the govern- ment of the sect were prepared in 1785. The countess of Huntingdon, from whom the followers of Whitfield derive the name by which ^they are best known, died June 17, 1791. Whitsuntide. — The feast of Whitsunday, or Whitesunday, is celebrated in the Chris- tian churches as commemorative of the day of Pentecost {q.v.), in which the apostles received the Holy G-host. It was devoted in the primitive church to the solemnization of baptisms, and derives its name from the white linen with which the recipients of that ordi- nance were clad. Whittington CoLiEGE. — ^WJuttington's College, or God's House, was originally founded on College Hill, Thames Street, by Sir Eichard Whitington, a.d. 1421, for the maintenance of twenty-nine free mercers of London and thirty out-pensioners. It was removed to Highgate in 1808. WiBBANDUNE (Battle) .—Ceaulin, king of Wessex, defeated Ethelbert, king of Kent, at this place, supposed to be Wimbledon, A.D. 568. WiCKLiFEiTES. (See Wtclieeites.) WiCKLOw (Ireland), the chief town of the county of that name, supposed to have been a naval station of the Danes, is built on the site of a castle erected by the Anglo- Norman invader Maurice Fitzgerald, about A.D. 1169. The town was burned by the Irish in 1310, and was fortified by Eitzwihiam in 1375. Its corporate rights were confirmed by a charter of James I. in 1613. A Fran- ciscan friary, the ruins of which remain, was founded in the reign of Henry III. The church of the Wicklow union has a tower and a copper cupola, erected in 1777. WiDDiJsr (Turkey), taken from the Turks by John Hunniades, the Hungarian captain- general, A.D. 1454, was captured by Prince Louis of Baden in 1689, and was recovered by the vizier Mustai^ha Kioprili in 1690. It was invested in 1737 by the Austrians, who soon abandoned the siege ; and it was simi- larly threatened and abandoned in 1790. The pasha, Osman-Paswan-Ogli, revolted and declared himself independent in 1792. The fortifications were greatly strengthened by the Turks in 1853 and 1854. Widows and Widowees. — It appears to have been customary in the East for a man to marry the widow of his deceased brother, in the event of his dying childless, as early as B.C. 1727, when Onan married the wife of his brother Er (Gen. xxxviii. 8), and it was afterwards made a law by Moses, b.c. 1451 (Deut. XXV. 5 — 10). Kindness to widows formed an important part of the good deeds required from the Jews. Their rights were regulated in England by 9 Hen. III. c. 7 (1225) ; and by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 10 (1670), the widow of an intestate husband receiving half of his personal property, unless she have children by him surviving, in which case her portion is one-third. By 6 & 7 Win. III. c. 6 (1695), various taxes were imposed upon childless widowers, according to their rank in life, the rates being the same as were demanded from bachelors (g.v.). The Widows' Fund, for the widows of Protestant dissenting ministers, was esta- blished in 1733, the Widows' Friend Society in 1808, and the Society for the Eehef of Distressed Widows in 1823. The Hindoo custom of sutteeism, or burning the widow with the body of her dead husband, which is of great antiquity, and is referred to by the G-reek writers of the age of Alex- ander, was declared illegal by the governor- general. Lord Wilham Bentinck, Dec. 14, 1829. (See Dowek.) Wiesbaden, or Wisbaden (Germany), believed to be the Aquse Mattiacse or Pontes Mattiaci of the Eomans, was made the residence of the dukes of Nassau a.d. 1820. In comphance with popular demand, feudal rights were abolished March 6, 1848. The fine Greek chapel was erected by the duke, with a statue to his wife, in 1855. Wiesloch (Battle). — The aUied army, under Count Mansfeldt, defeated the Impe- riaUsts, commanded by TiUy, at this place in Germany, April 29, 1622. WiGAN (Lancashire) received a royal charter a.d. 1246, and returned members to parhament in 1295. The earl of Derby was defeated here by the parliamentarian colonel Eobert LUburne, Aug. 25, 1651. It was visited by the Pretender on his southward march in 1745. The town-hall was built in 1720, St. George's Church in 1781, the Com- mercial Hall in 1816, and St. Catherine's Church in 1841. Wight, Isle oe (Hampshire) . — This island, known to the Eomans as Vecta or Vectis, and to the ancient Britons as Guith or Guict, was conquered by Titus Vespa- sian, A.D. 43, and was seized by Cerdie, king of Wessex, in 530. Wulfhere, king of Mercia, subdued it in 661 ; but in 686 it was reunited to Wessex by CeadwaUa, who com- pelled the inhabitants to embrace Christianity, which they had not previously received, and disgraced his victory by many acts of cruelty. The Danes took it in 787, during their first invasion of Britain, and converted it into a magazine for the spoils taken from the Saxons. They frequently ravaged the is- land, especially in 897, 998, 1001, and 1048. In 1052 it was devastated by Godwin, earl of Kent, in revenge for his banishment by Edward the Confessor, and in 1066 it was invaded by Tostig, earl of Northumber- 901 WIG land, at the instigation of William I. Ed- ward I. purchased the island in 1293, and in 134iO it was attacked by the French, who were driven to their ships by the islanders. They returned in 1377, and committed great devastations ; but failed in an attempted siege of Carisbrook Castle, which was gal- lantly defended by Sir Hugh Tyrrel. In 1445 Henry VI. crowned Henry Beauchamp, duke of Warwick, king of the Isle of Wight. The dignity was merely titular, and con- j veyed no regal authority, and on the duke's death without issue, soon after his corona- tion, the title was discontinued. In 1545 the French made another unsuccessful at- tempt on the island, which was the last occa- sion of its suiFeriDg from foreign invasion. The Isle of Wight suffered considerably during the civil wars of Charles I., who was imprisoned at Carisbrook Castle {q.v.). In 1671 Charles II. visited the island, and it is a favourite resort of Queen Victoria. (See OsBOEN-E House.) The house of in- dustry, for the indigent poor of the island, was established in 1770. Parkhurst prison was founded as a military hospital and barracks in 1778, and received its first con- victs Dec. 26, 1838. The salary of £1,300 per annvim, formerly attached to the go- vernorship of the Isle of Wight, ceased in 1841. Wigs. — The Egyptians, Greeks, and Ko- mans were all familiar with the use of wigs, either coveriog the whole head, or merely the front, and made of wool, goats' hair, and other materials. Periwigs were introduced at Eome during the imperial sera. Wigs are said to have been first worn in England during the reign of Stephen. Long periwigs were introduced in France about a.d. 1529, and in 1595 it was \msafe for children to walk out alone in this country, as they were hable to be robbed of their hair for the vrig-makers. Ladies' wigs are mentioned in 1608. Charles II. introduced enormous perukes, which it was fashionable to comb in pubhc, as mentioned by Kfihgrew in 1663. Wigs with immense toupees are first alluded to in 1731, and were rendered popular by I the Macaroni Club in 1772. After under- going various modifications, the fashion of \ wearing wigs in preference to the natural hair was abandoned about the end of the 18th century. Wild Beggars. {See Guetjx.) William and Maet. — This vessel, plying regularly between Bristol and Waterford, struck on the rocks called the Willeys, near the Holmes Ughthouse, about eleven o'clock at night, Oct. 26, 1817, and sunk in a quar- ter of an hour, carrying down with her, of sixty souls on board, all save nine persons, who escaped in a boat and landed a few miles from Cardiff. William the Fiest, the illegitimate son of Eobert I., duke of Normandy, was born at Falaise a.d. 1029. He succeeded his father as WiUiam II., duke of Normandy, iu 1035, and married Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, iu 1054. 902 WIL They had four sons and five or six daughters. Eobert, the eldest, born in K)56, was sur- named Curthose, and became duke of Nor- mandy in 1087. His brother, WiUiam II. of England, waged war against him, and impri- soned him in Cardiff Castle, where he med Feb. 10, 1135. Of WiUiam the First's other chUdren, William {see William II.) and Henry {see Heney II.) became kings of England. Richard died young ; and of hia daughters, CecUia, Adeliza, MatUda, Con- stance, Adela, and probably Gundred, but httle is known. WiUiam I., having laid claim to the Enghsh crown, landed on the coast of Sussex, defeated Harold II. at the battle of Hastings {q. v.), Oct. 14, 1066, and was crowned king at Westminster Dec. 25. His queen, MatUda, arrived in England in 1068, and was crowned on Whitsunday, May 11. She died Nov. 2, 10S3, and was buried at Caen. WiUiam I. died at Eouen Sept. 8 or 9, 1087, and was buried at Caen. He was surnamed the Conqueror. William the Second, the third son of WiUiam I. and his wife MatUda, was born about A.D. 1060 ; succeeded on the death of his father, and was crowned Sunday, Sept. 26, 1087. He was kUled in the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100, and was buried at Winchester. WiUiam II., who never married, was sur- named Eufus, ti-om the colour of his hair. William the Thied, son of WiUiam II., stadtholder of HoUand and Zealand, and Maiy, daughter of Charles I. of England, was born at the Hague, Nov. 4, 1650. He was made stadtholder of HoUand and Zea- land in July, 1672. WiUiam married Mary, daughter of James, duke of York, afterwarda James II. of England, Nov. 4, 1677. At the Revolution the crown was offered by the Convention to WiUiam and Mary, who be- came king and queen of England Feb. 13, 1689, and were crowned April 11. They reigned jointly untU the death of Mary, which took place Dee. 28, 1694. She was buried at Westminster, March 5, 1695. Wil- ham III. died at Kensington, March 8, 1702, and was buried at Westaiinster AprU 12. WUham and Mary left no children. William the Foueth, duke of Clarence, the third son of George III., was born Aug. 21, 1765. He married the princess AmeUa Adelaide Theresa of Saxe-Meiningen, July 11, 1818, and succeeded his brother, George IV., asking of England, June 26, 1830. The coronation took place Sept. 8, 1831. WiUiam IV. died at Windsor, June 20, 1837, and was buried there July 8. His queen, who survived him, died Dec. 2, 1849. They had but one child, a daughter (born March 27, 1819), who died in infancy. Wills. — Testamentary arrangements of property are of immemorial antiquity, and appear to be referred to by Moses, who states that Jacob bequeathed to Joseph a portion above his brethren, B.C. 1689 (Gen. xlviii. 22) . Solon is said to have introduced wUls into Greece b.c. 594; and they were first regulated at Eome by the laws of the Twelve Tables, b.c. 430. Codicils were in- WIL WIN troduced by Trebatius Testa B.C. 31. Eoman wills were required by law to be in Latin until A.D. 439, when they were allowed in Greek ; and the practice of making wills was established by the Eomans among the Teu- tonic nations. Lands were devisable by wills in this country before the Conquest; and the privilege of making wills was specially sanctioned by Henry I. in 1100. Richard II. made a vrill in 1399, which is regarded as the first royal will on record, though it is as- serted that similar documents were prepared by previous sovereigns. Testamentary power of freehold land was established by the Sta- tute of Wills, 32 HenVIII. c. 1 (1540), which was explained and confirmed by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1543). By 29 Charles II. c. 3, s. 5 (1676), wills of land are required to be in writing, signed by the testator, and attested and subscribed by three or four witnesses. The royal power to make wills is defined by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88, s. 10 (July 28, 1800). All the laws respecting wills and testaments were amended and consohdated by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26 (July 3, 1837), which was amended by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 24 (June 17, 1852). {See Execu- TOES, MOKTMAIN", PrOBATE CoUBT, &C.) Wilmington Administbation. — The earl of Wilmington succeeded SirEobert Walpole as first lord of the treasury Feb. 16, 1742. The cabinet was thus constituted : — Treasury Earl of Wilmington, Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. • President of the Council. .Earl of Harrington. Pi-ivy Seal Lord Gower. Chancellor of Exchequer { ^^l^^^t"'"''"^' ^°'** Piincipal Secretaries off Duke of Nev/castle and State \ Lord Carteret. , , . , , f Earl of Winchelsea and Admiralty | Nottingham. Ordnance , ..Duke of Argyll. The earl of Wilmington died July 26, 1743, and a new ministry was formed by Mr. Pel- ham. {See Pelham Adminisieation.) WiLNA. {See Vilna.) Wilton (Wiltshire), formerly capital of the Saxon kingdom of Wessex, was the scene of a victory gained over the Danes by Alfred, A.D. 871. It was plundered and burned by the Danes in 1003. By the dismemberment of Sherborne, in 909, it became the seat of a bishopric, which continued till about 1045. A new church was erected in 1844. Wimbledon (Battle). {See Wibban- DUNE.) Winchelsea (Sussex). — It is not knovm whether this town existed in the time of the Eomans, though it is mentioned as an im- Sortant place under the Saxons, Under the ^orman sovereigns, Winchelsea became one of the chief ports for communication with France, and it was added to the Cinque Ports March 27, 1191, Much injury was done to the town by severe storms and inundations in 1236, and Oct. 1, 1250 ; and in 1266 it was almost ruined by the severity with which Prince Edward suppressed the frequent pira- cies of which the inhabitants were guilty. The old town was finally destroyed by an inundation in 1287, in consequence of which the king granted a charter for the erection of a new port in the adjacent manor of Iham. Edward III. and the Black Prince defeated the Spanish in a sea-fight off the modem tovra of Winchelsea, Aug. 29, 1350. The town was burned by the French in 1377, and March 15, 1380. In 1404 the walls were re- paired, and in 1449 the French again landed, and burned the place. Camber Castle, two miles north-east of Winchelsea, was built by Henry VIII. in 1539, In 1582 the town is mentioned as already in a state of decay, and it has lost all trace of its former im- portance. WiNCHESTEE (Bishopric). — Birinus was appointed first bishop of the West Saxona at Dorchester, by Cynegils, king of Wessex, A.D. 635. In 650 the diocese was divided into two sees, one of which was located at Win- chester, and in 678 the sees were re-united and settled in Winchester. In 705 another division occurred, part of the diocese being erected into a new bishopric centred at Sher- borne {q.v.), and the remainder being in- trusted to Daniel, who thus became the first bishop of Winchester, Winchester (Hampshire), the VentaBel- garum of the Eomans. Mythical tradition ascribes the origin of this fine old city to Ludor Eons Hudibras, king of the Britons, B.C. 892, and there is sufficient reason for believing that it really was founded by the first Celtic inhabitants of the island, by whom it was called Caer Gwent, or White City. It subsequently ijassed into the hands of the Belgse, by whom it was occupied at the period of Caesar's invasion, b.c. 55. The Christian king Lucius, who flourished a.d. 181, is reported to have erected a church or cathedral at Winchester, which was destroyed during the persecution of 304, but was after- wards rebuilt. In 516 the city was taken by Cerdic, who converted the church into a temple of the Saxon gods, and in 519 erected the city into the capital of his new kingdom of Wessex, under the name of Winchester. Cynegils founded the cathedral in 635, and it was consecrated by St. Birinus, apostle of the West Saxons, and their first bishop, in 648. Egbert erected Winchester into the capital of England in 827, and it maintained the distinction throughout the Saxon period. In 871 the Danes ravaged the city and mas- sacred the inhabitants. It was restored by Alfred the Great. St, Ethelwold com- pleted a restoration of the cathedral in 980 ; and in 1013 the city surrendered to Sweyn. Wilham I, founded the castle before 1070, and in 1079 Bishop Walkelin commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral, which was completed in 1093. Winchester attained its greatest prosperity during the reign of Henry I., when it extended a mile in every direction beyond its present limits. The hospital of St. Cross was founded in 1132 by ! Henry de Blois, bishop of the diocese, and j Wolvesey Castle in 1138. The treaty of Win- I Chester, between Stephen and Matilda, was WIN signed ISor. 7, 1153. (See Es-&land.) The coUege of St. Mary at Winchester was com- menced by WiUiam of Wykeham, March 26, 1387, and completed in 1393. The establish- ment of London as the capital of England in 1156, and the suppression of the monasteries j by Henry YIII. in 1536 and 1539, proved fatal to the ancient glory of this city. It was taken by Ohver Cromwell in September, 1645, and was much favoured byCharles II. , who founded a royal palace, which was intended to be built by Sir Christopher Wren, March 23, 1683, } but which was discontinued on the death of I the king. The cathedral was renovated during j the reign of Queen Anne, and the guild- ! hall was founded in 1711. The unfinished | palace of Charles II. was converted into mihtary barracks in 1810. Councils were held at Winchester in November, 855 ; 1070 ; AprU 1, 1076 ; Aug. 25, 1139 ; and April 7, 1141. Wind IIS- &-TJP Acts, to facilitate the disso- lution of joint-stock companies and other partnerships, were amended by 11 & 12 Vict. \ c. 45 (Aug. 14, 1848). This act was amended ' by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 1, 1849 )_. They ; were repealed, and the laws regarding such associations remodelled by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 47 (July 14, 1856), which was amended by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 14 (Jidy 13, 1857). Windmills are of oriental origin, and are said to have been used in Hungary before A.D. 718. They were introduced into England and Erance about 1040, and were used for drainage purposes in Holland soon after 1408. The earliest windmills were constructed to I turn completely roimd, the moveable top | being a Flemish improvement of the 16th century. \ Windows. — The Egyptians, Greeks, and Bomans seldom used windows in the con- struction of their houses and temples, the principal rooms of which were mostly Ughted from above. Those that did exist were small, being originally mere openings in the wall, <,'losed by shutters. Sometimes they were covered with lattice or net-work, and sometimes by plates or transparent stone. Glass windows were found at Pompeii, which was overwhelmed a.d. 79, and were re-in- vented about the 3rd century, and introduced into England by Benedict Biseop in 674. {See I Glass.) The form of the windows is one of the most characteristic features of Gothic architecture. Windows were first taxed in this country by 6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 18 (1695). , The duty was increased by 20 Geo. II. e. 3 (1746), amended by 21 Geo. II. c. 10 (1748), andfurtherincreasedby the Tea-commutation Act, 24 Geo. III. sess. 2, c. 38 (1784). It was again raised by 37 G«o. III. e. 105 (July 19, 1797) ; by 42 Geo. III. c. 34 (April 15, 1802) ; and by 48 Geo. III. c. 55 (June 1, 1808). It was reduced by 4 Geo. IV. c. 11 (March 19, 1823) , and was finally repealed by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (July 24, 1851). Winds. — The existence of the trade winds was first ascertained by Columbus at the end of the 15th century ; and they were first cor- rectly explained on scientific principles by 904 WIN George Hadley, in the " Philosophical Trans- actions" for 1735. {See Stoems.) WiNDSOH Castle (Berkshire). — ^Windsor derives its name from the Saxon town of Windleshora, which was situated about two miles from the present town, and was granted by Edward the Confessor to the monks of Westminster. William the Conqueror re- ceived it in exchange for Wokendune, in Essex, soon after his accession, a.d. 1066, and commenced the erection of the castle, where he held his court at Whitsuntide, 1070. A council was held at Windsor April 26, 1114. The fortifications and buildings were greatly increased by Henry I., and in 1216 King John successfully defended the castle against the barons. Henry III. founded a chapel, the original of St. George's chapel, in 1240, Edward I. erected the town into a free bo- rough in 1276, and the chapel was refounded by Edward III., who obtained a papal bull sanctioning the act, Nov. 30, 1351. The same monarch caused Wilham of Wykeham to rebuild the castle about 1360, and made it the seat of his newly-founded order of the Garter. Edward IV. commenced the re- building of the chapel in 1474, which was continued by succeeding sovereigns, and finally completed by Henry VIII. Elizabeth constructed the terrace, and, in 1572, erected the gate on the hill next the town ; and a new gallery and banqueting-house were added soon after 1576. The park and forest were surveyed in 1605, and various improvements were made by Charles I. in 1635. The chapel was entered by a parliamentary force Oct. 23, 1642, and was afterwards much injured by the bigotry of the Puritans ; and the castle was the prison of Charles I. from Dec. 12, 1648, to Jan. 19, 1649. Sir Christopher Wren made several improvements dui-ing the reign of Charles II., who refaced the terrace with stone in 1676, and erected an equestrian statue of himself in 1680. The Queen's Walk was formed in 1707, and the drive along the Long Walk in 1710. The Queen's Lodge was completed in 1782, and in 1787 the interior of St. George's chapel was newly decorated. The royal vault was constructed in 1810. George IV. laid the first stone of several important alterations Aug. 12, 1824, and resumed his residence in the improved building Dec. 9, 1828. The royal stables were erected in 1839, at an expense of £70,000. A fire which broke out in the Prince of Wales's Tower March 19, 1853, in consequence of the heat of the flues, was quenched without causing much damage. The Prince Consort died at Windsor Castle, Saturday, Dec. 14, 1861, and was interred in the vaults of St. George's chapel. Wine. — Noah made vrine as early as B.C. 2347 (Gen. ix. 20 and 21), and commentators believe that the art was known to the ante- diluvians. The Egyptians ascribed the invention to Osiris, whose worship was instituted about B.C. 2100, and the Chinese state that rice wine was manufactured by their king Ching Noung B.C. 1998. The Greeks and other classical nations regarded WIN Bacchus, or Dionysius, who was reputed to | have flourished about b.c. 1457, as the earliest wine-maker. The Jews esteemed the wines of Lebanon and Helbon ; the Greeks those of Lesbos, Chios, and the other islands of the archipelago ; and the Komans the celebrated Falernian and Cecuban. The I classics mixed their wine with sea-water, I asafcetida, tar, and other substances at variance with modern taste, and exhibited great discrimination in their preference of the vintages of certain years. The pro- duction of wine commenced in Prance soon after b.c. 600, when the culture of the vine (q. V.) was introduced at Marseilles ; and Provence, Dauphiny, Languedoc, and Au- vergne, were celebrated for their vintage as early as B.C. 120. In the time of the Eomans and Saxons, wine was made in England ; but the manufacture was gradually relinquished, and, about the year 1154, the importation of French wines from Bor- deaux commenced. Hippocras, a mixture of wine and spices, was much admired during the Plantagenet period. Wine was exported from Madeira before 1460, and Eatafie wine was introduced into France from Italy in 1533. Sack, or sherry, from Xeres in Spain, Canary, and Malaga, formed the popular wine of the 16th and 17th centuries. The wines of Portugal were first imported about 1600, and Champagne attained its present quality and repute about 1610. The art of making raisin vrine was introduced into this coun- try in 1635, and port came into use about 1690. The practice of importing this wine quaUfied with brandy commenced in 1715, and led to many abuses in the wine-trade, which were much increased by the monopoly estabhshed in favour of the Oporto company, Sept. 10, 1756. The Catawba wine of the United States came into repute about 1826, and unsuccessful attempts to introduce Masdew as a substitute for port were made in 1832. The original Oporto company, abolished by Don Pedro in 1833, was re- established April 7, 1838. It was finally abolished in October, 1852. Australian wine of excellent quahty received medals from the Society of Arts in 1856. Many statutes have been enacted for regulating the duties on wine, one of the earhest of which is 7 Hen. A'll. c. 8 (1490). Wine-dealers were com- pelled to take out a hcense by 12 Charles II. c. 25 (1660). The poHcy of taxing the pro- duce of French vineyards more highly than the wines of other countries was commenced by 4 WiU. & Mary, c. 5 (1692), when an additional duty of £8 per tun was imposed. This discrimination was carried to much greater length by subsequent acts, and was rendered permanent in 1703 by the Methuen tre-ity {q. v,). William Pitt reduced the du- ties on French vrines nearly one-half, and on other wines nearly a third, by 26 Geo. III. c. 59 (1786). They were again increased 10«. &d. per gallon on French wines, and 6s. Id. on Spanish and Portuguese, by 86 Geo. III. c. 123 (May 19, 1796). Mr. Eobinson, afterwards Lord Eipon, reduced WIS them to 78. Zd. and 48. lOd. per gallon on French and other foreign wines, and 2s. ?)d, on the produce of the Caoe of Good Hope, by 6 Geo. IV. c. 104 (July 5, 1825) ; and by the Equahzation Act, 1 & 2 WiU. IV. c. 30 (Oct. 5, 1831), all foreign wines were rated at 5s. &d. per gallon, and Cape wines at 2s. 9J. By the commercial treaty con- cluded with France Jan. 23, 1860, the'duties on wines were reduced to 3s. per gallon until Jan. 1, 1861, when a scale of Is., Is. M., and 2s. per gallon, according to the amount of proof spirit contained in the wine, and of 3s. per gallon on wine in bottles, came into operation. Wine licenses were granted to refreshment-houses by 23 Vict, c, 27 (June 14, 1860). WiNwiDPiELD (Battle). — Penda, king of Mercia, was defeated and slain at this place, near Leeds, by Oswy, king of Northumber- land, A.D. 655. WiPPEDSFLEET (Battle). — Hengist, the Saxon, gained his first victory over the Britons, led by Vortimer, a.d. 466. He named the field after Wipped, one of his principal officers, who fell in the engage- ment. WiEE was originally formed by hammering the metal on an anvU, and its manufacture by drawing is mentioned in the history of Augs- burg, A.D. 1351, and in that of Nuremberg in 1360. A large drawing-machine driven by water, beheved to have been the invention of a person named Eodolph, was constructed at Nuremberg about 1400. Anthony Four- nier, a Frenchman, much improved the art in 1570. Fine gold and silver wire, for spinning round silk and for weaving, was made by Frederick Held at Nuremberg in 1592, and after the patent for securing his process had been several times renewed, it was converted into a fief for the heirs male of the family, Sept. 26, 1622. In England, wire was manufactured by the hand till the art of drawing it was introduced by foreigners in 1565. The first flatting-mill was erected at Sheen, near Eichmond, by a Dutchman, in 1663. WiETEMBEBG. {See WtJETEMBEBG.) WiscoNsin" (North America) was visited by the French about a.d. 1660, and con- tinued nominally in their possession till ceded to England in 1763. It was erected into a territorial government in 1836, and admitted into the Union as a state in 1848. Its con- stitution was confirmed by a popular con- vention in April, 1848. WiSMAE (Germany) . — An aUiance between France and Sweden against Austria was concluded at this town of Mecklenburg- Schwerin, March 20, 1636. The town was granted to Sweden by the peace of West- phaha, Oct. 24, 1648, and purchased from Sweden bv Schwerin, for a sum of 1,200,000 dollars, in 1803. WissEHEAD (Battle). — The emperor Sigis- mund having abandoned the siege of Prague, held by the Hussites, was attacked at this place, in the vicinity, by Ziska, their leader, and totally defeated, July 14, 1420. 905 WIT WIT WiTCHCEAFT.— The Mosaic law strictly enjoined death as the penalty of witchcraft, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxii. 18) ; but commen- tators are of opinion that the offence thus denounced was united with idolatry and also with the crime of poisoning. The ear- liest example of a witch is that of Endor, whom Saul employed to raise the spirit of Samuel B.C. 1055 (1 Sam. xxviii. 7 — 25). Dr. Mackay, in his " Memoirs of Extraor- dinary Popular Delusions," says, " Europe, for a period of two centuries and a half, brooded upon the idea, not only that parted spirits walked the earth to meddle in the affairs of men, but that men had power to summon evil spirits to their aid, to work woe upon their fellows Thousands upon thousands of unhappy persons fell victims to this cruel and absurd delusion. In many cities of Germany, the average number of executions for this pretended crime was 600 annually, or two every day, if we leave out the Sundays, when it is to be supposed that even this madness refrained from its work," 1234. The Stedingers, a tribe of Frieslanders, are exterminated by order of the pope and Frederick II. of (Jermany, as a nation of ■witches. 1307. The Templai-s are suppressed throughout France on a charge of sorcery. 1431. May 30. Joan of Arc is burnt at Bouen as a ■witch. 1459. The Valdenses are cruelly persecuted at Arras as witches. 1487. Two old ■women are burned at Constance, on a charge of having raised a storm ■which had occasioned much loss of property. 1488. Innocent VIII. issues a bull appointing in- quisitors for the suppression of ■witchcraft. 1494 Alexander VI. nominates a commission agaiust witches. 1515. About 500 persons are burned in Geneva aa ■witches. 1521. Leo X. issues a commission. 1524. A thousand victims to the ■witch mania perish at Como. 1541. Witchcraft employed against the lives of others is declared felony in England, by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 8. 1561. Five poor women are bui-ned at Vemeuil on a charge of ha-ving changed themselves into cats. 1562. All witchcraft is declared a crime of the highest magnitude in the eye of the English law, by 5 Eliz. c. 16. 1571. Trois Echelles is burned at Paris, for hav- ing, on his own confession, sold him- self to the devil. This man stated that he had 1,200 accomplices, and accused many persons, who were tried and exe- cuted. 1573. Jan. 18. GUles Gamier is condemned to be burned at D61e, as a loup-garou, or man- woLf, in which capacity he was accused of cannibalism. 1593. April 7. Execution of the Warbois ■witches, an old woman and her husband and daughter, for witchcraft. Their property was confiscated, a portion being devoted to endow an annual lecture, by a doctor of Queen's College, Cambridge, on the enor- mity of witchcraft. This lecture was still delivc-red as late as 1718, 1597. James VI. of Scotland publishes his work on Dsemonologie at Edinburgh. 1604. Further measures are taken for suppressing witchcraft by 1 or 2 James L c. 12. 1617. The mar§chale d'Ancre suffers at Paris in consequence of the machinations of Mary of Medicis, who is fearful of her influence over the mind of Louis XIII. 1634. The celebrated Lancashire ■witches, ■viz., eight people, are executed on the e^vidence of the boy Eobinson, resident at Peudle Forest, Lancashire. 1644 Matthew Hopkins, the celebrated witch-finder general, flotu'ishes. 1652. The last execution for witchcraft in Pro- testa,nt Switzerland takes place at Geneva. 1654. The elector of Brandenburg forbids the tor- i ture of supposed witches, and denounces the swimming test as unjust and cruel. 1664. Sir Matthew Hale condemns two women to the stake as ■witches. 1669. Sweden is the theatre of a violent anti- ■witch mania. 1692. A cruel persecution of supposed ■witches takes place in New England. 1716. A woman and her daughter, aged nine years, are hanged at Huntingdon for selling their Bouls to Satan. This is the last judicial execution in England for witchcraft. 1722. The last execution for witchcraft in Scotland takes place this year. 1736. The capital sentence against ■witchcraft is abolished by 9 Geo. II. c. 5. 1749. A cruel persecution of supposed wi^tches rages at Wurzburg, in Germany. 1751. July 30. An old woman named Osborne is drowned at Tring by the people as a witch. WiTETTA GBMOT, or Assembly of the Wise Men. — This was the great council of our Anglo-Saxon kings. Instances of its meeting are recorded in the reign of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688—727). King Alfred or- dained that it should meet twice in the year, or oftener if needful. The witenage- mot outlawed the family of Godwin, earl of Kent, in 1043, and restored them in 1052. WiTEPSK. (See Vitebsk.) With AM (Essex), believed to have been a Roman station, was fortified by Edward the Elder a.d. 913. Witnesses. — By the law of Moses, two, at least, were required to establish a question of fact. A false witness was to suffer the punishment due to the offence of which he made accusation (Deut. xix. 15 — 19), B.C. 1451. Amongst the Romans and some other nations, it was the custom to cuff them and pull their ears, in order to make them remember their evidence. Witnesses were seldom called at trials in this covmtry, the jurors usually deciding from their ovni knowledge of the prisoner, and of the facts of the case. The first traces of the present practice in that respect occur about 1349. It was fully established by the middle of the 15th century. By the ancient practice of most European countries, the evidence of women was iaadmissible, and in Switzerland the testimony of two women was only con- sidered equivalent to that of one man so late as 1824. Disquahfication arising from crim- inal conviction was removed by Lord Denman's act (6 & 7 Vict. c. 85), Aug. 22, 1843. By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 20, 1853), husbands and vdves are compellable to give e^vidence for or against each other, except in criminal cases. WiTTENBEEG (Prussia) surrendered to WIT WOO the Imperial army Aug. 21, 1759, and having been bombarded by the Imperialists capitu- lated Oct. 14, 1760. The French took posses- sion, making it a depot for ammunition and provisions, in October, 1806. It refused to surrender on the summons of Colonel SchiU in 1809; was besieged Sept. 15, 1813, by the aUies, who were compelled to raise the siege in October. Again besieged by the alUes, it was taken by assault Jan. 15, 1814, and was ceded to Prussia May 18, 1815. The univer- sity, in which Luther and Melancthon held professorships, was established in 1502, and incorporated with that of HaUe in 1815. The colossal statue of Luther in the market-place was erected in 1821. WiTTSTOCK (Battle).— In this engagement the imperial troops in Brandenburg, com- manded by the elector of Saxony, were at- tacked and routed by the Swedes, under General Banner, Sept. 24, 1636. Five thou- sand Austrians and Saxons fell on the field, seven thousand were taken prisoners, and an immense amount of anmiunition and bag- gage was captured. WoLLiif (Prussia). — This seaport town of Stettin was in a flourishing condition as early as A.D. 776. In 805 it received the people of Wineta, which was destroyed that year ; and in 1125 its bishopric was founded by Otho, bishop of Bamberg. Waldemar I. of Den- mark destroyed WoUin in 1177. WoLODOMiE. {See Suzdai,.) WoLVEEHAMPTON" (Staffordshire) was called Wulfrune's Hampton, from Wulfruna,' sister of King Edgar, who founded a monas- tery here a.d. 996. It received a charter of incorporation in 1847. The free grammar- school was founded by Sir Stephen Jenyns in 1513, and the Bluecoat school about 1710. St. John's church was erected in 1755 ; St. George's church was built in 1830; the South Staffordshire Hospital, at a cost of £18,000, in 1848; and the Orphan Asylum, at a cost of £9,000, in 1854. Wolves were so numerous in some parts of England that a retreat for passing travel- lers was erected at a place called Fhxton, in the reign of Athelstan (a.d. 925 — 941). They were nearly extirpated in the reign of King Edgar, who miposed an annual tribute of three hundred wolves' heads upon Ludwal, prince of Wales. Sir Ewen Cam- eron killed the last seen in Scotland in 1680. They were extirpated in Ireland about 1710. Woman. — From the circumstance that the chapters of the Bible which treat of the incidents immediately after the FaU contain scarcely any allusions to women, it is in- ferred that the female character was then held in very low estimation. Among the pastoral nations of the primitive ages, women tended the flocks and herds, drew water, and performed other menial offices. The Egyptians treated them Avith considerable kindiiess, and employed them in weaving and spiiming ; and the Jewish law, though severe in the case of female offences, afforded them ample protection, and assigned thena an important position in the national and social economy. The subsequent demoral- ization of the Hebrew race was in nothing exemplified more clearly than in the sordid treatment and the low character of its women. Among the Greeks they were se- cluded in private apartments, and were compelled to wear a veil when out of doors. The Eomans treated women with great con- sideration, intrusting to them the education of the young and the control of their house- hold affairs ; but in the latter days of the Republic and of the Empire, when morals became corrupt, measures were taken for their restraint. Thus the Lex Oppia im- posed sumptuary restrictions ; Augustus prohibited their appearance at the public games; and, by a law passed a.d. 222, they were formally excluded from the senate. The ancient Germans allotted a very high position to the female sex ; and Tacitus com- memorates the excellence of character which their women exhibited. During the Dark Ages the female lot was of course a hard one, the right of free choice in marriage and the advantages of education being totally denied them. The romantic chivalry of the 11th and following centuries introduced a better order of things, and laid the founda- tion for that recognition of female rights and respect for female excellence which is at once the most powerful agent and the clearest evidence of modern civilization. The pubUc whipping of women was abohshed by 57 Geo. III. c. 75 (July 7, 1817), and the punishment was altogether prohibited in the case of female offenders by 1 Geo. IV. c. 57 (July 15, 1820) . By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 10, 1842), the employment of women in mines was declared illegal. {See Amazons, Ladt, Maeeia&e, &c.) WoNDEES OP THE WoEiD. — The scven wonders of the world which excited the marvel of the ancients were, — the Colossus of Ehodes {q. v.) ; the temple of Diana at Ephesus {q. v.) ; the tomb of Mausolus (see Mausoleum) ; the Egjrptian pyramids {q. V.) ; the lighthouse on the Pharos (q.v.) ; the hanging gardens, constructed at Babylon by Queen Semiramis about B.C. 2017 ; and the celebrated colossal statue of Jupiter Olympus, constructed in ivory and gold by Phidias, who flourished B.C. 440. Woodcuts. — The ancient Egyptians prac- tised the art of engraving on wood for the purpose of producing an impression upon soft clay. In China woodcuts were employed in literature about the 12th century. The earliest in Europe were probably executed at Nuremberg about a.d. 1340, and seem to have been first applied to the production of playing-cards. The first woodcut with a date (1423) represents St. Christopher carrying our Saviour across a river on his shoulders. The improvement known as "cross-hatching" was shown in a work printed at Mentz in 1486. In Germany woodcuts were much used for illustrating books, although the style of workmanship became much dete- riorated between 1545 and 1580. (See En- GEATiNG and Engeaving on Wood.) 907 woo woo Woods AifD Forests. — The demesne lands of the crown, terrce dominicales regis, whence is derived one branch of the ordinary revenue of the sovereign, were either reserved to the crown at the original distribution of landed property, or came to it afterwards in various ways. William III. had so reduced their extent by the exercise of his power of ahen- ation, that a civil hst was passed by which Queen Anne, in 1702, placed them at the disposal of the parliament, in return for £700,000 a year (1 Anne, s. 1, c. 7). The like arrangement has been made at the com- mencement of each succeeding reign. The office of surveyor-general of his majesty's works was created by 46 Geo. III. c. 142 (1805), and altered by 50 Geo. III. c. 65 (June 9, 1810) . The woods and forests are now managed by the Conmiissioners of Woods and Forests, a board formed and regulated by 10 Geo. IV. c. 50 (1829), and 2 Will. IV. c. 1, s. 1 (Feb. 13, 1832). Wood's Halfpence. {See Deapiee's Lettees.) Woodstock: (Oxfordshire). — This ancient town derives its name from the forests by which it was anciently surrounded, and was a place of considerable importance during the Saxon period. Ethelred I. (866—871) is said to have held a parhament at Woodstock ; and it is beheved that Alfred the Great (871 — 901) resided here while engaged in his trans- lation of Boetius. Henry I. resided much at this town, and it was the scene of Henry the Second's amour with the fair Eosamond Clifford in 1154. {See Eosamond's Bowee.) The same monarch received the homage of Malcolm of Scotland at Woodstock in 1164, and in 1275 it was the scene of a parhament summoned by Edward I. The renowned Edward the Black Prince was bom at Wood- stock June 15, 1330. The tovra received its fii-st charter from Henry VI. in 1453, and was the prison of the Princess Ehzabeth in 1555. In 1649 the Eump Parliament ap- pointed a commission for surveying the royal property at Woodstock. Blenheim Palace, the magnificent seat of the duke of Marlborough, was erected at Woodstock by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1705, and was pre- sented to the duke by the nation. Wood- stocktown Hah was built from the designs of Sir WiUiam Chambers in 1766. WooL-coMBEES. — The septennial festival to their patron St. Blase was celebrated at Bradford with great rejoicing, Feb. 3, 1825. This saint, who holds a place in the Church of England calendar, was bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia. He was tormented with iron combs and martyred under Licinius in 316. AYOOLLEN" TbaDE AND MaNUFACTUEE. The woollen manufacture, one of the most ancient on the face of the globe, is stated to have originated in Babylonia. The fable of Jason and the Golden Fleece points to its existence in Greece as early as B.C. 1263. Moses prohibited the Jews from wearing clothes woven of wool and hnen together, b.c. 1451 (Deut. xxii. 11). England has been celebrated for its woollen goods from the earliest periods, and Winchester was a noted manufacturing town for this species of industry during the Eoman occu- pation. It is said to have been practised in France as early as a.d. 960. The worsted manufacture was estabhshed at Worstead, in Norfolk, by a colony of Flemish settlers, in 1327, and 'in 1331 Edward III. greatly en- couraged the woollen trade by receiving John Kemp, and seventy famihes of Walloon weavers, from Flanders. The exportation was first prohibited by 11 Edw. III. e. 1 (1337). Many improvements in the manu- facture of woollen goods were introduced by refugees from Holland in 1420, and in 1464 English sheep were exported to Spain. In 1493 the mart of Enghsh cloths was esta- blished at Calais. In 1568 a large number of woollen -workers from France and Flanders settled in England, and further measures were taken for the prohibition of the export of wool, and in 1636 a number of EngMsh manufacturers emigrated, and established an important trade at Leyden and Alkmaar. In order to encourage the woollen trade of England, it was ordered by 18 Charles II. c. 4 (1666), that all corpses should be buried in woollen shrouds. {See Bueial.) The exportation of English wool was again prohibited, and the importation of Irish wool into this country was permitted by 7& 8 WiU. III. c. 18 (1696). The first machine for spinning wool was invented by John Wyatt about 1733. Lewis Paul's card- ing-machine was patented Aug. 30, 1748, and Hargreaves made his first spinning- jenny in 1767. Arkwright's machine was invented about 1768. The first importation of wool into England took place in 1770, and merino sheep {q.v.) were first brought into the coun- try in 1791. Dr. Edmund Cartwright's comb- ing-machine was patented in 1792, and in con- sequence of the number of wool-combers thus thrown out of employment, measures were adopted by 35 Geo. III. c. 124 (June 26, 1795), for enabling them to exercise other trades. The first Alpaca sheep exhibited in this coun- try were shown in 1811. {See Alpaca.) Seve- ral teazhng-machines, composed of metallic wires, were patented in France in 1818. AH | the acts prohibiting the exportation of wool were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 47 (June 3, 1824). John Piatt's combing-machine was patented in November, 1827, James Noble's in February, 1834, and Eoss's improvements March 13, 1851. Customs duties on wool are mentioned by 51 Hen. III. st. 5, c. 6 (1266). A tax was imposed on exported woollen goods by 12 Charles II. c. 4 (1660). It was removed by 11 & 12 WiU. Ill, c. 20 (1700). Woolwich (Kent).— The Henry Grace a Dieu, the largest ship of the period, named after Henry VIII., was built here a.d. 1515: she was burned in 1553. The Sovereign of the Seas, of 100 guns, called the Golden Devil by the Dutch, was also built here in 1637. The arsenal was established in 1716 ; the Eoyal Mihtary Academy was founded in 1719 ; and the present building was erected WOE WEE from the plans of Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, at a cost of £150,000, in 1805. The church of St. Mary Magdalene was built in 1740, and St. John's church in 1840. Worcester (Battle). — Charles II., after his coronation in Scotland, marched into England with an army of 14,000 men. He was pursued by Cromwell, who defeated his army at Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. Worcester (Bishopric). — This diocese was separated from Lichfield about a.d. 680. By an order in council of Dec. 22, 1836, the archdeaconry of Coventry was transferred from Coventry and Lichfield to Worcester, and the parish of Shenington, in Gloucester- shire, was also annexed July 19, 1837. Worcester (Worcestershire), the chief town of the county, founded by the Saxons A.D. 680, was destroyed by the Danes, and rebuilt in 894. It was plimdered by Hardi- Canute in 1041. The barons of Hereford occupied it to quell a conspiracy against William I. in 1074. Bernard Neumarck failed in an attempt to take it in 1088. It was plundered by the troops of Henry III, in 1216, on account of a revolt of the inha- bitants. A grand tournament held here in 1225 drew down upon the j ousters an ex- communication from Bishop Blois. The city was captured by the rebel barons in 1263. In the civil wars it was taken by Prince Eupert, who defeated a party of parliamen- tary horse under Colonel Sandys, Sept. 25, 1642. The earl of Essex recovered it the same year. Charles II. entered the city Aug. 23, 1651, and Cromwell stormed the forts and totally defeated the royahsts Sept. 3. The last of the six gates of the city was removed in 1787. The cathedral was rebuilt by Bishop Oswald in 983, and by Bishop Wulfstan in 1084. It was repaired and re-consecrated in January, 1281, and un- derwent alterations and repairs in 1830. The bridge across the Severn was built in 1780. The remains of a Franciscan monastery were removed in 1823. A council was held here July 26, 1240. Worcester College (Oxford) was founded by Sir Thomas Cookes, Bart., a.d. 1714. The chapel, haU, and library were commenced in 1720. The new buildings on the north side of the inner court were com- pleted in 1776, and the hall in 1784. Workhouse.— By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1536), the able-bodied poor were directed to be kept to constant labour. Edward VI. founded the royal hospital of Bridewell in 1553, for the punishment and employment of the vigorous and idle. By 43 Eliz. c. 2 (1601), work was ordered to be provided by the overseers for the poor. By 59 Geo. III. c. 12 (1819), known as Sturges Bourne's act, parishes were empowered to enlarge or build workhouses where none existed before. Their government was vested in a board of guardians, subject to the control of the Poor-Law Board, by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c, 76 (Aug. 14, 1834) . World . — The sera of its creation is fixed by the Jews B.C. 3761. According to the chronology of the English Bible, that event took place B.C. 4004, and according to the Grecian sera, B.C. 5598. Worms (Germany), occupying the site of the Eoman Borbetomagus, or Augusta Vangionum, was plundered by the Alemanni A.D. 354, and destroyed by Attila in 451. Clovis rebuilt it about 475. The legislative assemblies of Charlemagne, called Mai Lager from the month when they met, were held here. A council elected Leo IX. pope in December, 1048, and another deposed Gre- gory VII. in January, 1076. By a concordat, signed at another council, Sept. 8, 1122, the emperor lost some of his influence over ecclesiastical appointments. The marriage of Isabella, sister of Henry III. of England, with Frederick II., emperor of Germany, was solemnized here July 20, 1235. Between this town and Spires, at Eosenthal, the em- peror Adolphus of Nassau was slain, in an engagement with Albert of Austria, July 2, 1298. Luther appeared before the diet of Worms, April 4, 1521. By order of Louis XIV.,Worms was burned in 1689. George II. of England fixed his head-quarters in the episcopal palace Aug. 27, 1743. The city was taken by the French, under Custine, in Oct. 1792, and again in 1793. The cathedral, commenced in the 8th century, was com- pleted 1110. Councils were held here in Lent, 858; May 16, 868; in December, 1048; January, 1076; Sept. 8, 1122; in April, 1127; and at Pentecost, 1153. Worsted acquired its name from the town of Worstead, in Norfolk, where a settlement of Flemings introduced woollen manufactures in the 14th century. The trade was removed to Norwich in the reign of Richard II. WoTjifDiNG. {See Maiming.) Wrecks. — Among the early Greeks and Romans, shipwrecked mariners, of whatever nation, were regarded as enemies, and as such were usually put to death or sold into slavery; but the Pandects {q.v.), published in Dec. a.d. 533, made the murder of them a capital crime, and imposed severe penalties on thefts from wrecks. On the subversion of the Roman power, the old barbarous cus- toms were restored, and the majority of such as sulfered shipwreck consummated their misfortunes by a hfe of slavery. Goods washed on shore were adjudged to belong to the king or the lord of the manor ; and it was no uncommon circumstance for pilots and landowners to enter into collusion, whereby ships were purposely run ashore for the sake of their plunder ; and for the sailors to be barbarously murdered on the beach to prevent the assertion of their rights. The Oleron Laws {q.v.) enacted that in such case the pilot shoiild suffer as a robber; that the lord should be bound in the centre of his house, which was to be ignited at its four corners, and be left to perish ; and that common wreckers, after being half- drowned in the sea, should suffer death by stoning. The Enghsh law regarded wrecks as royal property. In the time of Henry I. it was enacted, that when any passenger WEI or seaman survived the loss of the ship, it should not be regarded as a wreck ; and in the reign of Henry III. it was ruled, that goods so marked as to be clearly iden- tified might be recovered by their ovmers within a year and a day after the wreck. By 27 Edw. III. c. 13 (1353), goods washed ashore from wrecks were to be delivered to the merchants, who were to pay a reasonable salvage for their preservation. These regu- lations, however, proved futile, and wrecking continued a frequent crime on the EngUsh coasts until a comparatively recent period. By 12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 18 (1713), the chief authorities of seaside towns were ordered to assist ships in distress under forfeiture of £100; and by 26 Geo. III. e. 19 (1785), the prevention of the escape of shipwrecked per- sons, the wounding of such as had attained the shore, or the exhibition of false Mghts in order to decoy vessels into danger, were made capital felonies. The laws relating to shipwrecks were consolidated by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 28, 1846), and by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 10, 1854). A Hst of the disasters at sea, described in this work, is given in the index, imder " Wrecks." | Weiting. — Some traditions attribute the [ origin of writing to Seth, the son of Adam, and others to Enoch ; but there appears suf- ficient proof that it was invented in the ante- diluvian period. Other authorities consider the system of hieroglyphics (q.v.), which was invented by Athotes, or Thoth, about B.C. 2122, as the most ancient mode of writing. Cadmus carried a knowledge of letters from Phoenicia to Greece, b.c. 1550, and the Pelasgi introduced writing into Italy about B.C. 1476. The Eomans practised running-hand as early as the 4th century, and introduced a knowledge of writing into their provinces ; but it was not much known in Britain until about the year 596. Writing became an ordinary branch of edu- cation during the 14th century. {See Alpha- bet, Caligbapht, and iLiuiiii^-ATioif.) Weoxeter. (See Ubiconium.) WiJETEMBEEG (Germany) was overran in the 4th century by the Alemanni, who oc- cupied that part afterwards called Swabia, and were conquered by the Franks under Clovis, A.D. 496. Eberhard V. was created duke by the emperor Maximilian I., July 21, 1494. It iinderwent various vicissitudes during the Thirty Years' war, from 1618, tin the peace of Westphalia restored the reigning family, Oct. 24, 1648. It was en- tered by the armies of France, when the duke was obliged to purchase peace by the payment of 8,000,000 of francs and the cession of territory, Feb. 9, 1801. It was raised to an electorate by the German diet in 1803, and the elector assumed the title of king Jan. 1, 1806. Censorship of the press was abolished March 1, 1848. l^ational assem- blies convoked to revise the constitution of 1819 were dissolved without effecting their object in 1849 and 1850. WiJKTzcHEN (Germany). — A collision be- tween the French army, under Napoleon I., 910 WYC and that of the allies, commanded by the sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, occurred in the neighbourhood of this town, May 19, 1813. A general engagement at the village of Bautzen terminated favourably for the French, May 21, and the conflict having been renewed at Wiirtzchen, the allies were forced to retire. May 22. WuEZBtTEG (Bavaria). — St. KOian is said to have suffered martyrdom here a.d. 687, and it was created a bishopric a.d. 741. The emperor Henry II. wishing to found another bishopric at Bamberg in 1006, was opposed by the bishop of this city. The duke of Bavaria besieged it in 1086. A council was held here in 1080. A confede- ration of the Eoman Cathohc princes of Germany met here, and elected Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, as their leader, in 1609. The town was surrendered by the prince- bishop to the French, July 25, 1796. Under Jourdan they sustained a severe defeat from the archduke Charles in the neighbourhood, and the place afterwards surrendered to ( the Austrians, Sept. 3, 1796. It was be- sieged by the French in 1800 ; secularized and ceded to Bavaria Feb. 5, 1803; surrendered to the allies March 21, 1814 ; and restored to Bavaria in 1815, The cathedral was founded in the 8th century, dedicated in 1189, and much altered in 1240. The Neu- miinster church was founded in the 11th century, and the Marien-Kirche was built between 1377 and 1479. The university, esta- blished in 1403, was renewed in 1582. The royal, formerly the episcopal palace, was built between 1720 and 1744. Wyatt's Instjeeectioh". — Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Kentish gentleman, joined with others, a.d. 1553, to prevent the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip of Spaia. The duke of Suffolk failed in an attempt to raise troops in Leicester Jan. 29, 1554. Wyatt fortified himself at Rochester Jan. 26, and a number of the troops brought by the duke of Nor- folk to attack him went over to his side Jan. 29. He reached Deptford Feb. 1, and entered Southwark, plundered the palace of the bishop of Winchester, but could not effect the passage of London Bridge, Feb. 3. Having withdrawn from Southwark Feb. 6, he marched to Kingston, and crossing the Thames there, reached London. He was de- serted by many of his followers, and sur- rendered, after a skirmish at Temple Bar, to Sir Maurice Berkeley. He was conveyed to the Tower, pleaded guilty to his indict- ment March 15, and was beheaded April 11. About fiftv of his followers were executed between Feb. 13 and 26. Upwards of 400 were brought with halters round their necks to the queen at Westminster Feb. 20, and set at liberty. Wtclifeites, the followers of John Wycliffe, who began to verite against the Mendicant Friars a.d. 1360, and was sum- moned to answer a charge of heresy before the convocation at St. Paul's, Feb. 19, 1377. Having translated the whole of the Scrip- tures from the Latin vulgate into English, WYE and employed " poor priests " to travel over the country and disseminate his opinions, he died at Lutterworth, Dec. 31, 1384. The new doctrines and propositions were con- demned by the council of London, Feb. 19, 1397. Jerome of Prague returned to that city from Oxford, and in 1402 began to spread the views of Wycliffe, which were formally con- demned by the university of Prague in 1404. They were again condemned by the council of London, July 23, 1408, and a papal bull issued in 1409 ordered his writings to be seized, and all persons who professed the heretical opinions to be tried. John Huss persisted in preaching, notwithstanding a prohibition, and was excommunicated by the pope in 1411. A Eomish council (1412 to June 18, 1413) condemned WycliflEe's writings; and another at Constance condemned Huss to the flames, received the recantation of Jerome, and denounced the innovations as pernicious. Eeginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, was deposed in 1458 for profess- ing these opinions. Wye. — A massive iron bridge was built over this river at Chepstow a.d. 1816, and a tubular bridge for the South Wales Eail- way, erected by I, K. Brunei, was finished April 2, 1852. WTOMijya (IN'orth America) was attacked and destroyed by a party of Americans, assisted by a number of Indians, under Colonel Butler, in July, 1778. The incident forms the subject of Campbell's well-known poem. Xanthica. — This festival, which was observed during the month Xanthicus, the sixth of the Macedonian year, corresponding to our April, was the annual occasion for the lustration or purification of the Macedonian army, and comprised a sham fight and other solemnities. Xanthus (Greece), a celebrated city of Lycia, was besieged by Harpagus in the reign of Cyrus, when the inhabitants perished, vnth all that they possessed, in the ruins of their city. It was rebuilt, and during the Eoman civil war was taken by Brutus, B.C. 42. The inhabitants refused to submit, and perished in the flames. Xativa (Spain) was taken from the Almo- ravides by Abu AbdelmeUk, a.d. 1145, and surrendered to James I. of Aragon in 1246. Xeees (Battle). — A Saracen army of 90,000 or 100,000 men encountered the Christians near this tovm in Spain, and, after several minor skirmishes, a grand engagement took place, in which Eoderick was slain, and his Visigothic kingdom de- stroyed, July 19—26, A.D. 711. Xeees, or Jerez, be la rEONTEEA (Spain), from which sherry derives its name, was taken by Alfonso X. of Castile, a.d. 1254. He subdued a revolt of its inhabitants in 1263. Xeexes' Expedition. — The Persian monarch having resolved to subdue Greece, YEA commenced his preparations B.C. 4.83. Three years were occupied in collecting troops and provisions. A canal was ordered to be cut through Mount Athos for the passage of the snips, and a bridge for the army to be thrown across the Hellespont. This immense force set out from Sardis, where it had wintered, b.c. 480. The army, according to Herodotus, numbered 1,800,000 men. Various cities gave in their submission to the invader. The pass of Thermopylae was defended by Leonidas and 300 Spartans, who perished to a man, Aug. 7 — 9, b.c. 480. Bceotia and Attica were ravaged, Athens was sacked, and Delphos attacked. The Persians were defeated at Artemisium (q.v.) and at Salamis (q.v.). Xerxes with the remnant of his shattered army returned into Asia. Ximena (Spain) was taken from the Moors by Don Henry, who put aU the in- habitants to the sword, a.d. 1456. The French, commanded by Eegnier, were de- feated near this town by the Spaniards under BaUasteros, Sept. 10, 1811. Yandaboo (Burmah).— a treaty was signed at this town at the close of the first Burmese war, Feb. 24, 1826. Assam, Arra- can, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim were ceded to England, and the Burmese agreed to pay one crore of rupees. Yankee. — This term, applied to the people of the States of North America, is con- sidered to be a corruption of the Indian pronunciation of "English." They called them Yenghees, and the term Yankee began to be used about a.d. 1775. Yaed. — Spelman says that a new standard of longitudinal measure was ascertained by Henry I., who commanded that the ancient ell should be made of the exact length of his own arm. Yaemouth (Norfolk) was, according to Domesday Book, a royal demesne a.d. 1086. A charter of Henry III. gave permission to fortify the town, which was done by con- structing a moat, and a wall with ten gates and sixteen towers. The town was attacked by the insurgents dicing Ket's rebellion in 1549. A fortress with four towers was erected in anticipation of the Spanish inva- sion in 1588. William III., on his return from Holland, landed here Oct. 18, 1692. The suspension bridge across the Yare gave way, and seventy-nine persons were drowned. May 2, 1845. St. Nicholas's church was founded in the beginning of the 12th cen- tury, St. George's was built in 1716, and St. Peter's in 1833. Nelson's monument, 140 feet high, was erected in 1817. Yasst. (See Jassy.) Yeae.— Nicolas (the Chronology of His- tory) remarks : " The days on which the year commenced in most countries have been as follow : — Christmas-day, the 25th of December: the day of the Circumcision, the 911 YEA 1st of January ; the day of the Conception, the 25th of March ; and Easter-day, the day of the resurrection of our Lord. In Eng- land, in the 7th, and so late as the 13th cen- tury, the year was reckoned from Christmas- day ; but in the 12th century, the Anglican church began the year on the 25th of March ; which practice was also adopted by civilians in the 14th century. This style continued until the reformation of the calendar by 24 Geo. II. c. 23 (1751), by which the legal year was ordered to commence on the 1st of January, in 1752. It appears, therefore, that two calculations have generally existed in England for the commencement of the year ; viz. — 1. The Historical year, which has, for a very long time, begun on the 1st of January ; and 2. the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Legal year, which was used by the Church, and in all public instruments, until the end of the 13th century, began at Cliristmas. In and after the 14th century, it commenced on the 25th of March, and so continued until the 1st of Januarj', 1752." This led to great confusion. Charles I. is said by those authorities who use the Historical year to have been be- headed Jan. 30, 1649, whilst by those writers who computed by the Civil, Ecclesiastical, or Legal year, the date is assigned to Jan. 30, 16&. The date of any event that happened between Jan. 1 and March 25 was, in order to avoid confusion, frequently written thus : — 8 1 i. e., the Civil, Ecclesiastical, January 30, 164— V and Legal year. 9)i.e., the Historical year. January 30, 1648-9. The lower, or last figure always indicates the year according to the system of computation now in use. (See New Style and Old Style.) Yeast, or Leaveis", was employed in the manufacture of bread as early as B.C. 1897 (Gen. xix. 3). The absence "of leaven con- stituted the peculiaritj^ of the bread used in the passover, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii. 15) ; and it was always omitted in bread intended for immediate use. The Faculty of Medicine of Paris reported against the use of yeast, as prejudicial to health, March 24, 1688. Yeddo. (See Jedbo.) Yeeiateeinbukg. (See Ekateeibtbtjeg.) Yellow Fever. —The history of this scourge of the southern parts of North America is enveloped in considerable ob- scurity. Dr. Bascombe, in his treatise on the "Nature and Cause of Yellow Fever," denies that it is of modern origin, and states that it raged in Spain as early as B.C. 1100. He also regards the pestilence which ravaged England a.d. 664 as the true yellow fever; and he mentions a deadly outbreak of the same disease which occurred in the fleet of Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers during its voyage to Virginia in 1608. It appears that an epidemic fever of fatal character raged in the Antilles in 1635, and that somewhat similar diseases appeared 912 YEW ! at Martinico in 1655, at St. Lucia in 1665, and at Brazil in 1685 ; and it is asserted by some that these attacks were all recurrences of the tropical yellow fever. Other authors state that it originated in Siam, and that it was carried thence by the French to the West Indies in 1690. In 1699 it first appeared at Philadelphia, which has since been one of its chief seats. It broke out at Charlestown, South Carohna, in 1728, at New York in 1791, at Newhaven in 1794, and at Boston in 1798 ; and it has frequently renewed its visi- tations in these and other large cities of the United States. In 1800 it broke out with great violence at Cadiz, and devastated Spain for four years ; and in 1804 it raged in Italy. Gibraltar was violently attacked in 1810, and has been the scene of frequent subsequent visitations. Yembo (Arabia). — An expedition against the Wahabees of this place was dispatched by Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in August, 1811. Yemen (Arabia Felix) was restored to the Homerites and made tributary to Persia A.D. 570. A brother of Saladin conquered it, and estabUshed the dynasty of the Curds, or Ayoubites, in 1173. It was taken by the lieutenant of Sohman I. in 1538, and again by Sehm II. in 1568. The Turks were ex- pelled from Yemen in 1630. Abou Nokta plundered a number of its towns in 1804. Yeomanry, Yeomanry Cavalry, &c. — The yeomen of the Middle Ages constituted the great body of farmers and small free- holders. Hallam terms them " a very nu- merous and respectable body, some occupj'- ing their ovra estates, some those of land- lords." Henry VII. founded the yeomen of the guard in 1485, for fifty men upwards of six feet in height and a captain. The number was, however, speedily raised to about two hundred; but no settled standard existed till 1668,- when Charles II. fixed it at one hundred, of whom six were called yeomen- hangers, because it was their business to superintend the hanging of the tapestry in the royal apartments ; and two yeomen- bedgoers, because to them was intrusted the arrangements of the beds during royal pro- gresses. The offices of heutenant and ensign of the yeomen of the guard were also added in 1668. Volunteer cavalry corps were formed by the yeomen of England on the outbreak of the war vrith France in 1793, and became very frequent when Mr. Dundas recommended the enrolment of volunteers in 1797. Yeomen op the Guard, vulgarly called " beef-eaters," a corruption of buffetiers, from their having been stationed at the buffet, or sideboard, during state banquets, were formed as a body-guard, fifty in num- ber, by Henry VII., a.d. 1485. Yeemtjk (Battle).— Heraclius, the Eoman emperor, was totally routed by the Saracens, after a bloody engagement on the banks of this Svrian stream (the Hieromax), Aug. 23, A.D. 634. Yew-tkee. — The wood of this tree was YEZ employed in the manufacture of bows by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who were also acquainted with the poisonous nature of the juices of the yew. The custom of planting the tree in churchyards is variously explained as a remnant of Druidical super- stition ; as a means of sheltering the church from winds,&c. ; as affording a supply of the evergreens so frequently used by our fore- fathers in ecclesiastical festivals ; and for the sake of the wood, which was the best adapted for making bows. Caxton, in his " Directory forthe Festivals," pubhshed in 1483, refers to the yew as a substitute used in England for palms on Pahn Sunday. Shakespeare, in his comedy of" Twelfth Night" (act ii. sc. 4), written in 1600, alludes to *' My shroud of white, stuck aU with yew." The custom of ehpping the yew into fantastic forms as a garden tree was at its height between the reigns of Charles I. and Wilham III. The Canada or North-American yew was in- troduced into this country in 1800. Tbzdegied, or Pebsias" JiIra, commenced on the accession of Yezdegird to the throne of Persia, June 16, a.d. 632. The error in the calendar was rectified by Sultan Jela- ledin in 1075. Yoke. — Yokes of iron are mentioned by Moses B.C. 1451 (Deut. xxviii. 48), and it is beheved that such were actually used by slaves during the Scriptural period. The ancients regarded the yoke as a symbol of slavery, and it was customary for vanquished armies to pass under a yoke, formed Uke a gaUows, of two upright spears, and a third fixed transversely at top. The Samnites exacted this mark of submission from the Eomans after their victory at the Caudine Eorks, B.C. 321 ; and were themselves com- pelled to undergo the same humiliation .c. 307 and B.C. 294. York (Archbishopric). — St. Lucius, king of the Britons, is said to have estabhshed an archbishopric at York as early as a.d. 180. The names of only four of the ancient bishops are recorded, and the see subse- quently became extinct. It was revived by Edwin, king of Northumbria, about 622, and conferred upon PauUnus April 27, 627. On the death of this primate, the Northumbrians rdapsed into idolatry, and the see remained vacant for about thirty years, until 664, from which year the succession remains unbroken. The supremacy of Canterbury to York was decreed by the Anglican council of 1072. The metropolitan see of York originally exercised jurisdiction over the Scotch bishops ; bat this power was abohshed in 1466. By an order in council Aug. 21, 1837, the entire county of Nottingham was separated from York, and annexed to Canterbury. The province now comprises the sees of York, Carhsle, Chester, Durham, Manchester, Ripon, and Sodor and Man. AECHBISHOPS OP TOEK. A.D. A.D. Paulinus 627 I Bosa 673 Ceaclda 664 John of Beverley . . 705 Wilfredl 667 Wilfiredll 713 913 YOR A.D. Egbert 732 Bthelbert, or Coena 767 Eanbald 1 780 Eaubald II 796 Wulfsius 812 Wimundus 831 Wulfhere 854 Ethelbald 900 Bedeward Wulstan L 939 Oscytel 956 Ethelwoldus 972 Oswald 972 Aldulfus, or Eadulf 993 Widstanll 1002 .iElfric Puttuc 1023 Kinsige, or Kinsius 1051 Ealdred, or Alredus 1061 Thomas 1 1070 Gerard 1100 Thomas II 1109 Thurstan 1119 Henry Murdac .... 1147 "William 1153 Roger of Bishopa- bridge 1154 (Interregnum) .... 1181 Geoffrey Planta- genet 1191 (Interregnum) 1212 Walter Grey 1216 Sevan de Bovill .. 1256 Godfrey de Ludham 1258 "Walter Giflfard .... 1266 "William "Wickwane 1279 John le Eomaine . . 1286 Henry de Newerk 1298 Thomas de Cor- bridge 1300 "William de Grene- feld 1306 "William de Melton 1317 "William la Zouch . . 1342 John de Thoresby 1353 Alexander de Ne- ville 1374 Thomas Arundel .. 1388 A.D. Robert Waldby 1397 William Leserope . . 1398 Heiiry Bowet 1407 John Kemp 142S William Bothe 1452 George Neville .... 1465 Lawrence Bothe . . 1476 Thomas Scot 1480 Thomas Savage .... 1501 Christopher Bain- bridge 1508 Thomas Wolsey .. 1514 Edward Lee 1531 Robert Holgate .... 1545 Nicholas Heath .... 1555 Thomas Young 1561 Edmund Grindal . . 1570 Edwin Sands, or Sandys 1577 John Piers 1589 Matthew Button I. 1595 Tobias Matthew .. 1606 George Monteigne 1628 Samiiel Harsnet . . 1628 Richard Neyle 1632 John WLUiams .... 1641 (Interregnum) 1650 Accepted Frewen . . 1660 Richard Sterne 1664 John Dolben 1683 (Interregnum) .... 1686 Thomas Lamplugh 1688 John Sharp 1691 Sir WilUfim Dawes 1714 Lancelot Blackburn 1724 Thomas Herring . . 1743 Matthew Hutton II. 1747 John Gilbert 1757 Robert Hay Drum- mond 1761 William Markham 1777 Edward Venables "Vernon 1808 Thomas Musgrave 1847 Charles Thomas Longley 1860 YoEK (England), the Roman Ebora- cum, the Altera Roma, belonged originally to the Brigantes. It was made a Roman station about a.d. 79. The emperor Sep- timius Severus died here Feb. 4, 211. A Danish force captured the city in 867, and occupied it during the year 869. The inha- bitants made a treaty with Ethelfleda, sister of Edward the Elder, in 918. A witenagemot was held here by Edgar in 966. The castle was taken by the Norwegians, Sunday, Sept. 24, 1066. It was seized by Edgar AtheUng, and the garrison of 3,000 persons put to the of the Jews sword, m 1069. took place March 17, 1190, when upwards of 1,000 were put to death, and many who were besieged in the castle destroyed themselves. It was besieged in 1216 by the insurgent barons, when the inhabitants paid a ransom of 1,000 marks. The marriage of Alexander II. of Scotland and Joan, sister of Henry III., was celebrated here June 25, 1221 ; and that of Alexander III. of Scotland, and Margaret, daughter of Henry III., Dec. 26, 1251. A parliament was summoned to meet at York by Edward I. in 1298. The courts of King's Bench and Exchequer were removed to this city in 1299, where they remained for seven years. Edward II. made it his head-quarters in 1311, and was married in the cathedral to 3 If YOK Philippa of Hainault, Jan. 24, 1328. A pes- tilence carried off 11,000 of the inhabitants in 1390. The city was taken by the Lancas- trians in 1460. On the suppression of monas- teries by Henry VIII. in 1536, an insurrection took place, styled the "PUgrimage of Grace " iq.v.), when the insurgents entered the city, and compelled the archbishop to join them. Conferences before the duke of Norfolk and the earl of Sussex were held here in 1568, to inquire into the charges against Mary, queen of Scots. Charles I. visited York on his way to Scotland in 1633 ; and a pacification was concluded with the Scottish commissioners, Jime 18, 1639. The king summoned the peers to meet him here Sept. 24, 1640 ; and again, when he took a solemn pledge to exercise a legal government, June 13, 1642. It was besieged by the parhamentary army, and surrendered after the defeat of Prince Eupert at Marston Moor, Julj' 16, 1644. The parliamentary generals, Fairfax and Monk, occupied it in 1659. A meeting of the gentry was held at York, and £40,000 subscribed for the suppression of the rebellion, Sept. 24, 1745. Eleven of the rebels were executed here in 1746. A petition respecting extravagance and abuse in the expenditure of the public money, adopted at a monster meeting, was presented to parhament Feb. 8, 1780. Foiu'teen of the rioters termed Luddites were executed here Jan. 10, 1813. A grand banquet was given in the GuUdhaU by the lord mayor to Prince Al- bert, the lord mayor of London, and the chief municipal officers in the kingdom, Oct. 25, 1850. Its first charter was granted by Henry II., and the title of lord was given to the mayor by Eichard II. The Guildhall was erected in 1446, and the church of St. Michael- le-Belfrey was built in 1545. St. Olave, Mary- gate, was raised out of the ruius of the abbey that was founded on the spot by Siward, earl of Northumbria, in 1732. St. Peter's school was founded by Queen Mary in 1557, and the Blue-coat boys' school was established in 1705. The Mansion-house was built in 1726, and the Assembly-room, the finest in the kingdom, in 1736. The covmty hos- pital was endowed by Lady Hastings in 1749, and the retreat for lunatics was erected by the Quakers in 1796. The building of the PhQosophical Society was opened in 1830. YoEK (tapper Canada). — The name of this town was changed to Toronto (q.v.) A.D. 1834. YoKKisTS. {See Laitcasteians and YOEKISTS.) YoEE MiifSTEE, originally founded by Edwin, king of Northumberland, a.d. 627, was destroyed by fire April 23, 741. A new church was built dui-ing the episcopate of Ethelbert, who was elected to the see in 767. It was rebuilt by Archbishop Thomas, who came to the see in 1070, and was burned dovra in 1137. Of the present building the nave was founded by John le Eomaine, the archbishop, in 1291. The edifice was completed by Archbishop Melton about 1331. Archbishop Thoresby rebuilt the 914 YVR choir in 1361 ; and the central tower was taken down in 1370, and rebuilt soon after- wards. Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, set fire to the cathedral Feb. 2, 1829. Ano- ther conflagration ensued, through the carelessness of a workman who left his candle burning in the clock-tower, May 20, 1840. YoEK Missal. — Perhaps the only perfect copy of this ritual is that preserved in the hbrary of St. John's College, Cambridge, bearing the title, " Missale ad usum Eccle- siae Eboracum, sumptibus Fraucisci Eeg- nault, Parisiis, a.b. 1533." YoEK Towif (North America) . — Lord CornwaUis, on taking the command in Vir- ginia, concentrated his forces here Aug. 22, 1781. The American batteries were opened upon it Oct. 9, and CornwaUis surrendered Oct. 19. Ypees, or Ypeeen- (Belgium), took its rise from a fortress which was built by a count of Flanders a.d. 960. The town was enlarged and walled by Philip the Bold in 1388. The Spaniards wrested it from the inhabitants, who had revolted, in 1649, and it was taken by the English and French in 1658. The French captured it in 1744, bombarded it ineffectually in 1793, and reduced it, after a thirteen days' siege, June 17, 1794. Linen, called " diaper," was originally made here, taking its name from a mispronunciation of d' Yperen. Yttkium was discovered in the state of oxide called yttria, by Professor Gadolin, of Ytterby, in Sweden, a.d. 1794. The me- tal, of a dark grey colour, was first procured by Wohler in 1828. Yucatan (Mexico) was discovered by Hernandez Cordova, a.d. 1517, and con- quered by the Spaniards, under Bernal Diaz, in 1522. It remained subject to Spain till the declaration of independence in 1813. The change of the federal into a central go- vernment in Mexico in 1835 raised a spirit of discontent in this state. This led to a repudiation of the central power in 1839 ; and after a lengthened contest the esta- blishment of its independence in 1841. The ruins of many extensive cities have been discovered. They were described by the North American traveller Stephens in 1838 and 1842. Y'usT, St. (/See Just, St.) I YvEES, or IvET (France), belongedJ to Eaoul, half-brother of Eichard I., duke of Normandy, who built a strong fortress, round which the town sprung up, A.D. 943—996. Eoger de Beaumont, whe had received the domain from Wilhaia the Bastard, founded the Benedictine moi nastery in 1071. Henry I. of England" threw a garrison into the castle in 1119. An interview took place near the town between Henry II. of England and LouMj VII. of France in 1176. The upper town taken by the Enghsh, under Talbot, in 1418 and by the duke of Bedford in 1424. Il was recovered by the French in 1449. (Set IvET, Battle.) ZAA z. Zaawdam. {See Saaedam.) Zab (Battle) . — Merwan II., the fourteenth, and last caliph of the Ommiades, was defeated A.D. 750 in a sanguinary conflict on the banks of this river, in Assyria, by the Ab- bassides, who established their dynasty. Merwan II. took refuge in a mosque at Busir, in Egypt, where he was slain Feb. 10, 750. Zactnthus. {See Zante.) Zadock (Battle). — The insurgent Hun- garians collected by Bertzeny were defeated at this place, on the frontiers of Poland, by the Austrian general Seekingen, Jan. 22, 1710. Zageab (Battle). — Charles Martel, having entered Hungary to claim the crown, was defeated in an engagement at this place, A.D. 1292, by Andrew III. Zaire Eivek (Africa). — This river was discovered by Diego Cam, a.d. 1484. In 1518 it was stated that it flowed from a lake in the interior of Africa, and in 1816 it was partially explored by Tuckey. Its actual source and course are stiU very imperfectly known. This river is also called the Congo, which name it gives to the country through which it flows. {See Con- GO.) Zalacca (Battle). — The Almoravides of Africa defeated AJfonso VI. of Castile in this plain, near Badajos, Oct. 2 and 3, 1086. Zama (Numidia), at one time strongly for- tified, and the residence of the ancient kings of the country, was the scene of a signal defeat of Hannibal by P. Cornelius Scipio, when twenty thousand Carthaginians were slain, and as many taken prisoners, B.C. 202. It refused admittance to Juba when a fugi- tive from Caesar, after the battle of Thapsus, B.C. 46. Zawte (Ionian Islands), the ancient Za- cynthus, was founded by a colony of Achseans about B.C. 1390. It was unsuccessfully at- tacked by the Lacedaenaonians B.C. 430, and assisted the Syracusan expedition of Dion against Dionysius, B.C. 357. It was taken by the Eoman praetor Valerius b.c. 211. Phihp V. of Macedon having obtained possession, restored it to the Romans B.C. 191. The town suffered from an earthquake in October, 1841 . The pitch-weUs of the island, which stiU exist, were described by Herodo- tus and PUny. Zanzaleens. ■ — The followers of Jacob Zanzalee, better known as Baradseus, who died A.D. 578, were so called. {See Jaco- bites.) Zanzibar (Africa). — This island was dis- covered by the Portuguese Albuquerque A.D. 1503. Zaea (Austria) occupies the site of the ancient Jadera, the capital of Liburnia, in lUyria. It became a Eoman colony under Augustus. Under the name of Diodora it paid a tribute of a hundred and ten pieces 915 ZEL of gold to the Eastern empire, and was transferred to the Slavonic princes by Basil I. (a.d. 867 — 886). Zara afterwards became the capital of Dalmatia. Having revolted from Venice, and implored the aid of Hun- gary, it was besieged by the French and Venetian crusaders, and yielded after a five days' resistance, Nov. 10, 1202. Zatmae (Treaty) . — A convention by which peace was restored to Hungary, — the empe- ror, Joseph I., granting a general amnesty, restitution of confiscated property, liberation of prisoners, and the exercise of the Pro- testant rehgion, — was signed in January, 1711. Zealand, or Sieland (Denmark). — This island was anciently of great importance as a resort for the fleets for which Denmark was so justly famous. Its castle of Wor- dingborg was founded by Valdemar I. a.d. 1166. Zealand (HoUand). — The islands com- posing this province were first united under one government by Florence V. a.d. 1256. In 1304 Zealand was seized by Guy of Flanders, who was, however, speedily ex- pelled ; and, in 1579, it participated in the celebrated Union of Utrecht. Under the French domination, from 1810 to 1814, Zealand formed the department of Bouches- de-l'Escaut. Zeeboueg. {See Eammekens.) Zegeis. {See Abenceeeages.) Zeilan. {See Ceylon.) Zeitz (Battle) . — Eodolph, duke of Swabia, having accepted the crown of Germany, and having been recognized by the pope, en- countered the emperor Henry IV. in a pitched battle at this place, near Merse- burg, on the banks of the Elster, in Ger- many, in which he was defeated and slain, Oct. 15, 1080. Zela (Asia Minor), said to have been bmlt on a mound constructed by Semiramis, was raised to the rank of a city by Pompey about B.C. 66. Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces here B.C. 47, and recovered the province of Pontus ; on which occasion he is said to have sent his laconic despatch to Eome, " Veni, vidi, viei." Zell, Zelle, or Celle (Hanover) . — This town was erected into a duchy a.d. 1369. Its castle was built in 1485, and is chiefly cele- brated as the prison of the unfortunate CaroHne Matilda, queen of Denmark and sister of George III., who was immured here on a false charge of incontinence. {See Denmaek.) She was arrested at Co- penhagen Jan. 16, 1772, and immediately conveyed to the castle of Cronenburgh, whence she was removed to this place on the intercession of her brother, the king of England, May 30. After Uving in retire- ment for three years, she died May 10, 1775, in her twenty-fourth year, and was interred in the sepulchre of her maternal ancestors, the dukes of ZeU. A treaty be- tween the duke of Brunswick, Germany, Spain, and HoUand, was concluded at Zell June 20, 1674, and another between Bruns- wick and Sweden Feb. 5, 1679. ZES ZUG Zendecak (B attle ) . — The G-aznerides were defeated by the Turkomans at this place, in Khorassan, and the dynasty of the shepherd Mngs founded in Persia, a.d. 1038. Zenta. {See Szenta.) ZiBTC -was unkno^ni to the Greeks, Eomans, or Arabians, although the ore calamine was probably employed in making brass in the 6th century. Albertus Magnus showed that furnace calamine might be used for this pur- pose in the 13th century. This application was also pointed out by Erasmus Ebener, of Nuremberg, about 1548. Artificial white vitriol was an article of commerce about 1570, before it was known that it was pro- cured from zinc. The name zinc first occurs in Paracelsus, who described it in 1530. Henkel procured it from calamine, and pub- lished his success in 1741. In England it was probably manufactured in that way as early as 1737. "Works for its manufacture were established at Bristol by Champion in 1743. The greater part of the metal used in Europe was brought from the East Indies, the Com- mercial Company of the Netherlands having sold nearly 1,000,000 lb. between 1775 and 1779, Zieconiitm:. — This rare metal, which has at present resisted all attempts at fusion, was discovered by Berzehus a.d. 1824. Zodiac. — It is beheved that the ancient Babylonians divided the zodiac into twelve signs, distinguished by the names of different animals ; and a siinilar arrangement was adopted by the Egyptians, Greeks, and orientals. Anaximander of MUetus is said to have constructed a dial representing the signs of the zodiac about B.C. 600, and Ara- tus, who wrote an astronomical poem about B.C. 270, describes the zodiac. The practice of decorating ceilings, &c., with represen- tations of the zodiacal signs was common in ancient Egypt and Kome. The phenomenon of the zodiacal light was first observed by Descartes and Cluldrey, and was named by the elder Cassini in 1683. It was first observed in England in Essex, by Derham, April 3, 1707. ZoLLVEKEiK-. — The idea of a uniform system of customs for the German states was first suggested at the congress of Vienna, A.D. 1815, and was acted upon by the go- vernment of Prussia, which aboUshed all distinctions of customs throughout its terri- tories. May 26,1818, and invited other govern- ments to unite for a similar purpose. The invitation, was generally accepted, and the result was the formation of the ZoUverein, or customs union of the German states, by a treaty signed March 22, 1S33. Saxony joined the union March 30, and Thuringia May 11, and the uniformity of customs thus introduced commenced Jan. 1, 1834. Zoological Gaedej^s. — The Zoological Gardens, Eegent's Park, were laid out a.d. 1825, and the Surrey Gardens in 1832. Zoological Society. — The Zoological Society of London was founded by Sir Humphry Davy, Sir Stamford Eaffles, and 916 other eminent gentlemen, a.d. 1826. The Cuvierian Society of Paris was instituted iii 1738. Zoology. — Aristotle wrote his " History of Animals" about B.C. 334. The first Eu- ropean work in any department of this science worthy of notice is Turner's " His- toiy of Birds," published at Cologne a.d. 1548. Conrad Gesner's "History of Ani- mals," considered by Cuvier as the basis of all modern zoology, was pubUshed between" 1551 and 1587. A history of fishes in Latin, from the pen of Belon, the traveller, ap- peared in 1553. Ichthyology was treated of by Salviani in 1558, and by Kondelet in 1554. Aldrovandus, professor oi natural history at Bologna, produced a work on the subject in thirteen volumes, nine of which were pub- hshed after his death, which occurred in 1605. The last, on cloven-hoofed quadru- peds, was issued from the press in 1642. The animals of Brazil were described by Marcgraf in 1648. Jonston, a Pole, pro- duced a natural history 1648 — 1652. A work on insects, by Mouffet, an English physician, appeared in 1634. Kay, the fibrst zoologist who made use of comparative ana- tomy, wrote on the subject in various de- partments between 1676 and 1693. Swam- merdam, a Dutch naturalist, published a general history of insects in 1669. Baron Cuvier, conjointly with M. Geoffroy, issued a new classmcation of mammiferous animals in 1797, and published his " Animal King- dom" in 1817. {See Linn^san System and Natueal Histoey.) ZoENDOEF (Battle).— The Eussians, 50,000 strong, commanded by Marshal Fermor, were attacked Aug. 25, 1758, at this village in Prussia, by the Prussians under Fre- derick II., and suffered a severe defeat, having lost upwards of 20,000 men and nearly 1,000 officers. Zouaves. — A Kabyle or primitive Berber people, inhabiting a mountainous district between Bougie and Dellis, in Algeria, known as the Gaouaoua, or D'Ait-Gaoua, are also called Zouaouas ; whence the term Zouave. Max MiiUer says they are called Shawi in Algiers, that is, Nomads ; and that at Tunis the name has been corrupted to Suav ; whence the French Zouave. The lieutenant-general ofpohce attached to the French expedition to Algeria addressed a communication to Marshal Bourmont containing an offer of an auxiliary corps of 2,000 of these people, Aug. 14, 1830. The offer was accepted, and a decree issued for its formation, Oct. 1, 1830. A royal ordinance divided them into two battalions, composed of four companies of indigenes and two of French, Dec. 5, 1835. Gradually the enhstment of natives ceased j and the force now consists almost exclusively of Frenchmen. ZuG (Switzerland), the smallest of the cantons, joined the confederation a.d. 1352, became a member of the new confederacy in 1815, and formed one of the seven Eoman Cathohc cantons which associated, under the name of the Sonderbund, against the ZtL Free Corps in 1846. The arsenal contains the bloody banner borne by Peter Kollin, yfho fell fighting against the Milanese in 1422. ZutucHATJ (Battle). — The Prussians, under General Wedel, were defeated by the Kussians, with a loss of 9,000 men, near this town of Prussia, July 23, 1759. ZuLPicH. — The name sometimes given to the battle of Tolbiac (q. v.). ZuEiCH (Switzerland), capital of the can- ton, and an ancient Roman station, was burned by the Helvetii when about to invade Gaul, B.C. 61. The Alemanni rebuilt it a.d. 256. It received the jus monetce from Charles the Bald, and was walled round under Otho I. Arnold of Brescia found refuge here in 1140, when he fled from Italy on a charge of heresy. The canton joined the confederation in 1351, and was engaged in 1436 in a civil war with the other cantons, which besieged it in 1444. Peace was concluded between them in 1446. The town of Winterthur was mortgaged to the canton in 1452. The reformed faith was adopted in 1523, and the sacrifice of the mass replaced by the celebration of the Lord's Supper in 1525. The French general Mas- sena retreated from the town, leaving it in the hands of the Austrians, June 5, 1799. He defeated the Eussian general Korsakoff, when the celebrated Lavater, wishing to act as a minister of peace, stepped between the combatants, and fell dead in the street, Sept. The Protestant pastors of the town, opposed to the system of education inde- pendent of the clergy, put themselves at the head of a body of peasants, and effected the dissolution of the government in 1839. The Miinsterhoff, or cathedral, in the Byzantine style, was built in the 11th century; the Frauenmiinster, formerly a nunnery, was founded in the 13th century ; and the uni- versity, an ancient convent, was founded in 1834. ZuEiCH (Treaty). — Plenipotentiaries from Austria, France, and Sardinia, for the de- finite settlement of the preliminary treaty of Villafranca (q.v.), assembled at Zurich Aug. 8, 1859, and concluded a definite treaty Nov. 10, which was ratified Nov. 21. By this treaty, the whole of Lombardy, except Peschiera and Mantua, was ceded by Austria to France, on condition that it should im- mediately be transferred to Sardinia, and a perpetual pea«e was established between the three contracting powers. ZtJTPHEN (Holland).— This fortified town ZYP was acquired with the province of Guelder- land, in which it is situated, by Charles I. (the Bold), duke of Burgundy, a.d. 1472. Sir Philip Sydney lost his life in a skirmish under its walls, when his uncle, the earl of Leicester, made an unsuccessful attempt to take it, Sept. 22, 1586. ZuTDEE Zee, or South Sea (HoUand), originally a lake known by the name of Flevo, was enlarged by an inundation of the sea, which separated HoUand from Friesland, A.D.- 1234. A body of French cavalry and artillery crossed it upon the ice in 1794, when the novel enterprise was executed of the capture of a fleet by a land force, a portion of the Dutch navy having been frozen in at the Texel. The Dutch fleet surrendered to the English admiral Mitchell here, Aug. 30, 1799. ZwiCKAtr (Saxony). — The fine Gothic church at this place was commenced a.d. 1453. ZwiNGi-iAKS, the followers of Ulrich ZwingU, or Zwinglius, who was born at Wildhausen, Toggenburg, in the Swiss canton of St. Gall, in January, 1484. He was ordained priest in 1506, and appointed to the parish of Glarus, where he preached against the corruptions of the church of Rome. The court of Rome charged him vrith heresy, and threatened him and his disciples vrith excommunication, when he opposed the sale of indulgences as preacher to the monastery of Einsiedlen, an appoint- ment which he received in 1516. Zwinglius was appointed, in 1517, to a vacancy in the cathedral of Zurich. The ZwingUans formed a majority in the two great councils at Zurich, in January and October, 1523. They ordered the removal of all images and ornaments from churches in 1524, and put an end to the celebration of the mass in January, 1525. The popish cantons having sent a force against them, defeated them at Cappel (q.v.), where Zwinglius himself led them to the field, and fell at their head, mortally wounded, Oct. 11, 1531. ZwoLLE (Holland) . — This town was taken by the French a.d. 1672, and again Jan. 31, 1795. The Russians occupied it ISTov. 12, 1813. It was much injured in 1825 by an inundation of the river Yssel. Zyp (Battle). — Sir Ralph Abercrombie repulsed an attack of 16,000 French, under Dandaels, at this place, also called Zuyper- Sluys, in Holland, Sept. 9, 1799. 917 GEKEEAL INDEX. GENERAL INDEX The Italic letter a after the figures indicates the Second Column of the page to which reference is made. Aachen, 23a Adams, John Quincy, 862 Albemarle, duke of, 365 Aarau, 1 Addison, Joseph, 802a Alberoni, Cardinal, 796 Abacinaire, 127a Adelaide, Que^'n Dowager, 326 Albert, Prince, 878 Abacus, 167 Adelie Land, 48a Albert of Saxony. 92a Abbas-Ben-Abul-MotaUeb, la Adjutators, 21a Albertus Magnus, 84 Abbates Milites, la Admirable Crichton, 477 Albiga, 26 Abbot-counts, 3 Ad Mui-um, 596 Albigenses, 118a Abbot of Unreason, 3 Adonijah, 454a Albion, 145a Abd-el-Kader, 31a, 356a, 357 Adrastus, 391a Alboin. 446 Abd-el-Wahab, 885 Adrianople, 401 Alboni, Mdlle., 621 Abderahman, 619a Adult Schools, 310a Albula, 25 Abdi Pasha, 630a Advocate-general, 390 Albuciuerque, 431 Abelians, 4 Adze axe, 8i5a Alcaus, 876a Abellard. Peter, 836 Ma, 59a, 230a Alcubier, Colonel, 411a Aberconwy, 244 ^buda, 789 Alcuinus, 43a Abemethy, Dr., 817 ^gje, 392 Aldini, 367 Aben-igiues, 5 iEgialeia, 77Qa Aldus Manutius, 28, 696a Abershaw,L. J.,336 ^gialeus, 391a Aldrovandus of Bologna, 626 Abertaw, 819 JEgira, 8a Ale-conner, 28a Abococket, 1 JEgium, 8«, 9 Ale-founder, 28a Abomey, 19a .ffilgospotamos, 192 Alemannia, 818a Abraham, 454a, 823a ^mUius Paulus, 329a Alexander, Sir W., 40a Abrlncse, 85 ^mona, 480a Alexander the Great, 387, 392, 431, Abruzzo, 303a JEueas, 445a, 636a 455 Absalom, 494a ^neas Tacitus, 215 Alfoi.sine Tables, 36a Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, ASrius, 17a Algarve, 689 429a ^scesdune, 69 Algiers, 303a Abstainers, 6, 321 .aischylus, 291, 847 Alhambra Palace, Leicester Square, Abubeker. 471a jEseulapius, 550 639 Abul Abbas, 2 ^semia, 444 All Pasha, 450a Abuna, 7 ^s Uxorum, 730a AUahsher, 662a Acacius Luscus, 7 ^tius, 550 Alleyu, E.. 298 Acacius, patriarch of Constanti- JEtna (city), 191a All-Hallow, 33 nople, 7 African Association, 373a Allegiance, 5 Acad6mie des Beaux-Arts. 437 Agendicum, 770 Allen, William, 725 Acadgmie des Inscriptions et Agennum, 21 Allmen, 28a Belles-Lettres, 437 Agesilaus, 130. 657 Allobroges. 370 Acad^mie des Sciences, 437 Aggregate Fund, 241a AH S-iints, Feast of, 341a Acad^iaie des Sciences Morales et Aghabo, 627 Almaden, 708 Politiques, 437 Agion-oros, 577a Almagro, 1 Acad^mie Frangaise, 437 Agricola, John, 49, 790 Almeida, 19a. 69a, 196a Academy del Gai Saber, 853 Agricola, Julius, 146, 886 Almohedes, 35 Academy of Ancient Music, 237a Agricola of Saxony, 564a Almonaught, 34a Acadia, 40 Agrigentum, 187a Almoon-heed, 34a Aca Nada, 174 AUbe, St.,320 Aln, 36 Acca-Larentia, 25a Airedale Independent College, 430a Alompra, 159 Accho, 10 Aix Eoads, 103a Alp Arslan, 657a Accoucheurs,. 562 Ajax,723 Alpinus, P., 228 Achad-Chaoin, 9a Akbar, 431 Alsatia, 900 Achad-Conaii-, 9a Alalia, 29 Altena, 37 Achilles Statue, 426 Alamoot, 70a Altera Roma, 913a Achmetha, 306a Alaus, 24a Alube, 380 Aciucum, 154a Alarcon, 40 Alum Bagh, 4:33a Ackerman, Mr. R, 697 Alard, G., 14 Alumbrados, 428a Achurch, 151a Alaric, 251a, 733, 882 Alva, duke of, 398, 795a Acrisius, 478 Alasco, John, 25, 716a Amalek, 37a Acronof Agrigentum, 320a Alava. 103a Amai-apora, 159, 859 Act of Faith, 83a Alb, 817a Amaury of Bene, 37a Acta Diuma, 599 Alba Regia, 812a Amazonius, 273a Actiii Festival, 603a Alban, St., 25a Ambracia, 329a Adafoodia, 20 Albany, 40a Ambrose, St., 39, 580, 830 Adalbert, St., 699a Al Batani, 815 Ameinocles, 852a Adamantine Spar, 251 Albatnegius, 815 Amerciament, 39 Adams, John, 860a, 861a Albemarle, 186 Amhei-st, Lord, 208a THE MAIfUAL OF DATES. Amir, 14 Aquse Sextiae. 23a Arviragus. 146a Amiral, 14 Aquarium, 53a Aryan. 762a Ammon, 41a, 312 Aqua Tofana, 894 As, Roman, 245 Ammonium, 615 Aqua Vitse, 140 Asclepiades, 550, 817 Ammonius of Alexandria, 494a Arabici, 55 Ascoli, 68a Ammonitis Saccas, 307, 593 Arago, Frangois, 357, 622 Asculum Picenum, 68a Amorian dynasty, 305a Ara Jovis, 56 Asellius, Gaspar, 128, 474 Amphibalus, 789 Aram, 823a Ashburnham House, 252 Amphictyons, 276 Aram, Eugene, 336 Ashburton, Lord, 862 AmpMIochians, 8 Aram Naharaim, 5.56a Ashendon, Bucks, 69, 330a Amphipolis, 838 Ararat, 62 Ashtaroth, 86 Amstel river, 41a Aratus, 8a, 247 Ashton, Berkshire, 69 Amsteldam, 42a Arausio, 622a Asiente, tiSa Amui- River, 42 ArbU, 56 Aske, Rf.bert, 667 Anacapri, 182a Arborea, 755 Assam Tea, 70 Anadol, 44 Ai-cas, 56a Assembly of the Wise Men, 906a Anapia, 154a Arcesilaus, 568» Asses, Feast of, 350 Anatolia, 69a Archduke. 297ai Asshur. 605 Anaxagoras, 73a Archemorus, 593a Assumption. Paraguay, 641 Anaxandrides, 290a Ai-cher, Scott, 231a Assurance, 437a Anaximander, 73a, 280a, 373a, ArchUochus, 329, 427, 876 Astacus. 124a, 603a 539, 639, 802a, 916 Aichimandrites, 3 Asti, 73 Anaximenes, 73a Archimedes, 159a, 374, 548a, 554, Astigi, 307 Anchorets, 43 626a. 705, 766, 802a, 815 Aston, Berks, 330a Ancore.603 Archimedes Steamer, 766 Aston HaU. 122 Ancyra, 46a Archytas, 840a Astor. 558a Andagoya, Pascual de, 658a Arden, Maiy, 773 Astoria. 624a Andegavia, 46 Arelas, 61 Asturia, 72 Andematunnum, 476a Arelate. 61 Asturica Augusta, 73 Anderson, Lieutenant, 574 Arenaria, 191 Atahuallpa, 6o8a Andre, Major, 860a Areopagus, 254 AteUa, 84 Andreas, Bernar.l, 414 Aretinus, 65a Athanasius, St., 57 Andronicus. Lirius, 291, 847 Aretmus, Guido, 580 Athelney, 269a Angelets, 46 An-ezzo, 65a Atheuasus, 768a Angitola. 769 Arrezzo, Guido d', 580, 791 Athesis, 12a Angles, 322 Argand Lamp, 475a Athlone Castle, 736 Anglesea, Isle of, 46 Argeutoratum, 811a Athotes, 413a Anglo Catholics, 703a Argo, 59a Atlixco, 304a Angi-a, 86 Argovia. 1 Atossa, 485a Angria, 431a Arguim, 19a Atrebates. 65 Anjou, Charles of, 584 Argj'U, Marquis of, 765a Atterbury. Bishop, 481 Ankei-strom, Count, 820a Ai-ienzo, 193a Attila, 425, 5U4a Annam, 43a Arion, 847, 876a Attleborough. 214a Annapolis, 613 Ai-iosto, 233a Attomatus Regis, 77a Anne of Austria, 443a Aristides, 75a, 192 Anasis, 615 Anne of Bohemia, 723a Aristippus of Cyi-eue, 266 Aubert, 40 Anne of Cleves, 323a, 411 Aristotle, 73a, 76a, 498, 548a, 589a, Auca (See of), 157 Anne of Denmark, 11, 450 626, 655 Auctocthones, 5 Anne Hyde, 450 Aristophanes, 233a, 291 Augusta, 499a, 706, 849a Anno Hegirse (a.h),17 Aristoxenus, 580 Augusta Prsetoria, 51. Anno Mundi (a.m.), 17 Arius, 60a Augusta Suessonium, 789a Anno Urbis Conditse (A.n.c), 17 Arkwright, Sir Richard, 252a, 802a Augusta Taurinorum, 854a Annunciation, 474 Armati, Salvino, 802a Augiista Vangionum, 909a Annunghoy, 210 ArmiUary Sphere, 802a Augusta Veromanduorum, 707a Anomseans, 60a Arminius, James, 63a, 486a Augusta Vindelicorum, 79a Ansekn of St. Bee. 686a Armlets, 139a Augustan Age, 482 Anson, Lord, 7a, 217 Armorica, 148a Augustiue, St., 57, 94, 179a, 830 Antakieh, 49 Armstrong, Johnnie, 577a Augustine, St.. Pupils of, 451 Anthropomorphites, 79a Armstrong, Sir W., 399 Augustobona, 853 Anti-burghers, 157 Ai-naud, Henri, 868 Augustonemetum, 222 AntiCom-Law League, 254a Amaud, St., Marshal, 357, 744 Augustoritum, 49 la Antigoneia, 538a, 603 Arndt, Ernest Maurice, 378a Aula Regia, 71a, 235 Antigua, 304a Arnold. Benedict. 860, 861 Aurelianum, tj25a Antiocheia Majgiana, 556 Arnold of Brescia, 733, 917 Aureola, 604a Antiocheia Mydonise, 605a Ainold, Rev. Dr., 739a Aurgi, 449 Antisthenes, 265a Amott, Dr. NeU, 811, 874a Auriflamme, 625 Antoinette, Marie, 354a Arpad, 531 Aurungzebe, 431 Antonelli, Cardinal, 734 Arrechis, 114 Austin Caucus, 80 Antoninus, PiUax- of, 732a Arrow lorcha. 180a, 209a Austin, Captaiu, 360a Antony, Mark, 732 Arrows, 57a Austin Friars, 80 Antony, St., 2a, 6 Ai-sacidtB. Dynasty of the, 62a, 63 Auteri, 735a Antunacum, 45a Ai-senites, 66 Autochthones. 5 Anxur, 832a Ai-seuius. 65a Autricimi, 203 Apelles, 634a Ai-senius, St.. 6 Auvergne. 370a Apocleti, 17a Arsinarium Promontory, 181a Auxume, 85a ApoUinarius, 51a Arsingham, 303a Aval. 90 Apollodorus, 634a Arsinoe, Labyrinth of, 473a Avai-icum, 130 ApostoUci, 51a Artemisia, 547 Ave Bell, 84 Apostoolians, 366 Artevelde, Van, J. and P., 379a Avarino. 590, 704 Apostool, Samuel, 366 Arthur, King, 248a Avicenna, 550 Apotactici, 51a Arthur, Prince, of Anjou, 340 Avocats, 644 Apotactites, 321 Articles of War, 592 Avoirdupois weight, 895 Appius Claudius, 273a, 730a Artificial Stone, 810 Awal, 90 Apprenticii ad legem, 101a Artificial Teeth, 830a Ayoubite dynasty, 912a Appropriato.rs, 53a Artois, 158, 353 Ayuthia, 777a Aquae Mattiacae, 901a Artotyritffi, 204 Azote, 606 GENEEAL INDEX. 923 Azotus, 69 Aztlan, 86 Baax Gad, 86 Baba-Dagh, Mountain, 304a Babbage, C, 167 Baber, 18a, 431 Babylonian Gemara, 826 Babylonish Captivity of the Pope- dom, 221 Babyngton, Anthony, 323a Bacoanoelde. 109 Bacchidse, 246a Bacchus, 905 Bachelor of Arts, 67a Backgammon, 368 Backstaff, 705 Bacon, John, 766a Bacon, Lord, 324. 467«, 613 Bacon, Kuger, 27a, 399a, 529a, 622, 802a BacuU-annales, 34a Baden-Durlach, 89 Bsetula, 858 Baffin, "W., 58a, 89a Bagnolensians, 90a Bahia, 141 Bahrein, 185a Bail Court, 467 Baily's Beads, 307a, 815 Bajazet, 46a' Balbastro, 97 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. 9, 271, Baldred, St.. 104 Baleen, 899 Balistarius, 624 Ballard, J., 87a Balleny Isles, 48a Balliol, 4, 117 Ballymore Fort, 897 Balmerino, Lord, 324a Baltasarini, 620a Baltimore, Lord, 544a Balue, Cardinal de la, 443 Bamburg, 93a Bampton, 108 Bampton, Rev. J., 93a Banchor, 94 Banda Oriental, 866 Banishment, 847a Banja, 94 Bank Annuities, 364a Bank Charter Act, 94a Banks, Sir Joseph, 408a, 738a Banks, Thomas, 766a Baptistery, 349a Baptisteries, 96a Baradasus, Ja,cob, 448a, 915 Barbary Hill, 115a Barberini Vase, 687a Barbour, John, 676 Barcius, 97a Bardney, 98 Bardsey, 262a Barefeet Insurrection, 608a Barefooted Carmelites, 18oa Barentsz, WiUiam, 58a, 803a Baiile, 304a Barium, 98a Barker, Bobert, 639 Barkers, School of the, 265a Barnabas, St:, 427a Barnabas. St., Church, Pimlico,502 Barnard, Sir H., 433 Barn e veldt, John, 415a Barr, St., 247a Barrasters, 101a Barri, Mde. du, 354a Barrow, H., 152 Barrowists, 151a Barry, Sir Chaiies, 422a Barsumas, 594 Bai-tholomew, 63a Bashi Islands, 102a Basilian Dynasty, 305a Basiliarde, 103 BasUides, 329a, 384 Basra, 104 Basileus, 465a Bastidas, 40 Batavi, 415 Baths and 'Wash-houses Act, Bathyany, Count, 424 Batis, 652a Batou Khan, 194a, 386, 741a Batties, 105a Battle Abbey, 406a Battles :— Abancay, 1 Abensberg, 4 Aboukir, 5a Achelons, 155 Aclea, 9a Acz, 11a Adda, 12 Adige, 12a jEnophyta, 75a Aghrim, 79a Agincourt, 21a Agnadel, 21a Agra, 22 Aibar, 23 Ain-Beida, 31a Airdsmoss, 172a Aix, 23a Aiznadin, 24 Ajnadin, 24 Akhalzikh, 24a Alarcos, 25 Albans, St., 26 Albiola, 26a Albuera, 26a Albufera, '27 Alcaniz, 797 Alcazar, 27 Alcazar do Sal, 689 Alcoraz, 55a Alcoraza, 27a Aldenhoven, 27a Alderne, 80a Alexandria, 29a Alford, 30a Aliwal, 33 Aljubarota, 33 Allia, 33 Allifse, 34 Allyghur, 34 Alma. 34 Almanza, 34a Almenai-a, 35 Almonacid, 35 Almorah, 35a Alney, 35a Alpedrinham, 690 Alresford, 36a Altenkirchen, 37 Alton, 37 Amand, St., 37a Amberg, 38a Amblef, 38a Amescoaz, 797a Andematuuuum, 492a Andemach, 45 Andredslea, 147 Angoi-a, 46a Angostui'a, 560 Anjou, 47a Annan, 47a Anneau, 47a Antioch, 49a Antoine, St., 50a Antrim, 50a Aquae Sextise, 23a Aragua, 55a Aranie, 56 Arazua, 55a Arbela, 56 Arcis-snr-Aobe, 53 Areola, 58 Battle— {continued). Ardennes, 610a Ardoch, 59 Argaum, 59a Argentaria, 59a Argties, 608 Aricia, 333 Arikera, 60a Arkary, 60a Ai-klow, 60a Arnee, 56 Ai-oyo des Molinos, 5.55a Arques, 65 Arretium, 370 Ascalou, 68a Ascoli, 68a Asculum, 68a Ashdune, 69 Aspern, 70 Assandun, 71 Assaye, 70a Assens, 71 Assingdon,71 Atherton Moor, 76a Auberoche, 79 Aubin de Cm-mier, St., 79 Auerstadt, 79a Aughrim, 79a Auldearn, 80a Auray, 80a Aussig, 525a Austerlitz, 81 Avaine, 84 Avein, 84 Axarquia, 8oa Ayacucho, 85a Aybar, 23 Aylesford, 85a Azincour, 21a Badajos, 88a Balaclava, 91 Balarath, 657a Baldon, 148a Ballinamuck. 92a Ball's Bluff, 863a Ballyhoe, 93 Ballynahinch, 93 Baltimore, 93a 1, 93a , 433a Baunockbum, ! Baphaeon, 96a ~ ■ 3,97 li,393 Barletta, 99 Bamet, 99a Barossa, 100a Barricades, 101 Barriers, 101 Bai-ry, 302 Basel, 821a Basientello, 103 Basing, 103 Battiu, 105a Battlefield, 106 Bauge, 47a Bautzen, 106 Bayazid, 107 Baylen, 107 Beaver Dam, 109 Bebriacum, 109a Beder, 109 Bedcanford, 109 Bedriacum, 109a Behmus Heights, 110a Belchite, 111 Belgrade, Ilia Bellair, 112 Beneveuto, 114a Beneventum, 114a • 924 THE MANUAL OF DATES. B ArrxES — {continued). Bennington, 115a Bensiiigtoii, 115a Beora, 433a Beranbirig, 115a Beresina, 115a Berg, 858 Bergen, llBa Bergerac, 116a Bei-sinikia, 155 Bethshemesh, 453 Beverwyk, 118tt Beylau, 118a Beyi-ont, 313a Biberach, 119a Bicocca, 120a Bidasoa, 120a Bielawesch, 386 Birmingham, 121a Bitboor. 433 Bitonto, 125 Blackheath, 126 Blackrock, 126a Bladensburg, 127 Blenheim, 127 Blindheim , 127 Bloreheath,128a Blue Mills, 8B3a Bober, 129a Boehmischgrod, 825 Bogesund, 130 Bojaca, 131a Bonna, 133 Bononia, 133 Booneville, 863a Borodino, 135 Borough -bridge, 135a Borrisow, 135a Bosworth Field, 136 Bothwell Bridge, 137 Bouvines, 138a Bovines, 138a Boxtel, 138a Boyne, 139 Bradock Down, 139a Brailow, 140 Bramham Moor, 140 Brandy-wine, 140 Brecknock, 886a Breed's Hill, 156a Breitenfield, 484 Bremulle, 142 Brenneville, 142 Brentford, 142 Breslau, l42a Briar Creek, 143a Bridgewater, 174a Brienne, 145 Brieux, St. , 148a Brihuega, 145a Brunanburg, 152 Brunswick, 152a Bueno Vista, 560 Buljanak, 155a Bull's Run, 535a Bunkei-'s Hill, 156a Buiford, 156aj Burlington Heights, 188a Busaco, 161 Buttington, 162 Buxar, 162 Cabira, 163 Cadesia, 163 Cadesia, 164a Cajazzo, 585a Calatanazor, 485 Caldiero, 167 Callinicum, 169a Cambuskenneth, 172 Camden, 172 Camel, 172a Camelford, 172a Campen, 173a CampiUo, 173a Campo Malo, 174 Battles— (con««MU€d). Campona, 174 Cannae, 176a Cappel, 182 Cappiano, 182 Carabobo, 183 Carascal, 797a Carberry Hill, 183a Carcano, 183a Cardaden, 797 Carlow, 185 Carpenisi, 393 Carpi, 186a Carrhse, 187 Cai-thage, U.S. 863a Casiliuum, 189 Castel Fidardo,189a Castella, 189a Castelnaudary, 189a CastelnuoTo, 189a Castiglione, 189a CastUlejos, 190a Ciistillon, 190a Castlebar, 190a Castro d'Airo, 690 Cawnpore, 433a Cephisus, 196 Cerdicsford, 196 Cerdicsore, 196 Ceremola, 196a Ceret, 196 Cerignola, 196 Cerisoles, 196a Cerro Gordo, 560 Ceutla, 196a Chacabuco, 20Ba Choeroneia, 197 Chalgrave, 198 Chalons-8ui--Mame, 198 Charmouth, 202 Chartres. 610a Chester, 269a Chestei-field, 206a Chevy Chase, 628 Chillianwallah, 207 Cbippawa, 211 Choczim, 212 Chotyn, 212 Chupas, 214 Cibalis, 215 Cidiu, 677 Citate, 218a Ciudad-Real, 797 Cla<^tidium, '220a Clavijo, 220a Cleobury, 221 Clifton Moor, 222 Clissau, 222 Clontarf, 222a Clyst. St. Mary's, 224a Cocherel, 226a Coimbra, 229 Colmar, 896a Cologne, 231a Comom, 236a Concord, 238 Conjeveram, 240 Consarbruck, 240 Cor bach, 245a Corbisdale, 245a Coroneia, 249a Cortenuova, 2.50a CorticeUa, 251 Coruches, 690 Coninna, 251 CoiTipedium, 266a Corwen, 251 Corygaum, 251 Cossova, 251a Courtray, 253a Coutras, 254 Coutreras, 560 Coveripauk, 255 Cowpens, 860a Craney Island, 860a Battlbs — {continued), Cranon, 255a Craon, 255a Craonne, 255a Ci-avant, 255a Crayford, 255a Creccanford, 255a Crecy, 256 Cremera, 256a Cremona, 257 Creveldt, 257a Crimisus, 258 Croix de Vie, 480 Cropredy Bridge, 258(1 Crosford. 886a Crown Point, 259a Culloden, 262a Culm, 262a Cunaxa, 263 Cunersdorf, 263 Cirrtatone, 264 Custoza, 264a Custrin, 473 Cyuo8cephal3B, 265a Cyropedium, 266a Czaslau, 266a Dadar, 267 Dainstadt, 267a Damoko, 63(ki Dauesmore, 93a Danewirke, 270 Darik, 629 Decimus, 273a Deeg, 274 Degstan, 274a Delhi, 275a Deliuin, 276 Dembewielkie, 276a Demain, 27Ua Denis, St., 277 Deimewitz, 278a Deorham, 278a Dervenekai, 393 Dettingen, 280 Deutschbrod, 425a Devizes, 280a Diamond, 274a Diersheim, 282a Dijon, 283 Dinevawr, 887 Djevan-Boulak, 283a Dobro, 285a Dobrynitchi, 285a D61. 148a Donabew, 159 Donato, St., 534 Douauwerth, 288 Dorogobush, 288a Dorylaeum , 288a Dresden, 292 Drevix, 293a Drumclog, 294 Dnffindale, 297a Dug Spring, 863a Dvmiblane. 298 Dunbar, 298 Dunblane, 298 Dundalk. 298 Dunes, 298a DunganhUl, 298a Dunsinane, 299 Duppt-ln, 299 Duppliu Moor, 2d9a Diiren, 299a Durham, 300 DUi-renstein, 300 Dutlingen, 300a Ealla's HiU, 318 Ebbsdorf, 610a Ebro, 853a Ecija, 307 Eckmuhl, 307 Eco Caiinians, 862a GEIfEEAL INDEX. 925 Battles — {con tinued). Edgehill, 308« El Arish, 314 Elatea, 525 Elchingen, 314 Elizabetpol, 318 EUandune, 318 El Mansoorah, 538 Elster, 318s6es, 642 Campbell, Captain, 3a3 Caskets, The, 28 ClianctUor, Richard, .57, 610 Campbell, Sir Colin, 194a, 433 Caslon, WUliam, 696a Changarnier, General, 356a CampbeU, Thomns, 504 Caspatyrus, 189 Chang-Rub, 304 Campian the Jesuit, 323a Caspiria, 189 Chapiueys, 776a Campo Malduli, 170a Cass, Lewis, 863 Chapoo, 209a Camuloduuum, 533a Cassander, 76 Ch.apter House, We.stminster, 421a Cancelll, 199 Cassian, John, 2a, 769 Charcoal-burners, 183a Cancellieri, 119 Castegaio, 220a Char--gites, 451 Candace, Queen, 6a, 332 Cassius, Caius, 732 Chares, 233 Candeish, 463 Cassius, Sp., 22 Charrord, 196 Candelabrum, 176 Cassivelaunus, 851a Charlemagne, 23a, 733 Candiotes, 175a Castel Giubileo, 343a Charles, Rev. Mr., 310a Cangu, 146 Castrllio, 426a Charles V., 3a, 23a. 4.59a Cannes, 355a Castelneau, Pierre de, 436a Charles XU. of Sweden, 361a Canniiig, Rt. Hon. George, 176a, CastiUos, 190 Charles et Georges, Slaver, 691, 325a, 365 Castle of the Legion, 165 785 Canning's Corn BUI, 248a Castriot, George, 25a Charlesbourg, 174 Canopy Farthing, 706a Castrum Novum, 621a Charlestown (Massachusetts), 545 Canrobert. General, 745 Castrum Solodui-ense, 790 Charlotte Dundas, Steamei-, 807a Cantaber, 171a Casween, 189 Charlotte, Princess, 325a Cantatas, 580 Catalaui, Madame, 620 Charlynch, 20a Canusium, 179 Catana, 191a Charta Bombycina, 640 Caoutchouc, 434 Catawba Wine, 905 Charta de Fortsta, 350a Cape Augustine, 140a Catelauni, 198 Chai-t«r RoUs, 202a CapeUa, 200a Catesby, Robert, 399a Charter, People's, 202a, 325a Cape Nothing, 174 Cathari, 26, 192 Chartreux, Convent, 66, 188a, 203 Capitation Tax. 679 Catherine of Arragon, 411 Chatham, Lord, 325 Capitoltaus, Manlius, 730a Catherine of Braganza, 324 Chathuant, 212a Capo d'Istrias, Count, 393, 587 Catherine-wheel, 192a Chaturanga, 206 GENERAL INDEX. 931 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 676 Chauci, 361 Chauliac, Guy de, 550 Chazars, 257a CheJchey, 204a Chelcith, 204a Chelc hethe, 204a Chemi, 312 Cheops, 704 Chequers, Sign of the, 436 Cherchfelle, 719 Chereburgum, 205; Cherokees, 609 Cherrits, Dirk, 793a Cherusci, 361 Cheselden, Dr., 817 Cheshunt Indepeudent College, 430a Chest, The, 203a Chester-le-Street, 300 Chester Mysteries, 291 Cheth, 4l4a Chetham, Humphrey, 487a Chevalier de St. George, Gdoa Chevreuil, Mofs., 384 Childersley, 417 Child Pilgiimages, 667 Chiliasts, 564 Chilon, 392 Chineha Islands, 397 Chinna-Puttun, 527 Chioon, 410 Chiropast, 498 Chisrum Labyrinth, 473a Chinsi, 224a Chladni, 10 Cholin, 472 Chopines, 776a Choral Society, 238 Chorasmia, 463a Chotyn, 212 Chrestians, 213 Christina, 3a Chi-istodins, 38a, 213 Christophe, 407a Chronoscope, 367a Chrysopolis, 766a Chulkhurst, E. & M., 121 Church Discipline Act, 221a Churchfield, 719 Church Rpeves, 214a Church Wakes, 321 Chuttannuttee, 115 Gibber, CoUey, 676 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 663, 732, 776a, 779 Cid Canjpeador, 157, 795 Cimabue, Giovanni, 634a Ciminus, Lake, 302a " Cimmerian Gloom," 215a Clncinnatus, L. Quiuctixis, 730a Cintra, Pedro de, 19a Circassian Dynasty, 134a Circeliones, 22 Circensian Games, 730 Circumcelliones, 22 Circutores, 22 Cirrbsean War, 391a Cisalpine Gaul, 370 City of David, 453 City of the Tribes, 367a Ciudad de los lleyes, 490a Civil Club, 224 Civitas Episcoporum, 631a Clapperton, Captain, 604, 746 Clara montauum, 222 Clarendon, Lord, b24 Clari chord, 220a Clarken-Well, 221a Clark es- Well, 221a Clai-kson, Thomas, 784a Clarus Mons., 222 Claudia, 469 Claudiopolis, 469 Clausentium, 792a Claverhouse, Lord Dundee, 67'la Clay, Heniy, 784, 862a Clayton Tunnel, 326a Clazemona Island, 48a " Clear The Causeway " riot, 309 Cleche, 92 Cleisthenes, 627a Clemeiit, Jacques, 353a Cleobulus, 392 Cleomenes, 766a Cleopatra IL, 313 Cleopatra's Needle, 615a Cleostratus, 265a Clergy Reserves, 175 Clerici, 221 Gierke, Captain, 58a Clermont (Count of), 19 Clerus, 221 Cletus, St., 259 Clevum, 383 Cliff (Kent), 223a Clissold, Mr. P., 572 Clitus, 525 Clive, Lord, 115, 126. 431a Cloaca Maxima, 57 Clodoald, St., 223 Clogs, 34a Clossynge, 223 Cloth (Cbippenham) 211 Clotilde of Savoy, Princess, 357a, 756 Clouet, Jeannet, 634a Clowns, 453a Cluain-fois, 853a Club-ball, 2.57a Cluniacensians, 224a Clymer, Mr. George, 697 Coal Tar, 827 Cobbett, William, 341 Cobbler's Wax, 776 Cobham, Lord, 323, 499 Cobler, Captain, 674 Cocceius, J., 223a Cocos Islands, 461a Cod and Houk Factions, 460 Code Civil des Prangais, 228 Codex Canonum, 177a Codicils, 902a Codrus, 58 Ccelestine V., 3 Coelho, Duarte, 69a, 655a Coethen (Anhalt), 47 Colbert, 354, 384 Cold-water Ciii-e, 426 Oolechurch, Peter of, 503 Colepepijer, William, 462a Coles, Capt. Cowper Phipps, 808 Colet, John, 648 Coligny, 140a Collar (Order of), 48 College of Justice, 16a Collinson, Capt., 360 Collop Monday, 777a CoU> rides, 231a Colman, Mrs., 11a Colman, St., 223a, 293a ColO'Otroni, 393 Colouia Agrippiua, 231a Colonia del Sacramento, 747a Colonial Department, 4a Colorado River, 40 Colosvar, 469 Colt, Colonel Samuel, 722 Columba, St., 2a, 262, 438a, 763a, 818a Columbia College, 602 Columbian Archipelago, 897 Columbian College, 891a Columbian Press, 697 Columbus, Christopher, 39a, 183, 261a, 271, 395, 397, 398, 407, 419, 449, 543a, 577, 638, 750a, 795, 817, 868a, 881, 904 Combe, George, 665 Combing Machine, 908a Comes, 2.52a Comitia Centuriata, 730 Commendatory Abbots, la Commissioners of Woods and Forests, 350a Committee of Council on Educa- tion, 331 Common Lodging - Houses Act, 753 Communal Militia, 435 Company of the Indies, 480« Complutum, 237a Comum, 236a Comyn, Sir John, 764 Concert Spirituel, '237a Conceptualists, 606a Conciliation, Courts of, 56 Concilium, 252a Cond6, 138 Condenser, 807 Condivicnum, 583a Condiviucum, 583a Condor cet, 275 Conferences, Isle of, 340 Confession of the Westminster As- sembly, 256a Confession Tuesday, 777a Confessio Tetrapolitana, 833 Confluentes, 226 Confrai-ie de la Passion, 291 Confucius, 208 Congiaria, 516a Congregationalists, 430a Congreve, Sir W"., 239a, 727a Conimbrica, 228a Conlaeth, St., 4t)4 Couradin of Swabia, 377 ConscriiJti, 769 Conseils de Prud'hommes, 56a Consentia, 251a Consilium Ordinarium, 806 Constautia, 61 Constantiua, 31a Constantine of Samosata, 647 Constitutional Information So- ciety, 250 Constitutiouists, 8 Constructive trea.=;on, 77 Conte Crayons, 255a Conti, Nicolo di, 815 Continents, 321 Convent Garden, 254a Conventuals, yiSa Conversations Lexicon, 321a Convocation Book, 285 Convulsionaiies, 244 Conwy, 244 Conyers, 8ir John, 674 Cooch Behar, 134a Cook, Captain, 16, 4Sa, 58a., 81, 217 628, 632, 687, 7.52«, 79:Ja Coojjer, James Feniuiore, 862 Cooper, Sir Astley, 817 Coote, Sir Eyre, 432, 527a Copernicus, Nicholas, 74, 245, 790 Coracles, 775 Coram, Captain, 352 Corcyra Nigra, 264 Corday, Charlotte. 355 Cordova, Hernandez, 914(1 Corduba, 243 Cordyeue, 472at Curfinium, 652 Coriueus, 248a Corinium, 217a Corinth (U.S),864 Corinthes, 2o3 t Corio Harbour, 371 Coriolanus, 730, 883 Coriospitum, 708 i Cornaro, Lewis, 505 Cornette, 264 Cornouailles, 148 * Cornwall. See of, 338a Comwallis, Lord, 432 Corps Le^islatif, 279 Corpus Domini, Feast of, 341a Corpus Jiuis Cauonici, i77a 3 o 2 THE MANUAL OF DATES. Cortereal, Caspar de, 39f/, 174,610a Covscu^— {continued). Court of Marshalsea, 129 Cortes, Hernando, 40, 5o9a London, 500 Courvoisier, F. B.. 337 Corybantes, 581a Lyons, 523 Coutumier de Normaudie, 34;j Corythus, 251 Madrid, 527a Couvre-feu, 263 Cosin's Hall (Durham), SOO Mantua, 539 Cove of Cork, 707a Coslin, 472 Mayence, 547a Coventry, Sir J., 255 Coster, Laixrence, 696 Meaux, 548a Coverdale, MUes, 120, 224a Coste, Moas, 633 Melim, 553 Covilham, 19a Cotereaux, 139 Mentz, 547a Cowel, 8a Cothui-iii, 776 Metz, 559a Cowper, Mr. E., 697 Cotrone, 259 Milan, 562a Cozumel Cross, 555 Cotta, 197 MUevis, 52 Crakeys of War, 67 Cottari, 880a 3IoutpelUer, 573a Cranauh, Lucas, 697 Cottiar, 197a Mopseustia, 575 Cranfield, Thomas, 710 Cotton, Sir B. B., 150a, 252 Nantes, 584 Cranion, 170 Coulan. 708a Naples, 587 Crank Motion, 807a Coulomb, 530a Narbonne, 587 Cranmer, Archbishop, 323a, 540. Council of Education, Sll Nicsea, 603 632 CouncU of Ten, 872a Orange, 272 Crassus, Marcus. 645 Councils :— Orleans 272, 625a Crediton, See of. 338a Agda, 20a Osnaburg, 627 Crenides, 662a Aix, 23a Paderbom, 633a Creole, Brig, 861, 862 Aix-la-ChapeUe, 24 Padua, 634 Ci-escent Water, Harrogate, 406 Albi, 26 Palenoia, 636 Crete, 175a AJlbon, 272 Palermo, 636 Crete, Labyi-inth of, 473a Ancyra, 45 Pampeluna, 638a CrichtoD, James, 477 Angers, 46 Paris, 641a Crimean Me