FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. f A COMPLETE GRAMMAR ;THE FRENCH, LANGUAGE ON^HE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM ; BY WHICH THE ACQUISITION OF WRITING AND SPEAKING FRENCH IS MADE EASY ; COTIPRISBNO 244 EXER€I§E§, MOSTLY WRITTEN IN THE STYLE OF CONVERSATION > AIVI> A VOCABULAKY. BY MONS. B. F. BUGARD, AUTHOR OF THE FRENCH PRACTICAL TRANSLATOR. ; Fabricando fit faber. BOSTON : JOSEPH H. FRANCIS, 128 WASHINGTON-STREET. NEW-YORK : C. S. FRANCIS, 252 BROADWAY. PHILADELPHIA : THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO. MARKET-ST. 18 3 8. <^****s its ?o l0 1 K JJXf Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, By B. F. Bugird, ia the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 1 * PROM THE PRESS OF MUNROE &C FRANCIS. TO HENRY W. LONGFELLOW, PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE, IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY, THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. There are so many good grammars of the French language, commonly used in this country, that the publication of a new one will perhaps appear the result of injudicious presumption. But the experience of several years, employed in instruction, has afforded the author of this grammar an opportunity of no- ticing that improvements in many respects could still be made, and he has thought he might render himself useful, if he could prepare a book by which the progress of the student would be promoted, and his task diminished or made easy. It is with this view that he has published the present work, calculated to teach how to translate English into French ; or, in other words, to teach American or English students how to write and speak the French language. The French Practical Teacher is rather a work of com- pilation, than of composition ; for the materials of which the best and most recent English and French authorities have been consulted. The plan of the book differs from all grammars hitherto pub- lished, especially in the order of the rules and composition of the exercises, in which not a single part of speech is employed until its use has been fully stated and illustrated. As the rules are numbered, and the words of the exercises have over them the numbers to be referred to for their translation, they afford to the student a constant, sure, and easy guide. In his progTess through the exercises, thus prepared, he is so often reminded of VI PREFACE. what is to be done, that he must as necessarily and practically learn and retain the rules, without the tedious operation of com- mitting them to memory, as if he were to recite them verbatim to an instructed To attain this most desirable object, the author was obliged to adopt a new classification of certain words, which, in most gram- mars, are called Adjective-Pronouns, but which in this work are classed among the Articles. In justification of this course, it may not be amiss to make a few remarks. The words alluded to are in English my, thy, his, &c. this, that, these, &c. ; and, in French, mo?i, ma, mes, ton, &c. ce, cet, cette, ces, &c. ; whose name, Adjective-Pronoun, is more cal- culated to mislead than assist, and to which many of the er- rors most generally committed by students may be attributed. These are prevented by treating them as Articles. The error consists in using these words as pronouns, that is, instead of nouns ; when they can never be employed without a noun af- ter them. This reason might be sufficient to justify the new classification ; but a further consideration of the nature of these words will show, that, according to the definitions of any gram- mar, they are neither adjectives nor pronouns, but articles. They are not adjectives, because they never express any quality whatever of the substantive with which they are used. They are not pronouns, because, at least in French, they are never employed without a noun. They then are articles, because they determine the extent of the signification of the noun to which they are prefixed, my, mon, ma, mes, doing it in a posses- sive personal sense ; this, ce, cet, cette, ces, in a demonstrative sense, &c. ; and because they all follow the same rules, namely, They must never be employed without a noun that is eagrassed : They must all agree in gender and number with the noun to which they are prefixed : They must all be repeated before ev- ery noun, when several nouns are together the nominatives or objects of the same verb or preposition. During the eight years that the author has been engaged in teaching the French language, he has had ample opportunities to notice the advantageous effects of this method ; in following PREFACE. Vll which, students have generally acquired, in a shorter time, and with more ease than with other grammars, a clear and distinct idea of the proper use of the parts of speech. Not to interfere with the knowledge of English grammar, which students generally possess when they commence the study of the French language, the classification in the Vocabula- ry of the English words of the exercises, which is at the end of the Grammar, is the same as that followed in Webster's English Dictionary ; and, for the use of the corresponding w r ords in French, references to the appropriate rules of the Grammar are constantly given. To use this Grammar to the best advantage, students should be made familiar with the contents of the first and second chap- ters before passing to the third. Then the third should be un- dertaken, and verbs written first without interrogation or nega- tion; then with interrogation; then with negation ; and then with interrogation and negation together. This should be done, not taking exclusively for guide the given models, but also and es- pecially the formation of tenses. This being accomplished, the translation of the Exercises should be commenced, and one or more be written for every lesson, with at least one conjugation, until the eighth chapter, when the writing of the verbs might be omitted. In translating the exercises, the student should faithfully refer to the Grammar, as often as indicated by the fig- ures placed over the words, unless he be perfectly acquainted with the rules which he has to follow. It would be also of great advantage to him if at every lesson he were to translate into French, out of the Grammar, the exercises that were trans- lated at the previous lesson, without looking at any note or translation. To persons who are influenced by the size of an elemen- tary book, it will perhaps be proper to observe, that the French Practical Teacher contains not only all the rules that are necessary for the use of the parts of speech, but also explanations of the examples given for their illustration, not to be found in any other grammar. It contains also two hundred and forty-four exercises ; which constitute a Vlll PREFACE. considerable part of the book. It contains several tables of verbs and adjectives, which are not in other grammars ; and finally the Vocabulary of the Words of the Exercises, which will amply supply the want of a dictionary ; thus including a gram- mar, frequent explanations, constant references, numerous exer- cises, and a vocabulary ; that is, at least, three books in one. Almost all grammars contain a treatise on French pro- nunciation, and if there be none in this, it is because there is a complete one in the French Practical Translator ; a book published by the author of this work, for the special purpose of translating and reading French, and which thus far has met with the approbation of numerous and experienced instructors who use it in their schools, and whose recommendations, togeth- er with those of distinguished scholars, are annexed to the pres- ent volume. It may not be amiss to say here, that, with theFRENCH Pkac- tical Translator and the French Practical Teacher, stu- dents may go through a regular course of French elementary studies, without the necessity of referring to any dictionary, since both these works are provided with vocabularies of the words of the exercises they contain. The publication of this work, as one may perceive, must have required much time, and labour, and knowledge of the English language; and the author feels that, in this last particular, his ability would certainly have proved inadequate to the undertak- ing, had he not been most generously assisted by some of his pupils, and by a friend, a gentleman of the bar, for whose ser- vices he most sincerely tenders his grateful thanks. august, 1838. CONTENTS. Note. Should any difficulty be experienced in finding a rule in the Contents, it will easily be removed by looking in the Vocabulary at the end of the book for the English word to be translated. Adjectives, . . . .No. 62, 63, 71—80, 542—570. page 83 comparatives with Nouns . . . No. 103 " of equality . . ' . . No. Ill " of inequality .... No. 112 " of superiority . . . No. 113 " of inferiority . . . No. 114 " irregular .... No. 115 degrees of signification . . . No. 116 — 118 their gender • No. 64—73 their place No. 75—81 their plural No. 74 their object No. 567, 568 their different meaning, when before or after a noun No. 78 used as Adverbs No. 706 with the preposition they require before their object No. 569 Adverbs, . . No. 82, 92, 94, 95, 116, 117, 705 and fol. p. 2£ Numeral No. 5 Articles, P- 63: and Pronouns compared p. 320— 322 Collective . . . . No. 43 Definite . No. 35—40, 81, 491—531 Demonstrative No. 55, 56 Distributive No. 59 Indefinite No. 41, 42, 119, 495, 676 Interrogative . No. 57, 58, 405, 407, 416 Negative No. 60, 61, 138 Partitive .... . No. 44, 94, 497 Possessive Personal No. 45—53, 85, 532—537, 782 Table of ... . P- 82 Conjugation of Verbs p. 29 Conjunctions, .... No. 707, 76^— 782. p. 27 CONTENTS. Comparisons, Nouns No. 103 Degrees of Signification No. 116—118 with adjectives of equality . No. Ill it M inequality . No. 112 u " superiority No. 113 a " inferiority . No. 114 a " irregular No. 115 Definitions, Ellipsis, Nc . 786, 787 Exclusive Affirmation, but or only after a verb No. 26, 27 Figures, Grammatical construction of . No. 785 13 Interrogation, . '. . No. 19, 27, 134, 135, 136 Interrogation with Negation, . . No. 25, 27, 134 — 136 Interjections, No. 557, 783, 784 Inversion No. 790 Moods and Tenses, .... No. 644—653. p. 383 Imperative No. 120 Indicative, present tense No. 96, 97, 133—136, 645—657 " conditional present No. 102, 148, 149, 661, 662 " conditional past . . .No. 108, 662 " imperfect . . No. 98, 139— 142, 658 " future anterior ... No. 107, 703 " future No. 101, 146, 147, 656, 659, 661, 667, 703 " preterite definite No. 99, 143, 144, 704 " preterite indefinite . No. 104, 659, 660 " preterite anterior . . . No. 106 " pluperfect .... No. 105, 660 Infinitive, present participle . No. 123 — 130, 156, 663 " past participle No. 131, 132, 156, 179, 192, 201—203, 409, 664—666 Subjunctive, present . No. 109, 110, 150, 644—653 " imperfect .... No. 110, 153 " preterite No. 154 " pluperfect No. 155 Negation, ... No. 22—24, 27, 137, 138, 720—733 Nouns, plural of No. 476—490 p. 54 gender of No. 460 — 475 p. 56 Numbers, Cardinal and Ordinal No. 1—4, 9—12, 560—566. p. 20 Collective ....... No. 7 Fractional No. S Multiplicative CONTENTS. XI Pleonasm, No. 788 Pronouns, Substantive Personal No. 83, 84, 168—186, 571—594 Active, or Nominative Verbal No. 87, 88, 90, 391—394, 426, 427, 574—578 Compared with articles .... p. 320, 322 Compound Personal, myself. &c. . No. 86, 190 Demonstrative . . No. 383— 394. 595— 599. p. 317 Distributive ... No. 428,' 604—606. p. 318 Demonstrative and Relative used together No. 418 — 425 Indefinite, Collective, Negative No. 429—459, 607—610. p. 319 Interrogative . . . .No. 395—407. p. 318 It No. 87, 391, 393, 595, 596, 598, 599, 774, 775 Passive Verbal No. 168—186, 201, 202, 203, 579, 580—593 Possessive Personal . No. 372—381, 600, 782 Relative .• . No. 407— 417, 601, 602,603. j>. 318 Prepositions, . . . No. 31, 36, 100, 124, 734—761. p. 27 Remarks on the use of certain verbs, see also. Verbs . ^.391 Syllepsis, No. 789 Table, of Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers . . . p. 20 Comparative of Articles and Pronouns ..--.. . p. 320 of Adverbs . . p. 26 of Adjectives having a different meaning . No. 78 of Adjectives, with the preposition they require be- fore their indirect object . . . No. 569 of Articles . . p. 82 of Conjunctions p. 21 of Prepositions p. 21 of Demonstrative Pronouns p. 317 of Distributive Pronouns p. 318 of Indefinite, Collective, and Negative Pronouns . p. 319 of Interrogative Pronouns , p. 318 of Personal Pronouns ^.316 of Possessive Pronouns p. 31/ of Relative Pronouns . . . . . . p. 318 of English verbs and expressions rendered by fair & No. 699 of Neuter Verbs, that are conjugated with ttre No. 163 of Verbs, with the preposition they require before their indirect object . . . . No. 125 of the Terminations of Verbs p. 11 Xll CONTENTS. Table of Expressions with Faire .... No. 696 of the Names of different periods of time of Sea Terms No. 698 of the different combinations of the Passive Verbal Pronouns No. 180 Tenses, formation of ....... p. Tenses, see Moods. Verbs, conjugation of ........ p. p. No. " the auxiliary avoir " " " itre On their object Active .... Passive ... No Neuter Reflective and Reciprocal . Unipersonal Defective and Irregular, 1st conjugation u " 2d conjugation " " 3d conjugation " " 4th conjugation First conjugation, er, Second conjugation, ir Third conjugation, evoir Fourth conjugation, re Auxiliary avoir No. 162, 167, 182, 634— Avoir ...... Can, could Etre Faire, for to inure " to do nothing but " to have just " used in different senses . Substantive and auxiliary ttre No. 28 43 29 31 33 No. 121, 122, 626—633 No. 121 158, 159, 318, 475, 594 No. 160—165 187—192, 592 No. 166 p. 185—191, 703 p. 191—212, 704 p. 212—233 p. 234—276 No. 13—18 p. 35 p. 37 p. 39 p. 41 No. There to be, y avoir . . No. To have just To desire To order, to command To be rendered by Faire . Nominative and agreement of Remarks on the use of certain verbs 641, 668—675 No. 669—674 No. 676, 702 667, 668, 774 No. 685 No. 686 No. 687 No. 688—700 158, 162, 167, 192, 667—683, 774 167, 649, 671, 672 No. 675, 6S7, 701 . No. 678, 679 No. 680, 681 No. No. 611-625. 774 391 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. INTRODUCTION TO THE SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS. The words, used to express our thoughts, are called parts of speech. They are divided into substantives or nouns, substanlifs ou noms ; articles, articles ; adjectives, adjec- tifs; pronouns, prono?ns ; verbs, verbes ; adverbs, adverbes ; prepositions, prepositions ; conjunctions, conjonctions ; in- terjections, interjections. Le substantif ou nom, the substantive or noun is used to represent things, either physical or metaphysical.^ L'article, the article is a word employed to determine the extent of the signification of the noun to which it is prefix- ed, or to which it relates ; or is placed before nouns whose signification is determined by some other word or words. ISadjectif, the adjective serves to express the quality of persons or things. Le pronom, the pronoun is employed to take the place of the noun, and to represent it. Le verbe, the verb expresses the existence or action of be- ings. * We understand by a physical thing' that which exists in nature, under any form of matter ; as wood, bois ; water, eau ; earth, terre ; &c. By a metaphysical thing, that which exists independently of matter } as honour, konneur ; glor? , gloire ; knowledge, connaissances ; &c. 2 14 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. TJadverbe, the adverb is a word employed in connection with the verb or adjective, and sometimes with another adverb, to express some particular circumstance or quality. La proposition, the preposition shows the relation that exists between words, and sometimes between phrases. La conjonction, the conjunction is used to connect words or phrases. L' interjection, the interjection is a word, or rather a mere cry or sound, expressing some emotion of the speaker. The parts of speech or words are divided into variable, variables, and invariable, et invariables. Les mots variables, the variable words are those whose termination changes ; as, the noun, the article, the adjec- tive, the pronoun, and the verb. Les mots invariables, the invariable words are those whose termination does not change ; as, the adverb, the prep- osition, the conjunction, and the interjection. There are three kinds of Nouns, the proper, le propre ; the common, le commun ; and the collective, et le collectif. Le nom propre, the proper noun or name is that which represents a particular person or thing ; as, Boston, France, Joseph, Josephine. Le nom commun, the common noun is that which represents a whole class of individuals or things ; as, house, maison ; town, ville ; man, homme. Le nom collectif, the collective noun is that which repre- sents a collection of several individuals or objects ; as, multi- tude, multitude ; army, armee ; crowd, foule. There are only two genders in French, the masculine, le masculin ; and the feminine, et lefeminin. Le genre masculin, the masculine gender is applied to males. Le genre fcminin, the feminine gender is applied to fe- males. As there is no neuter gender in French, nouns representing inanimate beings are either masculine or feminine. DEFINITIONS. 15 There are two numbers, the singular, le singulier ; and the plural, et le pluriel. Le singulier, the singular number is used to represent but one object. Le pluriel, the plural number is used to represent more than one object. According to the opinion of most French grammarians, there are only three kinds of Articles, the definite, le defini ; the indefinite, Vindefini ; and the partitive, et le partitif. But in this grammar we make the distinction of collective arti- cles, d' articles collectifs ; of possessive personal articles, d 1 articles possessifs personnels ; of demonstrative articles, d'articles demonstratifs ; of interrogative articles, d'articles interrogatifs ; of distributive articles, Particles distributifs ; and of negative articles, et d'articles negatifs. IJ article defini, the definite article is that which is used before nouns whose signification is determined by some other word or circumstance. L'article indefini, the indefinite article is that which is used before a common noun, to determine the extent of its sig- nification in an indefinite manner ; that is, by restraining that signification to an object or to objects, without pointing out or indicating any one in particular. L article partitif, the partitive article is that which is used when only a part of the thing or things represented by the noun is to be expressed. L 'article collectif, the collective article is that w r hich de- termines the extent of the signification of the noun in a collec- tive sense, by restraining it to a number or collection of indi- viduals or objects. L'article possessif personnel, the possessive personal arti- cle is that which is prefixed to the noun to determine the ex- tent of its signification in a possessive personal manner ; that is, implying possession, and expressing to what person the posses- sed object belongs ; whether to the 1st, 2d, or 3d person. V article demonstratif, the demonstrative article is that 16 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. which is prefixed to the substantive to determine the extent of its signification in a demonstrative sense, that is, in pointing it out. Varticle interrogatif, the interrogative article is that which is used before nouns, or the verb etre, to be, in interro- gative sentences. I? article distributif the distributive article is that which, being prefixed to the noun, whilst it brings to the mind the idea of several objects or individuals, determines or limits the extent of its signification to a single one. Varticle negatif, the negative article is that which deter- mines the extent of the signification of the noun in a negative sense. There are seven kinds of Pronouns ; the personal, les 'per- sonnels ; the possessive, les possessifs ; the demonstrative, les demonstratifs ; the interrogative or relative, les inter- rogatifs ou relatifs ; the indefinite, les indefinis ; the dis- tributive, les distributifs ; and the negative, et les negatifs. Les pronoms personnels, the personal pronouns are those that refer to persons. There are three different persons ; the first, la premiere ; the second, la seconde ; and the third, et la troisieme. La priemere personne, the first person is he or she who is speaking. La seconde personne, the second person is he or she who is spoken to. La troisieme personne, the third person is he or she who is spoken of. Les pronoms demonstratifs, the demonstrative pronouns are those that represent the thing spoken of, by pointing it out in a precise manner. Les pronoms possessifs personnels, the possessive personal pronouns are those that represent the thing spoken of, implying possession, and expressing to what person the object belongs. Les pronoms inter rogatifs, the interrogative pronouns are those that are used in asking questions, without the noun which is the object of inquiry being expressed. DEFINITIONS. 17 Les pronoms relatifs, the relative pronouns are the same as the interrogative ; but they are used after nouns or pronouns to represent them as nominatives or objects to a following verb. Les pronoms inte finis, the indefinite pronouns are those that are used to represent persons or things, without relating to any particular thing. Les pronoms distributifs, the distributive pronouns are those that represent but a single object or individual, whilst they bring to the mind the idea of several objects or individuals. Les pronoms nigatifs, the negative pronouns are those that represent the noun in a negative sense. Les pronoms collectifs, the collective pronouns are those that represent a number or a collection of individuals or objects. The Verb, having been defined " a word that expresses the existence or action of beings" this action necessarily supposes some person or thing that performs it, and some person or thing upon which it is performed. The person or thing that performs the action is called the nominative of the verb, le nominatif du verbe. The person or thing, upon which the action expressed by the verb is performed, is called in English the object of the verb, in French le regime du verbe. There are two kinds of objects, the direct or accusative, le direct ou Vaccusatij ': and the indirect, et V indirect. Le regime direct, the direct object is that to which the ac- tion of the verb passes without the assistance of any preposition. Le regime indirect, the indirect object is that to which the action of the verb passes with the assistance of a prepo- sition. Although in fact there is but one verb, the substantive to be, Stre, French grammarians distinguish several kinds ; the auxiliary, Vauxiliaire ; the substantive, le substantif ; the active, Vactif ; the passive, le passif ; the neuter, le neutre ; the reflective, le riflechi ; the unipersonal, Vuni- personnel ; and the defective, et le d'efectueux. 2* 18 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Le verbe auziliaire,TiiE auxiliary verb is that which is used in the formation of the compound tenses. In English it is to have ; in French, avoir. Le verbe substantia the substantive verb is that which ex- presses existence ; it is, in English, to be ; and in French, etre. Le verbe actif, the active verb is that which expresses an action done or exercised by the nominative, or by the person or thing which is the cause of that action, passing over to an ob- ject or a person or thing upon which that action is done or ex- ercised, without the means of a preposition ; as, to love, aimer ; to cut, couper. Le verbe passif, the passive verb expresses an action re- ceived or suffered by the nominative. Properly speaking, there is no passive verb in English or in French ; for that which is called a passive verb is merely the substantive verb to be, itre conjugated with the past participle of an active verb ; as, to be encouraged, etre encouragt. Le verbe nezitre, the neuter verb is that which expresses an action confined within the nominative, which cannot pass over to an object without the use of a preposition ; as, to go, alter ; to travel, voyager. Le verbe reflecki, the reflective verb is that which is al- ways conjugated with a passive verbal pronoun of the same number and person as its nominative ; both the nominative and object expressing the same person or thing, though represented by different words ; as, to repent, se repentir ; to walk, se promener. Le verbe unipersonnel, the unipersonal verb is that which is only used in the third person singular of its tenses ; as, to rain, pleuvoir ; to freeze, geler. Le verbe defectueux, the defective verb is that which wants some person, tense or mood in its conjugation. To conjugate a verb is to write or recite it through all the different forms which it takes according to mood, mode ; tense, temps ; number, nombre ; and person, et personne, after given models. DEFINITIONS. 19 Le mode, the mood is the particular and precise manner of expressing the existence or action of a person or thing. There are four moods ; the infinitive, Vinfinitif ; the in- dicative, Vindicatif ; the subjunctive, le subjonctif; and the imperative, et Vimperatif Lttnfinitif, the infinitive expresses indefinitely the meaning of the verb, without a personal nominative. L'indicatif the indicative is used with a personal nomina- tive, and simply expresses the action of the verb, in whatever time, without being the consequence of any wish, command, SUPPOSITION, Or DOUBT. Le subjonctif, the subjunctive is a mood, used with a perso- nal nominative, after a condition, wish, supposition, fear, or doubt, expressed or understood. Vimperatif, the imperative is a mood used with a personal nominative, either expressed or understood, to exhort, command, INTREAT Or PERMIT. The time of the existence or action of persons or things is expressed by tenses, des temps. There are three general tenses, the present, le present ; the past, le passi ; and the future, lefutur. Le present, the present expresses that a person or thing is NOW EXISTING Or ACTING. Le passe, the past expresses that a thing was existing or happened before the present time. Lefutur, the future expresses that a thing will exist or happen hereafter. But these three tenses are subject to particular distinctions and divisions, which will be considered in treating of the conju- gation of verbs. They are expressed sometimes by simple forms, called simple tenses, temps simples ; and sometimes by compound forms, called compound tenses, temps composes. Les temps simples, the simple tenses are those that are con- jugated without the assistance of either to have, avoir ; or to be, ktre. Les temps composes, the compound tenses are those that are 20 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. conjugated with some of the tenses of either to have, avoir ; or to be, Hre ; or even with both. Les temps dhm verbe, the tenses of a verb are composed of six persons ; three singular, and three plural. Verbs, whose forms do not differ in any particular from the given models, are called regular verbs, verbes re gutters. Verbs, whose forms differ in any particular from the given models, are called irregular verbs, verbes irreguliers. CHAPTER II. INVARIABLE WORDS. NUMBERS. 1. The numerals, generally called numbers, nombres, are of three classes ; those that are used in counting, called cardinal numbers, nombres cardinaux ; those that express or- der, relating to place or rank, called ordinal numbers, nombres ordinaux ; those that express order, relating to time, called numeral adverbs, adverbes numeraux. the cardinal Les nombres cardi- the obdinal Les nombres ordi- numbers are : naux sont : NUMBERS are : naux sont ; l un,with a masc.noun 1st premier, with mas noun l une, with a fern, noun 1st premiere, with fern. „ 2 deux 2d second,m. seconde,fem. 3 trois 3d troisieme 4 quatre 4th quatrieme 5 cinq 5th cinquieme 6 six 6th sixieme 7 sept 7th septieme 8 huit 8di huitieme 9 neuf 9th neuvieme 10 dix roth dixieme 11 onze 11th onzieme 12 douze 12th douzieme 13 treize 13th treizieme 14 quatorze 14th quatorzieme 15 quinze 15th quinzieme ORDINAL AND CARDINAL NUMBERS. 21 16 seize 16th seizieme 17 dix-sept 17th dix-septieme 18 dix-huit 18th dix-huitieme 19 dix-neuf 19th dix-neuvihne 20 vingt 20th vingtieme 21 vingt et u?i, or une 21st vingt et unieme 22 vingt-deux 22d vingt-deuxieme 23 vingt-trois 23d vingt-troisieme 24 vingt-quatre 24th vingt-quatrieme 25 vingt-cinq 25th vingt-cinquieme 26 vingt-six 26th vingt-sixieme 27 vingt-sept 27th vingt-septieme 28 vingt-huit 28th vingt-huitieme 29 vingt-neuf 29th vingt-neuvieme 30 trente 30th trentieme 31 trente et un or une 31st trente et unieme 32 trente-deux 32d trente-deuxihne 40 quarante 40th quarantieme 41 quarante et un or une 41st quarante et unieme 42 quarante-deux 42d quarante-deuxieme 43 quarante-trois 43d quarante-troisieme 50 cinquante 50th cinquantiente 51 cinquante et un or une 51st cinquante et unieme 52 cinquante- deux 52d cinquante-deuxieme 53 cinquante-trois 53d cinquante-troisieme 60 soixante 60th soixantieme 61 soixante et un or une 61st soixante et unieme 62 soixante- deux 62d soixante-deuxieme 70 soixante et dix 70th soixante et dixieme 71 soixante et onze 71st soixante et onzieme 72 soixante et douze 72d soixante et douzieme 73 soixante et treize 73d soixante et treizieme 74 soixante et quatorze 74th soixante et quatorzieme 75 soixante et quinze 75th soixante et quinzieme 76 soixante et seize 76th soixante et seizieme 77 soixante et dix-sept 77th soixante et dix-septieme 78 soixante et dix-huit 7Sth soixante et dix-huitieme 79 soixante et dix-neuf 79th soixante et dix-neuvieme 22 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 80 quatre-vingts 81 quatre-vingt-un 82 quatre-vingt-deuz 90 quatre-vingt-dix 91 quatre-vingt-onze 92 quatre-vingt-douze 93 quatre-vingt -treize 94 quatre-vingt-quatorze 95 quatre^vingt-quinze 96 quatre-vingt-seize 97 quatre-vingt-diz-sept 98 quatre-vingt-dix-huit 99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 100 ce?z£ 101 ce^ wrc 102 ce?z£ dewa; 103 cerc£ £rozs 200 ^ewz cewft 300 tfrozs cerate 400 quatre cents 1000 imSe 1001 mille-un 1002 mille-deux 1003 mille-trois 2000 de&z raiZZe 3000 £rozs raiZZe 4000 quatre mille 2001 2002 2003 ^ez^z ?m7Ze zm dewx TTZzZZe deux deux mille trois 10000 dix mille 80th quatre-vingtieme 81st quatre-vingt-unieme 82d quatre-vingt-deuxieme 90th 91st 92d 93d 94th 95th 96th 97th 98th 99th quatre-vingt quatre-vingt quatre-vingt quatre-vingt quatre-vingt- zieme quatre-vingt- zieme quatre-vingt- quatre-vingt Heme quatre-vingt tieme quatre-vingt vieme •dixieme ^onzieme ■douzieme •treizieme quator- quin- •seizieme •dix-sep- -dix-hui- •dix-neu- 100th centieme 101st cent unieme 102d cent dcuxieme 103d cent troisieme 200th deux centieme 300th trois centieme 400th quatre centieme 1000th millieme 1001st mille-unieme 1002d mille-deuxihne 1003d mille-troisieme 2000th deux millieme 3000th trois millieme 4000th quatre millieme 2001st deux mille unieme 2002d deux mille deuxieme 2003d deux mille troisieme 10000th dix millieme ORDINAL AND CARDINAL NUMBERS. 23 100000 cent mille 100001 cent mille un 100002 cent mille deux 999999 neufcent quatre-vingt- diz-neuf mille neuf cent quatre-vingt- dix-neuf 1000000 million 123.456.789 cent vingt-trois million quatre cent cinquante - six mille sept cent quatre- vingt-neuf. 100000th cent millieme 100001st cent mille unieme 100002d cent mille deuxieme 999999th neuf cent quatre- vingt -dix-neuf mille neuf cent - quatre- vingt-dix-neuvieme 1000000th millionieme 123.456.789th cent vingt-trois million quatre cent cinquante - six mille sept cent quatre- vingt-neuvieme 2. From the preceding table, it may be noticed, 1st, That the ordinal numbers are formed from the cardinal, by adding- ieme to the termination of those that end with a consonant ; and by changing the e of those that end in e into the same termination ieme ; as, unieme, from un ; deuxieme, from deux ; troisieme, from trois ; quatrieme, from quatre ; &c. 3. 2d, That the only exceptions are premier, premier e 7 second, seconde, which have no corresponding root among the cardinal numbers ; cinquihne, which takes a u between the final q of the cardinal and the termination ieme ; and neuvieme, in which the final /of the cardinal is changed into v. 4. 3d, That premier and second are not used when preceded by a numeral ; thus, instead of vingt et premier, trente-second, &c. we must use vingt et unieme, trente deuxieme, &c. 5. Les adverbes numeraux, the numeral adverbs, are formed by adding went to the termination of the ordinal num- bers ; as, troisiemement, thirdly, from troisieme ; quatrieme- ment, fourthly, from quatrieme, &c. ; except premierement, firstly, and secondement, secondly, which are formed by adding ment to the feminine of the corresponding ordinal numbers 'premiere, seconde. 24 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 6. There are three other kinds of numbers ; the multipli- cative numbers, les nombres multiplicatifs ; the collective, les collectifs ; and the fractional, et les fractionnaires. Les nombres multiplicatifs, the multiplicative numbers are those that express the result of a multiplication. They are, IN ENGLISH. double, TRIPLE, QUADRUPLE, QUINTUPLE, SEXTUPLE, SEPTUPLE, DECUPLE, CENTUPLE, IN FRENCH. double. triple. quadruple. quintuple. sextuple. septuple. decuple. centuple. 7. Les nombres collectifs, the collective numbers, are nouns which express a collection of objects. They are formed from the cardinal numbers, from which they are derived, by adding aine to the termination of those ending with a conso- nant, and by substituting it for the final e in those ending with e. They are, IN FRENCH. douzaine, quinzaine, vingtaine, trentaine, quarantaine, cinquantaine, soixantainc, centainc, IN ENGLISH. dozen, or about twelve. fifteen, or about fifteen. twenty, or about twenty. thirty, or about thirty. forty, or about forty. fifty, or about fifty. sixty, or about sixty. hundred, or about 100. 8. Les nombres fractionnaires, the fractional numbers, are nouns that express a determined part or fraction of objects. ORDINAL AND CARDINAL NUMBERS. 25 In English and in French they are the same as the ordinal numbers ; except half, which is - • . . - - moitii in French. third, " - - - tiers " fourth, " ... quart " 9. The number one, which is generally used in English be- fore hundred and thousand, is never translated or expressed in French before cent et mille ; One hundred men, Cent hommes. One thousand men, Mille hommes. 10. In the reckoning of years the French use mil instead of mille, for one thousand. For the year one thousand eight Pour Van mil huit cent trente- hundred and thirty-seven. sept. 11. The numbers vingt, twenty, cent, hundred, million, million, and billion, billion, are the only ones that change for the plural, by taking an s, when they are preceded or multiplied by another number, provided they are not followed by any number ; for, if they are followed by another number, they do not take the s ; as, Two hundred soldiers, Deux cents sold at s. Two hundred and twenty soldiers, Deux cent vingt soldats. Eighty houses, Quatre -vingts maisons. Eighty -Jive houses, Quatre-vingt-cinq maisons. 12. The conjunction and, which is often used between two numbers in English, is never rendered in French ; for examples of which, the preceding table of numbers may be consulted. Note. Four and twenty, five and thirty, &c. are render- ed, in French, by vingt-quatre, trente-cinq, but never by quatre et vingt, cinq et trente ; the number expressing the tens being always placed before that which expresses the units. 3 26 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. ADVERBS. There are several kinds of tions of the action of the verb, tives. Those most commonly Agreeably, Agreablement. Afterwards, Apres, ensuite. At first, D'abord. Always, Toujours. A few, Peu de. As, Comme. As much, Autant. Already, D s ejd. At present, A present. Before, Auparavant. Certainly, Certainement. Every where, Partout. Early, De bonne heure. Enough, Assez. Entirely, Entierement. Far, Loin. Formerly, Autrefois. Greatly, Grandement. Pere, Ici. henceforth, Desormais. Hereafter, Dorenavant. How, Comment. How much, Combien. Ill, Mai. Immediately, Immidiatement. Immediately, Aussitot. adverbs, to express the modifica- or that of the quality of adjec- used are the following : Now, Actuellement. Now, Maintenant. No, Non. Less, Little, Indeed, More, Much, Nigh, Never, Moins. Peu. En viriti. Plus. Beaucoup. Proche. Jamais. Ne, , pas, # No, or not, Not at all, Point du tout. Nothing, Rien. Opposite, Vis-a-vis. Often, Souvent. Politely, Poliment. Perhaps, Peut-etre. Somewhere, Quelque part. Seldom, Rarement. Soon, Bientot. Suitably, Convenablement. S trongly , Fortement. Then, Alors, ensuite. To-day, Aujourd'hui. To-morrow, Demain. Too,toomuch Trop. Thus, Ainsi. There, La. Truly, Vraiment. Very, Bien, tres,fort. Yesterday, Hier. Yes, Qui. Well, Bien. Wisely, Sagement. Where, Oil. Within, Dedans. Without, Dehors, Why, Pourquoi. When, Quand. Whence, D'ow.t * This negation is never used in French, except with a verb, nc being placed imme- diately before it, and pas after it, in phrases that are not interrogative ; and, in those that aYe interrogative, pas is placed after the nominative pronoun. f This list is far from being complete ; but those adverbs of the Exercises that are not mentioned in it will be found in the Vocabulary. So it will likewise be with the prepo- sitions and conjunctions. PREPOSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS. 2* CHIEF PREPOSITIONS. According to , Selon. In, En, dans. About, Environ. Into, Dans, en. After, Apres. In spite of, Malgrt. Against, Contre. Near, Pres de. Among, Parmi. Notwithstand- At, "A. ing. # Malgre. At(one's house) Chez. Opposite, Vis-a-vis de. Before, Avant, devant.* On, Sur. Behind, Derriere. Over, Sur, par-dessus. Behold, Void, voild. Over, Au-dessus de. Besides, Outre. Round, Autour de. Between, Entre. Since, Depuis. By, Par. Through, Par. A. Concerning, Touchant, con- To, cernant. Towards, Vers, envers. t During, Pendant,durant. With, Avec. Except, Hors, hormis. Within, Dans. For, Pour. Without, Sans, hors. From, Be, d',t des. CHIEF CONJUNCTIONS. Also, Aussi. For, Car. Although, Quoique. However, Cependant. And, Et. If, Si. As, Comme, que. Lest, De peur que. As soon as, Des que. Meanwhile, Cependa?U. Because, Parce que. Moreover, D'ailleurSo Besides, De phis. Neither, Ni. But, Mais. Nor, Ni. Either, Soit, ou. Notwithstand- Else, Ou Men. ing, Neanmoins. Even as, Ainsi que. Or, Ou. * Before is translated by avant when relating to time, and by devant when relating to place j as in If you walk before me, you will arrive before mo. Si vous marchet devant 77101, vous arriverei avant moi. t De must be used before a consonant, and d? before a vowel or silent h. % Towakds is translated by envers, when used in expressing the disposition of one per- son towards another ; and by vers when it has for an object a name of place or time, or when used with a verb expressing motion ; as in To be charitable towards the poor, Etre charitable envers les pauvres. To go towards a place, - - - Alter vers un endroit. 28 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Save, Sinon. Than, Que. Since, Puisque. Suppose that, Suppose que. Provided that, Pourvu que. So that, Afin que. That, The same as, When, i Whilst, Que, afin que, De meme que. Quand, lorsque, Tandis que. NAMES OF THE PERIODS OF TIME. NO MS DES PERIOD ES DU TEMPS. An age, A year, A month, Tin silcle. Un an. Tin mois. ■ A day, An hour, A minute, Un jour. Tine heure. Tine minute. NAMES OF THE SEASONS. The winter, The spring, L'kiver. Le printemps. Noms des saisons. The summer, Vete. The autumn, L'automne. NAMES OF THE MONTHS. January, Janvier. February, Fevrier. March, Mars. April, Avril. May, Mai. June, Juin. NAMES OF THE DAYS OF THE WEEK. Monday, Lundi. Tuesday, Mardi. Wednesday, Mercredi. Thursday, Jeudi. Noms des mois. July, Juillet. August, Abut. September, Septe?nbre. October, Octobre. November, Novembre. December, Decembre. Noms des jours de la se- maine. Friday, Yendredi. Saturday, Samedi. Sunday, Dimanche. 29 CHAPTER III. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. One can never be too familiar with the construction or conju- gation of verbs ; therefore the models and rules for conjugating them are here given, that students may practise them while writing the exercises, in which they are not yet employed. At every lesson they should be required to write or recite one or several of them ; and, when a few regular ones have been cor- rectly written or recited, the irregular verbs should be underta- ken, especially pointing out where the irregularities are, and in what they consist. Properly speaking, there is but one verb, that which expresses existence ; viz. to be, etre ; for all the others may be consid- ered a representation of that auxiliary and an adjective ; as, I speak, je parle, is the same as I am speaking, je suis parlant ; thou singest, tu chant es ; as, thou art singing, tu es chantant ; he receives, il recoit ; as, he is receiving, il est recevant ; &c. But the present state of the language demands the distinc- tion of the following verbs : the auxiliary, Vauxiliaire ; the substantive, le substantif ; the active, les actifs ; the pas- sive, les passifs ; the neuter, les neutres ; the reflective, les refleckis ; the unipersonal, les unipersonnels ; and the defective, les defectueux. AUXILIARY VERB TO HAVE, AVOIR. Le verbe auxiliaire Avoir, the verb to have, avoir, is called auxiliary, because, with a few exceptions, it is used in the for- mation of the compound tenses of the other verbs. Those com- pound tenses, which are formed with the past participle of any verb preceded by the tenses of to have, avoir, always relate to a time previous to that expressed by the simple tenses. In French, as in English, the compound tenses of the auxilia- 3* 30 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. ry are formed with itself, by prefixing its own simple tenses to its own past participle. The word or words given with each tense show the sense in which that tense must be employed. INFINITIVE MOOD.— MODE DE UINFIN1TIF. Simple Tenses, Present. To have, Present participle, Having, Past participle, Had, Temps Simples. Present. Avoir. Participe present. Ayant. Participe passe. Em , m as . Eue, fe m . Compound Tenses, Temps composts. Preterite, Preterit. To have had, Avoir eu. Preterite anterior, Preterit anterieur. Having had, Ay ant eu. INDICATIVE MOOD.— M ODE DE L'INDICATIF. Simple tenses, Temps simples. Compound tenses, Temps composes. Present, Present. Preterite indefinite, Preterit indefini. Now, Maintenant. I do not know w len, Je ne sais quand. SINGULAR, Singulier, SINGULAR, Singulier. 1st, I have, Ire, *J y ai. I have had, *J'ai eu. 2d, Thou hast, 2de, Tu as. Thou hast had, Tu as eu. (He i Cll 7 He \ II ) 3d, < She > has, 3me, < Elle > a. She > has had, Elle >aeu. (One) (On ) One ) On ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, We have, Ire, Nous avons. We have had, Nous avons eu. 2d, You have, 2de, Vous avez. You have had, Vous avez eu. 3d, They have, 3me, Its ont. They have had, lis ont eu. 3d, They have, 3me, Elles ont. They have had, Elles ont eu. Imperfect, Imparfait. Pluperfect, Plus-que-parfait. Constantly, Constamment. Before that time Avant ce temps-Id. SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR, Singulier. 1st, I had, Ire, *J'avais\. I had had, *J , avais feu. 2d, Thou hadst, %de, Tu avais. Thou hadst had, Tu avais eu. ( He ) en ) He ) II } 3d, \ She } had, 2me, < Elle > avait. She > had had, Elle > avait eu. (One) ( On ) One ) On ) ' PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, We had, Ire, Nous avions. We had had, Nous avions eu. 2d, You had, fide, Vous aviez. You had had, Vous aviez eu. 3d, They had, 3me, lis avaient. They had had, i/.s- avaient eu. 3d, They had, 3me, Elles avaient. They had had, Elles avaient eu. * I is in French Je before a consonant, and J 1 before a vowel or a silent h, when it pre- cedes the verb ; but, when used after the verb it is always Je ; as, /have, J'ai ; have I? ai-je ? f Some books and grammars, published before 1835, have the terminations of the imper- fect indicative and conditional, in the three persons singular and the third person plural, written with an o instead of an a ; thus, ois, ois, oit, oient ; rois, rois, roil, roient ; but that manner of spelling those terminations has been rejected by the French Academy, which has adopted ai, instead of oi, in all the words in which oi vere pronounced like a grave 4. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 31 Simple tenses, Preterite defini Last week, SINGULAR. 1st, I had, Thou hadst, 'He 3d A She J- had Temps simples. rE, Preterit defini. La semaine demiire. Singulier. Ire, Jeus. Tu eus. d,?She J had, 3me ,\ Ell ( One ) ( On Elle > eut. PLURAL. 1st, We had, 2d, You had, 3d, They had, 3d, They had, Ire, Me, 3me. 3me, Future, To-morrow, SINGULAR, 1st, I shall or will have, 2d, Thou shalt or wilt have, Pluriel. Nous eumcs. Voas eutes. , lis eurent. Elles eurent. Futur. Demain. Singulier. Ire, Jaurai. c ( On ) 1st, We shall or will have, 2d, You shall or will have, 3d, They shall or wil have, 3d, They shall or will 3me, Elles auront. have, Pluriel. Ire, Nous aurons. 2de, Vous aurez. 3me, lis auront. Conditional pres- Conditionnel present. ENT, If I could, Si je pouvais. singular, Singulier. 1st, I wouldf have, Ire, Jaurais. 2d, Thou wouldst 2de, Tu aurais. have, 3d, < She > '(One* have ' She > would One PLURAL, 1st, We would have, 2d, You would have, 3d, They would have, 3d, Tney would have, 3me, {Ell ( On Elle > aurait. On ) Pluriel. Ire, Nous aurions. %de, Vous auritz. 3me, lis auraient. 3me, Elles auraient. Compound tenses, Temps composts. Preterite anterior, Preterit anterieur. After, singular, 1 had had, Thou hadst had, He ) She [ had had, One ) PLURAL. We had had, You had had, They had had, They had had, Apr is que.* Singulier. J'eus en. Tu eus eu. II ) Elle} On ) eut eu. Pluriel. Nous eumes eu. Vous eutes eu. lis eurent eu. Elles eurent eu. Future anterior, Futur anterieur. Before to-morrow, Avant demain. singular, Singulier. I shall have had, J'aurai eu. Thou wilt have had, Tu auras eu. He \ E ) She > will have had, Elle > aura eu. One ) On ) plu rt a l , Pluriel. We shall have had, Nous aurons eu. You shall have had, Vous aurez eu. They shall have had, Rs auront eu. They shall have had, Elles auront eu. Past conditional, Conditionnel pass4. If I had won, SINGULAR. I wouldf have had, Thou wouldst have had, have / U„ A One PLURAL, We would have had, You would have had, They would have had, They would have had, Sifavais gagni. Singulier. J aurais eu. Tu aurais eu. **) would have %) One* had > Or, S Pluriel. Nous aurions eu. Vous auriez eu. Us auraient eu. EUes auraient eu. * Que becomes qu' before il, elle, on ils, and elles. f The sign of the conditional tense is not always wot^d, it is sometimes could, should, or might ; but, whatever it may be in English, H never changes in French. 32 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Simple tenses, Temps simples. Present or Future, Prsent on Futur. To the end AJin singular, Singulier. 1st, That 1 may Ire, Quel; faie. have, 2d, That thou mayst 2 ait. ( That one ) have ' I Qu'on S plural, Pluriel. 1st, That we may Ire, Que nous ayons. have, 2d, That you may 2elles aient. have, Imperfect, Imparfait. Provided Pourru singular, Singu'ier. 1st, That I might Ire, Que -\feusse. have, 2d, That thou mightst 2 ! Q °" 1 3rae, 1 Quelle } eut. ( That one ) nave * ( Qu'on ) PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, That we might Ire, Que jttus ews- have, sions. 2d, That you might 2(/e, Que vcus eus- have, siez. 3d, That they might 3me, Qu'ils eussent. have, That they might Qu'elles eus- have, sen£. Compound tenses, Temps composts. Preterite, Preterit. Although Qu^U.ue s i pc gul a r, Sinijulier. fl may have had, \JTaie cu. Thou mayst have had, Tu aies eu. He ) n ) She > may have had, File > ait eu. One ) On ) plural, Pluriel. We may have had, Nous ayons eu* You may have had, Vous ayez eu. They may have had, lis aient eu. They may have had, Ettes aient eu. Pluperfect, Although SINGULAR, I might have had, Thou mightst have had, cjif f mi^ht have S h „ e J ^ Plus-que-parfait Quoiqus Singulier. ^J'eusse eu. Tu eusses eu. 11 ) File > eut eu. On ) plural, Pluriel. We might have had, Nous eussions cu. You might have had, Vvus eussiez eu. They might have had, Ms eussent eu. They might have had, Elles cusseiit cu. IMPERATIVE MOOD.— M ODE DE VIMPERATIF. Singular, 1st, 2d, Have thou, 3d, Let him have, PLURAL, 1st, Let us have, Singulier. Ire, 2de, Me. 3me, Qu'il ait. Pluriel. Ire, Ayons. 2d, Have ye or you, 2de, Ayez. 3d, Let them have, 3rae, Quails aient. Let them have, Qu'elles aient. | In English, the subjunctive mood has not always before it the conjunction that j but in French it must always be preceded by que, or by a conjunction ending in que, the final e of which is supplied by an apostrophe before U, elle, on, ik, or elles. CONJUGATION OF VERES. 33 SUBSTANTIVE VERB TO BE, &TRE. INFINITIVE MOOD— MODE BE V INFINITIF. Simple tenses, Temps simples. Present, Present. To be, Etre. Present participle, Partidpe present. Being, Etant. Past participle, Participe passe, Been, Ete. Compound tenses, Temps composts. Preterite, Preterit. To have been, Avoir ete. Preterite a nteri or, Preterit anterieur. Having been, Jlyant ete. INDICATIVE MOOT). —MOVE BE L'TNBICATIF. Simple tenses, Temps simples. Compound tense s, Temps composts. Present, Present. Preterite indefinite, Preterit indefint, Now, Maintenant. I do not know wher , Je ne sais quand. SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR, Singulier. 1st, I am, Ire, Je suis. I have been, J'ai ete. 2d, Thou art, %de, Tu es. Thou hast been, Tu as ete. (He ) til ) He > n ) 3d, \ She > is, 3me, ) Elle > est. She > has been, Elle > a ete. (One) ( On ) One) On ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, We are, Ire, Nous sommcs. We have been, Nous avons ete". 2d, You are, '•Me, Vous ctes. You have been, Vous avez ete. 3d, They are, dme, lis sont. They have been, lis out ete. They are, Elles sont. They have been, Elles ont ete. Imperfect, Imparfait. Fluperfect, Plus-que-parfait. Constantly, Constamment. Before that time, Avant ce temps-Id. SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR, Singulier. 1st, I was, Ire, JPetais, I had been, J>avais ete. 2d, Thou wast, 2de, Tu etais. Thou hadst been, Tu avais ete. (He ) rll ) He ^ 11 7 3d,< She >was, 3me, < Elle > etait. She > had been, Elle > avait etc. (One) (On S One ) On ) TLUR\L, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, We were, Ire, Nous etions. We had been, Nous avions ete". 2d, You were, 2de> Vous etiez. You had been, Vous aviez ete. 3d, They were, 3me, lis etaient. They had been, lis avaient ete. They were, Elles etaient. They had been, Elles avaient ete. Preterite definite, Preterit defini. Preterite anterior, Preterit anterieur,, Last month, Le mois dernier. As soon as, Des que. singular, Singulier. SINGULAR, Singulier. 1st, I was, Ire, Jefus. I had been, J'eus ete. 2d, Thou wast, 2de, Tufas. Thou hadst been, Tu eus ete. ( He ) ,n } He } R ) 3d, { She > was, 3me, { Elle >fut. She > had been, Elle } eut ete". ( One ) ( On ) One) On ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, We were, Ire, Nousftimes. We had been, Nous eximes eti. 2d, You were, 2de, Vousfvbtes. You had been, Vous exvtes ete. 3d, They were, 3me, fls furent. They had been, Us eurent ete. They were, Elles farent. They had been, Elles eurent ete". 34 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Simple tenses, Future, To-morrow, SINGULAR, 1st, I shall be, 2d, Thou wilt be, (He 3d, I She Will be Temps simples. FUTUR. Demain. Singulier. Ire, Je serai. %dc, Tu seras. < She > will be, 3me, 7 Elle > s ( One ) { Oa ) PLURAL, 1st, We will be, 2d, You will be, 3d, They will be, They will be, Conditional pres- ent, If I could, SINGULAR, 1st, I would be, Pluriel. Ire, Nous serons. 2de, Vous serez, 3me, Us seront. Elles seront. Conditionnel present. Sije pouvais. Singulier. Ire, Je serais. 2d, Thou wouldst be, 2de, Tu serais. (He | til \ 3d, \ She > would be,3»ie, \ Elle > serait ( One ) ( On ) plural, Pluriel. 1st, We would be, Ire, Nous serions. 2d, You would be, 2de, Vous seriez. 3d, They would be, 3wie, lis seraient. They would be, Elles seraient. Compound tenses, Temps composes. Future anterior, Futur anterieur. Before to-morrow, SINGULAR, r shall have beeu, Avant demain. Singulier. J'aurai ete. Thou shalt have been, Tu auras ete. He She J. will have been, Elle ^ aura ete". One J ) Il 1 i > will have been, Elle \ i 3) On S PLURAL, We shall have been, You will have been, They will have been. Pluriel. Nous aurons ete. Vous aurez ete. lis auront ete. They will have been, Elles auront ite". Past conditional, Conditionnel passe. If I had studied, SINGULAR, I would have been, Thou wouldst have been, He "i She ' wou ^ fl ave One been, We would have been, . You would have been, They would have been, They would have been,Elles auraient ete. Si favais etudie. Singulier. J'aurais ete. Tu aurais ete. II ) Elle > aurait ite. On ) Pluriel. Nous aurions ete. Vous auriez ete. Us auraient ete. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIR Simple tenses, Present or Future, To the end SINGULAR, 1, That I may be, 2, That thou mayst be C That he ) 3, 5 That she J™? ( That one ) De ' PLURAL, 1, That we may be, 2, That you may be, 3, That they may be, That they may be, Temps simples. Present ou Futur. Afin Singulier. 1, Queje so^s. i,2, Que tu sois. , < Qu'elle [ I Qu'on ■) soit. Pluriel. 1, Que nous soyons. 2, Que vous soyez. 3, QuHls soient. Qu?elles soient. Imperfect, Imparfait. Provided, Pourvu. singular, Si ngulier. 1, That I might be, 1, Que je fusse. 2, That thou mightest 2, Que tu fusses. be, ( That he ) •„, . ( Qu'il ) 3, < That she > ™Z ht 3, ) Quelle }fuL I That one ) be > ( Qu>on ) Compound tenses Preterite, Although, singular, I may have been , Temps composis. Preterit. Quoique. Singulier* J'aie ete. Thou mayst have been,7u aies ete. He ) II ) She V may have been, Elle } One > On plural, Pluriel. We may have been, Nous ayons ete. You may have been, Vous ayez ete. They may have been, Jls aicnt ete. They may have been, Elles aient ete. i > ait ete. Pluperfect, Although singular, I might have been, Thou mightst have been, ^. e ( might have One Plusque-parfait. Quoique. Singulier. fcusse ete. Tu eusses ete. 11 ' "•» 4 r might h» ' ( been, 11 Elle On cut eU. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 35 plural, Pluriel. 1 , That we might be, 1, Que nousfussions. 2, That you might 2, Que vousfussiez. be, 3, That they might 3, Qu'ils fussent. be, That they might Qv? 'ell es fussent. be, PLURAL, PIutUI. We might have been, Nous tussions ete. You might have Vous eussicz ete. been. They might have lis eussent ete. been, They might have Elles eussent etc. been, IMPERATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE UIMPERATIF. s INGULAR, Singulier. 1st, Ire, 2d, Be thou, 2de, Sais. C Let him} ( QuHl 1 3d, < Let her vbe, 3we, 1 Qa'elle \ soit. ( Let one ) ( Qu'on ) PLURAL, Pluriel. 1st, Let us be, Ire, Soyons. 2d. Be ye or you, 2de, Soyez. 3d, Let them be, 3me, QuHls soient. Let them be, Qv? elles soient FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. MODEL FOR THE FIRST CONJUGATION. PRESENT INFINITIVE ENDING IN ER. INFINITIVE MOOD.— MODE DE L>INFIN1TIF. Present tense. Present. To carry, Porter. Present participle, Participe present. Carrying, Portant. Past participle, Participe passe. Carried, Porte, m. e'e, f. -MODE DE U1NDICATIF. Imparfait. Ordinairement. Singulier. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present tense, Now, SINGULAR, I carry, or do* carry, or am carrying, Thou earnest, or dost carry,or art carrying, He } carries, or does She > carry, or is One } carrying, PLURAL, We carry, or do carry, or are carrying, You carry, or do carry, or are carrying, They carry ,or do carry, or are carrying, Present. Maintenant. Singulier. Je porte. Tu portes. > porte. 11 ) Elle\i On ) Pluriel. Nous portons. Vous portez. lis t Elles]* 07 *™ 1 ' Imperfect, Usually, SINGULAR, I was carrying, Thou wast carry- ing, He \ She > was carrying. One ) PLURAL, We were carrying, Ye, you were car- rying, They were carry- Je portais. Tu portais. 11 l EUe > On y portait. Pluriel. Nous portions. Vous portiez. $Ils j \ Elles portaienU * When to do or any other word is used, not to express an action, but merely as the sigh of the tense of the verb with which it is employed, it is never rendered in French. 36 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Preterit defird. Definite Preterite TJCNSE, Last month, last Le mois dernier, Vannee year, derniire. singular, Singulier. I carried, or did carry, Je portai. Thou carriedst, or Tuportas. didst carry, «i7 ( carried, or PLURAL, We carried, or did carry, Ye, you carried, or did carry, They^carried, or did IU^ j pmi ire«L Future tense, To-morrow Vous portdtes. Futur. Demain singular, Singulier. F shall or will carry, Je porterai. Thou shalt or wilt Tu porteras. carry, *£ e > shall or will %A port , rt , One 5 car, y' On $ plural, Pluriel. We shall or will carry,JV*oi/s porter ons. Ye, you shall or will Vous porterez. carry, Thecal, or will ^j^^. Conditional pres- Conditionnel present ENT TENSE, If I could Sijepouvais. singular, Singulier. I should or would Je porterais. carry, Thou wouldst or Tu porterais. shouldst carry, She I WOuld or should Elle Iporterait. One* can *» On Y plural, Pluriel. We would or should JVbus porterions. carry, Ye, you would or Vous porteriez. should carry, They would or should lis ) ___._„ carry, Elles \Porteraicnt. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Present or Future Present on Futur. Imperfect tense, Tmparfait. tense, Provided that Pourvu que To the end that Afinque SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR. Singulier. * I might carry, je portasse. * I may carry, jeporte. thou mightest tu portasses. thou mayst tu portez. carry, carry, he 1 il ) he { il ) she > might earn , elle > port&t. she > may carry elle >porte. one ) on ? one ) on ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Bluriel. we may carry, nous portions. we might carry, nous portassions. ye or you may vous portiez. ye or you might vous portassiei. carry, carry, they may j7 s ) dies \P° rte}U ' they might car- ils ) portas- elles I sent. carry, ry. IMPERATIVE MOOD.— M ODE DE UIMPeRATIF. SINGULAR Carry thou, Let him ) Let her Let one carry, Singulier. Porte. QuHl J Qu'eUe \porte. Qu'on ) * The dash in the English is for that ; and in the French for que before a consonant., and for qu> before U, elle, on, its, elles. CONJUGATION Of VEKBS. 37 PLURAL. Let us carry, Carry ye. or you, Let them carry, Pluriel. Portons. Port z. COMPOUND TENSES.— TEMS COMPOSES. INFINITIVE MOOD- Preterite, Preterit. To have carried, Avoir porte. -MODE DE ! Preterite anterior Having carried, UINFINITTF. Preterit anterieur. Ayant -porte. INDICATIVE MOOD- Preterite indefinite, Preterit indefin I do not know when I have carried, &.c. Pluperfect, Before that time 1 had carried, &c. Preterite anterior, When or after MODE DE L'INDICATIF. I had carried, &,c. J'eus porte, fyc. Je ne sais quand Future anterior, Futur anterieur. Tai porte, Sfc. Before to-morrow Avant demain Plus-que-parfait. I shall have car- J^aurai porte, fyc. Avant ce temps-la ried, &c. J'avais porte, $c. Past conditional, Conditionnel passe. Pre'terit anterieur. If I had won, Si j'avais gagne. Lorsque ou apres que I would have carried, J'aurais porte , fyc. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DJJ SUBJONCTIF. Preterite, Although T may have car- ried, &e. Preterit. Quoique J>aie porte, &>c. Pluperfect, Although I might have car- ried, &.C. Plus-que-parfaiU Quoique — — J^eusse porte, fyc. MODEL FOR THE SECOND CONJUGATION. PRESENT INFINITIVE ENDING IN IR. INFINITIVE MOOD.— MODE DE L'lNFWTTIF. Present tense, To finish, Present participle, Finishing, Past participle, Finished, Present. Finir. Participe present. Finissant. Participe passe. Fini, m. ie, f. INDICATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE VINDICATIF. Prehent tense, Now Present. Maintenant singular, Singulier. I finish, do finish, or Je finis. am finishing, Thou finishest, dost Tu finis. finish, or art finish- ing, He ^ finishes,or does 77 \ She > finish, or is File >finit. One ) finishing, On ) plural, Pluriel. We finish, or do fin- JVous finissons. ish,or are finish ing, You finish, or do fin- isher are finishing, They finish, or do fin- isher are finishing, Vous finissei. Elks U™*?ent. 38 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Imperfect tense, Usually SINGULAR, I was finishing, Imparfait. Ordinairement Singulier. Je finissais. Thou wast finishing, Tu finissais. He \ II ) She > was finishing, Elle {finissait. One ) On ) pluiial, Pluriel. We were finishing, Nous finissions. /You were finishing, Vous finissiez. Thev were finish- Us ) - . . . Lag, Elks \fi™ sa "» lt - Preterite definite TEN3E, Last week SINGULAR, f finished, or did fin- ish, Thou finishest, or didst finish, She I ^ nis hed, or One did finish, •■lural, We finished, or did finish, You finished, or did * finish, They finished,or did finish, Preterit defini. La semaine demiere Singulier. Je finis. Tu finis. II ) Elle \finit. On ) Pluriel. Nous finimes. Vous finitcs. E S lles] fiwirent - Future te>se, On the next day after to-morrow SINGULAR, J shall or will finish, Thou shalt or wilt finish, He j She > will finish, One) PLURAL, We shall or will fin- ish, Ye or you shall or will finish, They shall or will finish, Present condition- Conditionnel present. AL TENSE, If I could Futur. Aprds demain Singulier. Jefinirai. Tu finiras. 11 } Elle \finira. On ) Pluriel. Nous finir oris. Vous finirez. ^Ifiniront. SINGULAR, I would or should finish, Thou wouldst or shouldst finish, e^ ) would or q V should finish, PLURAL. We would or should finish, Ye or you would or should finish, Sijepouvais Singulier. Jefinirais. Tu finir ais. n ) Elle \finirait. On ) Pluriel. Nous finirions. Vous finiriei. They would or should lis ) finiraient finish, Elles )J imraxenU SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTTF. Present or Future TENSE, To the end that SINGULAR, I may finish, thou mayst finish, he ) she > may finish, one ) PLURAL, ■ we may finish, ye or you may finish, they may fin- ish, Present ou Futur. Afinque Singulier. jefiwsse. - tufinisses. il } elle I on ) Pluriel. — nous finissions. — vous finissiez. — ils — elles Imperfect tense, Provided that SINGULAR, I might finish, thou mightest finish, h . e ? might She (fin?sh, one ) ' PLURAL, we might finish, ye or you might finish, — — they might fin- ■ ish, Imparfait. Pourvu que Singulier, jefinisse. tufinisses. Pluriel. - nous finissions. - voua finissiez. '-dies]*™ 8 "*- IMPERATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE VIMPERATIF. SINGULAR, Finish thou, Let him l Let her \ finish, Let one ) PLURAL, Let us finish, Finish ye or you, Let them finish, Singulier. Finis. QuHl \ Qu'elle >finisse. Qu'on > Pluriel. Finissons. Finissez. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 39 COMPOUND TENSES.— TEMPS COMPOSES. INFINITIVE MOOD.— MODE BE VINFINITIF. Preterite, To have finished, Preterit. Avoir fini. Preterite anterior Having finished, Preterit ant&rieur* Ayantjini, INDICATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE V1NDICATIF. Preterite Indefinit I do not kuow when I have finished, &c. Pluperfect, Before that time I had finished, &c. Preterite anterior When or after I had finished, &c. Preterit indejini. Je ne sais quand J'aijini, $c. Plus-que-parfait. Avant ce temps-Id J'avais fini, fyc. Preterit anterieur. Lorsque ou apres que J'eusjini, 8fc. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.- Preterite, Preterit. Although Quoique - I may have fin- J'aiejini, fyc. ished, &c. Si favais gagki Future anterior, Futur anterieur o Before to-morrow Avant demain. J shall have finished,&c. J'auraijmiy $t. Past conditional, If I had won I would have finished, J^auraisjim^ $t- MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Pluperfect, Plus-que-parfuit* Although Quoique I might have fin- J'eussi ished, &lo. Jini, 8fc. MODEL FOR THE THIRD CONJUGATION. PRESENT INFINITIVE ENDING IN EVOIR. INFINITIVE MOOD.— MODE DE VINFINITIF. Present tense. To receive, Present participle, Receiving, Past participle, Received, Present. Recevoir. Participe present. Recevant. Participe passe. Regit) m. i/e, f. INDICATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE LUNDICATIF. Present tense, Present. Now d present singular, Singulier. I receive, or do receive, Je reqois. or am receiving, Thou receivest, or dost Tu reqois. receive,or art receiving, He } receives, or does 11 \ She > receive, or is File > recoit. One ) receiving, On j plural, Pluriel. We receive, or do re- Nous recevons. ceive,orare receiving, Ye or you receive, or do Vous recevez. receive,or are receiving, They receive, or do re- Us ) recoi- ceive,or are receiving, Elles } vent. Imperfect tense, Generally singular, I was receiving, Thou wast receiving, He } She > was receiving, One) PLURAL, We were receiving, Ye or you were receiv- ing, They were receiving, ImparfaiU Generaiement Singhlier. Je recevais. Tu recevais. 11 ? File > recevais On ) Pluriel. Nous rec%~ vions. Vous receviex. lis ) recevai- Elles j eat, 40 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Preterite definite Preterit defini, TENSE. Last year SINGULAR, I received, or did re- ceive, Thou receivedst, or didst receive, Uannee demi&re Singulier. Je regus. Tu regus. received, or did receive, 11 } Elle > ret On ) : PLURAL, We received, or did receive, Ye received, or did receive, They received, or did receive, Future tense, Next week SINGULAR I shall or will receive. Thou shalt or wilt re- ceive, He She One Elle } recut. On Pluriel. Nous recumes. Vous recutes. lis ) kites \ •*«"*«* Futur. La semaine prochaine Her. Je recevrai. Tu recevras. ( sha hall or will receive, II ) Elle > 7 On ) PLURAL, We shall or will re- ceive, Ye or you shall or will receive, They shall or will receive, PI jriel. Nous recevrons, Vous recevrez. lis Elles recevront. Present condi- tional tense, If I could Conditionnel present* Si je pouvais singular, Singulier. I would or should Je recevrais. receive, Thou wouldst or Tu recevrais. shouldst receive, She I WOuld ° r Sh ° uld Elle I recevraiL One* reCelV6 ' On i plural, Pluriel. We would or should Nous recevrions. receive, Ye, you would or Vous recevriez. should receive, They would or should lis \ recevraieni receive, Elles \ SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Present or Future Present ou Futur. TENSE, To the end that Afin que* singular. Singulier. [ may receive, je rccoive. thou mayst — — tu re'goives. receive, ~ . e „ (may re- * „ r - she > „/:..„ elie )■ regoive - one »jfej we may re- ceive, ye or you may receive, they may receive, — nous rece- vions. — vous reccviez. — Us ) recoi- — elles \ vent. Imperfect tense, Irnparfait. Provided that Pourvu que* singular, Singulier. T might receive, jerecusse. thou mightest tu regusses. receive, he } • , » U ) B h« i mi " ht re " elle i recbt. one $ ceive, m J I PLURAL, we might re- ceive, ye or you might receive, they might re- ceive, Pluriel. nous regus- sions. vous regus- siez. Us > rcgus- elles > sent. IMPERATIVE MOOD— MODE DE L'IMPfiRATlF. SINGULAR. Receive thou, Let him \ Let her > recci Let one ) Siurc goive. Qu'on ) * Que hecomrs avais regu % §c. Preterite anterior, Preterit anterieur. When or after Lorsque ou aprts que I had received, &c. J'eus regu, $e. Future anterior, Futur anterieur. Before this evening Avant ce sofr I shall have re- J'aurai repu, §t. ceived, &c. Past conditional, Conditionnel pass6. If I had studied, Si favais etudii. I would have received, J'aurais rega, fit. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Preterite, Although I may have re- ceived, &.C. Preterit. Quoique J'aie regu, 8>c Pluperfect, Although I might have re- ceived, &,c. Plus-que-parfhiL Quoique J'eusserecUy Sfe, MODEL FOR THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. PRESENT INFINITIVE ENDING IN RE. INFINITIVE MOOD— MODE DE UINFINITIF. Present. Vertdre. PllE32NT TENSE, To sell, Present participle, Selling, Past participle, Sold, Participe present. Vendant. Participe passe. Vendu 9 m. we, f. INDICATIVE MOOD— MODE DE VINDICATIF. Present tense, At present, singular, I sell, or do sell, or am selling, Thou sellest, or dost sell, or art selling, He } sells, or does She > sell, or is One) selling, 4# Present. d present. Singulier. Je vends. Til vends. II } Elle \ On ) vend. Pluriel. We sell, or do sell, or are selling, Ye or you sell, or do sell, or are selling, They sell,or do sell, or are selling, Nous vendonSo Vous vender. lis J EUes* vendera. 42 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Imperfect ten§b, Imparfait. Future tense, Futur. Usually Ordinairement Next month Le mois prochain SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR, I shall or will sell, Singulier. Je vendrai. I was selling, Je vendais. Thou shalt or wilt Tu vendras. Thou wast selling, Tu vendais. sell, He > 11 1 He ) 11 ) She > was selling, Elle \ vendait. She > will sell, Elle > vendra. One ) On S One) On ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. We were selling, JYous vendions. We shall or will sel , Nous vendrons. Ye or you were sel- Vans vendiez. Ye or you shall or Vous vcndrez. ling, will sell, They were sell- ing, Us ) EUes S ^ ndaie ^ They shall or will sell, K^vendront. Preterite definite Preterit defini. Present condition- Conditionnel present. tense, al tense, The day before yes Jlvant hier If I could Sijepouvais terday SINGULAR, Singulier. SINGULAR, Singulier. I would or should sell, Thou wouldst or Je vendrais. I sold, or did sell, Je vendis. Tu vendrais. Thou soldest, or Tu vendis. shouldst sell, didst sell, He ^ n ) C1 f ) sold, or did ?l he C sell II % Elle > vend it. n, / would or gJJ $ should sell, Elle > vendrait. On ) One ) sel1 ' On ) PLURAL. Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. We would or should Nous vcndrions. We sold, or did sel , Nous vendimes. sell, Ye or you sold, or Vous vendites. Ye or you would or Vous vendriez. did sell, should sell, They sold, or did lis \ vendi- They would or should IJs \ vendraiRnt , sell, EUes ) rent. sell, ±.ues ) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.— MODE DU SUBJONCTIF. Present or Future Present ou Futur. Imperfect tense, Imparfait. tense, Provided that Pourvu que To the end that Afin que SINGULAR, Singulier, SINGULAR, Singulier. I might sell, je vendisse. I may sell, je vende. thou mightest tu vendisses. thou mayst sell, he } she > may sell, tu vendes. il \ elle > vende. sell, h . e > might she ( sell il ) eUe > vendit. one ) on } one ) ' 071 ) PLURAL, Pluriel. PLURAL, Pluriel. ■■ we may sell, nous vendions. we might sell, nous vcndissions. ye or you may vous vendiez. ye or you might vous vendissiei. sell, pell, they may sell, — dies \ vendent - — — they might ! sell, ih > vendis- eUes ) sent. IMPERATIVE MOOD.— A WDE DE VIMPERATIF. SINGULAR, Singulier. Sell thou, Fends. Let him ^ Qu'il l Let her \ sell, Qu'clle > vende. Let one ) Q«'07l ; PLURAL, Pluriel. Let us sell, Vendons. Sell ye or you, Ven da. Let them sell, & j~— «• CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 43 COMPOUND TENSES.— TEMPS COMPOSES. INFINITIVE ISIOOV.—MOBE BE L'INFINITIF. Preterite, Preterit. I Preterite anterior, Preterit anteriem. To have sold, Avoir vemdu. Having sold, Ayant vendu. INDICATIVE MOOD.— MODE BE V1NBICATIF. Preterite Indefinite, Preterit indefini. I do not know when Je ne sais quand I have sold, Sec. J'ai vendu, $c. Pluperfect, Plus-que-parfait. Before that time Avantce temps-la I had sold, &c. J'avais vendu, 8fc. Preterite ANTERiOR,P?-eZeri£ anterieur. When or after Lorsque ou apres que I had sold, &c. J*eus vendu, 8fc. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.-ilfO.DJB BJJ SUBJ0NCT1F. Preterite, Preterit. I Pluperfect, Plus-que-parfait. Although Quoique I may have J'aie vendu, &;c. sold, &c. Future anterior, Futur anterieur. Before next week Avant la semaine prochaine I shall have sold, s, t, ons, ez, s, s * t, ons, ez, s \ s, d, ons, ez, ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, ai, as, a, dmes, ates, is, is, it, imes, ites, us, us, ut, times, utes, rai, ras, ra, rons, rez, rais, rais, rait, riovs, riez, e, es, «> ions, iez, ssc, sses, ■% ssions, ssiez, «> e, ons, ez, &9 e, ons, ez, ent, ent, ent, ent, aient, event, irent, went, ront, raient, ent, ssent, ent, ent, 43 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF VERBS* From the preceding paradigm it may be at once perceived, that, in all regular verbs, the 1st and 2d person sing, end in s ; Except the 1st of the present and preterite indica- tive,and the 2d ofthe imperative of the first conju- gation ; thelst ofthe fut.ofpres.&imperf.subjunc. the 3d person singular ends in t ; Except that ofthe present indicative ofthe 1st con- jugation which ends in e ; that of the same tense ofthe 4th which ends in d; that ofthe preterite of the 1st which ends in a; that of the future of any verb which ends also in a ; and that of the present subjunctive which ends in e. the 1st person plural ends in ons ; Except that ofthe preterite which ends in mes. the 2d " " " ez; " " " Us, the 3d " " " cnt; " future " vnt. These terminations of the French verbs cannot be too much attended to ; since they constitute the signs by which one tense is distinguished from another tense, one person from another person. They correspond with those that are used, in English, for the same object, and which consist either in the termination of the verb, or in some word prefixed to it. For instance, the signs of the present indicative of the verb to carry are, in En- glish, merely the verb changing its termination for the second and third persons singular ; or by prefixing to it the present indicative of the verb to do ; or by prefixing the present indi- cative of the auxiliary to be to its present participle, carrying : and, in French, by adding to the radical letters port, which form the body of the verb porter, the terminations e, es, e, ons, ez, ent, which constitute the signs of that tense. The sign of the im- perfect of any verb, in English, is the imperfect of the auxiliary to be, prefixed to the present participle of that verb : and, in French, it is the termination ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, or aient, ad- ded to the radical letters of the corresponding verb. These ob- servations might be extended to the other tenses ; but the stu- dent may readily do it himself, without further explanation. OBSERVATIONS ON some of the verbs of the first conjugation. 13. In those verbs whose present infinitive ends in cer, as the c in that infinitive has the soft sound of s, that soft sound must be preserved through all the tenses and persons of the verb to CONJUGATION OF VERBS. which it belongs. Therefore when an a, 0, or u, comes imme- diately after the c, a cedilla is to be placed under it ; as in com- meneer, to begin, the plural of the present indicative must be written nous commenqons, vous commencez, Us commencent ; the imperfect je comments, &c. This observation is applica- ble to any verb that has a c with the soft sound of s in its infini- tive. The following verbs belong to this description, menacer, forcer, TO THREATEN. TO FORCE. placer, effacer, TO PLACE. TO EFFACE, &C. 14. In those verbs whose present infinitive ends in ger, as the g has a soft sound before e, like that of French j, or of s in the English word pleasure, to preserve that sound through all the verbs to which it belongs, a silent e should be written be- tween the g and the termination, whenever that termination commences with an a, o, or u ; as in voyager, to travel ; the plural of the present indicative must be written nous voyageons, vous voyagez, Us voyagent; the imperfecta voyage&is, &c. ; the preterite je voyaged, &c. The following verbs belong to this description. manger, changer:, TO EAT. TO CHANGE. loger, m'enazer, TO LODGE. TO MANAGE, &C. 15. In those verbs whose present infinitive ends in eler, eter, the e preceding the I or t being silent or guttural, only when the I or t is followed by a silent e, that I or t must be doubled ; before any other letter, or even an e that is not guttural or silent, the I or t remain single ; as ^appeler, to call ; *jeter, to throw ; projeter, to design; the presents indicative are, j'appelle, tu appelles, il appelle, nous appelons, vous appelez, Us appellent, je jette, tu jettes, U jette, nous jetons, vous jetez, Us jetteni jeprojette, tuprojettes, il pro jetie, nous pi'ojetons, vous pro jetez, Us projettent ; the futures are j'appellemi, &c, je jetter&i, fyc. % je projettemi, fyc. ; the conditionals are j'appellemis, fyc, je jettemis, <^c, je proj ettera.is, fyc. The following verbs belong to this description. ^ 5 60 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. acheter, TO BUY. feuilleter, TO RUN OVER cacheter, TO SEAL. BOOK. decacheter, TO UNSEAL. peler, TO PEAL. epeler, TO SPELL. renouveler, TO RENEW. 16. In those verbs whose final syllable is preceded by an acute e, as considerer, to consider, ^regler, to regulate, the acute accent of the e must be changed into the grave, thus e, before a silent or gutteral syllable. So the present indicative of celer, to conceal, is je cele, tu celes, il cele, nous colons, votes cklez, Us celent ; its future is je celerai, fyc. ; its conditional is je celerais, tyc. The following verbs belong to this description. altirer, TO ALTER. esperer, TO HOPE. cider, TO CEDE. prefcrer, TO PREFER. celebrer, TO CELEBRATE. perseverer, TO PERSEVERE. 17. In those verbs whose final syllable of the present infini- tive is preceded by a silent or guttural e, not followed by an I or t, as lever, to rise ; mener, to carry ; that silent e takes a grave accent, thus e, before a silent or guttural syllable. So the present indicative of semer, to sow, is^'e seme, tu semes, il seme nous semons, vous semez, Us sement ; the future is je semerai, fyc. The conditional is je semerais, &c. The following verbs belong to this description. dipecer, lever, TO CARVE. TO RISE. mener, relever, TO CARRY. TO RISE AGAIN. peser. TO WEIGH. enlever, TO CARRY AWAY. 18. In those verbs whose present infinitive ends in yer, the y must be changed into an i, whenever a silent e comes after it, as in nettoyer, to clean ; the present indicative of which is je nettoie, tu netto'ies, il nettoie, nous nettoyons, vous nettoyez, Us nettoient ; the future is je nettoierai, fyc. ; the conditional je nettoierais, cf-c. The following verbs are of this description. rayer, to streak. employer, to employ. ennuyer, to annoy. noyer, to drown. essayer, to try. | payer, to pay. This last observation stands good for the irregular verbs, in which a y should, according to the formation of tenses, become i before a silent or guttural e. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 51 INTERROGATION, NEGATION, AND INTERROGATION WITH NEGATION. In conjugating verbs, students should do it sometimes with interrogation, avec interrogation ; sometimes with negation, avec negation ; and sometimes with both interrogation and negation together, avec interrogation et negation a la fois. 19. 1? interrogation, tee interrogation with a verb is made by placing the nominative pronoun after it, and joined to it by a hyphen : as, Rave 1, Ai-je ? Am I, Suis-je ? Art thou, Es-tu ? Is he, Est-il ? But if the interrogation is made with a verb, and a noun as its nominative, as, Is John there ? Are the books here ? Will our daughters be here ? The French pi ace the noun before the verb, and after that verb a hyphen and a pronoun of the same gender, number and person as that noun ; as Is John there ? Jean est-il Id ? Are the books here ? - - - Les livres sont-ih id ? Will our daughters be here ? - Nos filles seront-elles ici ? 20. Remark 1st. If the interrogation is made in the first person singular of the present indicative of a verb of the first conjugation, an acute accent is to be placed over the final silent e, which 'e,, however, should be pronounced more open than the acute e and less than the open or grave e ; thus, porte-je? do i carry ? Aime-je ? do i love ? But instead of this form it is better to say est-ce que je porte ? is it that i carry ? est-ce que faime ? is it that i love ? This last form however expresses surprise or astonishment, and therefore should be used only with the verbs whose first person singular of the present indicative ends in silent e, when a simple interrogation is meant. 21. Remark 2d. Whenever the third person singular ends with a vowel, a t between two hyphens, thus -t-, must be placed between the verb and the nominative pronoun ; as Porte-t-il ? Does he carry ? Portera-X-on 1 Will one carry ? Porta-t-elle ? Did she carry ? Chantera-i~il ? Will he sing ? 22. La negation, the negation with a verb is made by plac- 52 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, ing ne between the nominative pronoun and the verb, and pas after it ; as I do not carry, - - - Je ne porte pas. Thou dost not finish, - - - Tu ne finis pas. He does not receive, - - - II ne regoit pas. We will not sell, - Nous ne vendrons pas. 23. But if the negation in English is made with another word than not, ne is used before the verb in French, and a word corresponding to that of the English phrase is used instead of pas. I am never sorry, - - - Je ne suis jamais fache. I am no longer sorry, - - - Je ne suis vhisfache'. I have nothing, - - - Je n' ai rien. I receive nobody, - - - - Je ne repois personne. 24. Sometimes point is used instead of pas, and the differ- ence between those words is, that point denies absolutely, and pas does not ; so that the negation with pas might be modified by an adverb, but not so with point. We may translate I have not money enough, by Je n' ai pas assez d" argent. but not by Je n' ai point assez d' argent. I have not entirely finished, by Je n' ai pas entitrement fini. but not by Je n' ai point entierement Jini. 25. U interrogation avec ?iigation, r T'HE interrogation with negation is made by giving to the verb the interrogative form and placing ne before it, and pas after the nominative pronoun. Do I not carry ? - - - - Ne porte-je pas ? Dost thou not carry? - - - - Ne portes-tu pas ? Does he not carry ? ... Ne pGrte-t-il pas ? 26. L' affirmation exclusive, the exclusive affirmation, is a form of expression by which one or several things only are the object of the phrase, exclusively from all others of the same kind. It is expressed in English by but or only, used with the verb ; and in French by ne or n' before the verb, and que or qu' after it, but next to the object of the affirmation. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 53 I have but one friend, He had only one thousand men, They are only weak, We have in our misery but one resource. Je ri ai qu' un ami. 11 n' avait que mille hommes. Us ne sont que faibles. Nous n' avons dans notre mi- sere qn'une ressource. 27. When a verb is used with negation or interrogation, or with both interrogation and negation together, or with an exclusive affirmation in a compound tense, that interroga- tion, negation, or interrogation and negation together, or exclu- sive affirmation must be made with only the auxiliary, the past participle being placed after pas in a negation, and after the nominative pronoun in an interrogation without negation ; as We have not sold, - Will they not have received ? Have / carried ? Has he finished ? - - Have you brought but one loaf? Nous n 1 'avons pas vendu. N'auront-ih pas regu? Ai-je portt ? A-t-iljini? N avez-vous apporte qu' un pain ? Note. A verb may be conjugated throughout with negation ; but its indicative mood only can be used interrogatively. The imperative has no compound tense. parler, ^donner, travailler, etudier, punir, avertir, *polir, guerir, ^apercevoir, concevoir, devoir, VERBS TO BE CONJUGATED. 1st conjugation. ^suppleer, prononcer y changer, nettoyer, to speak. to give. to work. to study. 2d conjugation to punish, to warn, to polish, to cure. umr, embellir, adoucir, agir, 3d conjugation. decevoir, percevoir } to perceive, to conceive. to owe. redevoir, to supply. to pronounce, to change. to clean. to unite, to embellish. to soften, to act. to deceive, to receive, or perceive, to owe still. 54 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 4th CONJUGATION. attendre, to expect. entendre, to hear. defendre, to forbid. ^rtpondre, to answer. confondre, to confound. pretendre, to pretend. CHAPTER IV. , PLURAL OF NOUNS. Note. The exercises of this chapter must be translated liter- ally ; that is, word by word, unless directions are given to the contrary. If a word be found in any exercise, where the Rule under which it is placed is not applicable, it is because some preced- ing Rule can be applied to it ; but in such cases reference will be given whenever deemed necessary for the improvement of the student. These references are marked by the figures of the Rules that should be consulted. 28. 1st Rule. Nouns in the singular, ending in s, x, or z, remain the same in the plural. un Mr os, one hero. deux heros. two heros. un prix, one price. deux prix, two prices. un nez, one nose. deux nez, two noses. EXERCISE 1. During three months. With two arms. Between four crosses. Over ten bodies. Under four canopies. In five palaces. Within fifteen paces. Among nineteen heaps of wood. Of five repasts of meat. Con- cerning six prizes. Without five senses. From seven countries of Europe. By nine screws. Against two bears of Russia. Towards four sons of Joseph. With three carpets from Turkey. With seventeen nuts. Concerning five heroes. After three meals. Among nineteen noses. 29. 2d Rule. Nouns not ending with s, x, or z, in the singular, generally take s for the plural. un homme, one man. trots hommes, three men. un mot, one word. quatre wots, four words. un clou, one nail. cinq clous, five nails. un portail, one gate. deux port ails, two gate*. PLURAL OF NOUNS. 55 EXERCISE 2. Of twenty books. In nineteen houses. Through nine doors. By four walls. Before two statues. Between six chairs. For seven rooms. From three beds. For two children. Behind two screens. Under five blankets. From eight hogsheads of wine. With eighteen necks of bot- tles. In nine plates of china. Upon two shelves. With two fans. For four bracelets and two necklaces of coral. Through three gates. With two rudders. Behind seventeen trees. From two sons and # five daughters of John . 30. 1st General Exception. Nouns in the singular, end- ing in au, eu, or ceu, take x for the plural. un etau, one vice. onze etaux, eleven vices. (a smith's tool.) un cheveu, one hair. trente cheveux, thirty hairs. un vceu, one vow. deux vceux, two vows. 31. * When several nouns are the object ofthe prepositions to, at, a ; of, from, de y d* ; in, en j with or without an article ; that preposition is expressed but once before the first noun, in English ; but, in French, it must be repeated before every noun. EXERCISE 3. With five knives. After four confessions. For eleven hats. For 29 eight pictures of David. Concerning twelve children of Jacob. Accord- ing to the vows of Mary. In three places of safety. "With seven pieces of wood. Between two heaps of shavings. To three fires. With seven 20 nails. By nine lambs. In seven boats from Boston. Under two cloaks. By nineteen pails of water. In two offices. Notwithstanding four de- nials of James. Behold seven skins ; three of bear, and four of wolf. Among fifteen nephews. With two pieces of bread. • 32. 2d General Exception. Nouns in the singular, end- ing in #7, change that termination into aux for the plural. un mal, one evil. deux TTzaux, two evils. un canal, one canal. vingt ca?iaux, twenty canals. EXERCISE 4. By four horses. Through six canals. In two hospitals of Paris. At 23 n two menageries of two hundred animals from Africa. In five journals 56 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. from Philadelphia. Against two evils. From the arsenals of France. In 29 nine jugs of oil. With five kinds of minerals. Between four generals 29 and three admirals. To seventeen corporals of two regiments. Not- withstanding two capitals of money. Concerning fifteen cardinals of 29 Italy. Against eighteen vassals of Russia. With six kinds of vegeta* bles from Asia* Before two tribunals of France. 33. Particular Exceptions. 1st. Of nouns ending in ou the following take x. joujou, toy. bijou, jewel. caillou, flint. chou, / cabbage. genou, knee. hibou, owl. pou, 2d. Of nouns ending in al the following take s. louse. bal, ball. carnaval, carnival. regal, cheer. pal, pale. lease. soupirail, vent-hole. enamel. travail, work. coral. tramail, drag-net. But pal is also paux in the plural. 3d. Of nouns ending in ail, the following change ail into aux. bail, email, corail, But, when travail means trave, it takes s for the plural ; thus, travails, 4th. 'Of nouns ending in nt, the monosyllable gent, nation, changes t into s for the plural ; thus, ge?is ; which plural does not mean nations, but people, persons. Polysyllables, ending in nt, change the t into s for the plural, or keep the t and take s with it. Therefore it is equally proper to write deux enfants, two children ; or devx enfans, without the t. trois agents, three agents ; or trois agens ; but it is considered better, and is recommended by modern wri- ters, to preserve the t in the plural, according to Kule, No. 29. 5th. The plural of del is dels, in dels de lit, testers of beds; dels de tableaux, skies in painting; and dels de carrieres. PLURAL OF NOUNS. 57 first banks in quarries ; in any other circumstance it is cieuz. 6th. The plural of osil is yeuz, when it designates the eyes of the head, or the representation of that organ ; but it is mils in any other instance. 7th. The plural of dleul is a'ieuh, when it designates the GRANDFATHER PATERNAL, and the GRANDFATHER MATERNAL; but is a'ieuz, meaning ancestors in general. 8th. The plural of ail, garlic, is aulz. EXERCISE 5 * exc. exc. With two jewels of Mary. Among twenty-five flints. For ninety- 33 exc. 29 29 nine cabbages. From seventy-seven knees of oxen. For two dozens of exc. exc. 29 ^9 exc - owls. By two leases of four farms In two collections of enamels of exc. 29 oxo. Nevers. Through ninety-eight vent-holes. In two series of labours. exc. exc. 30 From seventv-six ancestors of Henry. Among seventv-two eyes of birds. pxc' 29 For two skies of pictures. Through ninety-nine windows. From two hxc exc. grandfathers of William. For two testers of bed for James. For two 29 29 29 traves. With three necks of mutton. By four scare-crows. EXERCISE 6. 29 29 29 By two accidents of war. With three diamonds in form of pentagons. 29 29 29 In two amusements. Notwithstanding six judgments. By six presents. 29 29 29 Without students of mathematics. Behind two monuments of victory. 29 29 29 For three men without teeth. Towards five beggars from Ireland. 29 29 29 30 With two pairs of gloves. Over three bridges of boats. Against nine 29 29 regiments of infantry. By twenty -five children of Boston. In two 29 29 apartments of George. With fifteen instruments of surgery. Between 29 29 two fragments of rock. Notwithstanding two inconveniences. In three 30 castles. EXERCISE 7. 28 30 28 29 Over two out-houses. With three flocks of sheep. Between two pairs 29 9 9 30 11 12 11 30 of oxen. For one hundred hats. By three hundred and eighty camels. 29 29 29 33 Of two cuckoos. In thirty packs of bamboos. With four cabbages. * When the letters exc. are over a word, they refer to the exceptions. 58 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 29 32 ift Under two camails. In six jugs. With ten nuts of screws. For eleven 33 .29 29 drag-nets. Against twelve pickpockets. In two seraglios. With 33 29 29 29 twelve jewels. From three pages of details. For twenty-six dozens of 29 29 11 12 halters. By two he-cats from Africa. Upon six hundred and fifty 32 32 28 29 horses. With nine light-houses. Under two heaps of stones. By three 32 generals of division. CHAPTER V. GENDER OF NOUNS. The gender of nouns is determined either by their meaning or termination. The following are masculine by their meaning : 1°. The Nouns that represent Men ; as emperevr, emperor ; general, general ; avocat, lawyer ; notaire, notary; &c. Except altesse, highness ; caution, security ; connaissance, acquaintance ; dupe, dupe ; Eminence, eminence ; estafette, an express ; excel- lence, excellence ; grandeur, grace ; mo.jeste, majesty ; partie, client; saintet'e, holiness; seigneurie, lordship; sent inelle, senti- nel ; vedette, sentinel on horseback. 2°. The Names of Animals, relating especially to males ; as lion, lion ; cheval, horse ; bceuf, ox ; chat, cat ; chien, dog ; &c. But the Names of Birds, Insects, Reptiles, Fishes, and indeed of any animals that are equally applied to the male and female, are generally determined by the termination. 3°. The Names of objects that we generally suppose or fancy as being masculine; as ange, angel; g'enie, genius ; dieu, god ; d-pmon, demon ; diable, devil ; &c. 4°. The Names of the Days, Months, and Seasons. 5°. The Names of the New Decimal Nomenclature, of the Ordinal, Cardinal, Distributive, and Proportional Numbers Except moitie, half; and those ending in aine, as douzame, dozen ; quinzame* fifteen ; &c. 6°. Tho Names of Metals and Semi-Metalsi ; as cvivre, cop per; or, gold; argent, silver ; bronze, brass ; &c. GENDER OF NOUNS. 59 7°. The Names of Trees and Shrubs ; as chene, oak ; orme, elm ; laurier, laurel ; myrte, myrtle ; &c. Except aubepine, hawthorn ; hourdaine, black alder ; tpine, thorn ; ronce, briar ; vigne, vine ; yeuse, holm-oak. 8°. The Names of Winds ; as est, east ; ouest, west ; sud, south ; nord, north ; &c. Except brise, north-east ; tramontane, tramontane ; mousson, trade-wind. 9°. The Names of Mountains ; as Chimborago, Cenis, Liban, Etna, Vesuve, &c. Except Alpes, Alps ; Cordilieres, Cordil- leras : Pyrenees^ Pyrenees ; Vosges, Voges. 10°. The Names of Cities and Villages not ending with silent e or es. Except Ulion, Jerusalem, and Scion. But if there were any doubt about the gender of any of them, the difficulty would be removed by putting the words vitte de, city of, before the names of places of about or above 2000 inhabitants, and then they would become feminine ; so by placing the words village de, village of, before those of less than that number, they would become masculine. 11°. The Names of Empires, Kingdoms, Provinces, States, not ending with silent e or es. Except Mexique, Mexico, which is the only one of that termination that is masculine. 12°. All Words used as Nouns, without being such by their nature ; as, Vutile, the useful ; le boire, the drink ; &c. 13°. The Names of Idioms or Languages ; as, le Francois, the French ; le Chinois, the Chinese language. 14°. The Names of Colours ; as, le rouge, the red ; le blanc, the white ; le bleu, the blue ; &c. The following are feminine by their meaning : 1°. The Nouns that represent Women ; as imperatrice, empress ; couturiere, seamstress ; pretresse, priestess ; modiste, milliner ; &c. 2°. The Names of Animals that specially belong to Females ; as lionne, lioness ; vache, cow ; jument, mare ; brebis, sheep ; biche, hind ; &c. 3°. The Names of the Qualities or Disposition of the Mind ; as vertu, virtue ; Constance, constancv ; bonte, goodness ; me- 60 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. chancete, wickedness ; &c. Except courage, courage ; mirite, merit ; entetement, obstinacy ; &c. GENERAL REMARKS. 1st. Diminutive nouns follow the gender of those from which they are derived, as globule, globule, is masculine, be- cause it is derived from the masculine noun globe, globe ; pel- licule, pellicle, is feminine, because it is derived from the femin- ine noun peau, skin ; boulette, little ball, is feminine, because it is derived from the feminine noun boule, ball. 2d. Compound nouns are generally of the gender of the principal word that enters into their composition. Pie-grieche, pickled-magpie, is feminine, because pie, the principal word, is feminine ; pied-de-ckevre, hand-spike, is masculine, because pied is masculine ; amour-propre, self-love, is masculine, because amour is masculine. However, apres-midi, afternoon, is feminine, though midi is masculine ; tete-a-tete, a private conversation, is masculine, though tete is feminine. But compound words, in the composi- tion of which enters a verb, are masculine ; as serre-tete, night- cap ; essuie-mains, towel ; &c. The following Nouns are masculine by their termination : All Nouns ending in a, e, i, o, and u. Except, of those end- ing in a, falacca, falaca; onagra, primrose tree; opuntia, nopal ; rhodia, rhodia ; zopissa, zopissa. Except, of those ending in e, those whose termination is te or tie, absurdit'e, absurdity ; beaute, beauty; amitie, friendship; moitie, half; pitie, pity; sante, health ; &c. : but aparte, aside ; arrete, resolution ; ben'edicite, fore-meals prayer ; comite, committee ; comte, county ; cote, side ; et'e, summer ; pate, pie ; the, tea ; traite, treatise ; are mas- culine. Except, of those ending in i, fourmi, ant ; merci, mercy ; apres-midi, afternoon ;foi, faith ; hi, law ; paroi, partition. Except, of those ending in o, albugo, a white spot on the eye; quasimodo, the next Sunday after the passover. Except, of those ending in u, eau, water ; peau, skin ; bru, daughter-in-law ; glu, bird-lime ; tribu, tribe; vertu, virtue. All which exceptions are feminine. GENDER OF NOUNS. 61 The following are also masculine by their termination : All Nouns ending in a consonant. Except, of those ending in f; clef, key ; nef, the nave of a church ; soif, thirst. Of those ending in m; faim, hunger. Of those ending in n, not preced- ed by o ; fin, end ; main, hand ; maman, mother. But those ending in on require particular classifications ; although those in bon, con, don, fon, gnon, Ion, ron, yon, are masculine, with- out exception. Those ending in pon are masculine ; as soup fon, suspicion ; hamepon, fish-hook ; limapon, snail ; &c. Except fapon, man- ner; contrefapon, counterfeit ; malfapon, defect; lepon, lesson ; ranpon, ransom. Those ending in cion, gion, nion, sion, Hon, and xion, are feminine. Except bastion, bastion ; scion, sprig. Those whose termination ion is not preceded by either of the« consonants c, g, n,s, I or x, are masculine; as pion, pawn ; million, million ; &c. Except rebellion, rebellion ; alluvion, alluvion. Those ending in ison are feminine; as raison, reason; gar- nison, garrison ; prison, prison ; toison, fleece ; saison, season ; &c. Except bison, buffalo ; oison, gosling ; poison, poison ; tison, brand. Those ending in sson are masculine; as poisson, fish; buis- son, bush; &c. Except boisson, drink; cuisson, baking; pais- son, mast, pasture ; moisson, harvest ; mousson, trade-wind ; salisson, slut. Those ending in r are masculine ; as hiver, winter ; soir, evening ; air, air ; jour , day ; soupir, sigh ; cozur, heart ; bon- heur, happiness; &c. Except cuiller, spoon; chair, flesh; cour, court ; mer, sea ; tour, tower : but, when tour does not mean tower, it is masculine. Except also of those that end in eur. 1st. Those that are derived from an adjective, and which in English would be neuter ; as blancheur, whiteness, which is de- rived from blanc, white ; grandeur, greatness, which is derived from grand, great ; &c. 2d. Those expressing some disposi- tion of the soul ; as candeur, candor ; ferveur, fervour ; rigueur, 6 62 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. rigour ; terreur, terror ; &c. And the following : chandeleur, candlemas; clameur, clamour; couleur, colour; douleur, pain, grief; liqueur, liquor ; lueur, glimmering; moiieur, moisture ; saveur, savour ; erreur, error ; Jleur, flower ; frayeur, fright ; odeur, odour; primeur, first-coming; pudeur, modesty; rumeur, report ; senteur, scent ; smtr, sister ; sueur, sweat ; teneur, con- tents ; torpeur, numbness ; tumeur, tumour ; vapeur, vapour ; vigeur, vigour. Those ending in s are masculine ; as bas, stocking ; bois, wood; exces, excess ; avis, advice ; &c. Except brebis, sheep ; ckauve-souris, bat ; jleur -de-lis, flower-de-luce ; fois, time ; mceurs, manners ; souris, mouse ; vis, screw ; amadis, amadis. Those ending in t are masculine ; as mot, word ; profit, benefit; billet, billet ; achat, purchase ; but, aim; talent, talent; &c. Except de?it, tooth ; gent, nation ; jument, mare ; foret, forest ; nuit, night ; dot, dowry ; hart, halter ; part, part ; mort, death ; malemort, fatal death. Those ending in x are masculine ; as choix, choice ; prix y price ; taux, rate ; flux, tide ; courroux, wrath ; &c. Except chaux, lime ; croix, cross ; faux, scythe ; noix, nut ; paix, peace ; perdrix, partridge ; poix, pitch ; toux, cough ; voix, voice. Those ending in z are masculine ; as nez, nose ; riz, rice ; gaz, gas ; &c. The following are feminine by their termination : Those nouns ending in silent e preceded by a vowel ; as joue. cheek; boue, mud ; vie, life ; ouie, hearing; soie, silk; soiree, evening ; epte, sword ; &c. Except, of those ending in uie ; parapluie, umbrella. Of those ending in oie ; foie, liver ; ennoie y two-headed serpent. Of those ending in ie, preceded by a conso- nant ; ginie, genius ; incendie, conflagration ; aphelie, aphe- lion ; parhelie, parhelion ; pavie, nectarine, a kind of peach ; perihelie, perihelium ; messie, messiah. Of those ending in ee ; athenie, atheneum ; apogee, apogee ; boree, boreas ; caducee % caduceus ; camee, cameo ; colisee, coliseum ; coryphee, cory- phoeus ; crustac'ze, crustaceous ; ilysee, elysium : empirie, em- pyreal ; gynecee, greek lady's dressing-room ; hym£n£e, hymen ; OF ARTICLES. 63 lycee, lyceum; mausolee, mausoleum \ miscellanee, miscellany ; musee, museum; perigee, perigee ; p'trinee, perineum ; pry- tanee, prytaneum ; pygmee, pigmy ; scarabee, scarab ; spondee, spondee ; trophee, trophy ; trochee, trochee : most of which are derived from the Latin or Greek, As to nouns ending with silent e, not preceded by a vowel, it is better to depend on the dictionary than upon any thing published on this subject. The rules that have been given are too numerous, and attended with too many exceptions and errors, to be useful ; and if there is any that can be of any ser- vice it is this : Nouns ending in ance, anse, ence, and ense, are feminine. Except silence, silence, which is masculine. CHAPTER VI. OF ARTICLES. Articles are used before nouns that are taken in a definite or determined sense. But as a noun may be determined in a possessive sense ; as my hat, mon chapeau ; in a demonstra- tive sense ; as that hat, ce chapeau ; in an interrogative sense ; as what hat, quel chapeau, &c. : thence the neces- sity of several kinds of articles, the use of which, in French, is constantly determined by the same rules ; that is, the rules that are applicable to one of them are applicable to all the others, and therefore are general. They are the following : 34. 1st. Articles are used with and never without a noun. 2d. The presence of one article excludes the use of all the others. Therefore, two or several should not be employed with the same nouns. 3d. Articles must agree in gender and number with the noun, the signification of which they determine ; that is, if the noun is masculine singular, the article must be masculine singular ; if it is feminine singular, the article must be fem- inine singular ; if it is plural, the article must be plural, masculine or feminine, according to the gender of the noun. 64 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 4th. When the signification of several nouns that are to- gether, or joined by a conjunction, is to be determined by an article, that article must be repeated before every one of them ; and if the preposition de, of or from ; or a, to or at, be used before the first, that preposition should also be repeated before all the others. There are instances in which other prepo- sitions should also be repeated, but they will be considered in another place. DEFINITE ARTICLES. Varticle dejini, the definite article, in English, is used only before nouns taken in a Determined or Limited Sense. 35. The definite article is used, in French, not only be- fore nouns taken in a limited sense, but also before those that are taken in a general but definite sense ; that is, before those that represent a particular individual or object, or a whole kind or sort of individuals or objects. As it is somewhat difficult to distinguish when a noun is employed in a Definite or Indefinite Sense, the following re- marks are made with the hope that they will prove useful for students. A noun is said to be used in a Definite Sense, in French, when it represents a particular individual or object, or some particular individuals or objects, or when it represents a whole kind, sort, or class of individuals or objects. A noun is said to be used in an Indefinite Sense, in French, when it brings to the mind a vague, though not general, idea of an individual or object, or of some individuals or objects ; very often in this last sense it is used in an adjective manner or signifi- cation, in some degree qualifying some word with which it is em- ployed. In the phrase "Men are born good," the word men is used to represent all the individuals comprised in that class of beings denominated mankind, and would be said, in French, to be used in a Definite Sense ; and therefore should be preceded by the article, thus : les homines sont ncs bons. In the phrase " A number of men," the word men is not intended to represent all the beings that compose mankind, but mere- ly an indefinite portion of them ; it brings to the mind a con- DEFINITE ARTICLES. 65 fused idea, and seems to be employed here in an adjective manner, to qualify the word number, to distinguish it from any other number, for instance, from a number of oxen, of birds, &c. ; and would be said, in French, to be used in an Indefinite Sense, and therefore should not be preceded by the article ; thus, un nombre d'hommes. In the phrase " Wood is not so hard as stone," the words wood and stone represent here the whole ob- jects that belong to those two classes of substances, denom- inated wood and stone, and would be said, in French, to be employed in a Definite Sense, and therefore should be preceded by the article, thus : le bois n'est pas si dur que la pierre. But in the phrase " A statue of stone is harder than a statue of wood," the words stone and icood present to the mind but a confused idea as regards their quality or quantity ; they are used here as adjectives, to distinguish statues of stone and wood from those made of any other material, and would be said, in French, to be used in an Indefinite Sense, and therefore should not be preceded by an article ; thus, une statue de pierre est plus dure qu'une statue de bois. The names of countries, provinces, risers, seas, and mountains take the article. 36. The definite article changes, in French, because, accord- ing to the third general rule, it must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it is prefixed or refers ; and because that, according to the fourth general rule, the definite article must be repeated with agreement before every one of them, as well as the preposition de or a, if it is used with it, whether confounded with it or not. 37. The definite article, relating to a masculine singular noun, and before a consonant, is, in French, for the, le. for of or from the, - - du* instead of de le. for to or at the, - - - aw,t instead of a le. The father of the governor, Le pere du gouverneur. To the son of the president, Au fils du president. * Du, representing de le, is in fact an article and a preposition. f jiu, representing the words d le, is also an article and a preposition. 6* 66 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Explanation. In the first example, le is used, because pere is a common noun of the masculine gender and in the singular number, and because it is placed before a consonant 5 du is used instead of de le, which is never employed, because gouverneur is a common noun of the masculine gender and in the singular number, and because it is placed before a consonant. In the second example, au is used instead of d 7e, which is never said in French, and because it is placed before a consonant j du is used for the same reason as in the first example. EXERCISE 8. Under the foot of the colossus. Upon the arm. For the finger. "With the elbow. Round the neck. On the forehead. From the nose. Under the chin. Against the bed. With the fist. In the wrist. At the rib- bon of the hat. To the collar of the waistcoat. In the handkerchief. Upon the leather of the shoe. With the comb. To the necklace of Julia. Under the cloak. On the shawl. In the apron. Over the stocking. To the book of the christian. On the paper. To the penknife. In the drawer of the piano-forte. Behind the escritoir. 38. The definite article, relating to a feminine singu- lar noun, and before a consonant, is, in French, for the, - la. for of or from the, - - - - de la. for to or at the, - - - - a la. The mother of the princess, La mere de la princesse. To the aunt of the general, A la tante du general. Explanation. In the first example, la is used, because mere is a common noun of the feminine gender and in the singular number, and because it is placed before a consonant j de la is used, because princesse is a common noun of the feminine gender and in the sin- gular number, and because it is placed before a consonant. In the second example, d la is used, for the same reason as in the preceding, and du is used for the same reason as explained in No. 37. EXERCISE 9. 37 37 Upon the head. To the skin of the arm. The roof of the mouth. From the flexibility of the tongue. For the throat. To the head dress. 37 Under the cravat. To the collar of the great coat. With the girdle of 37 37 the gown. With the trimming of the bonnet. From the pocket of the 37 37 apron. From the quality of the linen. By the colour of the cloth of the 37 cloak. Upon the chair of the master. Round the table of the mistress. By the door of the hall. To the face of the statue. Against the tapes- 37 try of the wall. On the nape. DEFINITE ARTICLES, 67 39. The definite article, relating to any singular noun, and before a vowel, or a silent A, is, in French, for the, ------ l\ for of or from the, - - - - de V. for to or at the, - - - - dl\ The friend of the son, II ami dujils. From the uncle of the orator, De Voncle de Yorateur. To the history of the empress, A Vhistoire de Vimperatrice. On the foot of the girl, Sur le pied de \&fille. Explanation. In the first example, V is used instead of le, because ami is a masculine noun in the singular number, and because it is before a vowel ; du is used for the same reason as explained in Xo. 37. In the third example, P is used instead of la, because histoire is a feminine noun in the singular number, and because a silent h follows it ; Z' is used instead of la, because imperatrice is a common noun in the singular number, and because it is before a vowel. In the fourth example, le is used before pied, for the same reason as explained in No. 37 ; and la before fille, for the same reason as explained in No. 38. EXERCISE 10. 38 38 In the concha of the ear. On the pupil of the eye. To the artieula- 38 37 37 tion of the voice. "With the cloth of the coat. For the love of the father. 38 From the friendship of the mother. From the interest of the history of 38 Joseph. On the immortality of the soul. In the absence of the master. Notwithstanding the ability of the lawyer. Concerning the usefulness 38 of the study of the science. According to the habit of the enemy. With the eloquence of the orator of Rome. To the ink of the inkstand. At the hour of the school. 40. The definite article, relating to any noun in the plural number, is, for the, ... l es% for of or FR03I the, - - des, instead of de les. for to or at the, - - aux, instead of a les. The members of the adminis- Les membres de Yadministra- tration, tion. To the studies of the scholars, Aux etudes des ecoliers. Explanation. In the first example, les is used, because membres is a noun in the plural number, de V for the same reason as explained in Xo. 39. In the second example, aux is used instead of a les, which is never said, because etudes is a noun in the plural number ; des, instead of de les, which is never used in French ; because elives is a noun in the plural number. 68 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 11. 29 38 29 29 On the sides of the head. At the eye-lashes of the eye-lids of the 29 29 29 29 eyes. In the corners of the lips. At the roots of the teeth. In the two 29 29 29 37 38 conchas of the ears. With the members of the body. To the skin of the two shoulders. In the joints of the five fingers of the hand. Up- 29 39 29 29 on the muscles of the fore-arm. With the nails of the ten fingers of the 29 29 29 29 29 two hands. On the thumbs. At the soles of the feet. For the gums of 29 38 29 29 the teeth. From the colour of the cheeks. According to the functions 38 29 38 . 29 of the nerves. On the skin of the heels. INDEFINITE ARTICLE. ISarticle indefini, the indefinite article, in English, is A, or an ; a being used before a vowel, or a silent h ; and an be- fore a consonant : Thus varying according to the first letter of the following word. 41. In French, the Indefinite Article does not vary according to the first letter of the following word, but according to the gender and number of the noun to which it refers, and must be repeated with agreement before every noun, when several are together. It is, in French, for a or an, un, when relating to a masculine noun. for a or an, une, when relating to a feminine noun. for of or from a, or an, d'un, or dhtne. for to or at a, or an, a un, or a une. A niece of the mayor of the city, Une niece du maire de la ville. An uncle of the judge, Un oncle du juge. From a notary of the country, D'un not aire de la campagne. To a lady of Europe, A une dame & Europe. The numeral one is also rendered, in French, by vn or une. For one man and one woman, Pour un homme et une femme. Explanation. In the first, example, une is used, because niice is a feminine noun in the singular number; du, for the reason given in No. 37 ; and dc In, lor the reason given in No. 38. In the second example, un is used, because ouch is a masculine noun in the singular number. In the third example, d' is used instead of r/r, because it is before ■ vowel. OF COLLECTIVE ARTICLE- 69 EXERCISE 12. 29 Against an enemy of the nation. With abont a dozen of men. In a 40 29 37 house of reformation. For a defender of the laws of the country. Be- sides a man from the mountains. Among a multitude of women. From 37 37 an order of the president of a university. In an edition of the diction- ary of the academy. According to a decision of the council. Between 38 40 a barn and a wall of the house. In a book of philosophy against the 29 principles of an author from England. Notwithstanding an admonition 37 39 from the doctor against the use of food. 42. There is another Indefinite Article, which is, in English, some, or a]sy and, in French, quelque, for the singular of either gender. quelques or des, for the plural of either gender. From some man, Be quelque homme. To some woman, A quelque femme. For some boys and girls, Pour des garpons et des files, Quelques and des might be considered as the plural of the indefinite article un or une ; quelques restraining the significa- tion of the substantive to a few objects, and des to a greater number. Both, the same as the definite, must be repeated be- fore every noun, when several are together. COLLECTIVE ARTICLE.* 43. U Article collectif, the collective article, in English, is, several; and, in French, plusieurs, for either gender. Like the preceding, it must be repeated before every noun, when sev- eral are together. Of several boys and girls, De plusieurs gar pons et de plu- sieurs y£ZZes. To several uncles and aunts, A plusieurs oncles et a plu- sieurs tantes. EXERCISE 13. 29 41 29 41 In several rooms of a house. With several scholars of a doctor. For * Called by some grammarians, Indefinite Pronoun. 70 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 42 29 34 29 . 42 29 . 37 some apples and pears. Against some enemies of the government. 42 29 38 42 29 37 Behind some rocks of the valley. Under some disadvantages of the 41 42 29 37 . & body. In a book with some arguments on the subject of religion. 29 , 39 42 29 Before several persons of merit. Under the influence of some individu- 39 29 42 29 41 als. With the approbation of several friends. After some lessons of a 38 42 29 42 , 29 professor. By the goodness of some ladies of some villages. Notwith- 39 42 32 38 42 standing the opposition of some generals. Upon the cover of some 29 books. PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 44. When a part of a thing, or of a number of things or individuals is intended, in English, the word some, or any, is sometimes used before the noun, and often merely implied. The corresponding words are always expressed, in French, and repeated before every noun. They are du, de la, de V, des, used after the rules of the definite article, explained in Nos. 37, 38, 39 and 40. This partitive article, being the combination of the definite with the preposition de, must be repeated before every noun with agreement, when several are together. A box with paper, wax, ink, Une boite avec du papier, de la and pens, cire, de Vencre et des plumes; To some bottles for wine or A des bouteilles pour du vin ou beer, de la Here. Explanation. In the first example, une is used for the reason given in No. 41 ; du> because in the English phrase the word some is understood before the word paper, and because the word papier is a masculine noun in the singular number ; de la for the implied word some, and because cire is a feminine noun in the singular number ; de V for the implied word some, and because it relates to a singular noun, and is placed before a vowel ; des also for the implied word some, and because it relates to a noun in the plural number. In the second example, des is used to translate the word some, and because it relates to a noun in the plural number ; du is for the word some or any, implied before the word wine, and because it is before a consonant and relates to a masculine noun in the singular number ; de la are for the word some or any understood before the word beer, and be- cause it is before a consonant and relates to a feminine noun in the singular number. EXERCISE 14. 37 41 44 29 44 29 44 29 44 Behold, for the breakfast of John, a table, chairs, plates, caps, sau- 29 44 29 44 29 44 30 44 29 44 44 44 44 44 cers, tumblers, forks, knives, spoons, tea, coffee, chocolate, milk, su- 44 44 44 44 44 44 30 37 gar, water, bread, meat, cheese, butter, and cakes ; for the dinner of POSSESSIVE PERSONAL ARTICLES. 7L 44 44 44 44 29 44 44 44 44 44 29 44 George, soup, beef, pork, chickens, veal, mutton, fish, rice, turnips, po- 29 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 tatoes, wine, cider, beer, salad with oil, vinegar, salt, pepper, and mus- 37 44 44 29 44 44 29 44 29 44 29 tard j for the supper of Joseph, tea, pies, ham, apples, pears, peaches, 41 44 29 44 29 44 29 . 44 &c. Behold a house among columns, statues, and trees. With some 44 44 44 44 paper of France. With wind, rain, snow, and ice. POSSESSIVE PERSONAL ARTICLES.* When the extent of the signification of a noun is determined in a possessive sense, the English use either of the words my, thy, his, her, its, our, yotjr, or their, agreeing in gender, number and person, with the possessor. 45. In French, the possessive personal articles agree, not in gender, but in number and person, with, the possessor, and in gender and number with the possessed object. 46. These articles like the preceding must be repeated, with agreement, before every noun, when several are used together, though they are' expressed but once in English. They are used according to the following rules : 47. When the possessed object belongs to the individual who is speaking, that is, to the first person singular, we must use for my, ?iion, when that object is masculine singular. for my, ma, when that object is feminine singular. for my, mes, when that object is plural, whatever be its gender. With books of my master, Avec des livres de mon maitre. For my lesson of to-morrow, Pour ma legon de demain. Against my enemies, Contre mes ennemis. Explanation. In the first example, des is used for the reason explained in No. 44 : mon 9 because it determines the extent of the signification of maitre, which is a masculine noun and in the singular number, and because the possessor is ot the first person singular. In the second example, ma is used because it relates to a possessor of the first person singular, and because the possessed object is feminine singular. In the third example, mes is used because the possessor, to which it relates, is of the first person singular, and the possessed object is plural. * Called by other grammarians, Possessive Adjective Pronouns. 72 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 15 40 29 37 29 Among the scholars of my class. During the time of my lessons. In 39 , 40 29 my dictionary of the academy. Against the enemies of my country. 29 46 29 46 46 46 For my relations and friends. With my father, mother, brother, sister, 46 29 46 29 46 29 29 46 29 uncles, aunts, and cousins. Among my papers or books. In my gram- 29 mar. For my friends of Boston. Concerning my history, and especially 46 46 46 my character, manners, knowledge, and disposition. Against my advice 46 29 and wishes. Without my permission. In my room. Upon my table. 46 46 29 46 With my pen on my paper. Under my bed, table, chairs, and carpet. 46 29 46 28 Over my head, shoulders, and arms. 48. When the possessed object belongs to the single in- dividual spoken to, that is, to the second person singular, we must use for thy, ton, when the object is masculine singular. for thy, ta, when the object is feminine singular. for thy, tes, when the object is plu. whatever be its gender. In thy mind, Dans ton esprit. With thy fortune, Avec ta fortune. Against thy interests, Contre tes inter ets. Explanation. Tn the 1st example, ton is used because it relates to a single possessor of the second person singular, and because the noun, the signification of which it de- termines, is a masculine noun in the singular number. In the 2d example, ta is used because the possessor to which it relates is of the sec- ond person singular, and because the possessed object is feminine singular. In the 3d example, tes is used because the possessor is of the 2d person singular, and the possessed object is plural. EXERCISE 16. 46 47 For thy health and happiness. From thy residence to my house. 29 46 29 Notwithstanding thy promises and engagements. By thy letter to 47 40 29 40 29- my partner. After the persons of thy choice. According to the rules 40 29 of thy establishment. Against the principles of thy religion. Among 29 46 29 29 46 29 thy children and servants. With thy comrades and superiors. Dur- 38 46 47 ing the sickness of thy nephew and neice. For my pleasure and 46 38 thy enjoyment. With thy knowledge and constancy. Against the 29 39 39 decision of thy judges and the opinion of thy lawyer. With the in- POSSESSIVE PERSONAL ARTICLES. 73 29 38 39 fluence of thy friends and the fortune of thy protector. For the ex- 29 29 ecution of plans of thy officers of artillery. 49. When the possessed object belongs to the single indi- vidual spoken of, that is to the third person singular, we must use for his, her, or its, son, when that object is masc. sing, for his, her, or its, sa, when that object is fern, singular. for his, her, or its, ses, when that object is plural whatever be its gender. For his, her, its work, Pour son travail. With his, her, or its force, Avec sa force. From his, her, or its services, De ses services. Explanation. In the first example, son is used because it relates to a single possessor of the third person singular, without regard to his, her, or its gender, and because the pos- sessed object is of the masculine gender and in the singular number. In the second example, sa is used because the possessor is of the third person singular and the possessed object is feminine singular. In the third example, ses is used because the possessor is of the third person singular, and the possessed object is plural. EXERCISE 17. Note. In this and the following exercises those nouns used in the plural number, that have no figure over them, are of those whose plural is regularly formed, that is, by adding s to their singular ; those only, whose plural is not regularly formed, will be referred to their respective rules. 47 48 For my father and his sister. With thy mother and her brother. Be- 48 48 fore thy aunt and her parents. "With thy brother and his wife. In his 46 32 46 46 46 house among his children. Behold his carriage, horses, harness, saddle, 46 47 1 38 whip, and bridle. From my chaise, and from one of its wheels. At the 46 46 46 door of its chamber. Behold Miss B. with her bonnet, shawl, gown, 28 46 46 33 stockings, shoes, and jewels, from France, behind her friend from Balti- 41 41 41 more. At a breakfast under a tree, with its fruits upon a bed of its 46 44 44 branches and foliage. For some meat from his dish with some of its 30 46 28 46 juice. With her cakes, nuts, and strawberries. 50. When the possessed object belongs to several individuals who are speaking, that is to the first person plural, we must use for our, notre, when that object is sing., whatever be its gen. for our, nos, when that object is plural, whatever be its gender. 74 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. In our house, Bans notre maison. For our children, Pour nos enfant s. Explanation. In the first example, notre is used, because it relates to several possessors of the first person plural, and because the possessed object is singular. In the second example, nos is used, because the possessors are of the first person plural, and the possessed object is plural. EXERCISE 18. 37 With the testimony of our conscience. Among our papers of our 46 . • 49 law-suit. Between our boys and girls. Without our consent to his 49 promotion. From our intimacy with her father, since our infancy. 48 Concerning our trade with thy partner in France. During our vacations 37 48 of the month of August. With our compliments to thy mother, and to 46 . 49 her brother and sister. In spite of our opposition to his visit. With 49 46 46 his regards to our neighbours and acquaintances. In our lesson and 38 translation. Since our meeting at the party of our friend Madam O, During our studies under our professor Mr. L. Notwithstanding our mistakes in our pronunciation. 51. When the possessed object belongs to several individu- als spoken to, that is, to the second person plural, we must use for your, voire, when that object is sing., whatever be its gen. for your, vos, when that object is plu., whatever be its gender. With your father and mother, Avec votre pere et votre mere. For your enemies and friends, Pour vos ennemis et vos amis. Explanation. In the first example, votre is used, because the possessor is of the second person plural, and the possessed object is singular, and it is repeated according to the 4th rule given at No. 34. In the second example, vos is used, because the possessor is of the second person plural, and the possessed object is plural ; and it is repeated according to the 4th rule given at No. 34. EXERCISE 19. Behold your letters to your tenants. Concerning your principles 46 47 39 and regulations. From my confidence in your reputation, and the extent of your trade. For your fellow-citizens, and against the enemies 38 46 of your country. Without the reward of your troubles, sufferings, and 46 39 46 danger j but with the opinion of your honour and glory. Between your 46 46 60 duties and interest. Under your influence and protection. From our POSSESSIVE PERSONAL ARTICLES. 75 39 47 city to the place of your birth. With my partisans and your soldiers, 49 49 against his slaves. Concerning your pretensions to her property. With- 49 40 34 out her consent to your acts. From the accounts of your income, and 40 the expenses of your house. 52. When the possessed object belongs to several individu- als spoken of, that is, to the third person plural, we must use for their, leur, when that object is sing., whatever be its gen. for their, hurs, when that object is plu., whatever be its gen. Concerning their board and Concerna?it leur pension et leur rent, loyer. With their goods and credit, Avec leurs marchandises et leur credit. Explanation, In the first example, leur is used, because the possessor is of the third person plural, and the possessed object is singular ; it is repeated according to the 4tb rule given at No. 34. In the second example, leurs is used, because the possessor is of the third person plural, and the possessed object is plural ; it is repeated before the second noun, after the 4th rule given at No. 34 ; but without s, because that second noun is singular. EXERCISE 20. 46 46 By their wickedness and negligence. To their indifference and igno- rance of their interests. According to their views and their actions 38 towards their minister. Before their idol, and notwithstanding the de- 50 37 fence of their God. Concerning their want of our religion. Under the 40 penalty of their crimes. After the rules of their society. Besides their 46 46 friendship and protection. With their courage and impetuosity. Under 46 39 their arms and means of defence. Within the extent of their state. 46 From their ambition and love of distinction. During their administra- 40 tion over the nations of their conquests. By their obedience to their 46 commanders, and their humanity and generosity towards their enemies. 53. Exceptional Rule. Man, ton, son, should be used, instead of ma, ta, sa, before a vowel or silent h. With my friendship, Avec mon amitie. For thy history, Pour ton histoire. In her soul, Dans son ame. Explanation. In these examplee, man is used instead of ma, though the possessed object is feminine singular, because it is before a vowel ; son is used instead of sa, for the same reason, and ton is used instead of ta, because it is before a silent h t though the possessed object is feminine and in the singular number. 76 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, EXERCISE 21. 46 46 With thy esteem and consideration. For her wit and goodness. Ac- 38 50 cording to my opinion of his history of the wife of our president. With 37 his approbation in my affair against his friend. For the salvation of my soul. Besides thy indention against his ambition. From my idea of thy 46 action for his admission into my hermitage. With her pin and needle in her mouth. To thy influence and her inconstancy. To my friend- 37 ship notwithstanding his enmity. After my invasion of the territory of 46 his empire. For his love of thy affability. With her innocence and sim- plicity. By his application and my instruction. Concerning her humility. ENGLISH POSSESSIVE CASE. 54. To translate the English possessive case, as there is not such a one in French, it is necessary to use a different form of ex- pression. For instance, the translation of ' my father's house,' is, in French, la maison de mon pere, the literal English of which is ' the house of my father.' Therefore, whenever any pos- sessive case is to be rendered, in French, it is better to change first its form into one like that of ' the house of my father,' and then translate the latter literally. Thus, to translate ' the mother's privilege,' this phrase should be changed into ' the privilege of the mother,' and translated literally thus, le privilege de la mere. For the children's breakfast Pour le dejeuner et le souper and supper, des enfants. By my sister's politeness and Par la politesse et la bienveil- benevolence, lance de ma sazitr. EXERCISE 22 * 53 37 50 . 40 In my friend's copy-book. According to our superior's orders. From 49 37 51 37 49 38 his daughter's journal. With your cousin's consent. From his scholars' 48 38 34 , 52 consideration. During thy master's youth and vigour. Against their * The figures placed above the s of the possessive case, refer to the Definite Article, which should he used before the noun of the possessed object, in French ; and those plac- ed above the article that precedes the name of the possessor, should be supposed to be pre- ceded by the preposition of, on, which must be expressed whether combined or not, with that article ; as in, 53 37 My friend'^ book, Le lirrr de mon ami, that is the book of my friend. 48 38 The city'* property, La propricfc de la nllr, that is the property of the city. The master'*- table, La table du malt re, that is the table o/the master. DEMONSTRATIVE ARTICLES. 77 38 47 40 . 50 benefactor's will. Concerning my partner's interests. Under our 39 37 38 ti i 39 i 7 teacher's influence. From the president's hand. By the advice of the 37 52 38 40 governor's council. At their constituents' request. On the buttons 47 39 49 40 49 of my protector's coat. Within his property's limits. Without her 38 49 40 34 t parents' permission. Notwithstanding her family's wants and suner- 37 37 40 37 . ings. In the traveller's guide, or in the ladies' book. Concerning 38 36 God's wisdom and glory. Note, f Whenever No. 34 is referred to, the four paragraphs should be read. DEMONSTRATIVE ARTICLES.* When the extent of the signification of a noun is to he deter- mined in a demonstrative sense, the word this or that, these or those, is used before that noun, in English, whatever be its gender and number. 55. In French, the demonstrative articles must agree in gen- der and number with the noun whose signification they deter- mine ; and if there are several nouns together, the demonstra- tive articles, like the preceding ones, must be repeated with agreement before each of them, though they are expressed but once in English. They are, in French, for this or that, ce, before a consonant, ^ when the noun for this or that, cet, before a vowel or silent A, S is masc. sing. for this or that, cette, whenever the noun is feminine singular. for these or those, ces, when the noun is plural, whatever be its gender. For that man, Pour cet homme. With that friend, Avec cet ami. In this or that drawer, Dans ce tiroir. Upon this or that table, Sur cette table. From these or those books, De ces livres. Explanation. In these examples, cet is used, because it relates to a masculine singular noun and because it is before a silent h, and a vowel ; ce, because it relates to a masculine singular noun and is before a consonant ; cette, because it relates to a feminine singular noun ; ces, because it relates to a plural noun. * Called by other grammarians, Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns. 78 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 23. Upon that bench or under this table. In that inkstand. From one of those books. From that epoch to this time. Concerning that affair, and under those conditions. During that season. After this month. Before those two weeks. With that penknife and those scissors. For 34 this coat and vest. In that handkerchief. From his pocket into that bag. Between those four trees. "With this cane under that arm, and 47 that umbrella at my hand. Against that animal of this country. Among those ninety-seven boys. On this subject for that object. To 34 that hill. Towards that mountain and village. Between those two 34 ladies and three gentlemen. 56. The difference between this and that, or these and those, is not expressed by the demonstrative articles ce, cet, cette, ces, alone ; and is never expressed, in French, unless it be absolutely necessary to avoid confusion, and then it is done by placing -ci preceded with a hyphen after the nearer noun, and -Id after the more remote, as in, From this place to that corner, Be cet endroit-ci a ce coin-\L For these men and not for those Pour ces hommes-ci et nonpour women, ces femmesAk. Explanation. In these examples, ci and Id are used after the nouns to prevent the con- fusion that might arise, if the objects they represent were near other objects of the same kind ; and -ci is used, with the nearer noun ; and -Zd, with the more remote. EXERCISE 24. In that drawer or in this box. Between this actor and that actress. 28 37 For these stockings and those shoes. Against the corner of that house, 32 and not against this post. With this carriage and those horses. In that time of famine. During this weather. With these things am those tools. Between those two branches. For this nosegay. Fror that rose-bush and this jasmine. With three or four sprigs from thr 42 40 myrtle, and some flowers from under this orange-tree. For the inmates of that castle. From behind that hedge, and not from before this rock. With this shovel, that spade, and those two hoes. OF INTERROGATIVE ARTICLES. 79 INTERROGATIVE ARTICLES.* When a question is asked with a noun, in English, that noun is generally preceded by the word what, which never changes, whatever be the gender and number of the noun. 57. In French, the Interrogative Article varies according to the gender and number of the noun to which it relates ; and if there are several nouns together, it must be repeated with agreement, like all the other articles, before every one of them, though it may be expressed but once in English. They are for what, quel, when the noun is masculine singular, for what, quelle, when the noun in feminine singular, for what, quels, when the noun is masculine plural, for what, quelles, when the noun is feminine plural. This article is often used in exclamative sentences, but only with a noun. For lohat object ? Pour quel objet ? Of what woman ? De quelle femme ? With what means ? Avec quels moyens ? By what laws ? Par quelles his ? What a misfortune ! Quel malheur I What torments ! Quels tourments 1 Explanation. In these examples, quel 13 used, because objet is a masculine singular noun 5 quelle, because femme is a feminine singular noun ; quels, because moyens is a mas- culine plural noun ; quelles, because lois is a feminine plural noun. 58. As it may be noticed, the Indefinite Article A is not rendered, in French, in exclamative sentences. Therefore it would be wrong to say quel un malheur, the French idiom not permitting the use of two articles together. EXERCISE 25. What time ? What hour ? What moments ? What things ? What design? What enterprise? What object? From what authority? With what intention? By what order? Under what circumstances ? 58 What a pleasure ! After what days ? Under what influence ? In what * Called by other grammarians, Tnt< [ rO'.M>W"S. 80 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 51 book of your library, and in what chapter ? For what reasons ? From SO 38 what part of our father's life? Before what word? In what phrase of 51 34 your exercise ? With what ladies and gentlemen ? In what house ? 58 .34 34 34 What a voice ! With what materials ? With what paper, ink, pen, pen- 34 50 58 58 knife and seal, of our uncle ? What a man ! What a woman ! DISTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE.* There is another article called the distributive, le distributif. It is, in English, each, every, and has no plural. 59. It is, in French, chaque for either gender and has no plural. Like the others, when it is used with several nouns to- gether, it must be repeated before each one. Towards each man, woman and Envers chaque homme, chaque child, femme et chaque enfant, EXERCISE 26. 53 By every scholar of my school. At each lesson. Every morning of 56 38 this month. For each reason and proof. From every Miss of the soci- 38 36 ety. In presence of the mother of each pupil. Every time after the 39 explanation of each mistake. By every citizen of America. "With the 34 38 approbation of each captain and commander. In each room of the 38 55 34 house. According to the custom of that people at every spring and au- 38 55 tumn. Under the direction of every officer of that corps. Concerning 38 37 37 each member of the family of the cashier. By the mark of each corner 39 of the instrument. In every circumstance. NEGATIVE ARTICLES.* When, in English, a noun is used in a negative sense, the word no, instead of any article, is prefixed to it ; and, if there are several nouns together, it is expressed only before the first with nor, or sometimes erroneously or, before the last, without either ever varying. * Called by other grammarians, Indefinite Pronouns. NEGATIVE ARTICLES. 81 60. In French, the Negative Articles vary according to the gender of the noun ; and, if there are several nouns together, like the preceding articles, they must be repeated with agree- ment before every one of them, and the last must be preceded by the conjunction ni, which is for nor, or or. They are for no, nul or aucun, when the noun is masculine singular, for no, nulle or aucune, when the noun is feminine singular, However, nul denies more strongly than aucun. For no man, woman, boy, nor Pour nul or aucun homrne, girl, nulle or aucune femme, nul or aucun gargon, ni nulle or ni aucune Jille. Explanation. Nul or aucun is used, because the noun to which it relates is masculine singular ; and nulle or aucune, because the noun to which it relates is feminine singular. 61. The plural of these articles, which is nuls, nulles> aucuns, aucunes, is used only with nouns that have no singular ; for, were no prefixed to a plural noun that has a singular number, that plural noun should be rendered by the singular, in French, At no funerals, A nulles or aucunes fun&railles. For no reasons, Pour nulle or aucune raison. Explanation. In the first example, nulles or aucunes is in the plural number and femin- ine gender, because funerailles is a feminine noun that cannot be used in the singular. In the second example, nulle or aucune is in the singular feminine, because raison is a fem- inine noun that can be used in the singular. EXERCISE 27. 60 34 60 55 61 28 60 In no basket, box, nor trunk, of those travellers. For no scissors nor 55 60 53 60 snuffers of that merchant. To no support from his authority. By no 61 56 60 60 60 individuals of this country. In no occasion. For no consideration nor „ 51 60 37 60 48 respect of your master. In no place in the world. In no book of thy 60 37 60 34 60 library. Over no member of the senate. In no city, village nor hamlet 39 61 50 60 55 of the empire. For no materials of our house. Against no lady of that T _ 60 56 60 55 congregation. In favour of no person of this state nor even of this na- -_, 61 60 43 60 tion. For no tongs nor shovel. In presence of several ladies, but of no 60 37 60 man nor boy. For the benefit of no christian, 82 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. TABLE OF ARTICLES. Articles definis, le, la, V, les, du, de la, de V, des, au, a la, a l\ aux, Definite Articles. the. . of or from the. to or at the. Articles indifinis, Indefinite Articles. un, une, quelque, quelques, des, . a, an. some. Article collectif, plusieurs, Collective Article. . several. Articles partitifs, * du, de la, de V, des, Partitive Articles. some, any. Articles possessifs personnels, Possessive Personal Articles mon, ma, mes, ton, ta, tes, son, sa, ses, notre, nos, votre, vos, leur, leurs, . my. thy. . his, her, its. our. . your. their. Articles dimonstratifs, ce, cet, cette, ces, Demonstrative Articles. . this, that, these, those. Articles interrogatifs, Interrogative Articles, quel, quelle, quels, quelles y . what. Article distributif, Distributive Article. chaque, f each, every. Articles negatifs, Negative Articles, nul, nulle, nuls, nulles, aucun, aucune, aucuns, aucunes, no, nor, OF ADJECTIVES. 83 CHAPTER VII. OF ADJECTIVES. Les Adjectifs, adjectives, in English, never vary on account of the gender and number of the noun whose quality they ex- press, and their place is generally after a substantive. 62. In French, adjectives vary in their termination accord- ing to the gender and number of the noun whose quality they express ; that is, if the noun is masculine singular, the adjective must have a masculine singular termination ; if it is feminine singular, the adjective must have a feminine singular termina- tion ; if it is plural, the adjective must have a plural termina- tion, masculine or feminine, according to the gender of the noun ; and, with the few exceptions hereafter given, adjectives are generally placed after the noun, contrary to the English practice. A learned minister, Tin ministre savant. A learned instructress, Tine institutrice savante. Some learned professors, Des professeurs savants. Some learned ladies, Des dames savantes. Explanation. In the first example, the adjective savant has a masculine singular termina- tion, because the noun to which it relates, ministre, is masculine singular, hi the second example, savante has a feminine singular termination, because the noun to which it relates, institutrice, is feminine singular. In the third example, savants has a masculine plural termination, because the noun to which it relates, professeurs, is masculine plural. In the fourth example, savantes has a feminine plural termination, because the noun to which it relates, dames, is feminine plural. 63. If an adjective expresses the quality of several nouns of the same gender, it must have a plural termination, masculine if they are masculine, and feminine if they both are of the fem- inine gender ; but if those nouns are of different genders, the masculine one must be expressed the last, and the adjective must have a masculine plural termination. By the efforts of an enterpris- Par les efforts d'un pere et ing father and son, dhin Jils entreprenanU. For the benefit of his virtuous Pour le profit de son epouse et wife and daughter, de safille vertueuses 84 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. With a continual labour and application, Avec nne application et un travail continued. Explanation. In the first example, the adjective entreprenants has a masculine plural termination, because the nouns to which it relates are both masculine. In the second ex- ample, the adjective vertueuses has a feminine plural termination, because the nouns to which it relates are botb feminine. In the third example, the adjective continucls has a masculine plural termination, because the nouns to which it relates are of different gen- ders ; and the word travail is placed after application, because it is tbe masculine noun. GENDER OF ADJECTIVES. Since adjectives must agree in gender and number with the nouns to which they relate, it is very important to be familiar with the formation of their feminine and plural. 64. 1st Rule. All adjectives ending with a silent e in the masculine, do not change for the feminine. To an amiable man, From an amiable woman, With that useful book, For that useful thing, 65. 2d Rule. Generally adjectives not ending with a silent e in the masculine, take one for the feminine ; and adjectives ending in er take also a grave accent over the e that A un homme aim able. D'une femme aimable. Avec ce livre utile. Pour cette chose utile. precedes the r. pretty, great, ungrateful, sensible, true, imbued, dear, Masculine. joli, grand, ingrat, sense, vrai, irnbu, cher, Feminine. jolie. grande. in grate. sensee. vraie. imbue. ckere. 66. 1st. Adjectives ending in Exceptions \ el ^ double { elle eil j en { et f on | i * J the last consonant and take a silent e; thus, masc fern. as tel, telle, such. eille as pareil, pareilh, like. j enne as ancien, ancienxxe, old. | ette as muet, muetie, dumb. j o?meaisbon, bonne, good. ^ sse as gros, grosse, big. GENDER OF ADJECTIVES. 85 but complet, coricrei, complete, concrete, becomes complete becomes concrete in the feminine, in the feminine. discret, discreet, becomes discrete in the feminine. inquiet, replet, secret, uneasy, replete, secret, becomes inquiete becomes replete becomes secrete in the feminine, in the feminine, in the feminine. mauvais, bad, becomes mauvaise in the feminine. niais, silly, becomes niaise in the feminine. ras, close, becomes rase in the feminine. tiers, third, becomes tieree in the feminine. frangais, french, becomes frangaise, in the feminine, and all adjectives ending in ais or ois, formed from the names of nations, simply take e for their feminine. 67. 2d. Adjectives ending in f, change that / into ve for their feminine ; as Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. neuf, neuve, new. href, breve, brief. vif, vive, quick. sauf, sauve, safe. and those ending in ef, take also a grave accent over the e that precedes the v, as in breve. 68. 3d. Adjectives ending in x, change that x into se for their feminine ; as heureux, m. hereuse, f. happy. | jaloux, m. jalouse, f. jealous. but doux, m. sweet, becomes douce in the feminine. faux, m. false, becomes fausse in the feminine. prefix, m. prefixed, becomes pr'efixe in the feminine. roux, m. red, becomes rousse in the feminine. vieux, m. old, becomes vieille in the feminine. 69. Adjectives ending in eur, form their feminine by chang- ing that termination into euse, rice, eresse, or merely by adding silent e to the masculine. 4th. Those that are derived from the present participle of a verb, by changing the termination ant into eur, change that termination eur into euse, for their feminine ; as danseur, m. from danser, to dance, danseuse, fern, dancer. trompeur, m. from tromper, to deceive, trompeuse, fern, deceiver 86 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 5th. Those which end in teur, and are not derived from the present participle of a verb, change their termination eur into rice, for their feminine ; as accusateur, masc. accusatxice, fern. accuser. conducteur, masc. %onductxice, fern. leader. protecteur, masc. protectxice, fern. protector. But the following, though forming their feminine by chang ing eur into rice, are derived from present participles : dibiteur, debitxice, debtor. executeur, ex£cutxice, executor. inspecteur, inspectxice, inspector. inventeur, inventxice, inventor. persecuteur, persecutxice persecutor. 6th. Those that end in erieur, take a silent e for their fern ■ inine ; as exterieur, exterieure, exterior. superieur, supirieure, superior. But the following, though not ending in erieur, take a silen e for their feminine : majeur, majeure, major. mineur, mineure, minor. meilleur, meilleure, better. Those that form their feminine by changing eur into eresse, are the following : bailleur, baillexesse, giver. defendeur, difendexesse, defendant. demandeur, demandexesse, plaintiff. devineur, devinexesse, diviner. enchanteur, enchant eresse, enchanter. chasseur, chassexesse, hunter. pecheur, pechexesse, sinful. vengeur, vengexesse, revenegful. The following are exceptions to any of the preceding rules. ambassadeur, ambassadxice, ambassador. gouverneur, gouvernante, governor. serviteur, servaxite, servant. OF ADJECTIVES. 87 Adjectives, or rather substantives, ending in eur, which ex- press a profession principally exercised by a man, do not change for their feminine ; as auteur, author. professeur, professor. litterateur, person of letters. 70. The adjectives gentil, paysan, sot, vieillot, become in the feminine, jumeau, beau, nouveau, fou, mou, become in the feminine, ' gentille, paysanne, sotie, k vieillotte, f jumelle, belle, nouvelle, folk, 77iolle, gentle, peasant, foolish, oldish. twin. handsome. new. mad. soft. 7L The last four have another masculine, which is bel, nouvel, fol, mol, which is always placed before the substantive and used only when it begins with a vowel or silent h ; as in Tin bel oiseau, A beautiful or handsome bird Ce nouvel habit, . That neu i coat. D'un fol amour, Of & foolish love. Sous un mol idredon, . Under a soft down blanket. 72. The adjectives blanc, ' blanche, white. franc, franche, frank. sec, frais, become in ► the •* seche, fraiche, dry. fresh. public, "fpminiTiP publicpie, public. caduc, ldlllillllC, caduque, in decay. Grec, Grecque, Greek. Turc, t < Turque, Turk. long, ' ' lo?ig\ie, long. oblong, npfnmp in oblongae, oblong. benin, the « feminine, benigne, benign. malin, maligne, malicious. favori, favorite, favourite. coi, K coite, quiet. OO FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 73. The adjectives chatain, chesnut colour, \ are never used dispos, active, > in the fat, coxcomb, j feminine gender. PLUEAL OF ADJECTIVES. 74. The plural of adjectives is generally formed like that ol nouns : Except bleu, blue, whose plural is bleus. tout, all, whose plural is tous. Of the adjectives ending al, the greater number change that termination into aux ; as egal, . eg&ux, . equal. moral, . . raoraux, . . moral. And the others by the addition of an s ; as fatal, . . fatah, . . fatal. final, . . finals, . . final. The following adjectives are never used in the plural : beneficial, beneficial. medicinal, medicinal. canonical, canonical. mental, mental. diagonal, diagonal. patronal, patronal. diametral, diametral. virginal, virginal. experimental, experimental. vocal, vocal. instrumental, instrumental. zodiacal, zodiacal. As to the plural of the feminine of adjectives, it is always formed by the addition of s to the singular. PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. There are adjectives that are indifferently placed before or after the noun ; others that are always placed after the noun ; others that are generally placed before the noun ; and others whose signification changes according as they are placed before or after the noun. 75. Those that are placed after the noun, are 1st. Those that express form, colour, taste, sound, feel- ing, &c. ; as With my red coat, Avec mon habit rouge. Upon the round table, Sur la table ronde. OF ADJECTIVES. For a sweet orange, Pour une orange douce. By the harmonious sound of Par le son harmonieux du the horn, cor. With a rough hand, Avec une main rude. 2d. Those that are derived from names of nations ; as in In several French books, Dans plusieurs livres Fran^ais. By every American journal, Par chaque journal Americain. For some English goods, Pour des marchandises Anglaises. 3d. All participles used adjectively, and adjectives derived from them ; as Towards every devoted friend, Envers chaque ami devoue. By the enchanted audience of a Par V audience enchantee d'un learned orator. orateur instruit. 76. The adjectives that are generally placed before the noun, between the article and the noun, are beau or bel, handsome. mi chant, wicked. bon, good. mauvais, bad. brave, brave. meilleur, better. cher, dear. moindre, less. chetif, poor. mol, soft. fol, foolish. nouvel, new. galant, well-bred. petit, small. grand, great. saint, holy. gros, ^ big. tel, such. honnete, honest. vieil or vieux, old. jeune, young. vrai, true. joli, pretty. tout, all. and the ordinal numbers ; as premier, second, &c, though they are sometimes placed after a noun, especially if it is used with- out any article. They are always placed after proper names, and if in this latter case the definite article is used in English, it is not in French ; thus, Book second, . . . Livre second. Canto first, .... Chant premier. Henry the second, . . Henri second. Napoleon the first, . . . Napolion premier. The first book, Le premier livre. 90 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 77. As to tout, which should not be considered as an adjec- tive, its place is before the article ; and if the article was com- bined with a preposition, it must be placed between that preposi- tion and article ; as in To all the scholars, A tous les ecoliers, not Aux tous Scolders. Of all the world, Be tout le monde, not Du tout monde. 78. The adjectives that express a different meaning, accord- ing as they are placed before or after the noun, are in the fol- lowing table with their translation : un bon homme, un brave homme, une commune voix, un cruel homme, une fausse corde, a simple credulous un homme bon, man. an honest man. general voice or opin- ion. un homme brave, une voix commune, a tormenting man. a string out of tune. un homme cruel, une corde fausse, unefausse clef, une fausse porte, un galant homme, une gal ante femme, la demiere annee, la demiere semaine, un grand homme, une grosse femme, un honnete homme, d' hoMi&les gens, un malhonnete homme, un noicvel habit, un pauvre homme, un plaisant homme, un petit homme, les propres termes, un simple homme, un unique tableau, un vilain homme, pro'ehain, une clef fausse, une porte fausse, un homme galant, une femme galante, V annee derniire, un homme grand, une femme grosse, un homme honnite, des gens honnetes, a good man. a courageous man. an ordinary voice. a cruel man. a string that cannot be properly tuned. a wrong key. a sham door. a beau. a coquette. last year, (the year be- fore the present.) last week, (the week before the present.) a tall man. a woman with child. a polite man. polite people. un homme malhonnete, an impolite man. a pick-lock. a back door. a man of honour. (is not used.) the last year, (of any specified epoch.) the last week, (of any la semaine demiere specified epoch.) a great man. a big woman. an honest man. honest people. a dishonest man. a new coat. an insignificant man. an odd man. a short man, (not tall.) the same or very words. but a man. a single picture. a homely man. next, with a noun expressing time mois, month ; annee, year; &c, is generally placed after ; as Next year, . . Vannec prochaine. | Next month, . and with nouns expressing an action or an event; such as assemblce, meeting; seance, seating ; &.C, and before such words, asfois, time ; occasion, opportunity ; &c, it is plac- ed before ; as The next time, La prochaine fois. | At the next meeting, A \a prochaine assemblce. As to other adjectives that are not comprised in the preced- ing observations their place is determined by taste and practice, un habit nouveau, un homme pauvre, un homme plaisant, un homme petit, les termes propres, un homme simple, un tableau unique, un homme vilain, a new fashioned coat, a poor man, (not rich.) a jovial man. a mean man. words properly used. a simpleton, a unique picture a wretch, such as semaine, week ; . Le mois prochain. OF ADJECTIVES. 91 for it is equally proper to say, une aimable personne, an amiable person, or une personne aimable. 79. If several adjectives are used with the same noun, they are generally placed after it. 80. But if the qualified noun is followed by a word or words preceded by a preposition, completing an idea, or being the com- pletement of an idea commenced by that noun, the adjective or adjectives are generally placed before it ; as in By the happy, interesting and Par V heureuse, interessante et learned wife of Mr. Henry. instruite epouse de M. Henri. Explanation. The words de M. Henri, completing the idea of which epouse is the com- mencement, being therefore the completement of this word epouse, it is better to place the adjectives heureuse, interessante et instruite before it. 81. In this and similar instances, the article might be re- peated before every adjective; thus, par Vheureuse, Vinteressante et Vinstruite epouse de M. Henri. 82. If an adverb is used with an adjective it must be placed immediately before it, and if it is tres, in English, very, it must be joined to it by a hyphen; and if there are several adjectives together, tres mast be repeated before every one. For a very respectable, but too Pour un citoyen tres-respecta- ambitious citizen, ble mais trop ambitieux. That book is for a very young, Ce livre est pour un enfant interesting and intelligent tres-jeune, tres-interessant e* boy, tres-intelligent. EXERCISE 28. On the adjectives whose masculine singular ends in a silent e. In writing the following exercises the student should constantly have in mind, the rules explained at the Nos. 62, 63, 75 and 76. 59 55 82 49 82 r or every amiable lady. In that very useful book. To his too vague 47 34 82 answer. Concerning my difficult exercise and too easy lesson. With 43 51 82 ' 55 82 several docile children. For your very playful scholar and this too 40 55 82 obstinate boy. Against the perfidious promises of that very hypocritical 43 man. For several empty bottles of his immense glass-house. *With * Translate as if the phrase were 4 With the rigid master of your amiable son.' — See No. 54. 92 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 51 37 37 your amiable son's rigid master. According to the faithful testimony 41 82 49 38 of a very honest witness of his poor client. By the charitable disposition 39 50 40 of every peaceful citizen of our free country. For the brittle vials of two skilful doctors. EXERCISE 29. On the rules of the paragraphs 64 and 65. Before writing this exercise read the paragraphs 62, 63, 75 and 76. 41 82 39 55 With a very great attention. Under the profound emotion of that 37 68 49 64 eloquent discourse. By the harmonious sound of her agreeable voice. 38 41 41 75 With the polite manner of a well-bred gentleman. At a round table 41 39 41 with a gluttonous girl. Against the immediate intercession of a power- 39 55 64 54 ful nation. From the very interesting history of that rich lady's pretty 40 55 58 niece. At the ingenuous answers of those young girls. What an aston- 41 82 55 ishing invention ! For a very tall man of that distant region. Upon 58 41 the high tower of her castle. What a great enterprise for a small num ber of learned women ! EXERCISE 30. On the rules of the paragraphs 62, 63, 64, 65 and 66. 38 66 38 66 40 After the criminal execution of the ministerial revenge. Under the 82 66 55 64 66 too unconstitutional laws of that barbarous and cruel administration 38 66 37 41 66 , 38 against the personal liberty of the people. By a similar decision of the 64 40 75 40 66 supreme court of the United States of America. From the rosy lips of 49 65 65 40 66 59 her small and pretty mouth. Against the individual petitions of every 37 41 66 41 66 republican member of the senate. For an Egyptian lady of a middling 1 50 66 41 66 49 size. From one of our old institutions. From a coquettish wife to her 66 47 66 54 64 . 57 76 dumb aunt. For my dear friend's young sister. What beautiful weather ! EXERCISE 31. On the same rules as the preceding. See paragraphs 62, 63, 64, 65 and 66. 38 65 38 66 50 64 From the jocose disposition of the roguish maid-servant of our agreea- 38 65 50 65 ble boarding house. Against the strong citadel of our large city. For 38 66 55 65 41 66 41 65 the cowardly garrison of that important place. In a low part of a green OF ADJECTIVES. 93 40 65 & 75 41 76 41 66 41 valley in the Black mountains. At a good dinner with a tat fowl and a 66 41 66 38 41 82 66 large goose, also with a thick sauce, in the company of a very large 38 38 82 41 82 65 lady from the country. By the too weak hand of a very wearied person 41 64 28 57 58 65 after a severe sickness of six months. "What a great loss of time and 31 39 63 i 66 34 40 62 money ! Under the continued inspection and observation of the vigilant 62 37 and learned officers of the regiment. EXERCISE 32. On the rules of the paragraphs 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 75, &c. 38 67 49 64 40 67 In the brief peroration of his energetical speech. By the attractive 57 67 39 68 67 38 charms of what active lady? "With the happy adopted daughter of the 82 66 40 67 64 55 very good Mrs. Rolland. Among the attentive young ladies of that in- 6*5 64 63 Cresting class. By twenty-five poor women in new gowns and ^bonnets. 41 67 39 64 49 62 62 After a decisive action in the terrible attack of his fearful and numer- 41 82 67 49 68 ous enemies. W 7 ith a very excessive pain from his dangerous wound, 38 68 65 40 64 since the glorious but bloody battle of Eylau. Under the dreadful effects 38 68 55 68 39 68 of the contagious disease of that unfortunate country. By the delicious 41 64 odour of an immense variety of flowers. • * En should be repeated before bonnets. EXERCISE 33. On the same rules as the preceding. See Nos. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 75, &c. 38 64 39 64 10 10 During the dreadful tempest of the memorable year one thousand 38 82 eight hundred and twenty-three. Notwithstanding the extremely ad- 68 53 64 82 68 vantageous proposition of his lovely though too jealous wife. Against 38 68 55 65 38 68 the disdainful manners of that pretty girl. Since the famous declaration 39 38 65 of the independence of the American nation, by the courageous delegates 59 . 38 82 68 49 65 of each state. With the very happy disposition of his powerful mind. 82 68 40 82 39 55 Against the too lazy habit of the too bad scholars of the school of that 82 40 68 52 indolent though very learned professor. For the proud women of their 68 57 58 68 66 religious association. W r hat a monstrous and cruel invention ! EXERCISE 34. On the rules of the paragraphs 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, &c. 49 82 69 38 69 41 With his too deceitful promises to the babbler, Miss Zoe. Against an 82 69 , 55 82 38 extremely peevish woman of that very disagreeable quarter of the city. 94 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 55 82 69 37 65 41 From that too coaxing girl from the distant country of Circassia. In a 50 69 38 82 69 51 current report of our lying maid. For the too quarrelsome wife of your 65 38 69 50 64 devoted friend, Mrs. Leon. By the thievish magpie of our honest neigh- 37 76 41 38 65 bour, the handsome jeweller, Mr. Joseph. In a letter from the pretty 68 38 69 39 64 69 and happy Miss Adele, the singer. With the incorrigible gamester Mrs. 68 41 69 41 64 68 Paul of the Marshy Valley. By a generous action of a rich and virtu- 55 68 ous lady of that unfortunate family. EXERCISE 35. On the rules of the paragraphs 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, &c. 38 66exc. 55 38 67 Against the bad disposition of that wicked boy. From the simple 51 76 54 66 38 65 countenance of your last farmer's beautiful daughter. Upon the smooth 55 41 76 49 head of that aged man. In presence of a third person of his choice. 41 82 66 exc. 40 52 82 64 After a very complete explanation of the motives of their too strange 44 38 40 conduct. With some concrete volatile salt. After the conclusion of the 66 exc. 50 41 66exc. secret negociations of our government by a discreet person. In the 66 49 66 exc 54 38 64 cruel absence of his unquiet sister's good friend. For the extraordinary 66 exc- 47 68 exc 50 size of a corpulent woman of my country. Upon the sweet face of our 65 28 65 interesting Jane, the pretty girl . EXERCISE 36. On the same rules as the preceding. See Nos. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, &c. 40 68 exc. 55 82 65 55 68 exc- With the false pretensions of that very populous city. By that prefix- 40 62 40 66 41 ed syllable. With the new shoes and the old spatterdashes of an ancient 38 65 40 68 exc. soldier of the imperial guard of Napoleon. With the sweet oranges of 50 40 62 51 . 68 exc. our plantation and the white grapes of your vine. From the lalse opin- 50 76 38 65 55 62 ion of our old judge. By the last syllable of that masculine noun. For 3& 75 41 66 37 82 63 the red gown of an old woman. With the very considerable payment 38 66 38 69 29 69 of the old Mrs. Laurent, as the debtor of Mrs. Jacobs, the executrix 37 76 49 69 39 41 65 of the last will of her father, and as the inventor of an excellent medicine. EXERCTSE 37. On the same rules as the preceding, and 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, &c. 37 41 75 38 69 49 82 Behold the picture of a barbarous queen, the persecutor of her too 38 82 69 49 65 peaceful people ! By the too bewitching voice of his interesting sister. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 95 39 69 38 69 exc. 49 63 From the external appearance of the superior strength of his courageous 39 80 47 38 65 troops. At the happy marriage of my brother with the charming widow 41 69 exc. 49 69 Mrs. Remi. In a better circumstance. "With his revengeful hand. 41 69 37 38 69 against a sinful woman. From the lawyer of the defendant Mrs. Bona, 38 69 39 against Mrs. Lano the plaintiff. In presence of the ambassadress with 38 69 38 69 52 41 Miss Grace, the divineress, the governess and their servants. In a letter 39 69 65 from Mrs. Genlis, the authoress of the Rival Mothers. EXERCISE 38. On the same rules as the preceding. 38 65 41 70 82 70 70 At the small house of a gentle but too foolish peasant-woman. With 40 66 70 55 65 38 the two handsome twin sisters of that pretty spouse. Against the 70 66 38 70 59 mad enterprise of the new republic. Within the soft matter of every 65 47 76 49 76 75 ripe peach. Behold my new friend with his beautiful new coat. With 38 65 41 67 37 77 55 the hard seed of a soft apricot. Against the foolish love of that worthy 65 38 72 55 72 41 72 young man. After the dry reply of that frank woman with a white coif. 72 41 72 37 48 72 With fresh water from a public fountain. At the marriage of the Greek 41 72 41 72 55 daughter of a declining woman from a Turkish province. By that ' 72 55 72 benign influence over that malicious person. CHAPTER VIII. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Les pronoms personnels, personal pronouns, in English, are only of two kinds, that can be called or distinguished by the names of nominative pronouns and objective or passive pro- nouns. Les pronoms personnels nominatifs, the nominative person- al pronouns, are those that are never used but as nominatives. Les pronoms personnels passifs, the passive personal pro- nouns, are those that are used as objects to prepositions or verbs. There is, in French, a third kind of personal pronoun, which, for the sake of clearness, requires a particular distinction. These pronouns therefore are divided into substantive per- 96 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. sonal pronouns, pronoms personnels substantifs ; and verbal personal pronouns, et pronoms personnels verbaux. Les pronoms personnels substantifs , the substantive person- al pronouns, in French, are those that are used as nouns, in- dependently of any verb, but as objects to prepositions, or as in- dependent nominatives. Les pronoms personnels verbaux, the verbal personal pro- nouns, in French, are those that are never used without a verb, but always with it. They are of two kinds, the nominative or active, les nominatifs ou actifs, and the passive, et les passifs. Les pronoms actifs verbaux, the active or nominative ver- bal pronouns, in French, are those that are used as nomina- tives or agents to a verb, and never otherwise. Les pronoms passifs verbaux, the passive verbal pronouns, are those that are never used but as objects to a verb, and never to a preposition. SUBSTANTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 83. The substantive personal pronouns, so called because they are generally used as nouns, whether as nominatives independently of any verb, or as objects to prepositions, are in French, for me, mot. for us, nous. thee, toi. you, vous. him or it, lui. them. eux. masc. her or it, elle. them, elles. fern. one or one's self, soi. 84. Rule. The personal pronouns must be of the same gen- der and number as the noun which they represent or to which they relate. This rule is applicable to any other pronoun. With an order from him, Avec un ordre de lui. In a letter for her, Dans une lettre pour elle. Against them, Contre eux. masc. Before them, Devant elles. fern. For thee, Pour toi. By me, Par moi. OF SUBSTANTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 97 85. When either of the possessive articles my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, one's, preceded by either of the prepositions to, at, in, &c, is employed, in English, with the word House used in the sense of Home, it is generally translated by a cor- responding substantive personal pronoun preceded by the pre- position chez, which means ' at the house of,' or, at the resi- dence of; thus, to, at or in my house, at home to, at or in thy house, " " to, at or in his house, to, at or in her house, " to, at or in one's house, " to, at or in our house, " to, at or in your house, " to, at or in their house, " chez moi. chez toi. chez lux. chez elle. chez soi. chez nous. chez vous. chez eux or chez elles. EXERCISE 39. .84 4 8 84 49 With thee and thy companion against him and his journeymen. 41 84 49 69 41 68 With a present for me from Mrs. Nada, his protector. In a serious 84 52 41 84 affair without them or their followers. By a recommendation for her 1 49 41 84 from one of her correspondents. In a conversation concerning you and 59 51 44 84 41 64 every member of your family. By orders on us for a considerable sum ^39 . 41 84 41 oi money. For the examination of a letter from me to a prisoner. In 84 31 84 31 84 41 84 49 presence of him, her and thee. By a judgement against you. For his 68 84 82 64 68 generous conduct towards us, but not only disagreeable, but even ruin- 83 ous for them. 86. There is another kind of personal pronouns, which have no particular name : They are, one's self, soi-meme. ourselves, nous-mimes. yourselves, vous-memes. themselves, m. eux-mimes. themselves, f. elles-memes. , elle mime. f. Note. These pronouns, which are a sort of compound pronouns, are formed, in English, with the possessive articles mt, thy, our, your ; the personal pronouns him, her, it, one's, them, and the word self for the singular, and selyes for the plural; but, in Trench, they are uniformly formed by the Substantive Pronouns, to which is joined, with myself, moi-mime. thyself, toi-mime. himself, lui-meme. herself, elle-meme. itself, lui-7n£me. m itself, elle mime. f. VO FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. a hyphen, the word mime for the singular, or mimes for the plural. The object of this note is to guard students from translating myself by mon-mime, thyself by ton-mime, her- self by sa mime, ourselves by notre-memes, yourselves by votre-memes, which they are apt to do, thinking that my should be translated by mon } thy by ton, her by sa, our by notre, your by votre, which is very wrong. These pronouns, like the substantive personal pronouns, must be of the same gender and number as the noun to which they relate. EXERCISE 40. 41 64 86 1 49 In a small room especially for myself. Miss Judia, in one of her works 86 48 38 concerning herself. By thy acknowledgement in favour of thy oppo- 86 50 76 86 nents and against thyself. Notwithstanding our good opinion of cur- 39 86 51 selves. For the advantage of one's self. By your observations against 86 38 52 86 41 yourselves. In the direction of their enterprises by themselves. By a 86 40 40 74 letter from himself to the directors of the public works. According to 38 55 52 86 the request of those ladies for their pupils and also for themselves. By 40 55 38 50 86 the effects of that law for the protection of our property and of ourselves. ACTIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 87. The Active Verbal Pronouns, which are never used but as nominatives of verbs, are, I, thou, Je^ or J'. tu. one, we, on. nous. he, she, it, il, elle. il, m. elle, f. you, they, they, masc. fern. vous. Us. elles. Rule. Active verbal pronouns, like the preceding, must be of the same gender and number as the noun they represent or to which they relate. And if there are several verbs together, that have for their nominative the same active verbal pronoun, though that pronoun is expressed but once, before the first, in English, it is generally repeated before every one of them, in French. But as there is no neuter gender, in French, the neuter pronoun it must be translated by il or elle, according to the masculine or feminine gender of the corresponding noun, in French. 88. The active verbal pronouns are never used in French, except with a verb, and can be separated from it by no other * Je before a consonant, f before a vowel or silent h. REMARKS ON VERBS. 99 word but ne, and either of the passive verbal pronouns hereafter given. And when, in English, they are used independently of any verb, that is, as independent nominatives, they must be translated, in French, by the substantive pronouns ; as in I, the owner of that land, Moi, le proprietaire de cette terre. Thou, the benefactor of man- Toi, le bienfaiteur du genre kind, humain. He, the tyrant of his people, Lui, le tyran de son peuple. They, the conquerors of the Eux, Zes conquer ant sdumonde. world, Explanation. In these examples, I, thou, he and they, are translated, in French, by moi, toi, lui and eux, instead ofje, tu, il aud ils, because they are used independently of any verb. Exercises for the pronouns are necessarily included in the following on verbs, which require some explanations or rules on the combination of the several parts of speech which have been spoken of but singly. PREPARATORY REMARKS TO THE EXERCISES ON VERBS. 89. The verb must be of the same number and person as its nominative, thus : if the nominative is I, Je or J', that is, the single person who is speaking, the verb must be in the first person singular ; if it is thou, tu, or a noun in the singular number used in the vocative^ sense, that is, the single person spoken to, the verb must be in the second person singular ; if it is a noun in the singular, that is, the single person spoken of, or either of the pronouns he, il, she, elle, one, on, it, il or elle, the verb must be in the third person singular ; if it is us, nous, or one of several nouns or pronouns, whether singular or plural, that is, the several persons that are speaking, the verb must be in the first person plural ; if it is you, vous, or one or several nouns used in a vocative sense with a pronoun of the second * When we address a person or a thing by name, that name is said to be used in a VOCATIVE SENSE J as God of Christians, have thy protecting hand Dieu des Chretiens, aie ta main protectrict upon us, sur nous. Sea, be thou quiet ! Mer, sois tranquille! 100 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. person, whether singular or plural, that is, the several persons spoken to, the verb must be in the second person plural ; if it is they, Us or elles, or a plural noun, or several nouns, whether singular or plural, that is, the several persons spoken of, the verb must be in the third person plural. I have several books, J 1 ai plusieurs livres. Mary or John be honest, Marie ou Jean sois honnete. He will have my consent, II aura mon consentement. She was agreeable, Elle etait agreable. My book is interesting, Mon livre est interessant. We have two keys, Nous avons deux clefs. Joseph and I have three houses, Joseph et moi avons trois mai- sons. You are very charitable, Vous etes tres-charitables. Mr. Herman and thou are mu- M. Herman et toi etes musi- sicians, ciens. They have his approbation, lis or elles ont son approbation. John and Peter have my friend- Jean et Pierre ont mon amitie. ship, My scholars are young, Mes icoliers sont jeunes. Explanation. Tn the first example, ai is in the first person singular, because its nom- inative is je. In the second, sois is in the second person singular, because its nominative is either Marie or Jean, a noun in the singular number used in a vocative sense. In the third, fourth and fifth, aura, etait and est, are in the third person singular, because their nominatives il, elle and mon livre, are in the singular number. In the sixth, avons is in the first person plural, because its nominative is nous. In the seventh, avons is in the first person plural, because its nominative is Joseph and moi, that is, a noun used with a pro- noun of the first person. In the eighth, etes is in the second person plural because its nom- inative is vous. In the ninth, §tes is in the second person plural, because its nominative is M. Herman and toi, that is, a noun used with a pronoun in the second person. In the tenth, ontis in the third person plural, because its nominative is Us or elles. In the eleventh, ont is in the third person plural, because it has several nouns for nominatives, Jean and Pierre. In the twelfth, sont is in the third person plural, because its nominative is mes ecoliers, a plural noun. It may be noticed, that in the seventh example, the active or nominative pronoun I is rendered, in French, by the substantive pronoun mot; and in the ninth, thou is rendered by toi, instead of tit; it is according to the following rule. 90. When several nominative or active verbal pronouns, in English, are together the nominative of the same verb, they must be translated into French, by the substantive personal pronouns, and placed thus : the pronouns of the second person must be before that of the third or the first ; that of the third REMARKS ON VERBS. 101 person, before that of the first, so that the pronoun of the first person is the last, and the verb must be in the plural in the person that has the priority ; the first having the priority over the second, and the second over the third. /, thou and he, are of the same Toi, lui et moi, sommes de la opinion, meme opinion. John and myself have had an Jean et moi avons eu une au- audience, dience. He and thou are friends, Toi et lui etes amis. Paul and thou have enemies, Paul et toi avez des ennemis. I and thou will be present, Toi et moi serons presents Explanation. In the first example, toi, lui et moi are used, instead of tu, il et je, because they form together the nominative of sommes ; and sommes is in the plural, because it has several pronouns for its nominative j it is in the first person, because the pronoun of the first person moi has the priority over toi and lui, although in the arrangement of the phrase it is placed the last. In the second example, moi is used instead of je or moi-m&me, because, with the noun Jean, it forms the nominative of avons, which is in the plural because it has for its nominative a noun, Jean, and a pronoun, moi ; it is in the first person, because moi. the pronoun, being of the first person, has the priority over the noun. In the third exam- ple, toi and lui are used instead of tu and V, for the same reasons as given for the first ex- ample. The reasons for the fourth and fifth, are the same as those of the preceding. In the Grammaire des Grammaires it is said that the verb should be preceded by a personal pronoun as its nominative. Therefore the preceding examples should be Toi, lui et moi nous sommes de la meme opinion. Jean et moi nous avons eu une audience. Toi et lui vous etes amis. Paul et toi vous avez des ennemis. Toi et moi nous serons presents. But Noel and Chapsal do not say it is necessary, and have no regard to that rule; from which it is evident that either way is proper. 91. As to nouns used in a vocative sense, they take no arti- cle before them ; however, in addressing relations and friends, such as father, mother, son, daughter, &c, the French use the possessive article mon, ma, mes, before them ; thus, mon pere, 9* 102 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. ma mere, mon fits, mes files, fyc, though my is not expresst in English \ as in Father, what have you there ? Mon pere, qic* avez-vous la ? Mother, have you your hand- Ma mere, avez-vous voire mou- kerchief ? choir ? Daughters, when will you have Mes filles, quand aurez-vous your books ? vos livres ? 92. Sometimes when an adverb is used with a verb, in English, it is placed between that verb and its nominative ; as in I often have ; I always had ; James already had, &c. ; but this must be very carefully avoided in French, for it would be very improper to say, Je souvent az; Je toujours avais; Jacques deja avait ; because, in French, although adverbs are sometimes placed before the nominative of the verb, they are generally immediately after the verb in simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and past participle in compound tenses. Therefore, instead of saying, je souy exit ai ; je toujours avais; Jacques deja avait: say, souvent j'#i; toujours j 'avais ; deja Jacques avait: or rather, j'ai souvent ; j'avais toujours; Jacques avait dijd ; and with compound tenses, j'ai souvent eu ; j'avais toujours eu ; Jacques avait dtjd eu. 93. The nominative and the direct object of a verb, when a common noun, must, in French, always be used in a definite sense, that is, the extent of its signification must be determined by a cardinal number or an article, which article is selected according to the sense in which the noun is employed ; and if the English noun has no article, the French corresponding noun must be preceded by the definite article, if it is the nominative, and by the partitive article if it is the object : (See No. 44.) as, Virtue has charms, La vertu a des charmes. Men have ambition, Les hommes ont de V ambition. Good citizens bave respect for Les bons citoyens ont du res- the laws of their country, pect pour les lois de leur pays. Two hands have twenty fingers, Deux mains ont vingt doigts. Explanation. In the first oxumple, la is used before vcrtu, because it is the nominative of a ,• and des is U9ed before charmes, becnuse it is the direct object of a, and is used in a partitive flense : See No. 44. In the second, les is used before hommes, because it is the nominative of REMARKS ON VERBS* 103 ent, and also because it is used in a definite sense, representing all men ; de V is used be- fore ambition, because it is the direct object of out, and is used in a partitive sense. In the third, les and du are used before bons citoyens and respect, tor the same reason as for the second example. For the explanation of the partitive articles see No. 44. In the fourth, mains and doigts are without articles, because the extent of their signification is determined by cardinal numbers. 94. But if the noun, used in a partitive sense, is preceded by an adjective, the preposition de, without the definite article, is only expressed. And when a noun is also preceded by an adverb of quantity, a collective noun, or a noun expressing quantity, measure, capacity or weight, the preposition de is placed between them, without an article, unless there is one ex- pressed in English ; and> if there were several nouns together, the preposition de should be repeated before every one of them. We have good pens, Nous avons de bonnes plumes. You had much power, Vous aviez beaucoup de pouvoir. They were in a crowd of people, lis etaient dans unefoule de gens He had two yards of cloth, II avait deux aunes de drap. I had excellent apples, J' avals des pommes excellents. They had two glasses or bottles lis avaient deux verves ou deux of wine, bouteilles de vin. You have one hundred pounds Vous avez cent livres de sucre. of sugar, We had two piles of wood and Nous avions deux piles de bois coal, et de charbon. Explanation. Tn the first example, plumes, being used in a partitive sense, that is, for some pexs, it should be preceded by the plural partitive article des, which is composed of de and les ; but, as the adjective bonnes intervenes between the article and the noun, the definite article les is omitted, and the preposition de only is used. In the second, pouvoir is used with the preposition de without article, because an adverb of quantity, beaucoup, precedes it. In the third, gens is used with the preposition de without article, because it is preceded by a collective noun. In the fourth, drap is used with the prepo- sition de without article, because it is preceded by a noun expressing measure. In the fifth, pommes is preceded by the partitive article des, which is for de les, because it is used in a partitive sense, and there is no adjective before it ; for, were the adjective before it, the phrase should be J'auais d? excelhntes pommes, without the definite article. In the sixth, vin is used without the article, because it is preceded by a noun expressing capacity, which requires the preposition de without article before the next noun. In the seventh, sucre is used with the preposition de without article, because it is preceded by the word licres, expressing weight. In the eighth, bois is used with the preposition de without article, because it is preceded by the word piles, expressing quantity. 95. However, after the adverb bien, much, many, the article is used with the preposition de. The article is used also when the signification of the noun is determined by some circumstance or some particular article. 104 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. If you had three gallons of the Si vous aviez trots gallons de oil that I have, Vhuile que fai. I have one thousand yards of Tai mille aunes de ce ruban. that ribbon, Thou hadst many friends, Tu avals bien des amis. Explanation. In the first, huile is preceded by the preposition and article, because the extent of its signification is determined by the words que fai. In the second, ruban is used with the article ce, because the extent of its signification is determined in a demonstrative sense. In the last example, amis is preceded by des, because bien is before it, which is the only adverb of quantity that requires the preposition de with the definite article after it. EXERCISES ON VERBS. AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. INDICATIVE MOOD.— MODE DE V INDICATIF. 96. Le mode de Vindicatif the indicative mood, is used to express the action of the verb, with or without interrogation, in whatever time, without being the consequence of any wish, COMMAND, SUPPOSITION Or DOUBT. PRESENT TENSE. 97. Le present de Vindicatif the indicative present, is used to express that a thing is, or is happening habitually, daily, or in the same moment one speaks ; as Now 1 have, J'ai maintenant. EXERCISE 41. 44 44 Now I have some bread. To day thou hast some wine. At present 93 92 62 93 . 92 he has beer. She always has interesting books. William otten has 93 92 92 94 89 apples. Julia has almost constantly pretty flowers. You nave otten 93 35 89 93 fowls for dinner. Generally we have meat. Mr. and Mrs. George nave 41 89 41 . a great number of friends, without doubt because they have an immense fortune. IMPERFECT tense. 98. U imparfait de Vindicatif the imperfect indicative is used to describe, and to relate an action as taking place in a past time ; it expresses neither the beginning nor the end of that action, but its existence, its continuation in a past time. It ex- AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 105 presses also the habitual existence of the action in a past time. It is used also after si, if, in a conditional phrase. Last year we had frequent L'annee derniere nous avions visits, de friquentes visiles. Explanation. Tn this example, had is translated by the imperfect, because it expresses the habit ; for by we had is meant here, not we did have, but we used to have. EXERCISE 42. 89 93 89 93 Yesterday I had oranges. At ten o'clock thou hadst company. Be- 55 89 93 49 55 . fore that time he had grapes on his vine. This morning Miss Lllen 89 94 35 89 38 35 had less pain, but after breakfast she had the fever. Before supper Mr. 89 43 49 92 89 41 82 76 Thomas had several friends in his house. We always had a very good 89 82 62 93 . 89 table. Very often you had very rare dishes. Sometimes they had 93 89 52 59 pigeons. Our sailors had their pay every Saturday evening. PRETERITE DEFINITE. 99. Le priterit defini, the preterite definite, expresses an action, not as taking place like the imperfect, but as having taken place in an entirely elapsed epoch, which epoch must be specified, or at least clearly implied ; it expresses also that a thing was completed at the time to which one refers ; as Last Friday I had a visit, Vendredi dernier feus une visite. Explanation. In this example, had is translated by the preterite definite, because it is not intended to express either use, habit, or continuity of action, but the whole action as having taken place at a definite and entirely elapsed time. 100. Rule. When the preposition on is used before a word expressing time or an epoch, it is never translated into French. On next Saturday, Samedi prochain, not Sur Samedi prochain. On the first of May, Le premier de Mai y not Sur le premier de Mai. EXERCISE 43. 89 41 76 Last week I had a great misfortune. The day before yesterday thou 41 100 78 89 41 hadst a severe reprimand. On last Saturday he had a fit of mad- 100 37 76 55 89 41 49 ness. On the first day of this month she had a visit from her brother. 100 37 1 35 78 89 41 40 On the second Thursday of last month we had a meeting of the mem- 38 100 78 89 41 bers of the society. On last Wednesday evening you had a party. Du- 37 89 ring the month of January they had three concerts. 106 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. FUTURE TENSE. 101. Le futur, the future, is used to express an action in a time yet to come. I shall soon have a new coat, J'aurai bientot un habit neuf. EXERCISE 44. 89 93 To-morrow I shall have apples. The next day after to-morrow thou 89 94 92 89 94 wilt have many pears. He will soon have good peaches. Hereafter she 89 93 49 92 89 41 will have cherries in her garden. We shall soon have a great quantity 35 89 54 54 of strawberries. Next month you will have Mr. Paul's daughter's 35 89 94 52 visit. Next year Mr. and Mrs. Noel will have many figs from their fig- tree, and grapes from their vine. CONDITIONAL PRESENT. 102. Le conditionnel prfsent, the present conditional, expresses that an action would take place, or a thing would be, under a certain condition ; which condition is expressed, in En- glish, by the imperfect tense, or the conditional; but, in French, it is expressed by the imperfect, or its compound the pluperfect. By the imperfect tense, when it is understood that the action should be present ; by the pluperfect, if it is understood that that action should be past. If Mr. B. had talents, he Si M. B. avait des talents il would have scholars, aurait des eleves. If Mr. C. had had goods last Si M. C. avait eu des mar- month, he would have more chandises le rnois passe, il customers, aurait plus de pratiques. Explanation. In the first example, the condition is expressed hy the imperfect, because it relates to the present time ; it is the same as if it were " if Mr. B. had talents now," &c. In the second, the condition is expressed by the pluperfect, because it relates to a past time. 103. When comparisons are made in English with substan- tives, the adverbs that are used with them are translated into French As much, or as many, by Autant de* or d\ Not so much, not as much, by Ne....pas autant de or d\ not so many, not as many, * De before a consonant, and d? before a vowel or silent h. AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 107 More, . . . . by Plus de or d'. Less, fewer, . . .by Moins de or d\ and the following conjunction, As or than, . . .by Que or qu\* But than is not translated, or rather is rendered by de, if after it follow a cardinal number ; as, I have more than one thousand Xai plus de mille livres. books, The dots that are betwixt ne and pas autant de show the place of the verb ; ne being placed between the nominative and the verb, and pas autant de immediately after it. It may be proper to observe, that the preposition de is required after these adverbs the same as after any adverbs of quantity. I have as much land as you, Tax autant de terre que vous, et and as many horses as your autant de chevaux que votre father, pere. You had not so much or as Vous n'aviez pas autant de much credit as my brother, credit que monfrere. She had not so many or as Elle v?avait pas autant d'admi- many admirers as her rateurs que sa cousine. cousin, We have more business than Nous avons plus dJ affaires que those merchants, ces negociants. They had less power than Us avaient moins de pouvoir their predecessors, que leurs predecesseurs. EXERCISE 45. 102,98 94 102 41 If I had much money, I should have a great number of friends. 99 103 48 102 41 If thou hadst as much courage as thy colonel, thou wouldst have a 103 103 49 102 regiment. If he had more knowledge than his friend, he would have 94 98 94 102 22 102 41 many admirers. If she had less amiability, she would not have a hus- 98 94 102 94 band. If we had more patience, we should have more prudence. If 98 103 102 94 you had not so much ambition, you would have more success. If they 98 94 102 94 had great talents, they would have more encouragement. * Qve before a consonant, and yw' before a vowel or a silent h. 108 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. PRETERITE INDEFINITE TENSE. 104. Le preterit indefini, ou le compose du present de Vin- dicatif, THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE, Or THE COMPOUND OF THE present indicative, is used to express that an action has taken place at a past but not specified time, or within an epoch not yet elapsed. Though this tense is generally expressed in En- glish by a simple tense, in French it is expressed by the com- pound of the present indicative. I have had that honour, J'ai eu cet honneur. This year, this month, this Cette annee-ci, ce mois-ci, cette week, I had a bad fever, semaine-ci, f ai eu une man- vaise fievre. Explanation. In the first example, the preterite indefinite is used, because the time is not specified, for it is not known or said, when that honour was obtained or received. In the second, had is rendered by the preterite indefinite, because it does not express habit, and because the epoch in which the ' bad fever' was got, is not entirely elapsed, since something remains of the year, month, or week, mentioned, EXERCISE 46. 104 103 49 . 103 49 I have had as much pleasure from his visit, as from his present, 37 56 104 103 103 Since the commencement of this month thou hast had more letters than 48 104 103 103 37 thy sister. To-day she had less fever than yesterday. During the 55 104 27 104 103 62 103 37 course of this year, William has not had so many bad notes as in the 78 56 104 27 104 103 76 last month of December. This season we have not had as many great 103 78 56 104 103 51 actors as last winter. This year you have had more revolutions in your 103 77 40 35 104 . 47 82 country than in all the nations of Europe. I had in my life very extra- 62 ordinary adventures. PLUPERFECT TENSE. 105. Le plus-que-parfait, ou le compose de V imparfait, the PLUPERFECT Or THE COMPOUND OF THE IMPERFECT, is USed to express an action not only passed in itself, but also as prior to some past time or event, whether specified, or merely implied or understood. The time expressed by this tense does not always require a compound tense in English, but it always does in French ; as When you had the visit of Mrs. Quand vous eutes la visite de D., I had had the notice of Madame IA, /avais eu la her arrival, notice de son arrivee. AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 109 John had an explanation with Jean avait eu une explication James before he had his con- avec Jacques avant quHl eut sent, son consentement. Explanation. In the first example, favais eu is in the pluperfect, because it relates to a time prior to that of * the visit of Mrs. D.' In the second, had is translated by the plu- perfect avait eu, because it relates to a time prior to that of his consent.' EXERCTSE 47. 51 105 43 37 48 Before your arrival I had had several invitations. At the time of thy 105 103 103 departure, thou hadst had many more visits than Paul. When Joseph 99 41 105 44 62 had a quarrel with James, he had some previous provocations. Before ^5 . 105 27 103 . 50 103 50 that accident,we had not as many indications of our misfortune as our 105 94 49 " 38 brother. You had had more troubles before his return from the country. 105 52 52 54 Mr. and Mrs. Noel had had their share of their uncle's property, even 49 37 105 41 40 before his death. The president had a conversation with the professors 39 55 before the admission of that young man. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 106. Le preterit anterieur, ou le compose du pritirit defi- ni, THE PRETERITE ANTERIOR, Or THE COMPOUND OF THE PRETE- RITE definite, is used to express that an action was done before another, which had taken place in an epoch specified and en- tirely elapsed. It is generally expressed, in English, by the simple tense, the imperfect indicative ; and, in French, it is sel- dom used, except after the conjunctions as soon as, aussitot que. after, . apres que. as soon as, des que. As the verb avoir is not properly used in this tense, the ex- ercise is omitted here. FUTURE ANTERIOR. 107. Lefutur antirieur, ou le compose du futur, the fu- ture anterior, or the compound of the future, is used to ex- press that an action or thing will have taken place before a time yet to come. To-morrow, when I shall have Demain quand /'aurai eu so?i had his advice, I shall have avis f aural phis d'cspoir. more hope, io when, . lorsque. when, . quand. 110 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Explanation. The compound of the future faurai eu is used here to express that the time of the advice, though yet to come, will be past at the time when i shall havi more hope. EXERCISE 48. 100 78 107 49 49 On next Sunday, I shall have had his permission. Before his return, 107 43 83 107 41 thou wilt have had several letters from him. Then he will have had an 38 49 55 35 78 agreeable spectacle in the reception of his friend in this country. Next 107 50 37 38 38 month we shall have had our part of the income from the property of the 107 51 75 101 family. When you shall have had your black coat, Mr. Lewis will have 49 75 37 76 39 107 94 his white vest. After the first day of the year, they will have had many 52 62 101 41 presents from their numerous relations. I shall have an assistant as 107 52 soon as I shall have had their consent. PAST CONDITIONAL. JOS. Le conditionnel passe ou le compose du conditionnel present, the past conditional or the compound of the pre- sent conditional, is used to express that a thing would have happened in a past time, had certain conditions been fulfilled. I toould have had more confi- J'aurais eu phis de confiance dence in him if he had had en lui sHl avait eu un asso- a partner, cie. EXERCISE 49. 105 94 108 94 If I had had more goods, I should have had more business. If thou 105 93 108 41 50 hadst had patience, thou wouldst have had a part of our profits. If Mr. 105 94 108 94 Williams had had fewer workmen, he would have had less expense. If 105 94 108 94 Miss Louisa had had less wit, she would have had fewer admirers. If 105 94 108 94 we had had more perseverance, we should have had more success. If 105 94 108 94 you had had many scholars, you would have had more trouble. If they 105 41 75 108 94 had had a good teacher, they would have had more knowledge. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD— MODE DU SUBJONCT1F. 109. Le mode du subjonctif, the subjunctive mood, is used after impersonal verbs, after verbs expressing wish, will, doubt, fear, command, necessity ; and after the following conjunc- tions, all ending in que : on condition that, d condition que. God forbid, d Dicu ne jrtaisr que. that, to the end that, afin que. unless, a main* que.,. ne. although, yet, encore que. far from, loin que. provided that, moyennant que. God grant, plaise d Dieu que. AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. Ill before, avant que. to the end that, pour que. in case, au cas que. provided that, pourvu que. tho', although, bien que. although, quoique. for fear, ds crainte que...*ne. without, sans que. for fear, lest, depeur que...*ne. whether, soit que. God grant, Dieu veuille que. suppose that, suppose que. in case if, en cas que. 110. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are used in French, viz : the present for the present indicative or the future of the English, and the imperfect for the past or conditional tenses. Quoique j 'aie cent mille dollars^ je n'ai pas autant d'argent que lui. A condition ^w'ils aient plus de chambres. A moins ^w'il n'eut du courage. En cas qu y \\ eut des partisans. Although I have one hundred thousand dollars, I have not as much money as he. On condition that they shall have more rooms, Unless he had courage, In case he should have some partizans, Explanation. In the first example, aie is in the present subjunctive, because it is pre- ceded by the conjunction quoique, and the corresponding verb in English is in the present tense. In the second, aient is in the subjunctive mood, because it is preceded by the con- junction a condition qae, and in the present tense, because the corresponding verb in Eng- lish is in the future tense. In the third, eut is in the subjunctive mood, because it is pre- ceded by the conjunction d moins que, and in the imperfect, because the corresponding .rerb in English is in a past tense, and w' is before eht, between the nominative and the /erb. In the fourth, eitt is in the subjunctive mood, because it is preceded by the con- junction en cas que, and in the imperfect, because the corresponding verb in English is in the conditional. EXERCISE 50. On the present subjunctive. 109 110 55 109 On condition that I shall have that privilege. To the end that thou 110 41 76 48 109 110 39 mayest have a good income from thy property. Before he has the 62 * 75 40 49 109 110 76 necessary money for the expenses of his journey. In case we have fine 100 37 1 109 110 94 weather on the first of July. Although you have many advantages in 51 71 . 109 110 41 62 & 75 your new situation. God grant that they may have an experienced 41 79 captain and a short passage from Calais to Dover, and from Liverpool 109 110 103 9 12 to Boston. Suppose that we have more than one hundred and ninety- 109 110 38 49 nine passengers. Provided that she had the permission of her aunt. * The nominative of the verb must be placed instead of the dots, and the we, before that verb. 112 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER EXERCISE 51. On the imperfect subjunctive. 105 HO 94 76 47 M9 In case I had bad news from my friends of France. Although thou 110 41 76 38 56 Brightest have a great knowledge of the geography of that country. 109 110 40 11 Provided that he had the two hundred ninety-nine thousand dollars, 62 39 55 109 110 necessary for the purchase of that, domain. Suppose that we should have 55 62 & 75 109 110 41 76 109 that marshy land. Though you had a fine prospect. On condition that 110 40 62 & 75 41 75 40 they should have the necessary books for a complete course of the 55 109 110 41 41 studies of that class. Although Mr. Muro had an immense fortune, a 76 44 44 98 103 103 beautiful house,, horses and carriages, he had fewer friends than you. Exercises for the compound tenses of the subjunctive mood r the imperative, and infinitive, will be found, with the necessary- rules, among those on the substantive verb etre, and of the regu- lar conjugations, and in the syntax. SUBSTANTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. Le verbe etre, the verb etre, to be, is often used with ad- jectives to express the modifications or qualities of the substan- tives to which it relates ; in such instances, those adjectives must agree in gender and number with their nominative, whether it be a noun or a pronoun, or several nouns or pronouns. For this agreement see the rules on adjectives, commencing at No. 62. It is necessary to consider, in adjectives, degrees of significa- tion and comparison. Les degris de co?nparaison, the degrees of comparison, are the comparative of eqtialitv, le comparatif d'egaliti ; THE comparative of inequality, le comparatif dSntgalitt ; the comparative of superiority, le comparatif de superiorite ; and the comparative of inferiority, ct le comparatif d'i?i- ferioritL 111. Le comparatif d'egalite, tii f. comparative of equality, is expressed, in English, by as before the adjective, and as after SUBSTANTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. 113 it, before the compared object ; and, m French, by aussi before the adjective, and que after it, before the compared object. The tulip is as beautiful as La tulipe est aussi belle que la the rose, rose. 112. Le comparatif d'inegaliU, the comparative of ine- quality, is expressed in English by not so, not as, before the adjective, and as after it, before the compared object ; and in French by ne....pas si, ne....pas aussi, before the adjective, ne being placed before the verb and pas si or pas aussi after it, and que after it, before the compared object. The violet is not so beautiful La violette n'est pas si (ou pas as the carnation, aussi) belle que Vceillet. 113. Le comparatif de superior it e, the comparative of su- periority, is expressed in English by placing more before the adjective, or by a change in its termination, and than after it ; and in French by placing plus before the adjective and que after it, before the compared object; and, if after the conjunction than in English, or que in French, follows a verb, the French verb must be preceded by the words ne, or n\ and, if the word so is ex- pressed or understood, by ne le, or ne V ; but le is not expressed if the verb has not for its object some preceding word or object. Virtue is more useful than sci- La vertu est plus utile que la ence, science. Milton is greater than Pope. Milton est plus grand que Pope. My friend is more punctual Mon ami est plus ponctuel que than I have been, je ne Tai ete. Explanation. In the last example, ne is used after que, because the word following that, que, is a verb ; and le is expressed, because the word ponctuel, expressed before, is un- derstood after ai ete. This le is used in such phrases to translate the word SO, whether expressed or understood. Tn this phrase it is evidently understood. 114. Le comparatif d' inferior it e, the comparative of in- feriority, is expressed, in English, by placing less before the adjective, and than after it, before the compared object ; and, in 10* 114 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. French, by placing moins before the adjective, and que after it? before the compared object ; and if a verb follows, the same as in rule 113, it should be preceded by ne or ne le. Alexander was less prudent Alexandre 'ttait moins 'prudent than Caesar, que Cesar. 115. There are three adjectives in French, that are com- paratives by themselves. They are* for better, meilleur, instead of plus bon, which is never used, less, moindre, instead of plus petit, which however is sometimes properly used, worse, pire, instead of plus mauvais, which is also properly used. My cloak is better than my Mon manteau est meilleur que coat, mon habit. The means of that man are less Les moyens de cet homme sont than his debts, moindres que ses dettes. Our administrator is now worse Notre administrates est main- than ever, tenant pire que jamais. With the exception oim.ieux, better ; moins, less ;pis, worse. adverbs form their comparatives in the same manner as adjec- tives. 116. Les degres de signification, the degrees of signifi- cation, are infinite in number. They are expressed by placing before adjectives such adverbs as will modify their signification, according to the greater or less quality of the objects represented by the nouns or pronouns to which they relate ; and whatever be the place of these adverbs in English, they are always before the adjective in French. A strong man, . . Tin homme fort. A tolerably strong man, . Tin homme mediocrement fort. A man strong enough, . Tin homme assez fort. A very strong man, . . Tin homme tres-fort. An extremely strong man, . Un homme extremement fort. An extraordinary strong man, Un homme extraordinaircmcnt fort. A prodigiously strong man, Un homme prodigieusement fort. SUBSTANTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. 115 These examples show the different degrees of signification of the adjective fort ; among which that of very strong, tresfort, is certainly far from being the highest, and on that account should not be called by grammarians the superlative degree, since it is inferior to many others. 117. It should be particularly noticed and remembered, that, in the third example, the adverb enough is placed after the adjective in English, but that its corresponding adverb assez, in French, is, as it should always be, placed like all the other ad- verbs, before the adjective. IIS. Le superlatif the superlative degree of signification, is a true comparative, by which the quality of one or several objects of the same kind is compared with that of all the objects of the same kind, or With that of all those of the same time and place, or even with that of a single one. It is expressed, in English, by placing either of the definite or possessive articles, without any w^ord, before the comparative of the adjective, when the comparison is definite, that is, when it is restricted to a cer- tain number of objects or individuals, and with the word most before the adjective, or without most before the adjective wdiose termination has been changed into est, when the comparison is general. But, in French, it is always expressed by simply placing either of the definite or possessive articles before the comparative of the adjective ; and, whatever be the preposition used in English before the next noun of the comparison, the corresponding preposition in French is always de or d\ My book is the larger of the Mon livre est le plus gros des two, deux. Your father is the most affable Voire pere est le plus affable among men, des hommes. Mr. L. is the best doctor in the M. L. est le meilleur docteur city, de la ville. The most successful war is the La guerre la plus heureuse est greatest curse of nations ; le plus grand fleau des peu- and an unjust war is the pies; etune guerre injaste est greatest crime of kings, le plus grand crime des rois. Erp'anation. In the first example, le is used before the comparative plus gros, to express that the quality of my book is in the superlative degree compared with the other. In the 116 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. second, le is used before the comparative plus affable, to express that the quality of your father, votre pere, is in the superlative degree compared with that of all men j among is rendered by de, because, whatever be the preposition that follows the superlative ad- jective in English, it is always de in French j and homines is used with th^ definite article les included in des, since des is for de les, because it represents a whole class of beings, according to the rule of paragraph 35. Jn the third, le is used before the comparative ad- jective meilleur, for the same reason as in the preceding example ; and in is rendered by de, for the reason given for the translation of among by de, also in the preceding example. In the fourth, the definite article la is used before guerre, because it is the nominative of est, see rule No. 93 j la is used before the comparative adjective plus heureuse, for the same reason as in the preceding examples, so is le before plus grand; peuples is preceded by the definite article les included in des, according to rule 35, so it is with rois, which is preceded also by the definite article. 119. When a noun follows after the verb to be, expressing a trade or profession, preceded by the indefinite article a or an, that definite article is not expressed, in French, unless the noun be qualified by an adjective ; as in That man is a lawyer, Cet homme est avocat. That woman is a milliner, Cette femme est modiste. That man is an excellent law- Cet homme est un excellent yer, avocat. That woman is an excellent Cette femme est une modiste milliner, excellente. Ecplanation. In the two first examples, the indefinite article a is not rendered in French, because the noun expressing trade or profession is not qualified by an adjective. In the two last examples, the indefinite article an is expressed in French, because the nouns of trade or profession are qualified by an adjective. EXERCISE 52. See rule 97. 97 62 51 97 62^ 68 41 Now 1 am glad of your success. To-day thou art too idle for a girl 48 97 62 49 97 of thy age. At present he is fortunate in his business. She is always 82 62 ft 68 40 62 97 97 very generous towards the unfortunate. When one is sick, one is 62 97 62 40 always excusable. We are too often inquisitive concerning the affairs 50 97 62 51 of our neighbours. You are generally dexterous in your exercises. 55 97 62 52 76 50 Those gentlemen are constantly busy with their best clerks. Our 97 62 52 87 97 ladies are sometimes bold in their enterprises, especially when they are 37 40 36 for the good of the poor and of christians. EXERCISE 53. See rule 98. 98 111 62 111 51 Yesterday I was as unhappy as ever on your account. The day be- 50 98 111 62 111 48 fore yesterday, after our walk, thou wast as tired as thy sister. When SUBSTANTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. 117 98 113 113 19 103 3fi he was poorer than now, had he more than two servants ? Before dinner 98 114 62 S 65 49 54 40 114 98 she was less obedient to her father's orders than now. We were always 111 62 111 37 50 98 as ready as possible for the payment of our debts, when we were mer- 98 114 62 114 51 51 chants. You were sometimes less weak than your wife, m your conduct 51 98 113 62 towards }^our children. Mr. and Mrs. Abel were often more imprudent 52 113 52 in their actions than in their words. EXERCISE 54. See rule 99. 93 78 99 82 47 118 Last week I was very severe against my idlest scholars. The day 93 113 62 48 113 48 before yesterday thou wast more eloquent in thy defence than thy ad- 38 78 93 99 114 62 49 114 versary. The last week he was less rash in his determination than 49 55 99 113 62 113 100 his brother. After that accident she was more quiet than beiore. On 78 99 82 62 39 50 last Sunday we were very punctual in the discharge of our duties. 38 99 62 47 100 78 After the class you were too deaf to my observations. On last Monday 55 99 113 62 113 100 87 99 those sailors were more sick than on Saturday, because they were 62 40 50 99 62 39 intemperate. The ladies of our house were overjoyed by the arrival 39 62 52 62 of tne amiable Mrs. Henry, their intimate friend. EXERCISE 55. See rule 101. 101 113 62 47 113 To-morrow I shall be more diligent in my studies than to-day. The 101 62 37 93 78 next day after to-morrow thou wilt be ready for the journey. Next time 101 111 62 111 Miss Lucy will be as polite towards Mr. Paul as towards Mr. Peter. 101 113 62 49 62 113 Soon he will be more ashamed of his bad conduct than now. Hence- 101 113 62 33 50 93 78 forth we will be more active in the pursuit of our affairs. Next week 101 62 51 62 42 87 101 you will be too proud of your good work. After some days they will be 113 113 52 32 stronger than their rivals. In five years Messrs. N ado and company 89 101 40 118 62 118 33 55 will be the richest merchants in the city. Before fifty years that nation 89 101 38 118 62 will be the most powerful. EXERCISE 56. See rules 102 and 98. 102 H4 62 102 113 102 62 If I was less sick, I would be more sociable. If we were more fortunate, 102 62 102 in 62 111 49 thou wouldst be more independent. If she was as learned as her sister, 102 118 35 102 94 she would be the loveliest of women. If he had more indulgence, he 118 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 102 113 62 113 49 118 would be not only more popular than his predecessor, but even the most 62 35 94 102 popular of presidents. If we had more generosity, we should be more 62 87 62 87 102 114 62 114 discreet. If they were less disinterested, they would be less rich than 52. 55 89&102 94 102 25 87 their uncle. If those ladies had more knowledge, w T ould they not be less 62 103 103 102 ridiculous? If Mr. Jules had as much money as Mr. Bertram, would 25 113 62 113 88 he not be more happy than he ? EXERCISE 57. See rule 104. 56 104 111 62 111 51 37 This week I have been as fortunate as your partner. Since the com- 55 104 113 62 113 mencement of this month thou hast been more industrious than Mr. 104 112 62 112 47 56 Leon. George was not so good as my son William. This century we 104 111 35 111 62&77 40 62 37 have been as useful to mankind as all the other nations of the continent. .37 55 104 111 62 111 55 During the course of this week you have been as lavish as ever. Ihis 40 39 104 111 62 111 . 38 winter the inhabitants of the island have been as busy as during the 62&79 104 38 38 preceding season. Napoleon has been the victim of the treason of 43 49 32 38 118 62 62 40 several of his generals and of the most vile and cruel revenge of the 35 62 & 79 enemies of constitutional principles. EXERCISE 58. See rule 105. 39 105 37 55 Before the election of Mr. Lyon, I had been the captain of that compa- 105 37 55 98 ny. Thou hadst been the professor of that class whilst I was president 55 37 49 55 of that institution. Before the time of his admission into that society 105 113 62 113 49 39 62 * 79 he had been more successful than his master. During the preceding 105 62 105 82 62 109 year we had been too prodigal. You had been very unfortunate before 110 51 62 40 55 you had your immense fortune. The workmen of that manufactory 105 82 62 52 38 109 87 had been very assiduous at their work during the morning before they 110 52 27 23 105 55 had their pay. Hadst thou never been in that establishment before yesterday ? EXERCISE 59. See rule 106. 106 62 99 37 118 62 After I had been complaisant towards John he was the most tractable 35 106 62 98 114 62 114 of boys. When thou hadst been sick, thou wast less strong than before. 106 62 99 37 As soon as he had been unfaithful, he was without occupation and in the SUBSTANTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. 119 118 106 62 99 41 62 greatest want. After we had been liberal, we had a great number of 106 62 51 . 51 friends. As soon as you had been negligent in your affairs your em- 99 62 62 87 106 . 38 ployers were suspicious and uneasy. When they had been in the favour 37 87 99 94 106 of the governor they had more credit. After thou hadst been in pres- 39 99 62 99 ence of the assembly thou wast less timorous and thou wast much more 62 eloquent. EXERCISE 60. See rule 107. 39 50 107 Before the arrival of our ship I shall have been without goods. When 107 101 92 thou shalt have been subaltern thou shalt perhaps be master. Before 47 . 107 92 49 1 next Sunday my sister will have been often with her cousin Zoe, one 40 118 a 62 118 38 107 62 of the prettiest girls in the city. When we shall have been more service- so 101 & 89 €2 52 able our neighbours will be more sociable. Before their appearance 37 107 37 118 62 118 87 in the world you will have been the most illustrious among men. They 89 50 87 101 92 50 19 25 55 are our creditors but they will soon be our debtors. Will not those 107 51 37 37 things have been in your possession before the commencement of the spring of the next year. EXERCISE 61. See rules 105 and 108. 105 119 108 51 If you had been a teacher, I would have been your scholar. If thou 105 44 108 62 48 hadst had friends, thou wouldst have been more successful in thy enter- 105 49 108 62 prise. If he had been like his brother, he would have been present 40 49 105 62 at the explanations of bis professor. If she had been generous, you 108 41 62 105 50 would have been in a more pleasant situation. If we had had our fath- 54 108 62 er's consent, we should have been much more happy. If Mr. and Mrs. 105 62 87 108 62 Henry had been less rich, they would have been more charitable ; but 87 104 62 55 105 they have been too proud in this circumstance. Tf I had been president, 22 &27 108 47 wouldst thou not have been my secretary ? EXERCISE 62. See rules 109 and 110. 101 51 109 51 110 22 62 I shall be your boarder, provided that your price is not too high. Thou 101 94 109 110 62 shalt have more power, provided that thou wilt be honest and without . 92 101 41 109 101 22 ambition. He will soon have a school, though he is not yet professor* 123 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 109 110 62 97 62 109 110 62 Before we are learned, we are always ignorant. Jn case yoa are pre- 38 38 37 101 41 sent at the ceremony of the consecration or the temple, we shall have a 51 101 37 109 47 4T seat for your family. I shall be at the dinner, provided my brother and 110 55 101 62 109 110 47 sister are in this city. I shall be ready, provided thon art in my house 37 37 109 two hours before the time of the departure. God grant that thou 110 62 47 may est be present at my trial. EXERCISE 63. 104 39 62&75 109 110 62 55 I had the necessary information, that I might be just in that anair. 99 62 48 109 110 62 Joseph was attentive to thy observations, that thou mightest be contented. 104 37 62 49 109 110 82 62 50 George was the first in his class, although he was very indolent. Our 98 . 38 109 110 38 104 nephew was m the country, although we were in the city. xou had 55 109 110 62 37 that reward, on condition that you should be more studious. The teacher 98 43 55 109 87 110 had several presents for those children, to the end that they might be 62 104 41 109 110 62 37 quiet. John had a notice, that he might be ready at the commencement 38 98 62 98 22 of the week ; but as he was too indifferent, he was not with us. 109, . , no THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 120. he mode de Vimperatif, the imperative mood, is used to exhort, command, in treat, permit, forbid, &c. ; but as one cannot exhort, command, intreat, &c. himself or an absent per- son, it follows that there should be no first person singular ; the third person singular and plural are not admitted by late French grammarians. However, since the third person singular and plural are given and used in the English grammars, they are used and given in this, and for their translation see the models of verbs. EXERCISE 64. 62 22 62 55 76>V 62 , u Be always constant. Be not severe towards these little children. Let 55 62 40 50 him be far from this place. Let us he submissive to the orders of our 62 51 superiors. Let Miss Adelaide be constantly present at your lessons. 62 40 51 Be ye attentive to the exhortations of your minister. Lot Mr. Luke be 37 50 50 62 77 v ' 62 4l» the judge of our difficulties with our obstinate neighbours. Let all the 39 37 100 37 39 62 & 79 troops of the army be on the field of ! ctle on the day of the general ac- ACTIVE VERBS. 121 22 112 62 112 50 40 . 55 tion. Let us not be so rash as our adversaries. Let the affairs of this 41 115 & 62 113 . 62. country be in a better condition than at present. Be less impatient. Let 62 Mr. and Mrs. Brune be in good health. ACTIVE VERBS. As the following exercises will contain, besides to have, avoir, and to be, etre, only active verbs, it is necessary to ex- plain in what manner they are used together with other parts of speech. 121. Le verb actif, the active verb, as is said in the defi- nitions, is that which expresses an action done or exercised by the nominative or person which is the cause of that action pass- ing over to an object or thing, upon which that action is done or exercised, without the means of a preposition. That object is called a direct object. In French, if that direct object is not a proper name, it is generally preceded by the definite article, if not by any of the others, though in English the article may be omitted. Besides the direct objects, active verbs may have one or sever- al indirect objects, over which their action passes with the assis- tance of a preposition. I give something to my friend, Je donne quelque chose a mon ami. John will carry the bundle from Jean portera le paquet de Bos- Boston to Salem, ton a Salem. Explanation. In the first example, quelque chose is the direct object of donne, because it is the thing over which the action expressed by it passes without the assistance of any preposition ; and mon ami is its indirect object, because that action passes to it by means of the preposition d. In the second, paquet is the direct object of portera, because the action expressed by that verb passes to it without the means of a preposition ; and Bos- ton and Salem are its two indirect objects, because that action passes to them with the assistance of the prepositions de and d. 122. When a verb has several objects, in English, the direct is generally placed first ; but this is done, in French, only when 11 122 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. it is of the same length as the indirect object or even shorter, but if it was longer, the indirect object should be placed the first. The French vanquished the Les Frangais vainquirent les Spaniards at Vallaviciosa, Espagnols a Yillaviciosa. We must oppose a stoical coun- Nous devons opposer un main- tenance to the insults of the tien stoique aux insultes des wicked, me chants. Hypocrites cover the most Les hypocrites couvrent du shameful and revolting manteau de la vertu les vices crimes with the cloak of les plus honteux et les plus virtue, revoltants. Carry those pens and that pa- Portez a Mademoiselle Lucie per to Miss Lucy, ces plumes et ce papier. Explanation. In the first example, the direct object is before the indirect, because they are both pf the same length. In the second, the direct is before the indiiect also, because they are of the samo length. In the third, the direct is after the indirect, because it is longer. In the fourth, the indirect is before the direct, because it is shorter. USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 123. The nominative of a verb is not always a noun nor a pronoun ; sometimes it is a verb in the present infinitive, and when this is the case, in English, that infinitive is almost always preceded by the preposition to, which preposition is never ren- dered or expressed in French. To run away before the ene- Fuir devant Vennemi est Vacte my is the act of a coward, d'un lache. To think, compare and judge, Penser, comparer et juger sont are faculties of the mind, des facultes de T esprit. 124. The object of a verb is not always a noun nor a pro- noun ; sometimes it is one or several other verbs, which, in French, are always in the present infinitive preceded or not preceded by the preposition a or de, though in English it is generally in the present participle. When either of these prepo- sitions d or de, whether required by a verb, an adjective or a noun, is to be used, if there are several verbs together, governed by it, it must be repeated before every one of them, though in English, it is expressed but once before the first. The preposi- tion used before the present participle in English and in French, VERBS, WITH THE PREPOSITIONS THEY REQUIRE. 123 before the present infinitive, is generally governed by the first verb, or the verb that precedes ; and as corresponding verbs do not always require corresponding prepositions after them, that is, if the first English verb should require before the following verb or indirect object, the preposition to or from, the corres- ponding French verb, might not require the corresponding pre- position a or de ; and as this difference of idiom creates much dif- ficulty, to remove which no rule can be given, the following table will show what preposition should be used in French. The first column contains the French verbs, the second the preposition before another verb, the third the preposition before a noun, and the others the corresponding verbs and prepositions in English. Those verbs that have se or s' after them, are reflective verbs, or are to be conjugated reflectively. 125. LIST OF VERBS SHOWING THE PREPOSITION THEY GOVERN BEFORE OTHER VERBS, AND BEFORE THEIR INDI- RECT OBJECT. Note. Many of the following verbs are active, and of course require no preposition before their direct object ; therefore, if after such verbs the use of a preposition were in- dicated, it must be remembered that it is only before the indirect object. French verbs. Prep. bef. a verb. Prep. bef. a noun. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. a verb. a noun. Abaisser (s' ) a a To humble one's self to before Aboutir a a To tend to to Abstenir (s } ) de de To refrain from from Accoulumer a a To accustom to to Accoutumer (s 1 ) a a To accustom one's self to to Accuser de de To accuse of of Achever de To finish Adonner (s^ ) a a To devote one's self to to Affecter de de To affect to Affliger (s 1 ) de de To grieve at for, at Aider* a a fy de To help to with * Aider requires no preposition before its object when that object is a noun represent- ing an animated being, and the given assistance is lasting ; but, if that assistance is but momentary, or is given for some particular object, then aider requires d ; and the object with which the assistance is given must be preceded by the preposition de. To help a man in his wants, . . Aider uu homme dans ses besoins. Help that man to raise his bundle, . Aidez a cette homme a lever sonpaquct. You have helped for the success of that Vous avez aide an succes de cette affaire. affair, 124 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, French verbs. Prep. bcf. Prep, bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. a verb. a noun* a verb. a noun. Aimer a To like to Aimer mieux t t To prefer to A Her a ou de Togo to, from. Ambitionner de To desire to Amuser (s'J a a ou de To amuse one's self by with Appeler a To call to to, on Appliquer (s') a a To apply one's self to . to Apprehender de To apprehend with Apprendre a a oude\ To learn how to of, with Apprendre (s'} a To teach one's self to Appreter a a To prepare to for Appreter (s y ) a pour, a To prepare one's self to, for for Ar refer de To decree to Aspirer a a To aspire to to Assigner a a To summon to to Assujettir a a To subdue to to, by Assujettir (s 1 ) a a To submit to to Attacher (s y ) a a To attach one's self to to Attendre (s J J a a To expect to Autoriser a To empower to with Avertir de de To warn, to inform to of Avilir (&■') a a To debase one's self by at, in Aviser (s 7 J de To bethink one's self of of, for Avoir ■ 4 de To have to from Balancer d dans To hesitate to in JBldmer de de To blame for for Borner (se) a a To confine one's self to to Bruler de de To burn to with Censurer de To censure for Cesser de To cease from Charger de To burden, to load With Charger (se) de de To take upon one's self to Chercher a To seek, to endea- vour to Choisir de To choose to Commander de ' a To command to Commencer% de, a Sfpar To commence to, by Complaire (se) a en To delight in in Compter To expect to Compter sur To rely, to depend upon Conclure de de To conclude to from Concourir a a, pour To contribute to to, for f Aimer mieux requires no preposition before its first direct object ; but it requires the conjunction que before its second object if it is a noun, and que de if it is a verb. I should prefer to die than to do a bad J'aimerais mieux mourir que de /aire une action, mauvaise action. I prefer study to play, . . . J'aime mieux Pctudc. que lejeu. J Apprendre requires d before the name of the person -who is taught, and de before that of the person by whom one is taugbt. $ After commencer, de is used to express that the action will last ; as, The lawyer commenced to speak, . ISavocat commenca de parler. And d to express that thai action would or will improve ; as, That child commences to speak, . Qet enfant commence a parler . VERBS, WITH THE PREPOSITIONS THEY REQUIRE. 125 French verbs. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. a verb. a noun. a verb. a noun. Condamner ■ a a, pour To condemn to to, for Condescendre a a To condescend to to Conjurer de To entreat to Conseiller de <\ To advise to to Consentir a a To consent to to Consister a en ou dam i To consist in in, of Consoler de de T'o console for for Conspirer a contre To conspire to against Conti?iuer dp fy a i To continue to Contraindre de ou a a i To force, to compel to to Contribuer a a | To contribute to for, to Convaincre de de To convince of of Convenir de de To agree to on Convenir a To suit Courier a a To invite to to Corriger de de To reform, correct from from Couter A a To cost to Craindre de To fear to Croire a ou cn\ To believe, to have faith in Daigner To deig-n to Decider (se) a a To take one's reso- lution to about Decider de To determine to Declarer a To declare to to Decourager de de To discourage from from Dedaigner de To scorn to Defendre de a To prohibit, forbid to Defter de To defy to De'gouter de de To disg-ust to with Deliberer de sur To deliberate Demander de a To demand to of Demander a a To ask to of Depecher (se) de To make haste to Desaccoulumer de To break off from Desapprendre a To unlearn to Desesperer de de To despair of of Deshabituer de de To break off from Desirer* de a To desire, to wish to Desirer* a To desire, to wish to to Desoler de de To grieve to excess at for Destiner a a To design for for Determiner de a To resolve to upon Determiner (se) a * a To resolve to upon f After croire, to believe or to have faith in, the preposition en is always used before the words Dieu, God, and Jesus- Christ, Jesus-Christ ; d is generally used before every other noun. * When desirer expresses a wish, the accomplishment of which is uncertain, it requires de before the following verb ; as, 1 wish to succeed, ... Je desire de rcussir. But if desirer expresses a wish, the accomplishment of which is easy, it requires no preposition before the following verb ; as, I wish to see him, ... Je desire le voir, 11* 126 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. French verbs. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep, bef! a verb. a noun. a. verb. a noun. Detester 1 de To hate to Detourner de de To deter from from Devoir* a To owe to to Devouer (se) a a To devote one's self to Differer de To defer, to put off Dire de a To bid to to Discontinuer de To cease to Disconvenir de de To deny Dispenser de de To excuse dispense with from with Disposer a a To dispose to to Dissuader de de To dissuade from from Divertir (se) a de To recreate one's by with Dojiner a a To give [self to to Dresser a a To train up for in, for Ecrire de a tip de To write to to, con- Efforcer (s'J de To earnestly endea- vour to cerning to Effrayer (s'J de de To be frightened at at Egosiller (s'J a To make one's throat b y Empecher de sore To hinder from Employer a a To employ in, by in Employer (s'J a a To apply one's self to to Empresser (s'J de To hasten to Encourager a a To encourage to to Engager a To induce to Engager (s'J a a To take upon one's self to to Enkardir a To embolden to Enjoindre de a To enjoin to to Ennuyer (s'J de de To grow weary of of Enorgueillir (s') de de To be proud of of Enseigner a a To teach to Entendre To intend to Entendre (s'J a a To have skill in in Entendre (s'J en To understand Entreprendre de To undertake to Envoyer a To send to Esperer de To hope from Esp£rer% de To hope to Essayer de To try to Essay er (s') a a To try one's ability in in Etonner (s'J de de To wonder at at * Devoir is often used, before an infinitive, without a preposition, but it is merely to translate to be when it is used before an infinitive j as, We are to receive money, . . Nous devons recevoir de Vargent. \ When esperer is used in the infinitive mood, it requires the preposition de before the next infinitive ; but, were it used in another tense, that preposition should not be em- ployed. May we hope to see you again ? . Peut-on espe'rer de vous revoir. We hope to see you this evening, Nous espcrojis vous voir ce soir. VERBS, WITH THE PREPOSITIONS THEY REQUIRE. 127 French verbs. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. a verb. a noun. jttre* a a To be Etudier (s'J a To endeavour Eviter de To avoid Exceller a dans,en, sur To excel Exciter a a To excite Excuse?' de de To excuse Exempter de de To exempt Exercer a a To train up Exhorter a a To exhort Exposer a a To expose Failtir a, dans To fail Faillir a To be very near Faitlir de To be even ready Falloir CL To be necessary, must Feindre de To pretend Feliciter de de To congratulate | Finir de 8? par To finish Flatter (se) ) a a To offer one's self to to Occuper (s') a a To employ one's self in in Orruper (s J ) de de To think of of Ow dire de dans To omit to in Ordonner de a To order, to pre- scribe to Oser To dare to Oublier de i To forget, to neg- lect to OuXr* To hear of Paraitre a To appear to at, to Pardonner de a To forgive for Parier de To bet Parler de a fy de To speak of to, of Parvenir a a To succeed in in Passer son a a, avec To pass one's time in in, with temps 1 * Ou'ir is hardly ever used, except in the present infinitive ; and in the past participle with the infinitive of such verbs as parlrr, to speak ; chanter, to sing ; jouer, to play j &c. : But more specially with dire, the verb entendre being used instead of ou'ir j thus, I have heard that ... . I have heard him speak, J*ai out dire que .... Jc l*ai entendu parler. VERBS, WITH THE PREPOSITIONS THEY REQUIRE. 129 French verbs. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. a verb. a noun. a verb. a noun. Penser 9 a a fy de 1 To think of of Penser To be near, to be like, to have nigh Permettre de a To allow to Persister a dans To persist in in Persuader^ de a fy de To persuade from Piquer (se) de de To pride one's self in on Plaindre de de To pity for Plaire (se) a a To delight in in Pouvoir To be able, can, must to Preferer de a To prefer to Prendre garde de a To take care not to of Prendre plaisir a a To take pleasure in in Preparer (se) a a To prepare one's self for for Prescrire de a To prescribe to, for Presser de To urge to Pretendre de a To aim at at Pretendre. To pretend to Prier\ de de To beg to of Professer de To profess to Projeter de To project Promettre de a To promise to to Proposer de a To propose to to Protester de a To swear to to Provoquer a a To excite to Rappeler (se) de To recollect to Rassasier de de To cloy with with Rebuter de de To despond at at Rechigner a a To look grim at at Recommander de a To recommend to to Reconnaitre a To acknowledge to Redo uter de To dread to Refuser de a To refuse to Regretter de To regret to * Penser d is used to translate to think of. But when to think of is used in an in- terrogative phrase, or with a relative pronoun implying opinion rather than thought, then penser takes de instead of d ; as, Think of me, .... Pcnsei a moi. What do you think of that affair ? Que pens ez-vous de cette affaire ? I shall tell you what I think of it to- Je vous dirai demain ce que fenpense. morrow, j When persuader is used with a direct and an indirect object, one being a pronoun or the name of a person, the other that of a thing ; the direct object may be either that of the person or that of the thing in French 3 thus, I have persuaded John of that truth, J' ai persuade Jean de cette verite ; or, J>ai persuade cette verite a Jean. X To beg requires for direct object the name of the begged thing, and the preposition of before the name of the person of whom it is begged ; but, in French, prier requires for direct object the name of the person, and the preposition de before that of the begged thing ; thu>, To beg a favour of one. Frier quelqu'un d'une gracs. 130 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. French verbs. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep. bef. Prep, b-ef! a verb. a noun. a verb. a noun. Rejouir (se) de de To rejoice at at Remercier de de To thank for Renoncer a a To renounce Reprimander de (f.) riTE, Preterit videjini. Je nesdis q i&nd J'di ete dime or dimee. 1, T:i ds ete dime or dimee II d etc dime. El'e d ete dime". On d ete dimi or dimes JYous aiwns etc dimes or dimees. Vous drei ete dimes or dimees. Ps out ete dimes. Eiles out eti aimees. 160 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Simple Tenses, Temps Simples. imperfect, Imparfait. Usually Ordinairement I was loved, J'etais aime or aimee. Thou wast loved, Tu etais aime or aimee. He was loved, She was loved, One was loved, We were loved, You were loved, They were loved, (mas.) They were loved, (fern.) preterite definite, Preterit defini. Last year Vannee derniere 1 was loved, Jefus aime or aimee. Thou wast loved, Tufas aime or aimee. II etait aime. Elle etait aimee. On etait aime or aimee. Nous ctions aimes or aimees. Vous etiez aimes or aimees. Us etaient aimees. Elles etaient aimes. He was loved, She was loved, One was loved, We were loved, You were loved, They were' loved, They were loved, II fat aime. Elle fat aimee. On fat aime or aimee. Nous fumes aimes or aimees. Vous Jutes aimes or aimees. Ilsfurent aimes. (m.) Elles furent aimees. (f. ) future, Futur. Soon Bientot I shall be loved, Je serai aime or aimee. Thou wilt be loved, Tu seras aime or aimee. He will be loved, R sera aime. She will be loved, Elle sera aimee. One will be loved, On sera aime or aimee. We will be loved, Nous serous aimes or aimees. You will be loved, Vous serez aimes or aimees. They will be loved. Us seront aimes. (masc.) They will be loved, Elles seront aimees. (fern.) conditional, Conditionnel. Present, Present. ff I could Sijepouvais I would be loved, Je serais aime or aimee. Thou wouldst be Tu serais aime or aimee. loved, He would be loved, It ser ait aime. She would be loved, Elle serait aimee. Compound Tenses, Temps Composes, pluperfect, Plus-q e-parfait. Before that time Jivant ce temps-Id I had been loved, «/' avals ete aime or aimee. Thou hadst been Tu avais ete aime or loved, aimee. He had been loved, U avait ete aime. She had been loved, Elle avait ete aimee. One had been loved, On avait ete aime or aimee. We had been loved Notts aviont ete aimes or aimees. Vous aviez ete aimes or aimees. lis avaient ete aimes. Elles avaient ete aimees. You had been lov- ed, They had been loved, (m.) They had been loved, (f.) preterite anterior, Preterit anterieur. When Lorsque I had been loved, J'eus ete aime or aimee. Thou hadst been Tu eus ete aime or aimee* loved, He had been loved, U eut ete aime. She had been loved, Elle eut ete aimee. On" had been loved, On eut ete aime or aimee, We had been loved, Nous eiimes ete aimes or aimees. You had been lov- Vous eutes etc aimes or ed, aimees. They had been lov- lis eurent ete aimes. ed; (m.) They had been lov- Elles eurent ete aimees. ed, (f.) Futur anterieur. Jivant vous J-aurai etc aime or aimee. Tu auras ete aime or aimee. II aura etc aime. Elle aura ete aimee. On aura ete aime or aimee. Nous avrons etc aimes or aimees. Vousaurez ete aimes or aimees. lis auront etc aimes. Elles auront ete aimees. FUTURE ANTERIOR. Before you I shall have been loved, Thou wilt have been loved. He will have been loved, She will have been loved, One will have been loved, We will have been loved, You will have been loved, They will have been loved, (m.) They will have been loved, (f.) conditional, Conditionnel. Past Passe If I had foreseen St /' avais prevu I would have been Jhii To go to. Deckoir, To decay. *AppctraUre d, To appear to. *Deineurer a, To live in. Arrlver d 8,'de, To arrive at & from. *Dcsccndre &, To come down from Avsnir de, To happen from. Decenir, To become. Choir d, To fall to. Disconvcnir dr, To disown. NEUTER VERBS. 165 *E°ehapper rb t is never used in the plural number. This difference of idiom, in French and in English, should be particularly noticed, because students are ant to translate there are by it or Us y sont> and thEke were by Us or il y etuient, whicii is verv incorrect. EXERCISE 114. 176 * 101 There will be an examination of the scholars of the class to-morrow 167 * 108 morning. There would have been several arrests in the city, had 149 * 105 not the commander of the troops been a man very much devoted to his 167 * 104 44 62 165 country. There were persons very much dissatisfied with the speech 167 of the orator of last Thursday. There are now in a large city of Francfi 103 more than twenty-one thousand workmen without work, and without the 98 120 means of living. If there were men of that character, they would be the 35 79 79 109 objects of the contempt of religious and virtuous persons. I wish that 167 '< 150 35 44 124 there may be for young men opportunities of showing their talents. 168 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 168. It has been said, pages 95, 96, that the pronouns me, thee, him, her, one's self, us, you, them, are used in English as objects to prepositions or verbs ; but that in French their cor- responding substantive pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, soi, nous, vous, eux, elles, are used only as objects to prepositions and never as objects to any verb, but that there is a third class of personal pronouns, called in the Practical Translator conjunctive pro- nouns, and here passive verbal pronouns, being never used except as objects to a verb. These passive verbal pronouns are for me, or to me, .... me or m\ thee, to thee, or at thee, te or t\ him, it, or so, . le or l\ her or it, . . . . la or l\ to or at him, .... lui. to or at her, .... lux. one's self, to one's self, or at one's self, se or s\ us, to us, or at us, . . nous. you, to you, or at you, vous. them, . . . les. to or at them, . . . leur. of or from him, of or from her, of or from me, or from thee, &c, en. to or at it, there, thither, &c, . V- They are used according to the following rule : 169. Rule. When the object of a verb is a personal pro- noun in English, the passive verbal pronouns must be used in French instead of the substantive pronouns ; and if the verb is not in the 2d person singular or the 1st or 2d person plural of the imperative without negation, they must be placed before it without preposition, although the verb might require a or de before its object; and if there are several verbs together that have the same pronoun for their object, that pronoun must be repeated with every one of them, though it is expressed but once in English. PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 169 TRANSLATE BY INSTEAD OF 1st. He knows me, 11 me connait, iZ connait moi. 3d. She said to me, Elle me dit, JEZZe dit a moi. 3d. You placed us, Vous nous plagcLtes, Vous plagates nous. 4th. They speak to us, Us nous parlent, Us parlent a nous. 5th. I see thee, Je te vois, Je «ois toi. 6th. We give to thee, Nous te donnons, JVous donnons a toi. 7th. I pray you, Je vous prie, Jeprie vous. 8th. I promise to you, Je vous promets, Je promets a vous. 9th. Thou prayest him, Tu le pries, Tu pries lui. 10th. I will serve her, Je la servirai, Je servirai elle. 11th. You would sell it, Vous le or la vendriez, Fbws vendriez lui or elle. 12th. I think so, Je le pense, Je pense cette chose or ainsi. I3th. We lend to him, Nous lui pretons, JVons pretons a lui. I4th. We lend to her, Nous WxprHons, JVons prdtons a elle. 15th. Thou lost them, Tu les perdis, Tu perdis eux or elles. 16th. I offer to them, Je leur ojfre, J'offre a eux or a elles. 17th. He 1 r himself !Z ) 11 pare lui-meme. 18th. She > decks ) herself, £ZZe > se pare, £ZZ« pare elle-meme. 19th. One) ( one' s self , On ) On pare soi-meme. 20th. To give one's self, Se donner, Donner soi. 21st. To give to one's self, So donner, Donner a soi. 22d. People speak of him, On en parle, On parZe de lui, d'elle, de of her, of you, of vous, de moi. me, &c. 23d. He added to it, II y ajouta, 72 ajouta a cette chose. 24th. We sent there, or Nous y envoycimes, JVm^s envoy ames la. t^itAer. Explanation. In all the preceding examples, the passive verbal pronouns are placed before the verb, because it is not in the second person singular or the first or second per- son plural of the imperative ; in the 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, 13th, 14th, 16th, 21st, 22d, 23d, and 24th, there is no preposition before the passive verbal pronoun, although the verb requires one before its indirect object, because these pronouns never suffer any before them. In the 13th and 14th, the passive verbal pronoun lui is used for the masculine and feminine gender, instead of d lui and d elle. In the 20th, en is used instead of any substantive pronoun that is the object of the preposition de required by the verb parler. In the 23d and 24th, y is used to translate to it and the adverb there. 170. From the preceding examples it is evident that en is employed instead of any substantive pronoun which is the ob- ject of the preposition de according to the following rule. Rule. When any pronoun is used as the object of a verb that requires the preposition de, in French, before its object, if that pronoun relates to persons or things already spoken of, the passive verbal pronoun en should be employed instead of any other pronoun ; it should be without a preposition and placed as explained in the preceding rule. So if, after having named a person or thing or several persons or things, we had to 15 170 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. translate, Mr. Paul speaks of me, of thee, of him, of her, of it, of us, of you, of them, and even of this, of that, thence in the sense of of there, &c, en would answer for either of those pronouns and prepositions, thus M. Paul en parte. 171. But had no person or thing been expressed before, we ought to use the French Substantive Pronouns with the prepo- sition de, thus, M. Paul parte de moi, de toi, de lui, d'elle, de nous, de vous, d'eux, d'elles, &c. 172. E?i is used also with a verb to express sobie, any, some of it, some of them, &c. relating to a part of any thing or any number of things spoken of before, or implied ; as in I have apples ; do you want Tax des pommes ; en voulez- some or any ? vous ? There is a pie ; do you want a Voild un pat6 ; en voulez-vous piece of it ? un morceau ? 173. En is employed to translate by it, by them or for him, for it, for them, used in the sense of on account of that, of him, of those things, &c. You lend that money to those Vous pretez cet argent a ces merchants, but you will nev- marchands ; mats vous n'en er be paid by them, serez jamais payL He has committed a great II a commis un grand crime. crime, and he will be pun- et il en sera puni. ished for it, Miss D. has done several good Mademoiselle D. a fait plu- actions, and she will be re- sieurs bonnes actions, et elte warded for them, en sera recompensee. 174. Very often of it, of them, it, them, to it, to them, there, &c, are not expressed in English conversation and wri- ting, but they are generally implied, and should always be ex- pressed in French by an appropriate passive verbal pronoun ; as in Have you any books ? — Yes, I Avez-vous des livres ? — Oui, have several (of them,) fen ai plusieurs. Have you received any letters Avez-vous regit des tettres de from your brother ? — Yes, I votre frere ? — Oui, fen re- received one yesterday, pus une hier. PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 171 There is a very good cake; do Voild unbon gateau ; envoulez- you want apiece, or some of it ? vous un morceau ? Note. When a number in the references is preceded by the letters ex, it is to refer to the example, which is marked by that number. EXERCISE 115. 134 ex.io 82 How do you like Miss A. ? — I find her very agreeable and beautiful. 99 169 ex.14 99 ex. 18 Yesterday I spoke to her for the first time, and she showed herself very 82 19 ex-i agreeable and witty. "When will you carry me to the theatre ? I have ex.24 157 not been there since the commencement of the winter. — When they 101 130 shall play Romeo and Juliet. You will oblige my friend by presenting ex 9 60 101 him to the members of your society, and I have no doubt that he will in- ex.15 terest them by his great talents : my opinion is entirely in his favour, ex.11 and he deserves it. EXERCISE 116. 130 ex 6 My dear friend, in announcing to thee the marriage of Miss D., I con- ex 5 ex.10 84 gratulate thee j because I consider her unworthy of a man like thee. Yes- 99 ex.2 99 ex.15 terday Mr. C. spoke to me of his plans, and I found them very well 113 78 35 99 ex.4 82 conceived. Last week Mr.L. proposed to us a very delicate and difficult 144*22 ex.11 87 98 131 question ; but we did nut discuss it, because it was too complicated. 99 ex.3 36 When our good friend presented us to his old father and mother, he ex 17 99 showed himself very polite towards us, and then I conceived the hope 124 ex 13 of returning the same kindness to him. EXERCTSE 117. ex.10 35 Have you heard Mrs. W ? — Not yet ; but I shall hear her next week ; 170 ex 22 all my acquaintances speak of her very favourably Will Mr. B. be ex.12 35 present at the opening of the senate? — I hope so ; for last week he as- ex.i 102 ex.24 ex.n sured me that he would be there. That book is very interesting. I like it 21 & 102 ex.11 98 ex.11 fx.11 much ; would you sell it if I wished to buy it ? — Yes ; I would sell it -n 17 ° ex ' 2 for four dollars. — But you ask too much for it. — No, it cost me three ex.23 dollars and seventy-five cents ; add to it some extra expenses, and you . 101 87 170 will find that it is not dear, that the price of it is very reasonable. EXERCISE 118. 124 ex.21 The wish of arrogating to one's self the privileges of a superior 92 always shows an ambitious propensity. You like Rousseau, for you 172 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 133 92 133 170 ex- 22 98 102 172 are constantly speaking of him. If I had fruit I would give some to 22 172 99 ex.2 my niece, but I have not any. Yesterday Mr. G. gave me my papers, 170 104 ex. g I am very glad of it. If we have caused you the least trouble, we are 170 ex. 2 sincerely sorry for it. You announce to me the destruction of that es- 170 101 131 tablishment, but are you sure of it ? Our friends will be presented to 87 170 the president and I think that they will be well received by him. EXERCISE 119. 62 172 I have several good pens, if you have not any, I will give two or three 174 ex. 131 171 (of them) to your daughter for you. Mr. G. expects too much from me, he does not consider that my health is very feeble. I hope that I shall 92 171 soon have a handsome present from thee because I should think that 131 84 84 thou art offended with me, or that thy affection for me has much dimin- 171 171 ished. Mrs. F. speaks frequently of me, of thee, and of thy brother , 84 62 ex.io 92 her friendship for us all is very great ; when we meet her she always ex. 3 ex.3 m m ex.io treats us very well ; she loves us as much as we esteem her. 175. When a personal pronoun of the third person, relating to a noun that should be called neuter in English, is the object of a verb that requires the preposition a before its indirect object, in French the passive verbal pronoun y placed before the verb, and without any preposition, must be used instead of any other. The dowry of Miss N. will be La dot de mademoiselle N. sera forty thousand dollars, and de quarante mille dollars, et perhaps her uncle will add son oncle y ajoutera peut- to it his beautiful house, etre sa belle maison. The pronoun y is used also in the same manner to translate HERE, THERE, THITHER, WITHIN; as in We went there, Nous y allames. If you live in that house, our Si vous restez dans cette maison boy will carry your bundle notre garpon vous y ap- t hit her for you, porter a votre paquet. EXERCISE 120. 109 110 35 Although the laws of that country are severe, foreigners as well as 175 107 its citizens are subject to them. When you shall have given that paint- ex.o 175 ing to me I shall work on it very diligently. If the body oi^ that house PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 173 149 92 175 44 were complete, I would immediately add to it a green house. I have busi- 104 124 ex.g ness with Mr. G. Several times I had the hope of finding him in his 98 ex. 24 54 room, but he was not there. As the anniversary of Washington's birth 131 ex. 24 will be celebrated in Boston, I will carry my sister thither, and I have 60 ex. 14 no doubt that she will enjoy herself there with her friends. 176. When, in an answer to a question, the word so, which is in French aussi, is used for that, as the object of such verbs as to think, penser; to believe, croire; to suppose, supposer ; to fancy, imaginer or s'imaginer ; fyc, it is rendered in French, by le as in the given example : I think so, .... Jelepense. 177. When, in an answer to a question after such verbs as given in the preceding paragraph, follow any of the auxiliary verbs to do, wixl, shall, can, may, &c, without the verb of the question, which is implied, that auxiliary is generally rendered by le in French, with that verb, or by the translation of that auxiliary with le ; as Does Miss Julia learn music? Mademoiselle Julie, apprend — I do not think she does, -elle la musique ? — Je ne le pense pas. Will Mr. G. write that letter for M. G. ecrira-t-il cette lettre me ? — I suppose he will, pour moi ? — Je le suppose. Will Mr. J. pay that money M. J. paiera-t-il cet argent before Sunday ? — I think he avant dimanche ? — Je le may, pense. Explanation. In the first example, le is used to translate she does, because the verb to think precedes it, and the word learn is implied, for she does, is, for she does learn. Tn the second, he will is translated by le, because it is for he will write, and is preceded by the verb to suppose. In the third, he may is rendered by le, because it is for he may pay, and is preceded by I think, of which it is the object. 178. It very often happens that a verb has several objects that are represented by substantive pronouns in English. As it has already been said, those pronouns should be translated into French, by the passive verbal pronouns, and whatever may be the order in which they are placed in English, in the French sentence they should be placed as in the following table, the 15* 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th Le Lui y en La Leur Les 174 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. arrangement of which is such that two pronouns of the same column can never be the objects of the same verb. 1st. Me Te Se Nous Vous Therefore, any of the first column must be placed before any of the four others ; any of the second must be placed before any of the three others, and after any of the first ; either of the third must be placed before the two others, and after the first and second ; and, finally, y must be placed before en : as in When we are in the country, Quand nous serons a la cam- will you send those draw- pag?ie, nous y enverrez-vous ings there to us ? ces dessins ? Yes ; but perhaps I shall car- Oui ; mats peut-etre je vous ry them there to you myself. les y porterai moi-meme. You wish to know Mr. L. If Vous desirez connaitre M. L. I see you at the theatre to- Sije vous vols au theatre de- morrow evening, I shall main au soir je vous y en speak of him there to you. parlerai. Explanation. In the first example nous is before y because it belongs to the first col- umn, whilst y belongs to the fourth. In the second example vous is before les, because it belongs to the first column, whilst les belongs to the second ; and les is before y because it belongs to the second column, whilst y belongs to the fourth. In the third example vous is before y because it belongs to the first column, whilst y belongs to the fourth ; and y is before en because it belongs to the fourth column, whilst en belongs to the fifth. EXERCISE 121. ex.14 If Mrs. C. arrives before noon, announce to her the happy result of 92 ex.io 170 & 173 her recommendations, and thai I shall soon thank her for them. The 62 soldiers of that company are dissatisfied, because yesterday their captain 99 ex.15 _ 99 ex.15 ex-24^178 carried them in presence of the enemy and left them there without their 44 ex. 15 chief. I have melons in my garden, if you like them I will give two 170 ex.8 & 179 ex.24 62 of them to you there. Your decision is very important for my friends ; ex.15 170' 178 ex.il ex.16'178 109 87 I shall inform them of it, and I shall explain it to them, that they 150 170 109 87 150 may perceive the advantages of it, and that they may show their grati- 170 tude for it. 179. When the passive verbal pronouns arc used with compound PASSIVE VERBAL PEOtfOCKS. 175 tenses, students are apt to place them between the auxiliary and the past participle ; but this practice is very wrong, since their only proper place is before the auxiliary, from which they must never be separated by any word ; and in phrases with a negation, they are placed between the ne and the auxiliary verb, or indeed any other verb ; and when either of the pronouns me, nous, te, vous, se, le, la, les, is used with a compound tense, as a direct object, the past participle must agree in gender and number with that pronoun, or direct object, but never with an indirect object. Have you not given me your Nem'avez-vous pas donne voire consent ? — No, I have never consentement ? — Non, je ne given it to you, vous Vai jamais donne. They would have sent sooner llsnousauraient plus tot envoy e that bundle to us, if they had ce paquet s'ils ?z'en avaient not been prevented (from it), pas ete empSches. I never believed it, Je ne Vai jamais cru. Have you received your letters ? Avez-vous regu vos lettres ?— — Yes, I have received them, Oui, je les ai refues. Explanation. In all these examples the passive verbal pronouns are placed before tHo auxiliary verb, according to the last rule, though in the English phrases they are placed after the past participle ; and in the last, regues is in the feminine plural because les, which represents the feminine plural noun lettres, is before it and is its direct object. EXERCISE 122. 104 & 179 ex.5 104&27 ex.3 170 & 178 We have protected thee, but thou hast not thanked us for it. That ex.8&l79 man would not have asked you the price of those goods if he had not ex.15 K>:.g&l70 sold them to you. Mrs. P. wishes to hear the circumstances of our mis- 92 179 ex. 15 tx. 14 & 17 8 fortune, and I would have already related them to her if my husband ex.n 140 _ ex.7 had not found it useless. Yesterday I was expecting you in the public ex-7 179 garden. I wished to hear you speak of Mr. and Mrs. R. If I had met <■'■■• 7 170 «. 24 CX.2&178 you. would you not have spoken of them there to me ? I would notas- fx.n .x. 8^178 84 92 sure it to you because I have been with them very little ; and it would ex. 2 * have been impossible forme to answer your questions. * Students should never forget the remarks of the paragraphs 124, 161, relating to the preposition required by French and English verhs before their indirect objects. In this phrase, for instance, to be imcossirle requires for in English, and etre impossible re- quires d in French ; and, for that reason alone, the reference to example 2 is given. This note is also applicable to similar instances, in which the French and English verbs require different prepositions before their indirect object ; and in a few other cases, they are referred to Nos. 170, 172, 173, 174. 176 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 180. As the use of the passive verbal pronouns is difficult, it would be of great advantage to the student to impress his mind with all the combinations in which they are employed, all of which are included in the following table. Every combi- nation has with it marks to indicate the place it must occupy in the sentence ; for instance, in phrases that are not interrogative, nom. indicates the place of the nominative, and the word verb that of the verb ; and, if the phrase is negative, ne indi- cates the place of the ne of the French negation ; and pas that of the pas or of any other negative adverb or adjective. If the phrase is interrogative, the nominative pronoun should be placed after the verb, before pas, instead of the place indicated by nom,. If the verb is in the imperative with a negation, the same order should be followed, the pronouns of the first and second person being omitted; if it is not negative, see No. 118 and follow- ing. The dash of the English indicates the place of the verb, its nominative, and negation if there be any. TABLE OF THE DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF THE PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 1st Combination, ivith ME, me or to me. him, or it, to me. her, or it, to me. them to me. I!?.?!- ■■ me le If}. l J : 1 .! P.?. m : £ me la ^ pa .? "°.T: ** me les 7.?.. h p /. s some of it to me. — me there. — him,her,or it, to me there. m'en verb pas nom ' ,,e m?v verb pas nom * ne me Vv vevb pas -some of it, of them, or any, to me there. uom. n "":." ":. my en ::.T. b ES 2d Combination, with NOUS, us or to us. him, or it, to us. her, or it, to us. them to us. n .?. m ; \\ e . nous le 7.!r. b pa ? :.°.::- K nous la v . e, .' b ft n .°. m * n .? nous les r. e r. bpaj some of it,of them,or any, to us. — - — him,her,o?* it, there to us. ?:!™- ;.: nous en T .?r. b pa ? r.?."V n . e nous Vy v . erb PH8 them there to us. us there. n .°. m / n . e nous les y 22 p :l? "T: ! ,e nous y T r. bpa ? some of it, of them, or any, there to us. n .?. m .^ nom yen™* 1 !?. PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 177 3d Combination, with TE, thee or to thee. him, or it, to thee. her ,or it, to thee. them to thee. nom. ne v.,, 7^ verb pas nom. ne -t-p 7 ~ verb pas nrm. ne f„ 7„„ verb pas — some of it, of them,or any, to thee. — her ,him,or it,to thee there. nom. ne f^pyj v ^b pas norr. ne -t-p 7\. verb pas them there to thee. thee there. nom. nc ^g 7 ' „. verb pas nom. ne f>y verb pas some of it, of them, or any, there to thee. 22- 2 fy en !2* ?*! 4:tk Combination, with VOUS, you or to you. him, or it, to you. her, or it, to you. them to you. . n ^- 2 vous le 7*2 ?2 ™.™: ^ vous la ^2 ^ °?. m : 2 flows Zes jfi ?2 some of it,of them,or any,to you. — him,her,or it,there to you. 22" n . e tws cw 22 !2 22- 2 t?0M5 fy 52 ?2 them there to you. you there. °°. m ; D . e tjows Zes y 22*2 "?.?.• 2 flows y 22 ?2 some of it, of them, or any, there to you. 22" '..? vous y en 7.?.. b . ?2 5th Combination, with LTJI, to him or to her. him, or it, to him or to her. her, or it, to him or to her. ::°. n :- 2 Ze Zwi 22*2 22- 2 Za Zwz 525? them to him or to her. 22" n .: les lui 7.!!" b . ?2 some of it, of them, or any, there to him or to her. 22; 2 Zz/i e?z 7?:^ I'.'.! 6th Combination, with LEUR, to them. him, or it, to them. her,orit,tothem. them to them. 22" ne Ze Zewr 22 25 BS\3 Za fewr 22 ?2 22: 2 to Zewr 2252 some of it,of them,orany,to them. him,orit, there to them. 22*2 leur en 22*2 22; ?. e le leur y 22 ?J! her, or it, there to them. them there to them. 22" n . c Za Zewr y 22 K .I?.™- n . e Zes Zewrs ?/ 22 C some of it,of them. or any, there to them. to them there. ".??: n . e leur y en 2? ES 22" 2 Ze?/r y 2*Jra 178 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 7tk Combination, with SE, one's self or to one's self, HIMSELF, HERSELF, TO HIMSELF, TO HERSELF. — him,or it,for himself. — her , or it,for himself. — them for himself. noma ne „g 7g verb pas nom. ne «g 7~ verb p^s nom. ne „g ]„„ verb pas some of it, of them, or any, for himself. nom. ne Joy* verb P as him,her, or it there for himself. them there for himself. ■?.T." ™ se Vy p* »™. *?"• *: se les y y .f* ?. a ? — there for himself. — some of it,of them,or any there for himself. nom. ne g ly verb pas nom. ne giy ^ verb pus Note. The plural themselves is also translated by se. Had a scholar to translate you will carry them there to us, he should look for the combination them there to us, which is in the second combination, and he would find nous les y for its translation. The nominative you, in French vous, should be placed first, thus, vous nous les y ; the verb will car- ry, which is in French porterez, for the second person plural of the future, should be placed after the objective verbal pronouns, thus, vous nous les y porterez : Were the phrase negative, thus, you will not carry them there to us, the French should be vous ne nous les y porterez pas, placing ne between the nom- inative and the passive verbal pronouns, and pas after the verb : Were it interrogative thus, will you carry them there to us ? the French should be nous les y porterez -vous ? placing the nominative pronoun after the verb : Were it interrogative and negative together, thus, will you not carry them there to us ? the French should be ne nous les y porter ez-vous pas ? placing ne before the objective verbal pronouns, the nominative pronoun after the verb, and pas after the nominative pronoun, according to the foregoing explanation : Were the word never, or any other, used instead of not, the French should be the same, except pas, which should be replaced hj jamais, or any other word corresponding to that of the English. Were these pronouns used with a compound tense, according to No. 179, they should be combined only with the auxiliary. Remark. It maybe noticed in tbe preceding Table, that the pronouns 7 ?/7, ti him or to her, and leur, to them, are combined only with /e, la, les, y, fnd en, and never with the objective verba! pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous. PASSIVE VERBAL PRONOUNS. 179 181. The foregoing rules are not applicable to the second person singular, and the first and second person plural of the imperative when used without a negation, in which cases the pronouns must be placed after the verb, linked to it by a hyphen; and instead of me and te, moi and toi must be employed, except when moi or toi should be used before en, when moi becomes ?n' thus m'en, and toi becomes f thus fen, instead of moi en, toi en. 182. Also, when y should be used with moi and toi, it should be placed before, thus, y-moi, y-toi, instead of moi-y, toi-y. Therefore, TRANSLATE Send me of it there, Know me Speak to me, Love us, Write to us, Place thee or thyself, Let us give it, Give to him, Carry them, Send me there, Give me of it, BY Envoy ez-y-en-moi , Connais-moi, Parle-moi, Jlime-nous, Ecris-nous, Place-tol, Donnons-\e, Donne-lui, Portez~]es, Envoyez-y-moi) Donn£z-m , en ) INSTEAD OF Envoyez-m'y en or m'y en envoyei. Connais me or me connais. Parle me or me parle. Nous aime. Nous ecris. Place-te or te place. Le donnons. Lui dame. Les portez. Envoyez-m'y or m'y envoyez. Donnez-moi-en or m'en donnez. 183. But if the imperative is used with a negation, the pas- sive verbal pronouns are used, and placed according to the gen- eral rule at No. 169, and the tables given at No. 178 and ISO. 184. When the second person singular of the imperative ends with a vowel it takes an s before y and en ; thus, Speak of it to my friend, Paries-en a mon ami. Carry my instrument there. Portes-y mon instrument. EXERCISE 123. 104 ex 8 I have related to you the object of my visit to your father, speak tr. 22-13 < 181 131 182 of it to him. I am obliged to be at Salem this evening, carry me there 44 75 as soon as possible. Have you any red wine ? — Yes sir, I have fifty box- 170 87 es of it. — Is it good? — Yes sir. — Very well ; to-morrow I shall be at my 181 182 181 farm, carry six boxes of it to me there. John, show me your exercise.— "X ii " 181 have forgotten it, sir. Your handkerchiefs are very beautiful, sell me 181 181 a dozen of them. If you are at the sale of the flowers, buy me some 172*181 I (of them) for a garland. — Yes ; but I have no money ; give me some, land I will bi:y some of them. 180 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. OBSERVATIONS ON THE PASSIVE VERBAL PRO- NOUNS. 185. It often happens in English, that the preposition to which is required by some verbs before their indirect object, is omitted before that object ; as in I shall give him thy letter, in which him is for to him. He showed her my picture, in which her is for to her. I presented them his request, in which them is for to them. This is the cause of many errors, because students are apt to translate that indirect object by the direct ; but in such instances to ascertain whether him, her, it or them are used for the direct object, the following, or similar questions, should be asked, and the last answer would determine the case. In the first example, for instance, it should be asked, what is to be given ? — thy letter, to whom ?— to him. Therefore him in that phrase is for to him and should be translated by lui; thus, Je \mdonnerai *ta lettre. In the second, what was shown? — my picture, to whom ? — to her. Therefore her in that phrase is for to her, and should be translated by lui ; thus, II lui montra mon por- trait. In the third, what was presented I — his request, to whom ? — to them ; therefore them in that phrase, is for to them, and should be translated by leur; thus, Je leur present at sa requete. 188. Another difficulty arises from the different preposition, which corresponding verbs in French and in English require be- fore their indirect object. For instance, to demand, in English, requires the preposition of before its indirect object ; whilst de- rnander, the corresponding verb in French, requires the prepo- sition d. To enjoy requires no preposition before its object in English, whilst jouir, the corresponding verb, which is a neuter verb in French, requires the preposition de. To think requires the preposition of, in English, whilst penser, the corresponding verb in French, requires the preposition a. To charge re- quires the preposition with before its indirect object, whilst charger, the corresponding verb in French, requires the prepo- sition de. To call is used with the preposition to before its REFLECTIVE AND RECIPROCAL VERBS. 181 object, whilst its corresponding verb in French, appeler, never suffers any preposition before its object. Therefore TRANSLATE I shall demand it of them. He was enjoying it, I have thought of it. We charged you with it, BY Je le leur demanderai. R en jouissait, J'y at pens e, Nous vous en chargedim.es, INSTEAD OF Je Pen demanderai. U le jouissait. J'en aipense. Nous vous chargeames avec lui or cela. I perceive John, call him, Japergois Jean, appelez-le, J'apercois Jean, appelezAm. Therefore, to avoid mistakes, the vocabulary or a dictionary should be consulted in every instance. See Nos. 124, 125 and 163. EXERCISE 124. 146 ex.i3&185 When you meet Mr. A. will you give him this watch ? If your son 185 was in my school, I would teach him to speak French. If those men 185 were of our party, I would address them this circular. If your sister ex.i 186 46 wishes to hear me, I shall wait for her. When your father and mother 185 185 were in this city, I assured them that I would give you one of my best 146 9 185 rooms. As soon as you are at the head of one thousand men, order them 84 to advance immediately. Yesterday you spoke for me, and now I thank «• 7 170 62 185 124°> 186 you for it. When my scholars are not diligent, I reproach them with their idleness. REFLECTIVE AND RECIPROCAL VERBS. There are no reflective or reciprocal verbs in English. 187. The reflective verb, in French, is that which is con- jugated with the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se, as its object, being of the same number and person as its nominative. Whence it follows, that when the nominative is . when it is . . when it is a sin- gular noun, when it is 16 the passive verbal pronoun is me or m\ the passive verbal pronoun is te or t\ the passive verbal pronoun is se or s\ Nous, the passive verbal pronoun is nous. 182 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. when it is . . [ Vous, the passive verbal pronoun is vous. when it is a plural, ( lis, ) ,, , , ■* i P7 the passive verbal pronoun is se. several nouns, or ( hues, ) r r Note. Keflective verbs are conjugated like any other verbs, after the model of the conjugation to which they belong; that is, if their present infinitive ends in er, porter must be taken for model ; if it ends in ir,finir must be taken ; if it ends in evoir, recevoir must be taken ; and, if it ends in re, vendre must be taken, unless they have some irregularities, in which case, they are found among the irregular verbs. 188. The only peculiarity that reciprocal verbs present, is in the combination of their nominative and passive verbal pro- nouns, which is for all tenses, except the imperative mood, as in the present indicative of the verbs se gargariser, to gargle, and s' 'eerier, to exclaim, which are conjugated thus : I gargle, . . Je me gargarise. Thou garglest, . Tu te gargarises. He | II ■ ■■* She > gargles, . Elle > se gargarise. One) On ) We gargle, . . . Nous nous gargarisons. You gargle, . . Vous vous gargarisez. They gargle, m. . . lis \ se ' ar „ arisent They gargle, f. . Elles) e S^garisent. I exclaim, . . . Je m'icrie. Thou exclaimest, . Tu Vicries. He | II \ She > exclaims, . . Elle > ^ eerie. One) On ) We exclaim, . . Nous nous icrions. You exclaim, . . Vous vous ecriez. They exclaim, m. . lis \ ,, . They exclaim, f. . Elles) cU 189. In the imperative, according to the rules 181, 182, 183 and 184, for the use of the passive verbal pronouns, in the second person singular, and in the first and second persons plural, those REFLECTIVE AND RECIPROCAL VERBS. 183 pronouns should be placed after the verb, and linked to it by a hyphen, and instead of te, toi should be employed ; thus, Gargle, . . Gargarise-toi, and not gargarise-te. Let him \ Qu'il \ Let her > gargle, . Quelle > se gargarise. Let one ) Qu'on ) Let us gargle, . Gargarisons-nous. Gargle ye or you. . Gargarisez-vous. Let them gargle, m. QuHls ) . . Let them gargle, f. Qu'elles } ° ' % 190. Although there is no reflective verbs in English, it often happens that the pronouns myself, thyself, himself, HERSELF, ONE'S SELF, ITSELF, OURSELVES, YOURSELVES, THEM- SELVES, are used as objects to active verbs, and in the same person and number as their nominative. This maybe consider- ed, and is indeed, the English reflective form of the correspond- ing French verb, conjugated in a reflective manner, by using with it the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se, in the same number and person as its nominative, according to the foregoing observations ; thus, I flatter myself, Je mejlatte. Thou wast considering thyself, Tu te considerais. He exposed himself, II s'exposa. She will apply herself Elle s'appliquera. We would deceive ourselves, Nous nous tromperions. That you may prepare your- Que vous vous pripariez. selves, That they might show them- QuHls se montrassent. selves, m. Let them adorn themselves, f. Qu'elles se parent. 191. Sometimes the pronouns each other, or one another, are used as the object of an active verb, to express what two, or several persons or things, reciprocally do to one another, which constitutes, what is called in French, a reciprocal verb ; then, each other, or one another, is expressed in French, by a 184 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. passive verbal pronoun, corresponding to the nominative accord- ing to the rules heretofore given. John and William are beating Jean et Guillaume se battent. each other, Paul and Virginia tenderly lov- Paul et Virginie s'aimment ed each other, tendrement. When I am with my friend, we Quand je suis avec mon ami, sustain each other, nous nous soutenons. Explanation. In the first example each other is rendered in French by se, because the nominative being composed of two nouns constitutes a nominative of the third per- son plural. In the second, *' is used for the same reason, and the apostrophe stands for the letter e, because it is before a vowel. In the third, each other is rendered by nous because the nominative being composed of a noun and a pronoun of the first person, con- stitutes a nominative of the first person plural, and because the pronoun of the first person has the priority over the others. See No. 90. EXERCISE 125. 99 When the order of the departure arrived the soldiers of the garrison 187 & 99 140 & 187 mutinied against their chiefs. Yesterday those two girls were walking 140 & 187 99 ex, 15 ex.24*178 and strutting in the mall ; I perceived them there at about five o'clock. 120 & 187 Tf I were at the head of that institution, I would strive to introduce 124 ex 11 92 the best manner of governing it. When we ardently desire a thing we 190 ex ii natter ourselves that we shall find it without obstacle or difficulty. Last 98 192 Tuesday those two men despised one another ; but now they esteem 192 190 each other , they desire to render themselves reciprocally useful. 192. Eeflective, reciprocal or active verbs, that have become reflective by the use of a passive verbal pronoun of the same number and person as their nominative, form their compound tenses with the verb etre, in French, although to have is used in English ; and the past participle must be of the same gender and number as the nominative ; as in Mary and Louisa have repent- Marie et Louisa se sont re- ed, penties. Joseph and Jacob had insulted Joseph et Jacob s'etaient bl- each other, suites. EXERCISE 126. 192 192 190 We have expressed ourselves very frankly on your account, but you 192 27 192 190 62 130 22 130 190 have not shown yourselves very firm by not defending yourselves with ex.ivi79 192 energy. That man has insulted me ; but soon I shall have revenged DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 185 myself. I hope that you will desist, from that intention, because he is 192 192 , 190 not only stronger than you> but yet he will have prepared himself for 128 ex. 7 192 192 190 meeting you. Wouldst thou not have amused thyself at our party it * 192 187 & 192 135 192 192 Miss D. had not fainted? Will the national guards have presented 19C ex 12 themselves before the general at ten o'clock ? — I think so, but our friends 192 192 190 will not have prepared themselves for that visit. CHAPTER IX. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. The difficulty of remembering the irregularities of the French irregular verbs has suggested the plan that is here followed in treating of them. As it may be noticed, every defective or ir- regular verb is given at full length, and not only its irregulari- ties are printed in Italic letters, but they are besides consid- ered singly ; and, to impress them more deeply on the mind of the student, under the irregular, though only proper forms, there are given, in small characters, the forms as they should be, were the verb a regular one ; these last forms, it should be noticed, are most frequently and erroneously used by the learn- er, and should be most carefully avoided. Those irregularities will be considered according to the rules for the formation of tenses, and the four models for the regular conjugations, and are printed in italics. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 1st CONJUGATION. 192£ INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, After, Togo, is a neuter verb conjugated with 6tre. Pres part. Allant, Going. Past part. Alle, ee Gone. INDICATIVE MOOD. > t\L il nous vous Us Prea. vats , vas, va, aliens, allez, vont Imper. allais, allais, allait, allions, alliez, allaient. Pret. def. allai, alias, alia, allames, aliates, allerent. Fat. irai, iras, tra, irons, irez, iront. Cortdit. irais, irais, trait, irions, iriez, iraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. Aille, ailles, aille. allions, alliez, aillent. Imper. allasse, allasses, allat, allassions, allassiez, allnssent Impera. «a, aille, allons, allez, aillent. 16» 186 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the three persons singular and third person plural of the present indicative, which are je vais, tu vas, il va, Us vont. instead of j'alle, tualles, Halle, Us allent. See model for 1st conjugation. 2d. In the future and conditional, which are j'irai, 8fC. j'irais, fyc. instead of j'allerai, 8fc. fallerais, tyc. See formation of tenses. 3d. In the radical letters of the three persons singular and third person plural of the present subjunctive, which are que faille, que tu allies, qu'il aille, quHls aillent. instead of quefalle, que tu alles, qu'il alle, quHls allent. See the formation of tenses. 193. 4th. In the second person singular of the imperative, which is va instead of vas, because the second person singular of the present indicative not ending in es, the s should be pre- served. However, the s is retained before y and en. Go there, . . . Vas-y. Go for some of them, . . Yas-en chercher. 194. Remarks on aller, to go : — When the object of ailer is a noun, the preposition a is used before it, the same as to is used before the object of to go ; and the preposition from, which is sometimes required after the English verb, should be transla- ted into French by de ; as in He goes from Salem to Boston II va de Boston a Salem en in two hours, deux heures. 195. Sometimes to go requires to or and before the follow- ing present infinitive ; but, in French, whatever the construc- tion of the English phrase may be, the verb aller never requires any preposition or conjunction before the following present in- finitive ; as in Go and speak to Mr. C, Allez parler a M. C. I am going to finish my work, Je Y&isjinir mon ouvrage. 196. After to go the preposition for is very often used, in English before a substantive, which preposition must be render- ed in French, by the present infinitive chercher, or qutrir. Go for my hat, cane and Allez chercher mon chapeau, gloves, DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 187 197. Some writers omit the pronoun or adverb y, before a word commencing w T ith an i, on account of the pronunciation ; others retain it for the sake of grammar. To conciliate both opinions, the y should never be omitted in writing, and never pronounced in reading or speaking. 198. The adverb there is often omitted in English, but, in French, y should always be expressed, when the object of to go is implied. Do you go to school ? — Yes, I Altez-vous d Vecole ? — Oui, am going. fy vais. EXERCISE 127. 133 133 133 Where art thou going, George ? — I am going to the Lyceum. — When wilt thou go to the Atheneum ? — As soon as my sister shall have decid- 125 ex. 24 21&25 PX - 24 ed to go there. — Is she not going there this afternoon ? — She would go 197 92 131 there if her cousin Julia was not sick — I hope that she will soon be cured 109 87 198 & ex. 24 109 110 198 that they may go together. — I desire that thy sister may not go without 198 110 198 her, and that if they go thou mayst go with them. Where do those sol- 196 diers go? — They go for the governor and the other officers of the state. 196 ex. 15 ex. 15 ex.12 170 Do they go for them to escort them ? — I think so ; but I am not sure of it. 199. From alter is formed the reflective verb s'en alter, which means to go away, and which is conjugated thus : I go away, Je irfen vais. Thou goest away, . . Tu fen vas. He goes away, . . It s'en va. We go away, . . . JSous nous en altons* You go away, . . Yous vous en atlez. They go away, . . .Its s'en vont. 200. The other tenses are conjugated in the same manner, and the imperative is Go away, . . . Va-fen. Let him go away, . . QiCit s^en aille. Let us go away, . . Altons-nous-en. Go away, .... Altez-vous-en. Let them go away, . . QuHts s'en ailtent. 188 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The compound tenses of s'en alter are formed with etre : thus, I have gone away, . . Je m'en suis alle. Thou hast gone away, . Tu fen es alle, &c. EXERCISE 128. 104 "Why do you go away so soon ?— Because T assured my sister that 1 109 110 would go away before it was late.— Stay but a moment ; I wish to speak ex. 8 ; * ex. 7 to you of our business ; your sister will excuse you. and will stay also ex.3 ex.11 46 to oblige us. — I would like it ; but my father and mother are expecting ex.3 87 X.3 us, and if we should not go away soon, they would not let us go to the 170 party next Thursday. — I am sorry for it, and I shall insist no more, and, 46 109 110 since your father and mother wish that you may go away now, I thank ex. 7 ex. s 100 you for your visit, and I wish you a good night and I hope that on Thursday you will go where you wish. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Envoyer, To send, is an active veto. Pres. part. Envoyant, Sending. Past part. Envoye ee, Sent. INDICATIVE MOOD. tu il nous vous envoies, envoie, envoyons, envoyez, envoyais, envoyait, envoyions, envoyiez, envoyas, envoya, envoyames, envoyates, enverras, enverra, enverrons, enverrez, enverrais, enverrait, enverrions, enverriez, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. f Pres. envoie, Imper. envoyais, Pret.def. envoyai, Fat. enverrai, Cond. enverrais P?'es. envoie, envoies, envoie, Imper. envoyasse, envoyasses, envoyat, Impera. envoie, envoie, Us envoient. envoy aient. envoyerent. enverront. enverraient. envoyions, envoyiez, envoient. envoyassions, envoyassiez, envoyassent. envoyons, envoyez, envoient. The irregularities of this verb are in the future, and the con- ditional, which are j'enverrai. Sec. fenverrais, fyc. instead of fenvoierai, 8fc. fenvoierais, $c. See formation of tenses. This verb is conjugated according to the observations on some verbs, No. 18. The same irregularities are in renvoyer, to send back. To familiarize students with the proper vise of the passive verbal pronouns, they might be required to conjugate the irreg- ular verbs in connection with some of them, and with or with- out negation or interrogation. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 189 Envoyer might be conjugated with la leur y, her there to them ; thus, I send her there to them, Je la leur y envoie. Thou sendest her there to them Tu la leur y envoies. He sends her there to them, &c. 11 la leur y envoie, fyc. As to the use of the compound tenses with the passive verbal pronouns, it is necessary to take into consideration the follow- ing rules : 201. When either of the passive verbal pronouns le, la, les, me, te, se, nous, vous, representing the direct object of the verb, is used with a compound tense, the past participle must agree in gender and number with that direct object ; as in, (See No. 179) I have sent him, . . Je Vai envoy e. Thou hast sent her, . * Tu Yas envoy qq. He has sent them, m. . II les a envoyes. He has sent them, f. II les a e?ivoyees. Explanation. In the first example envoye is in the masculine singular because it 13 pre- ceded by P its direct object, which relates to a masculine singular noun. In the second, envoyet is in the feminine singular because its direct object V } which relates to a feminine singular noun, precedes iL In the third, envoyes is in the masculine plural because its direct object les, that precedes it, relates to a masculine plural noun. In the fourth, envoyees is in the feminine plural because its direct object les> which represents a feminine plural ob- ject, precedes it. 202. When either of the passive verbal pronouns me, te, lui, nous, vous, leur, y, en, representing the indirect object of the verb, is used with a compound tense, the past participle never varies on account of the gender and number of that indirect ob- ject ; as in He has sent two of them there, II y en a envoye deux. Those ladies have sent two of Ces dames lui en ont envoye them to him, deux. Explanation. In these examples the past participle is invariable, because it has no di- rect object before it. 203. When among several passive verbal pronouns is one representing a direct object, the past participle agrees in gender and number with that pronoun ; as in I had sent her there to them, Je la leur y avals envoyee. I should have sent them to him, Je les lui aurais envoyes or en~ voyees. 190 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Explanation. In the first example the past participle envoy ee is in the feminine singular, because its direct object la, representing a feminine singular noun, is before it. Tn the second, envoyes or envoyees is in the plural, because its direct object les, representing a plural noun, is before it : if that noun were feminine, envoyees should be employed j if it were masculine, envoyes should be employed. EXERCISE 129. When will you send those goods to my boarding-house ? — I shall send ex. 15 ex. 2 ex.24&l78 ex. 2 them to you there to-morrow. — If you send them to me to-day, you will ex - 1 178 oblige me very much. — I would send them to you now, if my boy was ex 9^179 123 44 here ; but I have sent him with a lady to carry some goods ; after his return I shall send him to you ; however, you will receive your ex. 2 goods sooner if you send your servant to me ; he is stronger than my 87 133 boy, and will carry the whole at once. — Very well, I am going to the ex- change, and in one hour and a half I shall send him to you. 204. Importer, to concern, is a unipersonal, neuter, and defective verb. It requires the preposition a before the noun or pronoun that is its object ; and que before the next verb which must be in the subjunctive mood, or de before the following in- finitive, though to concern requires to. It concerns your partners that II importe a vos associis que you arrive immediately, vous arriviez immediatement. It much concerns them to pre- II leur importe beaucoup de serve that establishment, conserver cet etablissement. Explanation. In the first example d is used with the object of il importe, and the subjunctive present arriviez after the conjunction que. In the second, the present infini- tive is used after the preposition de ; if instead of that preposition the conjunction que had been employed, the following verb instead of being in the present infinitive should have been in the present subjunctive ; thus, instead of de conserver, it should have been quails conservent. 205. Resulter, to result, to follow, to be the result, is .a unipersonal, neuter and defective verb; it is conjugated with avoir, or etre, and is used only in the third person singular of every tense ; following porter as its model. It requires de be- fore its object, whether a noun or a verb. It may be conjugated with en, from it ; thus, It results from it, &c. . . II en resulte, e, Set out INDICATIVE MOOD. - " i« tu il nous vous Us Pres. pars, pars, part, partons, parte z, partent. Imper. partais, partais, partait, partions, partiez, partaient. Pret. def. partis, partis. partit, partimes, partites, partirent. Future, partirai, parti ras, partira, partirons, parti rez, partiront. Condit. partirais, partirais, partirait, partirions, partiriez, partiraient SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. parte, partes, parte, partions, partiez, partent. Imper. partisse, partisses, partit, partissions, partissiez, partissent. Impera. pars, parte, partons, partez, partent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present participle, which is partant, instead of partissant. See the model finir. 2d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are pars, pars, part. instead of partis, partis, partit. See the model finir. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with en, from it, from there ; thus, I set out from there or it, J r ' 'en pars. Thou settest out from there or it,&c. Tu en pars, fyc. I have set out from there or J 'en suis parti or par tie, it, &c. 8fC. The same irregularities are in repartir, to set out again ; ressortir, to go out again ; sortir, to go out. 233. The preposition on, which generally follows the verb to set out, is generally translated into French by pour ; as To-morrow I shall set out on Demain je partirai pour un a voyage, voyage. 208 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 144. 133 What day dost thou set out for Hartford ? — I shall set out next Tues- 133 day, if I do not set out on Monday. — Wouldst thou set out without thy 125 cousin, if he should not be ready then ? — Yes. I am obliged to set out 125 as soon as possible, because I wish to speak to Mrs. Lavone, and I am 233 sure that she will set out soon on a long journey. — Does she expect .ex. 5 177 84 thee ? — I do not think she does. — Then, if she sets out before thee, thou 131 ex 12 wilt be disappointed. — I should be so ; but I hope, that, when I shall ex.io 85 arrive, she will not have set out, and that I shall find her at home. 234. Quirir, to go and bring, is an active and defective verb, which is never used except in the present infinitive after the verbs alter, to go ; venir, to come ; envoyer, to send ; thus, To go and bring, . . Alter querir, or ckercker. To come for, . . . Venir querir, or ckercker. To send for, . . . Envoyer querir, or ckercker. 235. Saillir, to gush out, is a neuter and defective verb, used only in the third persons singular and plural of each tense, which are regularly formed, the participles being supposed to be saillissant, sailti. It may be conjugated with en, from it; thus. Water gushes out from it, II en saillit de Veau. Water has gushed out from it, II en a sailti de Veau. The verb jaittir is generally used instead of saillir. 236. Saittir, to project, is also a neuter and defective verb, used only in the third persons singular and plural of each tense ; its participles are saillant, sailti. Its present indicative is il saille, Us saillent. The other tenses are regularly formed accord- ing to the formation of tenses. EXERCTSE 145. 234^104 Have you sent for our journal ? — Not yet ; but I think I shall go to 133 the post-office myself. — Do you not expect Mr. B. to-day ? — Yes, I ex- ex. 9 177 pect him. — Will he bring my music ? — I do not think he will ; but I am 17Q ' 141 ex.ii 196 not sure of it ; and if he did not bring it, our servant would go and ex. il fetch it. What kind of ornaments do you like best ? Do you think ex 15 87 that those lowers are pretty ? — I find them very fine ; but do they not DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 209 ex -12 87 project too much ? — I do not think so ; and they will project less when 131 87 the drapery shall be placed, otherwise I think they would project too much. 237. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Servir, To serve, or to help, is an active verb. Pres part. Servant, Serving, or helping. Past part. Servi, e, Served, ox helped. INDICATIVE MOOD. i« tu il nous vous ils Pres. sers, sers, serf, servons, servez, servent. Imper. servais, servais j servait, servions, serviez, servaient. Pret.def. servis, servis, servit, servimes, servites, servirent. Future, servirai, serviras, servira, servirons, servirez, serviront. Condit servirais, servirais, servirait, servirions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. serviriez, serviraient. Pres. serve, serves, serve, servions, serviez, servent. Imper. 9ervisse, servisses, servit, servissions, servissiez, servissent. lmpera. sers, serve, servons, servez, servent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is servant, instead of servissant. See the model^ni?*. 2d, In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are sers, sers, sert, instead of servis. servis, servit. See the model finir. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with lui en , him or her to SOME OF IT, Or OF THEM ; thus, I help him to some of it, Te lui en sers. Thouhelpestfora tes0?weoj^Y,&e. Tu lui en sers, tyc. I have helped him to some of it, foe. Je lui en ai servi, fyc. The same irregularities exist in desservir, to clear the ta- ble, or to hurt ; se servir de, to make use of. EXERCISE 146. 133 Where is thy brother ? — He is in the navy ; he is serving his country. 134 ex-ii ex.ii — Why dost thou not serve it thyself ? — If I do not serve it with arms, like my brother, I serve it differently. — How ? — I am the minister of a 170 church in this place. — I am very glad of it ; and I think that thou art 111 111 134 as useful as thy brother. In what quality does he serve ? — He is the 18* 210 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, captain of the Nestor. — How many years has he served ? — About two ex. 7 56 years. Shall I help you to some of this dish ? — No, I thank you ; my 179&178 neighbour has already helped me to some of it. 238. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Tenir, To hold, is an active verb. Pres part. Tenant, Holding. Past part. Term, e, Held. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. tiens, tiens, tient, tenons, tenez, tieraient. Imper. tenais, tenais, tenait, tenions, teniez, tenaient. Pret.def. tins, tras, tint, tinmeB, tintes, tinrent. Future, tiendr&i, tiendr&s, tiendra., tiendrons, tiendrez, tiendront. Condit. tiendrais, tiendrais, ti.endra,it, tiendrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. tiendriez, tiendraient. Pres. tienne, tiennes, tienne, tenions, teniez, tiennent. Imper. tinsse, tinsses, tint, tinssions, tinssiez, tinssent. Impera. tiens, tienne, tenons, tenez, tiennent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is tenant, instead of tenissant. See the model finir. 2d. In the past participle, which is tenu, instead of teni. See the model finir 3d. In the three persons singular and the third plural of the present indicative, which is tiens, tiens, tient, tiennent, instead of tenis, tenis, tenit, tenent. For the three persons singular see the model finir, and for the third person plural see formation of tenses. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is tins, tins, tint, ttnmes, tintes, tinrent, instead of tertus, tenus, tenut, tenumes, tenhtes, tenurent. See formation of tenses. 5th. In the future and conditional, which are tiendrai, fyc. tiendrais, tyc. instead of tenirai, Sfc. tenirais, fyc. See formation of tenses. 6th. In the three persons singular and third plural of the present subjunctive, which are tienne, tiennes, tienne, tiennent, instead of tene, tenes, tene, tenent. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with les y, them there ; thus, I hold them there, . . Je les y tiens. Thou holdest them there, &c. Tu les y tiens, fyc. I have held them there, &c. Je les y ai tenus, or tenues, tyc. DEFECTIVE AXD IRREGULAR VERBS. 211 The same irregularities are in s'abstenir, to abstain ; ap- parte?iir, to belong; avenir, to happen; contenir, to contain or restrain ; contrevenir, to oppose ; convenir, to agree ; detenir, to detain; devenir, to become; disconvenir, to deny; entretenir, to maintain, to keep ; intervenir, to intervene ; maintenir, to maintain ; obtenir, to obtain ; parvenir, to at- tain ; prevenir, to anticipate ; provenir, to come from ; se ressouvenir, to recollect, to remember ; retenir, to retain ; revenir, to come again; redevenir, to become again; soutenir, to support; subvenir, to come by chance, to provide; sur- venir, to happen ; venir, to come ; se souvenir, to remember. EXEECISE 147, 170 Hold mat end of this cord, I shall hold the middle of it, and your sister 135 87 wui hold the other end. Does this book belong to Mr. L. ? — No ; it be- longs to Mrs. N. : yesterday it belonged to Miss G., and perhaps to- morrow it will belong to another person. Will your cousin come 98 ex io 198 to my party, if I invite her ? — She will be very glad to go, I am sure 170 of it. — Why did she not come last week ? — Because she was not yet 170 come from the country, and she was very sorry for it. — Well. Give 185 84 ex ii her my invitation, and come with her ; so I shall be sure to have her this time. 239. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Vetir, To clotke, is an active verb. Pres. part. Vetani, Clothing. Past part. Vetw, e, Clothed. INDICATrVE MOOD. je tu il vets, vet, vetais, vetait, Pres. vet.?, Imper. vetais, Pret.def. vetis, Future, vetirai, Condit. vetirais, vetis, vetit, vetiras, vetira, vetirais, vetirait, SUBJUNCTP Pres. vete, vetes, vete, lmper. vetisse, vetisses, vetit, Impera. vets, vete, The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is vetant, instead of vetissant. See the model finir. 2d. In the past participle, which is vetu, instead of vtti. See the model finir. nous vous Us vetons, vetez, vetent. vetions, vetiez, vetaient. vetimes, vetites, vetirent. vetirons, vetirez, vetiront. vetirions, MOOD. vetiriez, v£tiraient, vetions, v€tiez, vetent. vetissions, vetissiez, vetissent. vetons, vetez, vetent. 212 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 3d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are vets, vets, vet, instead of vetis, vetis, vetit. See the model finir. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is vetis, vetis, vetit, vethnes, vetit es, vetirent, instead of v&tus, vetiis, vStut, vetumes, vetutes, veturent. See forma.of tenses. However, the preterite vetis, fyc, is regular, according to the model finir. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le^ him ; thus, I clothe him, . . Je le vets. Thou clothest him, Sec. Tu le vets, fyc. I have clothed him, &c. Je Yai vetu, fyc. The same irregularities are in se devetir, to unclothe one's self ; rev Stir, to clothe or invest. Note. In the following Exercise the verb to dress should be rendered by vHir merely for the sake of practice, the verb of the first conjugation, habiller, being prefera- ble ; since the true meaning of vHir is to invest or to provide with clothes, and that of habiller is to dress. Besides, vetir is very little used ; for. habiller is also very often employed in the sense of to provide with clothes ; as in this phrase, He works for me ; but I lodge and clothe U travaille pour moi ; maisje le loge et him, Z'habille. Few persons would say : et le v§ts. EXERCISE 148. 104 Jane, have you dressed the child ? — Not yet, madam ; but I 133 ex.9 am dressing him now, and I have almost finished. — I hope, that, another ex. 9 ex 9 time, you will dress him before this hour. — I should have dressed him 125 ex 1 already, if Miss Lucy had not come to hinder me ; yesterday I was not ex 9 disturbed, and I dressed him according to your wishes. — Yes ; I re- 170 ex 9 18 5 member it, you dressed him as I had ordered you, and I shall re- 170 92 ex. 7 m m member it ; for I very seldom find you as diligent as yesterday, px. 9 94 especially in dressing my child 5 I could dress him in much less time 114 than you ; you are too lazy generally. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. As it has already been said, there are only seven regular verbs of this conjugation, viz. recevoir, to receive ; apercevoir, DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 213 to perceive ; concevoir, to conceive, to understand ; dece- voir, to deceive ; devoir, to owe ; percevoir, to receive (money) ; redevoir, to owe again or still. Those verbs, whose present infinitive ends in oir, not prece- ded by ev, are irregular, and are only thirty in number. 240. Avoir, to have, is an active and auxiliary verb, conjugated in its compound tenses with itself. This verb is one of the most irregular, and is given at page 30. Its present indicative and subjunctive, and the imperative, are irregular, both in the radical letters and terminations. The irregularities of its imperfect, future, and conditional, are only in the radical letters. Its preterite definite and imperfect subjunctive are regularly formed. 241. Apparoir, to be evident, is a neuter and defective verb. It is used only in the infinitive with the verb faire, and in the third person singular of the present infinitive, which is il appert ; but it is used only in the courts of law. 242. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present., Asseoir, To set, is an active verb. Pres. part. Asseyant, Setting. Past part. Assis, e, Sat. INDICATIVE MOOD. J' tu il nous nous its Pres. assieds, •dssieds, a.ssied, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent. Imper. asseyais, asseyais, asseyait, asseyions, asseyiez, asseyaient. Pret.def. assis, assis, assit, assimes, assites, assirent. Future., as se?,erai , asset/eras, asseyera, asse?/erons, asseyerez, asseyeront, Condit. asseterais asseierais, asseierait, asseierions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. asseieriez, asseieraient. Pres. asseye, asseiyes, asseye, asseyions, asseyiez, asseyent. Imperr. assisse, assisses, assit, assissions, assissiez, assissent. Inipcra. assieds, asseie, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent. The irregularities of this verb are 1st, in the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are assieds, assieds, assied, instead of asseois, asseois, asseoit. See the model recevoir. 2d. In the future and conditional, which are asseyerai, Sec. asseyerais, fyc. instead of as.scoirai, <$t. asseoiraris, 4"c See the formation of tenses. There is another future and conditional, viz : assierai, c^c, assierais, fyc. SI 4 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. This verb is sometimes conjugated thus ; J'assois, tu assois, ii assoit, vous assoyons, nous assoyez, Us assoient. J'assoyais, &c J'assoirai&c. Que j 'assoie, &c. Assoyant. (Diet. Fr. Acad.) 243. When the verb to sit has for its direct object a personal pronoun, or is used in English with the preposition DowN,without any direct object, it is translated into French by s'asseoir ; that is. by asseoir, with the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se, without rendering down ; thus, I sit down^'c m'assieds ; THOU SITTEST DOWN, tU tfdSSieds ; HE SITS DOWN, U s'aSSied, SfC This verb may be conjugated with y, there, or here ; thus I sit here, . . . Je m'y assieds. Thou sittest there, &c. . Tu t'y assieds, fyc. I have sat there, &c. . Je ra'y suis assis, fyc. The same irregularities are in rasseoir, to sit again. EXERCISE 149. 243 ^ ex. g Come, and sit down a moment ; I wish to speak to you. — Not now ; 243 ex.l because, if I sit down, you will detain me at least an hour, and my ex .7 103 presence is necessary in my store. — No ; I shall not detain you more than 234 92 ten minutes ; and if you do not sit down now, I shall never go to 85 128 ex. 7 243 125 your house. — To please you, I will sit down ; but I should prefer to go 94 128 to my business now, and afterwards I should have more time to talk 243 with you. — Would you not sit down, if Mr. L. was here ? — Not now, be- 133 ex.l 243 cause Mr. D. is expecting me. — Sit down, only ten minutes. — I would 243 131 ex 1 sit down if I was not engaged, but excuse me at this time. 244. Choir, to fall, is a neuter and defective verb, very seldom used, and only in the present infinitive and past partici- ple, which is chu, chue. 245. Comparoir, to appear, is a neuter and defective verb, used only in the present infinitive, and that in the style of court; as in To be summoned to appear at court, Eire assigne a comparoir. 246. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Dechoir, To decline, is a neuter and defective verb, conjugated Pres. part. with avoir and itr* Past part. Dechu, e, Declined. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 215 INDICATIVE MOOD. J e tu il nous vous ils Pres. dechois, dechois, dechoit, dechoyons, dechoyez, dechoient. Imper. dechoyais, dechoyais, dechoyait, dechoyions, dechoyiez, dechoyaient. Pret.def. dechus, dechus, dechut, deohumes, dechutes, dechurent. Future, decherrai, decherras, decherra, decherrons, decherrez, decherront. Condit. decherrais, decherrais, decherrait, decherrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. decherriez, decherraient. Pres. dechoie, dechoies, dechoie, dechoyions, dechoyiez, dechoient. Imper. dechusse, dechusses, dechut, dechussions, dechussiez, dechussent. Impera, dechois, dechoie, dechoyons, dechoyez, dechoient. This verb has no present participle, but that tense is supposed to be dechoyant, for the persons and tenses that are formed from it, the y being changed into i before a silent e, according to the observation No. 18. The future and conditional are irregular in the radical letters, since they are decherrai, fyc. decherrais, fyc. instead of dechoirai, 8fc. dechoirais, tyc. The other persons and tenses are regularly formed, according to the formation of tenses. 247. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Devoir, To owe, is an active and regular verb, Pres. part. Devant, Owing. Past part. Du, due, Owed. INDTCATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous lis Pres. dois, dois, doit, devons, devez, doivent. Imper. devais, devais, devait, devions, deviez, devaient, Pret. def. dus, dus, dut, dumes, dutes, durent. Future, devrai, devras, devra, devrons, devrez, devront. Condit. devrais, devrais, devrait, devrions, devriez, devraient, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. doive, doives, doive, devions, deviez, doivent. Imper. dusse, dusses, dut, dussions, dussiez, dussent. Fmpera. dois, doive, devons, devez. doivent. Although this verb is regularly conjugated after recevoir, it is given here because students are apt to mistake in conjugating it. However it is as easy as any other conjugation, and it must be found so, when we consider that it has only one radical letter, the d, which must be placed instead of the radical letters rec of tbe model recevoir, through all its tenses and persons. 248. When ought or should are used before an infinitive to express the propriety, or the obligation of performing the ac- 218 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. tion expressed by that infinitive, they are generally rendered, in French, hj the conditional of devoir, and the infinitive of the verb that follows ought or should ; as We ought to do something for Nous devrions faire quelque the unfortunate, chose pour les infortunes. You should study a little bet- Vous devriez etudier un peu ter, mieux. 249. When the verb to be is used in English, with an in- finitive, to express the intention or obligation of performing the action expressed by that infinitive, and when must expresses the probability of the existence of that action, it is generally render- ed, into French, by devoir, which must be in a tense correspond- ing to that of to be ; as He is to speak in public, . II doit parler en public. We ivere to pay his expenses, Nous devions payer ses defenses. That book must be very useful, Ce lime doit etre tres-utile. 250. The form of expression were i, wert thou, &c. with an infinitive, is generally rendered by the imperfect subjunctive of devoir, without the conjunction que, and with the nominative pronoun after it, in the form of the interrogation ; as Were we to lose our fortune, we Dussions-nous perdre notrefor- should assist our friends, tune,nous aiderions nos amis. Were I to expose myself to the Dusse-je m'exposer aux re- reproaches of my friends, I proches de mes parents fir ais should go and see her, la voir. 251. When though is used" with were, thus, though i were, though thou wert, &c. both are also rendered in French by dusse-je, dusses-tu, SfC. ; as, Though she were to hate me, I Dut-elle me hair je n'irais pas should not go to her ball, d son bal. Though they were to deceive Dussent-ils me tromper,je leur me, I should give them em- donnerais de V employ. ployment, Though Mr. L. were to refuse M. L. diit-il me refuser, je lui me, 1 should ask that favour demanderais cette faveur. of him, DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 217 Present, 252. INFINITIVE MOOD. echoir, To fall to, is a neuter and defective verb, conjuga- Pres. JFmper. Pret.def. echus, Future, echerrai, Condit. echerrais, Pres. part, eche'ant, Falling to. Past part, echu, e, Fallen to, INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu. il nous echoit, ted with etre. echus, echerras, echerrais, echut, echerra, echerrait, echumes, echerrons, echerrions, echutes, echerrez, echerriez, echurent. echerront. echerraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. echusse, echusses, echut, echussions, echussiez, echussent. Pres. Imper. Impera. — This verb is very seldom used except in the third person sin- gular of the present indicative, which is sometimes pronounced and written 6chet. The imperfect indicative, present subjunctive, and imperative, are wanting. The future and conditional are irregular in the radical letters, since these are echerrai, fyc. echerrais, SfC. instead of echoirai, 8fc. echoirais, $c. See the formation of tenses. The preterite indicative and the imperfect subjunctive are regularly formed. 253. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Falloir, To be necessary, is a unipersonal verb conjugated with avoir. Pres.part. Past part. Fallu. INDICATIVE MOOD. pret. def. future condit. il faudrait. pres. imptr. il faut, il fallait, il fallut, il faudra, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. pres. imper. qu'il faille, qu'il fallut. This verb has no present participle, and is used only in the third person singular of each tense. It is used to translate must, to be necessary, or to want, in tbe following manner : 254. The tense of falloir, which corresponds with the tense in which must, to be necessary or to want, is employed, must be taken, and the pronoun il must be given to it as its nominative. The following verb must be in the subjunctive mood,always prece- ded by que and its nominative, which must be the French noun 19 218 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. or pronoun that corresponds to the nominative of must, or to want, or to the object of to be necessary for. The tense of the subjunctive of the following verb is determined by the rules given for the use of that mood, Nos. 110, 150, 153 ; as in I must go, or I want to go, Ilfaut que je irten aille. It will be necessary for thee to go, II faudra que tu fen allies. That it may be necessary for QuHl faille que nous nous en us to go, allions. He wanted, or it was necessary Ilfallait quHl s'en allot. for him to go, She wanted, or it was necessary II fallut qu'elle s'en allot. for her to go, It would be necessary for us to II faudrait que nous nous en go, allassions, That it might be necessary for QiCil fallut que vous vous en you to go, allassiez. Those doors must be widened, II faut que ces portes soient elargies. Explanation. In the first example, il faut is in the present indicative, because must or want is in the present indicative ; the nominative of the second verb is Je, because the nominative of must or want is I ; aille is in the present subjunctive, because faut, which requires that mood, is in the present indicative. In the second, faudra is in the future tense, because it will be necessary is in that tense ; the nominative of the following verb is tu, because the object of to be necessary for is thee, a pronoun of the second person singular ; ailles is in the present subjunctive, because faudra, which requires that mood, is in the future tense. In the third, faille is in the present subjunctive, because it is the mood and tense of that it may be neccessary ; the nominative of the follow- ing verb is nous, because the object of to be necessary for is us, a pronoun of the first person plural 5 the following verb, allions, is in the present subjunctive,because qu'il faille, which requires that mood after it, is in the present subjunctive. In the fourth, ilfallait is in the imperfect indicative, because wanted is in that tense ; the nominative of the fol- lowing verb is il, because that of wanted is he, a masculine pronoun of the third person singular ; allot is in the imperfect subjunctive, because fallait, which requires that mood, is in the imperfect. In the sixth, faudrait is in the conditional, because it is the tense of it would be necessary ; the nominative of the following verb is nous, because the ob- ject of to be necessary for is us, a pronoun of the second person plural ; allassions is in the imperfect subjunctive, because faudrait, which requires that mood, is in the condi- tional. In the last il faut \s in the present indicative, because it is the tense of must j the nominative of the following verb is ces portes, because it is the translation of that of must, that is, of those doors ; soient is in the present subjunctive, because faut, which requires that mood, is in the present indicative. 255. Falloir is used also to translate must have, or to want, in the same sense, followed by a noun, by placing one of the passive verbal pronouns me, te, lui, nous, vous, leur, correspond- DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 219 ing to the nominative of must or want, between il and falloir ; thus, I want money, or I must have money, II me faut de V argent. Thou ivantest, or thou must have a coat, II te faut un habit. He wants, or he must have a book, II lui faut un livre. She wants, or she must have a gown, II lui faut une robe. We want, or we must have your opinion, II nous faut votre avis. You want, or you must have an occu- II vous faut une occupa- tion, tion. They want, or they must have a repub- II leur faut une repu- lic, blique. Explanation. In the first example me is used between il and faut, because the nomina- tive of want or must is I -, in the second, te is used, because the English nominative is thou 3 in the third and fourth, lui is used, because the nominative of the English phrase is he or she, &c Faut is in the present indicative, because it is the tense of must or WANT. 256. Sometimes falloir is used with s'en, thus, s'en falloir, il s\en faut, il s'en fallait, fyc. followed by avoir and a noun, or to be and an adjective, to translate to be deficient in; as in He is deficient in talent, II s'en faut qu'il ait du talent. They are deficient in courage, II s'en faut qu'ils aient du courage. She is deficient in amiability, II s'en faut qu'elle soit aimable, or qu'elle ait de Vamabilite. EXEECISE 150. 254 254&150 254 254 & 150 ex. ll I want to send something to Mrs. B., and she must receive it before 254 150 ex.11 254 , 150 to-morrow. You must prepare it ; and it will be necessary for you to be 99- 111 62 111 more punctual to-day than yesterday. — I was as punctual as possible 254 153 195 yesterday. It was necessary for me to go and carry all your letters, and 254 & 98 153 131 it was necessary also that they should be delivered before six o'clock. 254 150 254 If I must run through all the streets of the city, it will be necessary for 150 ex. 12 26 255 94 me to hire a horse. — I do not think so ; you only want more diligence 31 156 248 and good will, for you are deficient in those qualities ; and you should 60 be more diligent. 2 5 7. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present^ Mouvoir, To move, is an active verb. Pres. part. Mouvant, J\1ocing. Past part. Mu, e, Moved. 220 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. DIMS, meus, meuty mouvons, mouvez, meuvent. Imper. mouvais, mouvais, mouvait, mouvions, mouviez, mouvaient. Pret. def. mus, mus, mut, mumes, mutes, murent. Future, mouvrai, mouvras, mouvra, mouvrons, mouvrez, mouvront. Condit. mouvrais, mouvrais, mouvrait, mouvrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. mouvriez, mouvraient Pres. meuve, meuves, meuve, mouvions, mouviez, meuvent. Imper. musse, musses, mut, mussions, mussiez, mussent. Imp era. meus, meuve, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the three persons singular and third plural of the present indicative, which are ?neus, meus, meut, meuvent, instead of mouvois, mouvois, mouvoit, mouvent. 2d. In the three persons singular and third plural of the present subjunctive, which are meuve, meuves, meuve, meuvent, instead of mouve, mouves, mouve, mouvent. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated ac- cording to the formation of tenses. The same irregularities are in emouvoir, to move, to affect, to touch the feelings \ promouvoir, TO PROMOTE. EXERCISE 151. 57 128 What means will you employ to move that large stone ? — We shall ex.ii 99 ex \\ move it with a large lever ; our workmen moved it very easily last 87 ".il in year, and without doubt they will move it as easily to-morrow. — By 135 131 98 what power is your machine moved ? — By two horses. — I thought that 87 98 131 ex.ii it was moved by the wind. — Sometimes the wind moves it ; when there 167 137 44 137 5x.ll 111 111 is no wind, I employ horses. — Do horses move it as well as the wind ? — 87 ex.11 94 When the wind is strong, it moves it with more velocity ; but, when it is ex. 12 ex 11 not, the horses mov r e it better. 258. Present, Pleuvoir, Pres.part. Pleuvant, Past part. Plu, INFINITIVE MOOD. To rain, is a unipersonal verb, conjugated with avoir. Raining. Rained. INDICATIVE MOOD. pres. imper. pret. def. future, condit. il pleut, il pleuvait, il plut, il pleuvra, il pleuvrait. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. pres. imper. qu'il pleuve, qu'il plut. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 221 This verb may be conjugated with y, there-; thus, It rains there, . . . By pleut. It has rained there, . . 11 y a plu. EXERCISE 152. 134 21 & 22 Does it rain now ? — Not yet ; but it will rain soon. — Has it not rained 92 187 already ? — Yes. it has rained, but I perceive that it will rain again. — I 170 254 153 . am very sorry for it. Yesterday I was obliged to go out, and it 140 " 187&108 99 was raining. I thought sometimes that the rain would stop, but it rained 77 105 the whole day. — Had it not rained also the day previous ? — Yes. it 105 99 99 had rained. So it rained the day before yesterday ; it rained yesterday ; 104 , . 27&105 102 it has rained to-day, and, if the wind had not changed, it would rain to- 167&104 92 113 113 morrow. I do not think that there was ever a winter more rainy than the present. 259. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Pourvoir, To provide, is a neuter and active verb. Pres. part. Pourvoyant, Providing. Past part, Pourvu, e, Provided. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. pourvois, pourvois, pourvoit, pourvoyons, pourvoyez, pourvoient. Jmper. pourvoyais, pourvoyais, pourvoyait, pourvoyiops, pourvoyiez, pourvoyaient. Pret. pourvus, pourvus, pourvut, pourvurr^s, pourvutes, pourvurent. Fut. pourvoirai, pourvoiras, pourvoira, pourvpirons, pourvoirez, pourvoiront. Cond. pourvoirais, pourvoirais, pourvoirait, poi*voirions, pourvoiriez, pourvoiraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. pourvoie, pourvoies, pourvoie, pourvoyions, pourvoyiez, pourvoient. Imper. pourvusse, pourvusses, pourvut, pcurvussions, pourvussiez, pourvussent. Impera. pourvois, pourvoie, pourvoyons, pourvoyez, pourvoient. Although this verb is irregular according to the model recevoir, it is regularly conjugated according to the formation of tenses. 260. The preposition for. that is required after to provide, is translated into French by a ; and the preposition with, by de. He will provided/or his wants, II pourvoira a ses besoins. We were provided with pro- Nous etions pourvus de vivres. visions, This verb may be conjugated with y, for it ; thus, 1 provide for it, . . J ''y pourvois. Thou providest./or it, &c. Tu y pourvois, fyc. I have provided for it, &c. J\ ai pourvu, fyc. 19* 222 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER- EXERCISE 153. 108 62 105 I should have been very unhappy if Mr. L. had not been our friend $ 137 104 260 we had no money, but he provided for our wants. This year we ex. 23 have provided for them, and, with the help of God, we shall pro- ex. 23 190 260 vide for them for the future. We have already provided ourselves with 62 148 190 sufficient provisions for eight months. — Would you provide yourselves 260 142 ex.g with all the necessary things for your trade, if I should lend you two 190 260 thousand dollars ? — Yes, we could provide ourselves with the necessary 253 153 190 260 utensils 5 but it would be necessary for us to provide ourselves with 87 stock and materials, and they are now scarce and very dear. 2 61. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Pouvoir, To be able, is an active and defective verb. Pres. part. Pouvant, Being able. Past part. Pu, Been able. INDICATIVE MOOD. J^ tu il nous vous Us Pres. peux or puis> peux, pent, pouvons, pouvez, peitvent. Imper. pouvais, pouvais, pouvait, pouvions, pouviez, pouvaient. Pret.def pus, pus, put, primes, putes, purent. Future, pourrai, pourras, pourra, pourrons, pourrez, pourront. Condit. pourrais, pourrais, pourrait, pourrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. pourriez, pourraient. Pres. puisse, puisses, Suisse, puissions, puissiez, pwissent. Imper. pusse, pusses, pm pussions, pussiez, pussent. Imp era. . 262. This verb has two first persons singular, puis and peux, the use of which depends upon tasi* ; therefore, puis must be used instead of peux in an interrogation, thus, puis-je instead of peux-je. It requires the verb which follows it to be in the pres- ent infinitive without any preposition. Can /help you ? . . Puis je vous aider ? This verb is irregular, 1st, in the three persons singular and third person plural of the present indicative, which are puis or peux, peux, peut, peuvent. instead of pouvois, pouvois, pouvoit, pouvent. 2d. In the future and conditional, which are pourrai, fyc. pourrais, tyc. instead of pouvrai, 4' c « pouvrais, $c. See formation of tenses. DEFECTIVE AIs 7 D IRREGULAR VERBS. 223 3d. In the present subjunctive, which is puisse, puisses, puisse, puissions, puissiez, puissent, instead of pouve, pouves, pouve, pouvions, pouviez, pouvent. See the formation of tenses. It has no imperative. 263. When a negation is used with pouvoir, the pas or point, that generally follows another verb, is generally omitted with this, especially if a present infinitive comes after it ; but this is as much a matter of taste as of grammar ; however, be- fore an infinitive it is better to omit it. I cannot walk, . . Je ne puis marcher. 264. When can or may, could or might, are employed to express possibility or power they are translated by pouvoir ; as in Can you lend me that money ? Pouvez-vous me preter cet argent ? Gould we act differently ? Pouvions-nous, or pourrions-nous agir differ emment ? Explanation. In the second example, could is translated by pouvoir, because it is used here for webe we able, and not as the sign of the conditional, as is generally the case. This observation is very important, because could might be taken for the sign of the con- ditional, when it should be rendered by pouvoir, which is always the case when used in the sense of to be able. EXERCISE 154. 262 190 1 p 125 , -, • 127 . 19 ° Can I charge myself with that suit without exposing myself to the 174 262. censure of my friends ? — Certainly you can. — But if I cannot find all the 254 150 ex.ii 60 necessary proofs, it will be necessary for me to abandon it. — I have no 259 262 ex. 15 doubt that you will be able to find them. — But I suppose that I shall not 259 262 be able to procure a sufficient number of witnesses. — I am sure that you 94 174 " ex.2 will be able to find more than a dozen. — Of how many can you give me 92 185 the names ? — I can now give you the names of at least seven. — Then 254 ex. 2 you must give me all the particulars of the transaction, and I shall be able to commence advantageously your suit. 2 6 5. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Prevaloir, To prevail, is a neuter verb, conjugated with avoir. Pres. part. Prevalant, Prevailing. Past part. Prevalu, e, Prevailed. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il novs vous ils Pres. prevawx, prevawz, prevail, prevalons, prevalez, prevalent. Imper. prevalais, prevalais, prevalait, prevalions, prevaliez, prevalaient. 224 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. je tu il nous vovs ils Pret.def. prevalus, prevalus, prevalut, prevalumes, prevahites, prevalurent* Future, prevawdrai, prevaudras, prevaurfra, prevawtfrons, prevawdrez, prevaudront. Condit. prevaM -12 109 you think so ? — Yes, I think so.— Do you not fear that the wicked 150&309 tx.il 109 285 & 150 will tempt you ? — No, I do not fear it ; I fear only that God will not ex.1 84 141 148 109 protect me against them.- — If you did not fear God, would you fear that 153 & 309 ex.j ex.n the wicked would influence you ? — I think that I should not fear it ; be- 102 86 104 92 179 ex. 15 cause I should be wicked myself. — As for me, I have always feared them, I fear them now, and I shall always fear them. * ' Don't you' is for ' do you not.' 3 1 0. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Croire, To believe, is an active verb. Pres.part. Croyant, Believing. Past part. Cm, Believed. INDICATIVE MOOD. tu il nous crois, croit, croyons, croyais, croyait, croyions, cms, crut, crumes, croiras, croira, croirons, croirais, croirait, croirions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, croies, croie, croyions, crusses, crut, crussions, crois, croie, croyons, Pres. Imper. Pret. def. Future, Condit. Pres. Imper. Imptra. ;e crois, croyais crus, croirai, croirais croie, crusse, vous Us croyoz, croient. croyiez, croyaient, criites, crurent. croirez, croiront. croiriez, croiraient. croyiez, croient. crussiez, crussent. croyez, croient. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is croyant, instead of croiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is cru, instead of croiu. See the model vendre. 248 French practical teacher, 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is croit, instead of croi. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le, la, les, him or it, her or it, them ; thus, I believe her, &c. . t . Je la crois. Thou believest her, &c. * . Tu la crois, SfC. I have believed her, &c. . Je Vai crue, fyc. 311. When to believe is followed by a verb, preceded or not preceded by that, it is translated by croire in French, and the second verb, which must be preceded by que, is to be put in the indicative or subjunctive mood ; which case will be treated in the syntax of moods. In the following exercises the indica- tive mood only is to be used after croire. 312. When to believe has in before its object, that prepo- sition should be translated into French by a, except with the words God, Dieu ; Jesus-Christ, Jesus- Christ ; before which it is translated by en ; thus, Do you believe in God and Je- Croijez-vous en Dieu et en sus-Christ? Jesus-Christ ? Yes, I believe in them, Qui, fy crois. He does not believe in the Holy- II ne croit pas au Saint-Esprit Ghost nor the Holy- Virgin, ni a la Sainte-Vierge. 313. Another peculiarity connected with this verb is, that the word so, which sometimes follows to believe, is often trans- lated by que oui after croire, and the word not by que non ; as in I believe so, . . . Je crois que oui. I believe not, . . . . Je crois que non. EXERCISE 171.' 311 Do you believe in the immortality of the soul ? — Yes, and I believe 131 131 also that we shall be rewarded or punished in another life according to our actions in this world. Does your brother believe the bible ? — Yes j 311 bat he believes also in the infallibility of the Pope. But last year he 141 175 267 ex 11 35 did not believe in it. — I know it ; and perhaps next year he will believe DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 249 some other thing. Has he yet adopted the catholic religion ? — I believe 312 311 so. — And your cousin, does he believe in the infallibility of the Pope ? — 312 92 175 141 I believe not. However, he would perhaps believe in it, if he did not 267 believe the suggestions of his friend Mr. F. ; and I know that Mr. F. 311 35 does not believe even in the necessity of religion. 314. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Croitre, To grow, is a neuter verb, conjugated with itre and avoir. Pres.part. Croissant, Growing. Past part. Cr&, crue, Grown. INDICATIVE MOOD. P tu il nous nous Us Pres. crois, crois, croit, croissons, croisse z, croissent. Jmper. croissais, croissais, croissait, emissions, croissiez, croissaient. Pret.def. cms, cms, crut, criimes, cmtes, crurent. Future, croitrai, croitras, croitraia, croitrons, croit re z, croitront. Condit. croitrais, croitrais, cro'itrait, croitrions, croitriez, croitraient. g UBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. croisse, croisses, croisse, emissions, criossiez, croissent. Jmper. crusse, crusses, crut, crussions, crussiez, crussent. Jmpera. ■ crois, croisse, croissons, croissez, croissent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is croissant, instead of croitant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is cru, instead of croitu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the first and second persons singular of the present indicative, which are crois> crois, instead of crotts, droits. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 315. The compound tenses of this verb are formed with etre f to express the situation, state, and quality of the growth : and with avoir, to express the action of growing. The same irregularities are in accroitre, to increase ; de- croitre, to decrease ; recroitre, to grow again. EXERCISE 172. 135 . P*. 24 Does not cotton grow in the Island of Cayenne ? — Yes, it grows there. 135 24 Does the coffee-tree grow there also ? — Yes ; and all the colonial products 102 ex.24 87 98 131 174 ttt 135 & 102 would grow there, if they were cultivated. Would the grape vine grow * v 24 fx 12 87 102 174 57 there ? — I believe so j but it would not yield grapes. In what part of the 250 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. je tu Pres. dis, dis, Imper. disais, disais, Pret. def. dis, dis, Future, dirai, diras, Condit. dirais, dirais, Pres. dise, dises, Imper. disse, disses, Imp era. dis, world does the grape vine grow ? — It grows in almost all the countries 35 87 313 of Europe. — Does it grow in England?— I believe not j but potatoes ex.24 135 grow there perfectly well. — Do the trees of your country grow fast? — Generally not very fast ; but it seems that they formerly grew faster, if we believe the writings of our ancestors. 316. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Dire, To say, to tell, is an active verb. Pres. part. Disant, Saying, Past part. Dit, e, Said. INDICATIVE MOOD. U nous dit, disons, disait, disions, dit, dimes, dira, dirons, dirait, dirions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. disc, disions, dit. dissions, dise, disons, The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, pie, which is disant, instead of diant. 2d. In the past participle, which is dit, instead of diu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the third person singular and second plural of the pres- ent indicative, which are dit, dites, instead of di, disez. See the model vendre and the forma- tion of tenses. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is dis, fyc. instead of dits, fyc. See forma, of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le, la, les, lui, leur, it, THEM, TO HIM Or TO HER, TO THEM ; thus, I say it to them, . . Je le leur dis. Thou sayest it to them, &c. Tu le leur dis, fyc. 1 have said it to them, &c. Je le leur ai dit, tyc. 317. When the word yes, or not, or no, follows after to say, it must be translated by que out, que non. 318. The verb to tell is often used, in English, in a passive form, that is, with the verb to be ; as in, I am told, I vous ils dites, disent. disiez, disaient. dites, dirent. direz, diront. diriez, diraient* disiez, disent. dissiez, dissent. dites, disent. in the present pa See th e model vendre. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 251 HAVE BEEN TOLD, HE IS TOLD, HE HAS BEEN TOLD, . &C, which forms of expression are for some one tells me, somebody has TOLD ME, SOME ONE TELLS HIM, SOME ONE HAS TOLD HIM, &C. In which case, the French use the active form instead of the passive, by giving to the word dire the indefinite pronoun on for its nominative, and using dire in the simple tenses, or in the compound tenses wit\%avoir, corresponding to the simple or com- pound tenses of the verb to be, and using an objective verbal pronoun of the same number and person as the English nomina- tive of the phrase, for the indirect object of dire; as I am told that, . . . On me dit que. Thou hast been told that, . On fa dit que. He was told that, . . On lui disait que. You had been told that, . On vous avait dit que. They would have been told that, On leur aurait dit que. Explanation. In the first example, dit is in the present indicative, because it is the tense of the verb to be, in the English example ; and the objective verbal pronoun me of the first person singular is used with dire, because the nominative of the English is I. In the second example, a dit is in the preterite definite, because it is the tense of to be, in the English phrase ; and the objective verbal pronoun & of the second person singular is used with dire, because the nominative of the English phrase is thou, &c. 319. The verb dire always requires the conjunction que be- fore the verb that is its object, although the conjunction that fnay not be expressed after to say or to tell. If the following verb is in the infinitive, it should be preceded by the pre- position de in French. Redire, to say again, is like dire. EXERCISE 173. 104 ••< 12 104 ex 13 44 125 Mr. E. told me. that you said to him that you had books to sell. —Mr. 104 ex. 8 134 44 125 104 E. told you, do you say, that I have books to sell ? And when did he ex 8 105 178 99 fyc. The same irregularities exist in circonscrire, to circumscribe ; decrire, to describe ; inscrire, to inscribe ; prescrire, to pre- scribe : proscrire, to proscribe ; recrire, to write again ; souscrire, to subscribe ; transcrire, to transcribe. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 253 EXERCISE 174. 131 Have you written to your master that the turkeys are hatched ? — I 133 178 am writing to him now. — But do you not think that the ducks and gos- 326 & 101 35 ex.il 98 lings will be hatched next week ? — I do not believe it ; for, if I believed 102 ex. 8 99 it, T would not write now. — Has he written to you lately ? — He wrote ex. o 102 ex. 13 to me yesterday. — If I were you, I would not write to him now • I would 131 write to him only after the ducks and goslings shall be hatched. — Very ex. 13 35 62 well. Then I shall write to him next week or the following. Shall I 185 254 150 write him something for you ? — Yes. Write to him that he must write ex. 8 ex. 13 to me, and that I shall write to him very soon after. 322. Etre, to be, is a substantive and auxiliary verb. It is very irregular, since only its imperfect indicative and sub- junctive, its third person singular, and the three persons plural of the imperative, are regularly conjugated according to the for- mation of tenses. It is given at length at page 33. 323. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Faire, To make, or To do, is an active verb. Pres. part. Faisant, Malting, .. Doing. Past part. Fait, e, Made, .. Done. INDICATIVE MOOD. il nous fait, faisons, faisait, faisions, fit, fiwes, fera, ferons, ferait, ferions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. fasse, faisions, fit, fissions, fasse, faisons, This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is faisant, faiant. P tu . Pres. fais, fais, Imper. faisais, faisais Pret.def. fis, fis, Future, ferai, feras, Condit. ferais, ferais, Pres. fasse, fasses, Imper. fisse, fisses, Jmpera. • fais, vous 3s faites, font faisiez, faisaient. fites, firent. ferez, feront. feriez, feraient. fassiez, fassent. fissiez, fissent. faites, fassent. instead of See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is fait, instead of faiu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the 3d person sing.2d and 3d plur. of the pres. indicative, which are fait, faites, font, fai, faisez, faisent. instead of 22 See the model vendre, and formation of tenses. 254 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is fis, fyc. instead of faits, <§'c. See forma, of tenses. 5th. In the future and conditional, which are ferai, fyc. ferais, fyc. instead of fairai, fyc. fairais, fyc. See formation of tenses. 6th. In the present subjunctive, which is fosse, fyc. instead of falsest. See form.of tenses The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with leur y, there to them or FOR THEM ; thus, I make for them there, . Je leur yfais. Thou makest/or them there, &c. Tu leur jfois, fyc. I have made for them there, &c. Je leur y ai foit, fyc. The same irregularities are in contrefoire, to counterfeit ; defaire, to undo ; porfaire, to complete ; redefaire, to undo again ; refaire, to do again ; satisfaire, to satisfy ; surfaire, TO ASK Or CHARGE TOO MUCH. 324. There is not a verb in the French language used with more acceptions than faire. It would require a volume to give its different meanings ; therefore, it will be hereafter the sub- ject of special observations. It will only be said here, that it is generally used to translate to do, when not employed as an auxiliary to another verb ; to make, to walk, when used with a direct object; to be, to express the kind of weather, &c; as in I do nothing, Je ne fais Hen. He did it according to your or- II le fit selon vos ordres. ders, We will moke a fortune in a Nous ferons fortune en peu de short time, temps. They walked fifty miles in a lis firent cinquonte milles dans day, unjour. It wos fine weather ; but it was II faisait beau temps ; mats il too windy, faisait trop de vent. 325. But to do, without being used as an auxiliary, is not always translated by faire, especially in an answer, where it is employed to avoid the repetition of the verb of the question, in DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 255 which case it is sometimes rendered by f aire, and at other times by the verb of the question ; as in Did Henry carry the flowers Henry a-t-il porte les fieurs into the garden ? — He did, dans le jar din? — II Pa fait, sir, monsieur, or it les y a por- tees. 326. The verb faire is used unipersonally to translate to be, when this auxiliary is employed to express the temperature. or the weather ) as It is fine weather, . . II fait beau temps. It was very hot, . . .11 faisait tres-ckaud. 227. Malfaire, to do mischief, is a neuter and defective verb, used only in the present infinitive, and past participle mal- fait. In its compound tenses it is conjugated with avoir. 328. Mefaire, to misdo, is also a neuter and defective verb. used only in familiar conversation ; as in We must neither misdo nor slan- II ne faut ni mefaire ni me- der, dire. EXERCISE 175. 284 84 ex.ii 326 Will you make that cord for me ? — I will do it to-morrow, if it is fine 326 102 ex.ii weather ; but, if it should be damp, I cannot do it. — Why ? — Because, 326 92 324 133&22 56 when it is damp, I never do that kind of work. — Do you not make these 324 174 174 84 things ? — I do sometimes. — Will you make a dozen for me ? — Yes. — ex. 15 264 ox. 15 When will you make them? — I cannot make them to day, I am too much 131 324 fatigued • for, yesterday, I walked at least twenty miles ; but I shall ex. 15 35 " 87 254 150 131 make them next week. — They must be made to-morrow ; if you cannot ex. 15 ex. 15 84 102 ex 15 make them, another person will make them for me. — I would make them 264 172 269 if I could; but I cannot. — I am sorry for it, because I know that the 133 ex. 15 other workmen do not make them very well. 329. Frire, to fry, is an active and defective verb, it is sel- dom used and only in the singular. Faire frire is to supply it. of the present indicative, which is je fris, . tu fris, . il frit. In the future and conditional, which are je frirai, &c. je frirais,&c. In the second person singular of the imperative, which is fris. And in the past participle. which is frit, . frite. 256 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 176. 133 £^»11 Jane, hast thou fried the meat for our dinner ?— I am frying it now, 133 exii 133 madam. — And the fish ? — John is frying it. — "Very well. Does he fry it well ? — Yes, madam ; yesterday he fried the eels, and he did it very well.— When wilt thou fry the eggs ?— As soon as we shall have fried • . l _ T 254 150&340ex-i5 the fish and the meat. — However, thou must not fry them too soon ; it .278 109 250 is best not to fry them until we are at table. And the oysters, how are 87 118 26 118 they ? — I have fried the largest only ; I would have fried the smallest, ex.2 125 if you had not told me not to do it.— Very well ; I think thou hast fried 92 enough for to-day. 3 41. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Lire, To read, is an active verb. Pres. part. Lisant, Reading. Past part. ha, e, Read. INDICATIVE MOOD. il nous lit, lisons, lisait, lisions, lut, lumes, lira, lirons, lirait, lirions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. lise, lisions, liit, lussions, lise, lisons, This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is lisant, instead of liant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is lu, inatead of liu. See the model vendre, 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is lit, instead of li. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with la leur, it to them ; thus, I read it to them, . . Je le leur lis. Thou readest it to them, &c. . Tu le leur lis, fyc. I have read it to them, &c. . Je le leur ai lu, fyc. The same irregularities are in elire, to elect ; reelire, to reelect ; relive, to read again. Pres. Imper. Impera. Future, Condit. Pres. Imp. Impera. lis, lisais, lus, lirai, lirais, lise j lusse, tu lis, lisais, lus, liras, lirais, lises, lusses, lis. vous Us lisez, lisent. lisiez, lisaient. lutes, lurent. lirez, liront. liriez, liraient. lisiez, lisent. lussiez, lussent. lisez, lisent.. DEFECTIVE AISD IRREGULAR VERBS. 257 EXERCISE 177. 133 133 Are you reading the Journal, sir ? — No, sir ; I am reading the Ga- zette. — Have you read the great news of the day ? — What news ? — The 99 ex.il 57 news of the peace. — ! I read it yesterday. — Is it possible ! In what 1C4 paper did you read it ? — In one of the last evening. And you, have you 179 264 not read it ? — Not yet ; but I would read it with pleasure, if I could find ex. 8 174 284 .101 a paper. — I can give you one ; when will you read it? — I will read it in 102 ex.i 98 an hour. — You would oblige me much, if you read it sooner, because 253 101 my son must read it, and he will come soon from his store. — Very well. 101 84 I suppose he will read it fast, and I shall read it after him 3 42. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Maudire, To curse, is an active verb. Pres. part. Maudissant, Cursing-. Past part. Maudii, e, Cursed. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. maudis, maudis, maudif, maudissons, maudissez, maudissent. Imper. maudissais, maudissais, maudissait, maudissions, maudissiez, maudissaient. Pret. def. maudis, maudis, maudit, maudimes, maudites, maudirent. Future, maudirai, maudiras, maudira, maudirons, maudirez, maudiront. Condit. maudirais, maudirais, maudirait, maudirions, maudiriez, maudiraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. maudisse, maudisses, maudisse, maudissions, maudissiez, maudissent. Imper. maudisse, maudisses, maudit, maudissions, maudissiez, maudissent. Impera. maudis, maudisse, maudissons, maudissez, maudissent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is mau diss ant, instead of maudiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is maudit, instead of maudiu. See the model vendre, 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is maudit, instead of maudi. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may conjugated with le, laorles, him, her or them; thus, I curse him, . . Je le maudis. Thou cursest him, &c. . Tu le maudis, fyc. I have cursed him, &c. . Je Vai maudit, fyc. 22* 258 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 178. 99 62 169 ex. 15 When men became wicked. God cursed and punished them, and then 87 52 124 124 they cursed their destiny. The custom of blessing and cursing is very 62 98 52 87 62-* ancient. Our ancestors blessed their children when they were good ; ex. 15 ex. 1 but they cursed them when they were bad. Why do you curse me ? said ex. 5 a son one day to his father. — I curse thee, because thou hast not done i-i t<* 1 i ex,n 102 169 102 thy duty. If thou hadst done it, I would not curse, but I would bless thee. When thou wilt fulfil thy obligations towards God, towards thy 46 fex.5 ex.5 father and mother, I shall not curse thee, but I shall bless thee. When 131 125 I am obliged to curse thee, I am always sorry. Be good, and I shall 92 92 never curse thee, I shall always bless thee. 3 43. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Mettre, To put, or to place, is an active verb. Pres.part. Mettant, Putting, or placing. Past part. Mis, e, Put, or placed. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous Pres. mets, mets, met, mettons, Jmper. mettais, mettais, mettait, mettions, Pret.def. mis, mis, mit, mimes, Future, mettrai, mettras, mettra, mettrons, Condit. mettrais, mettrais, mettrait, mettrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Pres. mette, mettes, mette, mettions, Imper. misse, misses, mit, missions, Jmpera. mets, mette, mettons, The irregularties of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is mis, instead of mettu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are mets, mets, met, instead of metts, metts, mett. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with leuryen, of it there for them ; thus, I put of it there for them, . . Je leur y en mets. Thou puttest of it therefor them,&c. Tu leur y en mets, fyc. I have put of it therefor them, &c. Je leur y en ai mis, fyc. vous ils mettez, mettent. mettiez, mettaient. mites, mirent. mettrez, mettront. mettriez, mettraient. mettiez, mettent. missiez, missent. mettez, mettent. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 259 The same irregularities are in admettre, to admit ; com- mettre, to commit ; compromettre, compromise ; demettre, to remove ; s'entremettre, to mediate ; omettre, to omit; permettre, to permit ; promettre, to promise ; remettre, to put again, to postpone ; soumettre, to submit; transmettre, to transmit. EXERCISE 179. 133 John, art thou placing the dinner on the table ? — No, madam ; I 133 ex 11 179 am putting it on the fire. Hast thou not put it on the fire yet? — Not 101 92 ex. li yet, madam. When wilt thou then put it on the table? — I shall put 178 146 144 it there when it is cooked. Didst thou not put the meat on the fire 99 174 earlier yesterday ? — No, madam ; I put it at the same hour as to-day ; 174 140 ex. 6 but I would generally put it earlier, if you were willing. — I tell thee now 254 150 128 that thou must put the meat and other things on the fire,in order to have ex. 15 62 128 169 254 them ready to put upon the table at one o'clock. — It will be necessary 150 ex.ii for me then to put them on the fire earlier, and I shall do it, madam. 3 4 4. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Moudre, To grind, is an active verb. Pres.part. MouZant, Grinding. Past part. MouZu, e, Ground. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. mouds, mouds, moud, moulons, moulez, moulent. Imper. moulais, moulais, moulait, moulions, mouliez, moulaient. Pret.def. moulus, moulus, moulut, moulumes, moulutes, moulurent. Future , moudrai, moudras, moudra, moudrons, moudrez, moudront. Condit. moudrais , moudrais, moudrait, moudrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. moudriez, moudraient. Pres. moule, moules, moule, moulions, mouliez, moulent. Imper. moulusse , moulusses, moulut, moulussions moulussiez, moulussent. Impera. mouds, moule, moulons, moulez, moulent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is moulant, instead of moudant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is moulu, instead of moudu. See the model vendre The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le, it ; thus, I grind it, .... Je le mouds. Thou grindest it, &c. . . Tu le mouds, fyc. I have ground it, &c. . . Je Yai moulu, fyc. 260 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The same irregularities are in tmoudre, to whet; remoudre, TO GRIND AGAIN. EXERCISE 180. 133 bx.11 Miller, art thou grinding my wheat ?— Yes, sir, I am grinding it now. a j i i 179 -, • „ ^ " 264 And my corn, hast thou ground it ?— I ground it last Tuesday. Couldst thou grind two hundred bags of wheat next week?— I will grind four 174 98 ex.n hundred for you, if you wish it. Very well ; I have two hundred bags e * 2 .2 , 254 ex. 15 of it in my granary, thou must grind them at least in the current of 35 # 141 56 102 next week ; if thou didst not grind them within that time,thou wouldst dis- ex.i appoint me. Be not uneasy, T shall grind the whole before next Thurs- day, and I would grind more if I had it to grind. INFINITIVE MOOD. To be burn, is a neuter verb, and is conjugated with itre. Pres. nais, Imper. naissais, Pret.def. Future, naquis, naitrai, Condit. naitrais, Pres. naisse, Imper. Impera. naquisse, vous Us naissez, naissent. naissiez, naissaient. naquUes. naquirent. naitrez, naitront. naitriez, naitraient. naissiez, naissent. naquissiez, naquissent. naissez, naissent. 345. Present, Naitre, Pres. part. Naissant, Being born, Past part. Ne, nee, Been born. indicative mood. tu il nous nais, nait, naissons, naissais, naissait, naissions, naquis, naquit, naquimes, nattras, naitra, naitrons, naitrais, naitrait, naitrions, subjunctive mood. naisses, naisse, naissions, naquisses, naquit, naquissions, nais, naisse, naissons, The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is naissant, instead of naitant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is ne, instead of naita. See the model vendre. 3d. In the first and second persons singular of the present indicative, which are nais, nais, instead of naits, naits, See the model vendre. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is naquis, fyc. instead of nes, fyc. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. The same irregularities are in renaitre, to be born again. 346. It is necessary to notice that was born, &c, is always translated by the compound of the present indicative je suis ne y DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 261 tu es ni, fyc, unless the day or precise date of the birth be ex- pressed, and relates to a deceased person, in which case it is rendered by the preterite definite il naquit, Us naquirent, and sometimes by the compound of the present indicative il est ni. Us sont nes. What is the age of your child- Quel est Vage de vos enfants ? ren? Lucy was born in September, Lucie est nee en Septembre, eighteen hundred and twenty- mil huit cent vingt-deux, et two, and John inOctober, eight- Jean en Octobre, mil huit teen hundred and twenty-five, cent vingt-cinq. Napoleon Bonaparte was born Napoleon Bonaparte naquit le on the fifteenth of August, quinze Aout mil sept cent seventeen hundred and sixty- soixante-neuf. nine, EXERCISE 181. 346 131 Where was you born ? — I was born in America And your brother, 346 57 where was he born ? — He was born in France. In what year? — 1 was 12 born in the year eighteen hundred and twenty, and my brother was born 12 98 in the year eighteen hundred and fifteen. You were born when Mr. 99 174 57 Adams was elected president of the United-States ? — Yes, I was. What day was you born ? — I was born the first of January. And your broth- 346 er? — My brother was born the first of February. Were not your twin 131 sisters born after you ? — No ; they were born on the first of August. 12 eighteen hundred and seventeen. INFINITIVE MOOD. 347. Present^ Nuire, Pres. part. Nuisant Past part. Nui, Hurt, INDICATIVE MOOD To hurt, is a neuter veib, conjugated with avoir ^ Hurting. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. nuis, nuis, nuii, nuisons, nuisez, nuisent. Jmper. nuisais, nuisais, nuisait, nuisions, nuisiez, nuisaient. Pret.def. nuLsis, nuisis, nuisit, nuis^mes, numtes, nuisirent. Future, nuirai, nuiras, nuira, nuirons, nuirez, nuiront. Condit. nuirais, nuirais, nuirait, nuirions, nuiriez, nuiraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. nuise, nuises, nuise, nuisions, nuisiez, nuisent. Jmper. nuisisse, nuisisses, nuisit. nuisissions, nuisissiez, nuisissent. Jmpera. nuis, nuise, nuisons, nuisez, nuisent 262 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is nuisant, instead of nuiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is nui, instead of num. See the model vendre 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is nuit, instead of nui. See the model vendre. 4th. In the preterite definite, which is nuisis, instead of nuis. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 348. This verb requires the preposition a before its object. It may be conjugated with leur, them ; thus, I hurt them, . . Je leur nuis. Thou hurtest them, &c. . . Tu leur nuis, fyc. 1 have hurt them, &c. . Je leur ai nui, fyc. The same irregularities are in luire, to shine ; reluire, to shine again ; which are defective verbs since they have no pre- terite definite nor imperfect subjunctive. EXERCISE 182. 190 56 If Mr. P. comes and establishes himself in this city, will he hurt your 348 cx 11 interest ? — If he opens his establishment in my vicinity, he will do it 133 ex.s 174 certainly. — Does Mr. R. hurt you now ? — Yes, he does ; I am sure that ex 2 102 . 109 he hurts me very much ; I would give several thousand dollars that he 110 98 98 ex. 8 ex.13 might not be there. — I thought he hurt you. But do you not hurt him 192 190 ' ' 84 102 also ? — If he had established himself here before me, I would say that I ex.13 84 hurt him ; but as I was here before him, I think that I can reasonably ex.2 162 _ . 98 say that he hurts me. If he had remained in the place where he was 179 102 before, he would not have hurt me and I should not have hurt him ; but, 254 150 ex.2 ex.13 as we are, he must hurt me, and I must hurt him. 349. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Paitre, To graze, is a neuter and defective verb. Pres. part. Pai&sant, Grazing. Past part. Pw, Grazed. INDICATIVE MOOD. J e tu il nous vous its Pres. pais, pais, pait, paissons, paissez, paissent. Imper. paissais, paissais. paissait, paissions, paissiez, paissaient. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 263 Pret.def. Future, paitrai, Condit. paitrais. Pres. Imper. tu il nous vous Us -4 paitront. paitraient. paissent. paitras, paitrais paisses, paitra, paitrons, , paitrait, paitrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. paisse. paissions. paitrez, paitriez, paissiez, Impera. paisse paissez, paissent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is paissant, instead of pattant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is pu, instead of paltu. See the model vendre, 3d. In the first and second persons singular of the present indicative, which are pais, pais, instead of paits, paits. See the model vendre. The preterite definite, the imperfect subjunctive, and the second person singular and first plural of the imperative are wanting ; and the past participle is very seldom used. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 350. This verb is generally used with the verb faire, thus, faire paitre, je fais paitre, fyc, to express the action of taking care of the cattle whilst they are grazing. Repaitre, to feed, is conjugated like paitre, but has a pre- terite definite, which is repns, fyc. EXERCISE 183. 87 133 Where are the sheep now ? — They are grazing in the meadow. Where 104 87 did they graze yesterday ? — In the wood. When will they graze on the 102 ex. 04 167 44 hill? — They would graze there now, if there was any grass. How! 167 137 133 There is no grass ! Art thou not jesting ? I think the hill is one of 115 167 ex. 22 264 our best pastures. — There is so little of it now, sir, that one sheep could < x -24 278 not graze there a whole day. It is better to wait three or four weeks, 146 & 264 px- 24 and then not only the sheep, but the cows can graze there. Thou sayest 140 151 133 that yesterday they were grazing in the wood, and now they are grazing 133 in the meadow. Why are they not grazing in the forest? — Because they 125 do not like to graze always in the same place. 264 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 351. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Plaire, To please, is a neuter verb, conjugated with avo Pres. part. Plaisant, Pleasing, Past part. Flu, e Pleased. INDICATIVE MOOD. j« tu il nous vous Us Pre*. plais, plais plaii, plaisons, plaisez, plaisent. Imper. plaisais, plaisais, plaisait, plaisions, plaisiez, plaisaient Pret. def. plus, plus, plut, plumes, plutes, plurent. Future, plairai, plairas, plaira, plairons, plairez, piaircnt. Condit. plairais, plairais, plairait, plairions, plairiez, plairaient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. plaise, plaises, plaise, plaisions, plaisiez, plaisent. Imper. plusse, plusses, plut, plussions, plussiez, plussent. Imp era. - plais, plaise, plaisons, plaisez, plaisent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is plaisant, instead of plaiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is plu, instead of plain. See the model vendre. 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is plait, instead of plai. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 352. This verb requires the preposition a before its object, although to please requires none. It may be conjugated with lui, to him or to her ; thus, I please him or her, Thou pleasest him or her, &c. I have pleased him or her, &c. Deplaire, is conjugated like plaire, and requires also a before its object. EXERCISE 184. 135 ex. g 269 Does the work of Mr. F. please you ? — Yes, sir. — Do you know 133 ex.i3 whether it pleases Mr. G. ? — I believe it does not please him very well, 304 313 35 — Does he know the author ? — 1 believe not. — Does he like romances ? — 133 ex.13 142 ex. 15 I believe that they do not please him at all. If he did like them, I 60 148 54 144 have no doubt that he would like Mr. F.'s book. — Did Mr. H. say yes- 87 87 169 ex 2 terday whether it pleased or displeased him ? — Yes, sir ; he told me that Je lui plais. Tu lui plais, fyc. Je lui ai plu, fyc. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 265 je Pres. prends, Jmper. prenais, Pret.def. pris, Future, prendrai, Condit. prendrais Pres. premie, Imper. priese, Imp era. vous ils prenez, prennent. preniez, prenaient. prites, prirent. prendrez, prendront. prendriez, prendraient preniez, prewnent prissiez, prissent. prenez, prennent. ex- 13 104 & 192 it pleased him very much. — But did Mr. G. complain of the subject or 104 & 192 23 of the style ? — He complained of nothing in particular j but he said that 139 23 128 ex. x3 it contained nothing to please him. 35 3. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Prendre, To take, is an active verb. Pres. part. Prenant, Taking. Past part. Prw, e, Taken. INDICATrVE MOOD. tu il nous prends, prend, prenons, prenais, prenait, prenions, pris, prit, primes, prendras, prendra, prendrons, prendrais, prendrait, prendrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. prennes, prenne, prenions, prisses, prit, prissions, prends, prenne, prenons, The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is prenant, instead of prendant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is pris, instead of prendu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the third person plural of the present indicative, which is prennent, instead of prenent. See the formation of tenses. 4th. In the three persons singular and third person plural of the present subjunctive, which are prenne, prennes, prenne, prennent, instead of prene, prenes, prene, prenent. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with y en, of it there ; thus, I take of it there, . . /' yen prends. Thou takest of it there, tec. . Tu y en prends, fyc. I have taken of it there, &c. J'y en ai pris, fyc. The same irregularities are in apprendre, to learn ; com- prendre, to understand; desapprendre, to unlearn; entre- prendre, to undertake; se meprendre, to mistake ; rapprendre, to learn again ; reprendre, to take again, to correct; sur- prendre, to surprise. 23 266 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EXERCISE 185. 135 35 44 Does Miss A, learn music ? — Yes, she takes lessons of Mr. K.— 134 . 125 Does she continue to learn the French language ? — Yes, sir j she 44 98 140 49 takes lessons of Mr. P. — I thought that she was taking her lessons of 325*98 23 35 Mr. B. ? — She did ; but as she was learning nothing with him, last month 99 134 she took her lessons of Mr. P. — Does she learn better with Mr. P. ? — I be- 313 94 lieve not ; but he gives more lessons than Mr. B., and she hopes that she 113 133 21 shall learn faster.— If she does not learn faster, will she take another 313 109 150 35 teacher ? — I believe not ; and although she learns music very well, she 125 44 begins to believe that she cannot learn languages ; and after she shall 92 42 have left Mr. P., she will perhaps undertake some other study. 3 54. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Resoudre, To resolve, is an active verb. Pres.part. Reso7?;ant, Resolving. Past part. ResoZu, e, Resolved. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. resous, resous, resout, resolvons, resolvez, resolvent. Imper. resolvais, resolvais, resolvait, resolvions, resolviez, resolvaient. Pret.def. resolus, resolus, resolut, resolumes, resohltes, resolurent. Future, resoudrai, resoudras, resoudra, resoudrons, resoudrez, resoudront. Condit. resoudrais, resoudrais, resoudrait, resoudrions, resoudriez, resoudraient. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. resolve, resolves, resolve, resolvions, resolviez, resolvent. Imper. resolusse, resolusses, resolut, resolussions, resolussiez, resolussent. Impera. resous, resolve, resolvons, resolvez, resolvent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is resolvant, instead of resoudant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is resolu, instead of resoudu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are r&sous, rksous, risout, instead of resouds, rcsouds, rtsoud. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le, la or les, it, them or HIM, HER, THEM ; thus, I resolve it, Je le risous. Thou resolvest it, &c. . Tu le r6sous, fyc. I have resolved it, &c . Je Vai resolu, fyc. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 267 EXERCTSE 186. Have you resolved your mathematical questions ? — Not yet, sir.— ex. 15 133 62 When will you resolve them ? — I am resolving now the second in Ge- 102 ex.il ometry.— When will you resolve the third ? — I would resolve it this 264 125 evening, if I could finish early. — But you have also to resolve three 35 254 150 ex. 15 questions in Algebra ; and you must resolve them before next Saturday. 267 ex.u ' 99 99 ex.il — I know it, sir ; but yesterday I resolved the first, and, as T found it 62 99 102 easy, I thought that I would resolve the others another time. — Do you 269 179 ex. 15 99 know whether the other scholars have resolved them ? — Eugene resolved ex. 15 133 ex.15 them yesterday ; Victor and Leon are resolving them now ; and proba- ex.15 bly the other scholars will not resolve them. 355. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Rire, To laugh, is a neuter and defective verb, conjugated Pres. part. Riant, Laughing. [with avoir. Past part Ri, Laughed. INDICATIVE MOOD. 3& tu U nous vous Us Pres. ris, ris, rit, rions, riez, rient. Imper. riais, riais, riait, riions, riiez, riaient. Pret. def. ris, ris, rit, rimes, rites, rirent. Future, rirai, riras, rira-, rirons, rirez, riront. Candit. rirais, rirais. rirait, ririons, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. ririez, riraient. Pres. rie, ries, rie, riions, riiez, rient. Imper. risse, risses rit, rissions, rissiez, rissent. Impera. The rient. past partici- irregularities rie, nons, of this verb are, 1st, in the pie, which is H, instead of riu. See the m odel vendre. 2d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is rit, instead of ri. See the model vendre. The past participle is always invariable. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 356. This verb requires the preposition de before the noun which is the cause of the laughter, although in English, to laugh requires the preposition at ; as in Is he laughing at me, or at my Rit-il de moi, ou de mes obser- observations ? vations ? 268 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 357. However, to laugh at one to his face is translated by rire au nez a quelqu'un ; but this must be considered as an exceptional case. Rire may be conjugated with en, at him, her, them or it ; thus, I laugh at it, . . . J'en ris. Thou laughest at it, &c. . . Tu en ris, fyc. I have laughed at it, &c. . /'en ai ri, fyc. The same irregularities are in sourire, to smile. EXERCISE 187. _ 133 356 133 356 Dost thou laugh at my dress ?— No ; but I am laughing at thy hat.— Why ? — Because it seems to have been made to laugh at. — Ts it so ri- ,. . . 254 170 176 diculous that you must laugh at it ? — I think it is ; and I see that several 170 ex.ii 87 persons laugh at it also ; and, if thou dost not change it soon, they will 356 171 ' 142 ex.il laugh at thee.— Would they not laugh, if I should not wear it ? — I be- ?. u . 356 neve they would laugh at thy coat. — Perhaps they have a natural dispo- . . 87 141 356 171 359 sition to laugh ; and, if they did not laugh at me, they would laugh at an- 356 171 other person. — Very well. Dost thou see,yesterday I was laughing at them, 87 356 171 356 171 to-day they laugh at me, and perhaps to-morrow we shall laugh at thee. 35 8. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present^ Rompre, To break, is an active and neuter verb. Pres. part. Rompant, Breaking. Past part. Rompu, e, Broken. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. romps, romps, rompi, rompons, rompez, rompent. Imper. rompais, rompais, rompait, rompions, rompiez, rompaient. Pret.def. rompis, rompis, rompit, rompfcmes, rompztes, rompirent. Future, romprai, rompras, rompra, romprons, romprez, rompront. Condit. romprais, romprais, romprait, romprions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. rompriez, rompraient. Pres. rompe, rompes, rompe, rompions, rompiez, rompent. Imper. rompisse, rompisses, rompit, rompissions, rompissiez, rompissent. Impera. romps, rompe, rompons, rompez, rompent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the third person singular of the present indicative, which is ro?npt, instead of romp. See the model vendre 2d In the preterite definite, which is rompis, &c. instead of rompus, fyc. See formation of tenses. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording the formation of tenses. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 269 This verb may be conjugated with le, la or les, it, them; thus, I break them, . . Je les romps. Thou breakest them, &c. Tu les romps, fyc. I have broken them, &c. Je les ai rompus, or rompues, fyc. The same irregularities are in interrompre, to disturb, to interrupt ; corrompre, to corrupt. EXERCISE 188. Joseph, where is John ? — He is breaking the ice in the pond. Why 84 ex -2 art thou not breaking it with hirn ? — Because he told me that he 102 ex 11 would break it without me, and now I am breaking the door of the Cel- ex 11 , 131 lar. Why art thou breaking it ? — Because the key of the lock is lost, 254 150 128 25 and 1 must break the door to enter. — Canst thou not enter without 127 ex ii 262 174 264 174 102 ex.n breaking it ? — I cannot, sir ; if T could,l would not break it. — Very well. 181 324 ex.il 102 Break it then. — I do it, sir. — However, before breaking the door, would it 278 125 325 104&261 not be better to try to break the lock ? — I did, sir j but T have not been able to succeed. 359. Soudre, to resolve, is an active and defective verb, used only in the present infinitive ; as in To resolve a question, . . Soudre arte question. But this verb is out of use, and risoudre should be employed instead of it. 360. Sourdre, to spring, is a neuter and defective verb, used only in the present infinitive, and in the third persons singular and plural of the present indicative, which are il sourd, Us sour dent ; as in The water springs abundantly JJeau sourd abondamment de ce from that rock, rocher. The Rhine, Rhone and Po, Le Rhin, Rhone et le PS, spring from the foot of the sourdent au pied de la meme same mountain, montagne. 3 61. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Suffire, To be sufficient, is a neuter and defective verb, conjugated Pres. part. Suffisant, Being sufficimt. with avoir. Past part. Suffi, Been sufficient. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous ils Pres. suffis, suffis, sufFii, euffisons, suffisez, suffisent. Imper. suffisais, suffisais, Buffisait, suflisions, suffisiez, suffisaient. 23* 270 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Pret. def. Future, Condit. Pres. Imper. Impera. suffis, suffirai, suffirais, suffise, suffisse, tu suffis, suffiras, suffirais, il suflit, suffira, suffirait, 71011S suffimes, suffirons, suffirions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. suffises, suffise, suffisions, suffisses, suffit., suffissions, snffis, suffise, suffisons, vous suffites, suffirez, suffiriez, suffisiez, suffissiez, suffisez, Us suffirent. suffiront. suffiraient. suffisent. suffissent. suffissent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is suffisant, instead of s affiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is suffi, instead of suffiu. 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is suffit, instead of suffi. See the model vendre. Its past participle is invariable. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 362. This verb requires the preposition a before its object, though to suffice requires for ; it may be conjugated with y, FOR IT Or FOR THEM j thus, I am sufficient for it, . . «7'y suffis. Thou art sufficient for it, &c. . Tu y suffis, fyc. I have been sufficient/br it, &c. J'y ai suffi, fyc. Or with the indirect passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, lui, nous, vous, leur ; thus, That occupation is sufficient for me, Cette occupation me sufflt. That occupation is sufficient for thee, Cette occupation te suffit. That occupation is sufficient for him, Cette occupation lui suffit. That occupation is sufficient for her, Cette occupation lui suffit. That occupation is sufficient for us, Cette occupation nous suffit. That occupation is sufficient for you, Cette occupation vous suffit. That occupation is sufficient for them, Cette occupation leur suffit. EXERCISE 189. Can I do any thing for you ? — You are very good, sir ; but my means ex 7 suffice to my wants ; I thank you for your kindness. — Do they suffice 362 & 175 easily for them ? — Not very easily ; but, as I do not spend much, a 94 362 130 & 135 little money is sufficient for me. — Are five hundred dollars sufficient for DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 271 your annual expenses ? — Sir, I do not spend four hundred dollars ; three 362 55 135 , . 362 hundred dollars are sufficient for me. — Will that sum be sufficient for 35 102 361 you next year ? — I believe not, sir j it would be sufficient, if m3 r expenses 141 99 35 144 103 did not increase. — Was it sufficient last year ? — I did not spend more than 12 two hundred and seventy-five dollars ; but, if my expenses increase m 101 361 the same proportion, three hundred will not be sufficient. 3 63. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Suivre, To follow, is an active verb. Pres. part. Suivant, Following. Past part. Suivi, e, Followed. INDICATIVE MOOD. tu il nous vous Us suis, smt, suivonSj suivez, suivais, suivait, suivions, suiviez, suivis, suivit, suivimes, suivites, suivras, suivra, suivrons, suivrez, suivrais, suivrait, suivrions, suivriez, Suis, suivais, suivis, suivrai, suivrais SUBJUNCTfVE MOOD. suive, suivisse, suives, suivisses, suis, suive, suivit, suive, suivions, suivissions, suivons. suiviez, suivissiez, suivez, suivent. suivaient. suivirent suivront. suivraient. suivent. suivissent. suivent. Pres. Imper. Pret.def. Future 4 Coudit. Pres. Imper. Imp era. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the past partici- ple, which is suivi, instead of suivu. See the model vendre. 2d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are suis, suis, suit, instead of suivs, suivs, suiv. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with les y, them there ; thus, I follow them there, . Je les y suis. Thou followest them there, &c. Tu les y suis, fyc. I have followed them there, &c. Je les y ai suivis, or suivies, fyc. The same irregularities are in poursuivre, to pursue ; s'ensuivre, to follow; but s'ensuivre is a unipersonal verb, used only in the third person singular of each tense. EXERCISE 190. 133 ex n 87 Do you always follow the fashion ? — I generally follow it when it is 144 ex.ii 35 not ridiculous. — Did you follow it last year? — No. — Why? — Because it 213 ex. 2 105&162 274 t' x - 8 108 & 179 did not become me.— If it had become you, would you have followed 272 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. it? — Yes. — Your friend Mrs, C. follows it always, and she says she will 101 92 £x.H 323 ex.11 always follow it. — She does very well to follow it, because she is rich 102 274 ex. 14 and so beautiful, that even a homely dress would become her. Howev- 254 150 ex.n 269 261 er, I must follow it this year.— As for me,you know that T cannot follow ex.11 35 101 55 174 it ? — You cannot now ; but next month you will quit that dress, I hope, 87 & 101 and follow the fashion. Present, Ta re, 1 ^o keep secret, or Not to say. is an active verb. Pres. part. Taisant, Keeping secret, or Not saying. Past part. Tu , twe, Kept secret, or Not said. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il nous vous Us Pres. tais, tais, taii, taisons, taisez, taisent. Imper. taisais, taisais , taisait, taisions, taisiez, taisaient Pret. def. tus, tus, tut, tumes, tutes, turent. Future, tairai, tairas, taira, tairons, tairez, tairont. Condit. tairai's, tairais , tairait, tairions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. tairiez, tairaient. Pres. taise, taises, taise, taisions, taisiez, taisent. Imper. tusse, tusses tut, tussions, tussiez, tussent. hnpera. tais, taise, taisons, taisez, taisent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the present partici- ple, which is taisant, instead of taiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is tu, instead of taiu. See the model vendre. 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is tail, instead of tai. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may conjugated with le, la or les, it them ; thus, I keep it secret, &c. . . Je le tais. Thou keepest it secret, &c. . Tu le tais, fyc. I have kept it secret, &c. . Je Yai tu, cf-c. 365. When taire has no direct object, it is never used with- out the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se, that is, without a reflective form, and then it means to stop talking or speaking ; thus, I keep silent, . . . Je me tais. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 273 Thou keepest silent, &c. . Tu te tais, fyc. I have kept silent, &c. . . Je me suis tu, fyc. This verb means also to be silent, to keep silence, to hold one's tongue ; therefore hold your tongue is translated by taisez-vous. EXERCISE 191. 102 ex.i 365 & 142 Those young men would oblige me, if they stopped talking. — Why do 185 125 365 92 you not tell them to hold their tongues ?— Because, I hope they will soon 131 365 141 365 be tired and that they will stop speaking. — If they did not stop speaking, 148 185 125 365 102 125 ex-n would you not tell them to hold their tongues ? — I should like to do it, 174 ._ 185 174 324 but I do not dare. — If you wish, I will tell them. — Very well, do it then. ex. 7 125 365 26 — Gentlemen, Mr. R. requests you to be silent. — We had only two words 125 133 365 365 146 to say, now we are going to keep silence. If you are not silent, he can- ex. 8 _ • 267 ex.ii . 101 125 not give you the lesson. — We know it. Therefore, you will not have to ex.4 365 tell us again to hold our tongues. 366. Tistre, to weave, is an active verb, no longer used except in the compound tenses, formed with its past participle tissu, e. 3 6 7. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Traire, To milk, is an active and defective verb. Pres.part. Trayant, Milking. Past part. Trait, Milked. Pres. Imper. Pret.def. Future, Condit. Pres. Imper. lmpera. 3* trais, trayais, tu trais, travais, INDICATIVE MOOD. U nous trait, trayons, trayait, trayions, vous trayez, trayiez, ils traient. trayaient. trairai, trairas, traira, trairons, trairez, trairont. trairais, trairais trairait, trairions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. trairiez, trairaient. traie, traie s, traie, trayions, trayiez, traient. trayez, trais, traie, trayons, This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is trayant, instead of traiant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the past participle, which is trait, instead of traiu. See the model vendre* 3d. In the third person singular of the present indicative, which is trait, instead of trai. See the model vendre. The preterite definite, and imperfect subjunctive are wanting. 274 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The same irregularities are in abstraire, to abstract : attraire, to entice ; distraire, to distract ; extraire, to extract ; ren- traire, to darn; retraire, to redeem ; soustraire, to substract. EXERCISE 192. 104 133 Jane, have you milked the cows ? — No, sir ; but Frances is milking ex. 15 254 ex. 15 102 them now. — Well ! Then you must milk them to-morrow. — I would milk ex. 15 140 ex.15 140. them now, if Frances was not milking them. — Was you not milking 99 them when I came from the field yesterday ? — No, sir j Frances 140 ex. 15 104 was milking them.— When did you milk them last ?— Last Tuesday. — 125 324 ex.11 It seems that you milk them very seldom ; do you dislike to do it ? — Not 269 125 133 125 precisely ; but, as I know that Frances likes to milk, I do not wish to ex 10 124 104 92 deprive her of the pleasure of milking. — Did you ever milk a goat ? — 35 Never. Is their milk good for people ?— It is very good ; the French ex.11 54 prefer it to cow's milk. 368. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Vaincre, To conquer, is an active verb. Pres. part. Vaingwant, Conquering. Past part. Vaincu, je, Conquered. INDICATIVE MOOD. je tu il Pres. vaincs, vaincs, vainc, Jmper. vainquais, vainquais, vainquait, Pret.def. vaingwis", vainquis, vaingwit, Future, vaincrai, vaincras, vaincra, Condit. vaincrais, vaincrais, vaincrait, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. vainque, vainques, vainque, vainquions, vainquiez, vainquent. Imper. vainquisse, vainquisses, vainquit, vainquissions,vainquissiez,vainquissent. Impera. vaincs, vainque, vainquons, vainquez, vainquent. This verb is irregular, 1st, in the present participle, which is vainquant, instead of vaincant. See the model vendre. 2d. In the preterite definite, which is vainquis, fyc. instead of vaincus, tyc. See forma, of tenses The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. This verb may be conjugated with le, la or les, him, her, them ; thus, I conquer him, . . . Je le vaincs. nous nous its vainquons, vainquez, vainquent. vainquions, vainquiez, vainquaient. vainjttfcmes, vaingiutes, vaingmrent. vaincrons, vaincrez, vaincront. vaincnons, vaincriez, vaincraient. DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 275 Thou conquerest him, &c. . Tu le vaincs, fyc, I have conquered him, &c. . Je Vai vaincu, fyc. The singular of the present indicative and the whole of the imperfect indicative should be used as seldom as possible. The same irregularities are in convaincre, to convince. EXERCISE 193. 104 The French in the space of twenty years, conquered all the nations 35 99 131 84 87 &8 125 of Europe ; but finally they were conquered by them. If they had to 102 98 131 sustain a new war, would they not conquer now ? — If they were obliged 125 •' 35 264 to sustain it against all the nations of Europe, they might conquer in 102 131 the beginning ; but finally they would be conquered. Perhaps they 92 125 109 150 will soon have to fight against Russia, do you believe that they will con- 167 26 101 quer ? — If there are only Russians, certainly they will conquer ; but per- 84 35 haps they will have with them all the other nations of Europe.— Well ; 144 ex.15 but did they not conquer them all in the time of the republic ? — I believe they did. 3 69. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Vivre, To live, is a neuter and defective verb, conjugated Pres part, Vivant, Living, [with avoir. Past part. Yecu, Lived, INDICATIVE MOOD. F tu il nous vous Us Pres. vis, vis, vit, vivons, vivez, vivent. Imper. vivais, vivais, vivait, vivions, viviez, vivaient. Pret.def, vecus, vecus, vecut, vecumes, vecutes, vecurent. Future, vivrai, vivras, vivra, vivrons, vivrez, vivront. Condit. vivrais, vivrais, vivrait, vivrions, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. vivriez, vivraient. Pres. vive, vives, vive, vivions, viviez, vivent. Imper vecusse, vecusses, vecut, vecussions, vecussiez, vecussent. Impera. vis, vive, vivons, vivez, vivent. The irregularities of this verb are, 1st, in the past participle, which is vecu, instead of vivu. See the model vendre. 2d. In the three persons singular of the present indicative, which are vis, vis, vit, instead of vivs, vivs, viv. See the model vendre. The other persons and tenses are regularly conjugated, ac- cording to the formation of tenses. 278 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 370. The verb to live requires the preposition upon, be- fore the name of the food used, and in French the verb vivre requires the preposition de; thus, I live upon vegetables, . Je vis de vegetaux. Apes and many other animals Les singes et beaucoup d'autres live upon fruit, animaux vivent de fruit. This verb may be conjugated with en, of it, from it, upon it ; thus, I live from it, . . . J 'en vis. Thou Mvestfrom it, &c. . . Tu en vis, fyc. I have lived from it, &c. . J'en ai vecu, fyc. The same irregularities are in revivre, to revive ; survivre, TO SURVIVE, to outlive. EXERCISE 194. 133 370 Dost thou live now exclusively upon vegetables ? — Not entirely ; I 370 31 35 140 370 live also upon fish and meat. But last year didst thou not live upon 31 370 26 crackers and vegetables only ? — Yes ; but I lived upon that food only 144 105 one month. Why didst thou not continue ?— Because, if I had continu- 108 87 ed, I should not have lived two months. But Mr. E. says that one lives 130 370 130 . 370 longer by living upon vegetables, than by living upon meat. — If I should 148 44 142 103 ' x. 22 not eat meat, I should die in less than two months, I am sure of it. How 135 92 370 does your father live ? — He lives and has always lived upon all the good 55 104&179 ex 15 ex. 4 128 ex.3 things of this world, saying that God gave them to us not to poison us, 128 185 44 but to do us good. CHAPTER X. POSSESSIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND OTHER PRONOUNS. POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. As there are different kinds of articles to determine the extent of the signification of substantives, so there are several kinds of pronouns to represent them ; and, as articles must agree in gen- POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 277 der and number with the nouns whose signification they deter- mine, so pronouns must agree in gender and number with the nouns they represent. 371. We have seen that the possessive personal articles are, in English, my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their ; in French, mon, ton, son, son, son, notre, votre, leur, ma, ta, sa, sa, sa, mes, tes, ses, ses, ses, nos, vos, leurs; which, in English, take the gender and number of the posses- sor, and, in French, that of the possessed object. See pages 71, and following. 372. The rule for the possessive personal pronouns is the same as that for the possessive articles ; with this difference, that the articles are never used without a noun, and the pronouns never with a noun, except only when that noun, being under- stood, must be represented by them. 373. When the possessed object belongs to the individual who is speaking, that is, to the first person singular, we must use, if that object is Masculine singular, Feminine singular, Masc. plural, Femin. plural, For mine, le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes. of or from mine, du mien, de la mienne, des miens, des miennes. to or at mv or mine, an mien, d la mienne, aux miens, aux miennes. Lend me thy book, and I shall Prete-moi ton livre et je te lend thee mine, preterai le mien. Give me of your pears, and I Donnez-moi de vos poires etje shall give you of mine, vous donnerai des miennes. Do not speak of it to your ]\'en parlez pas a vos amis et friends, and I shall not to je n } en parlerai pas aux mine, miens. Explanation. In the first example, thy is rendered by ton, because the word book is expressed ; and mine is rendered by le mien, because the word book is understood. In the second example, your is translated by vos, because the word poires is expressed ; and of mine by des miennes, because the word poires is understood. In the third exam- ple, to your is rendered by d vos, because the verb amis is expressed ; and to mine by aux miens, because the word amis is understood. 374. When the possessed object belongs to the individual 24 278 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. spoken to, that is, to the second person singular, we must use, if that object is Masculine singular, Feminine singu. Masculine plu. Feminine plu. For thine, . le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes. of or from thine, du tien, de la tienne, des tiens, des tiennes. to or at thine, au tien, a la tienne, aux tiens, aux tiennes. If thou returnest me my knife, Si tu me rends mon couteau, il he will return thee thine, te rendra le tien. My friends are not so numerous Mes amis ne sont pas si nom- as thine, breux que les tiens. My house is not far from thine. Ma maison n'est pas loin de la tienne. My sisters often see thine, Mes smurs voient souvent les tiennes. Explanation. In the first example, my is translated by mon, because the possessed ob- ject is expressed ; and thine by le tien, because the possessed object is understood, &c. This and the preceding explanations are sufficient for the use of the possessive personal pronouns, therefore they will be omit- ted for the following examples. 375. When the possessed object belongs to the individual spoken of, that is, to the third person singular, we must use, it that object is Mascu. singular, Femin. singu. Mascu. plu. Femin. plu. For his, hers or its, .... le sien, la sienne, les si ens, les siennes. of or from his, hers or its, du sien, de la sienne, des siens, des siennes. to or at his, hers or its, au sien, d la sienne, aux siens, aux siennes. Ton histoire n'est pas si inte- ressante que la sienne. Mes amis et les tiens ne sont pas les siens. En aj out ant a mon bienfajoute au sien et au tien. II prit de ma bourse autant que de la tienne et de la sienne. Thy history is not so interest- ing as his, My friends and thine are not his, By adding to my wealth, I add to his and thine, He took from my purse as much as from thine and his, 376. When the possessed object belongs to several persons who are, or one of whom is speaking, that is, to the first person plural, we must use, if that object is Mascu. singu. Femin. singu. Mascu. or Femin. phi. For ours, le ndtre, la ndtre, les ndtres. of or from ours, du ndtre, delanotre, des ndtres. TO Or AT 0UR9, dela ndtre, d la ndtre, aux ndtres. POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 279 I have gone to your garden, but you never came to ours, You have written that news to his friends and to ours, and you have received thanks from ours and not from his, He has offered us his library, and he may dispose of ours, Je suis alle a yotrejardin, mais vous n'etes jamais venu au notre. Vous avez tcrit cette nouvelle a ses amis et aux notres, et vous avez regu des remergiments des notres et nonpas des siens. II nous a offert sa bihliotheque, et ilpeut disposer de la notre. 377. When the possessed object belongs to several individu- als spoken of, that is, to the second person plural, we must use, if that object is Mascu. singu. Femin. singu. Mascu. or Femin. plu» For yours, . . OF Or FROM YOURS. TO Or AT YOUR, le vdtre, du vdtre, au vdtre, la vdtre, de la voire, d la vdtre, les vdtres. des vdtres. aux vdtres. His opinion is different from yours, My principles and yours are the same, His credit is greater than yours and ours, Son opinion est differ ente de la votre. Mes principes et les votres sont les mimes. Son credit est plus grand que le notre et que le votre. 378. When the possessed object belongs to several individu- als spoken of, that is, to the third person plural^ we must use, if that object is Ma3cu. singu* Femin. singu. Mascu. or Femin. plu. For theirs, le leur, la leur, les leurs. of or from theirs, du leur, de la leur, des leurs. to or 4T theirs, au leur, d la leur, aux leurs. You have your enemies and they have theirs, I do not receive as much benefit from your goods as from theirs, It is not to your kindness that I owe that information, but it Vous avez vos ennemis et Us ont les leurs. Je ?ie regois pas autant de profit de vos marchandises que des leurs. Ce n'est pas d votre bonte que je dois cet avis, mais c'est d la leur. is to theirs, 379. When, in English, the possessive personal pronouns mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, preceded by the proposition of, immediately follow the noun to which they re- late, as two friends of mine, a book of thine, (fc, the French 2S0 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. do not say, deux amis des miens, un livre des tiens, fyc. but deux de mes amis, un de tes livres, fyc. as if the English were, two OF MY FRIENDS, ONE OF THY BOOKS, &C. But, if there are several possessive pronouns relating to the same noun, the first only is rendered in French by a possessive personal article, and the others by the possessive personal pro- nouns ; as M. C. est un de mes amis et des votres. II apporta non seulement trois de ses livres, mais aussi quatre des votres et cinq des miens. Mr. C. is a friend of mine and of yours, He brought not only three books of his, but also four of yours and five of mine, 380. If the noun to which the possessive personal pronoun relates does not immediately precede it, and is supplied by some cardinal number, or any other word expressing quantity, it is rendered in French by the corresponding possessive per- sonal pronoun, and the passive verbal pronoun en must be used with the verb of which it is the object ; as Have you received any letters Avez-vous repu des lettres du- since your absence ? — Yes, I have received two of yours and three of your brother, How many grammars have you sold ? — I have sold several of yours and perhaps a dozen of mine, rant votre absence 1 — Oui, fen ai repu deux des votres et trois de votre frere. Combien de grammaires avez- vous vendues? — J 'en ai ven~ du plusieurs des votres et peut-etre une douzaine des miennes. 381. When, in English, a possessive personal pronoun is used after the verb to be, it should be translated into French by the corresponding substantive pronoun preceded by the pre- position a ; as That hat is mine, This house is thine, Those books are his, That handkerchief is hers, Those horses toill soon ours, be Ce chapeau-ld est a moi. Cette maison-ci est a toi. Ces livres-la sont a lui. Ce mouchoir est a elle. Ces chevaux-la seront bientot a nous. POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 281 These fields were yours, . Ces champs-ci etaient a vous. Those coats are theirs, . . Ces habits sont a eux. Those jewels would have been Ces bijoux-la auraient ete a ^theirs, elles. EXERCISE 195. 174 ex 2 371 371 Mr. G. has given me his opinion on my affair with Messrs. P. and T. 125 377 119 and I should like to receive yours. — I think, sir, that he is a very good 373 111 375 55 judge, and that mine will not be as good as his on that subject. Have 371 you consulted your two friends Messrs. B. and C? — Yes, sir; they 179 ex.o 371 125 377 378 have given me their advice, and I wish to compare yours with theirs. — 57 379 What other friends of yours have you seen ? — I have seen Mr. D. ; he 379 379 135 is not only a friend of mine, but also one of yours. — Does the opinion 187 375 377 ' 284 of Messrs. B. and C. agree with his and yours? — Yes, sir ; but will you ex 2 377 174 102 not tell me yours ? — Yes, I will. If I were you, I would not pay one cent 371 87 378 92 of my debt, if they had not paid theirs entirely. EXERCISE 196. 135 371 373 374 87 381 . v Louisa, are these books mine or thine ? — They are yours, I think ; but 371 . 381 269 my sister says that they are hers. — Can we not know whether they are 381 381 381 269 381 381 mine, hers or thine ? — I know that they are not hers nor mine. — How 267 ex.ii 60 «. 24*175 dost thou know it? — I know it because I see no name in them, and that 59 371 247 375 271 every lady of our school must have hers written in all her books. — And 55 381 167 381 those six pens are they hers ? — I think that there are two of yours, three 375 373 375 373 313 375 of hers and one of mine. — Are hers cut like mine ? — I believe not. Hers 113 377 374 373 375 are much finer than yours. — And are thine finer than mine and hers ? — 174 ex.2 267 Yes, sir, they are ; and therefore it is very easy for me to know wheth- 377 375 373 er a pen is yours, hers or mine. EXERCISE 197. 371 376 When do you sell our goods? — When we shall have sold ours. — Why 376 377 254 376 will you not sell ours before yours ? — Because we must sell ours as 92 54 soon as possible. — Have you sold yet Messrs. B. and C.'s silks? — Not 146 376 378 101 yet ; but when we have sold ours we shall sell theirs. — Will you not sell 373 378 267 102 ex o mine before theirs ? — I do not know. — You would render me a great ser- 102 373 «■ 15 146 vice if you should sell mine soon. — I shall sell them as soon as I can • 24* 282 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 378 377 but we had theirs before yours, and we cannot, without injustice, sell 377 378 378 377 yours before theirs. — Do you think you will have sold theirs and yours 35 before next month ? — I do not know ; but it is probable that we shall , ., . 378 , 376 377 nave sold not only theirs and ours but yours also. DEMONSTKATIVE PRONOUNS. 382. Demonstrative articles are in English this, that, these, those, and in French ce, cet, cette, ces ; used in English accord- ing to the number and place of the noun ; and in French ac- cording to the gender, number and orthography t)f that noun, the distinction of place being expressed only when it is absolute- ly necessary to avoid confusion, and that by placing ci or Id af- ter the noun, to which it must be linked by a hyphen. See De- monstrative Articles, page 77, 78. 383. The demonstrative pronouns in English are the same as the articles, but in French they are different, and divided in- to two classes, the definite and the indefinite. 384. The demonstrative indefinite pronouns are those that must be used when in English the demonstrative pronouns do not relate to any noun expressed before, and imply in them- selves the word thing. They are IN ENGLISH, IN FRENCH, this (for this thing), ceci (for cette chose-ci.) that (for that thing), cela (for cette chose-la.) Give me that, I shall give you Donnez-moi cela, ye vous don- this, nerai ceci. I should like to change this for J'aimerais a changer ceci pour that, cela. How much do you sell this for? Combien vendez-vous ceci ? This pleases me, but not that, Ceci me plait mais non pas cela. That is not worth as much as Cela ne vaut pas autant que this ring, cette bagve. Explanation. In all these examples except, the last, the words this and that are evi- dently employed for this thing, th vt thing, consequently they are translated into French, this by ceci, and that by cela. In the last example that is used for that thing and tianslated by cela ; but this, being used with the noun bag-uc, is a demonstrative ar- ticle, and is translated by cette, because bague is of the feminine gender and in the singular number. Masc. singular For this. celui-ci, THAT, celui-ld. Masc. plural. THESE, ceux-ci, THOSE, ceux-ld, DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 283 385. The definite demonstrative pronouns are those that must be employed when relating to, and representing a particu- lar noun expressed before. In English they are the same as the demonstrative articles; but in French they differ from them. They are when the noun is Feminine singular ^ celle-ci. ceUe-ld. Feminine plural. celles-ci. celles-ld. 386. These definite demonstrative pronouns are not used without having after them ci or Id linked to them by a hyphen, unless they are followed by the preposition de, of or from, which they require before a substantive, or by the adverb oic, where or when, or a relative pronoun, by which they are represented to be the nominative or object of a following verb ; in which ca- ses -ci and -Id are omitted as will be explained in the following observations. 387. The definite demonstrative pronouns are used with -ci or -Id when they are the nominatives of verbs, or their object, without having any other word after them ; as Behold two fine hats ! this Voild deux beaux chapeaux ! pleases me, but I do not like celui-ci me plait, mats je that. riaime pas celui-Ia. This house is better built than Cette maison-ci est mieux ha- that. tie que celle-la. Those books are mine, and Ces livres-ld sont a moi, et ceux- these are yours. ci sont d vous. These flowers are from my Ces Jleurs-ci sont de won jar- garden and those from yours. din et celles-la du votre. Explanation. In the first example this is translated by celui-ci ^because it relates to and represents one and the nearer of the hats already spoken of; and that is rendered by ce- lui-ld for the same reason, except it represents the more remote. In the second, this is expressed by cctte, because it, is used with the substantive wuismi, which is feminine sin- gular ; and that by celle-ld, because it relates to, and represents the word maison. In the third., those books is translated by ces livres-ld; by ces, because the plural substantive livres is expressed, and with the particle -Id to avoid confusion ; these is rendered by eeux-ci, because it relates to, and represents the masculine plural noun livres. In the fourth, these is translated by ces,beeause it is used with a plural noun ; ci is placed after the word Jleurs to avoid confusion ; those is expressed by celles-ld, because it relates to and represents the feminine plural noun Jleurs. 284 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 388. Celui-ci or celle-ci, ceux-ci or celles-ci, is sometimes used to translate the latter, and celui-ld or celle-la, ceux-ld or celles-ld, to translate the former ; as I have read Berquin and J. J. J'ai lu Berquin et J. J. Rous- Rousseau; the latter wrote seau; celui-ci a ecrit pour for men, and the former for les hommes, et celui-la 'pour children, les enfants. 389. The definite demonstrative pronouns are used with de instead of ci or Id after them, when the English use of or from after them, or are supplied by the possessive case ; or to trans- late the word one, when employed in the sense of that of after a noun expressing the matter with which the represented object is made ; as Which of those dresses will you have, the silk one or the woollen one ? The exercise of George is not so well done as that of Wil- liam, Lequel de ces deux habille- ments voulez-vous, celui de soie ou celui de laine ? Le theme de George rfest pas si bien fait que celui de Guillaume. The time of youth is that of Le temps de la jeunesse est ce- study, lui de V etude. The habit of well thinking leads Vhabitude de Men penser con- to that of Well doing, duit a celle de bien f aire. The best principles are those of Les meilleurs principes sont the most honest man, and ceux du plus honnete hornme, the best virtues are those of et les meilleures vertus sont the best Christian, His fortune is not so great as your father's, (that of your father,) The carriages of John are more elegant than Mr. Lewis's, [those of Mr. Lewis,) 390. It has already been said that ce is a demonstrative arti- cle, and a personal pronoun of the third person singular, used to translate it when it is the nominative of the verb to be ; but its use presents difficulties which are explained in the following observations. celles du meilleur Chretien. Sa fortune n* est pas si grande que celle de votre pere. Les voitures de Jean sont plus tlegantes que celles de M. Louis. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 285 391. Ce is used as a nominative personal pronoun with etre not only to translate it, but also to translate he, she or they, when either of these pronouns,being the nominative of the verb to be, relates to no particular noun expressed before, but relates to what follows that verb, and more especially when after it follows a personal, possessive or demonstrative pronoun, a proper name, or a common noun used with any of the articles ; as It is my business, C'est mon affaire. Is this your work ? — No, it is Ceci est-ce votre ouvragel — Non, my sister's, c'est celui de ma soeur. Has Mr. G. done that portrait ? M. G. a-t-il fait ce portrait ? — No, it is 7, Non, c'est moi. What is that establishment ? — Quel est cet etablissement ? — It is a college, C'est un college. Is your minister a very good Votre ministre est-il un homme man ? — Yes, he is an excel- tres-bon ? — Oui, c'est un ex- lent man, cellent homme. Is the instructress of your chil- Uinstitutrice de vos enfants dren young ? — No, she is an est-elle jeune 1 — Non, c'est aged woman, unefemme agee. Explanation. In the first example, it is translated by ce, because it relates to what fol- lows etre, and also because it is used for that. In the 2d, it is translated by ce, because after to be follows celui, a demonstrative pronoun. In the 3d, it is translated by ce, be- cause after the verb to be follows a personal pronoun. In the 4th, it is translated by ce, because after the verb to be follows a common noun, college, preceded by an article, un. In the 5th, he is translated by ce, because after the verb to be follows a common noun preceded by an article, un. In the 6th, she is translated by ce, because after the verb to be follows a common noun preceded by an article, une. 392. After it the verb is always in the singular number in English ; but after ce, the verb etre must be in the plural, what- ever be the number of to be, when it is immediately followed by a pronoun of the third person plural, or by a plural noun pre- ceded by an article which is not the object of any preposition ; and in the singular, if what immediately follows is a verb, a pro- noun of the 1st or 2d person, a preposition, a noun or a pro- noun in the singular ; as in Do I see coming our friends Vois-je venir nos amis ou nos or our enemies ? — It is our ennemis? — Ce sont nos amis. friends, 286 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. What signs are those? — They Quels dgnts sont ceux-ldl — Ce are those of civilization, sont ceux de la civilisation. What are the supporters of a Quels sont les soutiens d'un good government ? — It is the bon gouvernement ? Ce good citizens, it is we, sont les bons citoyens, c'est nous. Explanation. In the first example it is translated by ce, because the verb &tre is follow- ed by a noun preceded by an article, nos j is is translated by the plural sont, because it is followed by a plural noun, amis. In the second, thet is translated by ce be- cause the verb is followed by a demonstrative pronoun, ceux ; are is translated by soiit, because it is followed by a pronoun of the third person plural, ceux. In the third, it is translated by ce, because the verb is followed by a common noun in the plural ; the sec- ond is is translated by est because the verb is followed by a pronoun of the first person. 393. The pronouns he, she, it or they, are translated by il, elle, Us or elles, when relating to a special noun already express- ed, and that after etre follows an adjective or a noun expressing profession or trade, used without any article, or a noun or a personal pronoun preceded by a preposition ; but if the pronoun it should relate to what follows the verb to be, or if the noun that follows etre were used with an article, it should be ren- dered by ce ; as Is your father a lawyer ? — No, Votre pere est-il avocat ? — Non he is a notary, il est notaire, or c'est un notaire. Is he a protestant or a catholic ? Est-il protest ant ou catholique ? — He is a protestant, — II est protestant, or c'est un protestant. How are those students? — They Comment ces etudiants sont-ils ? are very attentive, — lis sont tres-attentifs. Explanation. In the first example, he is translated by il when the following noun, no- taire, is not preceded by an article ; and by ce, when preceded by an article, un. It is the same in the second example. In the third example, they is translated by ils, because it relates to a masculine plural noun expressed before ; and that to be or errc is not follow- ed by a noun preceded by an article. 394. it is also translated by ce when it is used in the sense of that or this ; and vice versa, that or this is translated by ce when either is used in the sense 'of it ; as It is my opinion, . . C'est mon opinion. It is my book, . . C'est monlivre. That is your opinion, . C'est votre opinion. Explanation. In the first two phrases it is used in t' e s-mis" of that, for they might be that is my opinion, that is my book. And in ird, th at is used for it ; for DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 287 that is your opinion is the same as it is your opinion. In the translation of such phrases ce may be considered as an abbreviation of cela or ceci. EXERCISE 198. 92 334 384 384 Have you ever seen this? — No, never. — And that? — Yes. — Is not this 394 174 384 382 beautiful? — Yes, it is ; but I think that this is still more beautiful. Is this 381 _ 391 389 382 389 portrait 3 7 ours ? — No ; it is my brother's. — But that miniature, is that of 393 174 387 389 371 393 174 your sister ? — Yes, it is. — Is this, that of your mother ? — Yes, it is. — By 57 135 382 131 387 what painter have those paintings been made ? — A part of these by Da- 387 135 382 vid, and almost all of those by Dubaf. — Did not Vernet paint those bat- 389 382 84 ties ? — Not all ; those of this side of the hall are by him ; the others were 131 395 231 111 389 painted by several artists. — Those seem to be executed as well as these ex 12 389 of Vernet ; do you not think so ? — 0, no ! those of Vernet are superior. EXERCISE 199. 384 125 ex.i 294 371 394 All this begins to displease me, George. — Is it my fault? — If it is 371 392 389 382 not thy fault, it is that of Mr. L. — Do you not like those exercises ? — Not 389 389 very well. I prefer those of Mr. P. — Why? — Because those of Mr. P. 112 3S5 394 885 are not so difficult as these. — It is strange ! for 1 find these much easier 38 9 57 321 382 than those of Mr. P. — What is your opinion of those two teachers, Mr.L. 87 388 115 and Mr. P.? — I think that they are pretty good ; but the latter is a better 388 141 2£7 384 159 394 grammarian than the former. — I did not know that; I thought that it 136 171 389 393 174 was the contrary. Is your opinion that of the majority?— I think it is. 109 373 110 389 — Very well. But although mine is that of the minority, I shall not ex ii change it. EXERCISE 200. 382 381 392 389 385 Are those boots yours ? — No, sir ; they are those of Mr. G . ; these are 381 382 392 389 389 mine. — And those shoes ? — They are Mr. B.'s. — Where are those of Mr. 393 . 57 389 371 C. ? — They are in the closet. — In what closet ? — In that of his room. — 175 26 389 385 I have looked in it; but I have found only those of Mr. B.. and these; 375 ex. 24 389 his were not there. — Have you looked m that of the next room? — But 385 365 389 394 135 those, and not these, are Mr. G.'s. — It is true. Is this handkerchief 381 391 389 391 389 yours? — No; it is that of Mr. R. — It is not that of Mr. R., because I 179 178 391 389 have shown it to him and he says it is that of Mr. S., and Mr. S. says 137 ' 385 3?3 381 that he has no handkerchief like thot ; therefore. I think n is mine. 288 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 395. As the interrogative articles must agree in gender and number with the noun with which they are employed, so the in- terrogative pronouns must agree in gender and number with the noun they represent. The interrogative articles, as it has already been said, page 79, are masc. sing. fern. sing. masc. plural. fera. plural. For what, quel, quelle. quels, quelles. 396 The corresponding interrogative pronouns are For what, what one, or masc. sing. fern. sing. masc. plural. fem. plural. which, which one, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, of, or from which, duquei, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles. to, or at which, auquel y d laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles. by which par lequel, par laquelle, par lesquels^ par lesquelles. Which of those books do you Lequel de ces livres preferez- prefer ? vous ? Which of those grammars do De laquelle de ces grammaires you make use of? vous servez-vous ? Do you know that my aunt is Savez-vous que ma tante est sick? — Which one 7 malade? — Laquelle ? To which of those ladies have \A laquelle de ces dames avez- you spoken ? vous parle ? John, bring me my boots. — Jean apportez-moi mes bottes. Which ones do you want, — Lesquelles voulez-vousjes the old or the new ? vieilles ou les neuves ? Two of my cousins have come Deux de mes cousins sont re- back from France. — Which venus de France. — Lesquels? ones 2 Explanation. In the first example, which is translated by lequel, because it is intended to represent only one of the books spoken of afterwards, and because livre is a masculine noun. In the second, which is translated by de laquelle, because it is used for of which, and because it is intended to represent a feminine singular noun, that is, one of the gram- maires spoken of afterwards. In the fifth, which ones is translated by lesquelles, be- cause it represents a feminine plural: noun, bottes. In the sixth, which ones is translated by lesquels, because it represents a masculine plural noun, cousins. It should be particu- larly noticed that the one or ones following which, is never expressed in French. Interrogative pronouns should be considered as definite and indefinite. 397. The definite are the preceding, lequel, laquelle, &c. They are called definite because they always relate to a noun spoken of before, or to one or several persons or things spoken INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 289 of collectively with other persons or things in the same phrase ; as may be seen in the preceding and following examples : To which of your friends shall Auquel de vos amis ecrirai-je ? I write ? From which of your sisters do De laquelle de vos scsurs at- you expect letters ? tendez-vous des lettres ? By which of those lawyers was Par lequel de ces avocats a-t-il he defended ? 6te defendu ? The two sisters are beautiful. Les deux sceurs sont belles. La- Which one do you prefer ? quelle preferez-vous ? Explanation. In the first, second and third examples, the interrogative pronoun relates to persons spoken of in the phrase ; and in the fourth, to a person already spoken of col- lectively with another. 398. The indefinite interrogative pronouns are those that must be employed when the object of the question is entirely unknown, and not named before the answer ; for which reason, without doubt, they are invariable ; that is, they do not change on account of gender or number. They are of two kinds, those that relate to persons, and those that relate to things. The indefinite interrogative pronouns relating to persons, are Qu IX ENGLISH, WHO, . WHOM, WHOSE, Who is coming ? Whom do you want ? Whose protection do you wish? Of whom do you spepk ? To whom do you write ? With whom and against whom do you go ? Whose remark is that ? Explanation. In all these examples, the person which is the object of the question, is entirely unknown ; and consequently the indefinite interrogative pronoun qui is uniform- ly employed. The third example presents a difference of construction in both languages, and consequently it should be noticed, that, in the English phrase, the interrogative pro- noun whose precedes the substantive protection, and that, in French, the interrogative pronoun qui is after the substantive protection, To know when such an inversion should be made, it is only necessary to substitute of whom instead of whose, and place it as it 25 IN FRENCH, qui. qui. de qui. vient ? Qui demandez-vous ? La protection de qui disirez- vous ? De qui parlez-vovs ? V A qui ecrivez-vous ? Avec qui et contre qui allez- vous ? De qui est cette remarque ? 290 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. should be and then translate literally. For instance, if of whom is to be employed in- stead of whose, the phrase must become the protection of whom do yov wish? The last example also presents another difference, and the difficulty arising from it is re- moved by substituting of whom instead of whose, arranging the words of the phrase as they should be, and then translating literally : thus,by using of whom instead of whose in the phrase whose remark is that, that same phrase must become, of whom is that REMARK ? 399. The indefinite interrogative pronouns relating to things are, IN ENGLISH, IN FRENCH, que. de quoi. sur quoi. a quoi. Que voulez-vous ? De quoi est-il fdchi? Dans quoi le mettrai-je ? N A quoi s'appliquent-ils ? Sur quoi est-il peint ? what, . of or from what, on WHAT, to or at what, What do you want ? Of what is he sorry ? In what shall I put it ? To what do they apply them- selves ? On what is it painted ? Observation. From the preceding examples it may be per- ceived that the interrogative pronoun que is used only when no preposition is required before it ; and that, when it should be the object of a preposition, quoi must be employed instead of que. 400. The interrogative pronoun quoi is sometimes used without any preposition before it, but it is generally indepen- dently of any verb, or in an exclamatory sense ; in which case it has the meaning of what thing, quelle chose, and requires the preposition de after it, thus quoi de, which means in English what is : as What is more interesting in the world ! What is more noble than be- nevolence ! What is more base than ingratitude ! Who has made that ? — What ? Quoi de plus interessant dans le monde ! Quoi de plus noble que la Men- veillance ! Quoi de plus vil que Vingratitude ! Qui a fait cela ? — Quoi ? 401. There is another kind of indefinite interrogative pro- nouns that might be called compound interrogative pronouns. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 29 T They are^ relating to persons, for the nominative who, qui est-ce qui, literally who is that who? for the object whom, qui est-ce que, literally who is that whom? Who loves you ? Qui est-ce qui vous airne ? Whom do you love ? Qui est-ce que vous aimez ? 402. Relating to things, for the nominative what, qu" 1 est-ce qui, literally what is that which? for the object what, qu' est-ce que, literally what is that which? What torments him ? Qu 'est-ce qui le tourmente ? What dost thou desire ? Qu 'est-ce que tu desires ? 403. Of the compound interrogative pronouns, qu'est-ce qui, that is the nominative relating to things, must necessarily and exclusively be employed to translate what or what thing, when it is the nominative of the verb of the question, there be- ing no other pronoun for this particular case. As to the use of the others it is dictated more by taste than by grammar : the question asked with them is less abrupt and more polite. The preceding examples might be translated Who loves you ? by Qui vous aime? Whom do you love ? by Qui aimez-vous ? What dost thou desire? by Que d&sires-tu? But there is no other way to translate What torments him ? than Qu 'est-ce qui le tourmente ? What makes you cry? than Qu'est-ce qui vous fait pleurer ? 404. From what precedes on the interrogative pronouns it may be noticed, that when an interrogative pronoun, or a noun with an interrogative article, is the nominative of the verb of the question, that verb does not take the interrogative form as it does when it is not its nominative. 405. When in English the verb to be is preceded by an in- terrogative pronoun followed by the noun which is the object of the question, that interrogative pronoun must be rendered by the interrogative article quel, quelle, quels, or quelles ; and if there follows another verb to complete the question, that verb must be preceded by a relative pronoun, though in English no relative pronoun is expressed, but is evidently implied ; as What are the books you read ? Quels sont les livres que vous lisez ? 292 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. What is the malady you have ? Quelle est la maladie que vous avez ? What are the rules you fol- Quelles sont les regies que low ? vous suivez ? However, it would be as well, if not better, to translate those phrases by Quels livres lisez-vous ? Quelle maladie avez-vous ? Quelles regies suivez-vous ? 406. But, if there follows no verb after to be, the phrase is translated literally ; as, What are those books ? Quels sont ces livres ? What is your malady ? Quelle est votre maladie ? What are the rules of your Quelles sont les regies de votre conduct ? conduite 1 407. When, in English, after the interrogative pronoun which, immediately follows a cardinal number with a noun, which is the object of the question, that pronoun is rendered in French by the interrogative article, quel, quelle, quels, or quelles followed by the verb etre ; the definite article must precede the cardinal number, and the verb which completes the action must be preceded by que ; as Which two of those flowers do Quelles sont les deux de ces you prefer ? fleurs que vous prefer 'ez ? Which three pair of shoes do Quelles sont les trois paires de you take ? souliers que vous prenez ? It is perhaps proper to observe here that the he, she, it, or they which is at the beginning of an answer is sometimes translated by ce, and at other times by il, elle, Us, or elles. See Nos.391, 392, 393, 394. EXERCISE 201. 399 133 396 Of what are you speaking ? — Of that gentleman.— Of which? — Of Mr. 399 ex. 22 R. — What do you say of him ? — That he understands several languages. 396 393 — Which ones? — The French, the Spanish and the Italian. — With whom ex. 15 395 has he studied them ? — With the professors of the college. — Of what 398 304 college? — Of Cambridge. — Who are those professors? — I do not know "• 15 396 304 them all. — Which ones do you know? — I know Mr. B. and Mr. S. — 399 133 What do they teach ? — Mr. B. teaches the Italian, and Mr. S. the Spanish. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 293 395 371 267 «— With what books do they give their lessons ? — I do not know. — Do you 304 396 know Mr. Lewis ? — Which one, the doctor or the merchant ? — The doc- tor. — I know him very well. EXERCISE 202. 398 384 400 „ T , . 396 389 Who has made that ?— What?— That vase.— Which one ?— That of 396 marble. — It is a workman of this city. — Which one ? — Mr. Joseph. — In 335 135 393 167 what street is his shop? — It is in Washington street. But there are two 396 394 392. 389 56 shops of the same kind, which one is it ? — It is not that on # this side of the 392 389 ' 396 street, but it is that on # the other. — Which of the two workmen is the 115 391 best ? — (it is) Mr. J. ; however, I believe that he does not work now. — 403 ex. 9 ex. 22 403 What prevents him (from it)?— I believe that his mind is affected. — What «*• 9 396 afflicts him ? — T think it is the loss of one of his daughters. — Of which 398 131 one ? — Of the oldest. — Do you know to whom she was engaged ? — I be- 394 lieve it was to Mr. A. EXERCISE 203. 398 392 396 389 Who is coming? — it is your scholars. — Which ones? — Those of the 399 125 ex.g 399 first class. What do they wish ? — They wish to speak to you. — Of what ? 395 389 — Of a grammatical difficulty. — On what rule of the grammar ? — On that 395 267 195 of pronouns. — What pronouns? — I do not know, but will go and ask 185 402 ex. 15 391 them. — What embarrasses them? — It is the use of the demonstrative 406 271 pronouns. — But what is the difficulty ? — They do not know how they 254 ex. 15 395 " 178 398 must use them. — In what case? — They have not told (it to) me. -Who has «■ 8 391 389 86 spoken to you ? — It is Mr. M. — What has he said ? — He said for himself 125 ex- 8 185 125 and the others, that they wish to speak to you. — Tell them to come again. 195 195 — What day and what hour ? — To-morrow at noon. * on, in this and similar instances, should be translated by de ', as in, On this side, . . . De ce cdte-ci, RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The relative pronouns, as has already been said, are those which represent nouns or pronouns, that they may stand for them as nominatives or objects of a verb. Those nouns or pro- nouns are called antecedents, because they are expressed before them, or at least are most certainly implied. 25* J 294 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 407. The relative pronouns correspond to any article which determines the extent of the signification of their antecedent noun, which generally is the definite, the indefinite, or a cardinal number. They are, IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH WHO, THAT, . . qui, whose, of or from whom, de qui, dont, * , , WHOM, THAT, . . qui, -, , * > genders and WHAT, THAT, . . . que, & , j . 7 . numbers. of or from, what or that, de quoi, dont, , to or at what or that, a quoi, ) which, . . lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles. of or from which, duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles. to or at which, auquel, a laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles. From what precedes it may be noticed that, in French, all the interrogative pronouns are also relative pronouns, but that all relative pronouns are not interrogative, since dont is not interro- gative. For the use of the relative pronouns the following rules should be attended to. 408. When the relative pronoun, representing persons or things, stands for the nominative of a verb, it is IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH who, that or which, . . . qui. The man ivho is speaking, Uhomme qui parle. The girls who are laughing, Les filles qui rient. The law which pleases, La loi qui plait. The things that happen, Les choses qui arrivent. 409. When the relative pronoun, representing persons or things, stands for the direct object of a verb, it is IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH whom, that or which, . . . que ; and, if the verb of which it is the object is in a compound tense, the past participle must be of the same gender and number as the noun represented by que. The aunt whom or that I love, La tante que j'aime. The friends that I have had, Les amis que j'ai ens. The church that you see, Veglise que vous voyez. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 295 The jewels that or which you Les bijoux que vous avez at- have expected, tendus. 410. When the relative pronoun, relating to persons or things, should be used as the object of the preposition of or from, it is IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH WHOSE, OF Or FROM WHOM, OF Or FROM W r HICH, . doTlt. The lady of whom The man of whom The book of which The things of which La dame dont ^ he is L'homme dont I il speaking, Le livre dont f parle. Les choses dont . The judge ivhose impartiality we Le juge dont nous admirons admire is very learned, Vimpar Halite est tres-in- struit. 411. Remark that, in the English of the last example, im- partiality is placed before the verb of which it is the object, whilst in French, it is, as it must always be in similar instances, after that verb, because it is its object. 412. But, if the relative pronoun which is the object of the preposition of or from, in English, is not placed immediately after its antecedent, being separated from it by any other word than an adjective, it must be translated into French by duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles ; as, The Seine in whose channel La Seine dans le lit de laquelle the Yonne throws itself, VYonne se jette. The animals which we destroy, Les animaux que nous ditrui- and from whose spoils we sons et de la depouille des- make our shoes and clothes, quels nous faisons notre generally have claims on chaussure et nos i:etements our gratitude, ont g'en'eralement des droits d notre reconnaissance. 413. When the relative pronoun should be used with any other preposition than of or from, in French de, and relates es- pecially to persons, it is IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH whom, qui or lequel, laquelle, &c. to whom, a qui, or auquel, a laquelle, &G. for whom, pour qui, or pour lequel, pour laquelle, &c. The son to whom I write, Lefls auquel or a qui fecris. 296 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The daughter to whom I spoke, Lafille a laquelle or a qui je parlai. The lady with whom you sung La dame avec laquelle or avec yesterday is my cousin, qui vous chant ates hier est ma cousine. 414. But, if the relative pronoun used with any other prep- osition than of or from, de, relates to things, or to any other an- tecedent but persons, it is IN ENGLISH IN FRENCH which, lequel, laquelle, &c, but never qui. The animal to ivhich I give L* animal auquel je donne de food, The means with ivhich he suc- ceeded, The horses by which he was drawn, la nourriture. Les moyens avec lesquels il r&ussit. Les chevaux par lesquels il etait traine. 415. When the English relative pronoun what is used in an indefinite sense, that is, when it relates to the word thing not expressed, it is rendered into French by que or quoi ; by que when no preposition is required before it ; and by quoi when a preposition is required before it ; as, Do you know to what he ap- plies himself? I do not know what to do, » Mr. L. has not announced on what he will speak next time, Ask of Mr. S. with what he has made that, Savez-vous a quoi il s'ap- plique ? Je ne sais que fair e. M. L. rta pas annonc'e, sur quoi il parlera la prochaine fois. Demand ez a M. S. avec quoi il a fait cela. In the second example however what might be translated by quoi ; thus, je ne sais quoi faire ; but que should be pre- ferred. 416. It often happens in English that the relative pronoun is not expressed, but is undoubtedly implied, when it should never be omitted in French. This is the case when a noun is used before a verb as its apparent object or nominative, when it RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 297 is in fact the object of another verb whether expressed or under- stood ; as, He procures me the things I II me 'procure les choses que like, j'aime. The lessons I have given are Les le9ons que j'ai donnies ne not too long, sont pas trop longues. You have detained the men I Yous avez retenu les hommes was expecting, que j'attendais. He is the president I like, C'est le president que faime. Explanation. In all these phrases the relative pronoun is not expressed in English, but it is implied j for the things i like is for the things that i like j the les- sons i have given is for the lessons that i have given ; the men i was ex- pecting is for THE MEN THAT I WAS EXPECTING; THE PRESIDENT I LIKE is for THE president whom i like, but in such instances the relative pronoun is always expressed in French. 417. When an interrogative or a relative pronoun, or in- deed any other word, is used in English as the object of a prep- osition, which preposition is not placed before its object, but sometimes at the end of the phrase, the corresponding French preposition should always precede its own object ; as, Whom are you speaking of ? De qui parlez-vous ? Which of those men were you Auquel de ces hommes parliez- speaking to ? vous ? What were you laughing at ? De quoi riiez-vous ? What object are you quarrel- Pour quel objet vous disputez- ling for ? vous ? Explanation. In these examples the word whom, which, what, what object, are the objects of the prepositions of, to, at, for, which are placed at the end of the phra- ses ; but in the French, the corresponding prepositions de> d, (combined in the word au- quel which is for d lequel) de, pour, are placed, as they must always be in such instances, before their respective objects qui, lequel, quoi, quel objet. EXERCISE 204. 303 410 Do you know the gentlemen of whom we speak ? — Do you speak of 408 99 399 the minister who preached last Sunday ? — Yes ; what do you think of 409 99 393 the discourse which he pronounced? — I think that it was very beautiful, 414 and that the text on which he has written is also very fine. — Do you re- 797 394 408 member which it was ? — Yes. — Have you read the new work which has 417 399 303 appeared lately ? — Not yet ; of what does it treat ? — It contains among 94 413 35 other things, good lessons to persons towards whom fortune has not been 293 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 267 398 393 394 . very favourable. — Do you know by whom it is published? — It is by 249 416 Messrs M. and F. — The work must be good, because all the books they ex 12 394 publish are so. Is it not ? EXERCISE 205. 405 408 133 391 409 Who is that gentleman who is coming? — It is Mr. D., a painter whom 410 ex. 8 44 I esteem much, and of whom I have spoken to you. — Has he made any 44 174 paintings that have any celebrity ? — He has made two, which have been 131 408 admired by all persons who can appreciate the merits and detect the 408 35 405 imperfections which exist in paintings. — What are those two paintings? 392 408 131 — They are Adam and Eve, which were painted for the king of France, 408 ex. 15 408 125 who did not take them, because his people, who did not like to bear the ex. 9 414 effects of his political crimes, chased him from his throne, on which they 104 409 put another man whom they do not like much better. EXERCTSE 206. 398 384 413 For whom are you doing that ? — For a person for whom I have 118 185 405 & 404 the greatest consideration. — Will you tell me what her name is ? — You 397 394 185 ex. 14 416 may guess what it is, if I tell you that I owe to her the happiness I 391 408 54 118 enjoy. — Is it not Mr.X., who was your mother's best friend? — Precisely. 391 118 118 408 She is one of the best women in the world. — Where is her son, who was 35 in the army last year? — He is now the general in chief of the army r 408 131 408 which is destined for the south. — Was he not one of the officers who dis- 99 190 174 tinguished themselves in the last war ? — Yes, he was ; and our govern- 408 92 35 185 416 ment, which always rewards true merit, gave him the grade he has now. DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS USED TOGETHER. When a verb follows a demonstrative pronoun, a relative pro- noun must be used to represent that demonstrative pronoun and stand for it as nominative or object to the verb ; but as a dis- tinction between the definite and the indefinite demonstrative pronouns is necessary, the same distinction should be made in their use with the relative pronouns. DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 299 418. These pronouns are used in an indefinite sense when they do not relate to any particular noun expressed before, but merely to the implied word thing, in English, and chose, in French ; and then the English demonstrative pronoun is that, and the relative is which, or both combined in the word what, and in French, the demonstrative pronoun is ce instead of cela, and the relative pronoun is either qui, que, dont or quoi ; thus 419. When the relative pronoun is the nominative of the verb, we must translate what, or that which by ce qui, of what, or of that which, by de ce qui, to what, or to that which, by a ce qui. with what, or with that which, by avec ce qui. His modesty is that which or Sa modestie est ce qui me plait, what pleases me, Your industry is ivhat or that Voire industrie est ce qui lui tvhich inspires him with con- inspire de la confiance. fidence, 420. When the relative pronoun is the object of a verb re- quiring no preposition before it, we mast translate that which, or what, or that, by ce que. Their frankness is what 1 like, Leurfra?ichiseestceqaefaime. Our courage is what or that Notre courage est ce qu'ils ad- which they admire, mirent. 421. When the relative pronoun is the object of a verb re- quiring the preposition of or from before it, in French de, we must translate that of which, by ce dont. That ofivhich we are speaking Ce dont nous parlous est inti- is interesting, ressant. That from which he drew some Ce dont il tira de la liqueur liquor was a kind of gourd, etait une espece de gourde. 422. When the relative pronoun is the object of a verb re- quiring any other preposition than de, the relative pronoun is quoi ; therefore we should translate that to which, by ce a quoi. that with which, by ce avec quoi. 300 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, That to which thou pretendest Ce a quoi tu pretends n'est pas is not a trifle, une bagatelle. That with which we work, Ce avec quoi nous travaillons. 423. But if that which or what was preceded by behold, void, voila ; or it is, c'est ; de quoi might be used instead of dont ; as in Behold what he is complaining Voila de quoi or ce dont il se of! plaint ! It is that of tvhich I wished to C'est de quoi or ce dont^'e be- speak to you, sirais vous parler. Explanation. It may be noticed in the preceding examples that the demonstrative pro- nouns are used in English for that thing or the thing, and in French for cette chose or la chose) and that the relative pronouns follow the rules explained in the preceding chapter. 424. When the demonstrative pronoun is used in a definite sense, that is, when it represents a particular noun expressed before, it is in English that or those, and the relative pronoun is which ; and in French the demonstrative pronoun is celui, celle, ceux or celles, and the relative pronoun is qui for the nominative of the verb, que for the direct object, and dont for the indirect ob- ject with the preposition de ; and when it is the indirect object with any other preposition, it is qui only when relating to a noun repre- senting one or several persons ; and lequel, laquelle, &c, when relating to a noun representing one or several things or persons. In other words, the relative pronoun follows the same rules as when it has for its antecedent a substantive represent- ing persons or things, given at No. 408, 409, &c. Religion teaches us to love La religion nous enseigne a those who hate us, even those aimer ceux qui nous hats- who persecute us, sent, meme ceux qui nous persecutent. This book is that which you Ce livre-ci est celui que vous lent me, ni'avez prete. Behold the engravings you Voici les gravures que vous have sent me and those tvhich ni'avez envoyees et celles que I promised you, je vous ai promises. This sword is that with which Cette epee est celle avec la- I killed the bear with whose quelle j'ai tue Pours avec la skin 1 covered that box, peau dwque] j'ai convert cette boite. DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 301 That gun is that of which I have spoken to you, That door is that by which he has come in, The time of peace is that in which kings prepare them- selves for war, I know all the paths of the for- est, except that by which you have passed, The moment when he will en- ter is that ivhen I shall ar- Ce fusil est celui dont^'e vous ai parte. Cette porte est celle par la- quelle or par ou il est entre. Le temps de la paix est celui ou or dans lequel les rois se preparent d la guerre. Je connais tous les sentiers de laforet, excepte celui par ou or par lequel vous etes passe. Le moment ou il entrera est celui ou f arriverai. rive, 425. By these examples it may be seen that when the de- monstrative pronoun relates to time or place, the adverb bu, where or when is used instead of the relative pronouns. To render more striking the use of the demonstrative pro- nouns with de before a substantive, or with a relative pronoun before a verb, the following examples are given : That table is that of my broth- Cette table est celle de mon er, frere. That table is that which be- Cette table est celle qui appar- longs to my brother, tient a mon frere. Those sheets are those of my Ces ftuilles sont celles de mon book, livre. Those sheets are those that Ces feuilles sont celles qui ont have been torn from my tie dechirees de mon livre. book, 426. It often happens that in English the antecedent of a rel- ative pronoun is not a noun nor a demonstrative pronoun, but is one of the personal pronouns he, him, she, her, or the one -or ones, but it is evident that they are used for the person or that person ; then in French the antecedent is celui, celle, ceux or celles, according to the gender and number of the personal pro- noun ; and the relative pronoun is as it should be, according to the directions that relate to its use when it has a noun repre- senting persons for antecedent. See No. 408, 409, &c. 26 302 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Of all the music-masters that I have had, Mr. Keller is the one that teaches the best, I heard two preachers last Sun- day, the first is the one whom I prefer, He, xuho studies the most, im- proves the best, Yesterday I was with him to whom you have just spoken, I shall give this reward to her ivho will have written the best composition, The figure 5 is the mark for her who (or the one ivho) re- cites best, and 4, 3, 2, or 1, for those ivho do not recite so well, This is for him who is speak- ing, He ivhom you expect will not come, That belongs to him whom you see, Those whose virtue is great al- ways do great things, De tons les maitres de musique que fed eus, M. Keller est celui qui enseigne le mieux. Jentendis deux pr'tdicateurs dimanche dernier, le premier est celui que je prefere. Celui qui etudie le plus, ap- prend le mieux. Hier petals avec celui a qui vous venez deparler. Je donnerai cette recompense a celle qui aura ecrit la meil- leure composition. Le chiffre 5 est la marque de celle qui r 6 cite le mieux, et 4, 3, 2, ou 1, de celles qui ne ricitent pas si hien. Ceci est pour celui qui parle. Celui que vous attendez ne vi- endra pas. Cela appartient a celui que vous voyez. Ceux dont la vertu est grande, font toujours de grandes choses. 427. But if the personal pronouns he, she, him, her, they, them, are preceded by the verb to be, having it for its nomina- tive, they may be translated by lui or elle for the singular, and by eux or elles for the plural : Mr. L. is a very ingenious man, it is he toho invented that machine, Those women are very charit- able, it is they who maintain several poor families, M. L. est un homme tres-in- genieux, c'est lui qui a in- vents cette mac ! dne. Ces femm.es sont tres-charita- bles, ce sont elles qui entre- tiennent plusieurs pauvres families. demonstrative and relative pronouns. 3c3 Remark on the distinction between the interrogative and relative pronouns. It has already been said that all relative pronouns are not in- terrogative, although all that are interrogative are also relative ; the only difference that exists among them is in the manner of using them ; for the relative pronouns always have an express- ed or implied antecedent, and the interrogative pronouns have none. EXERCISE 207. 125 267 418 ex ^ 178 392 I wish to know what torments you ; will you not tell it to me ? — It is 421 187 99 392 384 170 that of which you complained yesterday. — If it is that, I am sorry for it ; 254 150 420 " £X-11 394 but then you must do what I desire. — I would do it, if it was not con- 420 171 267 420 trary to what Mr. C. expects from me. — I know very well that what I 419 54 394 422 422 require is not what will favour Mr. C.'s interest ; but it is that to which 60 420 171 384 he has no pretensions, and what I can exact from you. — That is true, and 394 427 422 131 420 it is that on account of which I am embarrassed ; because, if I do what you desire, he will think that I have not been willing to do what I have 179 185 420 170 135 promised him ; and, if I do what I have promised him, you will not be- 394 421 125 421 lieve that it is that with winch I could not dispense. EXERCISE 208. 416 133 125 ex.7 397 . 394 The book you are reading seems to interest you much; which is it? — 394 424 104 179 144 424 It is that which you lent me. — Did you subscribe yesterday for that which 185 303 Mr. G. showed you? — No, sir. — Why ? — Because I know the principles 426 . ex 22 ex. 15 426 of him who is the author of it, and I do not like them. — But he, who is , ex. 00 426 404 the author of it, is the same as he who has written that which you are ,. Til,- 174 ., 18 ? 405 now reading. — I think he is not, and that you are mistaken. — What is , . 408 . 108 31 the religion that is most in favour of the principles of justice and equali- 392 393 ty? — I believe that it is the Christian.— Why? — Because it proclaims , 382 . 419 167 these principles: "Render to Caesar what belongs to Caesar. There will be among you neither first nor last." EXERCISE 209. r 267 415 420 You know for what I come? — Very well; but that, which you propose ex - 2 . . 414 392 to me, is a thing to which I shall never consent— Why ? Is it because ?94. 420 171 it is different from what I have done for you ? — Sir, I have always been 304 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 420 171 92 grateful for all that you have done for me ; but I never would have 419 thought, that, for what can be called an act of pure kindness, you would 414 190 have required a sacrifice of duty by which an honest man exposes him- ex. i 420 self to the contempt of his fellow citizens. — You astonish me ! and what ex. 8 124 I propose to you, far from being dishonorable, deserves the consideration 424 of all those who follow the principles of justice, delicacy and religion. — 394 420 That is your opinion, but what I think is very different. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 428. The distributive articles in English, are each, every, and in French, chaque ; but the distributive pronouns, are, IN ENGLISH, IN FRENCH, each one, every one, . ckacun, for mas. chacune, for fern. Each one in his turn will come Chaucun a son tour viendra to recite, reciter. Ladies, every one must remain Mesdemoiselles , chacune doit at her seat, rester a sa place. These pronouns, the same as the preceding, are never used with a noun. INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRO- NOUNS. The indefinite pronouns are those that are used to represent persons or things, without relating to any particular one. As the words that are considered as indefinite pronouns have been differently classified by grammarians, they will be treated in this chapter according to the principles adopted in thisGrammar ; that is, those that represent the noun, as pronouns, and those that determine the extent of its signification, without expressing its quality, as articles. 429. One. The English word one is sometimes used in an indefinite sense, that is, without relating to any person in particular, and as the nominative of a verb : then it is translated by the nominative verbal pronoun on. Se No. 87 and 157. INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS. 305 One cannot be always success- On ne peut pas etre toujours ful, heureux. One likes to conceal his defects, On aime a cacher ses dtfauts* 430. The word people is also often used in the same sense as one, and should be rendered in French by on, with the verb of which it is the nominative, in the singular number ; and, if there is in the same phrase another verb having for its nomina- tive an active verbal pronoun, such as he or they, relating to the same person or persons as people or one, that he or they should be rendered in French by on. People like to talk, . . On aime a parler. One is happy when he has done On est heureux quand on a fait good, du bien. People like to revenge, when On aime a se venger, lorsqu' on they have been insulted, a et'e, insult e. 431. When several verbs are together, having for their nom- inative the word one or people, although one or people is ex- pressed but once, before the first verb in English, on must be repeated before every one in French ; as One thinks, speaks and acts, On pense, on parte et on dgit, according to his principles selon ses principes et ses opi- and opinion, nions. People often approve, disap- Souvent on approuve, on dis- prove, like and dislike a approuve, on aime et on halt thing without any reason, une chose sans raison. 432. If on was to be placed after et, and ; ou, or ; si, if ; it should be preceded by V, thus, et Von, ou Von, si Von, unless the word that follows on should begin with an I. This V is used before on merely to avoid the hard sound produced by et on, ou on, si on ; as One loves or hates without On aime ou Ton hait sans savoir knowing why, pourquoi. If one see you, . . Si Ton vous voit. And one will do, . . . Et 1 'on fera. If one say so, . . Si on le dit. If one see her, . . Si on la voit, 26* 306 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 433. When no is used with a noun, it is translated, in French, by either of the negative articles, For the masculine, For the feminine, nul, . . . nulle ; pas un, . . . pas une ; aucim, . . . aucune ; which require ne before the verb of which that noun is the nom- inative or the object. See No. 60. 434. Of these, nul, nulle is the only one that is generally employed as a nominative pronoun, to translate no one, none, or nobody, used in an absolute manner, relating to persons, like on, and meaning nobody, as on means any body ; as, No one or nobody shall be ex- Nul ne sera except e. cepted, No one or nobody is satisfied Nul n'est satisfait de sa for* with his fortune, tune. 435. No one, or nobody, used in an indefinite sense, is often- er translated by personne, than by nul, which requires also ne before the verb of which it is the nominative or the object, and de before the following adjective or adverb ; as We met nobody, . . Nous ne rencontrames personne. No one wanted to do it, . Personne ne voulait le faire. I know no one rich enough to Je ne connais personne d'assez do that, riche pour faire cela. 436. But in an interrogative sentence ne is generally omit- ted, and then personne is used in the sense of quelquhtn, any one, any body, somebody, whilst in the answer it means no one, nobody ; as Would any one dare to do it ? Personne oserait-il le faire ? — — Nobody, Personne. However, if there was a verb in the answer, ne should be ex- pressed before it. Would any one dare to do it? Personne oserait-il le fare? — — Nobody would dare to do it, Personne tfoserait le faire. 437. Pas un, pas une, aucun, aucune are used as pronouns when they relate to some pronoun or substantive that precedes INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS. 307 or follows, before which they require the preposition de ; also when used without a noun as objects of a verb, before which verb the verbal objective pronoun en must be expressed ; as None of those who went there Pas un de ceux qui y sont alles have come back, rfest revenu. Have you any French books ? Avez-vous des litres Frangais ? — I have not a single one, — Je n'en ai pas un seul. "What! you have none? — I have Comment! vous n'en avez au- not a single one, I tell you, cun \ — Je n'en ai pas un seul, vous dis-je. None of your sisters could Aucune de vos saurs ne put ltd please nor displease him, plaire ni lui deplaire, car il since he saw none of them, n'en vit aucune. I saw none of your friends there, Je xi'y vis pas un de vos amis. Remark. In the use of these expressions, the student should be careful not to employ pas after the verb with either nul or aucun, or indeed any other negative adjective or adverb ; and he should consider, that pas un denies more strongly than aucun. See No. 23. 438. When one is used after any or some, in an indefinite sense, that is, relating to no particular noun, and meaning any body or somebody, the French translation is quelqu'un ; as Has any one come ? . . Quelqu'un est-il venu ? I have seen some one in the gar- J'ai vu quelqu'un dans le jar- den, din. Some one or somebody told it Quelqu'un me Va dit. to me, 439. But when quelqu'un is not used in an indefinite sense, it may relate to persons or things; then it is used with en before the verb of which it is the object, or with the preposition de be- fore the noun, pronoun, or even the adjective or past participle that follows it ; and when it relates to a feminine singular noun, it becomes quelqiCune, and quelques uns, quelques unes, for the plural ; but then it is for any, some or several, with or without one or ones ; as Do you know any of those gen- Connaissez-vous quelques uns tlemen ? de ces messieurs ? 308 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Have you any of those rings ? Avez-vous quelques unes de ces — Yes, I have still some, bagues? — Oui,fen ai encore quelques unes. Remark. Quelqu'un, quelqrfune, quelques tins, quelques unes, should be considered as the corresponding pronoun with the indefinite articles un, une, quelque, quelques. 440. Sometimes one is used in an indefinite sense in the same phrase, in opposition with other preceded by the indefi- nite article an, thus, another, in which case one should be translated by un or une, and another by un autre, une autre, for the singular, and d'autres for the plural others ; but they are very seldom used without a substantive, unless it be, with the preposition de, before the following noun, pronoun, adjective or past participle, or with the objective verbal pronoun en, before the verb of which they are the object. In the midst of children one is Au milieu des enfants on est often disturbed, one comes in, another goes out, others play or cry ; it is a continual noise, Have you taken any apples? — Yes ; I have taken one, my brother another, and my sis- ter would have taken anoth- er ; but there were no others in the basket, souvent derange, un entre, un autre sort, et d'autres jouent ou orient ; c'est un bruit continued Avez-vous pris des pommes ? — Oui ; y'en ai pris une, mon frere une autre, et ma sceur en aurait pris une autre mais il ny en avait pas d'autres da-ns le panier. 441. Sometimes also one is used, in a somewhat definite sense, with or without the article the, in the same phrase with other preceded by the definite article the ; thus, the one, the other, for the singular, and the ones, the others, for the plu- rals ; which must be translated, for the masculine, for the feminine, Vun, rune, les uns, les unes. V autre, for either gender. les autres, „ „ Voild deux livres, si vous pre- nez 1'un, or si vous en pre- the one, or one, the ones, the other, . the others, There are two books, if you take the one I shall take the other, nez xmje prendrai l'autre. INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS. 309 One of my sisters is married, Une de mes sceurs est mariee, another is engaged, and the une autre est engagee, et les others are in a convent, autres sont dans un convent. To day I have seen only one of Aujourd'hui je n'ai vu qu'un my cousins, but to-morrow I de mes cousins, mats demain shall see the other, je verrai l'autre. 442. Sometimes some is used in certain phrases in opposi- tion with others, without an article, when some is rendered by les mis, and others by les autres ; thus, All men are not alike, some are Tous les homines ne sont pas good, others are bad, semblables, les uns sont bons, les autres sont mauvais. 443. Some is sometimes repeated in the same phrase, in the sense of some of them, some others, then the first must be ren- dered by quelques uns or unes, and the others by d 1 autres, in which case it is evident that they are used in a partitive sense ; as Among the members of that so- Parmi les membres de cette so- ciety, some are Calvinists, elite, quelques uns sont Cal- some Lutherans and some vinistes, d' autres sont Luthe- Catholics, riens e^d'autres Catholiques. 444. The word either, which means the one or the oth- er, is rendered into French, thus, Mascu. singu- Femin. singu. Mascu. plu. Femin. plu. xither, . . . . Pun ou V au- Pune ou Pau- les uns ou les les unes ou les tre , tre, autres, autres. ok or from either, de Pun ou de de Pune ou de des uns ou des des unes ou des Pautre, Pautre, autres, autres. to or at EiTHzn, d Pun ou d d Pune ou d aux uns ou aux aux unes ou aux Pautre, Pautre, autres, autres. I shall take either, . Je prendrai l'un ou l'autre. Send me either of your diction- Envoyez-moi l'un ou l'autre de aries, vos dictionnaires. I shall write to either of your J'ecrirai a l'un ou a l'autre de professors, vos professeurs. Either suits me, L'un ou l'autre me convient. It may be noticed, that when either is the object of a prepo- sition, the corresponding preposition in French must be express- ed before Vun and Pautre. 445. Neither, whose meaning is not the one and nor the other, which always requires the verb of which it is the subject 310 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. in the singular number in English, is translated into French, by Mascu. singu. Femin. singu. Mascu. plu. Femin. phi. ni Pun ni Pautre, ni Pane ni Pautre, ni les uns ni les autres, ni les unes ni les autres ; which require sometimes the singular and sometimes the plural of the verb, according to the meaning intended to be conveyed ; thus, if all the individuals to which neither relates were negatively and together the nominative of the verb, that verb should be in the plural ; if it were only one of them, the verb should be in the singular, and always ne before it ; and, if neither were the ob- ject of a preposition, that preposition should be repeated in the French phrase, and placed between ni and Vun, and ni and V autre ; as, I have read your two composi- J'ai lu vos deux compositions, tions, neither is good, (both ni l'une ni l'autre ne sont are not good,) bonnes. He spoke to me of neither, II ne m'a parle ni de l'un ni de l'autre, or ni des uns ni des autres. Neither of those young men Ni l'un ui l'autre de ces jeunes will get the prize, (only one gens n' obtiendra le prix. being able to get it,) I have written to neither, Je rfai ecrit ni a l'un ni a l'autre. Explanation. In the first example, ni Pun ni Pautre requires the verb in the plural, be- cause the two objects that are represented are together the nominative of the verb. In the third, ni Pun ni Pautre requires the verb in the singular, because, there being only one prize, only one person will be able to get it. 446. Both, whose meaning is the one anjj the other, the ones and the others, is translated into French, by Mascu. sing. Femin. sing. Mascu. plu. Femin. plu. Pun et Pautre, Pune et Pautre, les uns et les autres, les unes et les autres ; and when it is the object of a preposition, the French preposi- tion should be repeated before Vun, l'autre, &c. ; as, In America, both parties would En Amerique, l'un et l'autre unite against a common en- partis se reuniraient contre emy, un ennemi commuu. He gave rewards to both antag- II donna des recompenses aux onists, uns et aux autres antago- nist es. 447. Other is sometimes used with the word each or one ,* thus, each other, one another, conveying to the mind an idea of reciprocity : then they are rendered in French by INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS. 31 1 Masc. sing. Fem. sing. Masc. plu. Fem. pin. Vun V autre, Vune V autre, les uns les autres, les unes les autres; and if each other, or one another, is the object of a preposi- tion, the French preposition should be expressed only once, be- fore V autre, and the verb should be conjugated reciprocally ; that is, with an objective verbal pronoun, of the same number and person as the nominative ; as, Augustas and Sophia love each Auguste et Sophie Raiment l'un other ; and I know that they l'autre; et je sais qu'ils s'ecri- wnte to each other, vent l'un a l'autre. The soldiers encouraged each Les soldats s'encourageaient les other, uns les autres. We promised each other to Nous nous promimes les uns sustain each other, aux autres de nous soutenir les uns les autres. However, this last phrase would be better thus : Nous nous promimes de nous soutenir les uns les autres. 448. Others, being used as the object of a preposition and relating to persons in an indefinite sense, is rendered in French by autrui ; as, One should respect the proper- On doit respecter le bien d'au- ty of others, trui. Expect from others what you do Attendez d'autrui ce que vous to others, faites a autrui. 449. Such is sometimes used in English with as, and some- times with the indefinite article a or an, and must be translated into French bv Masc. sing. Fem. sing. Masc. plu. Fem. plu. tel, telle, tels, telles. as should be translated by que, and the indefinite article a or an by un, une, placed before tel, telle, for the singular ; and by de, also placed before tels, telles, for the plural ; as, When a man fears to see him- Lorsqu'un homme craint de se self such as he is, it is be- voir tel qu'il est, c'est parce cause he is not such as he qu'il n'est pas ie\ qw'il devrail ought to be, etre. I shall take that music such as Je prendrai cette musique telle it is, . m qu'elle est. Such a man deserves consider- Un tel homme merite de la ation, but not such women as consideration, mais non pas those, de telles fenrmes que celles-ld. 312 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. I have already seen suck things, J'ai dejd vu de telles ckoses. Suck manners do not please De telles manieres ne me plai- me, sent pas. Such a one is rendered in French by Masculine, Feminine, un tel, . . . . line telle ; as, You must go to Mr. such a one's, II faut que vous alliez chez and there you will see Mrs. Monsieur un tel, et vous y such a one, verrez Madame une telle. 450. When such a is used with an adjective, it should not be translated into French by un tel, wed celui-la, celle-ld, ceuz-la, celles-la, that, those, ) reiatfve pronoun. ' * ce, . . this, that, used as a nominative verbal pronoun. 27* 318 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. DEFINITE. lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, which, which one. duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, of or from which, or which one. auquel, a laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles, to or at which, or which one. INDEFINITE. qui, . . . who, ) qui est-ce qui, who, > when relating to persons. qui est-ce que, whom, ) que, . . . what, when not the object of any preposition. quoi, . . . what, when the object of any preposition. qu 'est-ce qui, what, as a nominative. qu' est-ce que, what, as an object. The last four relating to things only. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. qui, . . . who, whom, that. de qui, dont, . . whose, of or from whom. que, . . . what, that. de quoi, dont, . . of or from what or that. a quoi, . . . to or at what. lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, which. duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, of or from which. auquel, d laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles, to or at which. It may be noticed, that dont is the only relative pronoun that is not interrogative. Qui, dont, and que, are used relating either to persons or things ; but quoi is used only when, relating to things, it is the object of a preposition. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. Masculine. Feminine. chacun, chacune, . each one, every one. TABLE OF PRONOUNS. 319 INDEFINITE, COLLECTIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS. On, . . . one, used only as nominative verbal pronoun. nul, nulle...ne, no one, nobody, is both an article and a pronoun, but never used as an object when a pronoun. per sonne... ne, no one, nobody, any one, any body. quelqulun, some one, any one, somebody, {indefinite.) Vun , l y une, one, the one, les uns, les unes, ones, the ones. V autre, the other. les autres, the others. either. Vun ou autre, Vune ou V autre, les uns ou les autres, les unes ou les autres, ni Vun ni V autre, ni Vune ni V autre, ) . , ni les uns ni les autres, ni les unes ni les autres, ) Vun et V autre, Vune et V autre, les uns et les autres, les u?ies et les autres, Vun V autre, Vune V autre, ) les uns les autres, les unes les autres, \ ■ both, autrui, tel qui, telle qui, tels qui, telles qui, tout, rien, . quiconque, qui que ce soit qui, qui que ce soit que, quiconque, . quoique ce soit qui, quoique ce soit que, tout ce qui, tout ce que, each other, one another. others, used only after a preposition. > such as. every thing. nothing. whoever, whosoever, whomsoever. whoever. whomsoever. whoever, whomsoever. ► whatever. 320 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. COMPARATIVE AND PRACTICAL ARTICLES. Articles definis. le, la, P, les, du, de la, de 1', des, au, a la, a Y, aux. Articles indefinis. un, une, quelque, quelques, des. Article collectif plusieurs. Articles partitifs. du, de la, de 1', des. Articles possessifs. mon, ma, mes. ton, ta, tes. son, sa, ses. notre, nos. votre, vos. leur, leurs. Articles dimonstratifs. ce, cet, cette, ces. Articles interrogatifs. puel, quelle, quels, quelles, TABLE OF ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS. PRONOMS. Pronoms relatifs. qui, dont, que, ^quoi, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles. Pronoms indefinis. quelqu'un, relating only to persons. ...quelqu'un, ...quelqu'un e, ...quel- ques uns, ..quelques unes. Pronom collectif. ...plusieurs. Pronoms partitifs. ...un peu, ...un morceau, ...une partie, &c.,... quelques uns, ...quelques unes. Pronoms possessifs. le mien la mienne, les miens, les miennes. le tien, &c. le sien, &c. le notre, &c. le votre, &c. le leur, &c. Pronoms demonstratifs. ceci, cela, indefinis. celui, celle, ceux, celles, definis, used when a relative pronoun or a preposition follows. celui-ci, celle-ci, &c. } used token celui-la, celle-la, &c. ( no relative pronoun nor preposition follows. Pronoms interrogatifs. lequel, laquelle, lesquels, les- quelles, definis. qui, que, quoi, indefinis. * It should be remembered, that quoi is not used without a preposition. — Although the TABLE OF ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS. 321 ARTICLES. PRONOMS. Articles distributifs. Pronoms distributifs. chaque. | chacun, chacune. Articles negatifs. ^ronoms negatifs. nul, nulle, nuls, nulles. aucun, aucune, aucuns, au- cune s. nul, in an indefinite sense for no- body, ...aucun, ...aucune. ...pas un, ...pas une. The practical advantage that can be derived from this com- parative table is the greater, as it renders the distinction of articles and pronouns more striking. To use it advantageously it is only necessary to remember that all the articles, or adjec- tive pronouns, no matter for the name, that is, those of the column on the left are never used, unless the noun to which they relate is expressed with and after them, and that all must agree in gender and number with that following noun ; and if there are several nouns together, used as nominatives or ob- jects of the same verb or preposition, they must all be repeated before every noun, and agree in gender and number with each one. In a word, the use of them all is regulated by the same rules. The pronouns, on the contrary, are used only when the nouns to which they relate are not expressed with them. It may be noticed, t'hat every article has a corresponding pro- noun ; however, it is necessary to observe, that those, that are preceded by several dots, always require the passive verbal pro- noun en before the verb of which they are the object. With this passive verbal pronoun, used with the verb that has for object an adverb of quantity, or a cardinal number, that adverb or cardinal number become pronouns, and they cannot be used as such without en ; as. Have you any books ? Avez-vous des livres ? I have a great many, /'en ai beaucoup. relative pronouns are placed opposite the definite articles, they should not be considered as being their corresponding pronouns more than of any other articles. 322 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. I have four, . . /'en ai quatre. I have some, . . /'en ai quelques uns. I have good ones, . /'en ai de bons. I have beautiful ones, . /'en at de beaux. The two last examples show, that adjectives too become pro- nouns with en before the verb to which they are the object, but that they require the preposition de before them, whether they are preceded or not by a cardinal number or an adverb of quan- tity, or a noun of quantity : Have you tulips ? Avez-vous des tulipes ? I have many very beautiful J'en ai beaucoup de belles. ones, I have twelve red ones, and /'en ai douze de rouges^ et about twenty yellow ones, une vingtaine de jaunes. Participles become pronouns in the same way. Perhaps this idea concerning adverbs, numbers, adjectives, and participles becoming pronouns may not be well received by scrupulous grammarians ; but, in adopting it, we only mean, that those parts of speech are made to represent nouns, when used with en before the verb of which they are the object. 323 SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. GENDER OF NOUNS. 460. Nouns have generally but one gender; however, there are some that take either gender, according as they are used in the singular or plural, and also according to the meaning they are intended to convey. 461. Amour, love ; delice, delight ; orgue, organ (an in- strument for music) ; are masculine in the singular, and femin- ine in the plural ; as He was instigated by & foolish II fut poussi par nn fol amour, love, but foolish affections mais les folles amours sont are generally violent, generalement violentes. There is a beautiful organ in II y a un bel orgue, or de belles that church, orgues dans cette eglise. You found the greatest delight Vous trouviez les plus grandes in living together, delices en vivant ensemble. 462. Note. Amours is feminine only when used in the sense of affection ; it would be masculine, if it meant cupids, or representations of them, or, by analogy, of little children. 463. Aigle is feminine, when it means an ensign ; as The American eagle, . . U aigle Americaine. The imperial eagle, . . Uaigle imperiale. 464. But it is masculine when used in any other sense ; as The proud and courageous ea~ L'aigle fier et courageux est gle is the emblem of power, Vembleme de la puissance. 465. Automne, autumn, is of either gender; but the mascu- line is preferred by all grammarians, the names of the other seasons being masculine. 324 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 466. Couple, a couple, is of the masculine gender when it especially represents a male and a female of any living beings ; but it is often used, in French, instead of the number deux, two, without reference to sex, and then it is feminine. TJne couple de pigeons, means merely two pigeons, perhaps both male or female. Un couple de pigeons, means especially a male and a female. 467. Enfant, child, is masculine when a little boy is meant, and feminine when a little girl. 468. Exemple, example, is of the masculine gender ; but when it is used to represent a copy or model for writing, it is feminine. 469. Foudre, meaning the lightning, is feminine when used without an adjective ; but if it is used with an adjective, it is either masculine or feminine. 470. Gens, people, persons, requires in the feminine the adjectives or pronouns which precede it, and in the masculine those that follow it ; as Old people are generally sus- Les vieilles gens sons gSnerale- picious, ment soupponneux. 471. However, the masculine tous is used instead of the feminine toutes, 1st, when that adjective is the only one that precedes the noun gens ; as All persons who think well Tous les ge?is qui pensent Men act well, agissent bien. 472. 2d. When gens is preceded by an adjective that ends in the masculine with a silent e, as aimable, utile, brave, fyc. All honest men are esteem- Tous les honnetes gens sont ed, estimes. All skilful people find em- Tous les habiles gens trouvent ployment, de Vemploi. 473. Hymnc, a hymn sung in church, is feminine; as Santeuil and Coffin composed Santeuil et Coffin out compose the beautiful hymns of the les belles hy mnes du breviaire breviary of Paris, de Paris. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 325 But in any other acceptation, it is masculine ; as The Marseillaise is one of the La Marseillaise est un des plus most beautiful hymns that beaux hymnes qui aient eti were ever sung, chantes. 474. Chose, preceded by quelque, forming a kind of compound word that means something, is masculine ; but, without being preceded by quelque, it is always feminine ; and, if after some- thing follows an adjective or a past participle, quelque chose re- quires the preposition de before it ; as He has done something that II a fait quelque chose qui should be reproved, devrait etre blame. He has done a thing that should II a fait une chose qui devrait be reproved, etre blamie. I have seen something very J'ai vu quelque chose de Men astonishing, etonnant. I have something good to give J'ai quelque chose de bon a vous you, donner. Something new was announced On a annonci quelque chose for this evening, de nouveau pour ce soir. 475. Remark that, in the last example, the construction of the French phrase is different from the English; for the literal transla- tion of on a annonce quelque chose de nouveau pour ce soir is, one HAS ANNOUNCED SOMETHING NEW FOR THIS EVENING. The English something new was announced, might be translated literally and yet be correct, thus, quelque chose de nouveau a ete annonce, but this form is not considered so good as that with on. From which we conclude, that when an English passive phrase might be changed into an active, it is often best to do it, using for nominative of the French verb the object of the preposition by ; or the pronoun on, if there be no preposition expressed. The world was made by God, Dieu a cree le monde. Something is expected from you, On attend quelque chose de vous. EXERCISE 215. Note. When a uumber that refers to the pender of a substantive is placed over an ad- jective or a participle, it is to show the student in what gender that adjective or partici- ple must be. 109 461 109 . . Although the first organs are of a very ancient origin, all historians 461 475 461 relate, that the first that were heard in France were given to Pepin by 28 326 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 12 the Emperor Constantine Copronyme, in seven hundred and fifty-seven. 461 461 461 — What delight can be compared to that which a good action procures ! 394 — Vertumnus presided over the gathering of fruit j that is the reason 465 why poets sometimes take him for Autumn itself. — Pygmalion did not 470 470 know good people ; for such people do not approach an immoral king. — 466 466 466 466 I want a couple of books for a young couple lately married. EXERCTSE 216. 467 467 254 ' My dear child,' said a mother to her young daughter, l you must 468 follow the example of your sister ; she is always attentive to the 468 lessons of her teachers, and copies perfectly well all the best 468 118 128 124 models in calligraphy, in order to learn perfectly the art of writing. 7 — 470 470 125 Certain persons spend all their life in studying ; and when they die, 132 . 125 they have learnt almost every thing, except how to think. Almost 473 every Christian country has its own national hymn ; but very few are 474 473 473 475 more beautiful than the religious hymns that are sung in churches. I 474 474 474 have seen a thing that seems very complicated ; but in that thing 474 there is something that is particularly astonishing on account of its beauty, simplicity, and perfection. PLURAL OF NOUNS. 476. There are nouns that never take a plural termination, although sometimes they are used to convey a plural meaning. They are, 1st, proper names, whose orthography should not be altered; as Spain prides itself in having L'Espagne se glorifie d'avoir given birth to the two donne naissance aux deux Senecas, Seneque. The two Corneilles were I orn Les deux Corneille sont nes a in Rouen, Rouen, 477. Except, however, when they are used as common nouns, that is, to represent individuals like those whose names are employed; as France has had her Ccesars and La France a eu ses Cesars et Pompeys, ses Pompees. 478. 2d. Nouns taken from foreign languages, and that are SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 327 not yet considered as French words : as des alleluia, alleluias ; des ave, aves (prayers to the virgin) ; des auto-da-fe, auto- dafes ; des alinta, paragraphs ; des te deum, te deums ; des post-scriptum, post scriptums ; &c. However, it is proper to write des factums, cases (reports of cases before a court of jus- tice) ; des debets, debits ; des bravos, bravos ; des opbras, operas ; because these words are so frequently used that they have become French words. 479. 3d. Words that are always invariable, such as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, &c. 480. Compound nouns, that is, those that are composed of several words, take the mark of the plural, accordirig to the kind and sense of the words of which they are formed. 481. 1st Rule. When a noun is composed of a substantive and an adjective, both take the plural termination; as un gentilhomme, a gentleman, des gentihhommes, gentlemen. une basse-taille, a counter-tenor, des basses-tailles, counter-tenors. un plain chant, a plain chant, des plains, chants, plain chants. 482. Except des blanc seings, . blank papers with a signature on them. des terre-pleins, . . platforms of earth. des chevau-legers, » light-horses. des grand'm.eres, . grandmothers, and all grand relations< des grand* messes, . high masses. 483. Note. When into a compound noun enters a word that is never used alone, both take a plural termination ; as une pie-grieche, ... . a speckled magpie. des pies- grieches, . . . speckled magpies. un loup-garou, ... a ware -wolf. des loups-garous, . . . ware-wolves. 484. 2d Rule. When the compound noun is formed of two substantives, without any other word between them, both take the plural termination ; as un chef-lieu, . . . a shire-town. des chefs-lieux, .... shire -towns. 328 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. un chou-jleur, .... a cauliflower. des choicx-Jleurs, . . . . cauliflowers. 485. Except un becfigue, .... a fig-pecker. des becfigues, ..... fig-peckers. un appui-main, .... a maul-stick. des appuis-main, .... maul-sticks. un breche-dent, .... a toothless. des breche-dents, .... several toothless. un hotel-Dieu, .... a hospital. des hotels- Dieu, . . . . hospitals. 486. 3d Rule. When a compound noun is formed of two substantives and a preposition between them, the first only takes the plural termination ; as, un ciel-de-lit, .... a tester of a bed. des cieh-de-lit, .... testers of beds. un chef-d'oeuvre, ... a master-piece. des chefs-d'ceuvre, . . . master-pieces. 487. Except des coq-a-Vane, . . idle discourses, nonsense. des pied-a-terre, . places to stop at. des tete-a-tete, . . tete-a-tetes, private conversations. 488. 4th Rule. When a compound noun is formed of a substantive and a verb, a preposition or an adverb, the substan- tive alone takes the plural termination, if it conveys a plural idea by representing several individuals or objects ; as, des avant-coureurs, . . forerunners ; des ar Here- saisons . ■ latter end of autumn ; in which the words courenrs, saisons, convey the idea of several runners and several seasons. The following are written without the mark of the plural ; thus, des serre-tete, ..... night-caps ; des reveille-matin, .... alarm-bells ; des contre-poison, .... antidotes ; because the words tete, matin, and poison, convey to the mind the idea of only one head, one morning, and one poison. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 329 489. But, essuie-mai?is, . . . towel; cure-dents, . . . tooth-pick; porte-defs, .... key-ring ; porte-mouckettes, . . . snuffers-pan; whether in the singular or plural, have a plural termination, be- cause mains, dents, clefs, mouchettes, convey to the mind the idea of several hands, teeth, and keys ; mouchettes is plural because it is never used in the singular. 490. 5th Rule. When a compound noun is formed of in- variable words, such as a verb, a preposition, an adverb or a con- junction, neither takes the plural termination ; as, des pour-boire, . presents in money. des pince-sans-rire, . sulky, malicious, designing men. des passe-passe, . juggler's tricks. des passe-partout, fyc. master-keys. EXERCISE 217. There is no doubt that, in the most remote antiquity, there have been 477 477 Alexanders and Caesars, whose exploits have been forgotten. — Spain 476 476 prides herself of her Seneques, the same as France does of her Racines 476 94 and Rousseaus. — There is often more information in small books, than 478 481 475 26 in large folios. — Flying fish are seen only in the Atlantic ocean. — 484 There are in France eighty-six shire-towns of prefecture. — Are not the 486 Cid, Athalie, Alzire, and Merope. dramatic master-pieces ? — They are. — 475 There are persons who at first appear witty, and who are found very 487 486 475 . ignorant and stupid after two or three tete-a-tetes. — Silk-worms are raised 488 on mulberry-trees in Italy. — Idleness and indolence are the forerunners 488 of misery. — The Indians of America are armed with tomahawks. 474 Though the beauties of Virgil are great, Christian poetry presents some- thing superior. — Owls are generally found in the woods and in the ruins of old buildings. 28* 330 CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLES. 491. The definite article must be expressed before common nouns which are used in a definite sense, that is, which repre- sent or bring to the mind a whole species of individuals or ob- jects, or a particular individual or object ; see No. 35 ; although in English, the definite article is used only before common nouns, whose signification is determined by being limited to one, or to a certain number of particular individuals or objects. Man is rather feeble than wick- L'homme est plutot faille que ed, mechant. The diseases of the soul are Les maladies de Vamesont plus more difficult to cure than dificiles a guirir que celles those of the body, du corps. Explanation. Tn the first example, the definite article is used in French, though it is not expressed in English, because the word honime is used to convey to the mind the idea of the whole species of men, for it means here tons les hommes, all men. In the second, the definite article is used, both in French and in English, before maladies, diseases, hme, soul, and corps, body, because the extent of their signification is determined, being limit- ed by the words that follow them. 492. The definite article is also used before the names of countries, provinces, rivers, seas and mountains. Europe, Asia, and Africa were L' Europe, VAsie, et VAfrique the only parts of the world etaient les seules parties du known by the ancients, Am- monde counties des anciens, erica having not been dis- V Amerique rfayant ete Re- covered till fourteen hundred couverte qu'en quatorze cent and ninety-two, quatre-vingt-douze. Explanation. In this example, the definite article is used, in French, before the words Europe, Asie, Afrique and Amerique, according to the rule 492, although it is not ex- pressed in English. 493. When any other part of speech except a noun is used as a noun, it always takes, in French, the masculine definite article ; as, We must prefer the useful to Nous devons prefirer Vutile a the agreeable, Vagreable. Whatever fools may say ,knowl- Quoique disent les sots le sa~ edge has its value, voir a son prix. SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 331 494. When a proper name is used with an adjective, the definite article must be used before that adjective, whether that adjective be placed before or after the name ; as, Little Frances had not yet La petite Frangoise n'etait pas come, encore venue. Napoleon the great died at Napoleon le grand est mort a St. Helena, Ste. Helene. The great Washington was Washington le grand est le the father of America, pere de V Amerique. 495. The definite article is used in French with nouns ex- pressing measure, weight, or number, although the English use the indefinite article a or an ; as, That cheese is worth twenty Ce fromage vaut vingt sous la cents a pound, livre. The cloth of my coat cost Le drap de mon habit me coute me ten dollars a yard, dix dollars l'aune. Chickens are sold now for Les poulets se vendent a pre* thirty cents a pair, sent trente sous la paire. 496. But the article is supplied by the preposition par before nouns expressing any division of time or labour ; as, That French teacher has one Ce maitre de Franpais a un dollar a lesson, and he comes dollar par lecon, et il vient three times a week, trois fois par semaine. Our mason charges for that Notre rnapon fait payer pour ce wall twenty-five cents a foot, mur vingt-cinq sous par pied. 497. It has already been said, that when an adjective is placed before a noun used in a partitive sense, the partitive arti- cle instead of being du, de la, de V, or des, is merely the prepo- sition de, the definite article not being expressed ; as, Give me some good bread, . Donnez-moi de bon pain. I drink excellent beer, . . Je bois d' 'excellent e Mere. You have beautiful horses, . Vous avez de beaux chevaux. 498. But, if the noun used in a partitive sense and the adjective placed before it were connected by the sense, in such a manner as to form a kind of compound noun, such as petits-pois, green peas ; petit-pate, petty patee ; petit-maitre, fop; petite* maitresse, coquette ; bon-mot : witticism ; jeunes gens, young 332 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. people ; petite-maison, mad-house ; grand homme, great man ; &c. then it takes the definite article with the preposition de ; as I know nothing so tedious as Je ne co?inais rien d'aussi fops, ennuyeux que des petits-mai- tres. A grandfather feels proud when Un grand pere se sent fier he is surrounded by grand- lorsqu'il est entourt par des sons, and grand-daughters, petits-fils et des petites-filles. 499. The definite article is not used before common nouns whose signification is not determined, or which do not represent a whole kind or species of individuals or objects, or a certain part of that kind or species, or a certain individual or object ; (See No. 35.) j as, A marble table, . . . line table de marbre. A wooden house, * . Une maison de bois. A man without merit, , . Un homme sans merite. To behave with prudence, Se conduire avec prudence. Explanation. In these examples, no particular kind or species of marble, wood, merit, or prudence, is meant rather than any other, therefore the words marble, wood, merit, and prudence, are in an entirely vague and indefinite sense. 500. For the same reason the definite article is not used be- fore a noun that is preceded by the prepositson de, when it is the object of a collective noun or an adverb of quantity; as, He was assaulted by a multi- II fut assailli par une multi- tude of persons, and he had tude de personnes, et il eut much difficulty to escape, beaucoup de peine a s'echap- per. 501. However, when the extent of the signification of the noun is determined by what follows, the definite should be used with the preposition de ; as A great number of the persons Un grand noinbre des person- that I have seen had straw nes que fai vues avaient des hats, chapeaiu: de paille. I have sold many of the books J'ai ve?idu beaucoup des livres that I bought last week, que fachetai la semaine der- nicre. Explanation. In the first example, des is used before personnes, because the extent of the signification of that noun is determined by what follows, namely, que fai vues ; no article is used before paille, because that word is employed in an indefinite sense, since it represents neither a whole kind or species of objects, nor any particular part of any kind or SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 333 species of objects. In the second example, livres is preceded by the preposition and arti- cle des y because the extent of its signification is determined by what follows, namely, que j'achetai, 8fc. 502. The definite article is also used after la plupart de, MOST Or THE GREATER PART OF ; Men, MANY, MUCH ; as, Most men are industrious, . La plupart des hommes sont industrieux. Many countries are not yet Bien des pays ne sont pas encore civilised, civilises. 503. The preposition de is used without the definite article before a noun which is the object of an active verb used with a negation ; as, I shall not make you any re- Je ne vous ferai pas de re- proach, proches. 504. Except when the noun is followed by an adjective or relative pronoun that determines the extent of its signification ; as, I shall not make you frivolous Je ne vous ferai pas des re- reproaches, proches frivoles. 505. However, the definite article should also be used with the preposition de, before the object of a verb that is used inter- rogatively, although it were with a negation, because then that noun is used in a partitive or limited sense ; as, Has he not money? . . Na-t-il pas de V argent? Are we not exposed to misfor- Ne sommes-nous pas exposes a tunes ? des malheurs ? 506. The definite article is used before names of countries when employed in a definite sense, see Nos. 35 and 492, but is omitted before them when used in an indefinite sense. The names of countries are employed in a definite sense when they bring to the mind the idea of the whole territory or nation, and in an indefinite sense when they do not bring to the mind the whole territory or nation, but seem to be employed as adjectives to determine the signification of the preceding noun ; as The nobility of France, . La noblesse de France. The greatness of France, . La grandeur de la France. Explanation. In the first example, of France is used as an adjective, merely to qualify the preceding noun nobility, to distinguish it from any other nobility ; therefore it does not bring to mind the idea of the whole France as a substantive, and is used in an indefi- aite sense, and consequently without article. In the second example, of France bringa 334 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. to the mind the whole of France as a substantive, to which the expressed greatness be- longs ; it is therefore used in a definite sense, and accordingly the definite article is ex- pressed before it. 507. The definite article is never omitted before those names of countries of which it is itself a part ; as La Guadeloupe, La Martinique, La Jamaique, La Grenade, La Barbade, La Trinite, La Dominique, Le Milanais, fyc. 508. The definite article is generally omitted, in French, before the titles of books, chapters, memoirs, &c. and the names of places and residence, when limited to streets courts, squares, &c. of cities, although it may be expressed in English; and, in this last instance, the preposition in is not to be expressed. General observations on the Observations generates sur state of Europe, Vetat de I' Europe. Preface, . ... . Preface. Mr. C. lives in Washington M.C. demeure rue Washington*, street, No. 24, and Mr. D. in No. 24, et M. D. place ^Otis, Otis place, No. 12, No. 12. The adventures of Telema- Aventures de Telemaque, livre chus, seventh book, third par- septieme, paragraphe troi- agraph, sihne. Note. It may be noticed in the second example, that the prepositions in and at arc not expressed in French. 509. The definite article is not expressed, in French, as it is in English, before adverbs of comparison, or rather of quanti- ty, when those adverbs are repeated, or used in opposition with other adverbs ; as, The more a miser possesses,^ Plus un avare possede, moins il less he spends, depense. The less a scholar studies, the Moins un ecolier etudie, moins less he learns, il apprend. The sooner Mr. L. sets o\x\,the Plus tot M. L. partira, plus tot sooner he will come back, il reviendra. 510. The definite article is not expressed before nouns used in a vocative sense, nor before those that are used as in a kind of parenthesis, expressing the profession, relationship, &c. of a noun expressed before ; as, Alexander,^ son of Philip, Alexandre, fits de Philippe. SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 335 Mr. 0. the mayor of the city, M. O. maire de la ville. Beautiful flowers, by you na- Fleurs char mantes, par vous ture is adorned ! la nature est embellie ! Soldiers ! The fate of your Soldats ! Le saint de votre country is in your hands, patrie est dans vos mains. 511. When several nouns come together in a kind of enumeration, in order to give more vivacity and energy to the expression, the article is often omitted ; as Citizens, strangers, enemies, na- Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, tions, kings and emperors nations, rots et empereurs le pity and reverence him, plaignent et le reverent. 512. The article is omitted, in French, before nouns that are employed as adjectives after the verb etre ; as, Falsehood is baseness, . . Le mensonge est bassesse. 1 Severity in the laws is human- La severite dans les lots est ity towards the people, humanity envers le peuple. 513. The definite article, and indeed any article, should be repeated before every noun, when several are together the nom- inative or the object of a verb or a preposition, although either is expressed but once in English ; as, The heart, mind, and manners, Le cceur, Y 'esprit, les mo3urs,tout every thing, improves by gagne d la culture. cultivation, Therefore we must not say, as in English, the officers and soldiers, les qfficiers et soldats ; my father and mother, mon pere et mere ; his brothers and sisters, ses freres et sosurs, Jj-c. ; but we should say for The officers and soldiers, . Les qfficiers et les soldats. My father and mother, . . Mon pere et ma mere. His brothers and sisters, . Ses freres et ses sceurs. 514. When two adjectives united by the conjunction and, et, do not qualify the same noun, the article which is used with that noun should be repeated before every adjective, though it is expressed but once in English ; as The old and young soldier, Le vieux et le jeune soldat. My large and small room, Ma grande et ma petite chambre. Ervlanatioti. In these phrases, two soldiers and two rooms are meant, since they 338 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. are for the old soldier and the young soldier, le vieux soldat et le jeui mean n particular hottle in which Furbelowed-cmtzins, A bonnet with flowers, A* wind-Thill, A ivater-mill A coffee-mill, A saw-mil\, AJlour-mill, A r zee-mill, A fire-arm, . A pasture-country A talented man, An ingenious man, A light-hair child, SYNTAX OF -ARTICLES. 341 we are accustomed to put the oil that is used, and then it is employed in an entirely definite sense ; but we might very properly say, an oil-bottle, une bouteille d huile, without article, but then it would mean anyone bottle that, was made to put oil in. Upon the same principle, we easily perceive that the tea-box, la boite au the, means the par- ticular box, in which we put the tea which is used ; and that une boite d the means a box made on purpose to put tea in. In the phrases une soupe aux choux, de la sauce aux tomates, de la sauce au beurre, une tarte au fruit, de la pommade d la rose, the article is expressed, because the w T ords choux, tumate^beur re, fruit, and rose, are employed in a partitive, and therefore in a limited sense : for une soupe aux choux is for une soupe avec des choux ; de la sauce aux tomates is for de la sauce avec des tomates ; de la sauce au beurre is for de la sauce avec du beurre j une tarte au fruit is for une tarte avec du fruit j de la pommade d la rose is for de la pommade avec de la rose ,• the words aux, aux, au, a la, should be considered as abbreviations of the partitive article and the preposition avec, since aux is instead of avec des, au instead of avec du, a la instead of avec de la. In the phrases lafemme aux huitrcs, Vhomme aupoisson, la file aux yeux bleus, Sec. the words huttres, poisson, yeux- bleus, &cc. are used in a partitive sense ; for la femme aux hultres is for lafemme qui vend des huttres ; Vhomme aupoisson is for Vhomme qui vend du poisson ; la file aux yeux bleus is for la fille avec des yeux &Zews,which, in these phrases, the same as in the preceding, aux and au are abbreviations, and are used instead of qui vend des or du, or instead of qui a des or du, avoir being instead of vendre. \n the phrases lafemme d la grosse tete, Vhomme aux favoris, the w^ords grosse tete and favoris are used in a definite sense, because they represent a particular head, or some kind of particular whiskers, therefore the article is used before them. It would be very proper to say, une femme d grosse tete, un homme a favoris, without the article, but then they would mean any wom\n with a big head, any man with whiskers, and would be used in an indefinite sense, and therefore without article ; as in un fusil d piston, unmoulin d cafe, an moulin d vent, une arme a feu, &c. the words piston, cafe, vent, feu, &c. are used in an indefinite sense, because they represent no particular percussion, no particular coffee, no particular wind nor fire, therefore the article is very properly not ex- pressed. 529. The definite article is never used with a noun when the extent of its signification is determined by any of the other articles, commonly called, by other grammarians, adjective pro- nouns, or determinative adjectives. 530. The article le, la or les, is used before the adverbs plus, more ; mieux, better ; moins, less ; when they are employed to express a superlative relative, that is, a superlative in com- parison with other persons or things ; as, Of all those ladies your sister De Unites ces dames, votre sceur is the most afflicted, est la plus affligee. Of all my scholars, your sons Be tous mes Sieves, vos fits sont are the most studious, les plus studieux. 531. But, if plus, mieux or moins, is used to express the highest degree of signification, without comparison with other 29* 342 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. persons or things, the definite article le should be always em- ployed and never la or les ; as Your sister does not weep even Votre sceur ne pleurepas, mem.e when she is the most afflicted, lorsqu'elle est le plus affligee. Explanation. In the examples of rule 230, the article agrees in gender and number with the implied nouns dame, ecoliers, to which they relate, and in the last it is invariable, be- cause it relates to no particulal object of comparison. EXERCISE 218. 494 494 Little John was a studious boy, but his grandmother, old Nancy, was 527 too poor to educate him ; however, he was employed in a nail factory, 496 where he received two dollars a week, with which he sometimes bought 497 498 good books to study in his leisure time. -I have known fops, who 481 516 in conversation used witticisms ; but very few did it with mod- esty. When the liberator of this country arrived here, he was sur- 500 rounded by a crowd of citizens, who called him their father, and his 500 piercing eye could distinguish among them a great number of soldiers, 420 who had fought under his command. He said to them, what he had of- 503 ten repeated, " defend your liberty, but never undertake conquest.'' EXERCISE 219. 506 506 The population of Russia is greater than that of France ; but the civ- 492 . 492 ilisation of France is more advanced than that of Russia. — That quota- tion is taken from the work of Montesquieu, entitled, tl Greatness 508 ,, 509 509 and Fall of the Romans. — lne more a man spends money, the more he acquires consideration, though he does not increase his fortune. — The 509 509 sooner we begin our work, the sooner we finish it. — The soldiers 513 248 26 389 and citizens of a nation should have but one object in view, that of the general interest of their country. — The superior officers of that insubor- 519 519 514 dinate regiment have neither power nor influence over the old nor young 491 491 491 soldiers. — Good Christians generally return good for evil j but other 517 517 517 517 persons generally return evil for evil, or good for good, and too 401 ., _ 491 often evil for good. EXERCISE 220. 522 I was received in the large hall of a stone building, in which were marble tables, mahogany chairs and arm-chairs, brass andirons, 500 532 bronzelamps, fee. I sat on a velvet settee. I waited for a quarter of SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 343 an hour, after which a black-whiskered gentleman came in ; he was elegantly" dressed, and, among other things, he wore a beautiful 522 522 diamond pin, and several diamond rings ; on his shoes he had 522 44 625 silver buckles with precious stones. He rung a bell, and a young black- 522 528 522 eyed servant-maid came in.bringing two china tea cups, two silver spoons, 522 a sugar-dish, and a silver tea-pot. Soon another servant brought in 522 525 apple-pies, small cream-tarts, and several other kinds of cakes. I soon perceived that the gentleman was very amiable and learned ; he showed 528 522 528 528 me very elegant flower pots, marble statues, fire-arms, percussion pistols, 528 522 a small sword with a silver handle, and a double-barrelled gun. From 264 528 . 528 his window we could see two wind-mills on the hill, and two water-mills 26 on the river ; and yet these objects were but a small part of his fortune. SYNTAX OF THOSE ARTICLES CALLED BY NOEL AND CHAPSAL DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES, AND BY OTHER GRAMMARIANS ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 532. Sometimes the possessive articles of the English are rendered in French by the definite articles ; this is the case when the sense leaves no doubt about the possessor, that is, when the possessed object belongs to the person which is the nom- inative of the verb of the phrase ; as, Peter has broken his arm, Pierre s'est casse le bras, not son bras. I have a pain in my head, Vai mat a la tete, not a ma tete. Explanation. In these examples, the definite article is used instead of the demonstra- tive, because ma and son would add nothing to the sense. 533. But the possessive articles are used before nouns that represent common things, or things of a common occurrence; as My megrim has taken me, . Ma migraine m'a repris. His gout torments him, . Sa gouite le tourmente. 534. When a possessive article, in English, is used with a noun, and relates to a person or thing which is the possessor, it is translated by the corresponding possessive article in French : see Nos. 45, &c. But, if the noun that represents the possessor is not expressed in the same phrase with the Enrjjsh possessive 344 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. article, that possessive article is rendered in French by the pro* noun en before the verb, and the definite article before the possessed object; as The country has its charms, La campagne a ses agreements. Those languages have their Ces langues out leurs beautes* beauties, I reside in the country, its J'habite la campagne, les agre- charms are numberless, ments en sont sans nombre. Those languages are rich, I ad- Ces langues sont riches, j>'en mire their beauties, admire les beautes. Explanation. Jn the two first examples, the possessive articles of the English are render- ed by their corresponding possessive articles in French, because the possessor and the possessed object are in the same phrase ," but, in the two last examples, its and their are translated by en and the definite article les, because the nouns country and languages, which represent the possessors, are not in the same phrase with them, or because they are not the nominatives of the verb of which the possessed objects are the regimen or object. 535. However, when the possessed object is the object of a preposition, although the noun that represents the possessor be not in the same phrase with it, the French possessive article must be used ; as Paris is a remarkable city, Paris est uneville remarquable, foreigners admire the beauty les etr angers admirent la of its buildings, beaut e de ses edifices. 536. When whatever, however or howsoever, is used with a noun, whether qualified or not by an adjective, it is translated into French by the single word quelque or quelques, according to the number of that noun ; and, if a verb follows, it must be in the subjunctive mood, preceded by the conjunction que ; as, Whatever reasons you may Quelques raisons que vous allege, alleguiez. Whatever protection you may Quelque protection que vous have, you will not succeed, ayez, vous ne reussirez pas. 537. When whatever is used with to be, whether preced- ed or followed by a noun, it is translated by quel que, in two words, quel become quels, quelle or quelles, according to the gen- der and number of the nominative of the verb etre of the French, and que remains invariable and precedes the auxiliary £t.re% SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 345 I which must be put in the subjunctive mood and placed before the noun. Whatever men may be, we must live with them, Whatever be your riches, make a good use of them, Quels que soient les hu?nains, il faut vivre avec eux. Quelles que soient vos richesses, faites-en unbon usage. 538. When however or howsoever is used with either an adverb, a participle, or an adjective, without a noun, it is transla- ted into French by quelque in a single word, without ever vary- ing, and que before the following verb which must be in the sub- junctive mood : However skilfully you may act, you will not succeed at the •.first time, or at the first trial, However considerate we may be, we sometimes mistake, Quelque adroitement que vous agissiez, vous ne reussirez pas a la premiere fois. Quelque considered que nous soyons, nous nous trompons quelque fois. Quelque puissants qu'ils soient', Us seront vaincus. Quelque belles que soient ces dames. However powerful they may be, they will be conquered, However fine those ladies may be, 539. Every with a noun in the singular, used for the plural, that is, for the whole individuals of the class it represents, and all used in the same sense, are rendered, every by tout or toute, and all by tous or toutes, according to the gender and number of the noun. Tout homme doit Every man must serve his country, Every woman should have modesty, All men should be free, servir son pays. Toute femme devrait avoir de la modestie. Tous les hommes devraient etre libres. Toutes les femmes devraient aimer leurs protecteurs. 540. Though or although is sometimes rendered in French by quoique, with the verb in the subjunctive mood: see No. 109. But it is often rendered by tout, which is invariable when the adjective before which it is used commence with a vovvel or All ivomen should love their protectors, 346 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. silent h, even if it should relate Jo a feminine noun, and variable when it commences with a consonant and relates to a feminine noun, otherwise it remains invariable ; the verb that follows should be in the indicative mood; as, Although virtue is amiable, all Tout aimable qu'est la vertu, men do not love it, tous les hommes ne Vaiment pas. Although that man is very rich, Tout riche qu'est cet homrrie, il he has very few friends, a bien peu d'amis. 541. However or quite is also rendered by tout, following the same rules as when used to translate although, given in the preceding paragraph. Mrs. L. was quite stupefied at Mme. L. fut toute stupifaite de her reception, sa reception. Hoivever witty those ladies are, Toutes spirituelles que sont ces they are sometimes very ri- dames, quelque fois elles sont diculous, tres-ridicules. Though those men are great Tout grands que sont ces hommes and those ladies learned, they et tout instruites que sont ces exert very little influence in dames, Us exercent bien peu this country, d! influence dans ce pays. EXERCISE 221. 191 534 Praises are like riches : It is because we do not know their value that we are lavish of them. — The court of Napoleon was brilliant ; all fo- 534 reigners admired its magnificence. — Philadelphia is one of the best pro- 113 ductions of taste that a city can present to the traveller. All those who 535 see it are struck with the regularity and cleanliness of its streets, and 535 the simplicity and beauty of its buildings. The hydraulic engines, 535 which supply its inhabitants with excellent water, are remarkable for 535 12 446 their solidity and power ; they throw one thousand gallons (of it) a minute into the reservoirs, which are one hundred and five feet above the level 26 of the river. Jesus-Christ died only to bear testimony to truth ; he 534 was its first martyr : he taught mankind how to make themselves wor- 534 thy of heaven, and opened its gates to them. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 347 EXERCISE 222. 536 536 Whatever thing we may do to oblige an ungrateful man, he will never 536 536 find it worth his gratitude. "Whatever great talents we may have, the 538 least of our virtues has more value in the eyes of God. However pure • • 538 536 A their intentions may be, — whatever light they may have acquired, — 537 537 264 540 whatever their experience may be, men ma5" mistake. Although cer- 264 tain books are bad, one may find in them something that deserves to be 540 679 109 539 read. Though men are wicked, God wishes us to love them. Every 536 536 man is subject to death. Whatever efforts you may make, you will not 538 538 ,. succeed. How great soever may be the actions he has done before his crime, his memory will be an object of contempt in the minds of those 541 who know him. Though the distress of the merchants of this country is great, the government does nothing to help them. CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 542. When an adjective or a past or present participle is used in a phrase, it must always relate to a word expressed in that same phrase, and must never cause any equivocation or double meaning. Therefore we should not say. Jealous of the rights of his Jaloux des droits desacouro?ine, crown, his only care was to son unique soin etait de la transmit it to his successors, transmettre a ses successeurs ; because the adjective jaloux does not relate to any noun in the phrase. It would also be improper to say, Loving study above all things, Aimant Vttude par dessus tout, your father w r ill provide you voire pere vous fournira les with the means of giving moyens de vous y livrer. yourself to it, Explanation. There is an equivocation, or double meaning, in this phrase, since the present participle aimant, loving, may be considered as relating to the son, as well as to the father. The difficulty is obviated by changing the phrase, thus : As your father loves study above all things, Comme voire, pere aime V etude par dessus he will provide you with,&c. Or tout, il vous fournira, fyc. As you love study above all things, your Comme vous aimez P etude par dessus tout, father will provide you with, Slc. votrcpere vous fournira > tifc. 348 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. The adjective, in French, must agree in gender and number with the noun or pronoun to which it relates : see No. 62. 543. If several nouns or pronouns are qualified by an adjec- tive, that adjective must be in the plural and in the masculine gender, if the nouns or pronouns are of different genders : see No. 63. The rich and poor are equal be- Le riche etle pauvre sont egaux fore God, devant Dieu. By a continual application and Par une application et un labour one surmounts many travail continuels on sur- obstacles, monte bien des obstacles. 544. When two nouns qualified by an adjective are of dif- ferent genders, the ear requires that the masculine noun should be expressed the last, especially if the adjective has a different termination for each gender, otherwise the place of the two nouns is unimportant. He has shown an astonishing II a montre une prudence et courage and prudence, un courage ttonnants. He has shown an admirable II a montre un courage et une courage and prudence, prudence admirables. Explanation. In the first example, courage is placed after piudesce, because it is mascuiine, and that the adjective etvnnant has a different termination in the feminine than in the masculine. Tn the second, the word courage is before prudence, though it might just as well be placed after, because the adjective admirable has the same termination for the masculine and feminine. EXCEPTIONS. 545. 1st exception. The adjective placed after two nouns that are synonymous, that is, when they have nearly the same signification, agrees in gender and number only with the last noun ; as He has shown a praiseworthy II a montre une reserve et une cir cumspection and prudence, prudence digne d'eloges. All his life was but a continu- Toute sa vie n'a et.e qu'un al labour and occupation, travail et une occupation continuelle. Explanation. The reason of this is, that there is but one word to be qualified, since but one idea is expressed, and it is with the last noun, which strikes more powerfully the im- agination, that it must agree. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 349 546. The adjective must agree with the last noun only, when they are connected by the conjunction ou, or ; as, He must have an astonishing II f ant qu'il ait un courage ou courage or prudence, une prudence etonnante. Explanation. The adjective agrees with the last noun, because the conjunction ou ex- cludes the first, and because it fixes the attention the most. 547. 2d exception. The adjective nu, bare; demi, half; excepte, except ; suppose, suppose or supposed ; are invariable when they precede the noun, and variable when they follow it; as Bare head, . . ~N\x-tete, or tete nice. Bare feet, or bare footed, Nu-pieds, or pieds nus. Half an hour, . . Une demi-heure. One hour and a half, . Une heure et demie. Except those persons, Excepte ces personnes, or ces per- sonnes exceptees. Suppose those facts, . Suppose ces faits, or ces faits supposes. Notice that the indefinite article a or an, used before half in English, is not expressed in French before demi, when preceded by a cardinal number. 548. Though the adjective demi never varies, it should be borne in mind that the French word demie is a noun that by itself means half an hour, and that it varies for the plural. This clock strikes the hours, Cette horloge sonne les heures, but not the half-hours, mais non pas les demies. Half past three o'clock, Trois heures et demie. Two feet and a half . Deux pieds et demi. Every half an hour, . Toutes les demi-heures. 549. 3d exception. The adjective feu, late, deceased, agrees with the noun only when it precedes immediately, and does not agree, if it is separated from it, even by an article ; as, The late queen, . La feue reine, or feu la rtine. Your late mother, . Votre feue mere, or feu voire mere. 550. 4th exception. When an adjective is used adverbial- ly with a verb, it never varies ; as, Those books cost dear, . . Ces livres content cher. Those men walk fast, . Ces hommes marchent vite. SO 350 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 551. The adjective is governed by the noun, but does not govern it ; that is, two or more adjectives qualifying a noun, that noun should not on that account be in the plural; but on the contrary those adjectives must take the gender and number of that noun ; as, The first and second stories, Le premier et le second etage, not etages. The ancient and modern his- 2/histoire ancienne et moderne, tories, not les histoires. 552. When two adjectives are together, the first of which is qualified by the second, both remain invariable ; as, Light chesnut hair, . . Des cheveux chatain-clair. Dark blue clothes, . . Des ttoffes bleu-fonce. 553. One should be careful not to apply to persons those adjectives that can properly be used only with things ; as par- donnable, impardonnable, deplorable, contestable, inestimable, fyc, nor to things those adjectives that can properly be used only with persons ; as consolable, inconsolable, fyc. Therefore we should not say, You see before you a deplo- Vous voyez devant vons un rable prince, deplorable prince ; Her grief was inconsolable, Sa douleur etait inconsolable ; because a person cannot be deplored, nor a thing be consoled ; but then the phrase should be altered thus, A prince whose fate is deplo- Un prince dont le sort est rable, deplorable. A person inconsolable in her Tine personne inconsolable dans grief, sa douleur. 554. When the adjectives high, long, wide and deep, are used with a noun of measure, they are rendered either by the French corresponding adjectives haut, long, profond, large, or by their corresponding substantives hauteur, longueur, largeur, and profondeur. By the corresponding adjectives with the pre- position de before the number that precedes the noun of measure, when the verb etre is employed ; and by the corresponding sub- stantives, preceded by the preposition de, when the verb avoir is used instead of the verb etre ; as, SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 351 That tower is one hundred Cette tour est haute de cent and twenty-five feet high, vingt-cinq pieds, or cette tour a cent vingt-cinq pieds de hauteur. This well is thirty-six feet Ce puits est profond de trente- deep, six pieds, or ce puits a trente- six pieds de profondeur. 555. But, if there are two nouns of measure in the same phrase, the construction of avoir should be employed ; as in The walls of that fort are fifteen Les murs de ce fort out quinze feet thick, and forty-one feet pieds ^'epaisseur et quarante high, et un de hauteur. Note. The construction with the verb avoir should be pre- ferred, because it is more generally and commonly used. 556. When the adjective great is used in the sense of much, it is generally rendered in French by beaucoup de, es- pecially if that adjective qualifies more than one noun, in which case beaucoup de must be placed before the first noun, and the preposition de repeated before the others. He treated us with great kind- H nous traitait avec beaucoup ness and indulgence, de bonte et ^indulgence. She saw me with great Elle me vit avec beaucoup pleasure, de plaisir. The adjective little, when used in the sense of not much, a little quantity, is rendered by pen de ; and, if that adjec- tive qualifies several nouns, peu de should be expressed only before the first, and the preposition de repeated before all the others. With a little patience, Avec un peu de patience. I took a little wine and water, Je pris un peu de vin et d'eau. 557. Sometimes the English give to a phrase an exclama- tive form, that its expression may be more forcible than it would otherwise be, as in beautiful were they, those little chil- dren that we saw yesterday ! but this form of exclamation is differently expressed in French, and to translate it, it should be changed thus, they were beautiful, those little children that we saw yesterday, lis etaitnt beaux ces enfant s que nous vimes hier, not commencing the phrase with the adjective, as it 352 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. is done in English, because when in French an adjective is used with the verb etre it is never placed before, but is always placed after that verb ; as, How interesting that man Que cet komme etait intbres- was ! sant ! And dreadful it was, the time Et il etait terrible le temps de ce of that government ! gouvernement ! 558. Adjectives are sometimes used to represent nouns, as pronouns do ; but then they are preceded by the definite article the, and generally, though not always, followed by the word one in English ; in French they are also preceded by the defi- nite article le, la, V or les, agreeing in gender and number with the represented noun, but there is nothing after the adjective to supply or translate the word one of the English. The red tulip is more beautiful La tulipe rouge est plus belle than the white one, que la blanche. The last lessons are less difn- Les dernier es lepons sont moins cult than the first, difficiles que les premieres. Which coat do you wish to put Quel habit disirez-vous mettre on to-day, sir? — The black auj our d'hui, monsieur? — Le one, noir. 559. Adjectives are often used in English with or without the word man or men to represent a particular class of individu- als. In translating into French the phrases in which they are thus employed, the word man or men is generally omitted, and the adjective which is used as a noun must be in the plural, if it is intended to represent more than one individual, and in the singular, if a single individual is meant, though this singular is sometimes intended for the plural. The rich man should do some- Le riche devrait faire quelque thing for the poor, chose pour le pauvre, or pour les pauvre s. Fear the wicked, . . . Craignez les mechants. 560. Among the different kinds of numerals are the Cardinal and Ordinal numbers, which are differently used in French and in English. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 353 561. The use of the Cardinal Numbers is very nearly, though not entirely, the same in French as in English; as may be seen in Nos. 1, and following. But that of the Ordinal Numbers is very different, as may be seen by the following rules. 562. In speaking of emperors, kings, &c. the English uni- formly use the Ordinal Numbers ; but in French, the Ordinal Numbers are employed only for the first and second, and the Cardinal Numbers for all the others ; and the article, which is used in English, is omitted in French ; as, Napoleon the first, . . Napoleon premier. Louis the second, . . . Louis second. Richard the third, . . Richard trois. Henry the fourth, . . . Henri quatre. Leon the tenth. • ..*■* . Leon dix. 563. In speaking of the days of the months, the first day excepted, the French use the Cardinal Numbers, though the English uniformly use the Ordinal ; and the preposition of, which is expressed before the name of the month in English, may be rendered in French by de, or may be omitted, both ways being equally correct ; as, The first of January, Le premier Janvier, or de Janvier. The second of February, Le deux Fevrier, or de Fevrier. The third of April, Le trois Avril, or d'Avril. The fourth of July, Le quatre Juillet, or de Juillet. The eighteenth of 'October, Le dix-huit Octobre, or d'Octobre. 564. However, if the word jour, day, is used, the Ordinal Numbers should be employed, and the preposition de should be expressed : I shall be at your house on the Je serai chez vous le quinzieme fifteenth day of April, jour d'Avril. But it is better, or at least more generally practised, to use the form without the word jour. 30* 354 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 565. In speaking of books, chapters, paragraphs, pages, &c. the French sometimes use the Ordinal Numbers before the noun ; but when the noun is expressed first, which is most commonly the case, the Cardinal Numbers should be used, ex- cept for the first and second, for which the Ordinal should be employed ; as, First book, . . . Livre premier. Second chapter, . . Chapitre second. Third paragraph, . . Paragraphe trois. Twentieth page, . . Page vingt. 566. As may be seen in Nos. 9, 10, the conjunction and is not expressed in French before cent and rnille ; and that in the reckoning of years the word thousand is rendered by mil instead of niille ; as, In the year one thousand eight Dans Van mil huit cent trente- hundred and thirty -eight. huit. EXERCISE 223. 542 Being desirous of promoting that science, the government will place 543 you at the head of that institution. The astonishing courage and con- 551 551 stancy of that man have been proved on a very important and dangerous 551 547 occasion. The great lords of Tonquin appear in court barefooted. 544 544 — Nature has for sensitive souls a charm and a beauty always new. — 549 568 568 The late empress was as remarkable for her benevolence, as for the 549 104 charms of her person and mind ; my late aunt received several proofs of her goodness. Saint-Louis followed the standard of the cross bare-footed. Great men undertake great things because they are great, 559 26 547 and fools undertake them only because they believe them easy. Except two or three persons, all those who were present were of the same par- 284 547 ty. If you will wait for me, I shall be here in half an hour ; but if you 174 547 do not, I shall be absent two hours and a half. Vain and proud persons 531 530 are like stalks of wheat ; those that rear the head highest are the worst, , 454 because they contain nothing good. TABLE OF ADJECTIVES. 355 EXERCISE 224. 562 662 Dark green clothes become you much better than those that are light- 558 531 blue. Of all those vests, the black one pleases me most. Ambitious 559 363 men are seldom satisfied. The fourth of July, and fourth of May, are 338 very memorable days ; the former being the anniversary of the inde- 492 388 pendence of America, and the latter that of the death of the greatest 562 559 man that ever lived. — Charles the Tenth, having displeased the French, 563 666 562 was dethroned on the 27th July, 1830, and Louis Philip the First put in 388 his place ; and perhaps the latter will experience the fate of the former. — We read, in one of Montesquieu's works, entitled ' Considera- tions on the causes of the greatness and downfall of the Romans/ 565 565 565 twentieth chapter, page one hundred and eighty-nine, second paragraph, that " Belisarius took Carthage, Rome, and Ravenna ; and sent pris- oners to Constantinople the kings of the Goths and Vandals." OBJECT OF ADJECTIVES. 567. There are adjectives that are used absolutely, that is, without any object ; they are such as by themselves have an in- dependent signification ; as intrepid, intrepide ; virtuous, vertueux, fyc. 56S. There are other adjectives that, when used, generally have an object, either a noun or a verb ; which object must be preceded by the prepositions to, at, of or from, ix, for, &c. in English, and in French by a, de, dans, en, pour, SfC. Bat as the prepositions required before the object of adjectives, in Eng- lish, is not always to be translated by a corresponding preposi- tion in French ; and as there are adjectives that require a differ- ent preposition before a common noun, a noun of persons or a verb, the following Table will show what preposition should be used in French, without regard to the preposition required by the English adjective. 356 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 539. TABLE OF ADJECTIVES SHOWING THE PREPOSITIONS THEY REQUIRE BEFORE THEIR OBJECT. French adjectives* Before a verb. Before a common Before a noun English adjectives* noun. of person. Abondant en Abundant Absent de Absent Accessible a Accessible Adherent a Adherent Adroit k a a, dans Artful Affable a, envers Affable *Affaisse Affame sous* de *Sunk de de Greedy Affranchi de Freed Agrdable a a a Agreeable Alarmant pour pour Alarming AlUre de Thirsty Amoureux de de Jn love Anime » de, pour Animated Anterieur a. Anterior Approchartt de Near akin Apre a Rough, hard Ardent a Ardent Arriere de In arrears Assidu a aupres de Assiduous Assortissant a Matching Attenant a Contiguous Attentif a Attentive A ucun de de None Aveugle de Blinded Aveugle sur, dans Blind Avide de de Eager Capable de de Capable Celebrt pour en. par Celebrated Cher a a Dear Chiche de Sparing Civil envers, a VI- Civil Commensurable a [gard Commensurable Commun a parmi Common Comparable a, avec a ( omparable Compatible . avec Compatible Complice . dans de Accomplice Comptable de a, envers Accountable Conforme a Conform Con/us de Confused Connu de Known Consolant pour Consoling Constant dans, en auprks de Constant ' Content de de de Contented Contraire a a Contrary Convenable 1 a a Convenient * When the word sunk is used with the preposition under, that preposition is translated by soils ; but, if after the object of under should follow a noun of measure pre- ceded by the preposition by, that preposition should be rendered by de ; as The floor has sunk by two inches, . . Lc plancher s-est affaissA de deux pouces t TABLE French adjectives. Before a Couronne Cruel Curieux de Dangereux a Dedaigneux de Denue Desireux de Different Difficile a Digne de Dissolu Docile Dur a Enchante . de Enclin a Endurci Enivre 1 de Envieux de E tonne , Etranger Exact a Exempt de Expert a Faible pour Fameux Favorable . pour Fecund Fertile Fidele a Formidable Fort pour Fou de Furieux de Glorieux de Gonfle Gros Habile a Hardi a Heureux de Heureux . f • a Honteux de Ignorant Impenetrable Inabordable Inaccessible Incapable de Incertain de Incompatible Tnconcevable Inconciliable Inconsolable de Indigne de Indocile Indulgent Inebranlable Inexorable Inexplicable E OF ADJEC :tives. '35 iefore a common Before a noun English adjectives noun. of person. de par Crowned a, envers a, envers Cruel de, en Curious pour, par pour Dangerous Disdainful de Destitute de Desirous de de Different sur Difficult de de Worthy dans Dissolute a Docile a, envers .pour envers, pour Hard par, de de Enchanted a Inclined a, par, dans Inured de Intoxicated de Envious de Astonished a, en, dans a Stranger a Exact de Exempt en, dans Expert dans Feeble par en Famous a a Favourable en Productive en • Fertile a, en a Faithful a a Formidable de, pour Strong de de Crazy de Furious de Glorious de Puffed up de Big en, dans Skilful a, dans Bold de, en Happy a Lucky de Ashamed en, sur, de Ignorant a Impenetrable a Inaccessible a Inaccessible de Incapable de Uncertain avec Incompatible a Inconceivable avec Irreconcilable de, sur Disconsolate de de Unworthy a Indocile pour, dans a, pour, envers Indulgent a, contre Immovable a Inexorable a Inexplicable 358 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. French adjectives. Before a verb. Before a common Before a noun English adjectives. noun. ot person. Infatigable a Indefatigable Inferieur a, en a Inferior Infidele a a- a Unfaithful Ingenieux a pour Ingenious Ingrat envers Ingrate Injurieux a pour Injurious Inquiet de de, sur Uneasy Insatiable de Insatiable Insensible a Insensible Inseparable de de Inseparable Insolent dans,en,avec envers Insolent Invincible a Invincible Invulnerable a Invulnerable Ivre de Intoxicated Jaloux de de, sur de Jealous Las de de de Tired Lent a a, dans Slow Libre de de, dans avec Free Mecontent de de de Discontented Menager de Sparing" Miser icordieux envers Merciful Mourant pour de, pour pour Dying Necessaire pour a, pour pour Necessary Nuisible a Hurtful Odieux a a Odious OJicieux envers Officious Orgueilleux de de Proud Paresseux pour a, de Lazy Plein de Full Precieux a a Precious Preliminaire a Preliminary Preferable a Preferable Prejudiciable a a Hurtful Pret a, pour a Ready Prodigue de envers Prodigal Prompt a dans Prompt Propice a a Propitious Propre a a a Proper Rayonnant de Radiant Rebelle a a Rebellious Reconnaissant de envers Grateful Redevable de a Indebted Redoutable a a Dreadful Refraclaire a Refractory Remarquable par Remarkable Respectable par pour Respectable Responsable de a, e?ivers,pour' Responsible Riche de,en,par Rich Satisfait de de de Contented, satisfi- Sensible ct Sensible [ed Severe sur envers, a Ve- Severe Soigneux de de [gard de Careful Sourd a Deaf Sujet a a Subject Supportable a Supportable Terrible a Terrible Tributaire de de Tributary SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS IN GENERAL. 359 a, en, dans a Useful de de Victorious Empty Quick de de Neighbouring' French adjectives. Before a verb. Before a common Before a noun English adjectives. noun. of person. Utile . j pour Victorieux . Vide Vif . I a Voisin . J 570. When, after the verb etre, used unipersonally, follows an adjective that has a verb for its object, that object must be preceded by the preposition de, even if that adjective should re- quire another preposition before its object, according to the preceding Table. It is difficult to conduct such an enterprise, It is hard to be obliged to pay the debts of others, II est difficile de conduire une telle enterprise. 11 est dur d'etre obligk de payer les dettes des autres. CHAPTER IV. SYNTAX OF PEONOUNS IN GENERAL. 571. Pronouns, being always employed in a definite sense, should never represent a noun, whose signification is not de- termined by an article. Therefore, the following phrases are not correct : He asks for pardon, though he II demand e grace, quoiqu J il ne does not deserve it, la mirite pas. He received us with politeness II novs reput avec politesse qui which delighted us, nous a cha.rmes. If he has right to command, S'il a droit de commander, qui who gave it to him ? le hit a donne ? Explanation. These phrases are incorrect, because the nouns grace, politesse and droit, are not determined in their signification. To correct them it would be necessary to use articles with those nouns ; thus, He asks for his pardon, though he does not II demande sa grace, quoiquHl ne la merite deserve it, pas. He received us with a politeness which de- II nous recut avec une politesse qui nous lighted us, charma. If he has Vie right to command, who gave it SHI a le droit de commander, qui le lui a to him .' donne ? 360 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 572. When the rules of the French grammar do not admit any article before the noun, the form should be changed ; as in When we went to sea, it was Quand nous mim£s en mer elle quiet, etait tranquille. Flr;p' a nation. As no article can be used after the preposition en before its object, this phrase should be changed thus, quand noiis nous embarquames, la mer etait tranquille, as if it were in English whs.n we embarked, the sea was quiet. 573. A pronoun should never be used in an equivocal sense, that is, leaving the mind in uncertainty as to the noun it rep- resents ; as, Virgil has imitated Homer Virgile a imit'e, Homere dans in all the beauties he has toutes les beautes qu'W a dans in his works, ses ouvrages. Explanation. This phrase is not correct, because the pronoun il, he, relates to Homer as well as to Virgil; it should be changed into this, Virgil, in all the beauties of his works, has Virgile dans toutes les beautes quHl a dans ses imitated Homer, ouvrages a imite Homere. SYNTAX OF PEESONAL PKONOUNS. 574. Nominative verbal pronouns should be placed before the verb ; as, My friend waited for me ; / Mon ami m'attendait ; Varri- arrived in season ; he re- vai a temps, il me regut avec ceived me with kindness, bonte, et nous ailames ensem- and toe went together to ble a Veglise. church, 575. Except, 1st. When a verb is used interrogatively. See Nos. 19, 25. 576. Except, 2d. When the verb is used in the subjunctive mood, without being preceded by any conjunction ; as, Could / with my own eyes Puisse-je de mes yeux le voir see it wholly destroyed ! entierement detruit ! Were / to see my house re- Dusse~]e voir ma maison re- duced to ashes ! duite en cendres ! 577. Except, 3d. When the phrase expresses that a person is relating the words of another person, and that it is preceded by one or several of the words spoken ; as, I shall never be happy, he Jene serai jamais heur e?/x,dit-i\, said, unless you are so, d moins que vous ne le soyez. SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 361 But, were there no word before he said, the French should be II dit, je ne serai jamais heureux, SfC. 578. Except, 4th. When the verb is preceded by one of the words aussi, so, also ; peut-etre, perhaps ; encore, yet ; tou- jour s, always ; en vain, in vain ; du mollis, au moins, at least : although, in English, after these words, the nominative pronoun is placed before the verb. So he is not here, . . Aussi rc'est-il pas id. Perhaps you are right, . Peut-etre avez-vous raison. In vain we would pretend, En vain pretendrions-nous. However, this exception is not necessarily observed, for we might say aussi il n'est pas ici ; peut-etre vous avez rai- son ; en vain nous pretend?' ions. But these expressions have not the grace nor energy of the former. 579. The passive verbal pronouns are placed before the verb : See Nos. 169, 179, 180. 580. However, when a verb in the infinitive is governed by another verb, the pronoan that is the object of the infinitive may be placed either before that infinitive, or before the verb that precedes it; as, One cannot reproach me that I On ne saurait me reprocher, or am ungrateful, on ne me saurait reprocher que je suis un ingrat. 581. Bat if the first verb is used in a compound tense, the passive or objective verbal pronoun cannot be placed before it ; it must be immediately before the infinitive of which it is the object, I would have wished to procure J'aurais voulu me procurer ce that pleasure to myself, plaisir, not Je m'aurais voidu procurer ce plaisir. , 582. When the verb is in the second person singular, the first or second person plural of the imperative, ancl Is not used with negation, the passive verbal pronouns must he placed after it: See No. 181. 31 362 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 583. But, if there were two imperatives in succession united by the conjunction et, and, or ou, or, the passive verbal pro- nouns of the second imperative might be placed before as well as after it ; as, Leave that chain to me, or take Laissez-moi cette chaine, ou away my life, m? arrachez le jour, or arra- chez-moi le jour. Polish it without ceasing, and Polissez-le sans cesse, et le polish it again, repolissez, or repolissez-le. 584. It is said at page 96, that the passive verbal pronouns are always used as objects to verbs, and never to prepositions. But the prepositions void, behold here, voild, behold there, are excepted ; for, when their object is a personal pronoun or even several, instead of the substantive personal pronouns, the passive verbal pronouns must be employed, and placed before them the same as if those prepositions were verbs ; as in Behold here some of them, . En void. Behold them there, . . Les voild. Behold him, . . . Le void, or le voild. Behold her, &c. . . La void, or la voild, tyc. The cause of this exception must be that the prepositions void, voild, are a compound of the verb voir, to see, and id, here, or Id, there. 585. See here and see there are translated by void, voild ; here is or are, there is or are, when followed by a noun, are also rendered by void, voild; and if to be, used in the sense of behold, is preceded by here or there and a nominative pronoun, that nominative pronoun is rendered by a correspond- ing objective pronoun in French ; as, Here is your book, . . Voici votre livre. There they are, . . . Les voild. Here I am, . . . Me void. Here we are, .... Nous void. There they are, . . . Les voild. 586. The nominative verbal pronouns must be repeated ; 1st. When the two parts of the phrase in which the verbs are employed are united by any other conjunction than et, and ; ou, or ; ni, nor ; mais, but. SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 363 We detest the wicked, because Nous detestons les mechants toe fear them, parce que nous les craignons. He is learned though he is very II est savant quoiqu'il soit bien young, jeune. 587. 2d. When we pass from a negative part of a phrase to an affirmative. I do not bend, but I break, . Je ne plie pas et je romps. But we could not say, I bend, but I do not break, . Je plie et je ne romps pas', because the first verb is not used with a negation, the phrase should be, I bend, but do not break, . . Je plie et ne romps pas. Jn these examples, but is rendered by et, merely for the sake of illustration, since mais would be perfectly correct. 588. The passive verbal pronouns must always be repeated before each verb that governs them, though they are expressed but once in English ; as, His odious face vexes and Son visage odieux m'afflige et haunts me, me pour suit. He turns away his eyes, pities II detourne les yeux, le plaint and reveres him, et le revere. 589. The pronoun soi, one's self, himself, itself, is always of the singular number and relate#both to persons and things ; but, when it relates to persons, it is always used in a vague and indefinite sense ; as on, one ; chacun, every one, each one ; personne, any one ; quiconque, whoever ; as, One should seldom speak of On doit rarement parler de one's self, soi. Whoever ascribes every thing to Quiconque rapporte tout a soi, himself, has not many friends, n'apas beaucoup d'amis. To live only for one's self, is to Ne vivre que pour soi, c'est etre be already dead, dejd mort. The loadstone attracts iron to Vaimant attire le fer a soi. itself, 590. Even if there be no vague expression in the phrase, the pronoun soi is sometimes used to avoid an equivocation; but then it plways relates to the nominative of the verb; as, 364 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. By fulfilling the orders of his father, that young man works for himself, En remplissant les orders de son pere, ce jeune homme travaille pour soi. Explanation. Pour soi is employed in this phrase, because if pour lui had been used, one could not see for whom the work was done,whether for the father or for the son ; the same equivocation would exist in the English phrase, if, instead of for for himself, for him were employed. 591. When the pronouns lui, leur, d'elle, d'eux, d'elles, are used as objects of a verb, they should relate only to persons, or personified things, but never to things that are not personified ; for should they relate to things that are not personified, en should be used instead of d'elle, d'euz, d'elles, and y instead of lui and leur ; thus, That house is ready to fall, do not approach it, That horse is bad, do not touch him, Those buildings not being large enough, I shall add a wing to them, Cette maison menace rui?ie,n'en approchez pas, not approchez pas d'elle. Ce chevalest mediant, rtytouchez pas, not ne lui touchez pas, Ces batiments n'etant pas assez grands, j'y ferai ajouter une aile, not je leur ferai ajouter une aile. 592. It is observed in the Remark, page 178, that the objec- tive verbal pronouns lui and leur are never used in combination with the passive or objective verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous; therefore when the objects of a verb are to him, to her, or to them, with either me, thee, one's self, us or you, to him should be translated by a lui ; to her, by a elle ; to them, by a eux for the masculine, and by a elles for the feminine plural ; as in I have sent you to him that you may speak to him, Before they sent us to her, they had written to her, When I arrived at the regiment, my friend had seen the offi- cers and had recommended me to them, Je vous ai envoy' a lui pour que vous lui parliez. Avant de nous envoyer a elle, Us lui avaient ecrit. Lorsque j' arrived au r'egiment, mon ami avait vu les officiers et m 1 avait recommend'e, a eux. Explanation. In the first example, the first to him is rendered by a lui after the verb, because it cannot be combined with vous> and therefore it would be wrong to say jc vous SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 365 lui ai envoy e ; the second to him is rendered by the passive verbal pronoun lux placed be- fore the verb, because it is not used with either of the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous. In the second, the first to her is rendered by a elle, placed after the verb in- stead of lui placed before the verb, because lui cannot be used with nous ; the second to her is rendered by lui placed before the verb, according to Rule 169, because it is not combined with either of the passive verbal pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous. These expla- nations will answer for the third example. 593. When a personal pronoun relating to persons is the object of penser, to think, or of a reflective verb, or of a verb ex- pressing motion or tendency to, that requires the preposition a before its object,— instead of using the passive verbal pronouns without a preposition before that verb, the substantive pronouns with the preposition a should be used and placed after it. He came to me, . . .11 vint a moi. First I went to him, and then D'abord fallal a lui, et ensuite to you, a vous. When you are gone, I shall Lorsque vous serez parti, je often think of you, penser ai souvent a vous. They presented themselves to me, lis se presenter ent a moi. 594. The passive turn is often employed, in English, to ex- press that a thing is customary, or that a thing is, was or will be done without expressing by whom or by what ; in which case the verb, which is in the past participle in English, must be in French in the same tense, number and person as the verb to be, and preceded by the passive verbal pronoun se ; as, That was often done, . Cela se faisait souvent. Such things are often seen, . Be telles choses se voient sou- vent. That was sold for so much, Cela se vendait tant. EXERCISE 225. 149 517 517 448 Had we less pride, we should speak less of that of others. The pru- 517 .517 dent man is always disposed to ask for advice and to follow it. 78 248 , . _ .,, 573 373 Good men should always protect the unfortunate, even if they are their enemies. In the beginning of the world, every father governed his own family with an absolute power ; punishing or rewarding his children the same as a king punishes or rewards his own subjects. Men like to ren- 571 571 der justice to the dead, because they hope that one day it will be ren- 31* 366 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 573 573 dered to them. The man who fears God, who knows our most secret thoughts, does nothing that is contrary to virtue. 586 When a man is accused of a crime and is innocent, the fear of not be- . 588 588 588 ing able to prove his innocence pursues, torments, and overwhelms him. — The soil, that is naturally fruitful, would be much more so, were it cultivated. — Are you the wife of Mr. C. ? T asked her. — I am, she repli- ed. — Pardon me my fault, and restore your friendship to me ; and be 449 assured that if I have done such a thing, it was because I was not con- scious that it was wrong. EXERCISE 226. The impulses of the heart are seldom deceitful : abandon yourself to 591 109 them, if you wish to be happy. You are not happy, although you enjoy 586 & 109 an immense fortune and have many friends. To be too much dissatis- 589 fled with one's self is weakness, and to be too much satisfied is folly. — 589 167 Virtue is lovely of itself, nevertheless there are men who dislike it. The 264 excellence of the senses is a gift from nature, but art and habit may add 591 594 to them a degree of perfection. If, in this country, crimes are punished according to just laws, good actions are rewarded. If you wish to speak 195 592 109 to Mr. D., I shall go and present you to him, although you have not been announced to him. — I am much obliged to you, but I should prefer 153 592 that you would announce me to him first. — Very well ; T shall do it. — 593 After having consulted me, he went to you in order to obtain your ad- vice, which I hope you gave him. SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 595. It has already been said that the word ce is sometimes a demonstrative article, used to translate this or that, (see No. 55,) and sometimes a personal pronoun, used to translate it, see No. 391. 596. When there are two verbs in the same phrase, the first of which is preceded by that which, or any other nominative, or what, and the second, which is to be, has for its nominative the pronoun it, whether expressed or understood, that which or SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 367 what must be translated by ce qui for the nominative, and by ce que for the object of the first verb; and the verb etre must be preceded by ce, and be in the singular, if it is followed by a verb or a pronoun whether singular or plural of the first or second person, a preposition, a noun or a pronoun in the singular ; and in the plural, if it be immediately followed by a plural pronoun of the third person, by a plural or by several nouns in the singular, provided those plural or singular nouns are preceded by an article. What I desire most is to go Ce que je desire le plus, c'est and see you, dialler vous voir. That which vexes me is that I Ce qui me /ache, c'est qu*on am interrupted at every in- m' inter rompe a chaque in- stant, tant. That ivhich attaches me to life Ce qui m? attache a la vie, c'est is you, vous. What provokes me is the in- Ce qui rrCindigne ce sont les justice of men, injustices des hommes. What we should esteem most Ce que nous devrions le plus is virtue and science, estimer, ce sont la vertu et la science. 597. But when the verb to be is followed by a noun in the singular number, the pronoun it may or may not be rendered in French, or rather ce may or may not be used in the French phrase. Therefore, it is equally proper to translate, That which deserves our admi- Ce qui merite leplus notre ad- ration most is virtue, miration est la vertu, or c'est la vertu. 598. When to be, having for its nominative the pronoun it, is followed by an adjective, if that adjective is followed by a verb preceded by que, that, or de being the translation of to or any other preposition, the nominative pronoun it must be rendered by U. It is certain that you have II est certain que vous avez agi acted generously, genereusement. It is prudent to do so, . II est prudent de lefaire. 36S FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 599. Again, if after etre follows the preposition de, it should be rendered by iL It is my duty to pay that II est de mon devoir de payer sunij cette somme. EXERCISE 227. 596 . 596 That which most sustains man in his misfortunes is hope. The first 596 homage that a man of superior merit receives is the hatred of cox* 596 196 combs. "What vexes me is, to see rich men pride themselves in their riches ; as if a gilded bed were more comfortable than any other, and as 596 if fortune makes a fool more estimable. That which is most admired in 392 Racine's tragedies is his characters, which are always well sustained 596 and natural. That, which increased the power and greatness of that 596 country, was the indefatigable industry and perseverance of its inhab- 393 394 itants ; and if it ever falls, it will be owing to the effects of that immU- 419 249 table law of nature, by which all that has a beginning must have an 388 26 end. Such is the advantage of talents over beauty, that the latter is but 388 transient, whilst the former last almost as long as life, SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 600. The possessive pronouns must always relate to a noun expressed before. Therefore, it is wrong to commence a letter thus : I have received yours of the J *ai recu la votre du quaire ; fourth, because the possessive pronoun yours, la votre, relates to no noun expressed before. This phrase should be, I have received your letter J y ai regit votre lettre du qua" of the fourth, ire, by using the noun to which the possessive article your, vo- tre, relates. SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS, It has been said that pronouns are not used with the noun which they represent, but lequel, laquelle, lesquelsJesquelleSySie SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 369 sometimes expressed with a noun in the style of the courts of justice and deeds, and also sometimes to avoid confusion ; as in, That house is sold for ten Cette maison est vendue pour thousand dollars, which dix mille dollars, laquelle house will be occupied im- maison sera immediatement mediately by the buyer, occupie par Vacheteur. 601. A relative pronoun always requires the same gender, number and person of the following adjective, past participle and verb, as its antecedent ; and, if there are several verbs having the same relative pronoun for nominative, it must be repeated before every one in French. I who am esteemed, . Moi qui suis estime or estimee. Thou who art esteemed, . Toi qui es estime or estimee. He who is esteemed, . Lui qui est estime. She who is esteemed, . . Elle qui est estimee. We who are esteemed, . Nous qui sommes estimes or estimees. You who are esteemed, . Vous qui etes estimes or estimees. They who are esteemed, . Eux qui sont estimes. They ivho are estee?ned, . . Elles qui sont estimees. 602. The relative pronoun must always be placed next to its antecedent. The Goddess who, on enter- La Deesse qui, en entrant, voit ing, saw the table cloth la nappe mise. spread, Therefore, Boileau was wrong when he wrote la Deesse. en entrant, qui voit la nappe mise; because the relative pronoun qui should not be separated from its antecedent Deesse. 603. The relative pronouns lequel, laquelle, fyc. are used in- stead of qui, que, dont, to avoid an equivocation ; as in, I have seen the husband of J'ai vu le mari de voire sceur, your sister, who is to ob- lequel doit obtenir cette tain that office, place. The goodness of God, of La horde de Dieu, de laquelle which I know the great- je connais la grandeur, me ness, reassures me, rassure. Explanation. If in the first example, qui were employed instead of lequel, it would be 370 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. it would be doubtful whether it related to the husband, au mari^ or to the sister, out d la smur ; and in the second, if dont were used instead of de laquelle, it would be doubtful I whether it relates to the goodnes3, la bonte, or to God, d Dieu. SYNTAX OF THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 604. When after each one or every one, chacun, chacune, follows a possessive article of the third person, that possessive article is rendered in French, by son, sa, ses, or by leur, leurs ; thus, 605. When chacun or chacune is placed after the direct ob- ject of a verb, or when the verb with which it is used has no direct object, it requires son, sa or ses ; as They have carried their offer- Us ont apporte leurs offrandes, ings, each one according chacun selon ses moyens. to his means, The two kings have retired, Les deux rois se sont retires, each one into his tent, chacun dans sa tente. They have voted, every one lis ont vote, chacun a son in his turn, tour. 606. When chacun or chacune is placed before the object of the verb, it requires leur or leurs before that object; as in, They have brought each one Us ont apporte chacun leurs his offerings, offrandes. They have given, every one Us ont donne chacun leurs his opinion, avis. EXERCISE 228. 167 Such was the terror *with which we were struck, that there were only 601 601 two of us who dared to speak in favour of oppressed innocence. There 602 is an air of affectation in that author, which spoils all his writings. — 603 How much gratitude do we owe for the goodness of God, who has en- graved in our hearts the love of virtue and the hatred of vice. Yes, 601 601 . 601 Caesar, you are the hero who has won most victories over yourself, and 601 are most worthy of dictating laws to the world. The iEneid of Virgil, 605 and the Poetical Art of Horace, are perfect, each one in its kind. Na- 109 ture seems to have given different talents to men, that every one may * With should be rendered by de„ SYNTAX OF INDEFINITE FRONOUNS. 371 606 have his own occupation. The scholars of that class were examined 605 each one in his turn, and afterwards they gave to their teacher each one 606 his own books. SYNTAX OF THE INDEFINITE PKONOUNS. 607. The indefinite personal pronoun one is translated into French by on, which is also used to translate we, people, persons, they, &c. when employed in an indefinite sense. According to the gender and number of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, or rather of the person or persons alluded to. the pronoun on requires the following adjective or past participle in the masculine or feminine singular, if that person is masculine or feminine singular, and in the masculine or feminine plural, if both those persons are masculine or feminine, and if the persons were of different genders, the masculine plural should be used, though the verb of which on is the nominative should always be in the third person singular; and the possessive case of one, thus, one's or one's own is rendered by the possessive personal article son, sa, ses ; and if after the verb should follow such an objective pronoun as himself, herself, itself, one's self, themselves, relating to the nominative represented by on, it should be ren- dered by soi or soi-meme. 'When one is married, one Quand on est mariee on rCest is not always mistress of pas toujour s maitresse de ses one's actions, actions. When persons love each ether Quand on s } aime sinceremeni \ sincerely,?/^?/ are not hap- on n 'est pas hear eux quand py when they are separated, on est separes. Erplanation. In the first example, on undoubtedly relates to a woman, and therefore the past participle mariee is in the feminine singular. In the second, on pvidently relate* to at least one gentleman and one lady, therefore the past participle separes is in the mas- culine plural ; should it relate to two or more ladies without any gentleman, the past par- ticiple should be separees, that is. in the feminine plural. 608. At the beginning of a phrase on should be used and not Von. See No. 432. 609. Both is sometimes translated by run et Vautre, and sometimes by tous deux or tous les deux ; by tous deux, without 372 FRENCH PEACTICAL TEACHER. the definite article les, when the two persons or objects they represent have simultaneously performed or received the action expressed by the verb ; and by tons les deux, with the definite article, when they have performed or received it at different times. Have you seen my brothers ? Avez-vousvumesfreres?-~Oui, — Yes, they both came to tous deux sont venus me voir see me this morning, ce matin, or tous les deux sont venus me voir ce matin. Explanation. Both translations are equally correct ; but, by the first, it is intended to express that both brothers came together, at the same time ; whilst by the second it is in- tended to express that both came, but one after the other, not at the same time. 610. Both is often used with the nouns to which it relates ; as both the father and mother told me so ; in which case it should not be rendered in French, unless they were the objects of a verb ; as in, I have seen them both, the Je les ai vues l'une et Tautre, la mother and the daughter, mere et lafille. Were the pronoun them omitted in English, it should be ex- pressed in French, as if it were not omitted. EXERCISE 228. 607 607 607 607 One is happy when one is a mother, and beloved by one's children. — ■ 607 264 . 607 „ . . , 607 One may sometimes be a fool with much mind, and one may not always 432 be a fool with a little mind. If one is disposed to do good, he generally 432 finds opportunities of exercising his benevolence ; but, if one is not so, he probably often meets unfortunate people without even perceiving 607 432 607 their misery. People esteem life above every thing, and they waste it 249 607 as if it were to last for ever. People use several words to express the 607 432 same thing ; however, if they examine attentively all those words, 441 607 606 one after the other, they will find that they have each one its particular signification. Have you not met my two brothers in coming from that place ? — I met them both at the foot of a tree, under which they were seated -And my cousins Lucy and Julia, when did you see them ? — I saw them both yesterday, Julia at about twelve o'clock, and Lucy at three o'clock. 373 CHAPTER V. SYNTAX OF VERBS. ON THE NOMINATIVE AND AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 611. Every verb used in a personal* mood must have a nominative, and every nominative must have a verb ; as in, Pride does not blind those L'orgueil %'aveugle pas ceux that honour enlightens, que Z'honneur eclaire. Explanation. In this phrase there are two nominatives, pride, Porgueil, and honour, Phonneur ; there are also two verbs, blind, aveugle, and enlighten, eclaire ; Porgueil is the nominative of aveugle, and Phonneur that of eclaire. 612. The nominative of a verb should not be expressed twice when once is sufficient. Therefore, this phrase is wrong : Louis, at this instant, taking Louis, en ce moment prenant his diadem, on the head of son diademe, sur le front du the conqueror he placed it vainqueur il le posa lui- himself, meme. Explanation. This phrase is wrong, because placed, posa, has two nominatives, Louis and U, he, though one only is sufficient. The phrase should be Louis, en ce moment pre- nant son diademe sur le front du vainqueur le posa lui-meme, without the pronoun il. 613. When the nominative of a verb is composed of several nouns or pronouns, that verb must be in the plural : See Nos. 89, 90. 614. But if the nouns that compose the nominative are synonymous and not united by et, and, the verb agrees in num- ber and person only with the last ; as, His intrepidity, his courage, Son intrfpiditf, son courage, astonish the most brave, etonne les plus braves. 615. When the words that compose the nominative, are placed in a gradual order so that the signification of the last is greater than that of the preceding, the verb agrees with the last, in French ; as, As to that sacrifice, your in- Quant a ce sacrifice, votre in- terest, your honour, God t&ret, votre honneur, Dieu requires it, /'exige. * A personal mood is that which agrees in number and person with its nominative. The indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative, are personal moods. The infinitive is not. 31 374 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 616. When the words that form the nominative of a verb, are represented all together by another word, such as all, tout; nothing, rien; no one, nobody, personne ; fyc. the verb agrees with that word, in French ; as, Words and looks, all are Paroles et regards tout est charms in you, char me dans vous. Time, goods, life, all belong Le temps, les Mens, la vie, tout to the country, est a la patrie. Neither personal considera- Ni la consideration personnelle, tion, dangers of life, nor ni les dangers de la vie, ni even the laws of the coun- mime les lois du pays, rien try, nothing will stop him, ne Z'arr£tera. 617. W r hen the nouns that compose the nominative of a verb are united by the conjunction ou, or, the verb agrees only with the last ; and if they are united by comme, like ; de meme que, the same as, like ; ainsi que, like ; aussi bien que, as well as ; the verb agrees only with the first. Virtue as well as talents has La vertu aussi bien que les its value, talents a son prix. Weakness or inexperience, La faiblesse ou V inexperience causes us to make many nous fait commettre bien des mistakes, f antes. 618. However, if the words united by ou, or, estate to differ- ent persons, the .verb should be in the plural and in the person that has the priority : See No. 90. You or I shall speak, . Votes ou moi parlerons. You or your brother will come, Vous ou votrefrere viendrez. 618. When two or several nouns are preceded by neither, in English, the French use sometimes the conjunction ni before every noun, and ne before the verb of which they are the nom- inative ; and if both nouns perform together the action of the verb, that verb should be in the plural; but if only one noun was to perform that action, the verb should be in the singular, in French. Neither the Duke nor the Ni le Due ni le Cardinal ne Cardinal will be appointed sera nomme ambassadeur. ambassador, SYNTAX OF VERBS. 375 Neither gold nor greatness Ni Vor ni la grandeur ne nous make us happy, rendent heureux. Explanation. In the first example, as there is only one ambassador to be appointed, only one of the two nouns can perform the action expressed by the verb, which verb is therefore in the singular. In the second, on the contrary, both nouns perform the action of the verb, which consequently is in the plural. 620. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun, or a noun representing several individuals, that verb is generally put in the plural, in English ; but in French, it is always put in the singular, unless that noun has a plural termination; the same rule is to be followed as regards articles, adjectives or pro- nouns that relate to any noun of multitude. The committee have made Le comite a fait son rapport. their report, The legislature have made La legislature a fait cette hi. that law, Explanation. In the first example, committee being a noun representing the several persons of which the committee is composed, the verb have is in the plural agreeing in number with those persons 3 but as comite is in the singular number, in French, the verb a of which it is the nominative is in the singular ; it would be very wrong to have it in the plural. The same observation should be made for the translation of their by son instead of leur. In the second, a is in the singular for the same reason. Were there several committees or legislatures, then the plural nouns comites, legislatures, should require the verb in the plural. 621. Any verb that has for its nominative a collective noun agrees with that noun, if it be general, that is, if it represent a whole class of beings ; and with the noun that follows the col- lective noun, if the collective noun be partitive, that is, if it repre- sent but a part of a class of beings ; as, The infinity of the perfec- L'inflnite des perfections de tions of God fills me with Dieu me remplit d'admira- admiration, tion. A multitude of barbarians line multitude de barbares ravaged the country, ravagerent le pays. Explanation. In the first example the verb agrees with the collective noun, because it represents in its signification ail the perfections of God. In the second, the verb agrees with the following noun, because the collective noun implies but a part of ths BARBARIANS. 622. The verb that has for its nominative a noun preceded by an adverb of quantity, agrees with that noun ; as, Few people neglect their Peu de gens negligent leurs own interest, interets. 376 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. 623. When peu, few or a few, beaucoup, many, and la plupart, most, most of them, relate to a plural noun previously expressed or understood, the verb of which they are the nomin- ative, as well as the adjective or participle, must be in the plural, because then it agrees with an implied plural noun ; as, Most are apt to mistake, La plupart sont sujets a se tromper. Few like study, . . Peu aiment V elude,. Explanation. In these phrases most^ la plupart, is for la plupart des hommes, most of men. And few i peu, is tor peu de personnes, few persons. 624. When a verb has for its nominative several infinitives, it must be in the singular and preceded by the pronoun ce, whether it is expressed or not, in English; as, To eat, drink and sleep is Manger, boire et dormir c'est their only occupation, leur unique occupation. 625. However, if there is but one infinitive, the pronoun ce may be expressed or omitted, according to the taste of the writer ; as, To be pleased in all places is Se plaire en tons lieux c'est, or the secret of the wise, est le secret du sage. EXERCISE 229. Alexander, having sent for Darius's mother, wife, and children ? 612 he spoke to them with kindness. From the centre of the flower rise 394 several little columns rounded or pointed at the end ; those are the pistils. The good man is too confident ; his candour, his innocence 614 render him the dupe of the wicked. Great men stand in no need of efforts, nor study to win hearts : a single word, a graceful smile, a 615 511 511 511 , 616 glance is sufficient for them. Old men, women, children, no one esca- ped the slaughter. The happiness or nnhappiness of the people 617 are in the hands of those who govern. If you do not think so, you 88 618 & 249 424 619 or I must be wrong The virtuous man is he whom neither the 619 619 enticement of riches nor the fear of death can induce to perpe- trate a criminal action. Cincinnatus and Fabius honoured their 619*445 619 v 139 gods. Neither used to engage in an enterprise without consulting 621 621 them. The multitude of men, that surround princes, is the cause that 167 261 & 652 there are few who make a deep impression upon them. Many persons SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT OF VERBS. 377 €22 623 598 like knowledge, but few like study. It is difficult to know men : 623 131 most of them, like plants, have concealed virtues, which chance makes 123 624 559 known. To drink, to eat, to sleep, are the lot of brutes ; to think freely, 624 619 to feel with delicacy, to act courageously, are the lot of man. Neither 38 618 you nor I have passed through the trials of envy or ambition • perhaps 94 497 497 we should have been like many others, false friends or vile flatterers. 510 612 Gelon, the king of Syracuse, having conquered the Carthaginians, he re- 519 quired of them, as the chief condition of peace, to renounce human sacrifices. CHAPTER VL SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT OF VERBS. 626. When the object of a verb is a noun, it should be pre- ceded by an article, in French ; by the definite, if the noun is used in a definite sense, according to the definition given at No. 3o ; by the partitive, if it were used in a partitive sense ; and generally by the indefinite un or une, if, being without an article in English, it were qualified by an adjective or a participle. The chief of a nation should Le chef d'une nation devrait have power, but he should avoir du pouvoir, mais il ne not have absolute power, devrait pas avoir un pouvoir absolu. Explanation. The first word pouvoir is preceded by the partitive article du, because power is for some power; the second is preceded by the indefinite article un, because it is qualified by an adjective. 627. A verb cannot have two direct or indirect objects. Therefore, it would be wrong to say : Do not trouble yourself that Ne vous inquietez pas ce que which I shall do, jeferai. Because the verb trouble, inquietez, should not have the two direct objects yourself, vous, and that, ce. The phrase should be thus : Do not trouble yourself about Ne vous inquietez pas de ce que what, or that which I shall je ferai. do, 32* 378 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, Again, we should not say : It is to him to whom I write, C'est a lui a qui fecris. It is of you of whom we Vest de vous dont nous par- speak, Ions. It is to the city where I am C'est a la ville ou je vais. going, Explanation. These phrases are wrong, because there being only one verb there should be only one object of the same kind, relating to the same noun. The indirect object of ecris, write ; parlons, speak ; and vais, go ; being d lui, to him ; de vous, of you ; and d la ville, to the city ,• it is unnecessary to use d qui, to whom, relating to the same noun as d lui, to him ; dont, of whom, relating to the same noun as de vous, of you ; and ou, where, which is for d laquelle, to which, relating to d la ville, to the city, which being expressed does not require to be represented. To render these phrases correct we should use que, that, instead of d lui, to him 3 instead of dont, of whom j instead of ou, where ; thus, It is to him that I write, . . . C'est a lui que f ecris. It is of you that we speak, . . . C'est de vous que nous parlons. It is to the city that I am going, . . C'est a la ville que je vais* For the same reason we should not say : It is here where I live, .... C'est ici ouje demeure. It is there where I am going, . . C'est la ou je vais. But we should say : It is here that I live, . . • , • Cest ici que je demeure. It is there tliat I am going, . . . Cest la que je vais. 628. When a noun is the object of two verbs that require different objects, that is, when the one requires a direct object and the other an indirect object, or when the one requires one preposition before its object and the other another preposition, each verb must have its own particular object, the first verb having the noun and the second a pronoun representing it. Therefore, it would be wrong to say : He attacked and took posses- II attaqua et s'empara de la sion of the city, ville. A great number of vessels Tin grand nombre de bailments enter and go out from that entrent et sortent de ce port harbour every month, tons les niois. Explanation. The first example is wrong, because attacked, attaqua, requires a direct object, and took possession, s'empara, require the preposition of, de, before its indirect object. The second is wrong also, because the verb to enter requires no preposition before its object, though entrer requires the preposition dans, and to go out, sortir, re- quire the preposition from, de. The above phrases should be thus : He attacked the city and took posses- II attaqua la ville et s'en empara. sion of it, A great number of vessels enter tJutt Un grand nombre dr batiments entrent dan* harbour and go out from it every ce port et en sortent tous les mois. month, v SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT OF VERBS. 379 629. This rule is also applicable to adjectives, and even to prepositions. Therefore, we should not say, He is attentive and satisfied II est assidu et satisfait de son with his work, travail. But we should say : He is attentive to his w r ork II est assidu a son travail et en and is satisfied with it, est satisfait ; because the adjectives attentive, assidu, and satisfied, sa- tisfait, require different prepositions before the noun that is their object. 630. Although the following phrase is correct in English, it is wrong in French. He has spoken at the same II a partt en meme temps time against and in favour contre et en faveur de notre of our friend, ami. Explanation. The French phrase is wrong, because contre requires no other preposition before its object, whilst en faveur requires de. The phrase should be il a parte en meme temps contre notre ami et en safavevr. We do not feel qualified to criticise the English phrase, but we should think that it would be as well, if not better, if it were thus, he ha3 SPOKEN AT THE SAME TIME AGAINST OUR FRIEND AND IN HIS FAVOUR. 631. When a verb has two indirect objects, it is necessary to avoid placing them in such a manner as to cause any equivoca- tion. Therefore, we should not say, The masters who scold at Les maitres qui grondent ceux those who serve them with qui les servent avec passion, passion, are the worse sont les plus mal servis. served, Explanation. This phrase is wrong, because it is doubtful to what the words with passion, avec passion, relate, whether it is to scold, grondent) or serve, servent. The phrase should be thus : The masters, who scold with passion at Les maitres, qui grondent avec passion ccux those who serve them, are the worse qui les servent,sont les plus mal servis. served, 632. When a verb has for its objects several words that are united by one of the conjuntions et, and; ni, nor ; ou, or; those words should belong to the same class, that is, if the first word is a noun, the second must be also a noun ; if it is a verb, the second must also be a verb ; if it were several words forming a kind of a phrase, the conjunction should be followed by a simi- lar phrase. Therefore, the following phrases are wrong : He likes play and to study, II aime le jeu et a etudier. 380 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER* They spend their time at the lis passent leur temps a la chase, or in fishing > chasse, ou a pecher. It is not necessary to learn II n'est pas necessaire d*ap- to shoot with a bovj, nor prendre a tirer de Tare, ni the handling of the j a velin, le maniement du javelot. Explanation. These phrases are wrong, because in the first the word that precedes et, and, is a noun, and that which follows is a verb, when it should also be a ttoun. In the second, the word that precedes ou;or, is a verb, and that which follows is a noun, when it should also be a verb. In the third, the words that prceede ni, nor, form a phrase with a verb, and those that follow are nouns joined with a preposition, when they should be such words as to form a phrase like that which precedes the conjunction /», nor. These phrases should be corrected thus : He likes play and study, or he likes to play II aime le jeu et l'etude, ou il aime a jouer et and to study, a etudier. They spend their time at the chase,, ot~at Es passent leur temps a la chasse ou a la the fishery, or they spend their time in peche, ou Us passent leur temps a chasser hunting or in fishing, ou a pecher. It is not necessary to learn how to shoot Unrest pas necessaire d?apprendre a tirer de with a bow.not how to handle the javelin, - Pare, ni a manief le javelot. 633. Sometimes a verb is used, in English, without any apparent object, when the corresponding French verb should have one expressed, and to determine which one, it is only ne- cessary to ask what is or should be the object upon which the action of that verb is exercised, and then the answer determines that object, which generally is a personal pronoun. He turned towards us, . . II se tourna vers nous. Explanation. What did he turn ?— himself, therefore himself implied is the object of to turn, in English, and is expressed in French by the objective verbal pronoun se. EXERCISE 230. 617 History is a theatre, where politics the same as morality are put into 627 action ; it is there that men occupy a place only according to their virtue 416 409 633 and the services they have rendered. Theiirst crime of man was to re- 416 409 volt against his creator, and to use the advantages he had received from 128 631 131 him, to offend him. The second crusade was announced by Foulques, a curate from Neuilly ; he selected the moment when the grandees and 131 631 nobility were collected together in a tournament, to preach it. The good 632 man does not fear calumny, nor that it will be able to attack his reputa- 362 391 tion ; the testimony of his conscience is sufficient for him. It is to 627 Jenner that we are indebted for the discovery of vaccine, the first experi- 602 131 566 ments with* which were made in Scotland in the year one thousand seven * With should be rendered by de; and therefore with which by dont, which is foi duquel, desquels, &c. SYNTAX OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 3S1 632 . 632 hundred and ninety-six. Consider virtue preferable to riches, and that 424 God rewards those who practise it. Observe with what care Plato tries 632 to conquer his own passions, and the austere rule to which he submits virtue. CHAPTER VII. SYNTAX OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 634. The verb avoir is used with a past participle to express an action done by the nominative ; and the verb etre is used with a past participle or an adjective to express the state of the nominative. Whence it follows that most neuter verbs which express an action have their compound tenses formed with avoir ; as, I have reigned, ^'ai regne ; we have slept, nous avons dormi; you have walked, vous avez marche, fyc. pt alter, . to go ; de venir, to become ; arriver, to arrive ; mourir, . to die ; choir, . to fall to ; naitre, . . to be born ; deeeder, to decease ; parvenir, . to attain ; tomber, to fall ; revenir, . to come again venir, . to come ; all of which take etre in Frer though they take to have in English. 635. Those neuter verbs that are conjugated with either avoir or etre, see No. 163, take avoir when the action of the verb is to be expressed, and etre when the state of the nomina- tive of the verb is the main object. Therefore, we must use avoir in the following phrases : M. P. a disparu subitement. Lafievre a cesse ce matin. La riviere a monte rapidement. M. B. a passe en Amerique en tel temps. 636. But in all the following phrases etre should be used in French, though to have may be used in English. The fever is stopped some La fiver e est cesse e depuis quel- time since, que temps. Mr. P. has disappeared on a sudden, The fever ceased this morn- ing, The river has risen rapidly, Mr. B. passed to America at such a time, 382 FREiXCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. Mr. P. has disappeared these M. P. est disparu depuis quinze fifteen days, jours. He is gone up, he is gone II est monte, il est descendu, down, an hour since, depuis une heure. The heat is gone, Les chaleurs sont passees. The troops have set out for Les troupes sont parties pour six months,. six mois. 637. Sometimes neuter verbs are used as active verbs with a direct object, and then they take avoir. We have taken him from a Nous Z'avons sorti d'une affaire disagreeable affair, desagreahle. They have ascended the lis ont monte la montagne. mountain, 638. Some neuter verbs change their meaning as they change their auxiliary ; as, convenir with avoir, means to be convenient, to suit ; and with etre, it means to agree upon. That house suited me, and I Cette maison wz'a convenu,ef je agreed to the price, - suis convenu du prix. 639. Demeurer takes etre when the nominative is not to change its state, and avoir when the nominative might have changed its state ; as, Two hundred soldiers have Deux cents soldats sont restes remained on the field of sur le champ de bataille. battle, Mr. B. has remained ten M. B. a reste dix ans en Ame- years in America, rique. 640. Ce'mot ra'est echappe, means that word has dropped FROM ME, that is, IT HAPPENED TO ME TO SPEAK THAT WORD; and Ce mot m'a fchappe, means that word escaped my notice, that is, I did not notice it. 641. Expirer, to expire, takes etre when it relates to things, and avoir when it relates to persons. The truce is expired, La treve est expiree. That man expired this morn- Cet homme a expire ce matin. 642. There is, there are, there was, &c. instead of be- ing translated by il y a, il y avait, fyc. is translated by il en est, SYNTAX OF MOODS. 383 il en btait, SfC. especially if what follows is a relative pronoun, an adverb of quantity with some either expressed or understood. Among the Indians there are Parmi les Indiens il en est qui some that have courage, ont du courage. 243. It is with, it was with, &c. is also translated by il en est, il en etait, fyc. if the object of with is a personal pronoun, a proper name, or a noun of person or thing, or a demonstrative pronoun, and that object must be preceded by de ; and, if there is a comparison, the second with is also rendered by de ; as, It is with you as with all II en est de vous comme de tous those who do such things, ceux qui font de telles choses. It is with that, as with II en est de cela comme de ce what Ave saw yesterday, que nous vimes hier. EXERCISE 231. 365 131 All the republics of Greece have fallen from liberty into slavery. In " 104 & 635 the beginning of the christian era the city of Herculaneum disappeared 492 109 109 under the lava of Vesuvius. Although the Chinese take pride in being 118 118 118 the most ancient people on the earth, they are far from being the most 635 enlightened j they have remained stationary in most sciences. Men 635 420 who have passed through the trials of adversity can alone know what 642 happiness is. Among the planets known at this day, there are several 104^640 891 that escaped the researches of the ancient astronomers. It is through 634 the Phenicians that the sea has become the link of society between most 634 of the nations of the earth. The waters of the Loire having risen sud- 104 643 denly, inundated the fertile country of Touraine. It will be with this 643 nation as it was with all the nations of antiquity that acquired celebrity 26 and power ; it will prosper only as long as the conduct of its citizens shall be directed by principles of union , justice and prudence. SYNTAX OF MOODS. The Indicative is the mood of affirmation ; the Subjunctive is the mood of doubt. The Indicative is an independent mood ; but the Subjunctive is a subordinate mood which is employed after some conjunctions and certain verbs : see No. 109 for the conjunctions, and the following rules for the other words_that OO'i FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. require the subjunctive mood after them. And for the clearness of their application let it be established that a phrase, in which the subjunctive mood is employed, is generally composed of two parts, viz. the first, that is that which includes the verb or words after which the subjunctive mood is required, and the second, that is that which includes the verb to be put in the subjunctive. 644. 1st Rule. The verb of the second part of a phrase must be in the subjunctive mood, when the verb that precedes expresses surprise, admiration, will, wish, consent, forbid- dance, doubt, fear, apprehension, command, because that verb then expresses nothing like affirmation, or certainty, concerning the action of the following verb. I tremble,! apprehend,! fear Je tremble, ^'apprehende, je he will come, crains quHl ne vienne. I wait till he comes, /'attends qv?il vienne. You wish me to run away, Vous voulez que je fuie et que and to avoid you, je vous evite. Obey, if thou wishest to be Ob&is,situveuxqu'o?ifobeisse obeyed one day, un jour. I doubt that it is, Je doute que cela soit. The rain prevented that we La pluie empecha que nous should go take a walk, allassions nous promener. I consent that you should do Je consens que vous le fassiez. it, I am astonished that he does Je m'etonne quHl ne voie pas le not see the danger in danger ou il est. which he is, I am very glad that it is so, Je suis ravi que cela soit ainsi. Give me leave to tell you, Souffrez que je vous dise. Explanation. The second verb of these examples is in the subjunctive mood, because the first expresses surprise, admiration, wish or will, &c. that is, something uncer- tain, DOUBTFUL. 645. But in the following, the second verb is in the indica- tive mood, because the first verb expresses an affirmation in a direct and positive manner : I think, I suspect, I believe, I Je ]>er\$e,je soupconne,7> crois, say, I maintain, I presume, je dis, je soutiens, je presume, I suspect you have learnt /imagine que vous avez ap- mathematics, pris les mathematiques. SPNTAX OF MOODS. 385 I bet that it is, Je parie que cela est, Think that they wish to ruin Songez qu'on veut vous perdre. you, I believe he will come, Je crois qu'il viendra, 646. 2d Rule. When the first part of a phrase is negative or interrogative, the verb of the second part must be in the sub- junctive, because then the negation or interrogation imply or ex- press DOUBT, UNCERTAINTY, &C. Je ne pense pas, je ne soup- conne pas, je ne crois pas que vous ayez appris les matMmatiques. Je ne parie pas que cela soit. I did not know you were Je ne savais pas que vous fussiez friends, amis. Do you think that,in creating Pensez-vous qu'en formant la the republic of bees, God republique des abeilles, Dieu I do not think, I do not sus- pect, I do not believe you have learnt mathematics, I do not bet that it ay, Vait pas voulu instruire les rois a commander avec dou- ceur ? Soupconnez-vous, croyez-vous* presumez-vous que ce soit monfrere qui ?rc'ait ecrit ? has not wished to teach kings how to command with kindness ? Do you suspect, do you be- lieve, do you suppose that it is my brother who has written to me ? I do not believe, or do you be- Je ne crois pas, ou croyez-vous, lieve he will come ? qu'il vienne ? 647. Remark. Sometimes the interrogation is made use of, not to ask a question, but only to give more force to the expres- sion, and then the second verb should not be in the subjunctive, on account of that interrogative form ; as in, Madam, do you forget that Madame, oubliez-vous que The- Theseus is my father and that he is your husband ? Do you believe that Parisians are fools ? see est mon pere et quHl est votre epoux ? Croyez-vous que les Farisiens sontfous? 648. 3d Rule. The verb that follows pretendre, used in the sense of to maintain, and entendre used in the sense of to hear, to understand, must be in the indicative mood ; but when 33 386 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. pretendre and entendre are used in the sense of to require, to mean, to intend, to order, they require the following verb in the subjunctive. I maintain that it is not Je pretends que cela ?z'est pas true, vrai (indicative.) By the sound of the voice, I Au son de la t'o&zr^'entends que hear that it is your brother, c*est votrefrere (indicative.) I require that they shall per- Je pretends que Von fasse son form their duty, devoir (subjunctive.) I mean that you shall obey /'entends que vous ltd obeissiez him, (subjunctive.) 649. 4th Rule. A unipersonal verb, or a verb used uni- personally, requires the following verb in the subjunctive mood. It is important that you II importe que vous y soyez. should be there, It is better that he may not II vaut mieux qu'il ne vienne come, pas. It is just that a murderer II est juste qu'un meurtrier should die, perisse. 650. From the preceding rule must be excepted il s'ensuit, it follows ; il resulte, it follows ; il arrive, it happens ; and those unipersonal verbs in the formation of which enters an adjective which expresses a positive idea, such as evident, evi- dent ; certain, certain ; sur, sure, certain ; vrai, true, &c. which verb requires the subjunctive mood only when they are employed negatively or interrogatively. It is true, it is certain that you II est vrai, il est certain que are my friend, vous etes mon ami (indicat.) It is not true, it is not certain H n'est pas vrai, il n'est pas that you are my friend, certain que vous soyez mon ami. 651. 5th Rule. When sembler, to seem, to appear, is used with the pronouns me, te, lui, nous, vous, leur, without an inter- rogation or a negation, it requires the next verb in the indicative mood ; but when it is used without those pronouns, it requires the following verb in the subjunctive. It seems to me, that I see him, U me semble, que je le vois (in- dicative.) SYNTAX OF MOODS. 387 It seems that that disease is 11 semble que ce mal soit sans without a remedy, remede (subjunctive.) However, some of the best writers have employed the subjunc- tive mood after il semble, though without the pronouns me, te, lui, nous, vous, leur ; but these authors are few in number. 652. 6th Rule. When the second part of the phrase is con- nected with the first by one of the relative pronouns qui, que, dont,, ou for to which time or place, &c. the verb of that second part will be in the indicative mood if it expresses a positive thing, and in the subjunctive if what it expresses is doubtful. J^epouserai une fille qui me J'epouserai une fille qui me plaira, plaise. J'irai dansune retraitcouje J'irai dans une retraite oik serai tranquille, Je te donnerai des raisons qui te convaincront, Je cherche quelqiCun qui me rendra ce service, je sois tranquille. Je te donnerai des raisons qui te convainquent. Je cherche quelqu'un qui me rende ce service. 1st. I shall marry a girl that will please me, 2d. I shall go to a retired place, where I shall be tranquil, 3d. I shall give thee reasons that will convince thee, 4th. I am looking for some one who will render me that service, Explanation. In the phrase, fepouserai une femrne qui me plaira, the indicative is em- ployed to express that the idea is positive, certain. It means, that " I shall marry a girl whom I know positively, and that I am certain that she will please me." In the phrase, fepouserai unefemme qui me plaise, the suhjunctive plaise is used to express that " I shall marry a girl whom I do not know, and whom J wish to please me." The same explana- tion may be applied to the other examples. 653. 7th Rule. The verb of the second part of the phrase must be in the subjunctive, when it has for its nominative a relative pronoun ; and that in the first part of the phrase is a su- perlative, expressed by le plus, le moins, le meilleur, le mieux, la plus, 8fC. : see No. 118; either of the words nul, aucun, pas un, premier, second, troisieme, fyc. ; dernier, or such words as have a negative sense like personne, nobody ; peu, little ; guere, not much ; rien, nothing ; aucun, none, no one ; &c. The bible is the greatest La bible est le plus beau present que Dieu ait pu faire a Vhomme. Cest une des dernieres tpitres que St. Paul ait ecritcs. Cest le premier homme qui soit alle dans ce pays-Id. II n\j a rien qui rafraichisse le sang comme une bonne action. present that God could make to man, It is one of the last epistles that St. Paul wrote, He is the first man who went to that country, There is nothing that re- freshes the blood like a good action, 38S FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER, There are feiv kings who II y a peii de rois qui sachenl know how to seek true chercher la vraie gloire. glory, It may be said that the dog On pent dire que le chien est le is the only animal whose seul animal dont la fideliti fidelity is proved, soit a Vepreuve. Note. There are other instances, in which the subjunctive mood is employed ; but they are explained in their proper places. (See the Table of Contents.) CHAPTER VIII. SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 654. The present indicative (see No. 97) is often used, in French, instead of the past, to make a narration more animated, and expressive ; as, I saw, my lord, I saw your J'ai vu, seigneur, fai vu votre unfortunate son dragged malheureux fits traine par by the horses that his own les chevaux que sa main a hand fed, he tries to call nourris, il veut les rappeler them back and his voice et sa voix les efTraie, . v. i. Ability, n. habilete, f. Able, adj. capable, 64. — to be able,e£re capable ;pouvoir 7 u\. in. 281. to Abolish, a. v. abolir, ii. About, prep, environ ; sur. — to be about setting out, ctre sur le point de partir. — to be about to do a thing, or to be going to do a thi ng, alter faire unc chose, i.irr.p.185 Above, prep, par dessus au dessus de. Above-all, adv. surtout, principalement. Absence, n. absence, f. Absent, adj. absent, e, 65. Absolute, adj. absolu, e, 65 Abuse, n abus, m. Academy, n. academie, f. to Accept, a. v. accepter, i. Accident, n. accident, m. — to meet with an accident, eprouver un accident. to Accompany, a. v. accomvagner, i. to Accomplish, a. v. accomplir,finir, ii. According to, prep, scion, sub: ant. According as, conj. seldn que AC AD Account, n. compte, m. — on account of, a cause de, 757. Accusation, n. accusation, f. to Accuse, a. v. accuser, i. Accuser, n. accusateur, m. accusatrice, f. to Acknowledge^, v. reconnaitre, iv.irr.303. Acknowledgment, n. reconnaissance, f. Acquaintance, n. connaissance, f. — to have an acquaintance^ to be acquaint- ed with one, connaitre quelqu'un, 303. to Acquire, a.v. acquerir, ii. irr. 207. to Acquit, a. v. absoudre, iv. irr. 288. to Act, n. v. agir, ii. Act, n. acte, m. Action, n. action, f. Active, adj. actif, ve, 67. Actor, n. acteur, m. Actress, n. actrice, f. Adams, pr. n. Adams, m. Adam, pr. n. Adam, m. Adaptation, n. adaptation, f. to Add, a. v. ajouter, i. to Address, a. v. adresser, i. Address, n. adressp, f. Adelaide, pr. n. Adelaide, f. Adieu, n. adieu, m. 436 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. AD Ah Adele, pr. n. Adele, f. Administration, n. administration, f. Admirable, adj. admirable, 64. Admirably, adv. admirablement. Admiral, n. amiral, m. s. amiraux, m. p. Admiration, n. admiration, f. to Admire, a. v. admirer, i. Admirer, n. admirateur, m. admiratrice, f. Admissible, adj. admissible, 64. Admission, n. admission, f. to Admit. a. v. recevoir,\i\. admettre i iv.ur.343. Admonition, n. avis, m. to Adopt, a.v. adopter, i. Adopted, adj. adoptif, ve, 67. to Adorn, a. v. orner ; parer, i. — adorned with, orne de. Advice, n. avis, m. iEneid, n. Eneide, f. a poem of Virgil. Affability, n. affabilite, f. Affable, adj. affable, 64. Affair, n. affaire, f. Affectation, n. affectation, f. Affected, p.&a. derange, e, 65 ; affecte, e ; touche, e, 65. Affection, n. affection, f. Africa, n. Afrique, f. 492, 506. After, prep, apres ; d'apres. I shall do that a/ier you, but I shall do it after this model, Jeferai cela apres vous, maisjele ferai d'apres ce modele, 780. After, adv. ensuite. After, conj. apres que, 780. Afternoon, n. apres-midi, f. Afterward, adv. ensuite. Afterward, prep, apres. Again, adv. encore. Against, prep, contre. Age, n. age, m. siecle, m. Aged, adj. age, e, 65. Aggressor, n. agresseur, m. Agile, adj. agile, 64 ; actif, ve, 67. to Agitate, a. v. agiter, i. Agitation, n. agitation, f. Ago. adv. depuis, depuis longtemps, 672. to Agree, n.v. s'accorder, i. r.v. 187, & fol. Agieeable, adj. agreable, 64. Air, n. air, m. Alexander, prop. n. Alexandre, m. Alexis, prop. n. Alexis, m. Algebra, n. algebre, f. — to resolve a problem in algebra, resoudre un probleme d? algebre. All, adj. tout, e, 65, 77. At all, adv. reellement. AL AN — not at all, adv. point da tout. Alliance, n. alliance, f. to Allow,a.v. accorderj. admettre, iv.irr.343» Allusion, n. allusion, f. Almanac, n. almanack, m. Almighty, adj. &l n. tout-puissant, toute- puissante. Almost, adv. presque. Alone, adj. seul, e, 65. Already, adv. dejd. Also, adv. aussi. to Alter, a. v. alterer, i. 16 ; changer, i. 14. to Alter, n. v. changer, i. 14. Although, conj. quoique, 109. Always, adv. toujours. Alzire, pr. n. Aliire, f. Amiability, n. amabilite, f. Ambassade, n. ambassade, f. Ambassador, n. ambassadeur, m. Ambassadress, n. ambassadrice, f. Ambition, n. ambition, f. Ambitious, adj. ambitieux. se, 68. Amendment, n. amendement, m. America, n. Amerique, f. 492> 506. American, adj. &. n. Americain, e, 65. Amiable, adj. aimable, 64. Amiability, amiableness, n. amabilite, f. Among, amongst, prep, panni ; entre ; dans le nombre de or des ; chei, — among other things, entre autres choses ; — among the Indians, chei les lndiens. to Amount, n.v. se m order, i. r.v. 187 &. fol. Amount, n. montant, m. somme, f to Amuse, a. v. amuser, i. Amusement, n. amusement, m. An, ind, art. un, m. une, f. 41, 119. Ancestor, n. a'ieul, m.s. a'ieule, f, s. 33, 7th. ancetres, m. p. Ancient, adj. & n. ancien, ne, 66. And, conj. et. Andiron, n. chenet, m. Angel, n. ange, m. Angle, n. angle, m. Angry, adj. fachc, e, 65. Animal, n. animal, in. 32. Animal, adj. animal, e, 65. Anniversary, n. anniversairc, m. Anniversary, adj. annuel, le, 66. to Announce, a. v. annoncer* i. 13. Annual, adj. annuel, le, 66. Annually, adv. annuellement. Another, adj. un autre, m. une autre, f. — another time, une autrefois. — one another, each other, Pun l J autre, 447 &.fo VOCABULARY. 437 AN AR Answer, n. reponse, f. to Answer, u. v. rcpondre d, iv. Antagonist, n. antagoniste, m. Antecedent, n. antecedent, m. Anterior, adj. anterieur, e, 69, 6th* Antipathy, n. autipatlue, f. Antiquity, n. antiqaite, f. Anxiety, n. anziete, f. Any, adj. or art. or pron. chaque ; quelque : quelqu'un, quelqu'ane; du, de la,de l\ des, de, 4-1, 94, 436. —any thing, quelque chose. — any other, tout autre. —any one, with a negation, personne... ne. Apartment, n. appartemeni, m. chambre, f. Apology, n. apolog-ie, f. Apostle, n. apotre, m. Apothecary, n. apothicaire, m* Apparent, adj. apparent, e, 65. Apparently , adv apparemmtnt. to Appear, n. v. paraitre, iv. irr. 303. Appearance, n. apparence, f. Appetite, n. aopetit, m. to Applaud, n. v. applaudir, ii. Applause, n. applaudissement, m. Apple, n. pomme, f. Application, n. application, f. to Apply, a. v. appliquer a or sur, l. em- ployer d, i. 18. to Appoint, a. v. nommer, i. Appointment, n. commission, f. to Appreciate a. v. apprecier, i. to Apprehend, a. v. apprehenier, i. 109,729. to Approach, a. v. approcher de, i. s'appro- chr de, i. 167 & foil. Approach, a. approche, f. Approbation, n. approbation, f. Apricot, n. abricot, m. April, n. Arri 1 , m. Apron, n. tablier % m. Arc, n. arc, m. arche, f. Architecture, n. architecture, f. Ardent, adj. ardent, e, 65. Ardently, adv. ardemment. Ardour, n. ardeur, f. Argument, n. argument, m Aristocracy, n. aristocratie, t. Arithmetic, n. arithraetique, f. Ar n,n. (a limb) frr&?,m. (a weapon) orr7ic, f to Arm, a. v. armer, i. Arms, n. (weapons, ernes, f. p. Army, n. armc?, f. Around, adv d Ppntour ; autour. :,7> AR AS Around, prep, autour de. to Arrange, a. v. arranger, i. 14. Arrangement, n arrangement, m. Arrestation, n. arrestation, f. to Arrest, a. v. arreter, i. Arrival, n. arrivee, f. to Arrive, n. v. arriver, i. — to arrive at, arriver d. — to arrive at (to find out) decouvrir, ii. irr. 214. Arrogance, n. arrogance, f. to Arrogate, n. v. s^arroger, i. r.v. 187, 14. Arrow, n.Jiiche, f. Arsenal, n. arsenal, m. 32. Art, n. art, m. Article, n. article, m. to Articulate, a. v. articuler, i. Articulation, n. artici.lj.tion, f. Artifice, n. artifice, m. xArtillery, n. artillerie, f. Artist, n artiste, m. Artless, adj. simple, 64 ; ?mVf, re, 67. As, conj. comme ; que, 111, 112, 449, 743. As much of,or as many of, prep, autant de. — as much, or a3 many as,tant que,autant que. As soon as, conj, attssitdt que. As well as, conj. aussi bien que. As though, conj. comme si. As for, prep, quant d. As to, prep, quant d ; au s-ujet de. So as to, conj. comme pour. to Ascend, n. v. monter d, i. tc Ascend, a. v. monter, i. gravir, ii. to Ascertain, 3l.v. assurer, i. s* assurer de,i. 187 &, following. Ashamed, adj. honteux, se, G&. Asia, n. Jisie, f. 492, 506. to Ask, a. v. demander, i. — to ask for a thing of some one, demander une chose a quel; a' an. Aspect, n. aspect, m. to Aspire after, n. v. aspirer d> i. Assault, n. atsaut, m. to Assault, a. v. ajsaillir, ii irr. 208 ; attch quer, i. to Assemble, a. v. assembler, i. to Assemble, n. v. s 5 assembler, i. r.v. 187&foL Assembly, n. assemblee, f. Assent, n. consentement, m. Assiduity, n. assiduite, f. Assiduous, adj. assidu, e, 65. Assignation, n. assignation , f. Assistance, n. assistance, f. sfcours, m. Assistant, n. aide, in. 433 TRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. AS AU Association, n. association, f. toAssume,a.v.pre?idre,iv.admettre,iv.irr.343. Assurance, n. assurance, f. to Assure, a. v. assurer, i. — to assure some one or a thing, assurer quelque chose d quelqu'un. Assured, adj. assure, e, 65. to Astonish, a. v. etonner, i. Astonishing, adj. etonnant, e, 65. Astonishment, n. etonnement, m. Astronomer, n. astronome, m. -Astronomy, n. astronomie, f. Asylum, n asile, m. At, prep, d ; chez ,* dans ; sur ; 36, 85. 558. At first, adv. oVabord. At last, adv. enfin. At this day, adv. aujourd'hui ; d present. At peace, adv. enpaix. At hand, adv. d la portee. At a word, adv. en un mot. Athalie, prop. n. Athalie, f. Atheueum, n. athenee, m. Atlas, n. atlas, m. Atlantic, adj. Jitlantique, 64. Atmosphere, n. atmosphere, f. Atrocity, n. atrocite, f. to Attach, a. v. attacher, i. Attachment, n. attachement, m. Attack, n. attaque, f. to Attack, a. v. attaquer, i. to Attain, a. v. obtenir, ii. irr. 238. to Attempt, a. v. tacher, i. essayer, i. 18. — to attempt to do a thing, essayer de, or tacher de faire une chose. Attention, n. attention, f. Attentive, adj. attentif, ve, 67. Attentively, adv. soigneusement ; attentive^ ment. Attitude, n. attitude, f. to Attract, a. v. attirer, i. Attraction, n. attraction, f. Attractive, adj. attractif, ve, 67. Avarice, n. avarice, f. Avaricious, adj. avare, 64 Audience, n. audience, f. Auditory, n. auditoire, m. to Avert, a. v. eloigner, i. to Augment, a. v. augmenter, i. Augmentation, n. augmentation, f. August, n. Aoiit, m. Aunt, n. tante, f. Author, n. autcur, m. Authoress, n. femme autcur f. Authority, n autorite, f. ALT BA Authorisation, n. autorisation, f. to Authorise, a. v. autoriser, i, Autumn, n. Automne, m. & f. 466. Auxiliar, adj. auxiliaire, 64. to Awake, a. v. reveiller, i. Axe, n. hache, f Azure, n. azur, m. Azure, adj. azure, e, 65. B. Babbler, n. bavard, m. bavarde, f. Babe, n. enfant, m. & f. 467. Bachelor, n. gargon, m. Back, n. dos, m. Back, adv. derriere. to Backbite, a. v. medire de, iv. irr. 306. Backward, adv. en arriere. Bad, adj. mauvais, e, mechant, e, 76, 78. Bag, n. sa m. Baker, n. boulanger, m. boulangere, f. Ball, n. balle,f. (to load a musket.) Ball, n. bal, m. (dancing assembly.) Baltimore, pr. n. Baltimore, f. Bamboo, n. bambou, m. Band, n. bande, f. to Banish, a. v. banir, ii. Bank,n. (a monied establishment) banque,?.', (border of the sea or river) bord,rivage,m. Banker, n. banquier, m. Bankruptcy, n. banqueroute, f. Banquet, n. banquet, m. festin, m. Barn, n. grange, f. appends, m. Baron, n. baron, m. Baroness, n. baronne, f. Barrel, m. tariZ, m. Barricade, n. barricade, f. Base, adj bos, m. hasse, f. 66. Bashful, adj. timide, 64. Basis, n. &a*e, f Basket, n.panier, m. Basket maker, n. vannier, m. Bath, n. &um, m. to Bathe, n. v. se baigncr, i. 187 & fol. Battle, n. batai!le,f. Bay, n. baie, f. to Be, sub.& aux. v. etre, iv. irr. (p. 33) 131, 158, 167, 322, 554, 635, 640, 641, 642, 643, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 677, 682, 683 There to be, u. v. y avoir, 167. To be becoming, n. v. seoir, iii. irr. 273. Beautiful, adj. beau, m. bel, m. belle, f. 71. Beam, n. rayon, m. Bean, n. haricot, m. fev&, f. Bear, n. ours, m. ourse, f VOCABULARY. 439 BS toBear, a. v. supporter,!.; porter, \.', rendre,iv. Beard, n. barbe, f. Beast, d. bete, f. Beat, n. coup, m. to Beat, a.v. battre, iv. irr. 292. Beauty, n. beaute, F. Because, conj. parce que. to Become, n.v. devenir, ii. irr. 238 ; seoir, iii. irr. 273 ; convenir a, iii. irr. 238. Becoming, adj. bienseant, e, 65. Bed, n. lit, m. — to go to bed, aller se coucher. Bee, n. abeille, f. Beef, n. bccuf, ra. Beer, n. Mere, f. Before, prep, avant, 738. devant. Before, adv. auparavant. Before, conj. avant que (with a subj.) ; avant de (with an inf.) 738. Beforehand, adv. d'avance. to Beg, a.v. demander, i. ; prier, i. Beggar, n. mendiant, m. ; mendiante, f. to Begin, a.v. commencer, i. 13. Begin again, a.v. recommencer, i. 13. Beginning, n. commencement, m. Behind, prep, derri&re. Behold, prep, void ; voild ) 584. Being, n. etre, m. Belief, n. croyance, f.foi, f. to Believe, a.v. croire, iv. irr. 310. to Believe, n.v.penser, i. ; presumer, i. Belisarius, prop.n. Belisairt. Bell, n. cloche, f. Bellows, n. soufflet, m. to Belong, n.v. appartenir, ii. irr. 233 ;faire partie de, iv. irr. 323. Beloved, adj. aimc,e, r )5; cheri,e,65; adorc,e,65. Below, prep, sous ; au dessous de. Belt, n. ceinture, f. Bench, n. banc, m. to Bend, a.v. tendre, iv. ; p&er, i. — to bend a spring, tendre un ressort. — to bend a stick, plier un baton. to Bend, n.v. se courber, i. refl. 187 &c fol. Beneath, prep. sous. Beneath, adv. dessous ; en b s. Benediction, n. benediction, f. Benefactor, n. bienfaiteur, m. Benefactress, n. bienfaitrice, f. Benefit, n.projit, m. Benevolence, n. bienveil lance, f. ; bienfai- sance, f. Benevolent, adj. bienveillant, e, 65 ; bievfai- sant, e, 65. BE BL Benign, adj. benin, m. ; benigne, f. 73. Bertrand, prop.n. Bertrand, m. to Beseech, a.v. pHer, i. ; conjurer^ i. j sup~ plier, i. ; implortr, i. Beside, or Besides, prep, outre. Beside, or Besides, adv. en outre } de plus. to Besiege, a, v. assieger, i.14. Best, adj. meilleur,e,(\ised with nouns)69,6th Best, adv. mieucc, (used with verbs only). The best, adj. It meilleur, m. s. ; la meilleure, f.s. ; les meilleurs, m.p. ; les meilleures,f.j). The best, adv. It mieux, m.s. j Za wueux,f.s. ; les mieux, p. to Bestow, a.v. donner, i. Bet, n. gageure, f. to Betray, a.v. trahir, ii. Better, adj. meilleur, m. ; mei/Zeure,f.69,6th, (used with nouns). Better, adv. mieux, (used with verbs). — to be better, (relating to health,comfort or beauty) etre mieux; (in the sense of to be preferable) valloir mieux, iii. irr. 277 } &c. Between, or Betwixt, prep, entre. Bewitching,adj. ravissant, e ; charmant,e,aurien, m. to Blacken, a.v. noircir, ii. Blacksmith, n. forgeron, in. Blackeyed, adj. d or mtt y:ux noirs, 525,528. 440 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. BL BO Blade, n. lame, f. Blam<-, n. bl' me, m. to Blame, a.v. blamer, i. Biank, adj. btunc, m. blanche, f. 72* Blanket, n. couverture, f. to Bleed, u.v. saigner, i. to Bless, a.v. benir, ii. irr. 209. Blessing, n benediction, f. Blind, adj. aveugle 64 to Blind, a.v. aveugler, i. Blindly, adv. aveuglcment. Bliss, n. bonheur supreme, m. to Blockade, a.v. bloquer, i. j cerner, u ; assieger, i. 14. Blood, n. sang, m. Bloody, adj. sanglant, e, 05. Bloom, n.Jleur, f. to Bloom, n v.feurir, ii. to Blow, a.v. (relating to wind) soujflrr, i. to Blow, n.v. (relating to rlowers^cunV, ii. Blue, adj. bleu, e, 65. Blush, n.v. rough-, ii. Boarder, n pcnsionnaire, m.&f. Boarding-house, n, pension, f. to Boust, u.v. .ve vanter, i. r.v. 187 & fol. Boaster, n.firfaron, m. Boat, n. bateau, in. 30 ; tar^uc, f. Boat-man, batelier, m. Bodily, adj. corporel, le, 66. Bo:ly, n. corps, m. —every body, tiut le monde. — nobody, per- sonne ..ne, 435, 436. to Boil, n.v. bouillir, ii. irr. 211. Boiler, n. bouilloire, f. Bold, adj. hardi e, 65. Bolt, n. (for a floor) verrou, m. Bomb, n. bombe, f. Bona, prop.n Bona. Bone, n. (of any animal except a fish) os, m. ; (of a fish) arete, f. Bonnet, n. bonnet, m. ; chapeau, x, m. 30. Book, n. livre, m. Boot, n. botte, f. Border, n. &ord, m. Born, adj. ne, m. ; nee, f. 65. — to be born, naltre, iv. irr. 345. to Borrow, a.v. empmnter, i. — to Morrow aome money of a friend, emprunter de Vargeni a un ami. Bosom, n. stin, m. ; cceur, m. Boston, prop.n. Boston, m. Both, ad] fo?« deux, toutes deux, 43iH, 609. Bottle, n. bouttille. f. to Bottle, a.v. mtttre en boutci!les,\v. irr. '343. BO BU Bottom, n. fond, m. Bound, n. timite,f.; borhe,f. ; (a leap) sauf.nic Boundary, n. limitc, f. j borne, f. Boundless, adj. ilnmile, e, U5j sans bornta. Bow, n. arc, m. Rainbow, u. arc-en -ciel, m. 486. Box, n. boif, \\ ; caisse, f. Boy, n. gargon, 111. Bracelet, n. bracelet, m. Brain, 0. ctrveau, in. 30. Branch, n. bravche, f. Brandy, 11. eem de-tn't, f. ° Brass, n. airain, in. ; 6ronze, m. 3 cim>re, tn. Brave, adj. brave^ 64. Bravely, adv. cowa^eiwemen*. Bread, n.pam, m. to Break, a.v. rornpre, iv. irr. 358. Breakfas , n. dyevne, m. ; de/eftner, m. to Br* a k fast, n.v. dejeuner, i. Breast, n. poitrine, i'.-, gorge, f. Breath, n haJeine, f. ; re piration, f. to Breathe, n.&H.v. rtspirtr, i. Brisk, ii. brique, f. Bridge, n. pont, m. Bridle, n. bnde, f. Brief, adj. &/e/*, m. ; breve, f. 67. B, iliiant, adj. brilliant, e, C5. to Bring, a.v. (in the hands, on the should- ers, &.c.) apporter, i. ; (in the sense of to lead, to accompany) mener, i. 17. — to Bring back, a. v. rapporter, i. ; ramener,\. Brittle, adj. fragile, 64. Broad, adj. large, 64.554. Broadness, n. largeur,f. Broadsword, n. sabre, m. Broken, a:lj. rempu, e, 65 3 brise, e, 65; casse, e, P5. Bronze, n. bronze, m. Brook, n ruisseau, m. 30. Brother, n. frire, m. Brother in-law, n. beaufrdre, m. 481. Brotherhood, u.fratemite, f. Brown, adj. brun,e, 65. Brune, prop n. Bru,ne, m. Brush, n. brosse, t. ; vergette, f. ; (to paint) pinceau, m. Brute, n. brute, f. Buckle, n. bouclc, f. Bud, n. 6 uton, m. ; bourgeon, m. to Build, a v. 6 fi>, ii. Building,n. b lisse,t\ b$timent,m.' } edt/?oe,m. Bull, n. taureuu, no. 30. Bundle, n. pcqiut., m. Burden, n. fardeau, m. 30. VOCABULARY. 441 BU CA to Burn, a.v. bruler, i. to Burst, a. & n. v. crever, i. to Bury,a.v.(a thing) enfouir,\\. — (a corpse) enterrer. i. or ensevelir, ii. Burying-ground., n. cimetiere, m. Business, n. affaire, f. ; occupation, f. Busy, adj. occupe, e, 65. But, conj. mais, 26, 778. Butter, n. beurre, m. Butterfly, n. papillon, m. Button, n. bouton, m. to Buy, a.v. acheter, i. 15. By, prep, par ; devant ; aitpres de. — to pass by the door, passer devant la parte. — to pass by some one, passer au pres de quel- qu'un. Bv and by, adv. bientdt ; tout-d-Vheure. C CA Cabbage, n. chou, x, 33. Caesar, prop.n. Cesar, m. Cake, n. gateau, x, £0. to Call, a.v. appehr, i. 15. Calligraphy, n. calligraphic, f. Calumny, u. calomnie, f. Camail, n. (a monk's or bishop's ornament) camail, m. 29. Cambridge, prop.n. Cambridge, m. Camel, n. chameau, x, m. 30. Can, n.&aux.v. pouvoir, iii. irr. 261 ; savoir, iii. irr. 267 & fol. 702. Canal, n. canal, aux, m. 32, Canada, prop.n. Canada, m. 492, 506. Cancer, n. cancer, m. Candlestick, n. chandelier, m. Candour, n. candeur, f. Cane, n. canne, f. Cannon, n- canon, m. Connonier, n. canonnier, m. Canopy, n. dais, m. Cap, n. bonnet, m. Capable, adj. capable, 64. Capacity, n. capacite, f. Cape, n. cap, m. Capital, n. (amount of property) capital, m. Capital, n. (metropolis) capitale, f. Capital, adj. capital, e, 65. Capitulation, n. capitulation, f. Capricious, adj. capricieux, se, 68. Captain, n. capitaine, m. to Captivate, a.v. captiver, i. Card,n. carte, f. — a pack of cards, unjeu de cartes. Cardinal, n. cardinal, aux, m. 32. CA CH Care, n. soin, m. To take care, n.v. avoir soin de ; prendre garde a, iv. irr. 353. Careful, adj. soigneux,se,68 ; circonspect,e,65, — to be careful to, avoir soin dc Carefully, adv. soigneusement. Carpet, n. tapis, m. Carriage, n. voiture, f. ; carrosse, m. Carrot, n. carotte, f. to Carry, a.v. (in the hands, on the shoulders, &c.) porter, i. ; (in the sense of to lead, to accompany) mener, i. 17. to carry away,a.v.empor£er, i.; emmener,ul7. Cart, n. char, m. ; charrette, f. Cartel, n. cartel, ra. Case, n. cas, m. — in case that, au casque. Cash, n. argent comptant, m. Cashier, n. caissier, m. Cask, n. baril, m. Castle, n. chateau, x, 30. to Catch, a.v. attraper, i. Catholic, adj. catholique, 64. Cause, n. cause, f. to Cause, a.v. causer, i. ; faire, iv. irr. 323. Cautious, adj. prudent, e ', circenspect, e, 65. Cautiousness, n. precaution, £ j attention* f. Cavalry, n. cavalerie, f. Cayenne, prop.n. Cayenne, £ to Cease., n.v. cesser, i. to Celebrate, a.v. celebrer, i. 16. Celebrated, adj. celebre, e, 65. Celebration, n. celebration, f. Celebrity, n. celebrite, f. Cellar, n. cave, f. Censure, n. censure, f. Cent, n. sou, m. Centre, n. centre, m. ; milieu, x, m. 30„ Century, n. siecle, m. Ceremony, n. ceremonie, f. Certain, adj. certain, e, 65 ; sur, e, 65. Certainly, adv. certainement. Certainty, n. certitude, f. Chagrin, n. chagrin) m. Chair, n. chaise, f. arm chair, n.fauteuil, m. Chaise, n. cabriolet, m. Chalice, n. calice, m. Chamber, n. chambre, f. Champion, n. champion, m. Chance, n. hasard, m. to Change, a.v. changer, i. 14, to Change, n.v. changer, i. 14. Change, n. changement, m, Chapel, n. chapelle, f. 442 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. CH CI Chaplain, n. chapelain, m. ; aumOnier, m. Chapter, n. chapitre, m. Character, n. caractere, m. Characteristic, n. marque, f. Charcoal, n. charbon, m. to Charge, a.v. charger, i. 14. — to charge with, charger de, accuser de. Charge, n. charge, f ; accusation, f. Chargeable, adj. accusable, 64. Charitable, adj. charitable, 64. Charity, n. charite, f. Charles, prop.n. Charles, m. Charm, n. charme, m. to Charm, a.v. charmer, i. Charming, adj. charmant, e, 65. Chase, n. chasse, f. to Chase, a.v. chasser, i. Chastity, n. chastetc, f. Cheap, adj. d bon marche. Cheaper, adj. d meilleur marche. Cheek, n. joue, f. Cheerful, adj. gai, e, ; joyeux, se, 68. Cheerfully, adv. gaiement ; avecplaisir. Cheerfulness, n. gaiete, f. Cheese, n.fromage, m. Chemistry, n. chimie, f. to Cherish, a, v. chcrir, ii. Cherry, n. cerise, f. Chicken, n. poulet, m. Chief, n. chef, m. Chief, adj. principal, e, 65. Chiefly, ad v . principalement. Chieftain, n. cAe/*, m. Child, n. enfant, m.&f. 467. Childhood, n. enfance, f. Chimney, n. cheminee, f. Chin, n. menton, m. China, n. (dishes) porcelaine, f. China, prop.n. ia Chine, f. Chinese, adj.&n. Chinois, m.; Qiinoise, f.65. Chocolate, n. chocolat, m. Choice, n. choix, m. Choir, n. chaur, m. Cholera-morbus, n. cholera morbus, m. to Choose, a.v. choisir, ii. Chord, n. cordfe, f. Christian, adj.&n. chretien, m.; chretienne, f. Church, n. cglise, f. Cid, prop.n Z,e Ctd, m. Cider, n. ctdre, m. Cincinnatus, prop.n. Cincinnatus, m. Circle, n. cercle, m. Ciroassin, prop.n Circassie, f. 492, 506. Circular, adj. circulaire, 64. CI CO Circular, n. circulaire, f. Circulation, n. circulation, f. Circumstance, n. circonstance, f.; rapport, m» Citadel, n. citadelle, f. Citizen, adj.&n. citoyen, m. ; citoyenne, f. 66L Fellow-citizen, adj.&n. eonci*oyen, m. ; concitoyenne, f. City, n. TJi'Z/e, f. ; cifc, f. Civil, adj. cix'iZ, e, C5. Civilisation, n. civilisation, f. to Civilize,a.v. civiliser, i. Claim, n. drotf, m. to Claim, a.v. reclamer, i ; demander, i. Claret, n. clairet, m. Class, n. classe, f. Classification, n. classification, f. to Clean, a.v. nettoyer, i. 18. Cleanliness, n. proprete, f. Clear, adj. clair, e, 65 ; distinct, t, 65. Clear, adv. clairement ; distinctement. Clemency, n. clemence, f. Clerk, n. cZerc, m. ; commis, m. Client, n. client, m. Cloak, n. manteau, x, m. 30. Clock, n. pendule, f. ; horloge, f. o'Clock, n. heiire, f. Clock-maker, n. horloger, m. Closet, n. cabinet, m. Cloth, n. drop, m. ; etoffe, f. to Clothe, a.v. wfrV, ii. 239 ; habiller, i. Clothes, n. habits, m.p. j hardes, f. p. Cloud, n. nwe, f. ; nuage, m. Cloudy, adj. nebuleux, se, 68 ; couvert, e, 65* Coach, n. carrosse, m. ; (hackney) m. Discharge, n. (of a duty) execution, f. Disciple, n. disciple, m. Discipline, n. discipline, f. Discontented, adj. mecontent, e, 65. Discourse, n. discours, m. to Discover, a. v. decouvrir, ii. 214. Discovery, n. decouverte, f. Discreet, adj. discret, e, 66. Discrimination, n. distinction, f. VOCABULARY. 447 DI DO to Discus?;, a. v. discuter, i. Discussion, n. discission, f. Disdain, n. dedain, m. mepris, m. Disdainful, adj dedaigneiix, se, 68. Disease, n. maladie. f. Disgrace, n. honte, f. deshonneur, m. to Disgrace, a. v. avilir, ii. deshonorer, i. Disgust, n. degovt, m. Disgusting, adj. degoutant, e, 65. Dish, n. plat, m. Dishonourable, adj. dishonorable, 64. Disinterested, adj. desinterose, e. 65. to Dislike, a. v. ne pas aimer, i. 22. to Dismiss, a. v. renvoyer, i. 18. Disobedience, n. desubeissance, f. Disobedient, adj. desobciasant, e, 65. to Dispense, a.v. dispenser, i. — to dispense with, dispenser de. to Display, a.v. deployer, i. 18. to Displease, a.v. dzplaire d, iv. irr. 351. to Dispose, auv. disposer, i. Disposition, n. disposition, f. Dispute, n. dispute, f. to Dispute, n.v. s. disputer sur, i. re. 187. — to dispute whether, douter si, i. to Dissatisfy, a v. mccontenttr, i. Dissatisfied, adj. mecontent, e, 65. to Dissolve, a.v. dissoudre, iv. irr. 354. Distance, n. distance, f. Distant, adj. eloigne, e, 65. Distinction, n. distinction, f. Distinctive, adj. distinctif, ve, 67. Distinctly, adv. distinctcment. — to see dis- tinctly, voir clair, iii. in. 282. to Distinguish, a.v. distinguer, i. Distress, n. dctresse, f. to Distribute, a.v. distribuer, i. to Disturb, a.v. deranger, i. 14 ; detoumer, i. to Dive, n.v. sonder, i. a.v. to Divert, a. v. divertir, ii. Divine, n. theologien, m. Divine, adj. divin, e, 65. Diviner, n. devin, m. Divineress. n devineresse, f. Divinity, n. divinitc, f. Division, n. division, f. to Do, a.v. /aire, iv. irr. 323, 133, 141, 144, 177, 324, 325. — to do again, a.v. refaire, iv. irr. 323. — to do well to, (with a verlO /aire bien de. to do wrong (with a verb)yVitre mal de. Docile, adj. docile, 64. Docility, n. docilite, f. Doctor, n. docleur, m. DO DU Doctrine, n. doctrine, f. Document, n. document, m. Dog, n. chien, m. Dogma, n. dogme, m. Doings, n.faits, m. p. actions, f. p. DolJ, n. poupee, f. Dollar, n. dollar, m. piastre, f. Dolour, n. douleur, f. Domain, n. domaine, m. Dome, n. dome, m. Domestic, n. domestique, m. Domination, n. domination, f. Dominion, n. etat, m. Door, n. parte, f. Dot, n. point, m. Double, adj. & n. double, 64. Doubt, n. doute, m. to Doubt, a. v. douter de, \. Doubtful, adj. douteux, se, 68. Doubtless, adv. indubitablemtnt ; sans dout: Dove, n. colombe, f. Downfall, n. chute f. decadence, f. Downward, downwards, adv. en bos. Dozen, n. douzaine, f. Drag, drag-net, n. tramail, uux, 33, 3d. Drama, n. drame, m. Dramatic, adj. dramatique, 64. Drapery, n. draperie, f. to Draw, a.v. (with a pencil or crayon, &c.) dessiner, tracer, i. 13 ; (in the sense of deduce) deduire, iv. irr. 300. Drawer, n. tiroir, m. Dreadful, adj. epouvantable, 64; redoutable* 64 ; terrible, 64. Dream, n. songe, m. r&je, m. to Dream, n.v. rever, i. ; songer, i. 14. to Dress, a v. habiller, i. Dress, n. costume, m. ; habUlement, m. Drink, n. 6oi5*on, f. to Drink, a. v. boire, iv. irr. 294. Drop, n. gouite. f. to Drown, a. v. noyer, i. 18. Drug, n. drogue, f. Dry, adj. sec, m. seche, f. 72. — to be Dry (thirsty) avoir soif; ctre alterd* Dubuf prop. n. Dubuf, m. [669. Duck, n canard, m. ; cane, f. Dui, prop. ii. Dui, m. Dumb, adj. &c n. muet, m. ; muette, f. 66. Dupe, n. dupe, f. Duration, n. durce, f. During, prep, durant ; pendant. During, COllj. ptndant que 780, 7- c 2. Dust, n. poussiere, f. 448 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. DU EL Dutch, adj. & n. Hollandais, m. ; Hollan- daise, f. 66. Duty, n. devoir , m. E EL Each, pro. chacun, e, 428, 447. Each, adj. chaque, 59. Each other, ind.pro. Pun Pautre, Pune Pautre, 447. Eagle, n. aigle, m.&f. 464. Ear, n. oreille, f. Early, adv. de bonne heure. to Earn, a. v. gagner, i. Earnestly, adv. instamment, avec instance. Earth, n. terre, f. Earthly, adj. terrestre, 64. Easily, adv. aisement. Easy, adj. facile, 64 ; aise, e, 65. to Eat, a.v. manger, i. 14. Eclipse, n. eclipse, f. Economical, adj. economique, 64. Economy, n. economic, f. Edifice, n. edifice, m. batiment, m. Edition, n. edition, f. Editor, n. editeur, m. Educate, a.v. elever, i. 15 ; instruire, iv. irr. Education, n. education, f. [300. Eel, n. anguille, f. Effect, n. effet, m. Efficacious, adj. effcace, 64. Effort, n effort, m. Egg, n. ozuf, m. Egotism, n. ego'isme, m. Egotist, adj. ego'iste, 64. Egypt, prop.n. Egypte, f. 492, 506. Egyptian, adj.&n. Egyptien, m. •, Egyp- tienne, f. 66. Eight, car. nu. Ami. Eighteen, car.nu. dix-huit. Eighteenth, ord.r\n.&cn.dix-huitieme,5Ql&,fo\. Eightfold, adv. huitfois autant. Eighth, ord.nu.&n. huitieme, 561 & fol. Eightieth, ord.nu.&n. quatre-vingtieme, 561 & fol. Eighty, car.nu. quatre-vingts, 11. Either, ind.pro. Pun ou Pautre, m. ; Pune ou Pautre, f. 444. Elastic, adj. elastique, 64. Elbow, n. coude, m. Elder, adj. aine, e, 65. to Elect, a.v. choisir, ii. ; Hire, iv. irr. 341. Election, n. election, f. Elegance, n. elegance, f. Elegant, adj. elegant, e, 65. EL EN Elegantly, adv. elegamment. Elevation, n. elevation, f. Eleven, car. nu. onze. — Neither e nor a of the definite article or of any other words is supplied with an apostrophe before onze. The same observation is good for onzieme, eleventh. Eleventh, ord.nu.&n. onziime y 561 & fol. (See eleven.) Elision, n. elision, f. Ellen, prop.n. Helene,f. Ellipsis, n. ellipse, f. Elm, elm-tree, n. orme, m. ; ormeau, x, m. 30. Eloquence, n. eloquence, f. Eloquent, adj. eloquent, e, 65. Else, pron. autre •> autre chose. — to do nothing else, ne /aire rien de plus> nefaire que cela. — to be nothing else, n^tre que, n'etre rien de plus. Else, adv. autrement. to Embark, a.&n.v. embarquer y i. ; s'embar- quer, i. re. 187 & fol. to Embarass, a.v. embarrasser, i. Embarrassment, n. embarras, m. Embassador, n. embassadeur, m. to Embellish, a.v. embellir, ii. to Embrace, a.v. embrasser, i. Emetic, n. emetique, m. Eminent, adj. eminent, e, 65. Emotion, n. emotion, f. Emperess, n. imperative, f. Emperor, n. empereur, f. Empire, n. empire, m. to Employ, a. v. employer, i. 18 ; se servir de, ii. irr. 237, r.187 & fol. Employ, Employment, n. emploi, m. ; occu- pation, f. Employer, n. maitre, m. Empress, n. imperatrice, f. Empty, adj. vide, 64. Emulation, n. emulation, f. Enamel, n. email, aux, m. 33, 3d. to Enchain, a. v. enchainer, i. to Enchant, a.v. enchanter, i. Enchanting,adj.e?ic/tan£ewr,eresse,69,6thexc. Enchantment, n. enchantement, m. to Enclose, a. v. enclore, iv. irr. 298. Encore, adv. encore. to Encourage, a. v. encourager, i. 14. Encouragement, n. encouragement, m. End,n._/?n,f— to the end that, conj afinque, to End, a. v.Jinir, ii. [109. to Endeavour, n. v. chercher d, i. essayer d, i. 18. VOCABULARY. 449 EN ER Endless, adj. infini e, 65 ; sans Jin. to Endow, a v doner de, i. Endowment, n. dm, m. ; avantage, m. to Endure, a. v. endurer, \.;soufrir, ii.irr.214. iSnemy, n. ennemi, m. ; ennemie, f. Energetic, Energetical, adj. energique, 64. Energy, n. energie, f. to Engage, a. v. occuper, i. ; engager, i. 14. — to engage in an enterprise, /aire une en- terprise, iv. irr. 3*33. to Engage, n.v. s'engager, i. 14. re. 187. Engaged, adj.&n promts, e, 65 ; fiance, e, 65. Engagement, n. engagement, m. Engine, n. machine, f. Engineer, n. ingenieur, m. England, n.Anghterre, f. 492, 586. to Engrave, a. v. graver, i. Engraver, n. graveur, m. Engraving, n. gravure* f. to Enjoin, a.v. enjoindre, iv. irr. 308. to Enjoy, &.v. jouir de, ii. Enjoyment, n. jouissance, f. to Enlarge, a.v. avrandir, ii. to Enlight, to Enlighten, a.v. eclairer,\. •:o Enlist, a.v. enrOler, i. Enmity, n initnitis, f. Enormity, n. enormite, f. Enough, adv. asset ; suffisamment. to Enquire, n.v. demander, i. a. to Enrich, a.v. enrichir, ii. to Enter, n.v. entrer, i. Enterprise, n. entreprise, f. Enterprising, adj. entreprenant, e, 65. to Entertain, a.v. entretenir, ii. irr. 238. Entertainment, n. entretien; (a meal) repas. Enticement, n appat, m. Entire, adj. entier, e, 65. Entirely, adv. entierement. to Entitle, a.v. ivttt ler, i. to E itr^at, a.v. soUiciter, i. Entry, n. entree, f. Envious., adj. envieux, se, 68. Envy, n. envie, f. to Envy, a.v. envier, i. * porter envie d, i. Epitaph, n. epitaphe, f. Epoch, n. epoque, f. Equal, adj.&n. egal, e, 65, 32. Equality, n. egalite, f. Equivocation, n. equivoque, f. ; ambiguite, f. Era, n. ere, f. to Erect, a.v. elever, i. ; erigcr, i. 14. Errand, n. commission, f. Erroneous, adj. errone, e, C5. Erroneously, adv. faussement ; erronement. 38* ER EX Error, n. erreur, f. to Escape, a.v. eckapper d, i. n. Escort, n. escorte, f. to Escort, a.v. escorter, i. Escritoir, n. ezritoire, m. ; bureau, x, 30. Especially ., adv. specia'ement; surtouU Essay, n. epreuve, f. ; essai, m. Essence, n. essence, f. Essential, adj. essentiel, h, 66. Essentially, adv. essentiellement. to Establish, a.v. etublir, ii. Establishment, n. etablissement, m. Estate, n. etaf, m. to Estet m, a.v. estimer, i. Esteem, n. estime, f. Estimable, adj estimable, 64. to Estimate, a.v. estimer, i. ; evaluer, i« Eternal, adj. eternel, le, 66. Eternity, n. ctemite, f. Eugene, prop n. Eugene., m. Eulogy, n. eloge, m. Europe, prop.n Europe, 492, 506. Eve, prop.n. jEwe, f. Even, adj. me me. Even as, conj. comme Even now, adv. tout dPheure. Evening n. (any part of the evening) soir,m,§ (the whole evening) soiree, f. — Last even- ing, hier an soir. Event, n. eoenement, m. Ever, adv. jamais ; toujours. Ever since, adv. depuis lors. Every, adj. chaque, 59. Every one, ind.pro. ckacun, e, 428, 452,453. Every body, ind.pro. tout le monde ; chacun, e. Every thing, n. tout, m. (has no plural). Evidence, n. evidence, f. Evident, adj. ecident. e, 65. Evidently, adv. cvidemment. Evil., n. mal, maux, m. 30. Exact, adj. exact, e, 65. to Exact, a.v. eviger, i. 14. Examination, n. examen, m. to Examine, a.v. examiner, i. Excellence, n. excellence, f. Excellent, adj. excellent, e, 65. Except, prep, excepte. Exception, n. exception, f. Excess, n. exeds, m. Excessive, adj. excessif, ve, 67. to Exchange, a.v. echanger, i. 14. Exchange, n. (place of business) bourse. to Excite, a.v. exciter, i. Exclaim, n.v. s'ecrier, i. 4-50 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. EX EY Exclusively, adv. ezclusivemcnt. Excusable, adj. excusable, 64. Excuse, n. excuse, f. to Excuse, a.v. excuse?; i. to Execute, a.v. executer, i. Execution, n. execution, f. Executioner, n. bourrcau, x, m. 30. Executor, n. executeur, m. cxecutricc, f. Exercise, n. exercice, m. to Exercise, a.v. exercer, 13. Exertion, n exertion, f. to Exhibit, a.v. montrer, i. ; exhibcr, i. Exhibition, n. exhibition, f. Exhortation, n. exhortation, f. Exile, adj. exile, 65 ; banni, e, 65. to Exile, a.v. exiler, i. ; bannir, i. to Exist, n.v. exister, i. Existence, n. existence, f. to Expect, a.v. espercr, i. ; s'attendre d, iv. r. v. 187 ; attendre, iv. Expedition, n. expedition, f. Expeditious, adj. expeditif, ve, 67. Expense, n. depense, f. Experience, n. experience, f. to Experience, a.v. eprouver, i. Experienced, adj. experimente, e, 65. Experiment, n. essai, m. ; epreuve, f. to Explain, a.v. expliquer, i. Explanation, n. explication, f. Exploit, n. exploit, m. Explosion, n. explosion, m. to Expose, a.v. exposer, i. Exposition, n. exposition, f. to Express, a.v. exprimer, i. Express, n. expres, m. ; courrier, m. Expression, n. expression, f. to Extend, a.v. etendre, iv. Extensive, adj. etendre, 65. Extent, n. etendue, f. External, adj. exterieur, e, 69, 6th. to Extinguish, a.v. eteindre, iv. irr. 308. Extra, adv. era sms ,• rfe ^Zws. to Extract, a.v. extraire, iv. irr. 367. Extraordinary, adj. extraordinaire, 64. Extravagant, adj. extravagant, e, 65. Extreme, adj.&n. extrime, 64 Extremely, adv. extremement. Extremity, n. extremite, f. Eye, n. ceil, yeux, 33, 6th exc. Eyed, adj. aux yeux. Eye-lashes, n. cils, m.p. j oil, m.s. Eye-lid, n. paupiere, f. Eylaw, prop.n. Eylau, m. F FE Fable, n. fable, f, to Fabricate, n^v./abriquer, i. Face, n. figure, f. visage, m./ace, f. Fact, n./aii, m.— In fact, adv. en effet. Factory, n. manufacture, f. Faculty, n. faculte, f. to Fail, n.v. faillir, ii.irr. 217. manquer, i. to Faint, n.v. s'evanouir, ii. re. 187. Faintly, aidv.faiblement. Fair, adj. beau, bel, m. JeZZe, f. 70, 71, 76. Faithful, nd).fidele, 64. to Fall, n.v. tomber, i. succomber, i. Fall, n. cZwfe, f. decadence, f. Falls, n. cataracte, f. False, adj. /a?t.r, sse, 68. Falsehood, n.faussete, f. Fame, n. renomm.ee, f. celebrite, f. Famed, adj. renomme, e, 65. Family, n. famille, f. Famine, n. famine, f. Famous, adj./«wie%.T, se, 68. Fan, n. eventail, m. 29. Far, adj. eloigne, e, 65. Far, n. Zoiw, m. — How far is it, combien y a* t-il. — Far, with a comparative, is rendered by Men ; as, That is far more advantage- ous, cela est bien phis avantageux. Farewell, n. adieu, x, 30. Farm, n.ferme, f. Farmer, n.fermier, m. fermiere, f. Farther, adv. plus loin. Fashion, n. mode, f.— After the fashion, d la mode. Fast, adv. (in the sense of quick) vite; (strongly) ferme. Fat, adj. gras, se, 66. Fate, n. sort, m. Father, n. pere, m. Fatigue, n. fatigue, f. lassitude, f. to Fatigue, a.v.fatiguer, i. Fault, n. faute, f. Favour, n. faveur, f. to Favour, a.v. favoriser, i. Favourable, did], favorable, 64. Favourably, adv. favorablement. Fear, n. crainte, f. to Fear, a.v. craindre, iv. irr. 308. — a thing to be feared, une chose d craindre. Fearful, adj. redoutable, 64. Feast, n. fete, f. Feather, n. pliane, f. February, prop. n. Fevrier, m. Fecund, adj. fecond, e, 65. VOCABULARY. 451 PE FI Feeble, adj. faible, 64. Feebly, adv. faibhment. to Feed, a.v. nourrir, ii. to Feel, a.v. eprouver, i. sentir, ii. irr. 227. (to touch) toucher, i. Feeling, n. sentiment, m. Feet, p.n. pieds, m.p. pied, m.s. to Feign, a.v.feindre, iv. irr. 308. Fellow, n. compagnon, m. Fellow-citizen,n.coneif<>2/e?t,m.conci7o2/enne,f. Fence, n. palissade, f. to Fence, n.v. f aire des armes, iv. irr. 323. Ferocious, adj. feroce, 64. Ferocity, n.ferocite, f. Fertile, adj. fertile, 64. Festival, u.fete, f. jour de fete, ra. to Fetch, a.v. a#er querir, i. irr. 193. — to go and fetch, aller chercher ; alter querir. Fever, n. fevre, f. — to have a fever, avoir l&fi&vre. Few, n.&adv. peu, m. — few in number, en petit nombrc. — very few, tres peu. — de should be used before the following noun ; as, few men,^ett d'hommes, 94. Fewer, adv. moins ; moins de, 94. Field, n. champ, m. — battle field, champ de Fifteen, car.nu. quinze. [bataille. Fifteenth, ord.nu.&n. quinzieme, 561 & fol. Fifth, ord.nu.&n. cinquieme, 561 & fol. Fiftieth, ord.nu.&n. cinquantieme, 561 & fol. Fifty, car.nu. cinquante. Fig, n.fgue, f. Fig-tree, n.fguier, m. to Fight, n.v. se battre, iv. irr. re. 187, 292. combattre, iv. irr. 292. Figure, n. figure, f. Filial, adj. fi Hal, e, 65. to Fill, a.v. remplir, ii. to Fill up, a.v. (a bottle, a dish, &c.) remplir, ii. ; (a hole, a ditch,&c.) combler, i. ; (an office) occuper, i. Fin, n. nageoire, f. Final, adj. final, e, 65. Finally, adv. enfin ; finalement. to Find, a.v. trouver, i. to Find out, a. v. decoxeorir, ii. irr. 214. Fine, adj. (thin)ym, e, 65. (beautiful) beau, bel, belle, 71, 72, 76. Finger, n. doigt, m. to Finish, a.v. terminer, i. fnir, ii. Fire, n.feu, x, 30. — Fire arms, armes a feu. Firm, adj. ferme, 64. First, adj. premier, ire. 65, 565. First, adv. d'abord. FI FO Fish, n. poisson, m. — flying fish, poisson volant. Fist, n. poing, m. Fit, n. attaque, f. to Fit, n.v. seair, iii. irr. 273, 274. Five, car. nu. cinq. Flag, n. drapeau, x, m. 30. Flat, adj. plat, e, 65. to Flatter, a.v. flatter, i. Flatterer, n.Jlatteurr, m. flatteuse, f. Flattering, adj. fatteur, se, 69, 4th exc. Flattery, n. fatterie, f. Flexibility, n. fexibilite, f. Flexible, ad]. flexible, 64. Flint, n.'caillou, x, m. 33. Flock, n. troupeau, x, m. 30. Floor, n. plancher, m. Flour, n.farine, f. to Flourish, n.v.feurir, ii. 221. Flourishing, adj.(prosperous)^orw5an*,e,65. (blooming) fleurissant, e, 65. Flower, n.feur, f. Flute, n.fvtc, f. to Fly, n.v. (with wings) voter, i. (run away) fuir, ii. irr. 222. Fly, n. mouche, f. Fog, n. brouillard, m. Foliage, n feuillage, m. Folio, n. in-folio, m. 478. to Follow, a.v. suivre, iv. irr. 363. to Follow, n.v. s'en suivre, iv. irr. 363. Follower, n. compagnon, m. Following, adj. suivant, e, 65. Folly, n.folie, f. Food, n. nourriture, f. Fool, n. sot, m. sotte, f. Foolish, ad), fou, fol, m. folle, f. 70, 71, 76. Foot, n. pied, m. [sot, te, 66. Fop, n. petit-maltre, m. 481. For, prep, pour, 749. For, conj. pour que, 780, 781. For, because, conj. car, parce que. For as much as, conj. autant que. — to go for some thing, aller chercher quelque chose. to Forbid, a.v. defendre, iv. to Force, a.v. forcer, i. 13. Force, n. force, f. Forehead, n. front, m. Fore-arm, n. avant-bras, m. 488. Foreign, adj. ctr anger, e, 65. Foreigner, n. etranger, m. etrangere, f. Forerunner, n. avant-coureur, m. 488. to Foresee, a.v. prevoir, iii. irr. 282. Foresight, n. prevoyance, f. 452 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. FO FR Forest, n.foret, f. Forge, n. forge* f. to Forge, a.v. forger, i. 14. to Forget, a.v. oublier* i. to Forgive, a.v. pardonner, i. Fork, n. (Cor the table) fourchette, f. (for farming, &.c.)fourche, f. Form, u.formt, f. to Form, a.v . former, i. Former, adj. pnmier, e, 65. celui Id, ^-c. 368. Formerly, adv. autrfois. Formidable, adj. formidable, 64. to Forsake, a.v. abandonner, i. Fort, n.fori, m. Forth, adv. en avant — and so forth,tt ccetera. to Fortify, a. v. fortifier, i. Fortnight, n. quinzaine, f. quinze jours. Fortunate,adj. heurcux, se, 68. fortune, e, 65. Fortunately, adv. heureusement. Fortune, n. fortune, f. Forty, car.nu. quarante. Foulques, prop.n. Foulques, m. Foundation ,n fondzmentjn fondements,m.p. (the plural is generally used to express the foundations of buildings). Founder, n.fondeur, m. Fountain, n. fontaine, f. Four, car.nu, quatre. Fourteen, car.nu. quatorze. Fourteenth, ord.nu. quatorzicme, 561 & fol. Fourth, ord.nu. &n. quatrieme, 561 & fol. Fowl, n. poule, f. volatile,?. Fragile, adj. fragile, 64. Fragility, n fragilitc, f. Fragment, n fragment, m. Frame, n. cadre, m. •France, prop.n. France, f. 492, 506. Frank, adj. franc, che, 72. Frankness, n. franchise, f. sincerite, f. Fraternity, n.fraternite, f. Free, adj, ft&re, 64. Freedom, n. liberie, f. Freely, adv. librement. French, adj.&n. Francois, m. Fran$aise, f. Frenchify, a.v. franciser, i. Frequent, adj. frequent, e, 65. to Frequent, a.v./Vcauenter, i. Frequently, adv. frequemment. Fresh, tn\').frais, fraiche, 72. Fricassee, n. fricassee, f. Friday, n. Vendrtdi m Friend, n. ami, m. amie, f. Friends, p.n. (in the sense of kindred) pa- rents, m. FR GA Friendship., n. amiiie, f. Frigate, n.fregate, f. Fright, n.frayeur, f. peur, f. to Frighten, a.v. epouvanter, i. effrayer, i. 18. Frightful, adj. affreux, se, 68. From, prep, de, 31, 36, 124. From, prep, (from the time) des. Front, n.fagade, f. Frontal, adj, fronta 1 , e, 65. Frontier, n.frontiere, f. Frost, n. ge/ee, f. Froth, n. ecume, f. Fruit, n. fruit, m. Fruitful, adj. fertile, 64. Fruit-tree, n. arbre-fruitier^ m. to Fry, a.v./nre, iv. irr. 329— f aire frire, iv. irr. 323. Fuel, n. chauffage, m. Fugitive, adj.&n.ywgifi/', m. fugitive, f. 67. to Fulfil, a.v. remplir^ ii. Full, adj. p/etn, e, 65. Fun, n. badinage, m. fZiveritssemenf, m. Function, it. fonction,i. Fund, n,fonds, m. Funeral, n. finer ail les. f. p. Furious, adj./urieua?, se, 68. Furnace, u.foumean, x, m. 30. to Furnish, -d.v.fownir, ii. Furniture, n. meubles, m. p. a?neu&Zevieni, m. Further, adv. plus loin. Fury, n.furie, f. Future, adj. /utter, e 5 65. Future, n.futur, m. — for the future, adv. d /'avfnzr. Fy, interj.^,* ^ done! G GA Gage, n. gage, m. Gaiety, n. gaiete, f. gaite, f. to Gain, a.v. gagner, i. — to gain a victory, remporter une victoire, i. Gallant, adj. gallant, e, f. 65. Gallantry, Ii. gallanterie, f. Gallon, n. gallon, m. Game, x\. jeu, x, m. 30. Gamester, n.^'ouewr, m. joueuse, f. Garden, n.jurdin, m. Garland, n. guir/ande, f. Garniture, n. garniture, f. Garrison, n. gamison, f. Garter, n. jrtrr<.tiere, f. Gate, n. port ail. m 29. portc, f. to Gather, a.v. i-ueillir, ii.irr. 215. hyt*e>e, f. Gathering, n. (of crop) recllte,t\ (of money. VOCABULARY. 453 GA GO Gauze, n. gaze, f. Gazette, n. gazette, f. Gelon, prop.n. Gelon, m. General, adj. general, e, 65. General, n. general, ux, m. 32. in Genera], adv. en general. Generally, adv. generalement. Generality, n. generalite, f. Generation, n. generation, f. Generosity, n. generosite, f. Generous, adj. genereux, se, 68. Generously, adv. genereusement. Genesis, n. Genese, f. Genlis, prop.n. Genlis. Gentle, adj. gentil, le, 70. Gentleman, n. monsieur, m. Gentlemen, p.n. messieurs, m. p. Gentleness, n. douceur, f. civilite, f. bien- veillance, f. Genuine, adj. veritable, 64. Geography, n. geographie, f. Geometry^ n. geometrie, f. — a problem in ge- ometry, un probleme de geometrie. George, prop.n. George, m. German, adj.&n. allemand, m. allemande, f. Germany, prop.n. Allemagne, f. 492, 506. Gesture, n. geste, m. to Get, a.v. trouver, i. gagner, i. to Get out, n.v. sortir, ii. irr. 232, 233. se tirer de, i. re. v. 187 & fol. Gift, n. don, m. present, m. to Gild, a.v. dorer, i. Girdle, n. ceinture, f. Girl, n.Jille, f. to Give, a.v. donner, i. — to give up one's self to, s'abandonner d, i. re. 187. Glad, adj. charme,e, 65. content, e, 65. aise, 64. — very glad, bien aise. Glance, n. regard, m. coup d?ozil, m. Glass, n. verre, m. Glasshouse, n. verrerie, m. Glorious, adj. glorieux, se, 68. Glory, n. gloire, f. to Glory in, n.v. se glorijier de, i. re. 187. Glove, n. gant, m. Gluttonous, adj. gourmand, e, 65. to Go, n.v. aller, i.irr. 193—198. to Go for, a.v. aller chercher. to Go away, n.v. s'en aller, 199, 200. to Go out, n.v. sortir, ii. irr. 232. Goat, n. chivre, f. God, n. Dieu, m. — would God! excl. plut d Dieu ! GO GR Goddess, n. Deesse, f. Godfather, n. parrain, m. Godmother, n. marraine, f. Gold, n. or, m. Good, adj. bon, ne, 66, 76, 78. Good, n. bien, m. Good people, p.n. gens de bien, 471, 472, 473. Goodness, n. bonte, f. Goods, n. (objects of trade) marchandises,]).f. (any property) Mens, m. Goose, n. otr,iii.irr.p.30. Possession, n. possession, f. Possibility, n. possibility^ f. Possible, adj. possible, 64. Post, n. (a piece of wood or stone, &c.) po- teau, x, m. 30. (a military station) poste, m . (the post-office) poste, f. Post-office, n. poste, f. Posterity, n. posterite, f. to Postpone, a.v. differer, i. 16. remettre, iv. irr. 343. Differer requires jusques, and remfittre requires d before their object. Pot, n. pot , m. — Tea-pot, theiere, f. Potato, n. pomme de terre, f. 486. Potentate, n. potentat, m. Pound, n. livre, f. Powder, n. poudre, f. Power, n. pouvoir, m. force, f. Powerful, adj. puissant, e, 65. Practice, n. pratique, f. to Practise, a.v. pratiquer, i. Praise, n. louange, f. eloge, m. to Preach, a.v. precher, i. Preacher, n. predicateur, m. Preceding, adj. precedent, e, 65. Precious, adj. precieux, se, 68. Precisely, adv. precisement. 466 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. PR Precision, n. precision, f. Predecessor, n. predecesseur, m. Prefect, n. prefet, m. Prefecture, n. prefecture, f. to Prefer, a.v.preferer, i. 16. aimer mieux, i. Preferable, adj. preferable, 64. Prefixed, adj. prefix, e, 68, exc Preparation, n. preparatif, m. to Prepare, a.v. preparer, i. Presence, n. presence, f. — Presence of mind, presence oV esprit. Present, adj. present, e, 65. Present, n. present, m. cadeau, x, m. 30. at Present, adv. a present, maintenant. to Present, a.. v. presenter. — To present some one with a thing, presenter tine chose d quelqu'un, offrir, ii.irr. 214. Preserve, n. confiture, f. to Preserve, a.v. (to keep) conserver, i. to Preside, n.v.presider, i. — To preside over, presider d, i. President, n. president, m. Press, n. presse, f. to Press, a.v. presser, i. to Pretend, a.&n.v. pretendre, iv. Pretension, n. pretention, f. Pretty, adj joli, e, 65. Pretty, adv. ossez. — Pretty well, assez bien. to Prevail, n.v. Vemporter sur, i. prevaloir, iii. irr. 265. to Prevent, a.v. (to hinder) empdcher, i. (to anticipate) prevenir, ii.irr. 238. Previous, adj. anterieur, e, 69, 6th exc. — The day previous, la veille, f. Previously,- adv. auparavant. Price, n. prix, m. Pride, n. orgueil, m. To take pride in, se piquer de, i.re. 187. s'enorgueillir de ii re. 187&fol. Ll87&fol. to Pride one's self, n.v. s'enorgueillir, ii. re. Priest, n. prUre, m. Prince, n. prince, m. Princess, n. princesse, f. Principally, adv. principal ement . Principle, n. principe, m. to Print, a.v. imprinter, i. Prison, n. prison, f. Prisoner, n. prisonnier, m. prisonniere, f. — Prisoner at the bar, accuse, m. accusee, f. Privation, n. privation, f. Privilege, n. privilege, m. Prize, n. prix, m. Probable, adj. probable, 64. Probably, adv. probablement. PR PU Problem, n. probleme, m. Procession, n. procession, f. to Proclaim, a.v. proclamer, i. to Procure, a.v. procurer j. (for one's self) se procurer, i.re. 187. Prodigal, adj. prodigue, 64. to Produce, a.v. produire, iv.irr. 300. Produce, n. produit, m. revenu, m. Product, n. production, f. produit, m. Production, n. production^ f. fruit, m. Professor, n. professeur, m. Profit, n. profit, m. Profitable, adj. profitable, 64. Profitably, adv. d?une maniere avantageuse ; avantageusement. Profound, adj. profond, e, 65. to Prohibit, a.v. defendre, iv. Project, n. projet, m. to Project, a.v. projeter, i*15. — to Project, (to gush out, to protrude) saillir,\\. irr .235,236. Promise, n. promesse, f. to Promise, a.v. promettre, iv.irr. 343. to Promote, a.v. avancer, i. 13. augmenter, i. fairefieurir, iv.irr. 323. Promotion, n. promotion, f. Pronoun, n. pronom, m. to Pronounce, a.v. prononcer, i. 13. Pronunciation, n. prononciation, f. Proof, n.preuve, f. (of a print) epreuve, f» to Propagate, a.v. propager, i. 14. Propensity, n. inclination, f. Property, n. propriete, f. Prophet, n. prophete, m. to Propose, a.v. proposer, i. Proposition, n. proposition, f. Prose, n. prose, f. Proselyte, n. proselyte,m.&cf. Prospect, n. perspective, f. to Prosper, n.v. prosperer, i. 16. Prosperous, adj. prosper e, 64. to Protect, a.v. proteger, i. 14, 16. Protection, n. protection, f. Protector, n. protecteur, m. protectrice, f. Proud, adj. orgueilleux, se, 68. to Prove, a.v. (by argument or fact) prouver,u to Prove, a.v. (to experience) eprouver, i» toProvide,n.v.pour»oir,iii.irr.259.yiwrm'r,ii. — to Provide for, pourvoir d, fournir d. Provided, adj. pourvu, e, 65. Provided that, conj. pourvu que, 109. Province, n. province, f. Provision, n. provision, f. Provocation, n. provocation, f. Prudence, n. prudence, f. VOCABULARY. 467 PR RA Prudent, adj. prudent, e, 65. Prussia, prop.n. Prime, f. 492, 506. Public, adj. public, que, 72. Public, n. public, m. Publication, n. publication, f. to Publish, a.v. publier, i. Publisher, n. editeur, m. Puerile, adj. pueri£, e, 65. Punctual, adj. ponctuel, le, 66 ; exact, e, 65. Punctuality, n. ponctualite, f. Punctually, adv. ponctuellement. to Punish, a.v. punir, ii. 'P\inishment,n.punition ) f.peine,f.chatiment,m, Pupil, n. (of the eye) prunelle, f. (a student) Purchase, n. acAat, m. [e7e\ue, m.&f. Pure, adj. pur, e, 65. Purse, n. bourse, f. to Pursue, a.v. poursuivre, iv. irr. 363. Pursuit, n. pour suite, f to Push, a.v. pousser, i. to Put, a.v. mettrt, iv.irr. 343. a au Cluadruped, n. quadrupede, m. Quality, n. qualite, f. Quantity, n. quantite, f. Quarrel, n. querelle, f. [se, 69, 4th. Quarrellous, Quarrelsome, adj. querelleur, Quarter, n. quartier,m.— Quarter of an hour, Queen, n. reine, f. [quart d'heure. to Quench, a.v. ctancher, i. diminuer, i. Question, a. question, f. toQuestion,a.v.(to doubt)revogruer en dou*e,i. Quick, adj. vif, ve, 67. prompt, e, 65. Quick, Quickly, adv. vite, promptement. Quicksilver, n. mercure, m. vif-argent , m. Quiet, adj. tranquille, 64. to Quit, a.v. quitter, i. Quotation, n. citation, f. R RE Rabbit, n. lapin, m. Racine, prop.n. Racine, m. Radical, adj. radical, e, 65. Rage, n. rag-e, f. Raguse, prop.n. Raguse, m. to Raguse, a.n.&v. (to cheat, to betray) ra- guser, i. trahir, ii. tromper, i. deccootr, iii. Rain, n. pluie, f. to Rain, n.v. pleuvoir, iii. irr. 258. Rainbow, n. arc-en-ciel, m. 486. Rainy, adj. pluvieux, se, 68. to Raise, a.v. (to educate) clever, i. 17. (to lift up) lever, i. 17. RA RE Rank, n. rang, m. Rapidity, n. rapidite, f. vitesse, f. Rapport, n. rapport, m. Rare, adj. rare, 64. Rash, adj. inconsidere, e, 65. temerairt, 64. Rather, adv. plutdt. Ravenne, prop.n. (a city) Ravenne, f. to Reach,a.v. atteindre, ix.hr. 308. arriverd,\, to Read, a.v. lire, iv.irr. 341. Reader, n. lecteur,m. Ready, adj.jpref, e, 65. Real, adj. reel, le, 66. Reality, n. realite, f. to Realize, a.v. realiser, i. to Reap, a.v. recolter, i. moissonner, i. to Rear, a.v. Zet>er, i. elever, i. 17. Reason, n. raison, f. — It is or that is the rea- son why, c'est pourquoi, c'esi pour cette raison que. Reasonable, adj. raisonnable, 64. modere,e,65. Reasonably, adv. raisonnablement. to Receive, a.v. recevoir, iii. Recent, adj. recent, e, 65. Recently, adv. recemment. Reception, n. reception, f. Recipiocal, adj. reciproque, 64. Reciprocally, adv. reciproquement. Reciprocity, n. reciprocity, f. to Recite, a.v. reciter, i. to Recommend, a.v. recommender d, i. Reeommendable, adj. recommend able, 64. Recommendation, n. recommendation, f. Record, n. registre, m. histoire, f. to Recover, a.v. recouvrer, i. Red, adj.&n. rouge, m. Re-election, n. reelection, f. to Reflect, a.&n.v. rejlechir, ii. Reflection, n. reflexion, f. Reform, Reformation, n. reforme, f. to Refuse, a.v. refuser, i. Regard, n. egard,m. — in Regard to, d Vcgard de, 757. Regarding, prep, concemant. Regiment, n. regiment, m. Regret, n. regret, m. to Regret, a.v. regretter, i. Regular, adj. re'gulier, e, 65. Regularity, n. regularite, f. Regularly, adv. regulierement. to Regulate, a.v. regler, i. 16. Regulation, n. reglement, m. Reign, n. regne, m. to Reign, n.v. re'gner, i. 16. to Relate, a.v. raconter, i. rapporter, I. 468 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. RE Relation, n. relation, f. (kindred) parent, m. parente, i. ■ — In relation to, par rapport d, d Vegard de. to Relieve, a.v. soulager, i. 14. Religion, n. religion, f. Religious, adj. religieux,se, 68. Reluctance, n. repugnance, f. to Remain, n.v. rester, i. demeurer, i. Remainder, n. reste, m. Remark, n. remarque, f. observation, f. to Remark, a.v. remarquer, i. observer, i. Remarkable, adj. remarquable, 64. Remedy, n. reme.de, m. to Remedy, a. v. remedier d, i. reparer, i. to Remember, a.v. se souvenir de, ii.irr. 238. re. 187. se rappeler, i. 15. re. 187. Rcmi, prop.n. Remi, m. Remote, adj. eloigne, e, 65. recule, e, 65. to Render, a.v. rendre, iv. to Renounce, a.v. renoncer d, i. 13. [nom, m. Renown, n. renommee, f. reputation, f. re- Rent, n. (hire) loytr, m. Rent, n. (income) rente, f. Repast, n. repas, m. to Repeat, a.v. repeter, i. 16. to Replace, (to place again) a.v. replacer, i. 13. (to substitute) remplacer, i. 13. Reply, n. reponse, f. to Reply, a.v. repondre, iv. Report, n. rapport, m. (what is said, or a Repose, n. repos, m. [noise) bruit, m. Reprimand, n. reprimande, f. Reproach, n. reproche, m. to Reproach, a.v. reprocher, i. — To reproach a person of some thing, reprocher une chose d une personne. — To reproach one, faire des reproches d quelqu'un. Republic, n. republique, f. [caine, f. Republican, adj.&n. republicain, m. republi- Reputation, n. reputation, f. Request, n. requite, f. to Request, a.v. prier, i. demander, i. — To request a thing of a person, demander une chose dune personne.— To request a person to do a thing, prier une personne, or deman- der d une personne de faire une chose. to Require, a.v. demander, i. See the pre- ceding example, nquerir, ii. 207. Research, n. recherche, t. Reservoir, n. reservoir, in. to Reside, n.v. demeurer, i. Residence, n. residence, f. to Resist, a.v. resistcr d, i. to Resolve, a.v. resoudre, iv.irr. 354. RE RO Respect, n. respect, m. to Respect, a.v. respecter, i. Restitution, n. restitution, f. to Restore, a.v. rendre, iv. (to put in the same state) retablir, ii. [iv.irr.363. to Result, n.v. resulter, i. 205. s'en suivre, Result, n. resultat, m. — To be the result, re- suiter, 205. \sumer, i. to Resume, a.v. reprendre, iv. irr. 353. re- to Return,n.v.(to a distant place) retourner,\. (where the speaker is) revenir, ii. irr.238. Return, n. rctour, m. to Revenge, a.v. venger, i. 14. — To revenge, or to take revenge of an offence, se venger d r un affront, re. 187. Revenge, n. vengeance, f. Revengeful, adj. vengeur, eresse, 69 y 6th exc. vindicatif, ve, 67. to Revere, a.v. reverer, i. 16. Reverence, n. veneration, f. reverence, f. Reverend, adj. reverend, m. Revolt, n. revolte, f. to Revolt, n.v. se revolter, i.re. 187. Revolution, n. revolution, f. Reward, n. recompense, f. to Reward, a.v. recompenser, i. Ribbon, n. ruban, in. Rice, n. Hz, m. Rich, adj. riche, 64. Richard, prop.n. Richard, m. Riches, n. richesse, f. Richly, adv. richement. Ridiculous, adj. ridicule, 64. Right, n. droit, m.— To be right, or to be in the right, avoir raison. Righteous, adj. juste, 64. Rigid, adv. rigide, 64. severe, 64. Rigour, n. rigueur, f. Rigorous, adj. rigoureux, se, 68. Ring, n. bague, f. to Ring, a.v. (a bell) sonner, i. Ripe, adj. wiftr, e, 65. to Rise,n.v. (one's self) s'elever, i.17. re. 187 to Rise, n.v. (to ascend) monter, i. to Rise, n.v. (to fejment) lever, i. 17. Rival, n. rival, aux, m. 30. rivale, f. River, n. riviere, f. to Roast, a.v. rotir, ii. Robber, n. voleur, m. voleuse, f. Robbery, n. vol, m. Robe, n. ro6e, f Robust, adj. robuste, 64. Rock, n. roc, m. rocher, m. rocht, £ Rogue, n. coquin, m. coqfwine, f. VOCABULARY. 469 RO SA Roguish, adj. fripon, ne, 66. espiegle, 64. Roman, adj.&n. Romainy m. Romaine, f. Romance, n. roman, m. Rome, prop.n. Rome, f. [toit, m. Roof,n. (of the mouth) palais,m. (of a house) Room, n. (to lodge in) chambre, f. (space) Root, n. racine, f. [place, f. Rose, n. rose, f. Rose-bush, n. rosier, m. Rose-bud, n. bouton de rose. Rosy, adj. vermeil, le, 66. Roughness, n. rudesse, f. Round, adj. rond, e, 65. to Round, a.v. arrondir, ii. Round, prep, autour de. Rousseau, prop.n. Rousseau, m. to Rub, di.v.frotter, i. Rudder, n. gouvernail, m. Ruin, n. ruine, f. to Ruin, a.v. ruiner, i. perdre, iv. Ruined, adj. perdu, e, 65. Ruinous, adj. ruineux, se, 68. Rule, n. rigle, f. to Rule, a.v. gouverner, i. Ruler, n. chef, m. to Run, n.v. courir, ii.irr.2T3. — To run away, fuir, ii.irr. 222. s'enfuir, ii.irr. 222. re. 187. Russia, prop.n. Russie, f. 492, 506. Russian, adj.&n. Russe, 64. S SA Sabacon, prop.n. Sabacon, m. Sacrifice, n. sacrifice, m. to Sacrifice, a.v. sacrifier, i. Sad, adj. triste, 64. fdcheux, se, 68. Saddle, n. selle, f. Safe, adj. sur, e, 65. Safety, n. shrete, f. to Sail, n.v. /aire voile, iv irr. 323. Sailor, n. matelot, m. marin, m. Saint, adj.&n. saint, m. sainte,f. Saint-Louis, prop.n. Saint-Louis, m. Salad, n. salade, f. Sale,n.T>en*e,f. — To be for sale, etredvendre. Salem, prop.n. Salem, m. Salt, n. sel, m. to Salt, a.v. safer, i. Salvation, n. salui, m. Same,adj.m£me,64.— The same, or the same thing, la mime chose. — The same as, conj. de mime que. — The same, adv. de mime. Sand, n. sable, m. Sand-box, n. sallier, m. 40 SA SE Satisfaction, n. satisfaction, f. Satisfactory, adj. satisfaisant, e, 65. toSatisfy,a.v.*atw/atVe,iv.irr.323.confenter,i. Saturday, n. Samedi, m. Sauce, n. sauce, f. Saucer, n. soucoupe, f. Savage, adj &n. sauvage, 64. to Save, a.v. sauver, i. Saw, n. scie, f. to Saw, a.v. scier, i. Saw, pret. of to see. to Say, a.v. dire, iv.irr. 316. Scale, n. (of an animal) ecaille, f. (to weigh with) balance, f. (a ladder) echelle, f. Scarce, adj. rare, 64. Scarce, Scarcely, adv. rarement, d peine. Scarecrow, n. epouvantail, m. Scholar, n. eleve, m.&f. ecolier, m. ecoliere,f School, n. ecole, f. Science, n. science, f. Scientific, Scientifical, adj. scientifque, 64. Scientifically, adv. scientifiquement. Scissors, n. ciseaux, m. p. to Scold, a.&nv. gronder, i. Scotland, prop.n. Ecosse, f. 492, 506. Screen, n. eci-an, m. [chon, m Screw, n. vis, f. 28. — Cork screw, tire bou- Sea, n. mer, f. Seal, n. cachet, m. sceau, x, m. 30. to Search, a & n.v. examiner, i. chercher, i. Search, n. recherche, f. Season, n. saison, f. — To be in season, itre Seat, n. siege, m. [d temps. to Seat, a.v. asseoir, iii.irr. 242, 243. Second, ord. nu. second, e, 65, 561 & fol. Secret, n. secret, m. [deuxieme. Secretary, n. secretaire, m. Secretly, adv. secretement, en secret. Section, n. section, f. [securite, f. Security, n. (a respondant) caution,f. (safety) to Seduce, a.v. seduire, iv.irr. 300. Seducing, adj. se"duisant, e, 65. to See, a.v. voir, iii.irr. 282. — To see again, revoir, iii.irr. 282. Seed, n. graine , f. semence, f. to Seek, a.v. chercher, i. — To seek after, chercher, i. [irr. 303. to Seem, n.v. sembler, u.v. 166. paraitre, iv. to Seize, a.v. sai9ir, ii. se saisir de, ii.re. 187. Seldom, adv. rarement. Select, Selected, adj. choisi, e, 65. to Select, a.v choisir, ii. Self, adj.&pron. meme ; selves, mimes. 470 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. SE SH to Sell, a.v. vendre, iv. Senate, n. senat, m. to Send, a.v. envoyer, i.irr. 201. — To send for, envoyer chercher, envoyer querir. Seneque, Seneca, prop.n. Seneque, m. Sensation, n. sensation, f. Sense, n. sens, m. Senseless, adj. insensible, 64. Sensibility, n. sensibilite, f. Sensibly, adv. sensiblement . Sensitive, adj. sensible, 64. Sentence, n. sentence, f. to Separate, a.v. separer, i. Separately, adv. separement. Separation, n. separation, f. September, prop.n. Septembre, m, Seraglio, n. serail, m. Sergeant, n. sergent, m. Series, n. serie, f. suite, f. Serious, adj. serieux, se, 68. Sermon, n. sermon, m. Serpent, n. serpent, m. [servante, f. Servant, n. domestique, m.&f. serviteur, m. to Serve, a.&n.v. servir, ii.irr. 237. Service, n. service, m. Serviceable, adj. serviable, 64. Set, n. assortiment , m. to Set, a.v. poser, i. placer, i. 13. etablir, ii. to Set down, a.v. asseoir, iii.irr. 242, 243. to Set out, n.v.partir, ii.irr. 232. Settee, n. sofa, m. to Settle, a.v. (one's concerns) regler, i. 16. Settlement, n. (a place) etablissement,m. (of business) reglement, m. Seven, car.nu. sept. Sevenfold, adv. septfois. Seventeen, card.nu. dix-sept. Seventeenth,ord.nu.&n.dza?-*epfieme,561&fol Seventh, ord.nu.&n. septieme, 561 & fol. Seventieth.. ord.nu.& n. soixante et dixieme, 561 & fol. Seventy, card.nu. soixantt et dix. Several, adj. plusieurs, 43. pp. 320, 321. Severe, adj. severe, 64. Severely, adv. sev&rement ; rudement, to Sew, a.v. coudre, iv.irr. 307. to Shake, a.v. secouer, i. Shame, n. honte, f. Shameful, adj. honteux, se, 68. Share, n. portion, f. part, f. to Share, a.v. partager, i. 14. Sharp, adj. aigu, e, 65. Shaving, n. copeau, x,m. 30. Shawl, n. chale, m. SH SI She, per.pro. elle, f. 87, 88, 426, 427. to Shear, a.v. tondre, iv. to Shed, a.v. repandre, iv. verser, i. Sheep, n. brebis, f. Sheet, n. (for a bed) drop, m. (of paper, or of any other thing) feuille, f. Shelf, tablette, f. Shell, n. coquille, f. Shelter, n. abri, m. Shelves, p.n. tablettes, f.p. Sheriff, n. sherif, m. to Shine, n.v. briller, i. luire, iv.irr. 370. Ship, n. b&timent, m. vaisseau, x, m. 30. Shire, n. comte, m. — Shire-town, chef-lieu, m. Shoe, n. Soulier, m. [484. Shop, n. boutique, f. Shore, n. cdte, f. rivage, m. Short, adj. court, e, 65. to Shorten, a.v. accourcir, ii. Should, when changeable into ought, is rendered by devoir, 248. Shoulder, n. epaule, f. Shovel, n. pelle, f. to Show, a.v. montrer,u f aire voir, iv.irr.323. Shower, n. ondee, f. pluie, f. averse, f. to Shut, a.v. fermer, i. Sick, adj.&n. malade, m.&f. Sickness, n. maladie, f. Side, n. cdte, m. — Side-walk, n. trottoir, m. Sigh, n. soupir, m. to Sigh, n.v. soupirer, i. Sight, n. vue, f. Sign, n. (a gesture, or mark) signe, m. (a to Sign, a.v. signer, i. fmark) marque, f. Signature, n. signature, f. Signification, n. signification, f. to Signify, a.v.&n. signifier, i. Signification, n. signification, f. Silence, n. silence, m. Silent, adj. silencieux, se, 68.— To be silent, itre silencieux, or se taire, iv. irr. 364, 365* Silk, n. soie, f. Silks, p.n. soieries, f.p. Silkworm, n. ver d soie, m. 486. Silver, n. argent, m. Silver-plate ,n.argenterie,f.vaisselle oVargtntf. Similar, adj. pareil, le, 66. semblable, 64. Simple, adj. simple, 64. Simplicity, n. simplicity, f. Simply, adv. simplement. Sin, n. pecke", m. to Sin, n.v. pecker, i. 16. Since, prep, depuis, 739, 740. Since, conj. depuis que, puisque, 739, 740* VOCABULARY. 471 SI SM — Long Since, adv. depuis long-temps. Sincere, adj. sincere, 64. Sincerely, adv. sincirement. Sinful man, — woman, adj. pecheur, m. pe- cheresse, f. mechant, e, 65. to Sing, a.v. chanter, i. Singer, n. chanteur, m. chanteuse, f. Single, adj. seul, e. 65. — A single one, un seul, m. une seule, f. — To be single, (not married) etre gar gun, m. etrefille, f. Sinner, n. pecheur, m. pecheresse, f. Sister, n. sozurj. — Sister-in-law, belle-soeur,f. to Sit, a.v. asseoir, iii.irr. 242, 243. Sitting, n. seance, f. session, f. Situate, adj. situe, e, 65. place,e } 65. sis, e, 65. Situation, n. situation, f. place, f. Six, car.nu. six. Sixteen, car.nu. seize. Sixteenth, ord.nu.&n. seizieme, 561 & fol. Sixth, ord.nu.&n. sixieme, 561 & fol. Sixtieth, ord.nu.&n. soixantieme, 561 & fol. Sixty, car.nu. soixante. Size, n. volume, m. grosseur, f. grandeur, f. (animal size) taille, f. Sketch, n. esquisse, f. ebauche, f. Skilful, adj. (mentally or mechanically) ha- bile, 64. (mechanically) adroit, e, 65. Skilfully, adv. adroitement. Skin, n. peaw, x, f. 30. Skull, n. crhne, m. Sky, n. cieZ, cieux, m. 33 , 5th exc. to Slander, a.v. calomnier, i. Slander, n. calomnie, f. Slanderer,n. calomniateur, m. calomniatrice, f. Slaughter, n. carnage, m. to Slaughter, a.v. twer, i. massacrer, i. Slave, n. esclave, m.&f. Slavery, n. esclavage, m. Sleep, n. sommeil, in. to Sleep, n.v. reposer, i. dormir, ii.irr. 216. Sleepy, adj. assoupi, e, 65. Sleeve, n. manche, f. Slight, adj. (in size) petit, e, 65, 75. (feeble) faible, 64. Slight, n. mepris, m. dedain, m. to Slight, a.v. mepriser, i. ne pas f aire cas de, iv.irr. 323. Slightly, adv. faiblement, pen, legerement. Slow, adj. Ze?it, e, 65. Slowly, adv. lentement. Slowness, n. lenteur, f. Slumber, n. sommeil, m. Small, adj. petit, e, 65, 76. Smell,n.(the sense) odorat,m. (odour) odeurf. SM SO to Smell, a.v. sentir, ii. irr. 227. Smile, n. souris, m. 28. sourire,m. to Smile, n.v. sourire, iv.irr. 355. Smoke, n.fumee, f. to Smoke, a.&n. v. /wwier, i. Smooth, adj. wii, e, 65. to Smooth, a.v. unir, ii. poKr, ii. Snare, n. piege, m. Snow, n. neige, f. to Snow, n.v. neiger, u.v. 166. Snuffers, p. n. mouchettes, f.p. So, adv.&conj. aira^, aussi, si, le, 112, 169, 176, 608, 657, 713 & fol. So many, adv. autant de. — So very, si, 708. — So as to, comme pour, de maniere u. — So that, conj. de sorte que — So much, tant, tant de, 713 & fol. — And so forth, adv. et cozter a, et ainsi du reste. Sociable, adj. social, e, 65. sociable, 64. doux, Society, n. societe, f. [ce, 68, exc. Soft, adj. mou, mol, m. molle, 70, 71, f. 76. to Soften, a.v. amollir, ii. adoucir, ii. Softly, adv. doucement. Softness, n. mollesse, f. douceur, f. Soil, n. (ground) terrain, m. sol, m. to Soil, a.v. sallir, ii. Soldier, n. soldat, m. Sole, adj. seul, e, 65. Solemn, adj. solemnel, le, 66. Solemnity, n. solemnite, f. Solid, n. solide, m. Solid, adj. solide, 64. Solidity, n. solidite, f. Some, adj. quelque,quelques,42. [442, 443. Some, art.&pro. du, dela, $c. en, 44, 172, Somebody, Some one, pro. quelqu r un, m.quel- qu'une, 438, 442, 443. Something, n. quelque chose, f. 474. Sometimes, adv. quelquefois, tantut, 719. Somewhere, adv. quelque part. — Somewhere else, quelqu* autre part. Son, n. fils, m. — Son-in-law, beau-JUs, m. — Grand-son, petit-fils, m. Song, n. chanson, f. Soon, adv. bicntdt, tot. — So soon, adv. si tdt. — So soon as,aussi tot que. — Soon after, bientot apres. Sooner, adv. plus tdt. Sore, n. mal, maux,m. 33. — Sore eyes, mal aux yeux. — Sore throat, mal a la gorge. Sorrow, n. chagrin, m. Sorry, adj. fache, e, 65. Sort, n. sorte, f. espiee, f. | Soul, n. &7ne, f. 472 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. SO ST Sound, n. (probe) sonde, f. Sound, n. (noise) son, m. Sound, adj. bon, ne, 66. sain, e, 65. — Sound sleep, profond sommeil. Soup, n. soupe, f. Source, n. source, f. South, n. le sud, m. le midi, m. to Sow, a.v. (a field) semer, i. 15. toSow,a.v.(a piece of cloth)c0t«Zre,iv.irr.3O7. Space, n. espace, m. Spade, n. beche, f. Spain, prop.n. Espagne, f. 492, 506. Spanish, adj.&.n. Espagnol, m. Espagnole,f. to Spare, a.v. menager, i. 14. epargner, i. Spark, n. (from fire) etincelle, f. Spatterdashes, n. guetres, f.p. guetre, f.s. to Speak, n.v. parler, i. — To stop speaking, se taire, iv.irr. 364, 365 Special, adj. special, e, 65. particulier, e, 65. Specially, adv. specialement,particulierement, surtout. Spectacle, n. (a show) spectacle, m. Spectacles, n. (to help the sight) lunettes, f.p. lunette, f.s. Spectator, n. spectateur, m. spectatrice, f. to Speculate, n.v. speculer, i. Speculation, n. speculation, f. Speech, n. (a discourse) discours, m. (the faculty of speaking) parole, f. to Spend, a.v.(relating to time) passer, \.; (to property) depenser, i. Sphere, n. sphere, f. Spider, n. araignee, f. to Spill, a.v. repandre, iv. verser, i. Spine, n. (the back bone) opine du dos, f. Spirit, n. esprit, m. Spiritual,adj. spirituel,le, 66. inte!lectuel,le,66. Spit, n. (to roast with) broche. Spite, n. depit, m. — In spite of, prep, jnalgre, en depit de. to Split, a.v. fendre, iv. to Spoil, a.v. goiter, i. Spoon, n. cuiller, f. Sport, n. divertissement, m. to Sport, n.v. s'amuser, i.re.v. 137. Spot, n. (stain) tdche, f. (a place) endroit, m. to Spread, a.v. repandre, iv. Sprig, n. rejeton, m. Spring, n. (season) printemps, m. Spring, n. (elastic power) ressort, m. Spring, n. (of water) source, f. Squall, n. coup de vent, m. to Squeeze, a.v. presser, i. serrer, i. Stable, n. ecurie, f. ST Stalk, n. tige, f.— Stalk of wheat, epi de ble. Standard, n. (a flag) etendard, m. (a thing to go by) regie, f. modele, m. Star, n. (any heavenly body) astre, m. (an apparently small luminous heavenly body, and its representation, also a fish) etoile,f. to Start, n.v. (to tremble) tressaillir, ii. irr. 208. (to set out) partir, ii.irr. 232. State,n. etat, m.— United-States, Etats-ums, Stationary, adj. stationnaire, 64. [m.p. Statue, n. statue, f. Stature, n. stature, £ taille, f. to Stay, n.v. rester, i. to Steal, a.v. voiler, i. Steep, adj. escarpe, e, 65. Steeple, n. docker, m. to Steer, a.v. gouvemer, i. SifF, adj. raide, 64. Still, adv. encore. Stitch, n. point, m. to Stitch, a.v. coudre, iv.irr. 307. Stock, n. provision, f. capital, m. Stocking, n. bas, m. Stomach, n. eslomac, m. Stone, n. pierre, f. Stool, n. tabouret, m. to Stop, a.v. (to prevent going on) arrSter, i. (to suspend) suspendre, iv. — To stop talk- ing or speaking, se taire, iv.irr. 364, 365. to Stopm.v. (one's self) s'arr&er,i.re.v.l87. Store, n. magasin, m. — To have in store, (for the occasion) avoir en reserve. Storm, n. orage, m. tempete, f. Story, n. conte, m. histoire, f. Stove, n. (to warm a room) poile, or poile,m Strange, adj. etrange, 64. Stranger, n. etranger, m. etrangere, f. Straw, n. paille, f. Strawberry, n.fraise, f. Street, n. rue, f. Strength, n. force, f. to Strength, Stengthen, a.v. (to invigorate) fortijier,\. (to make more solid) consolider,i. to Strike, a.v. battre, iv.irr. 292. frapper, i. fdrir, ii.irr. 220. Striking, adj. Jrappant^ e, 65. String > n. cordc, f. to Strive, n.v. s'evertuer d, i. re.v. 187. Strong, adj. fort i e, 65. to Strut, n.v. se cafrrer, i. re.v. 187. Student, n. etudiant, m. Studious, adj. studieux, se, 68. Study, n. etude, f. to Study, a.v. etudier, i. VOCABULARY. 473 ST SU Stuff, n. (cloth) etotfe, f. to Stuff, a.v. (to cram) farcir, ii. lo Stun, a.v. etourdir, ii. Stupid, adj. stupide, 64. lourd, e, 65. Style, n. style, m. Subaltern, a. subalteme, m.&f. [|P*er, i« to Subdue, a.v. soumettre, iv.irr. 343. subju- Subject, n. sujet, m. Subject, adj. soumis, e, 65. sujet, te, 66. to Subject, a.v. subjuguer, i. soumettre, iv.irr. to Subjugate, a.v. subjuguer, i. [343. Sublime, adj. sublime, 64. Submissive, adj. soumis, e, 65. to Submit, a.v. soumettre, iv.irr. 343. to Subscribe, a.v. souscrire a, iv.irr. 321. Subscription, n. souscription, f. Subsecutive, adj. subsequent, e, 65. Subtraction, n soustraction, f. deduction, f. to Succeed, n.v. reussir, ii Succeeding, adj. suivant, e, 65. Success, n. succes, m. Successful, adj. heureux, se, 68. Successively, adv. successivement. Succour, n. secours, m. assistance, f. to Succour, a.v. secourir, ii.irr. 213. assister,\. Such, pro. tel, m. telle, f. — No such thing, rien de tel.— Such zone, un tel, m.une telle, f. 449—451. Sudden, adj. soudain, e, 65. Suddenly, on a sudden, adv. soudainement, tout-d-coup. to Suffer,n.v.(some pain) souffrir, ii.irr. 214. to Suffer, a.v. (to endure) supporter, i. (to allow or permit) permettre, iv. 343. Suffering, n. souffrance, f. to Suffice, n.v. suffire, iv.irr. 361, 362. Sufficient, adj. suffisant, e, 65. — To be suffi- cient for, suffire d, 361, 362. Sugar, n. sucre, m. Sugar-dish, n. sucrier, m. Sugar-plum, n. dragee, f. [sons) suite, f. Suit, n. (of things) assortiment, m. (of per- Suit at law, in law, n. proces, m. to Suit, a.&n.v. (to be suitable) convenir, ii. irr. 238. seoir, iii.irr. 273, 274. Sum, n. somme, f. — To make sums, (in arith- metic) /aire des rdgles, iv.irr. 323. Summer, n. ete, m. Summit, n. sommet, m. Sun, n. soleil, m. Sunday, prop.n. Dimanche, m. Sunset, coucher du soleil, m. to Sup, n.v. souper, i. 40* SU TA Superfluity, n. superfluite, f. Superfluous, adj. superjlu, e, 65. Superior, adj.&n. superieur, m.superieure, i Superiority, n. superiorite, f. Supper, n. soupe, m. souper, m. Supply, n. secours, m. to Supply, BL.v.fournir, ii. — To supply one with something, fournir quelque chose d Support, n. soutien, m. [quelqu'un. to Support, a.v. soutenir, ii.irr. 238. to Suppose, a.v. supposer, i. Suppose that, conj. suppose que, 109. Supreme, adj. supreme, 64. Sure, adj. siir, e, 65. certain, e, 65. Surgeon, n. chirurgien, m. Surgery, n. chirurgie, f. [irr. 368. to Surmount, a.v. surmonter, i. vaincre, iv. to Surprise, a.v. surprendre, iv.irr. 353. Surprising, adj. etonnant, e, 65. surprenant, c, 65. to Surround, a.v. cntourer, i. envtronner, l. Susceptibility., n. susceptibilite, f. Susceptible, adj. susceptible, 64. Suspect, adj. suspect, e, 65. to Suspect, a.v. soupgonner, i. Suspicion, n. soupgon, m. Suspicious, adj. soupgoneux, se, 68. to Sustain, a.v. soutenir, ii. irr. 238. to Sweep, a.v. balayer, i. 18. Sweet, adj. doux, ce, 68, exc. to Sweeten, a.v. adoucir, ii. — To sweeten (with sugar) one's tea or coffee, sucrer son the ou son cafe. Sweetmeat, n. confitures, f.p. sucreries, f.p. to Swim, n.v. nager, i. 14. Swoon, n. evanouissement, m. syncope, f. to Swoon, n.v. s'evanouir, ii. re. v. 187. Sword, ii. epee, f. — Small sword, n. epee, f. — Broad sword, n. sabre, m. Syllable, n. syllabe, f. Sympathy, n. sympathie, f. Syracuse, prop.n. Syracuse, f. System, n. systeme, m. T TA Table, n. table, f. to Take, a,v. prendre, iv.irr. 353. — To take some one to a place, mener quelqu'un d un endroit. — To take place, (to happen) avoir lieu. — To take offence at a thing, se /richer d^une chose, re. 187 — To take cold, s'enrhumer, i.re. 187. Tale, n. conte, m. 474 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. TA TH Talent, n. talent, m. to Talk, n.v. parler, i. — To stop talking, se taire, iv.irr. 364, 365. Talk, n. entretien, m. conversation, f. Tall, adj. grand, e, 65, 76, 78. haut, e, 65. Tame, adj. apprivoise\ e, 65. doux, ce, 68,exc. Tapestry, n. tapisserie, f. to Tarnish, a. v. temir, ii. to Tarry,n.v.se;oMrwer,i. resterj.. demeurer,i. Tart, n. tarte, f. — Small tart, n. tartelette, f. Task, n. tache, f. Taste, n. gotit, m. to Taste, a.&n.v. goiiter, i. Tax, n. taxe, f. impdt, m. to Tax, a.v. taxer, i. Tea, n. the, m. Tea-pot, n. theiere, f. to Teach, a.v. enseigner, i. Teacher, n. precepteur, m. instructeur, m. maltre, m. maltresse, f. Tear, n. larme, f. to Tear, a.v. dechirer, i. to Tease, a.v. tourmenter, i. Tedious, adj. ennuyant, e, 65. Teeth.,n. (plural of tooth) dents, f.p. a*enf,f.s. to Tell, a.v. dire, iv.irr. 316 & fol. Temper, n. (relating to persons) tempera- ment, m. humeur, f. Temperance, n. temperance, f. Tempest, n. tempete, f. Temple, n. temple, m. to Tempt, a.v. tenter, i. Temptation, n. ientation, f. Ten, car.nu. owe. Tenant, n. (of a house) locataire, m.&f. Tender, adj. tendre, 64. Tenderly, adv. tendrement. Tenderness, n. tendresse, f. Tenth, ord.nu.&n. dixieme, 561 & fol. Term, n. terme, m. to Terminate, a.v. terminer, i. Terrestrial, adj. terrestre, 64. Terrible, adj. terrible, 64. Territory, n. territoire, m. Terror, n. terreur, f. Tester, n. (of abed) del de lit,m. 33, 5th exc. to Testify, a.&n.v. temoigner, i. attester, i. Testimonial, n. pretive, f. certificat, m. Testimony, n. temoignage, m. Tete-a-tete, n. tete-a-tete, m. 487. Text, n. texte, m. Than, conj. que, de, 103, 113, 114. to Thank, a.v. remercier, i. Thankful, adj. reconnaissant, e, 65. TH Thanks, p.n. graces, f.p. remerclments, m.p. That, demonst.adj. ce, m.s. cet,m.s. ce££e,f.s. 55, 382 & fol. That, demonst.pro. celui, m.s. ce/Ze, f.s. ceJa, 382, 383 & fol. 418 & fol. That, rel. pro. qui, m.&f. ger£w, f. Virtuous, adj. Tyeriwewx, se, 68. Visit, n. insfte, f. to Visit, a.v. visiter, i. Viz. adv. savoir. Vocabulary, n. vocabulaire, m. Voice, n. voix, f. Volatile, adj. volatil, e, 65. Volume, n. volume, m. tome, m. Voluntary, adj. volontaire, 64. Vole, n. xjoix, f. suffrage, m. to Vote, a.&n.v. -poter, i. choisir, ii. 478 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. W WE Waistcoat, n. giht, m. to Wait, a.&n.v. attentive, iv. — To wait for one, attentive quelqu'un. Walk, n. (for pleasure) pvomenatie, f. (for business) couvse, f. (travelling) mavche, f. to Walk, n.v. (for pleasure) sepvomenev, i.17. refl. 187. (not for pleasure) mavchev, i. — to Walk five or ten miles, faive cinq ou dix milles, iv.irr. 323. Wall, n. muv, m. muvaille, f. to Waltz, n.v. valsev, i. Walnut, n. noix, f. Want, n. besoin, m. — For want of,faute tie. to Want, a.&n.v. falloiv, iii.irr. 253 & fol. (to desire) desivev, i. demandev, i. War, n. guevve, f. Warehouse, n. magasin, m. Ware-wolf, n. loup-gavou, m. 481. Warm, adj. chaud, e, 65. — To be warm, (re- lating to the feeling of persons) avoiv chaud, 669. to Warm, a.v. chauffev, i. Warmness, Warmth, n. chaleuv, f. to Warn, a.v. avevtiv, ii. Warning, n. avis, m. avevtissement, m. — To give warning, avevtiv, ii. to Warrant, a.v. gavantiv, ii. to Wash, a.v. lavev, i. Washerwoman, n. blanchisseuse, f. Washing, n. blanchissage, m. Washington, prop.n. Washington, m. to Waste, a.v. tietvuive, iv. irr. 300 ; pvotii- guev, i. Watch, (pocket clock) n. montve, f. (guard) gavtie, f. guet, m. to Watch, a.v. gavtiev, i. veillev, i. Watchful, adj. vigilent, e, 65. Water, n. eau, x, f. 30. to Water, (plants, or the ground) a.v. avvo- sev, i. Wave, n. vague, f. lame, f. Wax, n. cive, f. Way, n. (road) chemin, m. — This way, adv. pav id. — That way, adv. pavld. Way, n. (manner) manieve. — In this ov that manner, tie cette manieve. We, per. pro. noun, 87, 90. Weak, adj. faible, 64. to Weaken, a.v. affaibliv, ii. Weakness, n. faiblesse, f. Wealth, n. Men, m. vichesse, f. to Wear, a.v. povtev, i. Wearied, adj. fatigui, e, 65. Weather, n. temps, m. WE WH Wedding, n. noce, f. maviage, m. Wednesday, n. Mevcvedi, m. Week, n. semaine, f. to Weep, a.&n.v. pleuvev, i. Weight, n. poitis, m. Welcome, adj. bien venu, e, 65. to Welcome, a.v. accueilliv, ii.irr. 215. recc- voiv avec bonte, iii. Welfare, n. bien-Stve, m. Well, adv. bien. — As well as, uussi bien que. Well ! exc. eh Men ! tves-bien ! bien ! Well, n. puits, m. Well-bred, adj. Men eleve, e, 65. West, n. Ouest, m. Wet, adj. humitie, 64, 682. Wharf, n. quai, m. What, rel.pro. quoi, cequi, ceque, 418 & fol. What, interr.pro. quel, m.s. quelle, f.s. quels, m.p. quelles, f.p. que, 57, 58, 395 & fol. What, interj. quoi ! — What a noise ! quel bvuit I or que tie bruit '. Whatever, pro. quelque, tout ce qui, tout ce que, 458, 459, 536, 537. Whatever, ov Whatsoever,conj.yitoi9we,109, Wheat, n. ble, m. [456. Wheel, n. voue, f. When, adv. lovsque, quanti. Whence, adv. d'ou. Whenever, adv. toutes lesfois que. Where, adv. ou. — Any where, en quelque endvoit que ce soit. — Every where, pavtout. Wherefore, adv. c'est pouvquoi. Wherever, adv. pavtout ou. Whether, conj. si, 773. Which, rel.&inter.pro. que, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelhs, 395 & fol. 407 & fol. 601 &fol. Which, interr.adj. quel, quelle, quels, quelles, 57, 58, 601 & fol. Whilst, adv. tantiis que, pendant que. Whip, n.fouet, m. to Whip, a..v.fouettev, i. Whisker, n.favovi, m. Whiskered, adj. dfavovis. White, adj. blanc, eke, 72. to Whiten, a.v. blanchiv, ii. Whiteness, n. blancheuv, f. Who, rel.&interr.pro. qui, que, lequel, la- quelle, lesquels, lesquelles, 407&fol.601&fol. Whoever, pro. qui que ce soit qui or que, quiconque, 455 & fol. Whole, n. tout, m. — Upon the whole, apvis tout. Wholesome, adj. sain, e, 65. f VOCABULARY. 479 WH WO I Whom, rel.&interr.pro. qui, que, lequel, la- quelle, lesquels, lesquelles, 407&fol.601&fol. Whomsoever, pro. quiconque, qui que ce soit que, 455 &. fol. Whose, rel.pro. dont ; de qui ; duquel de la- quelle, desquels, desquelles, 407 &c foil. 601 & foil. Why, adv. pourquoi ; que, 779. Wicked, adj. mechant, e, 65. Wicked, n. mechant, m. Wickedness, n. mechancete, f. Wide, adj. large, 64, 554. to Widen, a. v. elargir, ii. Widow, n. veuve, f. Width, n. largeur, f. Wife, n. epouse, f. femme, f. Will, n. volonte, f. Will, (last) n. testament, m. to Will,a.v. vouloir, iii. irr.277 & foil.— To be willing, vouloir, iii. irr. 277 & foil. Willingly, adv. volontiers. to Win, a.v. gagner, i. remporter, i. se con- cilier, i. refl. 187. Wind, n. vent, m. Windmill, n. moulin d vent, m. Window, n.fenetre, f. Windy, adj. venteux, se, 6& — To be windy, faire du vent, 682. Wine, n vin, m. Wing, n. axle, f. Winning,adj. attrayant,e, 65. charmant,e,65. Winter, n. hiver, m. Wisdom, n. sagesse, f. Wise, adj. sage, 64. Wise, n. sage, m. Wisely, adv. sagement. Wish, n. desir, m. souhait, m. to Wish, a.v. desir er, i. souhaiter, l. — To wish for something, disirer quelque chose, 679. Wit, n. esprit, m. With, prep, avec, 124. Within, prep. dans. Without, prep. sans. Witness, n. temoin, m. Witticism, n. bon-mot, m. 481. Witty, adj. spirituel, le, 66. Wo, interj. malheur d .' Wolf, n. loup, m. louve, f. Woman, n. femme, f. Women, y.xi.femmes, f.p. Wonder, n.v. merveille, f. to Wonder, n.v. 6tre etonne, e, 131. Wonderful, adj. etonnantj e, 65. WO YE Wonderfully, adv. admirablement. Wood, n. bois, m. Wooden, adj. de bois* Wool, n. laine, f. Woollen, adj. de laine,— Woollen cloth, n. drap, m. Word, n. mot, m. parole, f. Work, n. auvre, f. ouvrage, m. travail, aux, m. 33 3d exc. to Work, n.v. travailler, i. Workman, n. ouvrier^ m. Workwoman, n. ouvricre, f. Workshop, n. atelier, m. World, n. monde, m. Worn out, adj. use, e, 65. Worse, adj. pire, 64, pfats mauvais, e, 66, exc. 115. Worship, n. culte, m. adoration, f. to Worship, a.v. adorer, i. Worst, adj. Ze, Za pire, le plus mauvais, le plus mediant, 118, 652, 653. Worth, n. prix, m. Worth, adj. digne de, 64. — To be worth, va- loir, iii.irr. 277 & fol. Worthy, adj. digne, digne de, 64. Wound, n. blessure, f, to Wound, a.v. blesser, i. Wrist, n. poignet, m. to Write, a.&.n.v. ecrire, iv.irr. 321. Writing, n. (composition) ecrit, (hand-writ- ing) ecriture, f. Wrong, adi.faux, sse, 68, exc. — Wrong side outward, d Penvers. Wrong, n. tort, m. — To be wrong, (in the sense of being mistaken) se tromper, i.refl. 187. (in the sense of being in fault) avoir tort. Wrong, adv. mal, d tort. Xerophagy, n. xerophagie, f. Y YE Yard, n. (place adjoining a house) cour, f. Yard, n. (measure) verge, f. Year, n. an, m. annee, f. [an implying only epoch, and annee implying duration]. Yellow, adj.&n. jaune, m. Yes, adv. out. Yesterday, adv. Her. — Yesterday evening, hier an soir. — Yesterday morning, hier matin. — The day before yesterday, avant hier. Yet, conj. cependant. 480 FRENCH PRACTICAL TEACHER. YE YO Yet, adv. encore. to YieId,a.v.(to produce) produire, iv,irr.300. to Yield, a.v. (to concede) cider , i. 10, You, pei. pro. vous, 84, 87, 88,169 & fol. Young, adj. jeune^ 64. Scour, poss.adj. votre, vos, 51, 85, 782. Yours, poss.pro. le vdtre, lavdtre, lesvdtres, 374, 379, 380. Yourself, per.pro. i'0Ms-w£me,86,19O.m.&f.s. YO ZO £$0*?- Yourselves, per.pro. vous-mimes, m & f. p. 86, 190. Youth, n. (young age) jeunesse, f. (young folks) jeunes gens, m. Zeal, n. tele, m. Zealous, a