* AN • AMERICAN H I STORY w RIGGS w Copyright}! COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; AN AMERICAN HISTORY The^V>^> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO AN AMERICAN HISTORY BY ELEANOR E. RIGGS, M.A. VICE-PRINCIPAL OF THE SOPHIE B. WRIGHT HIGH SCHOOL NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA Nefo got* THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved £*/; Copyright, 1916, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1916. ii: 00 Norfajocti iPress J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. FEB 10 1316' ©AA418763 ./ > PREFACE The history of the United States is unique in that it relates definitely to the growth of the American nation, and to the ability of this people to subdue and control the forces of natural environment. It is not a chronicle of the political and military development of a country. For this reason, it has been necessary to note specifically in this text the forces that have brought into existence this new nation. These forces are: First, the many nationalities that have helped to form this composite people; second, the European influences that have molded a tolerant and liberal-minded state; and third, the adjustment of old- world civilization upon new-world environment. To this end, we find that the study of American history must include : First, the land itself ; second, the relation of the European background to American history ; third, the adjustment of ideals of religion, government, education, and industry to a primitive country ; and fourth, the rela- tions of this country in international questions. Both economic and social forces have been more active in the growth of the American people than either conquest or militarism. Hence, the study of American history re- fers to these interests more than to wars or intrigues. The faith of the American people has been unbounded, and a study of their history must include a survey of that faith which has caused them to remove mountains that they might control the possibilities of their lands and oceans ; a faith that has caused them to uncover the wealth VI PREFACE of their mines ; a faith that believes that their deserts may be converted into pleasant gardens. Because each epoch in American history is fraught with events whose causes and effects definitely bear upon the development of our national life, it is difficult to compress into an average textbook the entire history without omit- ting interesting details that seemingly have a pertinent value, but whose relation to the whole is not necessary to the continuity of subject matter. For instance, picturesque stories of the early pioneers give dramatic interest and are valuable in that they reflect the struggles and hardships of the people to possess the land, and their self-sacrifice seems worthy of note ; but space will not permit extensive biog- raphy. There are, however, biographical studies in print that serve as supplementary references. Quotations from song and story are helpful also in vivifying certain events, but these too must, perforce, be limited. In the preparation of this text the author has endeavored to arrange the work so as to secure a consecutive story of the United States history. The subject matter has been organized into chapters and accompanying these are black- board outlines for convenient study. Topical questions and important facts are also given at the end of each chapter. Brief reference lists have been suggested. The text has been composed with the idea of grading the sub- ject matter so that it will meet the development of the students. ELEANOR E. RIGGS. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. Our Country II. A New Route to the Indies III. The Work of France IV. The English Explorations V. New England Colonies . VI. The Middle Colonies VII. The Struggle for Supremacy VIII. Social and Economic Conditions Revolution IX. The American Revolution X. The Revolution Begins XI. National Difficulties XII. The New Government XIII. Jeffersonian Democracy XIV. The War of 1812 XV. The Era of Good Feeling XVI. An Era of Industrial Change XVII. The National Republicans a: Democrats .... XVIII. National Development . XIX. The Texas Revolution . XX. States 1 Rights a National Issue XXI. A New Confederacy XXII. The War between the States XXIII. Conditions in the South at the War XXIV. Reconstruction XXV. Grant's Second Administration BEFORE Close of acksoniax THE I 40 53 79 98 113 130 150 166 205 215 228 238 250 261 271 292 3°3 315 333 343 390 397 409 Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXVI. The New Era . . 419 XXVII. National Problems 429 XXVIII. An Era of Expansion 435 XXIX. New Plans 449 XXX. Strength of the American Nation . . . 463 XXXI. A Century of Inventions 473 XXXII. An Era of Expositions 482 APPENDIX 487 INDEX 511 COLOR MAPS TO FACE PAGE Early Distribution of Indian Tribes ...... 4 Medieval Trade Routes 5 North America before the French and Indian War . . . 113 North America after the French and Indian War. . . -130 The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution . . . .166 The Purchase of Louisiana 230 The United States 435 LIST OF MAPS IN TEXT PAGE Relief Map of the United States 3 Toscanelli's Map .......... 22 Columbian Voyages ......... 28 Spanish Explorations ........ 32 Line of Demarcation ......... 37 French Explorations ......... 41 Roanoke Island and Chesapeake Bay ...... 60 Charter of 1606 .......... 63 Map of Hartford in the Seventeenth Century .... 86 Maryland Settlements 104 Scene of the Last French War 117 Quebec (1774) 162 Boston and Vicinity . . . . . . . . .170 The Expedition to Canada and Washington's Line of March to New York 172 The New York Campaign . . . . . . . 177 Campaigns of 1777 in Northern New York . . . . .182 The Revolution in the North 184 The Western Country and the Route of George Rogers Clark . 196 The Routes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .... 234 The Canadian Frontier ........ 242 New Orleans and Vicinity 245 Florida Boundary in 181 8 253 Missouri^Compromise ......... 255 The Mexican Campaign ........ 306 The Compromise of 1850 . . . . . . . . 320 Kansas and Nebraska (1854) 325 Charleston Harbor ......... 338 The Confederacy, May 1, 1861 343 The Blockade of the Southern Coast 351 The Lower Mississippi, showing the Campaign around Vicks- burg ........... 360 The Peninsular Campaign ........ 366 xi x ii LIST OF MAPS IN TEXT PAGE Gettysburg Battlefield — Last Day 374 Sherman's March 3 ° 2 Virginia Campaigns, 1862- 1865 3 4 The Philippine Islands 439 The Santiago Campaign 44* AN AMERICAN HISTORY AN AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I OUR COUNTRY Location. — The United States occupies a central posi- tion among the countries of the world. To the north stretch the limits of Canada; on the east is the Atlantic Ocean, an open waterway to Europe ; at the south are Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico ; and, on the west, the wide Pacific extending to the Orient. While our country has the natural advantages of a central location, the vast oceans give it a certain independence and general freedom from the petty and incessant political and commercial struggles of both Europe and Asia. The wide stretches of sea water on the eastern and western shores were among the causes that led to the independent national life of the American people, and gave them security against easy invasion. When Columbus and the explorers of his day set sail from Europe to seek a western water route to the Indies, they had no expectation of discovering a new continent. They believed that the Atlantic Ocean probably extended to China and India, and, while they were prepared to meet new and unusual people in strange surroundings, they were not anticipating the discovery of a new world, peopled with an unknown race, and the knowledge that another ocean lay between this land and the far East. For many years the real extent of the United States AMERICAN HISTORY AMERICAN INDIANS Origin. — When the first Europeans came to the New World, they found a strange race of people living in this country who were unlike any people they had ever seen. Columbus called these people Indians because he thought that he had reached the islands off the shores of India. The Indians knew little of their own origin ; they had no written records, and the few traditions that they possessed were highly fanciful. They were an imaginative people who had many beautiful legends concerning the animals and plants about them, but there was little of reality about these stories, and to many of the Europeans they seemed vain and foolish. It is believed that the Indians were perhaps related to the Malay tribes who inhabit the islands of the Pacific, and that centuries ago they drifted in their little boats from one island to another until they reached the main- land. Or, perhaps, they were related to some of the Asiatic people and many years ago made their way across the Aleu- tian Islands and down the Pacific coast, slowly migrating by tribes into the southern and eastern districts of America. Distribution. — Whatever may have been their origin, tribes of Indians were scattered all over North and South America. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Peruvian Indians of South America had attained an advanced civilization that was far above that of the barbarous and savage In- dians of North America. These people had cities containing large temples and palaces. They cultivated the soil and practiced the art of mining and the use of metals. They were skilled in weaving cloth and making beautiful pottery. They had a regular form of government and a well-defined language. The remains of their palaces and temples show that their architecture was massive and that they must have understood the use of many tools. The Natchez OUR COUNTRY Indians, of the Mississippi Valley, were the most highly civilized of the natives found in North America. Like the Aztecs, they understood the art of building. They also had a regular form of government. There were numerous tribes of Indians that were found in this country, but the most important were the Algonquins, who were scattered by families from Labrador to Virginia. The Nar- ragansetts of New Eng- land and the Powhatans of Virginia were of this group. In New York lived the famous Iro- quois, who were com- posed of five nations. South of the Ohio were the Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Semi- noles. On the gulf coast the Choctaws and the Mobilians were found. West of the Mississippi were innumerable tribes, the chief of whom were the Sioux, the Dakotas, and the Shoshones. On the Pacific coast lived the Modocs, the Klamaths, and many others. Appearance. — The Indians, as a race, have been called the Red Men, because many of them had dark reddish brown or copper-colored complexions. There were found in some of the tribes, however, natives who were almost black and others who were fair in appearance. They in- variably had long, straight, black hair, black eyes, and high cheek bones. Their expression was serious and they were An American Indian. AMERICAN HISTORY dignified and reserved in manner. With strangers they appeared shy and talked but little. Many of the men were tall, slender, and erect in form, although there were types who were low and stocky in stature. The women were generally stouter than the men. Mode of Life. — The Indians lived in families and these in turn, through certain relationships, formed tribes. Sometimes, for pro- ' 7 ^i ; »5£^ tection, a group of ^^^^^^%u:Mm4. tribes would or s an - ize a confederacy. The tribe was gov- erned by a council of the elders who elected a sachem, or chief, and a medi- cine man, or priest. Indian boys were carefully reared in order that they might become strong warriors. When they were still infants, care was taken to mas- sage them regularly with bear's grease so that their mus- cles would be well developed and supple. They were not allowed to stand alone until they were quite strong. When boys and girls had reached the age of three years they both were taught to swim. As the boys grew older they were taught to make their own weapons and to hunt and fish; the girls were taught to prepare the food. An Indian Town. OUR COUNTRY 7 The Indians had no regular occupations, but simply lived an idle, free existence, securing sufficient food to support them and learning the art of war for defense. They were well acquainted with the habits of all the birds and animals in the forests and knew the medicinal value of certain plants and trees that grew about them. They were much impressed with some of the things that the Europeans brought to this country, but they were not prone to give up their mode of life for the new ideas. They believed that the land belonged to every one, and they could not understand the white man's custom of individual ownership of land. This brought on many conflicts between the two races. We are told that they were often kind and considerate in their manner toward the Europeans, and that it was largely through their hospitality that many of the early settlers were saved from starvation. Food. — The food of the Indians was simple and easily prepared. If they killed a deer or buffalo, they skinned the animal and cut up and distributed the meat among the tribe. The flesh was then roasted over the fire and eaten with parched corn. If there was more meat than could be used at one time, the remainder was stripped and dried. Later, when it was needed, it was pounded into small bits, then mixed with cornmeal and bear's fat and made into balls that were wrapped in corn shucks and baked in hot ashes. Maize, or Indian corn, was the chief article of food. It grew all over the country, and the Indians always laid by a supply of this cereal for winter use. It was said that they could exist for days on no other food but a little parched corn and water. They were very fond of fish, and frequently caught them in nets made of grasses. Sometimes they would harpoon a fish by striking it from the bank of a stream. The Southern Indians usually cooked the fish, after cleaning it, by wrapping it in bay leaves and then covering this with S . AMERICAN HISTORY soft clay, after which they placed it on a bed of hot coals to bake. When it was done, the covering was removed and the fish was found to be deliciously tender with all the juices perfectly retained. Clothing. — The clothing of the Indians was very meager. The women wore short skirts of skin or coarsely woven cloth, and the men wore scanty garments of skin ; usually their limbs and chests were exposed. Sometimes for pro- tection they wore soft skin shoes called moccasins. On formal occasions the chief of a tribe would wear a large skin mantle, but as a rule, the only distinguishing mark between the chief and his braves was the number of feathers that he wore in his headdress. When the Indians went to war, they painted their faces so as to appear as hideous as possible and thus frighten their enemy. Houses. — For the most part the Indians lived in wig- wams made of light poles that were covered with skins. These tents could be taken down quickly and removed easily from place to place. In some localities the Indians made huts of sun-dried bricks as did the Mandan Indians of Dakota, and the Natchez in the Mississippi Valley. The Iroquois of New York constructed what was called the long house, in which a number of rooms were arranged so that several families could be accommodated. This was built as a means of protection. Warfare. — The Indians were quick to resent an injury and to avenge any wrong to themselves or their tribe. There were many occasions of petty differences among the tribes so that the Indians were always, in a sense, prepared for war. Their weapons consisted of a bow and arrow and a tomahawk ; the tomahawk was a short-handled stone hatchet. Sometimes they used clubs made from the heavy roots of trees. They were very often cruel to their war captives and tortured their enemies. When they carried on warfare against the whites they frequently made a mid- OUR COUNTRY q night attack which usually resulted in the massacre of all their victims. As they, in time, became friendly with the Europeans, the Indians often became allies of their white neighbors, and assisted them in their attacks on other nations. The his- tory of America is replete with instances of their warfare. Religion. — The religion of the Indians was filled with strange superstitions. They believed in good and evil spirits and attributed their misfortunes in war, their bodily ailments, and Weapons of War ' failures of their crops to the evil spirits. In order to ap- pease the wrath of these unfriendly forces, they would often do many queer and unreasonable things. Their re- ligious service consisted of solemn dances that were executed by the priests and their attendants. All the movements were symbolical. The dancers often became exhausted by the strenuous exercise. The Indians believed in the immortality of the soul. They pictured that after death they would take up their new life in a fair and " happy hunting ground " where there were no enemies, no famine, and no distress ; however, they fancied that the future existence would be similar to this one and that they should possibly need many things used in this life. In order to meet these needs it was cus- tomary to inter with the dead his weapons, his favorite dog, and other things that had been his cherished posses- sions. Their faith made them realize the virtue of justice and the knowledge of right and wrong in dealing with each other. They were singularly honest in their exchange with each other and were truthful in their statements. To the IO AMERICAN HISTORY Europeans they seemed a strange and childlike people and were often misunderstood and abused. When the Indians discovered that an advantage had been taken of them they became suspicious and revengeful. Arts and Crafts. — The Indians were skilled in the arts of basketry and pottery. Their designs were simple and conventional in form, and their colors were dull, but An Indian Dance. beautiful and harmonious in arrangement. They used grasses and split reed canes for their baskets and made their dyes from leaves and bark of trees. Sometimes they lined and covered their baskets with clay, thus making them water-tight. Among their most interesting inven- tions were snowshoes, with which they could make long journeys over the heavy snows. Money. — Their money consisted of polished sea shells that were strung like beads. This was called wampum and was used in exchange for many things. Certain shells OUR COUNTRY II were very highly prized and sometimes the Indians make long journeys to the seaside to secure them, turquoise was valued by the Indians of New Mexico and used as a medium of exchange. When the Europeans saw the delight of the savages in these things, they brought over many bright- colored beads and trinkets, and these served as a means of securing trade with the Indians. Later European blankets and goods attracted the In- dians, and these were readily taken in exchange for furs. would The THE NORSEMEN Indian Money. Early Norse Explorations. — Far away toward the north there is a little island in the Atlantic that is called Iceland. It is very small indeed, but it has an interesting history and is the home of a wide-awake, pro- gressive people. The first white people who visited North America came from Iceland, and the story of their coming is as follows : In the ninth century, when Harold Fairhair became the king of Norway, a great political revolution took place in opposition to his rule. Many of the nobles of Norway left the country and went to different parts of Europe, and a number sailed to Iceland and made this their home. This latter settlement proved successful, and, as conditions were agreeable, other Norsemen came to Ice- land and formed permanent settlements. Their history of this time is more or less vague and is recorded in sagas or songs sung by their skalds or gleemen. It is from these and certain old chronicles that we learn the story of their visits to America. 12 AMERICAN HISTORY Norse Explorers. — We are told that one day a terrible storm drove the boat of a Norse captain, named Gunnbjorn, to the coast of Greenland and there it was locked in ice until the spring, when Gunnbjorn and his men were finally released. They returned to their home in Iceland and told of the new land across the sea. Shortly after this, a man named Eric, the Red, who lived in Ice- land, committed a murder and was banished from the country. Eric took a few followers and left his home to find the land that Gunnbjorn had discovered. He reached Greenland and sailed up a little bay until he came to a pleasant grassy plain, and there he established his new abode. He called the country Greenland, for he thought, " This pretty name will surely bring others here to five." Later on, Eric went back to Ice- land and brought over a colony of people who settled permanently. Others came over and gradually formed several little settlements in the country. Some time after this, Eric's son, Leif, the Lucky, who had become a Christian, determined to seek his father and tell him the story of the Gospel. Leif came to Greenland and after preaching the mes- sage started for the mainland to seek the heathen who were scattered along the shores. He reached the coast of what is now Labrador and called the country Slate- land. He then continued his voyage until he came to a region that was heavily wooded and this he called Markland or woodland. After a short stay at this place, Leif went farther south until he and his hardy seamen found a pleasant land where plenty of wild grapes grew, and to this new country he gave the name of Vinland. A Norse Sea King. OUR COUNTRY 13 This was perhaps the coast of New England or New Jersey. Leif spent the winter here and in the spring returned to Greenland with a load of timber. Later another company led by Leif 's brother made a settlement in New Eng- land, but these men fell into great difficulty with the natives ; some of the Norsemen were killed, and the others returned to Greenland. From time to time other attempts were made by the Norsemen to visit the new country, but no suc- cessful settlements were . A Norse Ship. made. By the time of Columbus's great voyage to the New World, there was little remembered of the land across the sea. II. Topical Outline Our Country. 1. Location. 2. Natural Advantages. Arr lerican Indians. 1. Origin. 2. Distribution. 3- Appearance. 4. Mode of Life. 5- Food. 6. Clothing. 7- Houses. 8. Warfare. 9- Religion. 14 AMERICAN HISTORY 10. Arts and Crafts. ii. Money. III. The Norsemen. i. Early Norse Explorations. 2. Norsemen Visit the New World. Review Questions i. Locate the United States, giving the general boundaries. 2. What are some of the natural advantages of this country? 3. How have the climate and resources of the United States aided in its development ? 4. What is the supposed origin of the Indians? 5. How did they receive their name ? 6. Name and locate the principal tribes. 7. Describe the appearance of the Indians. 8. Give an account of their mode of life. 9. What do you know of their government and religion ? 10. Locate Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador. 1 1 . Who were the first Europeans to visit America ? 12. Were these explorations important in history? References Brigham : Geographic Influences in American History. Semple : American History and Its Geographic Influences. Coman : Industrial History of United States. (The Indians.) Drake : American Indians. Starr : The American Indians. Gayarre: History of Louisiana, Vol. I. (Natchez Indians.) (The Norsemen.) Fiske : Discovery of America, Vol. I. Lilenjenzcrantz : The Thrall of Leif the Lucky. CHAPTER II A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES Influences on Exploration: Commerce. — Many centuries ago China, Japan, India, and Egypt were the most highly civilized countries in the world. In all these countries great wealth of natural resources was found, and the people who lived there were skilled in many of the modern industries; such as weaving, mining, and building. They wove beautiful fabrics of silk and cotton ; they cut and polished rare gems ; they manufactured valu- able medicines and rich perfumes; and they furnished many other use- ful and attractive articles to com- merce. Religion. — The extent of this trade was unknown to the western people until the eleventh century, when a new interest attracted the Europeans to the East. This was the Holy Wars or Crusades, led by the Chris- tian nations against the Turks who were overrunning Palestine. A report had been brought to Italy that the city of Jerusalem had been captured and that many sacred places were desecrated. This news stirred all Christendom, and kings and nobles led armies across Europe to overcome the Turks. A Crusader. 15 i6 AMERICAN HISTORY Trade with the Far East. — As the Crusaders made their way toward Asia Minor they came in contact with new phases of life and commerce. Some of these soldiers saw the advantage of opening up trade with the far East. As time passed on trading privileges were secured that served as a link to hold the trade of Europe and Asia together. As years went by the people of Europe learned to depend upon their eastern neighbors for many luxuries as well as necessi- ties of life. The merchants of Italy were especially active Camels on the Desert. in carrying on this trade, and some of the Italian cities became distributing points for oriental goods. Trade Routes. — The merchants of Europe were ac- quainted with three important trade routes extending from the far East to the West. The first was by way of the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, across to the Nile River, and thence to Cairo. This was known as the southern or sea route. It was estimated that at one time in the fifteenth century, in Cairo, thirty-six thousand boats were owned and em- ployed in this trade. Not far from this city was Alex- andria, the largest spice market in the world. The second route started from Asia Minor on the Medi- terranean Sea and extended across Arabia to the Persian A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 1 7 Gulf, and thence to India and China. This was partly a caravan, and partly a boat, system. The third, north of this, extended from Constantinople along the Black Sea to Astrakan, then by the Caspian Sea to Afganistan, and across northern India, Tartary, and China. (See map.) Effects of the Fall of Constantinople. — In the latter part of the thirteenth century, this active trade was dis- turbed by the rise of a people known as the Ottoman Turks. These Turks began to conquer one section after another until they finally succeeded in capturing the great city of Constantinople, in 1453. This city was the key to Europe and Asia and its fall was a serious interruption to the eastern trade. At this time the people of Europe had be- come more wealthy and were living in greater luxury than before. They had become accustomed to the use of such goods as dyes, gums, spices, pepper, perfumes, oriental medicines, carpets, silks, jewels, and other eastern wares ; and they keenly felt the loss of these. Moreover, this de- cline in trade was felt throughout Europe, and many com- mercial firms became bankrupt. Hence an earnest desire was felt to renew the trade with the East, and efforts were made to secure a new and permanent route to the Indies. The fall of Constantinople had a more profound effect upon Europe than the interruption of eastern trade. This city had been built by the Roman Emperor, Constantine, as the eastern capital of the great empire, and in the cen- turies that followed it became a center of Greek influence and was renowned for its learning. When the Turks took the city, many scholars were forced to leave ; and some of them went to Italy, taking their valuable manuscripts with them. Welcomed by the scholars of this country and aided by wealthy Italians, they were able to establish schools. This gave a new impetus to education, and the new learning, as it was called, revived many ideas of the ancient Greeks. The movement is known in history as 1 8 AMERICAN HISTORY the Renaissance, or new birth, and it influenced all phases of life. The Greek ideals made the literature of this period more attractive ; architecture, painting, and sculpture, more beautiful ; scientific branches of learning, like medicine and chemistry, more practical. They made old supersti- tions about the stars give way to the truthful study of astronomy ; and men began a scientific study of the geog- raphy of the world. At this time a number of Italian seamen made accurate maps of the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, of the Atlan- tic from Cape Nun to the Baltic, and of the Red Sea to the eastern shores of Africa. These charts were reliable and of practical use to the mariners of the time. It was in Italy that the compass and the astrolabe came into use, and it was the Italian cities with their well-organized merchant gilds that were active in promoting scientific navigation. It was from this country that some of the most renowned explorers were to come. This last phase of the Renaissance movement stimulated men to become bolder on the sea and quickened in many seamen the spirit of adventure and investigation. THE WORK OF PORTUGAL Scientific Investigation in Portugal. — Portugal was one of the most active countries in this work. As early as 1419, Prince Henry of Portugal opened a nautical school near Lisbon where a scientific study of geography was begun. Here a number of trained seamen and learned men gathered and began making voyages out on the Atlan- tic. They experimented with the mariner's compass and the astrolabe, an instrument for taking the altitude of the sun and stars. Jewish and Arabian mathematicians were employed to instruct these students, and every effort was made to secure accurate and scientific information. This A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 19 work continued for many years under Prince Henry's nephew, King Alfonso V-, and, later, under King John II. Through their efforts the Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde, and Azores islands were discovered, but the Portuguese were more attracted to the coast of Af- rica than to the open Atlantic. And for more than forty years one expedi- tion after another was sent in this di- rection, resulting in the exploration of the whole western coast of Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, so called because this seemed a real hope of securing the new route to the Indies. Portuguese Explorers. — Among the explorers who should be remembered was Martin Behaim of Nuremberg, Germany, who was sent by Portugal on a number of voyages to the coast of Af- rica and who made many charts and maps of the known world. He also con- structed a small globe illustrating his belief in the rotundity of the earth. Another great name is that of Barthol- omew Diaz, who discovered Cape o( Good Hope. He set out to India, but he was obliged to return because his Henry the Navigator. Mariner's Compass. 20 AMERICAN HISTORY men mutinied. Ten years later Diaz's work was accom- plished by Vasco da Gama, who finally reached India. A little later, the regular trade with the far East was secured by Albuquerque, who organized an East India trading company and established trade settlements in Burma, China, and Japan. COLUMBUS Early Life. — But the greatest man among those who came under the Portuguese influence was Christopher Columbus. His broth- er, Ferdinand Colum- bus, wrote: "It was in Portugal that the Ad- miral (Christopher Co- lumbus) began to sur- mise that if men could sail so far south, one might sail west and find land in that direction." All the facts of the early life of Colum- bus are not definitely known, but it is be- lieved that he was born in Genoa in the year Christopher Columbus. 1446. The quaint old tenement house where it is supposed that Columbus was born is still standing in Genoa. This city was an important manufacturing seaport and one of the chief commercial centers in Italy. Columbus's father was a humble woolworker, but his uncle was a sea captain of some renown. As late as 1472, Columbus signed a document in Genoa, in which he gave his occupation as a " woolworker of Genoa." From other sources, we learn A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 21 that he frequently went to sea as a regular sailor, and that he had voyaged as far south as the coast of Guinea, and as far north as Iceland. During all these years, " he was educated in the whole art of navigation." Education. — Columbus attended the common school of Genoa and it is probable that he took some advanced work in the University of Pavia. We know from his letters that he could write excellently in Italian and Spanish and that he read Latin easily. He was acquainted with mapmaking and read closely the geographical works of his day. On the margins of many of his books were carefully made notes pertaining to geography and as- tronomy. Perhaps the work that interested him most was a book known as The Travels of Marco Polo. This was a description written by Marco Polo of his visit to India and China, in the thirteenth century, which gave an interesting, but some- what inaccurate, ac- count of the far eastern countries. It was the most reliable information of that part of the world in that day, and was accepted as a very valuable work. It gave the correct latitude of the Indies and the proper geograph- ical relations of India to China, and China to Cipango (Japan). It also described the people of the Orient as dark complexioned, with straight, black hair and dark eyes. Many maps were made from Marco Polo's statements Marco Polo. 22 AMERICAN HISTORY about the geography of India, and among these was one by a Florentine physician, Toscanelli. This shows the Atlantic Ocean washing the shores of China and Japan, and gives an idea of the rotundity of the earth. That is, if one sailed west from Europe, he would reach first the island of Japan, then Cathay (China), then by overland travel, India, Arabia, etc., until he again reached Europe. Hence, a direct route to the Indies was evidently a water TOSCANELLI'S MAP ; DRAWN FROM HIS DESCRIPTION. route toward the west. No one dreamed that a great American continent and a vast Pacific Ocean lay between Japan and the western parts of Europe. Marriage. — Columbus was familiar with the Mediter- ranean sea trade and had engaged in the encounters with the Turks. He went to Portugal as a sailor, and in Lisbon married Felipa Moniz, a relative of Bartholomew Peres- trello, one of Prince Henry's navigators. Through this marriage Columbus came into possession of many valuable charts, maps, and notes that had belonged toPerestrello. Columbus was a most thoughtful student and made every effort to prove his belief in the theory that the earth was A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 23 round and that India could be reached by sailing west from Europe. He wrote to Toscanelli about his ideas and it is thought that the latter replied and sent Columbus a copy of his map. Efforts to Gain Assistance. — Finally, Columbus began to try to interest people in a practical way so as to carry out his enterprise. He applied to the Board of Trade of Genoa and asked them to assist in fitting out an expedition for the experiment, but they refused. He then went back to Portugal to seek assistance, but King John referred his plan to certain learned men, who treated the idea lightly. After spending seven years in Portugal, Columbus left for Spain, while his brother Bartholomew, a well-known chart maker, went to England. He returned too late to give Columbus assistance. It was by the earnest efforts of Juan Perez, a former confessor of Queen Isabella, and also through the appeals of the treasurer of Aragon, that the sovereigns of Spain were influenced and finally consented to give the desired help, at the time when Columbus had about abandoned hope, and was planning to appeal to the King of France. Definite Plans for First Voyage. — On April 17, 1492, Columbus made a contract with Ferdinand and Isabella in which an agreement was made that " in return for what he should discover in the Ocean Sea, he should be made admiral of all these islands and mainlands which should be discovered or acquired through his agency, with all the pre- rogatives belonging to the dignity of admiral of Castile; that he should be made viceroy and governor-general of all said islands and mainlands ; and that from all the trade within the limits of the said district, he should receive a royalty of ten per cent of all the net proceeds." This shows that it was a business-like agreement and not a mere voyage for chance discovery. Isabella's chief motive for giving assistance was un- 24 AMERICAN HISTORY A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 25 doubtedly the purpose of extending the Christian faith. Spain at this time was one of the leading nations in Europe ; her possessions included not only the country of Spain, but an extensive domain in Italy and the Netherlands ; and she was perhaps better prepared to undertake the work than any other country. The Voyage of Discovery. — On August 12, 1492, Colum- bus left Palos, Spain, with a fleet of three vessels. The "1 II ,^& i 1 i .. § 1 . "^F>- ^^ ~ ». nwtfiih. > 9 T**^'""; ^ The Fleet of Columbus. Santa Maria was the flagship, and the other two were the iWw-a and the Pinta. There were about one hundred and ninety sailors and landsmen. Among the men were three 26 AMERICAN HISTORY excellent sailors and navigators known as the Pinzon brothers, who had contributed the Pinta. The fleet sailed directly for the Canaries, and there spent one month in refitting the Pinta; then it made the final start on Thurs- day, the sixth of September. For days and days they sailed toward the west without seeing a trace of land. Columbus kept a daily record of the voyages, and a hard record it was. His men grew weary of the sea and the monotonous food, and they began to mutiny. Then Columbus was obliged to keep two records, one giving the true distance they had sailed, and the other showing a limited distance, so as to reassure the sailors. It was only with the greatest courage and calmness that Columbus was able to persuade them not to be alarmed. Finally, on the evening of the eleventh of October, lights were seen in the distance. All night the watch was kept ; at dawn the next morning the faint outlines of the tall palms on the distant shores were seen ; and, in a little while, the boats' were nearing the unknown lands. All through the voyage, Columbus states that never once did his faith waver. He felt sure that God would lead them aright, and as he stepped ashore with the priests, soldiers, and sailors, and offered up a prayer of thanksgiving, he must have felt as the poet who wrote : " I know not where His Islands lift Their fronded palms in air, I only know, I cannot drift Beyond His love and care." After exploring the near-by islands, Columbus concluded that he had reached the islands off the coast of India, and, noting the dark skin and straight, black hair of the natives, he called them Indians, believing them to be similar to the people whom Marco Polo had described. The Indians indicated that they had a great ruler living A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 27 on the island (Cuba). When Columbus reached this shore he sent his Jewish interpreter, Luis de Torres, to the ruler to make a treaty. Here he found a little village of small huts occupied by naked savages, many of whom were " drawing the smoke through the leaves of a plant which were rolled in the form of a tube and lighted at one end." The Landing of Columbus. The Spaniards learned for the first time that these tubes were called tobaccos. Columbus next discovered the island of Hayti, which he named Hispaniola. It was here that the Santa Maria was wrecked. The Indians were kind and honest in help- ing the sailors to save the cargo of provisions. At the place a colony was begun and forty-four men volunteered to remain. Among these were artisans, a " good gunner, a physician, and a tailor." Columbus left flour and wine for a year, seed for sowing, tools, and arms. He enjoined 28 AMERICAN HISTORY them to obey their captain, to make friends with the natives, and to avoid injuring any one. The remainder of the company sailed for home and reached the coast of Portugal on March 8, 1493 . Colum- bus took occasion to remind King John that he had lost a great opportunity in not accepting the privilege of patroniz- ing the expedition, and then sailed for Palos, reaching there on March 15, 1493. All of the population gave an enthusiastic welcome to the voyagers. Columbus made a report of his voyages to King Ferdi- nand and Queen Isabella, who were delighted with his success. Many became interested in the new discoveries, and Columbus had little trouble in planning another expedition. The Second Voyage of Discovery. — On September 25, 1493, Columbus set sail on his second voyage. The expedi- tion cost thirty-five thousand dollars, and consisted of seven- A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 29 teen ships bearing soldiers, missionaries, artisans of all kinds, field laborers, knights, and courtiers. They took with them horses, cows, sheep, vegetables, and cereals. " At the Canary Islands they added to their stock calves, she- goats, ewes, pigs, chickens, seeds of oranges, lemons, melons, and other garden plants, and, most important of all, sugar cane." When Columbus reached the settlement at La Navidad, on the island of Hayti, not one of the settlers could be found. It was supposed that they had perished during the months that had passed. Columbus erected a more permanent fort, and made preparations to spend the winter. Sickness prevailed among the colonists and many died. On this voyage, Columbus made the discovery of Jamaica and some lesser islands. After spending three years in the New World, he re- turned to Spain, brought his report of the discoveries to Ferdinand and Isabella, and urged the settlement of the new lands. It was difficult to secure colonists, so the sovereigns issued an order to the officers of the prisons of Spain that certain criminals were to be transported to the New World. The Third Voyage. — Then Columbus set out on his third voyage, and, on July 31, 1498, he sighted the main- land of South America, near the Orinoco River. Columbus's brother, Bartholomew, had been in charge of affairs in Cuba and the West Indies, and his rule was harsh and unpopular. Columbus had great difficulty in trying to settle the disputes, and he, too, was severely blamed. Many of the settlers were ill and discontented and they made serious charges against Columbus. He and his brother were put in prison by the new governor who had been appointed over the island. In 1500 Columbus returned to Spain, weary and dis- couraged. When the king and queen heard of the condi- 30 AMERICAN HISTORY tions in the colony, they forgave Columbus and restored him to favor, but many of the people believed that he had wasted the public funds and that his work had not been a success. The Fourth Voyage. — Two years later he succeeded in making another voyage which is called the fourth. This time he discovered the shore of Central America and some small islands, but he failed to find the India which he so earnestly sought. When he returned to Spain in 1504, after devoting twelve years to the work, he still believed that he had reached the shores of India and China, and did not realize that he had discovered a New World, which was to become in time greater than Spain or India. After many hardships, Columbus died in extreme poverty in the city of Valladolid, Spain. To-day as we look into the records of the time and read of his wonderful plans, his fine common sense, his loyalty and faith, we are impressed with his courage, his noble character, and his splendid achievement; and we realize why Columbus is ranked as one of the greatest characters in history. SPAIN'S CLAIM IN THE NEW WORLD Vespucci. — While Columbus was making his voyages, other explorers began to seek the route to the Indies and to discover new lands. One of these explorers, who sailed under the flag of Spain, was an Italian named Amerigo Vespucci. He made four voyages, explored the coast of Central and South America, and wrote an interesting account of his expeditions. These letters were printed in Germany, and the publisher, Martin Waldseemuller, in a preface to the work, wrote " the fourth part of the globe, which since Americus discovered it, may be called Amerige — Americ's land or America." Thus the New World received A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 31 Amerigo Vespucci. the name of America in- stead of Columbus. For many years, however, it was simply known as Mundus Novus or New World. Magellan. — Another explorer of wide experi- ence during this period was Magellan, a Portu- guese, who also sailed under the flag of Spain. <£ When Magellan came into the presence of the king of Spain, he had in his hand a " well-painted globe on which the whole world was depicted, and on it he indicated the route he pro- posed to take." And thus it came to pass that he crossed the Atlantic, coasted by the shores of South America, entered the straits of Magellan, and set his fleet toward the Pacific Ocean. After many days of constant sailing, Magellan finally reached the Ladrone and the Philippine Is- lands and claimed these for Spain. On one of these islands, Magellan was killed by a native. His crew, led by Sebas- Magellan. tian del Cano, passed L$2 3- 1 A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 33 by the shores of India and Africa and, at last, after an absence of three years, arrived at Seville, numbering but thirty-one of the two hundred and seventy that had sailed. This voyage marked the first circumnavigation of the globe, and del Cano was granted a coat of arms bearing this motto : " First thou didst encompass me " (1522). Colony of Havana. — The first land claimed by Spain was the West India islands, and here on the island of Cuba Balboa's First Sight of the Pacific Ocean. was established an important colonial base known as Havana. From this city, as well as from Spain, many expeditions were sent out to discover the unknown lands. We are told that hundreds of official permits were given by the Spanish government to explorers, but we shall mention only those whose work gave Spain her greatest claim. Balboa. — In the year 151 2 Balboa sailed from the islands and reached the mainland at the Isthmus of Panama ; 34 AMERICAN HISTORY and, scaling the mountains, he came in sight of the Pacific Ocean, which he took in the name of Spain. Ponce de Leon. — In the year that Balboa made his claim to the Pacific, Ponce de Leon, Spanish governor of Hayti, sought the famous fountain of youth of Bimine, believing that its waters would restore his youth and strength. On this quest, de Leon discovered the mainland of North America in the locality of Florida. After making St. Augustine, Florida. From a very early print. several attempts to go into the interior, de Leon was slain by the natives. For many years Spain claimed all the mainland as far north as Labrador, calling the entire dis- trict Florida. Gomez and d'Allyon. — Other explorers who confirmed Spain's claim to this region were Gomez and d'Allyon, who coasted along the Atlantic shores and returned favor- able reports of the land. Cortez. — Spain made very little attempt to settle this region, as her attention at this time was drawn toward A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 35 Mexico, where Hernando Cortez made a most remarkable conquest of the wealthy Aztec Indians and by this rich addition to Spain's claim proved the vast amount of gold and silver that could be found in the New World. After the reports of Cortez' s success were spread abroad, many explorers now attempted to get into the mainland and search for gold. Coronado and Cabrillo. — Among those who went far into the interior of the country were Hernando de Coro- nado, who explored Kansas and Nebraska and reported this region as a fine farming district, and Cabrillo, who explored the coast of California (1540). Pizarro. — About the time of Cortez's success another soldier of fortune, Pizarro, reached the mainland of South America near the Isthmus of Panama, and, crossing the mountains, entered Peru, a region rich in gold and precious stones (1523). Pizarro was most cruel to the natives, but he gave untold wealth to Spain from this claim. De Soto. — De Soto, who had been in Peru with Pizarro, and had much experience in both explorations and con- quest, undertook a memorable enterprise in trying to seek the famous cities of Cibola, supposed to be " exceedingly rich and very wonderful to behold." Leaving Spain with an army of rive hundred horsemen and many skilled mechanics, De Soto came by way of Havana to the shores of Florida near Tampa Bay. Here he disembarked and made his way along the shore and thence into the interior of the country through Alabama and Georgia. Turning westward, De Soto passed through the land of the Chicka- saws and Natchez, and reached the shores of the great river of North America, called by the Indians Mississippi (Father of Waters) (1 539-1 540). This was near the present site of Memphis. Here De Soto and his followers built rafts, floated down a little distance, and then crossed. They had lost many men and 36 AMERICAN HISTORY had suffered extreme hardships from the Indians. They rested through the severe winter season, and in the early spring began their march into the interior of Arkansas. They heard of the vast plains beyond teeming with buffalo, but they did not see any of the herds. Weary and ill, De Soto turned toward the south and entered the Red River, which he followed until he reached the point where it flows De Soto discovering the Mississippi River. into the Mississippi. Here the brave commander became extremely ill with fever and died. The Indians had looked upon this courageous soldier as a superior being, and De Soto's followers, fearing to let the Indians know of his death, buried his body in the great river that he had discovered and named Espiritu Santo (Holy Spirit) (1540). Out of the six hundred and twenty persons who had started with De Soto, but three hundred and eleven sur- vived, and these, led by Luis de Moscoso, built rafts and drifted down the Mississippi, still beset by hostile Indians and suffering from a lack of sufficient food, until they A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 37 finally reached the gulf and made their way to the city of Mexico. This expedition stands out in history as one of the most daring and perilous exploits undertaken in those old heroic days. Spanish Claims. — By these and other discoveries Spain claimed all of South America except Brazil, Central America, Mexico, and all of what is now known as the United States, besides the islands and seas along these coasts. Line of Demarcation. — King John of Portugal was con- vinced that Columbus had merely made new explorations within Portugal's claim on the Guinea Coast. Accordingly a dispute arose between Spain and Portugal. As it was customary to refer such issues to the Pope, he was asked to decide this question. He did so by issuing an edict in which Portugal was given all of the heathen lands east of an imaginary line that was drawn three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, and Spain was granted all of the lands to the west, except the kingdom of the great Khan. This gave Brazil to Portugal because the line of demarcation, as it was called, fell across South America at this place. Later, a Portuguese captain, named Cabral, who was on his way to India by way of the African coast, had his vessels driven westward by heavy winds, and reached the shore of Brazil and explored the country, thus reconfirming Portugal's claim (1504). 38 AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline A New Route to the Indies. I. Influences on Exploration, i. Commerce. 2. Religion. 3. Trade with Far East. 4. Loss of Trade Routes. 5. Effects of Fall of Constantinople. II. Work of Portugal. 1. Scientific Investigations in Portugal. 2. Portuguese Explorations. III. Columbus. 1. Early Life. 2. Education. 3. Marriage. 4. Efforts to Gain Assistance. 5. Plans for First Voyage. 6. Four Voyages of Discovery : a. The Bahamas, 1492. b. Jamaica, 1493. c. Mainland of South America, 1498. d. Central America, 1504. IV. Spain's Claim the New World. 1. Columbian Voyages, 149 2- 1504. 2. De Leon, Florida, 1512.. 3. Balboa, Pacific Ocean, 1513. 4. Pineda, Florida to Mexico, 15 19. 5. Cortez, Mexico, 1521. 6. d'Allyon, Atlantic Coast from Florida to Maryland, 1524. 7. Gomez, Atlantic Coast from Florida to Labrador, 1525. 8. de Narvaez, Florida, 1528. 9. de Vaca, Texas, 15 28-1 536. 10. Pizarro, Peru, 1532. 11. Coronado, Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, and Nebraska, 1 540-1 542. 12. Cabrillo, California, 1540. 13. De Soto, Mississippi River, 1540. A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 39 Review Questions 1 . Why was the eastern trade valuable to Europe ? 2. Locate the principal trade routes. 3. Who interfered with this trade? 4. Locate Constantinople. Trace the route from Genoa to Con- stantinople. 5. Why was the fall of Constantinople an important event? 6. How was the Renaissance related to the discovery of America? 7. What did the Portuguese do to regain the East Indian trade? 8. Why should we remember the following names : Prince Henry the Navigator, Martin Behaim, Bartholomew Diaz, Vasco da Gama? 9. Who planned a western route to the Indies? 10. Give an account of the life of Columbus. 1 1 . How many voyages did Columbus make to the New World ? 12. Tell something of his discoveries. 13. Connect each of the following names with discoveries in the New World : De Leon, Balboa, Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, Magellan. 14. Give the general extent of Spain's claim in America. 15. What was the line of demarcation? 16. How did America receive its name? Referenxes Bourne, E. G. : Spain in America. Cheyney, E. P. : European Background of American History. Hart, A. B. : History Told by Contemporaries. Fiske, John : Discovery of America. King, Grace : De Soto in the Land of the Floridas. King and Ficklen : Stories from Louisiana History. Miller : Columbus. (Selected Poem.) CHAPTER III THE WORK OF FRANCE Early French Voyages. — While Spain was making efforts to colonize her newly acquired lands, other nations sought to discover the short route to the Indies, and also tried to increase their commercial interests by securing possessions in the New World. Among those who took up this task was France. As early as 1506, French fishermen found their way to the fishing banks of Newfoundland, but they made no attempt to settle this district because of the severe climate and the remote distance from the markets of Europe ; hence years went by and no official notice was taken of these independ- ent voyages. Francis I. — About 1524, Francis I was ruling in France. He was a very active king, with a determination to make France powerful, both at home and abroad. After settling a number of disputes among his nobles, and securing wide influence at home, Francis turned his attention to the lands beyond the seas. Both Spain and Portugal were jealous of their claims and re-asserted the Pope's edict relative to the line of demarcation. Francis lightly asked by what clause in Father Adam's will these nations were so favored, and, promptly ignoring their claims, sent out an expedition. Verrazano. — He selected an experienced Venetian sailor, named John Verrazano, to undertake the work. Verrazano sailed westward across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Hudson River, then visited the shores of New England, and made a favorable report of the land. But there were few 40 French Explorations. 4i 42 AMERICAN HISTORY results from this voyage, and ten years passed before an- other attempt was made by France to secure a claim in the New World. Cartier. — In the year 1534, the services of Jacques Cartier, a sea captain of St. Malo, Brittany, were secured, and he set sail for the coast of Newfoundland. He steered his vessel around the coast of the island, and entered the straits of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St. Law- rence. He then returned to France. In the following year he explored the St. Law- rence River and met a number of Algonquin Indians, who occupied this district and who gave the French an idea of the fur trade. It was here that Cartier located a site for a village (Mon- treal) which he called Mount Royal, and he named the district New France. Cartier decided to spend the winter in the new country, and from the first of November until the middle of the next March, he and his men were ice- bound in this region. The weather was intensely cold and supplies were limited. Twenty-four of his best men died and the others were disappointed, sorely discouraged, and eager to return home. Roberval's Colony. — The reports of the fur trade, how- ever, were still attractive to the French, and, a few years later, Francis appointed Sieur de Roberval, as Lieutenant- 1 * fc ^ ^ Wi 1 Jacques Cartier. THE WORK OF FRANCE 43 governor of Canada. After making vain attempts to secure settlers, Roberval finally sent out a number of convicts from the prisons of France, a class of men not trained to self-support, a company of helpless people who did not wish to come to the strange country. The colony spent a year at the little station, Quebec, and then abandoned the project. The Merchants in Rouen. — Many years now passed before the French made another attempt to establish them- selves in the New World. The next enterprise was undertaken by a number of merchants in Rouen. These men organized a company to carry on the fur trade in America. Their plan was to secure a grant from the King for this purpose, then send agents into the country districts of France, and offer certain inducements to strong- working men to go over to New France to engage in the fur trade. Quite a number answered the call ; led by Sieur de Monts and Samuel Champlain, the colony landed in the neigh- borhood of Nova Scotia and opened a settlement which they named Port Royal (1605). Later, Champlain urged De Monts to build a fort on the St. Lawrence. Selecting the old site used by Roberval, they built the village of Quebec in 1608. De Monts returned to France and Champlain remained with the colony. Champlain. — Among the pioneers who came to New France, there is no one more worthy of note than Samuel Champlain. For thirty years he devoted his life to the Samuel Champlain. 44 AMERICAN HISTORY cause of French colonization, and, through the plan of the Rouen Merchant Company, he was able to seek the growth and development of French settlements along the St. Lawrence and on the shores of the Great Lakes. During the time that Champlain spent in the New World, he explored Lake Champlain and the district in upper New York. It was in this region that some of his Algonquin Champlain defeating the Iroquois. guides quarreled with the Iroquois of that neighborhood. They drove the French back into Canada. If this feud had not existed, perhaps the French would have made the Hudson Valley their headquarters, and our country's early history would have been very different. Champlain explored the St. Lawrence to its source, and then followed the course of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron and succeeded in establishing a number of trading posts along these shores. He also brought many hardy young Frenchmen who took up the work of trapping and estab- lished themselves permanently in the new country. Cham- plain secured from the government the right to introduce some missionaries into this district, and these priests also THE WORK OF FRANCE 45 assisted in the work of discovery as well as giving spiritual aid and comfort to the settlers. All through this period continued efforts were made to secure a short route to the Indies by way of the northwest passage, but as yet no strait had been found. It was Cham- plain's belief that the only direct route could be secured by cutting a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, but this scheme was put aside just as it had been a century before when the Spanish government had also considered this plan. Nicollet and Joliet. — Among the names of the French trappers who made important explorations we find those of Jean Nicollet and Louis Joliet. Nicollet visited the region of the Wisconsin, and made treaties with the Indians of the northwest, and Joliet, having heard of the great river of the West, determined to explore it. Marquette and Joliet. — It was in June, 1673, that Joliet, accompanied by Father Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, started on his way. They went down Lake Michigan to the Jesuit mission near the Fox River. Then they ascended the Fox River for a distance, carried their canoes over- land to the Wisconsin and floated down this stream to the Mississippi. They followed the mighty river until they passed the Missouri, the Ohio, and finally reached the Arkansas. At this point they were warned by the Indians not to continue as the tribes lower down the valley were hostile and used guns as did the white man. Believing the Spanish to be in the southern country, Joliet and Marquette returned to the North. These brave pioneers of the great valley had experienced untold dangers and met many strange tribes of Indians in their wanderings, but they opened the way for the future explorers and gave to France an idea of the grandeur and advantages of the Mississippi Valley. Marquette remained at his little mission on Lake Michigan, while Joliet hastened back to Canada with the news of their discovery. 46 AMERICAN HISTORY On the voyage, Joliet had made valuable charts and descriptions of his route, but these were lost by the wreck of his canoe in the rapids of the St. Lawrence. When the news of this voyage became known, the government Joliet and Marquette. of Canada was anxious to secure the control of the river from its source to its outlet. La Salle. — This task was undertaken by Robert Cava- lier de La Salle, known in history as the Prince of Ex- THE WORK OF FRANCE 47 Robert Cavalier de la Salle. plovers. Born of wealthy parents in Rouen, La Salle received an excellent education. In early manhood he lost much of his wealth and came to America ; here he secured a grant of land near Montreal, and engaged in the fur trade. Hearing of the great river, he con- ceived the idea of explor- ing it. He went down into the district of the Iroquois and learned of the Ohio. It is supposed that he traveled down this stream as far south as the present site of Louisville. He went to France twice in the interest of the colony of New France, and on one occasion re- ceived permission to build forts in the Mississippi Valley. In France, on one of these visits, La Salle met a young Italian soldier named Henri de Tonty. He was induced to come to America, and on later expeditions became La Salle's companion. In September of 1678, La Salle, accompanied by Tonty, with a number of Indian guides, some French trappers, and several missionaries, set out on the expedition. They followed the route of Joliet and Marquette and intended to barter for furs as they went on their way. They were quite successful in the fur trade and sent their boat, the Griffon, back with a rich cargo and planned to wait its return with supplies. But the Griffon was lost and after weary waiting and a vain search for her, the party went on their way down Lake Michigan, until they came to a portage ; here they carried their canoes to the Illinois ; and some distance down they built a fort, Creve Cceur (Broken 48 AMERICAN HISTORY Heart). La Salle then returned to Canada for supplies, while some of his party went north under the guidance of Father Hennepin and explored the Mississippi as far as the falls of St. Anthony. La Salle was unable to find any trace of the Griffon, but he secured his supplies on credit and started on his trip. He finally reached Tonty and the remaining party, and on February 6, 1682, they reached the Mississippi. It was a memorable voyage, with many experiences among the Indians and many days of illness and hardship. At last, on April 9, the explorers came to the mouth of the Arkansas and here La Salle took formal possession of the great river for France. Later, near the mouth of the Mississippi River, he again confirmed the claim by posting a leaden tablet on a tree and burying another at the root of the tree. The tablets bore the following inscription : " Louis the Great reigns. The 9th of April, 1682, Robert Cavalier, with Sieur de Tonty, a priest, and twenty Frenchmen, was the first to navigate this river from the village of the Illinois down, and to make a passage through its mouth." The party then returned to Canada, and La Salle went to France to secure colonists and supplies and to make plans to build a fort at the mouth of the river. On July 24, 1684, he started from Rochelle, France, to- ward the southwest. After sailing along the Gulf of Mexico, and coasting in and out among a number of inlets of the South, but failing to find the mouth of the Mississippi, the voyagers landed on the coast of Texas not far from Mata- gorda Bay ; here they built a fort called St. Louis. A month later, the captain of the expedition sailed away and left the colony to its fate. Every effort was made to find the river, but without success. Finally, in January, La Salle with a few men started for Canada, hoping to secure supplies, but, on the banks of THE WORK OF FRANCE 49 Trinity River, some of La Salle's men mutinied and killed him. The remainder of the party reached the mouth of the Arkansas, where they were met by Ton ty. The rest of the little colony at Fort St. Louis were cap- tured by the Indians, and, later, a few were found and rescued by the Span- iards. Thus ended one of the most heroic expedi- tions in history, and here closed the life of one of the most courageous and Courtesy Robert True Co. Bienville. Iberville. valiant heroes of those early days. Iberville and Bien- ville. — In 1699 Iber- ville and Bienville took up the work of La Salle and succeeded in building Fort Maurepas, and, later, in founding New Orleans in 1 7 18. St. Genevieve and St. Louis in the upper valley were also estab- lished, and thus France secured her claim to the vast Mississippi Valley. French Claims. — By these explorations, France claimed all of 50 AMERICAN HISTORY Canada, the Hudson Bay country, Newfoundland, and the land drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. ->m5 V **T The Founding of New Orleans. THE HUGUENOTS First Huguenot Colony. — Several attempts at coloniza- tion in the New World were made by the French Protes- tants. These people, who were known as the Huguenots, suffered from persecution during the religious wars in France, and determined to seek new homes in America. For the most part the Huguenots lived in the cities of France ; they were trained as artisans and tradesmen and were not adapted to pioneer life. The first colony was started in Brazil in 1555, but the Portuguese who occupied this district objected, and the settlers were obliged to aban- don their plans. Ribault. — Seven years later Jean Ribault led an expedi- tion to the coast of Florida, where he built a fort called Charlesport. The colonists suffered many hardships and they were glad enough to join the fleet of Sir Francis THE WORK OF FRANCE 5 1 Drake and go to England where they were welcomed because of their skill in weaving and in other handi- crafts. Laudonniere. — Times were still very hard in France, and the champion of the Huguenots, Admiral Coligny, sent out Rene de Laudonniere to found another colony in Florida. This colony was brutally attacked by the Span- iards and destroyed. Later Huguenot Colonists. — ■ Practically nothing came of these attempts, but later, when the English established their colonies, many Huguenots joined them and became prominent and active settlers in the new land, especially in Charleston, South Carolina, and in Philadelphia. Topical Outline The Work of France. I. French Fishermen in Newfoundland, 1506. II. Francis I, Line of Demarcation. III. Giovanni de Verrazano, Eastern Coast of North America, 1524. IV. Jacques Cartier, St. Lawrence River, 1534. V. Roberval de la Roche, Canada. VI. Rouen Merchant Company. VII. Sieur de Monts and Samuel Champlain, Port Royal, 1605. VEIL Champlain, St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, and Great Lakes, 1608. IX. Jesuits in New France. X. Nicollet, Lake Michigan, 1640. XL Father Allouez, Lake Superior, 1666. XII. Father Hennepin, Falls of St. Anthony. XIII. Louis Joliet and Father Marquette, the Mississippi to the Arkansas, 1673. XIV. La Salle, the Mississippi, 1682. XV. Iberville and Bienville, the Mississippi Valley. XVI. Claim of France. XVII. Work of Huguenots. 52 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. What French king became interested in the New World? 2. What was his attitude toward the line of demarcation? 3. Who established the French claim in the New World? 4. Why was the Rouen Merchant Company interested in the New World? 5. Who was called the Father of New France? Why? 6. What was the attitude of the French pioneers toward the Indians ? 7. Trace on the map the explorations of the French trappers. Tell what you can of these explorations. 8. Why should Joliet and Marquette be remembered? 9. What was the extent of La Salle's explorations ? 10. Give an account of the work of the French missionaries. 11. What was the French plan for controlling the Mississippi Valley? 12. What part did Iberville and Bienville take in the settlement of Louisiana? When was New Orleans founded? 13. Who were the Huguenots? Why did they come to America? Did they succeed in their settlements ? 14. State definitely the French claim in America. 15. Locate Quebec, St. Louis, New Orleans. References Parkman : Pioneers of France. Parkman : La Salle. Fiske : Discovery of America, Vol. II. Winsor, Justin : Narrative and Critical History of America. Cheyney : European Background of American History. CHAPTER IV THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS Attitude of King Henry VII. toward Discoveries. — The nation that was to make the greatest impression upon the New World was the English. At the time that Colum- bus was seeking aid of various European nations to under- take the search for the new route to the Indies, England was ruled by Henry VII. Columbus sent his brother to this monarch to explain his plans, but Henry was busy with his affairs of state and needed his money for the develop- ment of his own govern- ment, so he took little interest in uncertain dis- coveries. The Cabots. — There were two Venetian sailors, however, named John and Sebastian Cabot, living in Bristol, who began plans to seek a north- west route to the Orient. These men applied to the king for a privilege to undertake the voyage. Henry granted them permission " to sail to the east, west, or north with five ships, carrying the English flag, to seek and discover all the islands, countries, regions, 53 BNwwH* J& - ;$ Hfc. JIKk, '' t^mh'* Sj^WS^; ' 4f Sebastian Cabot. 54 AMERICAN HISTORY or provinces of pagans in whatever part of the world." With this commission, John Cabot sailed from Bristol in May, 1497, an d reached what is supposed to be the coast of Labrador, and returned to Bristol in July of the same year. The king took little note of this important dis- covery, however, save by granting to Cabot a reward of about fifty dollars and a pension of one hundred dollars a year. The next year another voyage was undertaken by John Cabot and his son, Sebastian. It is supposed that John died on the way and that Sebastian succeeded in reaching the shores of Labrador and coasted as far south as the Caro- linas. Except for occasional visits to this region by fisher- men, the English paid little attention to the discoveries for many years. A NEW SEARCH FOR THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE Second Route to the Indies Sought. — In the days of Queen Elizabeth, many daring seamen set out to seek a short route to the Indies by way of a northwest passage. The voyages were most perilous, and the seamen suffered great hardships in the Arctic seas, but still they ventured on, making every attempt to find an open strait at the north of the continent. Frobisher. — Among the first to make this trip was Martin Frobisher, who started out in 1576, sailed north- west from England, and discovered the coast of Greenland and the shores of North America near Frobisher's Bay. While Frobisher made three voyages in the interest of this work, he failed to find a strait leading to the northwest. Davis. — Ten years later Captain John Davis was em- ployed by some merchants of London and Plymouth to seek a northwest route. He followed the course taken by Frobisher, but went farther north, and reached the shores THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 55 of Greenland. Later he made two other voyages and went as far north as Davis Strait (see map) and returned with reports of an open sea toward the north. Others tried to seek the way, but failure attended their attempts. Hudson. — Finally Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Muscovy Fur Company, of England, made two at- tempts to seek a northeast route by way, first, of the sea between Spitzbergen and Greenland; and, second, between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, but he was delayed on both voy- ages by great icebergs. Hudson made a third voyage in 1609, under patronage of the Dutch East India Company. He again sailed toward Nova Zembla, but he found the sea so full of ice that he changed his course and crossed the Atlantic, hoping to find a northwest passage in the neighborhood of what is now New York harbor. Hudson explored the river that bears his name and met the Mohawk Indians, who exchanged furs for trinkets, and thus introduced the Dutch East India Company to the fur trade in North America. This enterprise led to the settlement of the Dutch colonies, known as New Netherlands. Failing to find a passage to the Indies, Hudson returned and, in the following year, made a voyage in the service of the English. On this trip he reached the district of Hudson Strait and Bay. While he was exploring the great Henry Hudson. 56 AMERICAN HISTORY inland sea, his men mutinied and placed Hudson, his son, and a few followers in an open boat and set them adrift, where it is supposed they perished. Hudson's failures were enough to discourage the most courageous seamen. The Discovery of the Hudson River. Baffin. — Within the next five years, however, another captain guided his ship into the perilous northwest seas. This was Sir William Baffin, who reached the seventy- eighth parallel and discovered Jones and Lancaster sounds, and explored Smith's Sound and Baffin Bay (i 615). All of these attempts were without avail, and two centuries passed before another attempt was made to solve the riddle of the north pole. THE ENGLISH SEA KINGS Spain and England in the New World. — Besides these bold navigators, there were others of this period who were quite as daring. It was an age when Spain held vast THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 57 possessions in all parts of the world, and her merchants carried their goods into far-off lands and made exchanges without dispute. The commerce of this country was enormous, and Spain defied any interference with her plans. England had steadily grown in power at home, and in the reign of Elizabeth her people felt a desire to expand their interests, but Spain continually opposed this movement. Sea Dogs. — There arose in England a band of daring sailors, who determined to open the way for English trade. Because they watched England's commerce so closely, they are called the Sea Dogs and again they are sometimes mentioned as the Great Sea Kings. The most famous of these were Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and Sir Richard Grenville. To-day we should call many of their bold acts piracy, or robbery, but in those days there were not laws between nations protecting commerce, and the various countries often engaged in long struggles to wrest from one another certain advantages. English Ships insulted on the Spanish Main. — We find Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England often engaged in these strifes. Spain's claim to the high seas was so extensive that it well nigh included all of the district of North and South America as well as the Gulf of Mexico, and this region was known as the Spanish Main. Many English ships had been captured while they were sailing in these seas and their captains had been held as tres- passers. Drake, Grenville, and Hawkins set out to break this Spanish monopoly and to open the way for English trade. Queen Elizabeth admired the bravery of these men and secretly encouraged them and took their part. Hawkins. — John Hawkins succeeded in getting a foothold in the West Indian trade and opened up the slave trade between Africa and the Spanish colonies. Drake. — Drake passed the Straits of Magellan, entered many Spanish towns on the western coast of South America, 58 AMERICAN HISTORY and took possession of much of their treasure. Besides this, he captured some of the Spanish galleons on their way to Spain and from one, alone, he secured twenty-six tons of silver and eighty pounds of gold. He would have re- turned by the same route, but he heard that Spanish ships of war were out in pursuit of him, so he turned toward the north and attempted to return to England by way of a northwest passage ; how- ever, the ice was so great in the neighborhood of Bering Sea that he was obliged to return and spend months on the Pacific coast of Cali- fornia. He called the region New Albion and gave England her claim to the district of Oregon. Later he turned his ships westward across the Pa- cific and reached the coasts of India and Arabia, and, doubling the Cape of Good Hope suc- cessfully arrived in Eng- land after an absence of two years. Drake brought back upwards of a million dollars' worth of treasure and opened the way for the East Indian trade. He was greatly honored by the queen, and his name goes down in history as one of the bravest men of all time. Grenville. — Sir Richard Grenville also entered the West Indian trade and defeated many Spanish ships and helped to open the way for English trade. He is remembered, too, as the captain who brought over Raleigh's colony. In Tennyson's poem, The Revenge, we have a vivid picture Sir Francis Drake. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 59 of the bravery of Sir Richard Grenville, and of the struggle between the Spanish and the English. ENGLISH ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION Gilbert. — While these sailors were seeking such adven- tures, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and his half brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, were making plans to establish colonies in the New World. Queen Elizabeth granted permission to these men to make settlements, and Sir Humphrey Gilbert made three voyages to Labrador and New England, trying to locate a colony, but he was unsuccessful ; and on the third voyage he perished in a storm off the coast of New England. It was said that the storm arose late in the evening, and that, as it increased, Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert sat on the deck of the ship reading the Scriptures, and that, as night came on and his men grew terrified, he comforted them in their distress and cried out, " Cheer up, cheer up, my men, we are as near heaven by sea as by land." Raleigh. — Sir Walter Raleigh took up the work of Gilbert and sent out Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to seek a suitable site for a settlement. They visited the coasts of Carolina and Virginia, returned to England, and declared that the land was " as fair as ere the sun shone on." Sir Walter Raleigh. 6o AMERICAN HISTORY Raleigh named the whole coast Virginia after the virgin queen. The Spanish plantations had become a great success and were most resourceful. Raleigh considered that a similar system of English plantations would be the basis of successful colo- nization. To this end he spent vast sums of money and made three attempts to carry out his plan. He had great faith in the new country and believed that England could not have successful commerce in foreign countries unless she established colonies. He was convinced that Spain's success in the New World was largely due to the plantations which were then under cultivation, and which were not only profitable to their owners but were a source of revenue to the government. Raleigh's First Colony. — Raleigh therefore de- termined to open a system of plantations in Virginia. He organized his first colony in 1585. It consisted of about one hundred persons and was under the leadership of Ralph Lane. Sir Richard Grenville with a fleet of five vessels escorted the colonists to their new home. They made a ^Ai/ k '!LU»MS ENGn»VING CO., N.V. Roanoke Island and Chesapeake Bay. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 6l settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina), but it was not a success. The food was insufficient and the colonists had difficulties with the Indians. During the next year Sir Francis Drake visited the settlement, and the colonists be- sought him to take them back to England, a thing which he did. Return of Governor White to Deserted Roanoke Island. The Lost Colony. — Although Raleigh was sorely disap- pointed at the failure of this settlement, he planned another attempt which was carried out by John White. This colony consisted of both men and women and numbered 62 AMERICAN HISTORY one hundred and fifty persons. Raleigh desired the colonists to make a settlement on Chesapeake Bay, but they failed to do this and again selected a site on Roanoke Island and here erected Fort Raleigh. During the early days of the settlement a little girl was born to Governor White's daughter, Mrs. Dare. She was the first English child born in America, and was named Virginia in honor of the country. After a short while, Governor White was obliged to return to England for supplies. He was de- tained for more than two years by the war between Spain and England. When he returned, not a trace of the colony could be found. The word Croatan was carved on a near-by tree. As this was the name of a neighboring tribe of Indians, it was supposed that the settlers had removed to this site. But the Croatan Indians knew nothing of them, and to this day this settlement has been known as the Lost Colony. Raleigh's Death. — Although Raleigh did not succeed in his efforts, his plan was taken up later and became the basis of English control in America. Raleigh, in the reign of James I., undertook an expedition to South America to seek certain gold mines near the mouth of the Orinoco. He fell into difficulties with the Spaniards and the Indians and suffered defeat. His son was killed, and Raleigh returned, only to be accused by the Spaniards of breaking faith with them. James I. had him brought to trial and executed. Thus passed away one of the most generous and truest knights of the age. Gosnold. — Every now and then other expeditions were made to Virginia with the idea of selecting a suitable site for a colony. Among those who made voyages was Bartholo- mew Gosnold, who attempted in 1602 to establish a colony on the coast of New England, near Massachusetts. He was not well prepared for the plan, and, because of the severity of the climate, he and his men were obliged to return to THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 63 England. It was this company that learned from the Indians the value of sassafras as a medicine and took with them a supply to England. LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COLONIES The Charters. — These voyages attracted much atten- tion in England, and finally, in 1606, a number of men be- came interested in the plan of developing what was known as the tract of Virginia. They organized two com- panies, one in London and the other in Plym- outh. James I. granted them a charter that is known as the Charter of 1606. It was a long document and had many provisions ; among these was the right of colonists to enjoy all privileges, franchises, immunities, and rights as were granted to English citi- zens. Besides, these rights were to descend unto succeeding genera- tions. The charter further provided that the London Company was to receive a tract of land from the vicinity of the Cape Fear River to the mouth of the Delaware. The Plymouth Company's tract extended from the mouth of the Hudson River to Nova Scotia. The land between Delaware Bay and the Hudson River was to be neutral and could be occupied by either, provided they did not settle within one hundred miles of each other. It was believed Charter of 1606 provided for Two Colonies. 6 4 AMERICAN HISTORY that the Pacific Ocean was not more than one hundred miles westward, so the charter grants read one hundred miles inland, or from sea to sea. Settlement of Virginia. — The Plymouth Company was the first to send out a colony. The settlers landed at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine, in the summer of 1606, and built a fort. Although they were well equipped, the severity of the winter made many ill, and the place was abandoned. The next effort was made by the London Company, who sent one hundred and rive colonists. They entered Chesapeake Bay, naming the capes at the entrance Charles and Henry, after the king's sons, and sailed up the James River. Jamestown. — It was on the banks of this stream that they founded Jamestown in the spring of 1607. This became the first permanent Eng- lish settlement in Amer- ica. The location proved unhealthful, and within the first year more than half of the settlers died. John Smith as Leader. — It was during this time that Captain John Smith took charge. He had had wide experience as a soldier in the Netherlands and other parts of Europe, and, by his quick wit and shrewd method of dealing with the Indians, he secured food and supplies and helped to save the colonists from starvation. From time to time other settlers were sent out, but the hardships were very Captain John Smith. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 65 great during the first two years. Smith managed, however, to hold the people together under a system of government by which all had to work equally and contribute to the general fund. Governor Dale. — While this plan was a means toward uniting the interests of the colonists, it proved irksome to the settlers and was abandoned in 161 1, when Sir Thomas Dale was sent over as governor. Dale brought over sup- plies and started a new plan by granting to each of the planters three acres of land for his own. This plan was greatly appreciated, and regular work was begun upon this independent scheme. At this time there was a demand for tobacco in England, and as this plant flourished in Vir- ginia, it soon became the staple product. Governor Yeardley. — Although Dale introduced some harsh laws, the colony prospered, and a number of other immigrants arrived to take advantage of the homestead system. In 161 9, Sir George Yeardley was made governor, and he organized the House of Burgesses. This was the first representative form of government in America, and consisted of two representatives from each of the eleven boroughs of Virginia. The Question of Laborers. — As the culture of tobacco increased and the trade with Europe expanded, there was need for more laborers, and in order to satisfy this demand a number of convicts, runaways, and persons who had been kidnapped in England were sent to Virginia and bound out to the planters for a certain number of years. After a time, these people were given their liberty and were granted a few acres of land, farm implements, seed, and clothing, and put upon the list of freeholders. Because of this security of obtaining a home, and an opportunity to make a living, many poor but reputable persons accepted this plan and bound themselves out for a certain length of time in ex- change for passage across the ocean. This plan was used 66 AMERICAN HISTORY in many of the colonies. In Louisiana and elsewhere these indented servants were known as redemptioners. Prosperity of Virginia. — With the establishment of the homestead system and representative form of government, the spirit of discontent disappeared, and the colonists began to realize a greater pride in their new homes. The success- ful culture of tobacco assured a living, and the labor problem was in a measure solved by the introduction of negro slaves in 1 619. These field hands were imported by a captain of a Dutch trading vessel, and as they proved successful in the culture of the crops, others were introduced, until this system of labor became one of the means for the extension of plan- tations and the increasing wealth of the planters. Wives for the Settlers. — One of the most important causes of permanency and contentment in the colony was the sending of wives to the settlers by the London Company. These were respectable young women, many of whom were known to the colonists, and who were brought over under the care of the company and at the expense of their future husbands. The wives proved thrifty and energetic and helped to make their new homes happy and comfortable. By 1620 the plantations spread along each side of the James River for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. English cereals and fruit trees were introduced, and many heads of fine English stock were also among the posses- sions of the Virginians. Indian Conflicts. — When the colonists first landed at Jamestown, the Indians seemed friendly, but, as time went on, quarrels broke out between the races, and on one occa- sion Captain John Smith, who was acting governor, was captured by the Indians and taken to their chief, Opecan- canough. He in turn took Smith to his brother, Powhatan. After some difficulty Smith managed to make friends with Powhatan, and for many years the friendship continued be- tween the whites and Indians. Pocahontas, the daughter THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 6 7 of Powhatan, married a young settler named John Rolfe, and this helped to make the peace treaty secure. When both Pocahontas and her father had died, Opecan- canough was made chief of the tribe. In 1622 he deter- mined to break up the Virginia settlement, and, had it Wild this jlate oLnilhwn ufon Cyf-Smid^*^™* Powhatan's Lodge. not been for the warning of a friendly Indian, Jamestown might have been utterly destroyed. As it was, the Indians raided the frontier settlements and killed three hundred and fifty white settlers within three hours. The London Com- pany was accused of not being secure in its protection of the settlers and the charter was taken from them. The 68 AMERICAN HISTORY Indians were finally driven back into the forests, and, twenty years later, as the whites began to move farther into the interior, another massacre occurred in which five hundred of the settlers were de- stroyed. The English now forced the Indians to retire beyond the settlements of the whites, and for a while peace prevailed. Virginia becomes a Royal Province. — In 1624 James the First took away the charter from the London Com- Pocahontas. pany. Virginia became a royal province whose governor and council were appointed by the crown. The House of Burgesses still remained as an assembly of the people, and, a little later, a regular constitution was given to the Virginians, which assured them of many of their former civil rights. When the Commonwealth was established in England, Cromwell deposed the royal governor, William Berkeley, and appointed a new governor for Virginia. The people were sorry to lose Berkeley, for he had been very agreeable and considerate of their interests. Berkeley went a Cavalier in Virginia. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 69 to France, and when Charles II. was called to the throne, the Virginians asked for the return of Berkeley. But we shall see that he returned a changed man, and proved unworthy of the high confidence placed in him. Bacon's Rebellion. — Instead of strong and conscien- tious, Berkeley had become careless and selfish. He had accumulated debts in France, and his sole interest in the colony was to regain his fortune. He became exceedingly tyrannical in his rule, and for fourteen years refused to allow the Virginians to elect a new House of Burgesses. When the Indians on the frontier began to make attacks upon the settlements, burning homes and murdering settlers, Berkeley refused to answer the call for aid and to suppress the raid. After repeated appeals were made and Berkeley still remained indifferent, it was discovered that the governor was carrying on a private trade with the Indians, and did not propose to have this interest dis- turbed. Thereupon Nathaniel Bacon, a young lawyer of Virginia, in 1676, raised an independent force, and went out to the aid of the frontier settlers. While he was gone, Berkeley declared Bacon a rebel, but the people sided with Bacon. For four months there was a struggle between the governor and Bacon. Finally, Berkeley was driven from Jamestown and it was burned. Shortly afterwards Bacon died and his men returned to their homes. Berkeley then came back and took control. He arrested twenty-three of Bacon's followers and had them executed. The people were indignant and petitioned the king for Berkeley's removal and it was granted. Charles II. declared that Berkeley had killed more men in Virginia than he had in England for the murder of his father. From this time forward the spirit of resistance to tyrannical governors in Virginia was very strong. Vir- ginia became one of the richest and most thriving colonies. 7 o AMERICAN HISTORY Farms and plantations were opened in the interior and the movement toward the west was begun. THE CAROLINAS Neglect of the Land South of Virginia. — South of Virginia lay a long stretch of level coast country deeply indented by bays and well watered by numerous rivers. This region had originally been claimed by the Spaniards as a part of the Florida district, but years went by and these people failed to make any effort to settle here. We have noted that as early as the days of Elizabeth, the English under Sir Walter Raleigh tried to plant a colony to secure the Cabot claim and establish a commercial base. While the Raleigh settlements were unsuccessful, still the Caro- lina coast always remained in the English mind as a goodly land. First Settlements. — The first grant after the time of Raleigh was made to Sir Robert Heath, in 1629, but nothing came of the plans for colonization. It was not until 1653 that any settlement was made; then a few Virginians opened up a site on Albemarle Sound, and some New Englanders settled on the Cape Fear River. The latter were dissatisfied and abandoned the place as unhealthful and unprofitable. Later, in 1663, Charles II. granted the entire territory between Virginia and the Spanish province of Florida to eight of his favorites. These noblemen were given a charter that allowed them full proprietary rights. Charlestown. — Sir John Yeamans was made governor. He brought over a colony from the Barbadoes in 1665, and attempted to establish a colony at what was called Charlestown. Many of the inhabitants languished under the unhealthful climate and the remainder left, some go- ing to the Albemarle settlement and others to Boston, Massachusetts. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 71 Offers to Settlers. — It was at this time that an attempt was made to grant each settler a tract of land after the manner of the Virginia homestead system, and free trans- portation was assured all who would take up the offers of the Proprietors. In order to secure a satisfactory form of government, the overlords invited John Locke, a cele- brated philosopher, to confer with them and draft a form of government. John Locke's System of Government. — Locke prepared a very elaborate system known as the Fundamental Consti- tutions. Under this form each of the eight Proprietors was to hold a high position as Palatine (President), Ad- miral, Chamberlain, etc. A hereditary nobility was to be created, consisting of such classes as landgraves, soldiers, and artisans ; colonies of freeholders were to form the masses of the people ; and negroes were to be introduced as slaves. The whole system was entirely out of date, as even in European countries where the old feudal system still existed these forms were distasteful, and many persons were emigrating to America merely to be rid of the narrow- ness of such governments. It could hardly be set to work in the New World where each man had to struggle with nature for an existence, and where the people were few and far between. But the Proprietors thought it an ideal system, and for more than twenty years they tried to en- force it in America, causing great strife between them- selves and the early settlers. Another Settlement at Charlestown. — In 1669 a new expedition was sent to the Ashley River, and another settlement begun at old Charlestown. There was much sickness among the settlers, and political troubles began almost immediately. But there was still hope of success, and Lord Ashley, the most active of the Proprietors, con- tinued to send over colonists and supplies, until it was es- timated that he and his coworkers spent between $250,000 72 AMERICAN HISTORY and $300,000 on the enterprise without really receiving any return for all that they had expended. Religious Freedom. — The great persecutions in Europe drove many persons to America, and the Carolinas received their share of these emigrants. Among those who found a refuge here were a number of Scotch Highlanders, Quakers, Dissenters, Irish Protestants, and Huguenots. These were earnest workers who added their efforts to make the colony a success. Charleston. — In 1680 a new town was opened between the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, which became known as Charleston, and which grew to be the largest center of trade and wealth south of Philadelphia. While the coast settlements continued to grow, frequent attacks from the Indians made it difficult to extend the population into the interior. Trouble with the Spanish Colonists. — The colony had scarcely entered upon a state of prosperity when dangers from the Spaniards in Florida arose. In 1685 the Spaniards The "Palace" at New Berne, the Residence of the Royal Governor of North Carolina. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 73 attacked several of the English settlements and destroyed many homes. The colonists attempted to retaliate, but the Proprietors refused to allow them to send out an expedition. In the next year, the Spaniards returned and this time destroyed the Scotch settlement of Stewart-town near Port Royal. These troubles gave great alarm, and the indiffer- ence of the Proprietors caused continued strife between them and the colonists. Finally, in 1729, the charter of the Caro- linaswas annulled, and the district was divided into North and South Carolina under the form of royal province govern- ment, remaining as such until the American Revolution. Agriculture. — In the early history of the colony small farms prevailed, upon which general produce and tobacco were raised, but later these farms widened out into planta- tion tracts and an extensive culture of tobacco was begun. Rice, which had been introduced into the colony from Madagascar, was found to flourish in the lowlands. In- digo was also raised profitably. In the uplands, great forests of pine furnished a wealth of pitch, tar, turpentine, and rosin, and as there was a constant demand for such products in shipbuilding, the Carolinas early became renowned for these exports. Some fur trade was carried on, but the settlers chiefly relied upon agriculture. As time went by numbers of ne- groes were introduced and vast plantations were worked. Many of the people became very prosperous and enjoyed all of the luxuries of their wealthy neighbors, the Virginians. Charleston became known as a center of refinement and culture. Schools were established and a public library opened in Charleston. GEORGIA Oglethorpe. — During the reign of George II., there lived in England an army officer, named James Edward Ogle- thorpe. He had seen active service on the continent, and 74 AMERICAN HISTORY on his return, Oglethorpe was elected to Parliament. One of the first plans that he undertook was to reform the prison system of England. These prisons were crowded with per- sons, many of whom were held for petty debt, some owing as little as a dollar. The prisons were in a miserable con- dition from disease and dirt. Yet they were an enormous expense to the government. The keepers of the prison were paid according to the number of prisoners under them ; and for this reason, these unscrupu- lous officers often held honest and worthy men as criminals, and frequently arranged conditions so that it was impossible to secure release. His Colony. — Oglethorpe made a thorough investiga- tion and furnished a report to Parliament that stirred all England. Many persons became interested in the cause and determined to help reform conditions. Oglethorpe conceived the idea of opening a colony in America as a refuge for the debtor class. About this time South Caro- lina was appealing for military protection against the Span- iards of Florida, so Oglethorpe asked George II. to grant him a tract of land south of Carolina and allow him to make this a buffer state against the Spaniards. The king did so, and Parliament appropriated about fifty thousand dollars for the enterprise. A number of kind-hearted per- sons made contributions that amounted to upwards of twenty-five thousand dollars. With these sums Oglethorpe James Edward Oglethorpe. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 75 began his plans. In 1733 he took thirty-five families to America. They reached the mouth of the Savannah River, and selecting an attractive site, purchased it from the In- dians and began the settlement of Savannah. iVugusta was founded the next year, and another town, called Frederica, was built close to the Spanish line. Settlers continued to come over, and much interest was taken in the colony. Savannah in the Eighteenth Century. Among the persons who visited it in the early days of settlement were the famous Methodist ministers John and Charles Wesley and George Whiteneld. John Wesley came as a missionary to the Indians, and the others estab- lished the beginnings of the Methodist faith in America. When Whiteneld returned to England, he started a move- ment to build an orphanage in Georgia for the destitute waifs of England. He succeeded in collecting enough money to establish the institution, and thus he began in Georgia the first movement in America for this kind of humanitarian work. Like many of the other colonizing enterprises, Georgia 76 AMERICAN HISTORY grew slowly. The form of government was proprietary, and all powers were vested in the Proprietors. Slave- holding was prohibited, and a ban was placed upon the use of intoxicating liquors. These and other acts displeased the settlers and there was general opposition to the government. Oglethorpe was true to his word in regard to the Span- iards. In 1739, while England was at war with Spain, he gathered a force and attacked St. Augustine, the strongest Spanish settlement in northern Florida. He was unsuccess- ful, and the Spaniards shortly afterwards made an attack on Frederica. Although the English numbered but eight hundred men, while the Spanish had a fleet and a force of five thousand, yet Oglethorpe won a victory and severely repulsed the Spaniards. He then made another attack upon St. Augustine, but failed. From this time forward, however, the Spaniards ceased to make attacks upon the English colonies. In 1743 Oglethorpe returned to England, and for a time the colony suffered from political strife. Finally, the charter reverted to the crown, and Georgia became a royal province with larger privileges of self-government. Like Carolina, Georgia opened extensive plantations and extended the culture of rice, indigo, and tobacco. Negroes were introduced to aid in the development of agriculture, and Georgia took her place among the thriving colonies on the Atlantic seaboard. Topical Outline The English Explorations. I. Attitude of Henry VII. toward Discoveries. II. John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497-1498. III. Attempts to find a Northwest Passage to India : 1 . Martin Frobisher, Labrador and Greenland. 2. John Davis, Davis Strait. 3. Henry Hudson, Hudson River and Hudson Bay. 4. William Baffin, Smith's Sound and Baffin Bay. THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 77 IV. Conflict between England and Spain in the Sea. 1. English Ships on the Spanish Main. 2. Hawkins, Trade with the West Indies. 3. Drake, Oregon. 4. Grenville, English Commerce. V. English Attempts at Colonization. 1. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Plans. 2. Raleigh's Attempts at Colonization. a. Amidas and Barlow, coast of North America. b. Roanoke Settlement. c. The Lost Colony. d. Raleigh's expedition to South America. 3. Gosnold's Attempts in New England. VI. London and Plymouth Companies. 1. The Charter of 1606. 2. Settlement of Virginia, Jamestown, 1607. 3. John Smith as Leader. 4. Governor Dale. 5. Governor Yeardley. 6. Prosperity of Virginia. 7. Wives for Settlers. 8. Indian Conflicts. 9. Virginia Becomes Royal Province. 10. Bacon's Rebellion. VII. The Carolinas. 1. Neglect of Land South of Virginia. 2. First Settlements. a. Albemarle Sound. b. Cape Fear River. c. Charlestown. 3. Locke's System of Government. 4. Religious Freedom. 5. Charleston Founded. 6. Trouble with Spanish Colonists. 7. Agriculture in Carolina. VIII. Georgia. 1. Oglethorpe. 2. Savannah Founded. 78 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. Who were John and Sebastian Cabot? How did they plan to reach the Indies ? 2. What prompted the English to take an interest in the New World? 3. Give an account of the work of the following: Martin Fro- bisher, John Davis, Henry Hudson, William Baffin. 4. What men aided in extending England's commerce? 5. How did Spain regard England's plans in the New World? 6. Who were Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh? 7. Give an account of the work of Sir Walter Raleigh in America. 8. Under what circumstances were the London and Plymouth Companies organized ? 9. What was the extent of land granted to each Company? 10. Give an account of the settlement of Jamestown. 11. What part did each of the following take in the early history of Virginia: Captain John Smith, Powhatan, Pocahontas, Thomas Dale, George Yeardley? 12. What were the causes of permanency in the Virginia settle- ment? 13. What was meant by Bacon's Rebellion? 14. Who undertook to develop the Carolinas ? 15. W T hat form of government was proposed for this district? 16. Was this a success ? 17. What were some of the products of this region? 18. What movement prompted the settlement of Georgia? 19. What dangers assailed Georgia? How did Oglethorpe meet these troubles? 20. What famous ministers came to Georgia? References Cheyney : European Background of American History. Fiske : Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. Thwaites : The American Colonies. Selected Poems : The Revenge, by Tennyson. Drake, by Noyes. CHAPTER V NEW ENGLAND COLONIES Council for New England. — After the failure of the Plymouth Colony on the coast of Maine in 1606, the Plym- outh Company employed Captain John Smith to make a coast survey of their grant. Smith explored the coast in 1614, located the best harbors, noting places that would be suitable for settlement, and named the entire district New England. Shortly after this, the Plymouth Company was reorganized under the title of Council for New England. The district was divided among the members, but the Proprietors were not energetic in promoting the settlement of the country. The Puritans. — At the time of colonial development in America, very serious changes were taking place in Eng- land. Among these changes was the rise of a strong reli- gious party that was destined to develop new denomina- tions and also promote more democratic ideas than were known in England in earlier times. The Puritans, as they were called, were dissenters from the Anglican Episcopal Church. They organized separate congregations and used a simpler form of worship than the established church. They adopted a strict code of discipline for themselves, advocated democratic ideas in regard to government, and fearlessly voiced their opinions. Oppressions of the Puritans. — In the reign of King James many wealthy and influential people had joined the congregations of Puritans ; and the king, fearing their influence in Parliament and other departments of the Eng- lish government, revived many of the old acts that had been 79 So AMERICAN HISTORY passed against dissenters and enforced new laws that limited the privileges of the Puritans in church and in civil life. The oppressions grew so great that many occupations were affected by these measures. At this time another hardship prevailed in the rural districts of England. This was the custom of inclosure of land. Under this system large areas of public and private property that were occupied by small farmers were leased .-•fl^'v; The Puritans. to sheep owners. The tenants were forced to seek new homes, while the land was inclosed for sheep raising. As it required but comparatively few laborers to care for the flocks, many persons who labored on farms were thrown out of employment. Holland a Refuge. — For these reasons a group of Puri- tans left England and went to Holland, where religious toleration was observed and where employment could be secured. They remained in this country for ten or twelve NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 8l years, and then they decided to return to England as their children were learning the Dutch language and customs and intermarrying with this people. The fear of loss of their English individuality determined their return to the home country, about 1620. Founding of Plymouth, 1620. — Upon their return to England, the Puritans learned of the success of the Virginia The Mayflower. Colony, and they determined to try their fortunes in the new country. They negotiated with the London Company for transportation, and, securing permission from the king, they set sail in two small boats, the Speedwell and the Mayflower. The former proved unseaworthy, and they were obliged to return and make further arrangements. At last a company of one hundred and two, men, women, and children, embarked on the Mayflower, and, under the guidance of their pastor, Elder Brewster, embarked once more for the far-away land. It was a long and tedious G 82 AMERICAN HISTORY journey made in the stormiest season of the year. At last, on the twenty-first of December, 1620, they came in sight of land, but it was not the coast of Virginia ; instead, the winds had carried their ship toward the New England coast, not far from a site named Plymouth by Captain John Smith. The captain refused to turn toward the south, and the Pilgrims, as they called themselves, were obliged to land on the rock-bound shores of what was later called Massa- chusetts. They established a little settlement that they named Plymouth, and sturdily began to build their homes. In the spring, when the Mayflower returned, not one of the colony abandoned the plan, but all remained to work out their religious and political freedom in America. The Mayflower Compact. — While crossing the ocean, the Pilgrims drew up an agreement of government called the Mayflower Compact. In this they declared themselves loyal subjects of King James and they adopted some laws based upon the common laws of England. They selected John Carver to govern and other officers to guide their affairs. The winter was very severe and the colonists suffered extreme hardships. More than half of their number died, including Governor Carver, and the remainder were poorly fed and scarcely fit to take up the work of building houses and tilling the soil. Upon the death of Governor Carver, John Bradford was elected governor. He served the colony for thirty years, and during this time a permanent settle- ment was founded. The Indians. — With the coming of spring a friendly Indian appeared who surprised the settlers by saluting them with " Welcome Englishmen." This was Samoset, one of the tribe of the Wampanoags, who had learned a few words of English from some sailors. Samoset brought the colonists corn and taught them how to plant it. Later he brought Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoag In- dians, to visit the settlers. From this time forward a NEW ENGLAND COLONIES *3 strong friendship between these Indians and the white people was formed which lasted for many years. Massachusetts Bay Company. — From time to time other colonists joined the Plymouth settlement, but the increase of settlers to the New England district was not large until 1628, when an impor- tant migration was led by some well-to-do Puri- tans. These men pur- chased a tract of land from the Council for New England and or- ganized the Massa- chusetts Bay Company. Among the leaders of the colony were John Endicott and John Winthrop, who was chosen governor. About the time of the organiza- tion of the plan for settle- ment, other Puritans became interested in the project and they formed a plan known as the Cambridge Agreement, whereby the entire administration of the Company's in- terests should be transferred to America. Massachusetts Settlements. — In 1630 one thousand persons left England to establish their homes in America. Boston was founded in 1632 and a little fishing village called Salem, which was founded several years before, was reenforced by settlers. The enterprise proved so success- ful that many others joined the movement. Among them were persons of education and wealth, clergymen, and skilled artisans and farmers. Within the next ten years settle- ments were made at Newtown, afterwards called Cam- bridge ; Watertown; Roxbury; and Dorchester. John Winthrop. 84 AMERICAN HISTORY Government of Massachusetts. — The Company re- ceived a charter from the crown that granted them the privilege of self-government. The people elected their own governor and other officials and also members to the General Assembly or Court. The General Court had full power to legislate for the entire Bay Colony. Prosperity of Massachusetts. — Like all pioneer proj- ects, the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies suffered hardships in the early years of their settlements, but after a while adjustment to the new country was made and a permanent livelihood was secured. Commerce. — The first cargo shipped from Plymouth (162 1) was a shipload of clapboards and beaver skins. For some time the timber and fur trade flourished and afforded exchange for English wares and manufactures. As cod and mackerel were abundant on the coast, it was not long before the colonists began the export of dried and pickled fish. Not only did England share this trade, but many cargoes found their way to the Spanish West Indies. A few of the New England coast towns found a lucrative trade in the whale fisheries. Agriculture. — While nothing was raised for shipment to England, yet the small farms afforded general supplies for family use. Vegetables were used in season, and dried apples, beans, peas, cereals, potatoes, and pumpkins were stored for winter use. In the early days game was plentiful, and as time went on stock and poultry were imported from abroad and raised on the farms. Some flax and wool were obtained and homemade goods, such as linsey-woolsey and kerseys, were made by the thrifty housewives. Maine. — About the time of the settlement of Plymouth two Englishmen, named Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, planned to open plantations in the New England district as a commercial enterprise. In 1622 they received from the New England Council a NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 85 large tract of land lying between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers which they called Maine. The land was advertised but few settlers were secured. In 1623 some English fisher folk settled at Portsmouth and Dover. The Mason-Gorges scheme was not a financial success; and after several years of experiment, the district was divided (1629). Gorges received the region of Maine, which reverted to the crown, but was not developed to any extent until after the American Revolution. New Hampshire, 1623. — Mason received the portion known as New Hampshire. Shortly after this Mason died, and the grant was undeveloped until 1638, when a group of Puritans, who were banished from Massachusetts because of their religious opinions, went to New Hampshire and founded the town of Exeter. About this time other Puritans from England came over and founded Hampton. From time to time settlers from Massachusetts joined the settlements. The four towns, which were independent of each other, developed but slowly. Political and religious dissensions often occurred, and on several occasions there was trouble with the Indians. Finally, in 1641, the district of New Hampshire came under the protection of Massachusetts and remained a part of this colony until 1679, when Charles II. cut off the New Hampshire grant from Massachusetts and made the district a royal province having a governor appointed by himself. The New Hampshire settlers made a living by fishing, fur trade, and ship building. Connecticut, 1638. — The Colony of Connecticut, like New Hampshire, was begun through a series of independ- ent settlements. The earliest settlers in the Connecticut Valley were the Dutch, who discovered the possibilities of the fur trade in this district and built some trading posts, the most important of which was Fort of Good Hope, founded in 1633. 86 AMERICAN HISTORY The Dutch forced out. — At the time of the Dutch occupation of the interior of the country, a plan for settle- ment was made by Lord Saye and Lord Brooke. They obtained a grant from the Council for New England and employed John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, to carry out their plans. Winthrop and his colony arrived at the mouth of the Connecticut River just as the Dutch were preparing to build a fort at this place. The English asserted their claim and forced the nsra mm .'.*■■"'- :£' > --""■■fir) -'*iiT..--' ( X >,v4'v\% '? • '-- Jki ^-■-■Jjz i* '> : ' ! j]f' „-: V \ \ \ ■:- j « is * in t m j | i S Map of Hartford in the Seventeenth Century. Dutch to leave (1635). The town of Saybrook was begun and shortly afterward a number of settlers from Massa- chusetts made their way to the west and began other settlements in the valley. English Settlements. — Among the most important of these were the towns of Windsor and Wethersfield. The largest migration to this fertile, attractive region was made by Rev. Thomas Hooker, who led one hundred members of his congregation through the " great woods," a journey of ten days, until they reached the Connecticut River. NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 87 Here they built the town of Hartford (1636) on the former site of the Dutch Fort of Good Hope. Hooker secured a liberal charter from the English government, and in the next year (1637) the three towns, Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield, united and formed the province of Connecti- cut. A general assembly was organized, composed of dele- gates from each town, and all plans for a permanent and prosperous future were begun. Nkw Knoland Pequot Fort. Pequot War. — In the valley of the Connecticut lived a powerful Indian tribe known as the Pequots. These Indians had traded with the Dutch and looked upon the English as intruders. Moreover the Pequots were afraid that the new settlers would force them back into the dis- trict of the Mohawk Indians, who were their enemies. From time to time the white settlers were attacked by the Indians, and a feeling of alarm spread among all the towns. 88 AMERICAN HISTORY Captain Mason. — As soon as the General Assembly met an act was passed declaring war against the Indians, and in 1637 Captain John Mason was selected to lead an attack upon the Pequot settlement near Stonington. Taking about one hundred white men and some Narra- gansett Indians as allies, Captain Mason made the attack upon the Indian village about daylight. The Indians were completely surprised and overcome. Out of seven hun- dred but five Indians escaped. This war against the Pequots put an end to the Indian outbreaks, and the colo- nists grew more secure in their claim to the valley. King Philip's War. — After the death of Massasoit he was succeeded by his son, known in New England his- tory as King Philip. Philip had been friendly with the whites for many years, but he began to grow uneasy about their encroachments upon his land. At the same time the English settlers in the Connecticut Valley had been at war with the Pequots and had driven them from the district. The remaining Pequots, fearing to enter the Hudson Valley lest their ancient enemies, the Mohawks, would attack them, returned toward the eastern coast and joined with the Wampanoags and Narragansetts in a stand against the whites. It was a fierce struggle and is called King Philip's War because Philip led the outbreak. His brother was killed and his wife and son were captured and sold into slavery ; and later he was wounded, and died declaring that there was nothing more to live for. This outbreak of the Indians was suppressed by the English and marked the last stand of the Indians in the New England district. New Haven Colony. — In 1638 another Puritan migra- tion from England was made to the New England country. This colony, led by Reverend John Davenport, made a settlement at New Haven on Long Island Sound. The members of this colony were more extreme in their religious ideas than any of the other Puritans. They based their NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 89 government upon the laws of the Old Testament and in- stituted a system of government under which only church members could vote. They were joined by other con- gregations who built small settlements close to New Haven. In 1643 they were all united under the New Haven Constitution. In 1662 the English government gave Con- necticut control of the New Haven settlements, and the entire district was governed under the charter of Con- necticut. The Fundamental Orders. — One of the most signifi- cant events in the history of Connecticut was the adoption of a constitution by the General Court or Assembly (1639). This constitution, known as the Fundamental Orders, provided for free exercise of religion and the right of every freeman to vote. These acts attracted many settlers to this colony and aided in the permanent development of the province. Religious Controversies. — The early Puritan settlers left England not only because of the oppressive laws against dissenters, but because they desired to establish a settle- ment where they could carry out their own ideas in politics as well as religion and not be subject to opposing influences. With the coming of many dissenters to Boston and Salem in the time of the Endicott movement, there were Puritans who differed from one another in ideas of church and state administration. These people were the forerunners of many different denominations that were to become promi- nent in the community life of the American people of later times. The conflict of ideas brought out by these active speakers caused John Winthrop and other members of the General Assembly of Massachusetts Bay Colony to make efforts to check these discussions. Roger Williams. — Among the most noted of these inde- pendent Puritans was Roger Williams. He was born in Wales in 1600 and was educated at Cambridge, England, 9o AMERICAN HISTORY where he took orders in the Anglican church. Very early in his ministry, Williams became impressed with the Puri- tan movement and he resigned his work in the Church of England and became a dissenting clergyman. He was a lovable character, endearing himself to many persons by his earnest religious views. He was sincere in his convic- tions and conscientious in his teachings. Roger Williams preaching to the Indians. Williams came to America in his thirty-second year as minister to a congregation in Salem. It was not long after his arrival in Salem that he found that his ideas in regard to separation of church and state affairs did not agree with the plans of the Salem government, so he left and went to Plymouth. Later he was recalled to Salem and began his work as before. It was a critical time in Salem, for there were others who objected to the administration's lack of toleration. At last laws were passed by the General Court forbidding any but members of the local Puritan church to vote. Williams opposed this measure and he was tried NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 91 for sedition and later banished. The trial was most note- worthy and many persons sided with Williams against the General Court. Anne Hutchinson. — Among those who also advocated " free conscience " and the separation of church and state was the wife of Colonel Hutchinson, a prominent official of Massachusetts. Mrs. Hutchinson was the daughter of a Puritan clergyman of renown in England, and all her life she had been under the influence of the free thought of the Puritan movement. She considered the views of Winthrop and other members of the Assembly narrow and intolerant, and she voiced her thoughts freely. She was a brilliant and learned woman, and it was her custom to hold Bible meetings in her home for the purpose of studying the Scrip- tures. Many persons attended these gatherings and in time the Assembly attempted to prohibit the meetings. But Mrs. Hutchinson continued her work, and at last she was tried for sedition and like Roger Williams was ban- ished from the colony. Her husband and many friends supported Anne Hutchinson in her work, and when she left the colony she was accompanied by a large following. Mary Dyer and the Quakers. — Among the women who stood by Mrs. Hutchinson during her trial was a woman by the name of Mary Dyer. When Mrs. Hutchinson was banished, Mary Dyer accompanied her to Rhode Island. For many years, Mrs. Dyer lived quietly in this colony and during her residence here she became converted to the Quaker faith. Hearing of the severe persecution of the Quakers in Boston, she determined to go and plead for them. Three times she was driven from Boston for interfering with the judgment of the General Court, and finally she was warned not to return under penalty of death. Her zeal prevailed, however, and learning that the Quakers were still unfairly treated, that many of them were ill in prison and needed aid, Mary Dyer fearlessly went back to make 92 AMERICAN HISTORY another plea. She had hardly begun her appeal when she was seized, brought to trial, and sentenced to death. Al- though her relatives and friends plead for her life, she, with other Quakers, was executed for the cause of her religious convictions. Rhode Island, 1636. — Although the smallest of the New England settlements, Rhode Island has one of the most interesting colonial histories. When Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts because of his religious views, he went toward the south into the land of the Narragansett Indians. He journeyed through the wilderness during the winter season, and endured much suffering from cold exposure. Sometimes he slept in a hollow tree and again found shelter in the hut of a friendly Indian. Fortunately while in Plymouth he had learned the Indian dialect and was able to make himself understood. The Narragansetts were kind to Williams and gave him a tract of their land. This region was familiarly known as Rhode Island, a name given to the district by the Dutch traders of earlier times. Providence and Other Settlements. — In the spring of 1636 Roger Williams began a little settlement that he named Providence plantation in memory of God's protec- tion of him. During the year he was joined by members of his congregation and friends who had shared his views. Williams made a visit to England and secured a liberal charter for his colony. He invited persecuted Puritans, Quakers, Roman Catholics, and Jews to make their home in Rhode Island and gave to all freedom of religion and all privileges of citizenship. Anne Hutchinson and her fol- lowers found a refuge in Rhode Island, and other persons who were persecuted for conscience' sake gladly made their homes in the little province. In this way a number of settlements were started, among them the flourishing town of Newport, where the first Jewish synagogue in America was established. NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 93 Religious Tolerance. — The constitution of Rhode Island provided for absolute separation of church and state affairs, and as time went on the little colony became one of the most successful of the New England group. MASSACHUSETTS LOSES HER CHARTER The Demands of Charles II. — When Charles II. came to the throne, in 1660, Massachusetts Bay Colony waited three months before sending an address to the king, and more than a year passed before the authorities proclaimed him king. In 1662 the king required that all public offi- cers should take the oath of allegiance to him ; that all laws in opposition to his authority be repealed ; that all who wished should be permitted to worship according to the Episcopal church ; and that the laws which prevented a man from voting because he was not a member of the Puritan church should be revoked. Massachusetts agreed to the first demand, acknowledged the king, and adminis- tered justice in Charles's name, but she retained her old statutes and continued her government under the original charter privileges. Colonies that Complied. — After New York had been taken from the Dutch in 1664, the commissioners who had accomplished this work were sent to the New England colonies to examine their local governments. They found Rhode Island and Connecticut in a satisfactory condition, and in 1664 granted to them charters with more liberal privileges than they had ever received. Indeed, they proved such satisfactory forms of government that these colonies retained these laws until many years after the American Revolution. Massachusetts' Defiance. — Massachusetts, however, re- fused to give the king's commissioners any information and on some occasions defied them. A report was made to 94 AMERICAN HISTORY the king. Later, in 1675, when Massachusetts formally annexed New Hampshire and Maine as her territory on the ground that certain Massachusetts fishermen had estab- lished trading posts on the coast and that the coast settlers desired her protection, the heirs of Mason and Gorges protested, and Edward Randolph, an English lawyer, was sent over to investigate the situation. He reported that the Massachusetts Bay Colony had no right to the Maine and New Hampshire dis- trict, and the English courts supported the Mason and Gorges claim. Furthermore, Randolph reported that the king's orders were of no avail in the colony, that the authorities still declared Massachusetts' right to the New Hampshire- Maine line, and that only members of the Puritan church had civil rights. Further Inharmony. — Charles II. was provoked with these conditions, and finally, after trying for ten years to get the colony to submit, an- nulled its charter. About this time Charles died and his brother, James II., became king. James appointed Sir Edmund Andros the first royal governor of Massachusetts. The leaders of the Puritan party in Massachusetts were indignant, for they felt that the old charter of the Massachu- setts Bay Company had been legally purchased and that the crown had no right to interfere with these original privileges. Sir Edmund Andros. NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 95 Governor Andros. — Sir Edmund Andros came over to the colony with a determination to straighten out affairs. His rule was looked upon as very tyrannical, because he took away many local privileges of the towns. He levied and collected new taxes and he proceeded to expend the money as he saw fit. Fortunately he was honest in his deal- ings and sincere in his wish to improve the colony. It was said that he rebuilt a number of the public buildings, constructed good roads, erected shipping wharves, and made other public improvements. While Rhode Island and Connecticut were not interfered with, yet the king concluded that it would be better to unite all of the northern colonies under one government. Hence, a plan was arranged to place New York, New Jersey, and New Hampshire under rule of Andros as well as Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. This displeased the respective colonies, and in many instances Andros was forced to limit privileges in order to control the situation. He was thoroughly disliked for his so-called tyranny. Recent writers are inclined to agree, however, that, upon the whole, Andros was one of the best of the early governors of this district and that he was kind-hearted and gentle- manly in his treatment of the people and only severe with certain opposing factions. Massachusetts' New Charter. — When James II. was deposed by the English people in 1688, and William and Mary came to the throne, changes were made in the gov- ernment of the colonies in America. Andros was recalled, and Massachusetts received a new charter. Though it was not as liberal as she had hoped, yet it was larger in its privileges of self-government and was retained until the American Revolution. Maine and Plymouth were also added to Massachusetts, and Rhode Island and Connecti- cut were allowed to resume their former governments. 96 AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline New England Colonies. I. Council for New England. II. The Puritans. i. Religious Oppression. 2. Holland a Refuge. 3. Founding of Plymouth, 1620. 4. Mayflower Compact. 5. The Indians. III. Massachusetts Bay Company. 1. Settlements. 2. Government. 3. Prosperity. a. Commerce. b. Agriculture. IV. Maine. V. New Hampshire, 1623. VI. Connecticut, 1638. 1. Dutch Forced Out. 2. English Settlements in Connecticut. 3. Pequot War. 4. King Philip's War. 5. New Haven Colony. VII. Religious Controversies. 1. Roger Williams. 2. Anne Hutchinson. 3. Mary Dyer. VIII. Rhode Island, 1636. 1. Providence and Other Settlements. 2. Religious Tolerance. IX. Massachusetts Loses her Charter. 1. Demands of Charles II. 2. Colonies that Complied. 3. Defiance of Massachusetts. 4. Governor Andros. X. Massachusetts Receives New Charter. Review Questions 1. What prompted the settlement of New England? 2. Who took up the work of the Plymouth Company? NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 97 3. Who were the Puritans? Why were some of these people called Pilgrims ? 4. Under what circumstances was Plymouth founded? Give the date of this settlement. 5. What was meant by the Mayflower Compact? 6. How did the Indians treat the Plymouth settlers ? 7. Who organized the Massachusetts Bay Company? 8. What were the principal industries of the Massachusetts people ? 9. What attempts were made to settle Maine and New Hamp- shire ? 10. Who led a colony into Connecticut ? What other nation made a settlement in this region? 11. Who were the following: Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas Hooker, Ferdinando Gorges, John Mason? 12. Give an account of the Indian Wars in New England. 13. Explain how Massachusetts lost her charter. 14. W T hat do you know of the rule of Sir Edward Andros? 15. How did Massachusetts receive a new charter? References Fiske : New England. Lodge : The American Colonies. Thwaites : The American Colonies. Selected Poems : The Landing of the Pilgrims, Hemans. Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert, Tennyson. CHAPTER VI THE MIDDLE COLONIES New York. — The Dutch claimed the land drained by the Hudson River because of the expedition of Henry Hudson. The attractive scenery, general fertility of the soil, and opportunities of trade with the Indians prompted The Dutch Colonists. the Dutch to secure this district. In 1612 some merchants in Holland sent out two explorers, Christiansen and Blok, to the island of Manhattan, where they built a fort. This was attacked by Governor Argall of Virginia in 16 13, but not destroyed. In 16 14 Blok entered and explored the Connecticut River and visited Narragansett Bay and gave 98 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 99 the name Rhode Island (Roode Island) to this district. The Dutch traders then began building a series of forts on the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware rivers and opened up an active fur trade with the Indians. Dutch West India Company. — In 162 1 the famous Dutch West India Company was formed and granted a twenty-year charter by the government of Holland. Under New Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century. this charter the company had the right to the monopoly of the trade on the " west coast of Africa from Cape Verd to the Cape of Good Hope ; in all islands lying in the At- lantic Ocean ; on the east coast of America from Newfound- land to the Straits of Magellan; and even beyond the Straits on its west coast, and in the southern lands which at that time were still believed to stretch from Cape Horn across the South Pacific to New Guinea. All the non- European regions of the globe were thus divided by the States-General." IOO AMERICAN HISTORY Dutch Sailors. — From this time forward the Dutch sailors were unceasing in their efforts to open up markets in all parts of the world, and in a few years they were to become known as the most fearless and successful traders in the whole world. New Amsterdam. — The Dutch West India Company appointed Peter Minuit as governor of New Netherlands, as their possessions in America were called. In 1626 Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the In- dians for twenty-four dollars' worth of trinkets ; to-day it has become perhaps the most valuable site in America. A town was started here called New Amsterdam, which later became New York City. The Patroon System. — In order to attract immigration to the new country, the West India Company organized a system of grants known as patroonships. To any mem- ber of the company who would send over fifty settlers, build a church and a schoolhouse, and furnish a minister and a schoolmaster, a large grant of land was given. Many Dutch farmers answered the advertisements of the patroons, and each settler was furnished with a set of farming tools, and exempted from taxation for ten years. But they were not given the right to vote and were entirely under the rule of the patroon who acted as their governor and judge. The settlers were not to remove from the plantation for ten years, and furthermore were not allowed to hunt, fish, or manufacture, or, in other words, interfere with the monopoly rights of the company. Prosperity for the Governors. — The system worked very well for some time, and in the succeeding years many of the patroons became very wealthy. A number of these lords proprietors built handsome homes in New Amsterdam and continued to carry on extensive trade with Europe. In the course of time, this city grew into wealth and importance. Opposition by Colonists. — Many of the governors THE MIDDLE COLONIES IOI appointed by the company were despotic and dishonest in their rule, and the aristocratic patroons were often exacting in their control, so the liberty-loving Dutch began to resent the continual oppression. Finally when Governor Kieft, against the wishes of the people, opened up a serious war with the Algonquin Indians, and levied an unusually severe war tax, the inhabitants of New Amsterdam sent a petition to the government of Holland asking for self- government. They did not get this privilege, but the gov- ernment sent out more considerate governors. Peter Stuyvesant. — This was only temporary ; for Peter Stuyvesant, the governor, really opposed any attempts at self-government, and it was only when he was in great need of money to keep up the defenses of New Amsterdam that he allowed the people to elect some of their most representative men in order that he might select nine to serve as a committee to confer with when necessary. His Successful Rule. — While Stuyvesant was often arbitrary in his rule and gave few privi- leges to the colonists, his shrewd management of the business of the colony and his close understanding of trade relations made New Nether- lands prosperous and attracted other settlers. He forced the Swedish colony in Delaware to come under the control of New Netherlands and extended the Dutch claim in New Jersey and east of the Hudson Valley. Peter Stuyvesant. 102 AMERICAN HISTORY Formal Transfer to England. — In 1664 Charles II, laid claim to New Netherlands on the ground that it was in- cluded in the original English possessions, and furthermore that the Dutch had constantly interfered with the Eng- lish trade in America, the Spice Islands, and other parts of the far East. A treaty with Holland was effected whereby a formal transfer of New Netherlands was made to the English. Actual Transfer to England. — Many English who had settled on Long Island and also in Manhattan had made friends with the Dutch inhabitants, hence when Nicolls, the commander of the English fleet, arrived and demanded the surrender of the city, although Stuyvesant stoutly refused, the people of New Amsterdam and other places declined to assist the governor against the English. With- out any difficulty the whole section came under British control. Change of Name. — The entire district was granted to the king's brother, the Duke of York, and its name from that time forward became New York. Later the Duke of York granted the southern part of the territory to two Eng- lish gentlemen, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and this district became known as New Jersey. English Control of New York. — The control of New York now gave the English an unbroken line of territory from Canada to Florida. The English immediately established a form of self- government, revised the school system, and extended the trade privileges. Soon many other colonists came into the country, and it was said that as early as the first occu- pation of New York City by the English that as many as eighteen foreign languages could be heard on its streets; hence it was known as the city of foreigners. In 1674 dissatisfaction arose between the Dutch and English, and New York for a brief time fell into the hands THE MIDDLE COLONIES I03 of the Dutch, but it was shortly afterwards restored to the English. Industrial Interests. — While the interest of the town folk was still in commerce, many farms and plantations were opened along the Hudson, and slave labor was intro- duced to assist in agriculture. The state prospered and became an important colonial possession of the English. The fur trade was continued with the Iroquois Indians, and by treaties with the Five Nations, the English soon opened the way for westward control. Maryland. — For years there were sharp conflicts in England over religious questions. Changes were made in laws limiting religious privileges, and people were frequently perse- cuted. About the year 1630 the Roman Catho- lics suffered from this oppression , and a wealthy member of this faith, George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, determined to establish a home for those who were perse- cuted. Baltimore first tried to plant a colony on Newfoundland, but this was a failure. Then he secured a tract of land on both sides of Chesa- peake Bay, which in- cluded a portion of Vir- ginia and Pennsylvania. Before Lord Baltimore could carry out his plans he died, and his sons Leonard and Cecil Calvert took up the project. The Lord Baltimore. io4 AMERICAN HISTORY grant was named Maryland in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic, and who favored the enterprise. The first colony was sent over in 1634, and a settlement named St. Mary's was made at the mouth of the Potomac. Kind of Government. — A proprietary form of govern- ment was set up and religious toleration was established. Under the charter, the proprietor could appoint the governor and other officers of state and also name the higher council, while the people had the privilege of elect- ing the members to a general assembly. Industrial Pursuits. — The soil of Mary- land was fertile, and the settlers began the culture of tobacco, which became as profitable as it had been in Virginia. Wheat grew excel- Maryland Settlements. lently, and shortly be- came one of the staple crops. Many small farms were opened and a variety of English fruits and cereals were intro- duced and flourished. Besides agriculture, fisheries and fur trade were carried on. The colonists established friendly re- lations with the Indians and avoided conflicts with them. Religious Controversies. — But Maryland was destined to be the scene of many religious controversies. When Lord Baltimore received his charter, he determined to have absolute religious toleration. He opened the colony to THE MIDDLE COLONIES 105 all creeds. There was naturally a predominance of Roman Catholics then. When Charles I. was beheaded, the colo- nists declared his son as their king. This antagonized the Puritan settlers in Maryland, who recognized Cromwell as their national head. Thereupon, the charter of Lord Baltimore was revoked. Cromwell, however, investigated the conditions and restored the charter. Later when Balti- more granted more liberal privileges to the Protestants, Charles II. revoked the charter, declaring that the Pro- prietor had been too lenient to dissenters. As time went by, religious strife continued among the colonists ; and at one time the Puritans, who had founded Annapolis and other towns, got control of the government and denied the right of representation to the Catholics. This matter was finally adjusted, and religious toleration and freedom in both worship and in civil affairs restored. Claiborne's Ambition. — As Virginia and Pennsylvania were opposed to the boundaries of Maryland, a wealthy Virginian, William Claiborne, determined to claim Kent's Island in Chesapeake Bay and control the fur trade of this district without submitting to Lord Baltimore's authority. Claiborne called upon the Virginia Assembly for aid. For a time it seemed as though both colonies would be drawn into a civil war. The crown settled this difficulty by deciding in favor of Baltimore. William Penn was also afraid that the waterway of Penn- sylvania might be shut off, so Penn had an adjustment made in regard to the Maryland boundary which was in his favor. Under Lords Baltimore. — As the fortunes of the Lords Baltimore in England shifted from time to time, so condi- tions in Maryland were more or less changed, but for five successive generations the colony remained within the con- trol of this family. It was not until the American Revo- lution that it became a " free and independent state." New Jersey. — On June 24, 1664, when the Duke of 106 AMERICAN HISTORY York received the grant of New Netherlands, he granted to Berkeley and Carteret all land between the Hudson and Delaware rivers from Cape May on the south to Long Island Sound on the north. The name New Jersey was given to the country because Carteret had formerly been governor of an island off the coast of England, called Jersey. In the beginning it was divided into two districts, East and West Jersey. Natural Advantages. — The land was fertile, and, as the charter offered a free and liberal plan of government, many settlers from near-by colonies were attracted to it. It was an admirable tract for farming and cattle raising ; and a number of Dutch farmers established themselves in the towns of Bergen, Hobuc (Hoboken), and New Castle ; and on the west the Swedes, Finns, and Dutch, who owned tracts before the cession to the Duke of York, continued their interests. Afterwards the later settlers became merged into the regular English population. Government. — Many New Englanders settled along the Passaic, and became so energetic in their political plans that it was said that New Jersey became a little model of New England. There were some struggles between the people and the proprietors over civil rights, but the colonists for the most part were able to carry out their plans of government. Temporary Change of Government. — In 1673 New Jersey, New York, and Long Island passed under the rule of the States-General of Holland, but this brought little change in the colony, and the Dutch rule was over within the year. In 1674 a number of Quakers emigrated into the colony and became quite influential. They later moved into the Delaware district. Industries. — The industries of the colony were farming, cattle raising, pottery, brick making, and lumbering. It was said that a contract was let to " one, Daniel Coxe of THE MIDDLE COLONIES 107 this colony, to furnish cedar trees for the roof and inward work of St. Paul's cathedral/' in London. Under Quaker Control. — In 1679 Carteret sold his rights to New Jersey for the payment of his debts. Twelve Quakers, with William Penn at the head of the company, bought these rights ; and thus New Jersey came under Quaker control. The colony prospered so greatly that it was said : " There is not a poor body in the Province." Pennsylvania. — Among the people of England who suffered severe persecu- tions because of their religion were the Quakers, or the Society of Friends, as they called themselves. These people were deeply pious and believed in social equality, the abolition of slavery, reforms in prison conditions, and simplicity in dress and manners. They were enthusi- astic in their faith, and many of them came to America as missionaries. Be- cause of their extreme views and fearless criticism they were persecuted in some of the colonies, especially in New Eng- land. Rhode Island, however, offered them homes. George Fox, the founder of the society, visited America and urged the establishment of an asylum or district for the Quakers. The plan of Fox was carried out by William Penn, son of Admiral Penn of the English Navy. William Penn. — While a student at Oxford, Penn became impressed with the teachings of the Quakers and desired to join their ranks. His father discouraged these ideas and sent Penn to travel on the Continent. While abroad, Penn became acquainted with the gay life of Europe and visited many of the large cities. At one time he took A Quaker. io8 AMERICAN HISTORY service in the Dutch war. On his return to England he began the study of law ; but, before he completed his studies, he visited his father's estates in Ireland, and here he met Thomas Loe, a famous Quaker. Penn was converted to the faith and became a loyal member of the Society of Friends. His father, greatly disappointed, at once threatened to disin- herit him. Some time passed before they were reconciled ; but, when Penn received his father's forgiveness, the latter went so far as to aid his son and some fellow Quakers in their release from prison. Penn's Grant. — Ad- miral Penn left his son a William Penn. comfortable income be- sides a large claim upon the king for certain loans that had been given to the king. It was in part payment of this debt that Penn succeeded in obtaining a grant of land in America " lying north of Maryland and bounded by the Delaware River and on the west limited as far as Mary- land and northward to extend as far as plantable." This district was named Pennsylvania (Penn's Woodland). The First Settlement. — In 1682 the first of Penn's colonists came to America. They were instructed by Penn to choose a site for a town where "it is most navigable, dry and healthy," and he added that the streets were to be broad and that each house should be located " in the middle of its own plat, that it may be a green country town, which will never be burned, and always be wholesome." THE MIDDLE COLONIES 109 Trees were to be set out wherever needed and the houses were to be substantial and attractive; thus a beautiful, healthful city was built with every feature meaning per- manency and a place worthy of attracting colonists. Government. — Penn and his heirs were made lords proprietors of the district. Penn received a liberal charter and he prepared a strong, free government for his people. He wrote to his settlers : " You shall be governed by laws Penn's Treaty with the Indians. of your own making and live free, and, if you will, a sober and industrious people. I shall not usurp the right of any nor oppress his person." Penn organized a trading com- pany known as the Free Society of Traders. To these he gave trading privileges and twenty thousand acres of land. In preparing the government of the colony, Penn wrote that there was but one end in government, that is " to support power in reverence to the people and to secure the people from the abuse of power. Let men be good and the government cannot be bad, but if men be bad, let the gov- 110 AMERICAN HISTORY ernment be ever so good, they will endeavor to warp and spoil it to their own turn." The type of government of Pennsylvania was a proprie- tary ship consisting of a governor, deputy governor, a pro- vincial council, and an assembly, the last two elected by the people. Indian Treaty. — Penn held many meetings with the Indians and secured their good will and friendship. He planned a council of six planters and six representatives of the Indians to settle all difficulties between the settlers and the Indians. In 1683 he made a great treaty with the Indians, that declared that peace should exist between the settlers and the Indians " as long as the sun and moon should shine." It is interesting to note that Pennsylvania was the only one of the colonies that escaped serious diffi- culties with the savages. Population. — Of the population in Pennsylvania not more than one half were English; the rest were Dutch, Finns, Swedes, Germans, Huguenots, Scotch, and Irish. These were industrious people who introduced various kinds of arts and crafts into the colony, and shortly great pros- perity spread among the people. Among the first things that Penn established were a postal service, a public school system, and a printing press. Trade. — The trade of Philadelphia was with the neigh- boring colonies and the West Indies, so that this city early became known as a commercial center. Most of the houses were three stories with good cellars, and many of the homes had balconies. Philadelphia was destined to become one of the largest and most imposing cities in America before the Revolution, and it became the scene of many historical events. Delaware. — When Gustavus Adolphus was king of Sweden, he granted a charter to some merchants in Sweden under the title of the Swedish West India Company. * THE MIDDLE COLONIES III These men had the right to trade and make settlements in the New World. The king died before the enterprise was well under way, but the company undertook to establish a colony on the Delaware and named it New Sweden. At this time the mother country was engaged in a conflict in Europe and could pay very little attention to the new enterprise. The result was that when New Netherlands fell into the hands of the English, the Delaware Colony came under English control. Under Perm's Control. — In 1681, William Penn ob- tained proprietorship of the district in order to secure an outlet for trade by way of the Delaware River and Bay. Although William Penn granted the people the privilege of an independent assembly, still Delaware and Pennsyl- vania were under the control of Penn's heirs until the Amer- ican Revolution. The population increased and was composed of Swedes, Germans from the north of Germany, Huguenots, and Quakers. The people were industrious and shared the prosperity of Pennsylvania. Topical Outline The Middle Colonies. I. New York, 1614. 1. Dutch West India Company. 2. New Amsterdam Founded. 3. The Patroon System. 4. Prosperity, New Netherlands. 5. Tyrannical Rule. 6. Peter Stuyvesant. 7. Transfer of New Netherlands to England. 8. Change of Name. 9. English Control of New York. 10. Industrial Interests. II. Maryland, 1634. 1. Government, Royal Province. 2. Industrial Pursuits. 3. Religious Controversies. 4. Claiborne's Ambition. 112 AMERICAN HISTORY III. New Jersey, 1664. 1. Natural Advantages. 2. Government. 3. Temporary Change of Government. 4. Industries. 5. New Jersey Controlled by Quakers. IV. Pennsylvania, 1682. 1. William Penn. 2. Penn's Grant. 3. First Settlement, Philadelphia. 4. Government of Pennsylvania. 5. Indian Treaty. 6. Population. 7. Trade. V. Delaware, 1638. 1. Swedish West India Company. 2. Settlement on Delaware River, 1638. 3. Delaware Controlled by Penn, 1681. Review Questions 1. Give an account of the settlement of New York. 2. Under what conditions did the English gain control of New York? 3. What do you know of the founding of Maryland? 4. What nation settled New Jersey? 5. What led to the settlement of Pennsylvania? 6. Tell the story of William Penn's life. 7. Who settled Delaware ? Home Reading Andrews : Colonial Self- Government. Fisher : Colonial Era. Thwaites : The American Colonies. Selected Readings : Diedrich Knickerbocker's History of New York, Washington Irving. CHAPTER VII THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY Unrest among Colonies of Various Nations. — For many years well-organized trading companies of European nations vied with one another in the control of foreign commerce. Each tried to gain a monopoly of certain markets, and this led to untold unrest and strife. As each nation established colonies in America, it was generally understood that these would in time prove valuable markets for the mother coun- try, both as a place for sale of home-manufactured goods as well as a place to secure raw products and food supplies. Early Skirmishes. — As the interests of one and the other conflicted, struggles between the frontiersmen of Canada and those of New York and New England began. For more than twenty-five years these struggles went on in the form of skirmishes before formal war was declared. In both instances, the frontier settlers were aided by their Indian allies who stood loyally by their European friends. General Points of Contention. — When the westward movement began, there was bound to come a struggle for control of the fur trade, the wide land areas, and the splen- did waterways. The French got into the interior easily by way of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and it was not long before they determined to claim the great river of the interior. The English were hemmed in by the natural barrier of the Allegheny and Blue Ridge mountains, and made their way comparatively slowly into the country, i 113 114 AMERICAN HISTORY Main Points of Contention. — There were three main objects of contention between the French and the English. These were : First, the fisheries on the coast between Newfoundland and Long Island. Second, the fur trade of the Great Lakes and Northwest Territory. Third, the control of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. French and English Claims on the Coast. — The French claimed the whole coast from eastern Maine to Hudson Bay ; and the English held a right to the coast from Bay of Fundy to the district of Florida. From time to time, as the fishermen followed the great schools of cod and mackerel back and forth in these waters, they constantly overlapped their claims, causing conflicts such as had occurred to their forefathers when they had contended for the fisheries of the English Channel. French Claims in the Interior. — In the interior, the French claim was even more unlimited, for it included the St. Lawrence Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes, as well as the land drained by the Mississippi and its tribu- taries. This latter district included the valleys of the Ohio, Tennessee, Cumberland, Yazoo, numerous small streams on the east, besides the immense unexplored tract drained by the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers of the west and known as the Louisiana territory. To yield one portion of this vast territory meant the possibility of the loss of control of the rich fur trade. Absolute protection of these rights became the watchword of the French. To this end, an extensive line of forts was planned which, together with the trapping posts and missions, might prove beyond a doubt that the land was actually occupied. Overlapping Claims to the South. — At the south of the English colonies lay the Spanish possessions of Florida, and south of the French territory of Louisiana were Texas and THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 115 New Mexico, other Spanish claims. It was not hard to strike conflicting claims of overlapping territory all through these poorly defined boundaries. King William's War, 1689-1697. — When the great European wars broke out and England and France became engaged in these struggles, it was the signal for outbreaks between the colonists of the nations in America. The first of these conflicts is known in American history as King The Attack on Deerfield. William's War, and is mentioned in English history as the War of the English Succession. In 1688 there occurred in England what was termed the Glorious Revolution. The English people had grown tired of the increasing tyranny of their king, James I., and forced him to leave the country. James fled to France, where he found a ready ally in the French king, Louis XIV. A struggle now began between France and England, which brought the colonies of each of the mother countries into the conflict. The war continued under the name of Queen Il6 AMERICAN HISTORY Anne's War, and lasted for almost twenty-five years. The New England and New York colonies were most active in these wars as they were nearest the French frontier. Indian Attacks. — Count Frontenac, the governor of Canada, now planned to invade New York and cut this district from the New England colonies. The Iroquois Indians, who were the friends of the English, heard of the plan and they made some attacks upon the Canadian fron- tier. The French with their Indian allies made their way down the Hudson Valley in the depth of the winter season. One night they stole upon the village of Schenectady, and massacred the inhabitants without warning. They then made similar attacks upon Salmon Falls, Deerfield, and Haverhill, Massachusetts. The suffering of the people was very great, — many of them were cruelly tortured and others driven as prisoners into Canada. The English now planned an attack upon Port Royal in Acadia and captured it. Later attacks were planned upon Quebec and Mon- treal, but these failed. Treaty of Ryswick. — The treaty of Ryswick closed the first war. By this treaty Acadia was returned to the French in exchange for European possessions of more value to the English. This offended the New England people, who had long desired Port Royal as a fishing base on the Bay of Fundy. Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. — When the next war broke out, known as Queen Anne's War or the War of the Spanish Succession, another expedition was planned against Port Royal, and it was again captured. Acadia was named Nova Scotia ; and Port Royal was renamed Annapolis in honor of the queen. The English were also successful in the Hudson Bay region. By the treaty of Utrecht, signed at the close of the war, they received, besides the Hudson Bay district and Nova Scotia, the island of Newfoundland. This war was also characterized by cruel massacres on the borders. As Spain was engaged in the conflict, some of her THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 117 American colonies were drawn into the war, and fighting took place on the Carolina coast. King George's War, 1744-1748. — Many years now passed before another struggle took place, but during the reign of George II., all Europe was drawn into a long and disastrous war known as the War of the Austrian Succession. In America it was called King George's War. Again France and England were opposed to each other. When the con- flict broke out, New England sent a fleet of one hundred SCENE OF THE LAST FRENCH WAR BOB HAY, H.T. 64° vessels and several thousand troops against Louisburg, the strongest French fortress in America. This fort was located on Cape Breton Island ; it was built of stone and had cost several million dollars. The French had always boasted that it could not be taken, but, after a siege, it was captured (1774) ; and, to the great discontent of the Americans, it was returned to France in exchange for Gibraltar (treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 1748). French and Indian War. — These wars had the effect of uniting both sides more closely in their own colonies and Il8 AMERICAN HISTORY of giving to each a certain preparation that they were to use with strong effect in the next struggle, which is known as the French and Indian War. Preliminary Events. — For years the French had built forts and trading posts along the St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River, until by the year 1750, they had erected more than sixty. This chain of forts literally hemmed in the English on the narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard. About the year 1753 some Virginia and Maryland planters formed the Ohio Company for the pur- pose of opening up a new tract of land in the western dis- trict of Virginia. It was their plan to divide this into plantations and connect these by an open road with the Potomac River and thence to Chesapeake Bay. In their charter it was stipulated that they were " to plant on their lands a hundred families within seven years, " and also to erect a fort on the Ohio. Overlapping Claims of the French and English in the West. — ■ Christopher Gist was sent out to survey the lands. He explored what are now the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia, besides western Maryland and Pennsyl- vania. He made a favorable report. Then the Ohio Com- pany began its work by erecting a fort near the head of the Cumberland River. They then blazed a trail for sixty miles into the interior and began the open road that was to be- come the highway for the settlements. Neither England nor France had ever made any definite boundaries of the interior of their possessions and their claims varied accord- ing to the late comer. French Hostilities. — In the spring of 1753 the French built Fort Lebceuf on the Allegheny, and not far from this the English built a trading post called Venango. This was seized by the French and occupied by some of their forces from Fort Lebceuf. Washington's Mission. — When Governor Dinwiddie of THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 119 Virginia heard of this he sent Major George Washington, Adjutant-General of the Colonial Militia, to urge the French to give up the English claim. Washington was but twenty- one years of age at this time ; yet as a surveyor, he had had experience in exploring the woodlands. He was accompanied by Christopher Gist and some Indian guides. It was a most perilous journey, as the French and Indians were on the lookout for the scalp of any Englishman who Washington's Return from the French Fort. might intrude upon the country, and, furthermore, there was danger from savages and from wild animals. Washington went on his way and stopped first at Venango, where he was instructed to go to the commander of the district, who was at Lebceuf. Washington presented the claims of the English, and the French commander politely but firmly explained that the French had a prior claim which they would not give up. After Washington had left, the com- 120 AMERICAN HISTORY mander turned and remarked to one of his companions that he had never seen, even at the French court at Versailles, any one so graceful in courtesy as this " young backwoods- man." Dinwiddie's Decision. — When Washington returned to Virginia and delivered his message to Dinwiddie, the gover- nor determined to force the matter. In January of the next year he wrote to Lord Halifax that he had decided to send out immediately two hundred men to protect those already sent out by the Ohio Company to build a fort, and to resist any attempts on them. " I have commission'd Major George Washington, the Bearer hereof, to com- mand." The governor offered bounties of land to any one who would enlist in the enterprise. He also invited aid of the other colonies in the plan, but North Carolina was the only one that offered assistance. England allowed the use of regular troops from New York and the Carolinas. The First Engagement. — A little company of English, led by a man named Trent, had just begun the construction of a fort in western Pennsylvania at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, when the French and their Indian allies seized it and finished it, calling it Du- quesne after the governor of Canada. When Washington reached the site of Great Meadows near Duquesne, he was met by the French under Jumonville, with whom he had an engagement which lasted fifteen minutes. The Virgin- ians lost one and had two wounded ; the French lost ten and had twenty-one taken prisoners. Among the dead was Jumonville. When the French received news of this defeat, they gathered reinforcements and went forward to make another attack. Washington had taken another position, and here he built Fort Necessity, where he was besieged by the French and forced to give up. Washington returned home without having accomplished the desired end. THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 121 Its Effect. — It now looked as if the French would surely have undisputed control of the entire western country. But Dinwiddie persistently urged England to assist in recovering the ground, and finally, when William Pitt was made Prime Minister and saw the full situation, he planned to send regular aid to the Americans. The Albany Congress. — It was generally known that the French were making preparations to carry on a regular war in the new country, and all of the English colonies grew interested in the reports. Benjamin Franklin pro- posed a meeting of delegates from the colonies to be held in Albany. This was known as the Albany Congress. Frank- lin strongly urged the formation of a Union of all the colo- nists for joint protection and prepared a plan consisting of a President-General appointed and paid by the king, and a Grand Council to be elected by the colonial assemblies with full power to make treaties with the Indians, build forts, appoint military officers, raise troops, and levy taxes for these purposes. The plan was unanimously adopted by the Albany Congress; but, when it was presented to the colonists and the king, both rejected it — the former, be- cause it was too aristocratic and gave too much power to the king, and the latter, because it gave too much power to the people. The colonists were at least united on the ques- tion that war was imminent. War Declared. — The formal declaration of war was made ; and, in the early spring, Braddock arrived at Alexan- dria. He was an able English general who had seen much service on the Continent. Braddock called a conference of the governors of New York, Massachusetts, Virginia, and Maryland. They planned the following campaign : First, to capture Fort Duquesne, the key to the Ohio River. Second, to hold Niagara, the entrance to the Iroquois country and fur trade of the Great Lakes. Third, to secure Ticonderoga and Crown Point, two forts that 122 AMERICAN HISTORY controlled the route to Canada by way of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain. Fourth, to attack Louisburg, the stronghold guarding the fishing district. Braddock undertook the attack against Fort Duquesne. He had two English regiments, some Virginians under Wash- ington, and about fifty war-painted Indian scouts. The way leading through the woods and over the mountains The Fall of Braddock. was long and difficult. Braddock lost much time in level- ing roads and building bridges. It was almost two months before he reached the neighborhood of Duquesne. In the meanwhile, the French had sent runners out to all of the Indian tribes in the northwest and had collected an army of expert backwoods fighters. The English Attack against Fort Duquesne. — On July 9, the foes met and began fighting. The English " red- coats " were " mowed down like a field of poppies," and in the confusion many Virginians were killed by the reckless firing of the British regulars. Washington estimated that two thirds of them were killed and wounded in this way. THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 123 Braddock was determined to carry out his own plans, which were not practical ; and, while he showed personal bravery, riding back and forth among his men, and having four horses shot from under him, yet the whole affair was a complete failure, and Braddock himself received wounds from which he died. Washington covered the retreat of the soldiers to the Virginia settlements and Duquesne remained in the hands of the French. Thus the first part of the plan was a failure. The French Advantage. — The French had found, on the field near Fort Duquesne, papers revealing the whole An Acadian Farm. plan of campaign of the English ; so, when General Shirley went on toward Niagara, he discovered that the French were ahead of him and that their forces greatly outnumbered his ; hence, after building an outpost at Oswego, he returned toward Albany. The Second English Loss. — When William Johnson, an experienced frontiersman, was made commander of the expedition against Ticonderoga, he made every preparation to make a successful attack, but as was the case of the Niagara plan, the French knew of his coming and their com- mander, Dieskau, with nearly four thousand French regu- lars, Canadians, and Indian allies had made suitable de- 124 AMERICAN HISTORY fenses. Johnson determined upon an attack, however. Although Dieskau was defeated and taken prisoner, yet Johnson was unable to hold the position ; and, failing to take Crown Point, he fell back and built Fort William Henry on the southern shores of Lake George. In the north and east operations against the French were well-nigh futile. This period is spoken of as " two years of failure." The Acadians. — It was about this time that the English were guilty of a most unwarranted act of cruelty. When Acadia was ceded to the British at the close of Queen Anne's War, and was renamed Nova Scotia, many of the inhabitants of this district were desirous of moving over into the French domain, so as not to be under the British rule. But the governor, on the ground that the whole place would be depopulated, persuaded them to remain against their will. They were given protection and all went well for almost forty years. Now they were required to take the oath of allegiance to the English king. This they refused to do. Immediately the British commander seized all of " their houses, lands, cattle," forced the unhappy people on board of English ships, and carried them to various English settlements along the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to Georgia. In many instances families were separated and the poor unfor- tunate people, in a strange land with foreign language and customs prevailing, were utterly discomforted. Some of them found their way to France, others to San Domingo, and a few wandered into the Southland and found a refuge in Louisiana, which by this time had become a Spanish province. Here they remained and many of their descend- ants may still be found among the southwestern parishes of this state. Longfellow's poem, Evangeline, is founded upon this event. Fort Duquesne again Attacked. — After the defeat of THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 125 Braddock's army near Fort Duq.uesne, the French with their Indian allies continued to overrun the western country. The French commander of this district wrote to the home government : " I have succeeded in ruining the adjacent provinces, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, driving off the inhabitants and totally destroying the settlements, over a tract of country, thirty leagues wide. The enemy has lost more since the battle than on the day of his defeat." Embarkation of the Acadians. The Surrender. — Washington fully realized the distress of the frontier settlements, and undertook to stay the in- roads of the French. For four years he steadily worked to organize forces for protection and erect forts to hold the enemy in check. It was a tedious, thankless task, for Din- widdie had grown dissatisfied with Washington and it was difficult to get the governor's support and cooperation. Finally Pitt reorganized the armies at home and sent aid to the colonists. He directed General Forbes, a Scotch officer, to Virginia, and he, with Washington's aid, made 126 AMERICAN HISTORY another attack upon Fort Duquesne and forced its sur- render. The Siege of Louisburg. — About the same time Pitt sent a great fleet under Admiral Boscawen and Generals Amherst and Wolfe against the fortress of Louisburg. It fell within six weeks, and five thousand French soldiers surrendered. An attack upon Ticonderoga was a failure. Quebec. — Wolfe now planned an assault upon Quebec, the most powerful posi- tion that the French possessed. Quebec is located upon a high bluff on the St. Lawrence River and almost sur- rounded by a steep wall of solid rock. The French commander, Montcalm, had pro- tected it with well- placed artillery and six- teen thousand soldiers. For three months Wolfe made untiring efforts to find a position where he might make an attack, but he was unsuccessful. Winter was coming on and the time was short. Finally, late one evening, Wolfe discovered a narrow, zigzag path winding up the steep bluffs. That night he had his boats put out their lights ; and, silently in the dark- ness, he drifted down close to the path and landed his men. Wolfe led his men ; and, speaking French to the solitary guards, forced his way up the steep path before a signal could be given. Early in the morning, the English army spread out in battle array on the heights of Abraham in the General Montcalm. THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 127 rear of the city. Montcalm quickly rearranged his forces. Here the great battle began. Wolfe and Montcalm were both fatally wounded. The victory went to the English. Nowhere had greater valor and more unselfish bravery been shown on both sides than in the severe battle of Quebec. Profound admiration was shown for both commanders, who had laid down their lives for the cause of their country. On the spot of the battlefield stands a monument erected The Death of General Wolfe. by the Canadians of a later day, which bears this significant sentiment : " Valor gave a united death, History a united fame, Posterity a united monument." With the fall of Quebec in 1759, French supremacy in America steadily declined ; and, in the next year, when the city of Montreal surrendered to the English, all of France's power in America passed away. This great war was not confined to America ; the English and French with other nations were engaged in a disastrous 128 AMERICAN HISTORY European conflict ; and, furthermore, English and French interests in India were involved. Treaty of Peace, 1763. — When the final treaty of peace was signed, the map of North America was completely changed. England received all of Canada and the adja- cent islands, except two small fishing stations, and the land east of the Mississippi, except the isle of Orleans. Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana and the Philippine Islands, which had been taken by an English fleet during the war. France also ceded to Spain the entire Louisiana territory in compensation for services rendered and also in exchange for European property. Besides these changes, England received from France the latter's claim to trading posts in far-away India. This war cost France the loss of all her vast colonial possessions that had involved so many lives, so much expense and labor in developing; and England laid the foundations of her present world-wide empire. Topical Outline Struggle for Supremacy. I. Conflicts over Boundaries. 1. Fur Trade. 2. Fisheries. II. European Conflicts in America. 1. King William's War (English Succession), 1689-1697. Scene: New England, New York, Canada. 2. Queen Anne's War (Spanish Succession), 1702-1713. Scene: New England Frontier and Canada, Georgia Frontier and Florida. 3. King George's War (Austrian Succession), 1 744-1 748. Scene: New England and Canada. 4. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1 754-1763. Scene: Ohio Valley, Michigan and Niagara boundaries. New York, New England and Canada. III. Treaty of 1763. IV. Result : England Supreme in North America. THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 129 Review Questions 1. What were the conditions in America that led to a conflict between the French and the English ? 2. What territory did the French claim in the New World? 3. What territory did the English claim? 4. What territory did the Spanish claim? 5. What were the conditions in Europe that led to King William's War and to Queen Anne's ? 6. Show how the overlapping claims of the French and English led to the French and Indian War. 7. Describe Washington's journey to the French fort on the Allegheny river. Was the mission successful ? 8. What did Governor Dinwiddie decide to do? 9. Give an account of the first engagement between the French and English. 10. What was the plan of the Albany Congress? 11. What was the British plan of campaign in the French and Indian W T ar? 12. Describe the campaign against Fort Duquesne. 13. What happened to the Acadians during the French and English conflict ? 14. Give an account of the capture of Quebec. 15. Give the date of the treaty of peace. How did this treaty change the map of North America ? References Fiske : New France and New England. MacDonald : Documentary Source Book of American History. CHAPTER VIII SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION English Colonies now Secure. — Between the founding of Jamestown, in 1607, and the treaty of Paris, in 1763, the thirteen English colonies had grown into sturdy settlements whose inhabitants took pride in their development and who now looked upon America as their permanent home. Number of Population. — At the close of the French and Indian War there were upwards of a million people living in the colonies. Massachusetts had the largest number, having a population of perhaps 200,000 ; and Georgia, the youngest colony, had about 10,000. Kinds of Population. — All the population except the American Indians and the African negroes were Europeans or descendants of European ancestors. For the most part they were of English stock, although many other nation- alities, as Scotch-Irish, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and French, were represented. Few, if any, Italians or Spanish were found in the country and none of the Slavonian people had found their way into the New World. Hundreds of people had sought a refuge in America from religious and political persecution ; so, very early the country was looked upon as the " land of freedom." Distribution of Population. — Not only were there larger privileges regarding religion and politics, but there were many opportunities to secure independent homes and to make a wholesome living. The population by nationalities 130 CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 131 was distributed somewhat as follows : New England, English ; New York and northern New Jersey, Dutch and English ; Pennsylvania and Delaware, English, Germans, Swedes, and Finns, and among the English settlers in ^Philadelphia were some French Huguenots ; in Maryland and Virginia, English, Germans, and Scotch-Irish ; in North and South Carolina, English, Scotch-Irish, Huguenots, and some Germans ; in Georgia, English, Scotch, and Moravians. In the new annexations of England in America, we find in Canada, the French ; and in Florida, Spanish subjects. We must fully realize that the cities were, for the most part, very small and that the population in many instances was scattered ; so that many of the grave problems that face the American people to-day in regard to the immigration of foreigners into this country did not play an important part in the questions of that time. Religion. — With the exception of Maryland, where the Roman Catholics settled, all of the English colonies were dominated by Protestants of different denominations. The Puritan faith, in various forms, was strong in New England and the Dutch Reformed Church was found in New York and New Jersey. The Quakers prevailed in Pennsylvania, although there were some Lutherans, and, wherever the royal province form of government existed, the Anglican church became the state religion. In the Carolinas and Georgia, besides the Anglicans, were found many Presby- terians, Baptists, and Methodists. The Influence of the Church. — Throughout the colonies there was much larger religious freedom than in any of the countries of Europe. In the early colonial days, religious customs were carried out with great earnestness, and church rules were obeyed to the letter of the law. Each church arranged its own discipline, and often publicly tried and expelled members who broke the laws of the church. The power of the minister among his congregation was very 132 AMERICAN HISTORY great ; and, as he represented one of the most highly edu- cated of the men of his community, his advice was fre- quently asked by the governor, judges, and those in authority. Sunday Laws. — Sunday laws were enforced in all the. colonies. Under these laws no buying nor selling was allowed, and all public work ceased on the Sab- bath day. Even within doors as little work was done as possible. Satur- day was recognized as baking and cleaning day so that all members of the household might be free from the care of house- keeping in order to attend church. Church Buildings. — Many of the early churches were very simple, plain buildings, modestly furnished and lacking the rich orna- mentation of the Old World churches and cathedrals. They were poorly heated and uncomfortable in winter, but discomfort did not deter the earnest worshipers, who frequently put on extra wraps and carried little pocket or foot stoves with them. These latter consisted of small oblong boxes with perforations in them, so lined as to accommodate a piece of lighted peat or punk wood which would burn for a long time and give out a slow but steady heat. The Service. — The ministers seemed to feel it a duty to St. Michael's, Charleston, in 1761. CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 133 preach serious sermons, bearing upon the responsibility of a deep, personal religion. Sometimes the preacher would talk for long periods of time. Men, women, and children were warned to be attentive ; and, if a man fell asleep during the sermon, he was rapped upon the head by an officer, who would also rouse a drowsy woman by tickling her nose with a rabbit's tail fastened to a long pole. And woe to the youngster who might be found giggling, for he would re- ceive a sharp twinge of the ear and be reminded to be more polite. There were no musical instruments in the churches, but the congregations were trained in hymn and psalm sing- ing ; and, in the Episcopal church, choirs led the hymns and chants, so that there was cordial cooperation in this part of the service. Seating. — Quite often the men and the women sat on different sides of the church, and frequently the members of a congregation were seated according to their social rank in the community. For instance, the governor and his family were given the most choice seats and so on down the scale of position until the servants were granted space in the rear seats or up in the gallery. Salem Witchcraft. — During the early history of Massa- chusetts, a strange belief beset some of the people of this colony and caused great distress. It arose through the idea of a child of a certain minister, who claimed to be be- witched by an Indian servant. Other persons seemed to be affected in the same way, and the belief in witches became a mania. Many persons firmly adhered to their convictions that the strange maladies (such as hysteria) were caused by the spell put upon the sufferer by some one with an evil spirit. Even some of the most learned men of the age were advocates of the belief. Many innocent and unfortunate persons were accused of the art of witchcraft and were tried and punished, more than nineteen were executed, and a number were thrown into prison. The delusion 134 AMERICAN HISTORY was finally dispelled and disappeared as suddenly as it had begun. Education. — As early as 1619, a college was started at Henrico City in Virginia. This school was designed to educate the Indians, and was the first American College. Unfortunately, it was de- stroyed during the Indian mas- sacre of 1622. A public school was also started at Charles City, Virginia, in 1 62 1. It is said that the Dutch established the first permanent school system in their colony of New Amster- dam (New York) in 1633, that two years later the people of Massachusetts opened a regu- lar public school, and that in 1636 this community voted a sum to found a college. The Purpose of Education. — The colonists early felt that in order to be independent in thought and word, one should be able to read and under- stand the Bible and the laws of the land. To this end, in all of the Puritan communities, common schools were established almost as early as their churches. In many of the towns, the authorities went so far as to make compulsory school attendance laws and to re- quire the parents of children to send them to school under penalty of line and imprisonment. The early primary schools were soon improved by adding higher classes ; and within a few years what was known as Latin schools In School. CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 135 (high schools) were established in many of the New England states. Education in Penn's Lands. — The Quakers were also strong advocates of education ; and, as we have noted, William Penn in his instructions to his governors ordered that schools should be opened as early as possible. In Maryland, the Catholics opened up a church school as soon as the first settlement was begun and continued this work. manngmnnngp aniaamminnHnnminmB As runs the Glafs, Our Life doth pafs. My Book and Heart Mufl never part. 'fob feels the Rod, Yet bleffcs GOD nnn i ii i niinn.'Hnmii'iiinr i ffffli umiHiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiuiifii Proud Kerah'sTroop :.';; Was fwallow'd up Lot fled to Zaar, Saw fiery Shower On Sedom pour. Mojes was ht Who^rtff/'sHoft Led thro* the Sea, Noah did view Theoldworld&new. Young Obadias % David,JoJias y All were pious, Peter deny'd His Lord and cry'd. Queen Efther fues, And faves the Jms t Young pious Futh, Left all for Truth. Young Semut/dezr, The Lord did fear. The New England Primer. Up to this day the state of Maryland is noted for its excellent religious schools. In the South. — In the southern colonies, where the popu- lation was scattered because of the plantation system, it became almost impossible to open up public or district schools, as they were called. The pupils were too far away from a common center to attend, hence it became necessary for the wealthy planters to secure individual teachers or tutors and governesses for their children. Sometimes the planters of several neighboring estates would employ a 136 AMERICAN HISTORY William and Mary College. Harvard College in Eighteenth Century. CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 137 rprrrrrrTrrf frrr.rFffrWfrr 'fr/jrrrhr/rFrfli si teacher to open a school in their neighborhood. It was such a school as this that Washington attended in Westmoreland County, Virginia. The Universal Course of Study. — In all of the old- fashioned schools, the course of study was limited to what was known as the three R's, and furniture consisted of only simple wooden benches and long forms against the wall where the pupils might stand or sit to make their copies. They used pens made of quills and ink made from berries. But in those early days the boys and girls learned such a variety of things out of school that their hands were soon taught many of the manual arts that we have introduced in our regular schools. Their training was more complete than one would imagine from the limited number of studies that were taught. Colleges. — Harvard College of Massachusetts was the oldest college founded in America (1636), and William and Mary College of Virginia was the oldest college of the South (1693). As the colonies grew in population and wealth, each in turn opened up colleges which became the basis of the great universities of our country. Newspapers. — As education progressed, the people felt a need to express their views on the questions of the day or to enlarge their ideas by broader reading ; hence, in some of the more populous cities, newspapers were started. At first these were very small sheets, and lacked the varied A Printing Press used in the Colo- nial Times. 138 AMERICAN HISTORY scope of information found in our modern papers ; but they were the beginning of a means to express public opinion, and during the American Revolutionary period were very active in the work of keeping current events before the American people. Literature. — While there were some literary productions in the early colonial times, these were not varied nor exten- sive. The mother country furnished a rich and abundant store of good works, which were read in the colonies with as much interest as in England. Milton and the writers of the Commonwealth were in great demand in New England, and Addison and Steele were favorite authors in Virginia. Printing presses were not numerous in the New World, as England laid a very heavy export duty on these machines, and, furthermore, the colonists were so deeply concerned with physical labor and the interests of homemaking that they had little leisure for literary work. Among some of the clergymen we find a few authors of great merit as, for in- stance, Jonathan Edwards, who wrote most profoundly on the Freedom of the Human Will, and Cotton and Increase Mather, who contributed some important works on religious topics. During the Revolutionary period more active literary work was taken up by the American people, espe- cially along the line of state papers. This work continued after the formation of the new government and became one of the bright pages in our national literature. Industries — Agriculture. — As is. the case in all new countries, the early pioneers became interested in agricul- ture. In some of the sections new and unusual products were found that soon attracted the settlers. This was especially the case of tobacco, Indian corn or maize, and potatoes. These were unknown to the Europeans except in a limited way, and their culture became more extensive as the demand for them increased. There seemed to be a special demand for tobacco, which CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 139 made this product a popular and profitable article of agri- culture. In the tidewater districts of Virginia and Mary- land the land was exceedingly fertile and well adapted to the growth of tobacco ; so, very early plantations were laid out and vast fields of the plant cultivated. Later the Carolinas and Georgia took up the culture. Within the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, tobacco became the staple product of the South. Plantations ranged from BfrWBP BM HBPf W&fl&$ d ©£■' T^L^^^w^ki*' BRf ^yr W : - JkhHI ' tWk* M^D^Jr ' Br^ ' f|fl MB iifp iaf^sfl '■Pffilr Pflp-; A Plantation Home. one to fifty thousand acres, and the average income from a tobacco plantation was from fifteen to thirty thousand dollars a year. Maize, or Indian corn, grew readily in all sections of the country, and as it proved a wholesome article of diet, it was cultivated in abundance. Corn was also found to be whole- some and nutritious for cattle and hogs ; hence it literally became the " staff of life " to the early settlers. Sweet potatoes were raised in limited quantities and found palatable. The tuber that afterwards became known as 140 AMERICAN HISTORY the " Irish potato " was introduced into the country from South America and proved a very excellent article of diet. As the settlers arrived from England, they brought with them such cereals as rye, barley, wheat, and oats, which, it was discovered, would flourish in this country as well as at home. There were a number of fruits and berries native to the country, and these, with the imported kinds, soon gave a variety of fruit to the settlers. Squash, pumpkins, beans, and melons, that were well known to the Indians, were also used. Game was abundant and fish were found on the coast and in the rivers and streams. Cattle raising became a distinct industry, as the land afforded fine pasturage and wide ranges. We read of settlers being urged to bring over sheep and cows, as the land was especially adapted to them. Sugar cane and cotton were not planted in any quantities until the beginning of the nineteenth century, but rice was introduced into the colonies in the early days and rapidly became a reliable article of diet as well as export. In some of the Southern Colonies great quantities of indigo were raised. This plant afforded an excellent blue dye that was largely exported. Commerce. — Fishing became one of the most important industries of the New England settlers, and it was this trade that laid the foundation of the commercial interest of these colonies. All around the New England coasts abundant fisheries of cod and mackerel were found. The cod was especially valuable as an article of export. It was dried and salted and shipped in quantities to Europe and the West Indies. Just as tobacco became the standard of value in Virginia, so the codfish became the medium of exchange in New England. Besides these fish, whaling became a most advanta- geous occupation. For many years numbers of whales were found not far from shore; but later, when the CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 141 catch became reduced, the fishermen built stout, heavy- bottomed boats and went as far north as Davis Strait and the Antarctic Seas in search of these profitable fish. There was a great demand for whalebone and whale oil in Europe. It was estimated that the carcass of one of these huge fish would bring as much as eighty dollars. Lumbering was also profitable. It was said that the first cargo taken from this country to England was a ship- load of clapboards or split timber. The splendid forests of A Whaler's Outfit. pine and oak also offered excellent material for shipbuild- ing. There was quite an export trade in tar, pitch, and turpentine, and at all times furs and peltries were in de- mand. Manufactures. — In all of the colonies there was a certain amount of what might be termed home or domestic manufactures. Most of the wool and linen were raised at home and carded and spun into thread, and in many of the homes spinning wheels were common. In some of the houses a special room was built for a loom, where the housewife spun many yards of linsey-woolsey and other 142 AMERICAN HISTORY homespun for the use of her family. In all the villages, too, there was a regular weaver, who took orders for household weaving. Some of these men were so expert that it was . reckoned that their cloth was equal to that made on the best looms in England. It was said that the serge and broadcloth made in Philadelphia and Long Island were as superior as could be bought abroad. Shoes and hats were also manufactured, and if it had not been for laws restricting the making of these articles, so as to protect the English manufactures, the American industries would have advanced very rapidly. Dyes were made from bark of trees and from certain weeds, as the goldenrod, sumach, pokeberry; and indigo was used for blue tones. As leather was much in demand, a number of tanneries was opened, and in order to encour- age this industry, laws were passed requiring persons to save the hides of animals that they had killed and to bring the skins to a tannery under penalty of a fine of sixty dollars. This industry was of great importance, as not only shoes, but breeches, leggings, vests, doublets, and even women's skirts and aprons were sometimes made of leather. The colonists on the coast refined salt by evaporating sea water ; and, as early as 1623, salt vats were set up in the New England district. A limited amount of iron ore was obtained from- some of the mill ponds ; and this was made into nails and tacks ; but England very shortly prohibited this manufacture entirely. A Spinning Wheel. CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 143 As the great industrial movement went on in England, and her people were forced to give up farming because of the limited acres of land and the increase in population, her statesmen encouraged the development of what was known as the factory system. That is, they gave monopoly priv- ileges to certain men who would set up a factory for the manufacture of special articles and then they forbade any one else to compete with them. It was recognized that America was a splendid farming country, hence many laws were passed prohibiting the people of the English colonies from manufacturing those things which were made in England. Social Life. — The social life of the colonists varied ac- cording to the occupations, wealth, city or country environ- ment, and rules of their respective churches. All over Europe society was divided into classes according to birth, occupation, and wealth, hence it was very easy for the settlers in the new country to assume the old order of things. In New England, the occupation and church rela- tion of a person largely determined his social position. Pupils were seated in school according to the occupation of the parent, and the list of this latter arrangement was posted in the halls of the colleges and publicly known. Civil positions, like those of judges, tax collectors, sheriffs, etc., were not open to men whose parents had a humble oc- cupation. These undemocratic conditions prevailed until after the American Revolution. In districts where there were great extremes of wealth and poverty, as, in the South, between the wealthy planter and the " poor whites," there was necessarily a wide differ- ence socially; the rich lived in large commodious homes attended by servants, enjoying the luxuries of living sump- tuously and dressing elegantly ; the latter were limited in every way by poverty. Environment played an important part in fixing social obligations, as persons living far apart 144 AMERICAN HISTORY CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 145 in country districts were not likely to become acquainted, and among those living in the cities and towns who usually came into daily contact with one another, a certain social status was established. Common political and business interests brought them together, and the neighborly instinct of people was fostered by the dependence of one upon an- other through friendship and trust. Amusements. — As far as entertainments were concerned, the church, probably, more than any other factor, deter- mined the nature of the festivity. In all of the colonies where the Puritan faith dominated, dancing parties and theaters were not recognized, as the church had laid a ban upon these. Therefore amusements were confined to so- cial gatherings of a different character. In rural districts husking bees, where a group of neighbors would gather at a home and help the farmer by husking or shelling his winter corn, were common and enjoyable social gatherings. Be- sides, the freewill work, pleasant talk, simple songs, and homely resfreshments made the evening pass quickly. Quilting bees were common among the women. In this instance, several housewives would meet to help " get out a quilt," and in an afternoon they would be able to put in the stitches so fast and sure that the quilt could be removed from its frames and easily finished. The work was not delayed by the bright chatting that went on, and the refreshments furnished by the hostess made the busy evening a pleasant occasion. ^ The most formal entertainment held in the colonies was " the ball." It was usually given in honor of some great event, as the inauguration of a governor or the celebration of some holiday. It consisted of a formal reception held in the town hall or some great house and was followed by dancing. Beautiful and elaborate costumes were seen; men and women often appeared in rich apparel of velvet and satin as gorgeous and expensive as those seen in England or 146 AMERICAN HISTORY France. In Virginia, card and dancing parties were com- mon, and it was often customary to precede these by a formal dinner. In all of the Southern colonies out-of-door sports were engaged in. Fox hunting was especially popular. At different seasons county fairs were held, and, at the con- clusion of the sales, out-of-door sports and contests were enjoyed. Prizes were offered, and lively competition ensued. It was not until after the American Revolution that theaters were opened and troupes of actors were seen in regular plays. Childhood in Colonial Days. — There were many things to interest and occupy the little children of colonial times. The new country, with its wide, open woods and broad fields, afforded opportune and attractive playgrounds for young people. The boys engaged in games of ball and racquet and target practice was a most popular sport. Fishing and hunting took the form of exciting amusements. Many boys understood how to trap game, and the forests were full of new and unexpected experiences. In the win- ter, snowballing, sleighing, and skating were common; and, in the early fall, it was great sport to gather nuts and wild grapes. The girls, too, had their games, and frequently played the old-fashioned ring games, using the quaint English verses beginning London Bridge has fallen Down and King William was King James's Son. There was one melody that they often sang that had a note of sadness in it when we realize its meaning. We refer to Oats, Sweet Peas, and Barley Grow. This little song was based upon the incident of the early English law that gave rich sheep owners the right to inclose the land and thus shut out the small farmer. When this old law was revived, great numbers of English emigrants came to America to seek new farm lands because it was dolefully said that in England " Nobody knows where oats, sweet peas, and barley grows." CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 147 Ss^r *m_ In colonial times, both boys and girls were taught to work. Most of the people had to work early and late to make a living, and every little assistance counted for something ; hence, there was great need for family cooperation. Many little tots were taught to shell beans and string slices of apples for drying, dip candles, and gather nuts and berries. Their school hours were much longer by day than ours, although the sessions were often shorter. The reason for having Saturday exempt from school duties was not to give the boys and girls a holiday, but to grant an opportunity to help with household duties. Every boy had his Saturday chores, as gather- ing wood or taking corn to the mill, and the girls were required to assist with the baking and cleaning, so that Sunday might be known as a real day of rest. Girls were often required to do a special amount of work that was known as a " stint." Sometimes this consisted of a certain length of knitting, or so much hand sewing or spinning. We are told that little girls of seven were often so skillful that they could make by hand, under direc- tion, their own undergarments. Sometimes the girls were taught to make fancy stitches ; and for this purpose it was quite common to work what was called a " Sampler," which consisted of a square of canvas upon which samples of stitches were shown by working mottoes and one's name and age. There is no doubt that life was often very serious for the little people of long ago ; for it was a period of great responsi- mmcS¥§G^MJM m& WILLIAMS ENDING CO., N.Y. The Expedition to Canada and Washington's Line of March to New York. REVOLUTION BEGINS 173 pioneer of the Shenandoah Valley and an experienced In- dian lighter, was sent to suppress the Indian outbreaks. Lord Dunmore, who was governor of Virginia at this time, instructed Lewis as to the location of the Indians and prom- ised to meet him with a large force of militia. Lewis, accompanied by a few men, bravely went forward, but Dun- more failed to send him aid ; and the Virginians found them- selves facing a force of two thousand Indians under the leadership of an Indian chief called Cornstalk. The en- gagement took place at Point Pleasant near the junction of the Ohio and Kanawha riv- ers. Desperate fighting oc- curred. Finally Lewis and his men were able to hold their ground. This was the last serious Indian outbreak in Virginia, but it had cost the loss of many of Lewis's forces. It was estimated that one man out of every rive was killed. Later it was reported that Lord Dunmore was responsible for the Indian troubles, as he was carrying on trade with the Indians and wished to use them to weaken the strength of the patriot forces in Virginia. The people were indignant at the unscrupulous acts of the governor. When war was declared between the colonies and Great Britain, Andrew Lewis was appointed brigadier general of the Virginia forces in 1776. It was not long after this that he forced Lord Dunmore to leave the country. Battle of Moore's Creek. — Early in the year 1776 Andrew Lewis. 174 AMERICAN HISTORY Governor Tryon of North Carolina began collecting the Tory forces in the state. There were a number of Scotch Highlanders in North Carolina who had taken no part in the opposition to the oppressive measures of the crown, but who had remained loyal to the king. Fifteen hundred of these recruits planned to march on to Wilmington to join the British army. They were intercepted at Moore's Creek by some patriot forces under Colonels Caswell and Lillington, and a battle took place in which the Tory forces were defeated. These incidents show the activity of the Americans and their determination to prevent British organization in America. CIVIL EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION Plans for Independence. — Although George III. had paid no attention to the first petition sent by the Conti- nental Congress, and the colonies had been forced into war, still there was a strong feeling among the Americans to have peace and to have the differences between them- selves and the British government settled amicably. To this end, a Tory, by the name of Richard Penn, was sent by Congress to England with another petition to the king. This time George III. gave a reply that declared that he refused to receive the petition, that he considered the Americans as rebels, and that he intended to hire a num- ber of foreign troops to subdue them. This reply made plain to the Americans that there was no hope for recon- ciliation, and that every effort should be made to take the defensive. Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. — There was now created a strong feeling in favor of separation from the mother country. As early as May, 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, drew up resolutions declaring that the Americans owed no alle- REVOLUTION BEGINS 1 75 giance to the king, and that the local assemblies and the Con- tinental Congress had the right to rule them. These reso- lutions were read in many of the colonies and the spirit of independence grew. About this time there appeared a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, written by Thomas Paine, and containing strong arguments for the rights of man and freedom. Paine's essay, widely read, inspired a number of people Signing Declaration of Independence. to take up the cause. Some of the local assemblies in- structed their delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for separation from England. On May 14, 1776, the colonial assembly of Virginia called a convention and definitely told their representatives to the Continental Congress to propose that the Congress " declare the United Colonies free and independent states." Declaration of Independence. — In June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced in Congress a resolution that was to become the keynote of the meeting; namely, " that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 176 AMERICAN HISTORY free and independent states." John Adams, of Massa- chusetts, spoke in favor of the motion. Although there was not a unanimous vote in favor of the resolution, it was carried, and a committee was appointed to draft the formal declaration of independence. This committee was com- posed of Thomas Jefferson, chairman, and John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Liv- ingston. Jefferson was the author of the Declaration, and this famous document stands as one of the most important state papers in our country. When the Continental Congress adopted this great resolution on July 4, 1776, it marked a day that was ever to be considered the greatest day in the history of our national life. The bell in the tower of the State House in Philadelphia rang out the joyful news to the waiting pub- lic. At once messages of the adoption of the Declara- tion were sent to all of the colonies, where the news was gladly received, and special celebrations were held. In the army, the Declaration was read to the soldiers, who received it with cheers amid the firing of salutes. Two things more were needful to make the resolutions an actual declaration of purpose : first, the ratification of all of the colonies ; and second, the success of these fighting for independence. More earnest efforts were made to win the day, and men now enlisted who had hesitated before, women gave all of their spare time to aiding the cause by making clothes and other supplies for the soldiers, and many foreigners who had dreamed of independence in their own countries now came to America and cordially offered their services to the Continental army. While the feeling for separation from Great Britain seemed universal in America, yet there were a number of persons who remained loyal to the crown. These spoke their protests against the Declaration openly, and joined the British army. In many instances, things grew so REVOLUTION BEGINS 177 SCALE OF MILES unpleasant for the Tories, as they were called, that they left the country and moved into Canada. Among these refugees were some of the wealthi- est and best educated people in America. It was estimated that no less than sixty thousand left this country during the Revolu- tion. Operation of the Second British Plan. — We have noted how Wash- ington antic- ipated the British plan by placing eighteen thou- sand troops around New York City, and it was none too soon ; for, by July of 1776, the British commander, Admiral Howe, arrived in New York Bay with a large fleet and an army of twenty-five thousand troops under command of his brother, General Howe. Howe landed on Staten Island and went into camp. While here he was friendly toward the Americans and evinced The New York Campaign. 178 AMERICAN HISTORY a desire to close the war without further military engage- ments. This was just after the adoption of the Declara- tion of Independence, and the Americans had but one idea in treating for peace. As Howe had no authority to treat with them, plans for peace had to be dropped and hostilities resumed. About this time another reenforcement of troops arrived, raising the British army to thirty thousand. British Capture New York. — The battle of Long Island now took place, August 27, 1776, and the British were Washington Crossing the Delaware. successful. Washington, with the aid of some Marblehead fishermen, who were among his soldiers, rowed his men safely over to New York, where he defeated the British at Harlem Heights. Washington advanced up the Hudson and was rapidly followed by Howe, who succeeded in gaining an advantage over the Americans at White Plains. Howe then turned and attacked Fort Washington and captured Fort Lee. The Americans still held control of the Hudson above the city, but their defeats gave the impression that the British were successful in their plans. While New York REVOLUTION BEGINS 179 City was in their control, yet New England had not been cut off from the rest of the colonies. Howe now threatened Philadelphia. Washington, learn- ing that Cornwallis was taking a strong position on the Hudson, retreated across New Jersey and attracted the British from their original plan. American Victory at Trenton. — The British followed, and Washington, greatly outnumbered, was obliged to fall back from place to place without giving battle. He had expected General Charles Lee to come on with reinforcements, but Lee blundered in his commands and failed to reach Washington in time to render aid. The Americans were now becoming discour- aged and saw only defeat, when Washington suddenly fell upon Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, surprised the carousing Hes- sians, who were guarding the town, and captured the entire army and many supplies. It was one of Washington's famous victories, and came at a time when it was greatly needed. On January 2, 1777, Washington found that Cornwallis had brought his army up A Hessi e an Sol " close to the American camp and planned to capture the whole force. On the morning of the third, Cornwallis was very much surprised to find that the Americans had slipped away, and at daylight had met two thousand British troops at Princeton and defeated them. Because of the extreme cold, the Americans were nearly exhausted. Washington would have liked to follow up the campaign by capturing some British supplies that were stored at New Brunswick, but he feared the risk, and retired to Morristown, where his army went into winter quarters. Although the British held New York City, they i8o AMERICAN HISTORY had failed to cut off New England from the rest of the col- onies, and they had lost more men and supplies than the Americans. Financial Distress. — The Continental Congress had very little money for the support of the war, and so they decided to seek foreign aid. Silas Deane was sent to France, where he succeeded in securing a secret loan of upward of one million francs. At this time many of the French people were in sym- pathy with the Ameri- cans, but the French government was not prepared to give open aid to the colonies. Later loans were made in Spain and Holland, but these were not large, and the scarcity of supplies caused the soldiers to suffer many hardships. Washington made a special appeal to his friend, Robert Morris, a wealthy banker of Philadelphia. On New Year's Day Morris left his home early in the morning and personally called on a number of wealthy persons in that city and urged their aid for the American cause. It was promptly given. Some of these patriotic people, including Morris, borrowed money on their own homes in order that the great suffering and distress of the American soldiers might be relieved. Robert Morris. REVOLUTION BEGINS 181 The Crisis. — Among the soldiers who had followed the re- treat of Washington from New York to Trenton, there was an Englishman who had come from England a few months be- fore the outbreak of the Revolution, and who joined the American ranks. He was Thomas Paine, the author of the pamphlet, Common Sense, that had had so great an influence upon the preparation of the Declaration of Independence. All through the dreary nights by the lonely camp fires, Paine worked on another brilliant paper. It was finished on December 31, 1776, and published under the title of The Crisis. It was an enthusiastic call to the American soldiers to continue the good work. He wrote, " The harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph, — ■ Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods ; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as Freedom should not be highly rated." Many other enthu- siastic phrases occurred. This pamphlet proved to be a wonderful inspiration. Washington had passages of it read to his soldiers while they were in camp, and many copies were bought and read. It had a profound effect in keeping up the spirits of the men and holding the army together. Washington's Influence. — But the greatest force in the American army was Washington, the commander in chief. He endured all the hardships with his men, he cheered their disheartened spirits, he guided them with caution and firmness, and he held their confidence in the most trying times. On two or three occasions, certain selfish individuals tried to plot against the leader, but these plots were exposed and their promoters reaped the harvest of disgrace. Operation of the Third British Plan. — In the spring of 1777, the British again opened plans for cutting off the colonies of the North. General Burgoyne, aided by Colonel St. Leger, planned to bring a large force from Canada and invade the Hudson Valley, while Howe in New York City 182 AMERICAN HISTORY was to send a force into this region, so that together they might effect a complete surrender of the district. It was about June i, 1777, when Burgoyne set out with an army of eight thousand men, including British regulars, German troops, about six hundred and fifty Canadians and their Indian allies. They succeeded in taking Ticonderoga and spent some time in minor engagements along the way. Battlefields Among the most notable of these was the fight at Ben- nington, where a force of Burgoyne's army was defeated by General Stark. To keep the British from advancing down the Hudson, the Americans had taken a position at Bemis Heights near Saratoga. Here a preliminary encounter was made by Gates, who was ably supported by Benedict Arnold. Another engagement was made at Saratoga, and at this place British forces were completely defeated on October 7, 1777. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne made his surrender. This was the last time an attempt was made to separate the colonies. The battle of Saratoga became known as REVOLUTION BEGINS 183 the decisive battle of the war and marked the turning point in American affairs. British Occupy Philadelphia. — Fearing an attack upon Philadelphia, the Continental Congress removed to Balti- more, and, later, to York, Pennsylvania. Upon this re- moval many Americans also abandoned the city, and it was with great difficulty that Robert Morris could secure any protection for the city, as Washington had need of his army in other places. After the British defeat at mm Burgoyne's Army on the Road from Lake Champlain to Fort Edward. Princeton, however, Washington arranged to send some troops in the neighborhood of the Delaware River and Bay, lest the British might send a fleet by this route and attempt to take the city. Howe planned a complete change of manceuvers, and instead of using the Delaware route, he took his vessels to the head of Chesapeake Bay, where he landed his troops at Elkton, Maryland. From here he proceeded to march on toward Philadelphia. Washington hurried to meet him. An engagement took place at Brandywine Creek, 184 AMERICAN HISTORY where the Americans lost the day. The British now marched on and took the city about the same time that Gates and Arnold were meeting Burgoyne in New York. The news of the loss of Philadelphia had a bad effect upon the European na- tions, who were considering ac- knowledging the United Colonies as a nation. It caused a delay in foreign negotia- tions. Valley Forge. — Upon his fail- ure to dislodge the British at Philadelphia, Washington with- drew to Valley Forge and es- tablished winter quarters on De- cember 19, 1777. This period was the darkest in the American Revo- lution. The soldiers were poorly clad and insufficiently fed, the winter was severe, and the suffering of the army was intense. Washington felt that this was the most crit- ical period of the war. Every effort was made to relieve the suffering of the men and to stimulate their faith in the cause. Among the most helpful officers in Washington's corps was Baron Steuben, a Prussian drill master who had vol- REVOLUTION BEGINS 185 unteered to serve in the American army. Steuben under- took to drill the men, and day after day vigorously en- gaged their interest in military tactics and encouraged them to keep up their enthusiasm for liberty. With the coming of spring brighter days began to dawn. By this time the news of the victory of Saratoga was hav- ing the effect of securing the confidence of the European Washington at Valley Forge. nations in the American cause. It was at this time that foreign assistance was assured. French Aid. — Franklin again presented the cause of the Americans to the French government, and the latter agreed to form an alliance with the American states. This treaty shifted the affairs of the war. As soon as the French government made the alliance with the Americans, a fleet of war vessels under the command of Count de Rochambeau and Count de Grasse was sent to aid the Americans. Land forces were also dispatched to the i86 AMERICAN HISTORY colonies. And a loan was secured that helped to tide over the expenses of the war. Spain and Holland were also drawn into the struggle ; Spain and Holland lent money ; and England had to face a world-wide conflict. Arnold's Treason. — Although the victory at Saratoga was largely due to the military genius of Arnold, Congress failed to recognize the merits of this able com- mander and granted the honors to Gates. Ar- nold felt disappointed at this treatment and bit- terly resented the slight. His services during the Revolution had been of inestimable value to the Americans, and Wash- ington recognized him as one of his most heroic and self-sacrificing gen- erals and regarded him with great esteem. Dur- ing the next two years Arnold's bitterness toward Con- gress was increased by criticisms by that body of his careless conduct. He was honorably acquitted of the charges, but he never forgave his foes. He had lately married a Tory lady and through this influence was brought in contact with certain British officers. He began to carry on secret communications with Clinton, and at last boldly planned a most unfortunate scheme. He asked Washington to appoint him as com- mander of West Point. This was one of the most strategic positions on the Hudson River. In a sense, it was the key to open the way for separating New England from the rest Baron Steuben. REVOLUTION BEGINS I8 7 of the colonies. The commission was granted to Arnold ; and, shortly afterwards, he negotiated with the British to deliver the fortress into their hands for a large sum of money. Major Andre was selected to act as the messenger between the two forces. He was arrested, and the papers of transfer were found in his possession. ^ Andre was hanged as a spy. Arnold escaped and made his way to the British ranks, where he was given a posi- tion. This act was one of the darkest blots upon American history. Wash- ington could scarcely be- lieve the report. He was deeply grieved, as he had always looked upon Arnold as a brave, skillful soldier, and had considered him at all times loyal to the Amer- ican cause. Operation of the Fourth British Plan. — As we have mentioned, one of the British plans was to organize the Tory forces of the South and to use these as an advance guard toward the north. In the early part of the war, Clinton made an attack upon Charleston, which was guarded by Fort Sullivan. This fort, gallantly commanded by Colonel Moultrie and Sergeant Jasper, withstood the fire from the fleet ; and Clinton was obliged to withdraw. Statue of Sergeant Jasper, ton. Charles- 1 88 AMERICAN HISTORY Later an attack was made upon Savannah. This place was defended by Colonel Robert Howe with but five hun- dred troops. Since the Americans were unable to with- stand the assault, the city surrendered. The British now used this as a military base. From this city they sent recruiting armies into the in- terior to gather together the Tory forces. These recruit- ing companies were met by loyal Americans, known as the partisan leaders. In many in- stances whole com- panies were harassed and routed, and their supplies captured. Among the most noted of these partisans were Marion, Sumter, Lee, Pickens, Clarke, and Sevier. Cornwallis, the most eminent of the British generals in America, was sent into the South to take charge. He planned another at- tempt to capture Charleston, and, advancing inland, he approached the city and finally succeeded in taking it. Washington, fearing that the South would be overrun, sent Lincoln with a regular force to organize a defense of the Carolinas. Lincoln failed, and Gates was sent to take charge. He met the British forces at Camden, where he suffered a bitter defeat. Gates was succeeded by Na- thanael Greene, the greatest American general, next to Washington. Francis Marion. REVOLUTION BEGINS 189 Battle of King's Mountain. — About the time that Greene took command in the South, the partisan leaders gathered their forces and started out to intercept Major Ferguson who had been sent by Cornwallis to the border of the Carolinas to organize the Tories of that district. Ferguson had a force of twelve hundred Brit- ish troops. He took a position on the top of King's Mountain and defied the Americans. On three sides of the mountain came the charge of a thousand picked riflemen of the partisan forces. The British charged bravely forward, but could not withstand the steady, accurate aim of the backwoodsmen. The Americans had but twenty-eight killed ; the British slain numbered many more, including their commander. The remainder surrendered to the Americans. This battle seemed to turn the tide of affairs in the South, and is fre- quently spoken of as the decisive battle of the South. Battle of Cowpens and Greene's Retreat. — In tak- ing command in the South, Greene determined to meet Cornwallis and defeat his plans. " Light Horse Harry Lee," of Virginia, with his famous cavalry, was sent to the support of Greene. Daniel Morgan with other troops was also on hand. Morgan took a position at Cowpens, South Nathanael Greene. 190 AMERICAN HISTORY "Light Horse Harry" Lee. Carolina, and was met by Cornwallis's most able commander, Colo- nel Tarleton. Here an engagement took place, Tarleton was complete- ly routed, and his re- maining force was taken captive. Cornwallis, greatly outdone by this fail- ure, boldly determined to follow up the Ameri- can forces with a large army and capture Gen- eral Greene. Morgan hurriedly withdrew from his position ; and Greene, real- izing that he did not have an army sufficiently strong to meet Cornwallis, determined to retreat into the country and draw the British away from their sea- coast base of sup- plies. Cornwallis fol- lowed in hot pursuit and made every ef- fort to overtake the Americans. It was said that he destroyed all of his heavy bag- gage and tried to make forced marches. Heavy rains caused the moun- tain streams to increase in volume and made travel very difficult, but still the pursuit con- Daniel Morgan. REVOLUTION BEGINS 191 tinued. Greene led the way across the Carolinas and into Virginia. When he came to this point, he wheeled his army about, crossed again into North Carolina, and seized an opportu- nity to give battle at Guilford Court House. Cornwallis held the field, but lost more than a third of his men. He declared that with another victory like this he should be undone. Cornwallis then returned to the seaboard and Greene, following, retook the Carolinas as he went. The partisan leaders continued their able work and captured many of the positions held by the British. In the early fall of 1781 Greene met the enemy ^^^ at Eutaw Springs and had an uncertain advan- tage. The next day the British retreated to Charleston. This city and Savannah were the only positions that they held in the South. Last Land Campaign. — Cornwallis now made his way toward Virginia, where Lafayette, the young French com- mander, had charge of defenses near Yorktown Peninsula. Washington was in the neighborhood of New York, planning to make an attack upon that city, when he learned that Cornwallis had reached Virginia and was awaiting the arrival of Clinton's fleet from New York. Washington continued to give the impression that he was threatening New York, when suddenly he slipped away toward the Lafayette. IQ 2 AMERICAN HISTORY South, passing through Philadelphia on his way. The British had abandoned this city the year before, and the Continental Congress had resumed its meetings here. Great joy spread through the town as Washington hurried on his march. The citizens decorated their houses, and heartily cheered the army all the way. While Washington was moving southward, the French fleet, arriving in Chesapeake Bay, waited at the head of the bay to carry the army down to York town. Before Cornwallis could secure aid, either by land or sea, the French fleet and the American forces began a siege of the place. For a month the army and the fleet held this position. After carrying the outer earthworks by assault, the Americans were rewarded by the surrender of the entire British force. Cornwallis refused to appear in person and make the sur- render, so Washington delegated a subordinate ofhcer to receive the final surrender, October 19, 1781. The siege of Yorktown virtually marks the close of the American Revolution. Although the British did succeed, in part, in holding the seaport towns, they failed to keep the Americans from securing aid from foreign countries, and they failed entirely in their general plans for conquering the colonists. The Treaty of Paris. — The treaty of peace was signed in Paris, in 1783. By this treaty the Americans were recognized as a free and independent people, and their country took its place among the other powers of the world. The Articles of Confederation. — When the second Continental Congress met, Benjamin Franklin proposed that some form of government should be adopted. To this end he submitted a draft of the Articles of Confedera- tion as early as June, 1775, but no action was taken then. A year later, Congress appointed a committee of one from REVOLUTION BEGINS 193 each colony " to prepare and draft the form of a confedera- tion." John Dickinson, of Delaware, was made chairman of the committee. A month later a draft of the form of government was presented. Many amendments were suggested, and changes were made in the original draft, but finally the Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress, November 15, 1777. These provided for a firm league of friendship between the several states : one house was to be composed of not less than two nor more than seven delegates from each state ; and each state was to have but one vote. There was no executive officer, but the governing power was placed in a committee composed of one delegate from each state. There was no national judiciary. While all mat- ters pertaining to war, finance, intercourse with nations, and disputes among states were under the control of Con- gress, yet this body had no power to enforce these rights. The Articles could not be amended without the consent of all the states. There were many defects in the Articles, as was seen at the time of their adoption, but they were the means of hold- ing the states in a bond of Union, and, when it came to for- eign affairs, Congress was able to make favorable negotia- tions for loans and trade treaties. The states were very slow in ratifying the Articles. It was not until 1781 that they were finally accepted by all of the states. 194 AMERICAN HISTORY OTHER IMPORTANT CHARACTERS OF THE REVOLUTION George Rogers Clark. — Among the Americans who op- posed the Indians during Lord Dunmore's War was a young Virginian, named George Rogers Clark. The Virginians having been successful at Point Pleasant, Clark and some of his neighbors moved farther out into the backwoods. When the Revolution broke out, the English used some of the frontier forts in the Northwest as mili- tary bases and invited the French and Indians to harass the border. Clark realized that, if the Americans were to hold their own in this district, some effort ought to be made to secure the western position. He applied to Patrick Henry, governor of Vir- ginia, for a commission, which was granted. Then Clark, with a company of one hundred and seventy-five men, set out for the west. Although Clark's companions were hardy frontiersmen, used to thrilling experiences, they had a difficult journey before them, and endured many hardships, traveling over seldom-used roads and often blazing their way through un- explored forests. After some time, they reached the Ohio River. On the 24th of June, 1778, they made their way to the George Rogers Clark. REVOLUTION BEGINS 195 old French fort, Kaskaskia, which was now owned by the English. When Clark arrived at the fort, a ball was going on. As he stood in the doorway watching the dance, an Indian espied the Ameri- can and gave a great war whoop. Clark then advanced and quietly said, " There is no dan- ger ; go on with your fun ; only remember that you are danc- ing under the flag of Virginia, and not of England." In a short time the town was in possession of the Americans. Clark made friends with many of the inhabitants, chief among whom was a French priest known as Father Gilbaut. Clark explained to him how the king of France was a friend of the Americans and how the Americans were righting for their rights. Clark was kind to the French settlers, and they seemed happy under the American rule. Later Cahokia, another French settlement, was taken by Clark, and in order to secure the western frontier, Clark then decided that Vincennes should be annexed. This was a very large fort on the Wabash River, having almost an entire French population. Father Gilbaut, now become a firm friend of the American cause, graciously offered to go to Vincennes to explain the American cause. Clark al- lowed him to do so. It was said that Father Gilbaut went Patrick Henry. 196 AMERICAN HISTORY among the French settlers and succeeded in getting the inhabitants to hoist the American flag. It was not long before this event reached the ears of the English commander, Hamilton, who was in charge of the district. He rallied a force of French and Indian scouts ; SCALE OF MILES The Western Country and the Route of George Rogers Clark. and, in a short time, he retook Vincennes, planned to re- capture Kaskaskia, and to seize the American settlement in Kentucky. When Clark heard of the English move- ment, he raised a force of men from Illinois ; and, with a company of one hundred American and French backwoods- men, he set out on the march toward Vincennes, a dis- tance of two hundred and thirty miles. It was one of the most trying undertakings. The season was wet and cold. Here many times the men waded " neck deep in icy water, REVOLUTION BEGINS 197 worn with fatigue and hunger, camping on a marshy hil- lock in drizzling rain to shiver without food or fire through the night." The whole journey was full of danger and fatigue, but at last they reached the outskirts of the town. Clark skillfully marched his men back and forth in the edge of the woods to give the idea that he had a large force. Then after sending a bold letter to the French population, which kept them neutral, he attacked the fort and forced Hamilton to surrender. This daring conquest of the Northwest is very important in American history, for when the treaty of peace was signed, England agreed to grant to the Americans all of the territory east of the Mississippi and south of the Great Lakes. John Paul Jones. — Perhaps there is no hero of these stirring times more worthy of mention than John Paul Jones, the first to raise the American flag upon a man-of- war. Jones was born in Scotland, but came to America when he was five years old, and made his home in Baltimore until he was of age. In 1777 he sailed out of Chesapeake Bay in command of an American vessel, the Ranger. Making his way to the coast of the British Isles, he began to attack certain coast towns and soon captured the Drake, an English man-of- war. Jones took his prize to France, where, after some urgent appeals, he succeeded in getting the government to furnish him with a fleet of five vessels of which the most famous was the flag ship Bon Homme Richard. During the whole summer he sailed up and down the English coast, spreading terror to the natives and capturing many mer- chant vessels. In the latter part of September. Jones met an English merchant fleet that was being escorted by two vessels, one of which was the Sera pis. He made an attack upon this vessel in a naval fight which raged for three hours. The Bon 198 AMERICAN HISTORY Homme Richard finally won the day, but was so badly damaged that Jones was obliged to transfer his crew to the captured ship and to sail away to Holland, where he was given protection from the Eng- lish. Later when he went to France, all Europe seemed to note his great victory and his wonder- ful skill. Cath- erine the Great of Russia and other monarchs of Europe be- stowed military honors upon the American com- mander, and of- ; ' HI 1 m '■ P ■ . 8f 1 1 - %foag f" It - 9HI *mm*~- / - John Paul Jones. fered him a position in their navies. This victory of John Paul Jones stands out as the first important naval en- gagement of the Americans. Benjamin Franklin. — A study of the American Revolu- tion would be sadly incomplete if we did not mention the splendid service of this great American statesman. Frank- lin was born in Boston, and as a lad of twelve commenced to work in a printer's office. Later he went to Philadel- phia, poor and friendless, and began his lifework in that city. After a few years of experience in a printer's shop, he REVOLUTION BEGINS 199 went to England for the purpose of purchasing a new press for his company, but the funds failed to be sent to him, so he was obliged to remain in London and work until he could make enough to return to America. All of these proved to be valuable experiences, as Franklin was quick to learn, ready to observe, and shrewd in his plans. He lived such a temperate life that in the English printing shop he was known as the " fresh- water lad " because he refused to drink ale or beer. In his work, Franklin was thrown in contact with the works of the best writers of the times. It was not very long be- fore he was familiar with the standard literature of his day, and well versed in the scientific activities, as well as po- litical questions, of the hour. When Franklin re- turned to America he made his permanent home in Philadelphia, where he opened a printing office and published a newspaper and a magazine. The latter was known as Poor Richard's Almanac. Later he established the Saturday Evening Post. Franklin also wrote an autobiography, and, at the same time, made scientific experiments, the most important of which was the discovery of electricity as found in light- ning. Yet it is not upon these interests that we wish to dwell, but rather upon Franklin's great service to the American nation as a diplomat. Benjamin Franklin. 200 AMERICAN HISTORY Always profoundly interested in the welfare of his country, Franklin was constantly planning to secure the largest and most permanent good for the colonies. Since it had been his idea that a union of all the colonies should be formed at the time of the French and Indian War, when the grave problem of colonial taxation faced the Americans, Franklin was chosen by a number of colonies as their special agent to go to England to adjust their rights and privileges. Finally, when the great discussion over the Stamp Act took place, Congress selected him to go before the English authorities and urge the repeal of the law. We remember that his efforts met with success and the act was removed. During the Revolution, Franklin, as a member of the Continental Congress, made his excellent judgment felt all through the grave, trying sessions of this body. When the efforts to secure aid from France seemed almost hopeless, Congress sent Franklin over as their special minister. Of him it was said that his fine judgment and clear understanding of the rights of the people were so well known that it was written " that his reputation was more universal than Newton, Voltaire, or Frederick the Great. Of love and esteem, too, he had more than they. Not only was his name familiar to nobility, clergy, and philos- ophers, but there was scarcely a peasant, a citizen, a coach- man, or footman, a lady's maid, or a scullion in the kitchen who was not familiar with it, and who did not consider him a friend to human kind." He was a very old man when he went to Paris on this important commission, and every- where he was greeted with great enthusiasm. " At enter- tainments beautiful women vied with each other to place on his white head a crown of laurels. ... He grew weary of sitting for busts, portraits, and medals. On every jeweler's counter his benign features were set in innumer- able rings, watches, snuff boxes and bracelets." REVOLUTION BEGINS 201 With all this attention, we find him the same straight- forward man, simple in his tastes and speech and earnestly working to accomplish the difficult task before him. He wrote from France, " It is my intention, while I stay here, to procure what advantages I can for our country by en- deavoring to please the court." The result was an open alliance with the Americans and aid in the form of troops, a fleet, and a large loan. It was the first treaty made by the United States with a foreign country and stands at the head of the long list of diplomatic negotiations of which our country is justly proud. Upon his return to America at the close of the Ameri- can Revolution, Franklin devoted his time to creating public opinion in favor of a strong national government. When the Constitutional Convention was called, he was one of the delegates from Pennsylvania, and gave great aid in rearranging the new form of government and urging the ratification of the Constitution. The city of Philadelphia is proud to refer to Franklin's splendid civic work in establishing the first library, in promot- ing the first fire department, in organizing the regular police system for city protection, and in beginning count- less other movements for the general welfare of the community. Bernardo de Galvez. — One of the most interesting char- acters of this period of American history was Bernardo de Galvez, the daring young Spanish governor of Louisiana. Galvez was but twenty-three years of age when he under- took to wrest from the British the Florida territory that the latter had received at the close of the French and Indian War. In the year 1779 Spain joined France in the war against England, and at this time gave the Americans the right to come up the Mississippi and attack the British forts along that stream. At the same time Galvez also 202 AMERICAN HISTORY planned to make an attack. Since he had a few Spanish troops at his command, when he made known his scheme, he had no difficulty in gaining the support of the inhab- itants of Louisiana. French Creoles, Ger- mans, Acadians, all united to form an army, and with the addition of some Indians and a company of negroes, Galvez made his first attack against Baton Rouge. This city sur- rendered. He then proceeded by way of Lake Pontchar- train to the Gulf, here captured a number of smaller forts, and finally forced the surrender of Mobile and of Pensacola. When the treaty of peace was signed, England recognized this work by agreeing to surrender all of Florida to Spain. Bernardo de Galvez. Topical Outline Revolution Begins. I. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. II. Ticonderoga. III. Bunker Hill. IV. Aggressive Plan of British. 1. To cut off New England from Other Colonies. 2. Blockade American Ports. 3. Capture Philadelphia. 4. Organize Tory Forces of South. REVOLUTION BEGINS 203 V. Operation of First British Plan. 1. Siege of Boston, 1 775-1 776. 2. Americans Attack Canada, 1775. 3. Lord Dunmore's War, 1776. 4. Battle of Moore's Creek, 1776. VI. Civil Events of Revolution. 1. Plans for Independence. 2. Mecklenburg Declaration, 1775. 3. Declaration of Independence (1776). VII. Operation of Second British Plan. 1. British Capture New York. 2. American Victory at Trenton. 3. Financial Distress. 4. The Crisis. 5. Washington's Influence. VIII. Operation of Third British Plan. 1. British Occupy Philadelphia. 2. French Aid. 3. Arnold's Treason. IX. Operation of Fourth British Plan. 1. Battle of King's Mountain. 2. Battle of Cowpens and Green's Retreat. 3. Surrender of Cornwallis. X. Treaty of Paris. XI. The Articles of Confederation. XII. Other Important Characters of Revolution. 1. George Rogers Clark. 2. John Paul Jones. 3. Benjamin Franklin. 4. Bernardo de Galvez. Review Questions 1. Describe the first military engagements of the Revolution. 2. Who was made commander-in-chief of the American army? 3. What was the British plan for subduing the Americans? 4. Give an account of Washington's plans for driving the British out of Massachusetts. 5. Describe the American invasion of Canada.. 6. What was meant by Lord Dunmore's War? 7. What were the preliminary steps toward the adoption of the Declaration of Independence ? 204 AMERICAN HISTORY 8. Tell something of the engagements around New York. 9. Describe Washington's victory at Trenton. 10. What service did Robert Morris give to the government dur- ing the Revolution? 11. Who wrote the Crisis and Common Sense? What was the effect of these works? 12. Why is the battle of Saratoga called the decisive battle of the Revolution ? 13. Describe the winter at Valley Forge. 14. What foreign nation gave aid to the American colonies? 15. Who were some of the foreigners that assisted in the Revolu- tion? 16. Give an account of Arnold's treason. 17. Give a brief account of the War in the South. 18. When and where was the final surrender of the British made? 19. Where was the treaty of peace signed? 20. What were the Articles of Confederation ? 21. Why should these men be remembered : George Rogers Clark, John Paul Jones, Benjamin Franklin, Bernardo de Galvez? References See Chapter IX. CHAPTER XI NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES State Government. — During the American Revolution, many of the states adopted provisional governments based upon their old charters. The government was largely in the hands of a governor and a local assembly. The local courts were presided over by judges appointed by the assembly. When war was over an attempt was made by the states to make their government permanent, and to arrange their state constitutions so as to meet the needs of their com- munities. The plan of reorganization brought about some serious difficulties. The states, being jealous of each other's growing power, made many efforts to advance their own interests. They were especially anxious about com- mercial advantages. Each levied taxes upon all foreign imports and even went so far as to tax the goods coming from one state into another. They vied with each other in trying to secure foreign treaties, and entered into serious disputes over boundaries and the navigation of rivers. General Needs for Union. — When the treaty of peace was signed, it was agreed that the debts due British subjects should be paid, but many of these payments were neglected. Because of this, England refused to remove her troops from the back country. These forces with their Indian allies proved a menace to the Americans migrating into the Northwest. American ships had been captured by the Barbary pirates. There was no strong national force to adjust all of these conditions. 205 206 AMERICAN HISTORY Principal Needs for Union. — There were many other needs for a firm union of the states, but the principal ones may be summed up as follows : First, to make foreign treaties and secure strong trade relations between America and Europe. Second, to pay the national debt incurred during the Revolution and thus insure the future of the United States. Third, to secure control of the Northwest territory so as to give opportunity for safe emigration to the West. Mount Vernon. Fourth, to have a uniform tariff on all foreign goods and to regu- late interstate trade. * Fifth, to fix boundaries and adjust the problem of free navigation of inland streams. Sixth, to establish a uniform money system and fix the standard of weights and measures. Seventh, to secure a uniform postal service so as to make communi- cation easy and inexpensive. First Conference. — In 1785, a conference of Virginia and Maryland representatives met at Alexandria to decide the question of the navigation of the Potomac. It was agreed to confer with Washington at his home at Mount NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 207 Vernon. During the conference it was decided that, as many of the questions brought up could not be settled by these states alone, it might be well to call a convention of the states to meet in Annapolis the next year. On September n, 1786, twelve commissioners met, rep- resenting the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Virginia. Plans for adjusting the interests of the states were again discussed, but these dele- gates also realized that it was most urgent to get all of the states interested, and so another call was issued for a con- vention to be held in Philadelphia, the next May. Constitutional Convention. — Each state selected the strongest men to represent them in this convention, for each knew that grave questions had to be settled. Of the fifty-five delegates, upward of thirty were lawyers. All of the states were represented except Rhode Island. The convention formally opened with Washington as President and William Jackson as Secretary. For several months daily sessions were held behind closed doors in order that debates might be free and discussions might not be mis- quoted and misunderstood. There were three great com- promises made before the final draft of the Constitution was adopted. The first was on the question of representation. Virginia Plan. — This plan, presented by the delegates from Virginia and representing the wishes of most of the larger states, was as follows : " That the Legislative branch should consist of two houses, the first elected by the people of the states for three years, the second by the state legis- lature for seven years ; the executive should be chosen by the two houses of the national legislature. The repre- sentation in each house should be according to the respec- tive population of the states or their quotas of contribu- tion." This was opposed by the smaller states who realized that they would always be outnumbered by the larger commonwealths. 2o8 AMERICAN HISTORY New Jersey Plan. — The smaller states were represented by New Jersey, who presented a plan whereby the states should have equal representation in the Congress and the old form of the Articles of Confederation should be revised. Since this was not satisfactory, a compromise was offered by Connecticut. It provided that each state was to have equal representation in the Senate, and representa- tion in the lower house according to the population. This plan was accepted ; and arrangements were made whereby the members of the House of Representatives were to be elected every two years, and the Senators every six years. Other Compromises. — There was some discussion as to the status of negroes and how they should be counted. It was agreed that the count should be made on the basis of rive negroes for three white persons. This was known as the three-fifths ratio. Some members of the convention wished a provision whereby the foreign slave trade should be abolished. This involved the question of Congressional control of commerce, and caused much discussion. It was at last decided that the foreign slave trade should continue until 1808, that a tax of ten dollars per capita should be paid on all imported slaves, and further, that only a majority vote was needed to give Congress the power to pass trade laws. Adoption of Constitution. — It was agreed that as soon as two thirds of the states should adopt the Constitution, it should be recognized as the formal system of national government. Survey. — When it was publicly announced that nine states had ratified the Constitution, there was great joy throughout the country. In Philadelphia, a grand celebration took place on the Fourth of July in special honor of the event. Five thousand people formed an imposing parade ; and speech making and fireworks carried the celebration far into the night. NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 209 In New York City there was a similar demonstration, in which a pageant representing the " Ship of State " was drawn through the streets on floats to illustrate the adop- tion of the Constitution. Bill of Rights. — While the Constitution defined the ob- jects and purposes of the government, there were certain rights and privileges of the people that were not plainly stated. Then a series of amendments was added that se- cured to the American people such rights as free exercise of religion, right of trial by jury, protection of their homes against unreasonable search, freedom of press and of speech, and the right of personal defense against attack. These articles were known as the Bill of Rights and proved of great value to the whole people. These amendments were adopted during Washington's first administration. INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS Manufacture of Cloth. — At the time of the adoption of the Constitution the population of the United States had greatly increased and the immigration to the new |s^ country steadily continued. There was an urgent demand for manufactures. As early as 1790, Samuel Slater, an Englishman, set up a regular mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. This was followed by others. Spinning and weaving by machinery be- came common in the eastern and middle states. Cotton Gin. — In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which soon proved a success,, and made the culture of The First Cotton Gin. 2IO AMERICAN HISTORY cotton more profitable, as the fiber or lint could be separated from the seed by the new gin with very little trouble. New lands were opened in the South and large plantations were planted down in cotton. This plant vied with tobacco in becoming the staple crop of the southern states. Con- siderable indigo was also raised in the South, but in 1794 many of the plants were destroyed by a worm which appeared in the country, and the crop was almost a failure. Sugar Making. — In Louisiana some of the planters suffered so heavily that they turned their attention to the cul- ture of sugar cane. In 1795, Etienne de Bore succeeded in making the cane juice granulate. The interest of the South was also directed toward sugar making. Ordinance of 1787. — New roads were opened up from the East to the West, and many families moved out into the " great wilderness," as it was called. By 1787 these settlers asked Congress to grant them a form of territorial government. This was done under the ordinance of 1787. The form of government provided for free exercise of religion, liberal education, and the prohibition of slavery within the boundaries of the territory. Emigration to the West continued so steadily that by 1800 the greater part of the Northwest territory was divided into states which were promptly admitted into the Union. Steamboats. — Transportation was markedly limited. Many attempts were made to secure easy navigation of Etienne de Bore. NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 211 the rivers. As early as 1784, James Rumsey, of Maryland, exhibited to Washington the model of a boat for stemming the current of rivers by the force of steam. In 1787, Rumsey launched a steamboat on the Potomac which made a short but successful journey. He was granted the rights of navigating the streams of New York, Maryland, and Vir- ginia. Great interest was taken in Rumsey's invention. A The Clermont. society for the promotion of his plans was organized in Philadelphia in 1788. John Fitch also made an experiment with the use of steam in propelling a boat from Trenton to Philadelphia in 1790. But it was not until 1807 that the experiment be- came of practical value, when Robert Fulton launched the Clermont on the Hudson, and made a successful trip from New York to Albany. In 181 2 the New Orleans was launched at Pittsburgh and made the first trip from that city down the Ohio and thence to the Mississippi, upon which it successfully 212 AMERICAN HISTORY steamed its way down to New Orleans. These practical demonstrations of steam navigation opened the way for large advances in commerce and the internal improvement of the country. Mills and factories of various kinds were opened in the country, and it was not long before many of the industries of Europe were reproduced in America. k ,**'*"- *#/ I * ^H IB A Southern Manor House. Social Life. — The social life of the new states was more democratic than that of Europe. Men and women were more closely drawn together by common interests than in the Old World. There were some differences between the wealthy and the poor in regard to the general forms of society, but there were no great extremes of wealth and poverty, and there were no ranks or titles except those that were given to certain professions. In the large cities of the East there were beautiful town NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 213 houses with richly furnished interiors ; many of them were adorned with handsome furniture and tapestries from Europe ; and their owners dressed and lived in elegant style. In the South, where the plantation system prevailed, the spacious manor houses were equally well furnished, and entertainments and hospitality were in full evidence. Everywhere there was an air of prosperity. The people who were struggling forward realized that they might reach the goal of a comfortable and well-to-do existence if they would but work earnestly and energetically. Many could point with pride to the accumulation of wealth about them and relate how they had secured it within a lifetime. Topical Outline I. National Difficulties. 1. State Government. 2. Needs for Union. 3. Constitutional Convention. a. Virginia Plan. b. New Jersey Plan. c. Connecticut Compromise. d. Other Compromises. e. Constitution Adopted. 4. Bill of Rights. II. Industrial and Social Conditions. 1. Manufacture of Cloth. 2. Cotton Gin. 3. Sugar Making. 4. Ordinance of 1787. 5. Steamboats. 6. Social Life. 7. Education. Review Questions 1 . What were the political conditions in the colonies at the close of the Revolution ? 2. State the principal needs for union. 214 AMERICAN HISTORY 3. When and where did the Constitutional Convention meet? 4. What were the Virginia and New Jersey plans for national government ? What was meant by the Connecticut Compromise ? 5. What other compromises were adopted? 6. What is meant by the American Bill of Rights? 7. Who invented the cotton gin ? 8. Who was the first successful cane grower in Louisiana? 9. Who invented the first successful steamboat ? 10. What was the ordinance of 1787? 11. Trace the voyage of a steamboat from Pittsburgh to New Orleans. 12. How did transportation by water help in the development of this country ? 13. What means of transportation has largely taken the place of steamboats to-day? 14. In what occupations were the people of your state engaged in 1800? Describe the home life of people of that time. References Hinsdale : American Government. Coman : Industrial History of United States. CHAPTER XII NEW GOVERNMENT Washington chosen President. — When the new gov- ernment went into effect, Washington was unanimously chosen President of the United States. John Adams was elected Vice Presi- dent, made Plans were for their inauguration in April of 1789. New York was se- lected as the capi- tal, and special preparations were made for the new President's recep- tion. Washing- ton's trip from Virginia to New York was one of grand triumph. Town after town that he passed through made every effort to honor him. Arches of evergreen were erected that he might pass under them, and flowers were strewn in his path. When he reached New York, the city was crowded to the utmost, and gay and festive decora- tions were seen on every hand. It was everywhere manifest 215 George Washington. 2l6 AMERICAN HISTORY that the people were happy to have a national government and that they were satisfied with the selection of Wash- ington as President. Washington took the oath of office from the Federal Building in the presence of a vast concourse of people. Congress then prepared to begin the regular routine of government, and immediately provided for four executive departments to aid the President. The First Cabinet. — Washington made the following appointments to fill ' these offices : Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State ; Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; and Samuel Osgood, Postmaster-General. These men took up the affairs of their respective departments, Washington had them confer with him from time to time, and thus there came to be formed what is known as the President's Cabinet. Regular federal courts were created, and John Jay was appointed first Supreme Justice of the United States. First Work in Congress. National Debt. — One of the first questions taken up by Congress was the payment of the national debt. Hamilton in his report divided the debt into three sections : first, that due to foreign countries, France, Spain, and Holland; second, that due to private individuals; third, that due by the states. In the third case the debt represented certain amounts that the states had promised to carry during the American Revolution as their part of the expense. National Capital. — The first government was held in New York City, but later, through special invitation, it was transferred to Philadelphia, the seat of the old Con- tinental Congress and the Constitutional Convention. There was a strong inclination to make this city the per- manent capital, but the southern delegates, finding the site too far from their homes, urged a more central location. When the Constitution was framed a provision had been NEW GOVERNMENT 217 inserted that gave the national government the right to select a site ten miles square in which to locate the capital, and provided that Congress should have complete control of this district. Virginia and Maryland offered a tract of land ten miles square on the Potomac and proceeded to urge the change of the capital. About this time, there was much debate in Congress over the question of the national government's assuming the debts due the Revolutionary expenses by the states. New England favored the assumption and also approved of Philadelphia as the national capital. The southern states believed that each state should be responsible for this obligation. Because of this situation in Congress, Hamilton suggested that a compromise might be made whereby a settlement of the questions could be effected. It was finally agreed that the government should assume all the state debts, that the new capital should be built on the Potomac, and that, in the meantime, while the new public buildings were in construction, the capital should continue at Philadelphia. PAYMENT OF THE NATIONAL DEBT Hamilton's Plan. — The entire debt, interest and princi- pal, amounted to upward of $75,000,000. Hamilton pro- posed to fund the whole into United States bonds bearing six per cent interest. The sale of these bonds would furnish money to pay the debt, and the interest could be provided for by a series of taxes upon imported goods. Tariff. — This plan brought about the adoption of the Tariff Act of 1789, which was slightly protective, but was prepared solely with the idea of securing a definite revenue with which to carry on the expense of government. In 1790 Congress decided to levy a tax upon distilled liquors. This caused serious opposition. When an attempt was made to 2l8 AMERICAN HISTORY collect the tax in western Pennsylvania, the farmers of that section raised so strong a protest that it was necessary for Washington to call out the militia to assist the revenue officers and put down the outbreak. This episode is known as the Whisky Rebellion. Establishment of a Bank. — Hamilton made a third re- port to Congress in the following year, when he urged the establishment of a na- tional bank. This met with marked opposition by Jefferson and other representative men. They believed that it would be unwise for the United States govern- ment to go on record as organizing an institution such as the bank when there was no authority for this organization in the Constitution. There seemed to be so great a need for the bank that Washington yielded to Hamilton's arguments ; and, when Congress passed the bill, Washington signed it; and it became a law. The bank of North America in Philadelphia, which was one of the most reliable institutions in the coun- try, was recognized and given a twenty-year charter from Congress under the title of the United States Bank. The government was to hold one fifth of the entire stock and have other advantages as well. The government funds were to be placed in deposit in this bank and the " bank was to make government exchanges, keep treasury balances, and on occasions to make advances to supply temporary public needs." Alexander Hamilton. NEW GOVERNMENT 219 United States Mint. — The next consideration of Con- gress, in regard to the money question, was the establish- ment of a mint at Philadelphia, 1790. There was a great variety of foreign coins in the States, the value of which was determined by their metal and weight. It was very troublesome to keep values correct and make proper change. Decimal System. — It was finally agreed to accept a decimal system, that is, counting by tens, and to use the dollar as the standard of value. Gold and silver were used and the ratio of fifteen to one was ac- cepted, as, in 1792, fif- teen silver dollars would be equal to the value of one gold dollar accord- ing to the market value of metals. The designs selected for the coin were, on the face, the goddess of liberty and thirteen stars ; and, on the reverse, an eagle rep- resenting freedom, hold- ing in one claw a bundle of arrows signifying pro- tection, and in the other an olive branch, the symbol of peace. In order to encourage coinage, the government agreed to coin free certain amounts of gold and silver. Prosperity seemed to attend the new government. As the taxes came in, all the interest on the debt was paid, and a part of the principal steadily reduced as the bonds were sold. Indian Troubles. — Emigration toward the west con- General Anthony Wayne. 220 AMERICAN HISTORY tinued. Very soon the settlers built nourishing towns and opened up large farms. But there was still much danger from the Indians. Washington was obliged to send several generals with armies to assist the settlers in the defense of their homes. The most successful of these officers was General Anthony Wayne, who forced the Indians of the Northwest territory to make a permanent treaty with the Americans. British Troops in the Northwest. — Another trouble that annoyed the frontiersmen was the conflicts between the .*-* s&ffii rffe&a WJBSm'. •■SfSffi/Hlll Navigation on the Ohio River. French and Indian trappers of the Great Lakes region. Here the English government insisted upon keeping garri- sons of British soldiers ; and it was rumored that these en- couraged the outrages committed by the Indians. It was not until Washington succeeded in getting Jay to arrange a treaty with Great Britain that these troops were removed, making the western district more secure to the settlers. Navigation of the Mississippi. — One of the most trying situations was faced by the settlers along the Ohio and the NEW GOVERNMENT 221 neighboring streams, who used the Mississippi River as a means of transporting their goods to the Gulf of Mexico, and thence by European ships to foreign ports. It was custom- ary for these settlers to take their supplies down the stream on natboats as far as New Orleans, and there load them on the ocean-going ships. But the collectors of customs of the Spanish government became very unreasonable in their large charges and insolent conduct, so much so, that Wash- ington was obliged to seek redress at Madrid, the Spanish capital. Finally a treaty was signed that gave better privileges to the westerners. Then for a few years condi- tions were fairly satisfactory. Problem of Neutrality. — The most trying experiences of Washington's administration were concerned with preserv- ing a position of neutrality while all of Europe was at war. The old Bourbon Party that had signed the treaty of alliance with the Americans during the Revolution had been deposed, and a new party favoring Republican ideas had taken possession of the French government. As these leaders were the promoters of the French Revolution, for a long time France was in a state of great unrest. The new government in France was not recognized by the other European powers. Thus it was not long until the whole of Europe was threatened by a serious war. About this time Napoleon, a capable French soldier, took charge of affairs in France, placed the entire coun- try under military rule, and then began the tierce struggle between France and the rest of Europe. Since the principal nations at war had interests in America, it was very difficult to keep on equal terms with each with- out rousing suspicions of partiality. There was a demand for American products. If these were sent either to Eu- rope or the West Indies, there was always danger of inter- ference with trade. England stopped our ships to search for British sailors 222 AMERICAN HISTORY that had deserted from her navy ; and, whether these were found or not, many American seamen were accused of being British subjects and were impressed into English forces. France sent an ambassador to America with the hope of securing an alliance, but the United States was not prepared to enter the war, nor was the American government in a humor to cancel the friendly relations with the rest of Europe in order to support the existing French government. Washington had a very serious time with the French minister, Genet, who insisted upon visiting certain cities and arousing special sympathy with the French Revolution. Washington was obliged to ask France to recall Genet. In this many Americans felt disappointed at Washington's attitude, as they were in cordial sympathy with the French movement. England, in the meantime, grew more and more annoying to the American shipping interests. After a time Wash- ington sent John Jay, Chief Justice, on a mission to Eng- land to adjust the strained relations. Jay's Treaty. — The English government removed the British troops from Northwest territory, as we have men- tioned, but as to making amends for the insults to Ameri- can seamen, they did nothing. The people of the United States were so indignant over Jay's treaty, that when Hamil- ton was addressing a meeting in behalf of the treaty, the crowd jeered and threw stones at him. France declared that we had favored England in the treaty, and threatened to declare war against us. It was altogether a most un- fortunate situation, which caused Washington and his Cabinet no little distress. About this time, Washington's second term of office was drawing to a close, and he declined a third nomination. In withdrawing from public life, Washington made a memo- rable address in which he urged the American people to continue the policy of neutrality, and warned them about NEW GOVERNMENT 223 allowing their personal feelings so to dominate their better judgment as to allow party spirit to prevail and destroy the unity of the nation. Washington's Last Days. — In 1797 Washington retired to his old home at Mount Vernon. There, amid the quiet of his pleasant surroundings, he passed the remainder of his days. He died in 1799, deeply mourned by all the American people. France and England paid high tribute to his great military genius and to his lofty statesmanship. Election of % John Adams, 1796. — At the close of Washington's administration there were two political factions in existence, which were destined to grow into two strong political par- ties. One was known as the Federalist Party and the other as the Anti-Federalist. The members of the first were strongly in favor of a central- ized government with large and independent rights or powers, and the other favored lib- eral construction of the Constitution as regards the adminis- tration of govern- ment. J° HN Adams. The Federalists were represented by Hamilton and Adams. Washington was also in favor of their principles. The Anti-Federalists were led by Jefferson and Madison. This party was in favor of strict construction of the Con- 224 AMERICAN HISTORY stitution and strong protection of the sovereign or original rights of the states. When Washington's refusal of the nomination for a third term was received, the Federalists announced as their candidate John Adams ; the Anti- Federalists supported Thomas Jefferson. Adams won, and according to the custom of the time, Jefferson, who re- ceived the next highest number of votes, was elected Vice President. As this was not a wise provision, an amend- ment to the Constitu- tion was made whereby the President and the Vice President should thereafter be of the same platform or party. Foreign Affairs. — When Adams assumed the affairs of govern- ment he was confronted with the same difficul- ties concerning foreign affairs as had disturbed Washington's adminis- tration. France, still offended by Jay's treaty, indignantly dismissed the American minister, General Pinckney, and began capturing our vessels. Adams was obliged to call an extra session of Congress and to send John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to meet with Pinckney to try to adjust affairs with France. The French government sent commissioners to inform the Americans that negotiations for peace might be arranged if the American government would pay a certain sum to the members of the " Directory," as the French government was called. Pinckney was disgusted and indignantly de- John Marshall. NEW GOVERNMENT 225 clared that the United States would pay " millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." Adams in making his report to Congress referred to the Agents as Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z, and because of this, the episode is called the " X, Y, Z affair." This incident caused great feeling in America ; the former sympathy for France was turned into enmity ; and Pinck- ney's stirring words became the cry all over the country. So great was the feeling of resentment that French colors and flags were put aside, and French fashions, which had been very popular, were discarded. The American govern- ment looked upon the situation as serious enough to reen- force the army and order the construction of some new war vessels. Napoleon realized that the situation was critical, and he quickly readjusted matters so that the question of war was dropped. Alien and Sedition Laws. — All through this period in America there was strong sympathy with the Federalist party in regard to the war with France. Now it looked as if the entire nation would support the policies of this faction, but the leaders overstepped their power by enacting some very objectionable laws. Among these was the Naturaliza- tion Act, which provided that a foreigner must reside in America fourteen years before he could become a citizen. The Alien Act gave the President power to send out of the country any foreigner whom he might judge to be in any way dangerous to the peace and welfare of the country. Under this act, trial by jury was not necessary. Both of these acts seemed to give the President far more power than the Constitution had intended. The next act, known as the. Sedition Law, declared fine and imprisonment for " false, scandalous, and malicious writings " against the government or any official. This was declared to be an attempt to limit freedom of expression and to cut off the freedom of the press. Both Hamilton and Q 226 AMERICAN HISTORY John Marshall, who were stanch Federalists, were opposed to these acts. It was only a short time until the Anti- Federalists were loud in their denunciation of the new laws. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1 798-1 799. — Against these acts James Madison drafted some vigorous resolu- tions, which the Virginia legislature promptly adopted. Kentucky, also, adopted a set of resolutions that had been prepared by Thomas Jefferson and that were more intense in their denunciation of President Adams' action. The latter declared that the states had a right to judge of the constitutionality of any laws passed by Congress. This led the way for strong sentiment in favor of nullification. So unpopular were Adams and his party, because of this legislation, that the opposition laid the plan for their defeat in the next election. Thomas Jefferson, the great leader of the Anti-Federalist or Democrat-Republican Party, and Aaron Burr, a wily politician of New York, were elected over Adams and Pinckney. Topical Outline New Government. I. Washington Chosen President. II. First Cabinet. III. Work of Congress. IV. National Capital. V. Payment of National Debt. VI. Establishment of National Bank. VII. United States Mint. VIII. Indian Troubles. IX. British Troops in Northwest. X. Navigation of the Mississippi River. XL Problem of Neutrality. XII. Jay's Treaty. XIII. Election of John Adams. XIV. Foreign Affair. XV. Alien and Sedition Acts. XVI. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. NEW GOVERNMENT 227 Review Questions 1. Describe the organization of the new government. 2. Give an account of Washington's inauguration. 3. W T hom did the President choose for his cabinet officers? For what department was each chosen ? 4. What were the important issues before the President and Congress ? 5. What was Hamilton's plan in regard to the national debt? 6. Describe the establishment of the first national bank. 7. Where was the first mint erected? 8. What system of money did the United States adopt? 9. Give an account of the Indian troubles during Washington's administration. 10. What foreign troubles disturbed Washington's administra- tion? 11. What treaties were made at this time? 12. What advice did Washington give the American people in his farewell address ? 13. What was meant by the terms : Federalists and Anti-Federal- ists? 14. Give an account of the election of President Adams. 15. What was the French Naval War? 16. What was the X. Y. Z. affair? 17. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why were these laws passed ? 18. Who opposed these laws ? Why? References Lodge : George Washington. Hinsdale : Old Northwest. Fiske : The Critical Period. CHAPTER XIII JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY Inauguration of Jefferson. — After the Americans won their independence, it was generally thought that the new nation had gone far ahead in ideas of democracy and the rights of man. The idea of equal rights had become one of the most absorbing topics in Europe. This was es- pecially so in France, where Democratic leaders swept away all the old-time ideas of royalty, and class dis- tinctions became un- known. Many Ameri- cans looked upon the French Revolution with sympathetic interest ; throughout the country French ideas and litera- ture were discussed ; and clubs were formed that fostered these new phases of thought. Among the most ardent of these advocates was Thomas Jefferson, the great leader of the Anti-Federalists. From a social standpoint, Jefferson represented an old aristocratic family of Virginia. He was well educated, a brilliant lawyer, a devoted student of philosophy, a well-versed 228 Thomas Jefferson. JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 229 diplomat, and a musician of marked ability. With all his attainments he assumed the simplest of manners and customs in dress and speech and showed the most Repub- lican ideas in all his plans. At the time of Jefferson's inauguration, the new capital was but a village within a wood, hence it was quite impossi- ble to give to this event an imposing character such as had characterized Washington's advent to the Presidency. Instead of riding in state to the Capitol, Jefferson walked from his lodgings to the Senate, where he was to receive the oath of office, accompanied by a few friends, the secre- taries of the navy and the treasury, and attended by the local militia. In his inaugural message to Congress, Jefferson urged : " . . . equal justice to all men of whatever state or per- suasion, religious or political ; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." He also recommended economy in national expenses, payment of debts, encouragement of agriculture, education, justice, freedom of religion, freedom of the press, freedom of the person. War with Tripoli. — Jefferson was an ardent advocate of peace. He urged that the appropriation for both the navy and army be limited and that any surplus moneys be used to pay the national debt. But in 1801 the Americans were drawn into war with Tripoli, one of the Barbary states. This African coast had been a terror to American, as well as European, seamen, owing to the pirates that in- fested the region. It was estimated that as early as 1793, eleven American ships and one hundred and twelve sea- men and passengers had been seized by Tripolitan pirates and that upward of a million dollars in presents and a tribute of twenty-two thousand dollars was paid annually to the Dey of Tripoli. 230 AMERICAN HISTORY When the time came to renew the commercial treaties with the Barbary states, the Pasha of Tripoli was granted eighty-three thousand dollars from the United States, but he insisted that he was not receiving as much as the other states and he declared war upon the United States. Jefferson sent a fleet to the Mediterranean, which, in a short time, brought the Tripolitans to understand that the Ameri- cans were not to be insulted. After a few victories, the United States secured a treaty whereby American commerce would be safe and no further presents or tribute money would be paid. This event gave the American navy just fame in Europe. It was not long before all of the Christian nations were benefited by the success of the United States. Louisiana Purchase, 1803. — The most important event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana. At the close of the French and Indian War, France gave to Spain the great territory drained by the Mississippi and its western branches. For nearly forty years the interior of the vast district was practically unexplored, as Spain spent most of her energy in developing New Orleans and the lower valley. As early as Washington's administration, the western frontier settlements complained of the interference of Spain with their use of the Mississippi. We remember well how Washington finally succeeded in getting the treaty of Madrid, which secured larger commercial privileges to the Americans. But there was already a feeling of unrest over the navigation of the river, and, as it was a convenient waterway into the poorly defended frontier of the United States, it had often attracted Jefferson's attention. At the opening of his administration he was alarmed to learn that Louisiana had been ceded to France. While Jefferson had a friendly regard for France, yet he knew that this nation was much stronger than Spain, and he - ^ il CO fc 1 < ^ T ■£ X o £ * a r< K t>is U of - J Jo JEFFERSONIA X D E MOC R AC Y 231 realized that, with Xapoleon and his armies at the head of France, this new ownership might prove a menace to The T the peace and safety of the United States. Jefferson grew justly alarmed when he heard that Xapoleon was planning to land troops at New Orleans and to use this city as a 232 AMERICAN HISTORY military base in order to attack the English in Canada. In a message to Congress, the President declared that : " There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He then proposed the purchase of the Isle of Orleans. Robert Livingston, United States minister to France, was urged to secure the purchase, but there were many diffi- culties in the way. Finally Jefferson sent James Monroe The Cabildo, New Orleans, built in 1794- as special agent in this interest. They at last secured a consideration of their plans, when suddenly Napoleon, who greatly needed money, decided to sell the entire terri- tory. He asked $12,500,000 for the land and requested $2,500,000 as payment for French claims in the late war with the United States. The amount was paid and the American government added the magnificent valley to its domain in 1803. This addition has been of inestimable worth to the country. Through its great natural resources, it has paid for itself many-fold. JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 233 Lewis and Clark Expedition. — In the next year after the purchase, an expedition was sent under the command of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, younger brother of George Rogers Clark. They followed the course of the Missouri as far north and west as the Rocky Mountains, suffering as many hardships and braving as great dangers as fb *Spa)n^ H $. JU J ft II ^ f x t miri +++ Bouie of Clark's \ ..-..■Route of Lewis's party _ ^ Route of entire party The Routes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. the early explorers. After crossing the Rocky Mountains, they came to the Columbia River, by which they were brought on November 7, 1805, in view of the Pacific Ocean. This expedition was of great value, as it defined the ex- tent of the territory and added a better claim to the district of Oregon. Later Zebulon Pike also led an expedition through this region and came over toward Colorado, where 234 AMERICAN HISTORY he discovered Pikes Peak and explored the Arkansas and Rio Grande rivers. Burr's Plot. — In 1804 Aaron Burr ran for the governor- ship of New York and was defeated. He accused Alexander Hamilton of causing his defeat and challenged Hamilton to a duel in which the latter was killed. The whole country was greatly shocked by this tragedy, as Hamilton was admired by many and considered one of the greatest men of his age. Burr was absolutely disgraced by the act and was obliged to leave the state. He went to the West, where it is sup- posed that there he planned to take advantage of certain discontent among some of the people of Louisiana and the frontier settlements, and by skillfully working up this un- rest bring it to the point of causing these states to secede from the Union. Then, with the aid of some of the officials of Mexico, it is thought, he meant to unite all of these dis- tricts into a new republic with himself and his colleagues as the head. He was arrested and brought to trial, but no definite information could be brought against him, and he was released. Foreign Affairs. — In 1804 Jefferson was elected for a second term. During this time many problems arose in regard to foreign affairs. The wars in Europe had stimu- lated American trade. There was a growing demand for our American products. Many fast sailing vessels were built to carry on this commerce. The English govern- ment was using all of its available men either in the army or navy. At this time it was reported that a number had deserted and were employed upon American ships. The English shipping companies also complained that their crews deserted in American ports and that this was the cause of long delays in getting their vessels home. The English government attempted to remedy these conditions by granting its sea captains commissions which gave them the right to search vessels for their seamen. JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 235 The result was that many American boats were stopped to be searched for English sailors. In some instances the deserters were found, but on the other hand able-bodied American seamen were declared to be British subjects and forced upon English vessels. Chesapeake Affair. — In 1807 the crisis in this insolence was reached when the American frigate Chesapeake was stopped on the high seas by the British vessel Leopard. The captain of the Chesapeake refused to have his vessel searched ; and, though the Chesapeake was not prepared for resistance, the British then fired upon the American boat, killed three seamen, and wounded eighteen. Four Ameri- can seamen were seized. The Chesapeake, in deep disgrace, returned to harbor. When the incident was reported the whole of America was aroused to a high pitch of indignation. Many felt that we ought to declare war. The Embargo. — Just prior to this incident, the British had declared the whole coast of Europe from the Elbe River to Brest, a distance of eight hundred miles, under blockade. All along the coast many American ships were welcome, as they were bearers of food and supplies. But under the Orders in Council, as the English decrees were called, no ship could trade in any of these ports unless it was furnished a license by England. On the other hand, France, under Napoleon, in retalia- tion passed the Berlin and Milan decrees, by which all of the ports of Great Britain and Ireland were also under blockade. As time went on similar decrees were passed first by England, then by France, until there were scarcely any ports open to commerce. The American ships were at the mercy of both England and France and conditions were very serious. President Jefferson appealed to England to redress the grievances done to the Chesapeake and to recognize the American ships as those belonging to a neutral country, but England 236 AMERICAN HISTORY refused to heed the request. Then Jefferson proposed to Congress a new policy ; namely, that, as all of the belliger- ent nations needed American supplies, it would be well to close all of our ports to the world. By keeping our ships at home, Europe would soon be brought to recognize the need for our products and would treat with us ; thus we could secure better trade relations. This policy of domestic blockade was known as the Embargo. We shall see how unpopular it became. Non-intercourse Act. — The Americans were sure that Europe would be dependent upon our food supplies, so all over the country great crops of grain and other products were raised and warehouses were filled to overflowing. But Europe secured its supplies from other ports, and the American products became old and unfit for use. The ships in the harbors were tied up, many persons were de- prived of employment, and hard times settled down upon the country. From city and country alike came the cry of discontent. Jefferson's policy was condemned and his administration grew very unpopular. So great was the opposition to the Embargo that Congress was obliged to repeal it. As a substitute Congress passed what is known as the Non-intercourse Act. This provided for open ports for all nations except England and France and gave the American ships the right to free trade. While Congress had been enacting these laws, Jefferson's administration drew to a close and James Madison of Virginia was elected President. Jefferson's Retirement. — Jefferson now retired at Mon- ticello, with the shadow of unpopularity about the last acts of his administration. But as we look back we realize that many of his plans were great and successful, and that the purpose of his work was to establish a nation upon a high plane of democracy and to point the way for many splendid national interests that we have been glad to follow. JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 237 Topical Outline Jeffersonian Democracy. I. Inauguration of Jefferson. II. War with Tripoli. III. Louisiana Purchase, 1803. IV. Lewis and Clark Expedition. V. Burr's Plot. VI. Foreign Affairs. 1. Chesapeake Affair. 2. Embargo. 3. Non-Intercourse Act. VII. Jefferson's Retirement. Review Questions 1. Give an estimate of the character of Thomas Jefferson. Note his political views. 2. Locate Tripoli. Why did we go to war with Tripoli ? 3. Write an account of the purchase of Louisiana. 4. Who explored this region ? Was this a dangerous undertaking ? Why? 5. What was the value of this purchase to the United States? 6. Who was Aaron Burr? What were his plans ? 7. Define the terms : Blockade, Embargo. 8. Why was an embargo laid on American trade? 9. Why was this policy not a success ? 10. What took its place ? References Roosevelt : Winning of the West. Hosmer : Louisiana Purchase. CHAPTER XIV WAR OF 1812 Trials of the New President. — When James Madison, of Virginia, succeeded Thomas Jefferson as President, he was immediately beset with the trying foreign affairs that had given so much concern in the last few years of the history of the country. The European blockade continued as an annoy- ance to the Americans, and the Embargo, which was so great a failure, was followed by the Non- intercourse Act, which gave little, if any, relief to the shipping interests. Although the Americans were eager for trade and were willing to build boats and promote the commerce of the country, yet the trade restrictions were a serious hindrance James Madison. and & cauge Qf graye dJs _ content, especially among the seacoast towns of New Eng- land, where many men had been thrown out of work by the Embargo. The Federalist Party was largely represented in this district, and there was a strong feeling against Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists for this act, so that Madison had to use great policy to hold the feeling in check. 238 WAR OF 1812 239 The Admission of Louisiana (1812). — Another incident that increased the differences of opinions of the Federalists and Anti-Federalists was the application of the territory of Orleans for admission into the Union. After the pur- chase of Louisiana territory, a number of Americans moved into this district and became permanent residents. In 181 1 there were 75,000 inhabitants in the district of Or- leans, a territory which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the boundary of the present state of Arkansas. When these people asked for admission into the Union, a bitter opposition arose in Congress on the ground that many of the inhabitants were of French and Spanish ances- try and that they were too alien to enter into the plans and methods of the United States government. The discus- sions became more and more heated. In the course of the debates in Congress, one of the leaders of the Federalist Party, Senator Josiah Quincy, of Massa- chusetts, declared : "If this bill passes, the bonds of the Union are virtually dissolved ; the States that compose it are free from their moral obligations, and as it will be the right of all, so it will be the duty of some, definitely to prepare for a separation, amicably if they can, violently if they must." Notwithstanding this extreme language, a bill was passed by Congress and a convention was called in New Orleans to frame a state constitution. In the next year, April 8, 181 2, an act was passed admitting the territory of Orleans under the title of the state of Louisiana. We shall shortly see how the French and Spanish Americans were to show their truly national patriotism by their gallant aid in the impending war. War Party in Congress. — The new President, a gentle, peace-loving man, used every effort to avert the war, but there were some new leaders in Congress who felt that the American seamen deserved better protection. 240 AMERICAN HISTORY Among these younger Congressmen were Henry Clay, of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, and Felix Grundy, of Tennessee. In the year 1811 these younger Congressmen were roused to greater energy in behalf of their cause by two very criti- cal events. The President and the Little Belt. — The first was an encounter between the American frigate, President, and an English war vessel, called Little Belt. In this engage- ment the American ship was victorious. Thus in a measure the insult to the Chesapeake was redressed. The incident, hailed with great joy, caused hundreds of Americans to feel that our seamen were ready for many such victories, even if the navy was small and poorly equipped. The event was a decided means of stimulating the feeling for war. Indian Outbreaks. — In the summer of this year, In- dian outrages were committed in the Northwest. It was rumored that the English were instigating the Indians in their warfare on the frontier settlements. Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnees, was the leader of the Indians. He and his twin brother, " The Prophet," real- ized that the Americans were on the verge of a war with England and that this would be a good time to organize all of the western tribes from the lakes to the gulf in one large confederation to make a stand for control of the western country. Tecumseh failed to secure the co- operation of the Creeks in Georgia ; but, gathering forces near the northern frontier, he opened an attack. William Henry Harrison, governor of this territory, marched against an Indian town on the Tippecanoe River and utterly defeated Tecumseh's forces. Later Tecumseh went to Canada and joined the British army. The western leaders in Congress urged protection of the frontiers from these attacks and started the war cry " America for Americans " and " On to Canada," WAR OF 1812 241 while the slogan " Free Trade and Seamen's Rights " was shouted from one end of the country to the other. So strong was the sentiment in favor of war, and so in- solent was the English ministry toward our representatives in England, that President Madison was obliged to send his war message to Congress on June 12, 181 2. By the end of the month war was formally declared and preparations were begun. Notwithstanding the zeal of the war party, there were many Americans who were not in favor of the movement. They believed that we should injure our reviving commerce with Europe and the West Indies and that we were not prepared for the struggle. Our navy was small and poorly equipped, our army was inexperienced, the coast protection was very inadequate, and our finances were not in the best condition. When hasty preparations were made, however, the war was begun in earnest. Land Campaigns. — The Americans were on the ag- gressive and planned to attack the border forts and towns on the Canadian side and then march into Canada, but, in this plan, they had the disadvantage of position. There were no good roads through the country to the Canadian frontier, nor were there any navigable rivers that could be used for transporting an army and supplies, while, on the other hand, the principal Canadian cities and forts were along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. For this reason supplies and soldiers could be transported easily. Moreover, the western Indians were allies of the English and could give ample assistance in the frontier attacks. Another weakness in the American position was the north- eastern frontier, which had always led in the attacks on Canada in the early colonial struggles, and which at this time was not in sympathy with the war and not en- thusiastic in furnishing either men or means to carry out the plan. 242 AMERICAN HISTORY Hull's Surrender. — In 1812 the Americans began the attack by planning to invade Canada by way of the Michi- gan frontier. General Hull was in charge of the Ameri- cans at Detroit. When the British appeared before this fort, Hull surrendered without firing a shot. A number of men were captured and forced to give up their arms. This was a most disappointing episode. Hull was charged with cowardice and was about to be court-martialed when his excellent services in the American Revolution were re- membered. Instead, he was only deprived of his command. Harrison * n • TTilkhy s The Canadian Frontier. It looked very much as if the Americans were about to lose the northwest frontier instead of gaining Canada. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — In September, 181 3, Lieutenant Oliver Perry gained a brilliant victory over a British fleet in Lake Erie and prevented these vessels from transporting soldiers to reenforce the Detroit district. This victory was hailed with intense delight. Perry's famous message, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours," was carried all over the country. This victory aided General Harrison, who was trying to WAR OF 1812 243 recover the ground that Hull had lost. In a short while Harrison succeeded in winning a signal victory over Gen- eral Proctor and his Indian allies, under Tecumseh, on the banks of the Thames River, near Detroit. In this battle Tecumseh was killed and General Proctor was obliged to flee for his life. This engagement gave the Americans a larger dis- trict than Hull had lost. Invasion of Canada. — Another attempt was made to invade Canada. At this time the Niagara frontier was the place of attack. New generals had been sent to take up the leadership of the Amer- icans. Under their direction, York (To- ronto) was taken and some smaller positions secured. The success of the Americans suggested the capture of Montreal, but this expedition was a failure. In the next season the position held by the Americans was abandoned. Battle of Lake Champlain. — In the following year, 1814, a large British force started from Canada to invade New York. But as they were being transported down Lake Champlain they were attacked by Commodore Mac- Donough, who was guarding the Lake. MacDonough won as brilliant a victory as Perry had on Lake Erie, and by his success he prevented the British from entering New York. Captain Oliver Hazard Perry. 244 AMERICAN HISTORY British Aggressive Campaign. — In 1814 England was in a position to send a fleet to America to aid the Canadians in their plans. With this new aid, the British succeeded in taking some towns on the coast of Maine. A large force was sent to the Chesapeake Bay region. After a slight attack upon Bladensburg, Maryland, the English went on to Washington and seized the undefended city. The Capitol, White House, and some of the impor- tant Federal buildings were burned. Just be- fore the English entered Washington, the Presi- dent's wife, Mrs. Dolly Madison, had the fore- thought to gather up some of the most valuable state papers, like the Declara- tion of Independence, and carry them to a place of safety. The British fleet at- tempted to storm Balti- more, but failed. Then the besiegers embarked upon their ships for the South, where a very elaborate cam- paign was planned. The incident is told that while the British fleet bombarded Fort McHenry all night, during this eventful evening Francis Scott Key, an American prisoner on one of the English ships, was inspired to write The Star-Spangled Banner. Battle of New Orleans. — The next plan of the British was to capture New Orleans and use this city as a military base for further control of the Mississippi River. President Mrs. James Madison. WAR OF 1812 2 45 New Orleans and Vicinity, Madison ordered General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee to defend the city. Jackson came to New Orleans, bringing with him a number of Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen. The English had kept their plans a secret, but in their endeavor to enter the city by way of one of the numerous water routes they had attempted to bribe some Baratarian smugglers ; these smugglers gave the plan over to the Americans. Jackson organized his forces, using every available citizen in the section. He then proceeded to guard all the possible routes, but the British came in by way of Lake Borgne and landed their forces on the Villere plantation. They then arranged their troops on the field of Chalmette, a few miles below the city. Here they prepared to make an attack. In the first engagement, which took place on the 23d of December, the British were repulsed. On Christmas Day, General Pakenham, brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, arrived and took charge of the army. He brought with him the flower of the English ranks as his reinforcements. On the 8th of January the memorable battle took place. In this engagement Jackson had his men arranged behind a breastwork in front of Bayou Bienvenu, a small stream south of New Orleans, while the English advanced from an open field. The heavy cannonade began from the American side and disastrously cut down the " red coats," as the English were called. They lost two thousand of their men, among whom lay their commander, General Pakenham. The Americans had but eight killed and fourteen wounded. This battle was one of the most serious disasters that the English 246 AMERICAN HISTORY had encountered. After it was over and the news had been forwarded to Washington, it was discovered that the engagement took place after the treaty of peace had been signed on the 24th of December in the city of Ghent, Belgium. The reason for the delay in receiving the news was due to the fact that communication was From de Lami's painting in La Slate Museum. Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 181 5. very indirect in these days and it took weeks to send news from Europe to America. Naval Engagements of the War. — The Americans were eminently successful on the sea. Although their navy was many times smaller than the splendid array of British ships, the single-handed duels between the American and English ships were often victories for the Americans. Of sixteen such engagements, the Americans won twelve victories. Among these was the defeat and capture of the Guerriere by the Constitution. The former had been one of the most active of the British ships in sailing up and down the Amer- ican coast impressing seamen. Its capture was reck- WAR OF 1812 247 oned as a splendid feat on the part of Captain Hull, com- mander of the Constitution. This was only one of several victories that this commander and his gallant ship won. It was through these engagements that the Constitution received its nickname, " Old Ironsides." Besides these encounters, the American privateers entered every harbor where English merchant ships could be found and captured hundreds of these. It was remarkable how many prizes these swift little sailing vessels managed to secure. Hartford Convention. — While the war was going on, the peace party did not cease to condemn the war policy of the Democrats. Both Massachusetts and Connecticut had refused to call out their local militias to assist ; and all through the Northeast there had been very few subscribers to the war fund. When a Federalist governor was elected in Vermont, he recalled the local defense from guarding Lake Champlain. So conditions went on until 18 14, when a special meeting of the New England Federalists was held in Hartford, Connecticut, to make further declarations against the war party. The sessions of this meeting were secret, but it was generally rumored that a plan was on foot to organize the district and secede from the Union. As there were negotiations for peace going on at this very time, nothing came of the meeting. When the treaty of peace was signed, there was no refer- ence made to the causes of the war. England, however, took her garrisons from the Northwest. American seamen had so ably defended themselves that future impressments were unlikely. Thus American commerce was assured. General Effects of the War of i8i2.--The war cost the American people upward of thirty thousand lives and brought many families into deep distress without giving to the country any increase in territory or any lasting glory except in the matter of the splendid success of the 248 AMERICAN HISTORY American gunners on the sea. The national debt was in- creased by the actual cost of the war, which is estimated at upward of two hundred million dollars. But the war did have the effect of making the American people more independent in their views regarding national interests. There was a tendency toward setting aside English and French standards of thought and the accept- ance of more American ideals and ideas on all questions of the day. Many of the plans and suggestions that had been made by Hamilton and his Federalist followers and that had been scorned by the new Democrat-Republican Party of Jefferson's day were now carefully considered and adopted. On the other hand, certain phases of Democracy that had seemed too extreme to be easily accepted, were now recog- nized in a new light and deemed to be a part of the American system. America had grown up in these years of experience and was now in a position to think for itself. Its ideas were the merging of Nationalism and Democracy. Topical Outline War of 1812. I. Trials of New President. II. Admission of Louisiana. III. War Party in Congress. IV. President and Little Belt. V. Indian Outbreaks. VI. War Declared. VII. Land Campaigns. 1. Canadian Frontier. 2. Atlantic Coast. 3. Battle of New Orleans. VIII. Naval Engagements. IX. Hartford Convention. X. Treaty of Peace. XL Effects of War of 181 2. WAR OF 1812 249 Review Questions 1. Who succeeded Thomas Jefferson as President? What trials faced the new President ? 2. What were the conditions in the territory of Orleans when the inhabitants of that territory asked for admission to the Union ? 3. How was their request received by Congress? 4. When was Louisiana admitted to the Union ? 5. What was meant by the War party in Congress? 6. How did the Americans regard the victory of the President over the Little Belt ? 7. Give an account of the Indian troubles in the Northwest. 8. Under what circumstances did the United States declare war against England in 181 2? 9. Who had the advantage of position in this war? 10. Were the Americans successful in their plans to invade Canada ? 11. Give an account of Perry's victory on Lake Erie? 12. Give an account of the British aggressive campaign. 13. Describe the battle of New Orleans. 14. Tell something of the naval engagements of the war. 15. State the general effects of the war of 181 2. 16. What was the Hartford Convention? References Mahan : War of 181 2. Roosevelt : Naval War of 181 2. Eggleston and Seeley : Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet. CHAPTER XV ERA OF GOOD FEELING Monroe's Administration. — After the War of 1812, with the readjustment of affairs there came over the country a quiet and prosperous period that is frequently spoken of as the " era of good feeling." It began with the admin- istration of President James Monroe and ex- tended through the ad- ministration of John Quincy Adams. The recently inaugu- rated President, James Monroe, was from Vir- ginia and represented an earnest, conservative type of man who was not influenced by deep party prejudices nor swayed by James Monroe. ^ and unusual plans As we have noted, there was greater political harmony than had existed in the country for many years. Monroe aided this condition by following up as closely as possible the interests of all sections of the country, and, further, by visiting many of the states of the Union. He was cordially received everywhere. His kindly interest in the plans and movements of the American people secured 250 ERA OF GOOD FEELING 251 such confidence in his administration that he received an almost unanimous election at his second term for President. The American Tariff System. — This system was among the important events of this period. In 1789 Con- gress passed a tariff act to assist in securing revenues for the country. This law was somewhat protective in its plan, but it was not designed to assist American manu- factures. The Embargo and Non-intercourse acts had prevented importation of European goods and stimulated the growth of manufactures. During the War of 181 2, there had been an increase in the production of homemade goods. At the close of the war it was decided by the American manufacturers that an association should be formed for the purpose of securing a tariff that would be high enough to protect American-made goods. At this time European cities were filled with unemployed men and factory wages became very low, so that the foreign manufacturers could turn out goods at a much cheaper rate than the Americans whose labor was limited and whose machinery and tools had to be imported. It was declared that if something were not done to assist the " infant industries," as they were called, the American factories would have to close and that America would be the open market for foreign goods. It was also stated that in case of war, or blockade, this situation would prove serious, for we were entirely without adequate factories. One statesman declared that we had won our political independence in the American Revolution, our commercial independence by the War of 181 2, and that the time had now come when we must win our industrial in- dependence. So great was the interest in this question of protection that Congress passed an act in 18 16 which provided for a 252 AMERICAN HISTORY law that would guarantee protection of certain American- made articles. The act provided for three classes of goods, which could be supplied by American manufacturers in sufficient quantities for home use. United States Bank. — At the same time that the tariff system was revised, a bill was introduced into Congress recommending the reestablishment of the United States Bank. Jefferson and his party had opposed the former national bank on the ground that the Constitution did not provide for such an institution. Moreover it was deemed undemocratic of the government to use the National Bank and its branches as the sole depositories of national funds. If the funds were placed in state banks, the national money could have wider circulation and the entire nation would have greater benefit by the State Bank system. This system went into effect in 1811. Within the next five years the state banks increased threefold and the cir- culation of bank notes increased from $45,000,000 to $100,000,000. This rapid increase in paper money over- topped the gold and silver specie reserve. As the bank notes increased, their purchasing value decreased. By 1 8 14 all of the state banks outside of Massachusetts sus- pended the payment of gold and silver. The bank bill provided that the payment of government taxes could be made in these bank notes. When business firms required payment in specie, the public began to lose confidence in the bank notes. The situation grew so serious that a general demand was made for better financial security and a petition was sent to Congress asking for the establishment of a second national bank. The new bank was chartered in 181 6. In the next year the central bank was organized in Phila- delphia and branch banks were located in twenty-five of the principal American cities. The President of the United States had the power to appoint five of the twenty- ERA OF GOOD FEELING 2 53 five directors, and the affairs of the bank were under the direct inspection of Congress. Purchase of Florida. — During the War of 1812 Spain had allowed England to build forts in Florida and to use this region as a military base. This had caused the Amer- icans to feel alarmed lest the Florida district might become a menace to the peace and safety of the southern states. Moreover, the Indians in Georgia and northern Florida had made a number of attacks upon the American frontiers. It was supposed that the Spaniards had aided in this movement. At any rate, General Andrew Jackson, who was sent down to the Georgia district to suppress the Indian out- rages, was convinced that the Spaniards were secretly helping the Indians, so, after defeating the latter at Tohopeka, Alabama (18 1 4), Jackson drove the remainder of the Indians southward to Florida. Later he entered this district, and, after repulsing an English garrison at Mobile, he continued to Pensacola, which was occupied by British forces, seized this position, and hanged two Englishmen and two Indian chiefs. Spain, indignant at Jackson's invasion of her territory, asked the United States for a redress of these grievances. A little later the district of West Florida, bounded by the Mississippi River on the west and the Perdido River on the east, revolted and declared itself independent of Spanish authority. When the Louisiana Purchase was made in 1803, the Florida Boundary in 1818. 254 AMERICAN HISTORY United States declared the district of West Florida to be a portion of the Purchase, but Spain denied this right and retained control of the province. This territory was largely occupied by Americans who, having received grants from the Spanish government, were operating plantations and stock farms. They used Baton Rouge and New Or- leans as their chief ports, although such towns as Mobile, Biloxi, and Pass Christian on the Gulf of Mexico were the seaports for the eastern portion of the province. The Spanish governors usually resided at Baton Rouge, but they, were often indifferent to the interests of the people and were frequently absent from the colony, spend- ing months at a time in Pensacola or Havana on pleasure trips. This indifference aroused the indignation of the American settlers. In 1810 some Americans under the leadership of General Philemon Thomas seized the fort at Baton Rouge and took control. This is known as the West Florida Revolution. Later a convention of the leading American citizens was held and declared the independence of the district under the title of the West Florida Republic. They asked the United States to acknowledge their independence. President Monroe instructed Governor Claiborne of Louisi- ana territory to take charge of the situation. The Spanish government resented the attitude of the Americans, and these incidents, added to the preceding events of Jackson's expedition, caused the United States to consider the claims of Spain. In 181 9 the United States reached an agree- ment with Spain whereby Florida was purchased for five million dollars. The United States was secured in her control of the Gulf coast and free from the constant menace of foreign invasions at this place. By this same treaty the United States secured a release of Spain's claim in the Oregon territory and also accepted Spains proposal that the Sabine River be fixed as the ERA OF GOOD FEELING 255 eastern boundary of Texas. In this year Alabama was admitted to the Union. Missouri also asked to be ad- mitted, but was delayed because of the question of slavery until a compromise could be made. Missouri Compromise. — In order to study the Missouri Compromise, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of the history of the institution of slavery in the United States and also the re- lation of this period of history to later events. In the sixteenth cen- tury the Spanish govern- ment gave permission to their colonists in the West Indies and South Amer- ica to use negro slaves on the plantations, and wherever they were needed. Thus was be- gun the first use of Afri- can slaves in America. There was such a demand for field hands and the negroes proved so useful that it was not long be- fore many of the European countries became interested in the slave trade. White Labor Preferred in the South. — Among the most active traders in this industry were the Dutch. As early as 1 619 a cargo of negroes was brought to Virginia by a Dutch trading vessel and sold to the Virginia planters. There was a great demand for laborers in Virginia at this time, since the planters were anxious to secure field hands for their tobacco plantations, so the negroes were wel- comed. But the Virginians preferred white labor and Territory Affected by the MISSOURI COMPROMISE A Added to Missouri (183G) Missouri Compromise. 256 AMERICAN HISTORY from time to time made every effort to secure such from England. A number of poor white persons being anxious to come to the New World, were willing to serve several years for their passage to America. These, known as redemptioners or indented servants, were eagerly wel- comed to the English colonies. England also sent over some prisoners who served their sentence in America under this system and in the course of time became freemen with rights of citizens. English Slave Trade. — Every now and then, however, cargoes of negroes were introduced into the colonies until the institution of slavery became a regular system of labor in America. But the preference for laborers was given to white emigrants. It was not until Queen Anne's time that the trade in negroes was rapidly increased. This was brought about in 17 13 by the Assiento or treaty made with Spain, one of the agreements of which gave England the monopoly of the African slave trade. From this time forward a new impetus was given to the importation of negroes. A number of slave-trading companies were started in England and received charters from the crown, Indented servants were no longer sent over. Within a few years the institution of slavery was firmly foisted upon the English colonies. The Natural Location of Slavery. — In 1776 slavery was in existence in all of the American colonies. But the majority of these laborers were in the South, where plan- tations prevailed and where the warmer climate was more suitable for the out-of-door life to which the negroes were accustomed. In the towns and cities of the North and East, where most of the occupations of the people were manufactures, shipbuilding, and mercantile interests, the untrained negroes were not as profitable as in the South, where agriculture prevailed and the seasons for farming were long ; hence there was less demand for slave labor in ERA OF GOOD FEELING 257 the northern states, and the institution gradually began to die out. Tendency toward Abolition. — The first state to prohibit the institution was Pennsylvania, where the Quaker popu- lation had long tried to secure its abolition. In 1787 a law prohibiting the importation of foreign slaves into the United States was discussed. Afterwards a compromise was adopted and went into effect in 1808. After this many of the New England states which had been interested in the slave trade abolished the institution altogether. In 1787 an ordinance was passed by Congress prohibiting slavery in Northwest territory. So, little by little, here and there, the tendency toward abolition grew. The Effect of the Cotton Gin. — When Eli Whitney in- vented the cotton gin in 1793 a new interest in slavery was developed, because by this invention, which easily separated the lint from the seed, cotton raising became very profitable. The new lands of the South which were adapted to the culture of cotton were quickly taken up and many planta- tions were opened. Negroes were very much in demand in these new lands. There was a constant shifting of the institution from the North toward the farm lands of the southern states. By 181 5 the majority of the negroes in the United States were south of Pennsylvania. Slavery in Missouri. — Missouri was a part of the Loui- siana Purchase. In its early history, when it was under the domination of the French and Spanish governments, slavery existed within its borders. During the great migration toward the west after the War of 181 2, many southern people moved into Missouri and carried their slaves with them. When Missouri asked to be admitted as a slaveholding state, the question arose in Congress as to this privilege. The Compromise. — Members of Congress from free states wished to have Missouri come in as a free state, but 258 AMERICAN HISTORY those from the slaveholding states urged their support of the Missouri constitution. After serious debate a com- promise was finally accepted which allowed Missouri to come in as a slaveholding state, but prohibited slavery in any of the territory purchased from France north of the southern boundary of this state. This compromise on the question of slavery literally divided the United States geographically into two sections. From that time forward the question of a state's privilege to extend the institu- tion of slavery was destined to become a grave national issue. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — After the downfall of Napoleon, there was formed in Europe an alliance of many of the great nations for the purpose of assisting one another should a revolution break out within their borders. France had assisted Spain to reestablish the monarchy in that country. As Spain had recently lost many of her Amer- ican possessions through revolts, the Holy Alliance, as it was called, offered to assist Spain in the recovery of her possessions. Both England and the United States had acknowledged the independence of the new republics and formed commercial treaties with them that seemed mutually profitable. Moreover, Russia, who was a member of the HoJy Alliance, had pushed her seal-fishing interests from Alaska as far south as the Spanish town of San Francisco in California and had declared that the Pacific Ocean from Siberia to America north of Oregon was not open to navi- gation. If the Holy Alliance should assist Spain in the recovery of her colonies, it was possible that Spain might reward the countries in the Alliance with certain possessions. This act would transfer the European policies to America and perhaps cause grave trouble. On December 23, 1823, President Monroe in a message to Congress stated certain policies in regard to foreign countries. These policies were adopted by Congress and ERA OF GOOD FEELING 259 are known as the Monroe Doctrine. Its chief points are as follow First, that these American continents by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained are not subject, for future colonization. Second, that where a Republican form of government has been assumed and maintained that it shall not be interfered with, nor a monarchical form of government set up in its stead. Third, that the policy of the United States has been, and shall be, not to interfere with European policies, and that in return the United States expects European nations to respect American policies and furthermore, any attempt on the part of European nations to extend their systems will be deemed unfriendly to the United States. The nations accepted this declaration of President Monroe. Russia removed her interest from San Francisco. No attempt was made to overthrow the South American republics. This Doctrine has become known as one of the greatest policies of the United States. It has been re- asserted from time to time with signal effect. Topical Outline Era of Good Feeling. I. Inauguration of President Monroe. II. American Tariff System. III. United States Bank. IV. Purchase of Florida. Y. Missouri Compromise. VI. Monroe Doctrine. Review Questions 1. What was meant by the "Era of good feelin. 2. Who was President at this time ? Tell something of his political ideas. 3. What had been the tariff system up to this time, and what changes were made in it during this administration ? 260 AMERICAN HISTORY 4. What had been the banking system up to this time and what changes, if any, were made during this administration ? 5. What was the West Florida Revolution? 6. Under what circumstances was Florida purchased ? 7. Give a brief account of the early history of slave labor in the United States. 8. How did England force the American colonists to use slave labor ? 9. Were there any efforts toward the abolition of slavery in the United States in early times ? 10. How did the invention of the cotton gin increase the need for laborers in the South ? 11. What controversy arose in Congress over the question of the admission of Missouri into the Union ? 12. Discuss the adoption of the Missouri Compromise. 13. Why was the Monroe Doctrine announced? 14. What are the principal features of this policy? References Curtis : United States and Foreign Powers. Woodrow Wilson : Division and Revision. Dewey : Financial History of United States. CHAPTER XVI ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE Improvements. — The period between 1816 and 1840 was marked by many improvements that affected the national life of the American people and caused a rapid The Cumberland Road. development of the middle West. We shall take up the principal ones and note their influence. Good Roads. — As early as 1806 the United States government undertook to construct a well-graded wagon road from Cumberland on the Potomac River to Wheeling on the Ohio. This road was about eighty feet wide, paved 261 262 AMERICAN HISTORY with stone and covered with gravel. It was one of the means of encouraging emigration to the West, as settlers from the East could safely journey over this road to the Ohio River and from there go down this stream to places that afforded good sites for farms. In this way many travelers followed the Cumberland Road, as it was called, until it became the means of opening up a regular trade route between the East and West. In 1820 Henry Clay succeeded in getting Congress to extend this road across the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Thus a complete connection was made between the Wheeling division and the Mississippi River opposite St. Louis. The road was now known as the " National Turnpike." It became the means of promoting still greater emigration. Many nourishing cities were built along its way. States also took up the work of road building. Good highways were laid from one place to another, connecting with the main road. Easy transportation lessened the time of journeys and rendered communication possible. Canals. — In England and other European countries the problem of conveying goods from the interior of the country to the sea was partially solved by means of canals connecting with rivers and making a chain of waterways to the sea. This idea was adopted in America. Con- gress was asked to make appropriations for the purpose. The United States government refused to undertake the work and so it was left to individual states to carry out the plan. Erie Canal. — New York was the first state to see the possibilities of a canal system. Under the able direction of Governor Clinton a canal from Buffalo on Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson was planned in 181 7. At first it seemed a tremendous and expensive undertaking ; many people thought the plan almost absurd ; but the work was ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 263 carried out. A canal, three hundred and sixty-three miles in length and deep enough to float barges and tow- boats, was constructed across the entire state of New York. It was called the Erie Canal and was completed in 1825. Effect of Opening the Erie Canal. — Through this means the Great Lakes were connected with the Atlantic Ocean. Traffic was so increased that within ten years the tolls had paid for the entire cost of construction. Freight rates On the Erie Canal, 1825. were so lowered that it took but one third the time to trans- port goods. In 1 81 9 the first steamer was put on Lake Erie. After the completion of the Canal numbers of boats were built for this trade. The wonderful interest in the Northwest caused the tide of emigration to go by way of the canal route. As a number of factory towns and busy cities were built along its course, this district grew into vast importance. New York City became the great inlet for European goods and as valuable an outlet for western demands. It was only a short time until this city became the largest in the United States. With the rise of Chicago at the other end of the Great Lakes, the value of this new waterway system was recognized. Railroads. — The era of canal building was hardly well advanced when a new method of transportation was begun. 264 AMERICAN HISTORY The idea of laying rails and hauling cars over these by means of mules was first conceived in the year 182 1. This was not of much value, but experiments went on until 1829, when the first steam locomotive was brought to this country from England. This was not a success, as the track was too light to support the weight of the engine. In the next year a locomotive was built in the United States for the A Passenger Car 1830, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Baltimore and Ohio Company that set the example for many more. This engine was the " Tom Thumb," built by Peter Cooper. It made a run of thirteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills in one hour. The next twenty years witnessed the construction of many railroads over difficult places where ordinary wagon roads had not been adequate. The first railroad completed in America extended from Charleston, South Carolina, to Hamburg, Georgia, a distance ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 265 of one hundred and thirty-four miles. At this time, 1831, this was the longest railroad in the world. Its engine, called the " Best Friend," could carry a train of five loaded cars from sixteen to twenty-five miles in an hour. Within a short while after this, the Mobile and Ohio road was completed. Its engine made what was called the very great speed of fifteen miles an hour. In 1832 another railroad was constructed in the Mohawk Valley, New York. The distance of seventeen miles from Albany to Schenectady was made in an hour. Most of the railroads were built with the aid of state money. But later companies were formed which took up this work, and from time to time states would grant land in the form of " rights of way " that assisted the companies in their investments in railroad equipment. After twenty years had passed many of these roads were consolidated. With their branch roads and extensions the whole country east of the Mississippi was covered with a network of lines. Just as the improvement in wagon roads and the construction of canals had the effect of improving the country, so the railroads served the same purpose, but with even a greater influence than the former. Steamships. — With the application of steam power to inland navigation and to railroads came the plan of apply- ing the same power to ocean-going ships. This was done in 181 9, when a steamer, the Savannah, made the trip from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool, England, in twenty-six days. In 1840 a regular line of steamers was established between Liverpool and Boston. This marked the era of more rapid transit across the ocean. Larger and more extensive systems were started until nearly every seaport had its steamship line plying between its harbor and Europe. Passage became cheaper and foreign immigration increased. Foreign Immigration. — Most of these foreigners sought the North and West, where free labor did not come in com- 266 AMERICAN HISTORY petition with slave labor. It was not very long before the old-fashioned Anglo-American city became a place of many peoples with many languages and ideas. A number of these people, being factory hands and skilled artisans, soon became an important factor in promoting the American manufactures. New and improved machinery was placed in factories, and towns grew up about certain industries. The First Steamboat to cross the Ocean. City life with its community activities was more common in the North and West than in the South, where the plan- tation system still prevailed and where it was impossible to secure town meetings or promote interests that are found where people live in neighborhood groups. Differences between the North and South. — With all these changes came marked differences between the North and the South. The factory towns with foreign popu- lation and free labor had interests that were unlike those of the South, where agriculture still occupied the greatest attention of the population, and where state and not town formed the unit of political interest. All over the South most of the population was of long standing. Here the feel- ing for the state was very personal. In many of the northern ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 267 states the population was strongly local in its ideas and plans. The foreigner was not wedded to old ideas of loyalty to the state. His coming was to America or the United States, not to a certain city or a special state, but his interest from the beginning was in the country as a whole and, secondly, in the community that sheltered him. It was such conditions as these that helped to develop strong nationalism on one side and strong state rights' feelings on the other. DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN LITERATURE Influence of the War on Literature. — In the early colonial times the literature of England was the literature of America. Then our interests were all similar in matters of social and religious character, and many of our political ideas were the same. The American people at that time were busy with home-making, and the new country with its dangers and hard- ships, its absorbing new- ness, and the difficulty of securing printing presses delayed the making of books, es- pecially as the demand for reading was so easily and readily supplied by / rr J \\ ASHINGTON IRVING. the mother country. But, with the stirring events of the American Revolution and the strong, national feeling developed during the War 268 AMERICAN HISTORY of 1812, there was bound to cornea forward movement for American literature. Typical Prose Writers. — Among the most noteworthy names of typical American writers of this period are two prose writers, Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper. Irving first attracted attention by his quaint History of New York and later delighted the reading public with the Sketch Book. These and other of his works were received in England with as much praise as in America. In Irving's Life of. Columbus and The Life of Washington we find the beginnings of our American his- tories. Cooper confined most of his many writings to tales of daring frontier life and thrilling experiences on the sea. He was the first author to reveal the fascinating interests of the American wild woods. To this day the charm of narration is still enjoyed by those reading the Leather- stocking Tales. Poets. — Several poets of national reputation lived at this time and contributed many beautiful poems to Amer- ican literature. Among these was William Cullen Bryant, who at the age of seventeen composed a poem called Thanatopsis, which is renowned for its beauty and deep thought. Bryant's poems, Lines to a Waterfowl and The Fringed Gentian, brought him within the rank of the leading poets of England. Whittier and Longfellow both began writing at this time, but their most important works belong to a little later period. A Novelist. — Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of the greatest novelists that America has produced, published some of his works during these years. National Songs. — This was also an era of spirited national songs such as Hail Columbia, Star-spangled Banner, and America. History and Biography. — And it was also the time when some of the most valuable of the great state papers ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 269 of the country were printed. Bancroft began his extensive history of the United States now. Interesting biographies of the heroes of the Revolution and famous statesmen of the early part of the century were being read by the general public. Newspapers and Periodicals. — Every city had its news- papers and many standard magazines were published, in which appeared excellent essays by such men as Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell. Art. — America was coming forward also in the world of art. Among the most noted painters of this time was Gilbert Stuart, whose portraits of Washington and other statesmen have made him world famous. Peel and Copley were also well known in portrait work. Trumbull and Benjamin West excelled in narrative painting. Trumbull's pictures of the signing of the Dec- laration of Independence and of other historical subjects adorn the walls of the United States Capitol and are in- teresting in their details. West devoted himself to Biblical and classical subjects, and the immense canvases that he painted are still objects of interest in some of our leading museums of art. Culture was fast coming into all of the homes of the American people ; and good taste and comfort were care- fully considered. Gilbert Stuart. 270 AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline Era of Industrial Change. I. Improvements. 1. Good Roads. 2. Canals. 3. Railroads. 4. Steamships. II. Population. 1. Foreign Immigration. 2. Difference between the North and South. III. Development of American Literature. 1. Influence of the American Revolution on Literature. 2. Typical Prose Writers. 3. Poets. 4. National Songs. 5. History and Biography. 6. Newspapers and Periodicals. IV. Art. Review Questions 1. Why is the period between 1800 and 1840 one of important national development ? 2. What progress was made during this period in building good roads ? 3. In what countries were canals successfully operated ? Why did the people of this country favor canals? Under what governmental direction were they dug ? 4. Tell the story of early railroad building in the United States. 5. What was the first steamship to make a trip across the Atlantic Ocean? What were some of the advantages of this kind of trans- portation? 6. What effect did foreign immigration have upon the develop- ment of the United States ? 7. How did the Revolution help to develop American literature? 8. Mention some of the principal prose writers of this period. 9. WT10 were some of the leading poets of this time ? 10. Can you name some of the national songs written during this era ? 11. Who were some of the leading artists at this time? References Coman : Industrial History of United States. Judson : Growth of the American People. Wright : Industrial Evolution of the United States. CHAPTER XVII NATIONAL REPUBLICANS AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRATS Candidates for Presidency in 1824. — In the presidential election of 1824 there were four candidates. John Quincy Adams represented the New England district ; William H. Crawford of Georgia was the South's candidate ; Henry Clay of Kentucky was from the West ; and Andrew Jackson, the hero of the battle of New Orleans, was supported by the Southwest. Both Adams and Clay held mainly to the principles of the old disorganized Federalist Party ; and Crawford and Jackson adhered to some of the principles of the old Anti- Federalist (Democrat-Re- publican) Party. Jackson was destined to lead his party along more ad- vanced lines of democracy than the country knew. In time this era was to be known as the period of Jacksonian democracy. Election of Adams. — As none of the candidates received a majority of the votes cast, the election for a second time 271 John Quincy Adams. 272 AMERICAN HISTORY was decided by the House of Representatives. Both Clay and Adams had many friends in the House, and these combined and elected Adams. As soon as the President was elected, he named Clay as the Secretary of State. Adams and Clay were both accused by their opponents of making a bargain in order to promote this arrangement. It was not long before the country was again divided politically into two parties, known as the Whigs and the Democrats. Tariff and Bank Issues. — The Whig Party which sup- ported Adams and Clay was the outgrowth of the National Republican Party. Its members were in favor of a high protective tariff, the United States Bank, and public im- provements. The plan of Adams was to carry forth these projects and enlarge the benefits of all sections of the country. At the same time there was a strong feeling among many of the southern states in favor of low tariff, and the distribution of money in state banks instead of placing it in the keeping of the United States Bank and its branches. The West was particularly in favor of state banks, as most of the national banks were located in the coast towns, and the West received scarcely any benefits from the circulation of the government funds. It was firmly believed by many thoughtful men that the high tariff was a menace to the prosperity of the country and that it was the cause of the " high cost of living " and of immediate benefit to the manufacturing districts of the country. Newspapers and journals took up these ques- tions and discussed them at length until it was not long before preparations for another presidential election were launched. Jackson's Political Campaign. — At this time the country witnessed a regular political campaign in favor of Andrew Jackson. He was called " Old Hickory." Wherever polit- ical gatherings and receptions were held, hickory poles REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 273 were raised and enthusiastic speeches made for Jackson, low tariff, and state banks. Perhaps the most imposing re- ception given to Jackson was that tendered by the people of Louisiana on the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, on January 8, 1828. The General Assembly of the state sent him a formal invitation to take part in the ceremonies, which he accepted. He made the trip from Tennessee to New Orleans by boat, with the entire voyage one of con- stant ovations and brilliant enthusiasm. At Natchez, Mississippi, a magnificent ball was given. This was typical of all the towns where stops were made. Many boats joined the river fleet. By the time New Orleans was reached the harbor was full of gayly decorated crafts packed with cheering multi- tudes. Many veterans who had served with Jackson were present at the ceremonies ; committees from various states were sent to assist in the welcome ; and visitors from far and near crowded to the celebration. The fes- tivities, continuing for four days, represented the most elaborate that the city had ever given. Adams was candidate for reelection, but he refused to do any " electioneering," as it was called. Jackson was elected, receiving twice as many electoral votes as Adams. Administration of Jackson. — The new President repre- sented the ideas of the Democratic Party. He planned to carry into effect the principles for which his party had Andrew Jackson. 174 AMERICAN HISTORY worked, and for which he was elected. He was simple and direct in his manners and tarried not for the strict formali- ties of the occasion. He believed that every man who had helped to elect him was his friend, and he made no class distinctions. When he was inaugurated, hundreds of these friends came to the capital to witness the event. They thronged the streets, attended the reception, and cheered lustily for the man that was to bring into effect Democratic reform. Jackson, thoroughly appreciative of their good will, set to work to carry out their hopes. The Spoils System. — It had been the custom to keep in office old and tried officials who were well acquainted with the routine of administrative work. Many of such employees of the government had held offices since the days of Washington and Jefferson. But Jackson recognized that he was surrounded by many men who had supported Adams. He hesitated not at all to dismiss them and put into office his friends and adherents. This custom became known as the " Spoils System." Jackson was evidently sincere in not only surrounding himself with his friends, but in putting into office men who would be in sympathy with his ideas and plans. Its Bad Results. — But the scheme was not wise, for there came into existence a system of politics whereby many persons made regular campaigns to help candidates for office in order to receive in return a position under the newly elected chief. In this way incompetent people were placed in charge of interests that they could hardly handle. As time went on the " Spoils System " became so menacing that reform was inevitable. For years both the Republican and Democratic parties made efforts to change the system. Finally the Pendleton Civil Service reform bill went into effect during President Arthur's administration. Jackson's Popularity. — Many of Jackson's plans were REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 275 not popular with the older leaders in Congress. Such men as Clay, Calhoun, and Webster were often not in accord with his views. But the American people were with the President. To them he seemed the savior of their interests, and the opponent of the great National Republican Party that represented more and more the ideas of the old Federalist Party. Tariff Issue. — In 1828 a new tariff bill was introduced that raised the duties on foreign goods above those that had existed previously. This measure was strongly supported by the eastern manufacturers, and op- posed by the southern planters. South Caro- lina's representatives in Congress, notably John C. Calhoun, made every effort to secure a reduc- tion of the tariff. Then it was hoped that Jackson would use his influence to this end, but the President and Calhoun did not agree and the personal feelings of both seemed to limit the far- reaching policies that were before the nation. John C. Calhoun. Calhoun made the most masterly speeches in defense of low tariff. He was answered by Webster and Clay in defense of protection. Nullification. — When the bill finally became a law, South Carolina made a definite statement of her position on this great question in what has since become known as the South Carolina Exposition. This declared that each 276 AMERICAN HISTORY state should have the right, or power, to nullify such legis- lation as it considers injurious to itself. This was also called the doctrine of Nullification. States' Rights. — The stand taken by South Carolina on the right of a state to defend itself from the exercise of arbitrary legislation by the national government was not original with this state. It was a principle that had been asserted even as early as colonial times when the New Eng- land Confederacy was formed and an attempt was made by certain colonies to declare war against the Dutch and In- dians who were molesting the settlers of Connecticut. Massachusetts refused to agree to this and declared that " under the articles of Confederation the general courts were at liberty to act in every case according to their consciences." When the Constitution of the United States was adopted, there was a strong feeling on the part of the several states to accept the new government and to promote its develop- ment. At the same time each state was also carrying out its own local government. The deepest interest was then felt in the promotion of state constitutions. The American citizens were alert to consider and weigh the powers of the existing government in interpreting the law lest it infringe upon the state's sovereign rights. This made the task of administration very difficult. A man with less tact and less calm judgment than Washington could have scarcely succeeded in welding the states into a permanent union at this time. During Adams's administration the trial of powers of Congress was put to the test, when under the advice of the President, the Alien and Sedition Laws were passed. We have noted the general opposition to these acts, but the most serious phase of this opposition was the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions which definitely stated " that when- ever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthoritative, void and of no force. . . ." REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 277 This asserted right of the nullification of national laws became a menace to the perpetuity of the Union, for there might be opposite views of the powers of Congress at any time, and the assertion of a state's right to refuse the national law would lead to disunion of interests. On the other hand, these forceful declarations checked the tendency on the part of Congress to overstep its authority. By discussions of both sides of the issue, public opinion was formed in favor of a more acceptable interpretation of the Constitution. As time went on we have other illustrations of this assertion of states' right, notably the attitude of the New England states in regard to the Congressional policy in conducting the War of 181 2. This opposition to the war resulted in the refusal of the governor of Vermont to pro- tect Lake Champlain and in the meeting of delegates from the several New England states in Hartford, Connecticut, for the purpose of making a definite protest against the war policy and suggesting a separation of interests should the war continue. These radical measures, however, never ceased to move the country deeply, for many persons realized the weakness that would befall the nation should there be a separation of the states. For this reason South Carolina's Exposition became the issue of the day. Thus Calhoun's theory that the principles of the Constitution were not such as to dominate the interests of a state at the sacrifice of the state became the subject of debate in Con- gress. Calhoun upheld the idea of states' rights. Webster defended the power of the Constitution. In 1832, Congress passed a new tariff bill, but this did not seem to give the needed relief, and a state convention met in South Carolina in November, 1832, and passed an ordinance declaring the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void in South Carolina. All state officers were required to take an oath to support the ordinance. Although Jackson was in sympathy with the South in 278 AMERICAN HISTORY its plans for a reduction of the tariff, yet the action of South Carolina moved him deeply. He declared that nullifica- tion must not go into effect and that the " Union must and shall be preserved." Tariff for Revenue Only. — In 1833, Henry Clay, " the Great Pacificator " as he was called, came forward with another compromise. This proposed that the tariff should be reduced gradually until by the end of ten years it would be a tariff for revenue only. South Carolina accepted this and harmony was restored. The Force Bill. — At this time Congress passed another act called the Force Bill. This gave the President the au- thority to use force in order to preserve the Union if it was necessary. The Bank Issue. — The next important question that occupied Jackson's administration was the United States Banking System. As we have noted, the national funds were de- posited in the United States Bank, which at this time had twenty-five branches. These were located in the principal seacoast towns where customs were collected. These banks gave to the communities in which they were located a steady circulation of funds and were the means of promoting business enterprise. Many of the western towns felt the lack of these banks and desired a more general distribution of the government funds. Henry Clay. REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 279 Every now and then agitation was started in favor of state banks, but the United States Bank had the confidence of many of the American people and a favorable standing in foreign countries. It was now well organized, having many stockholders and a large number of employees. Upon the whole, it was one of the most powerful institutions in the country. As is the custom now, three forms of money were in current use : first, gold and silver coins ; second, bank bills, or certificates; third, drafts and checks. This last form was fast becoming the usual method in the business world, so that the general public was using it much more. The United States Bank did a great deal of this business and controlled all of the government's finances. Jackson had openly declared that it was a great monopoly in which a few persons were reaping the largest benefits while the general public and the government were scarcely sharers in its interests. He announced that he would not renew the bank's charter, but would favor depositing the national funds in state banks and thus give a wider cir- culation of money in more communities. Jackson was also convinced that the bank had opposed his election. After he became President he requested the appointment of certain men to bank positions. The President of the bank, Nicholas Biddle, declared that the affairs of the bank were to be conducted without regard to politics. This remark did not help matters, for many American people were of the opinion of the President that the bank was a tremendous political power and that its influence was such that it could sway the finances of the country to suit its own purposes. The National Republican, or Whig, Party held a con- vention in Baltimore in 1831, nominated Henry Clay for President, adopted a platform indorsing the National Bank and Public Improvements, and opposed the " Spoils System," as Jackson's political appointments were called. 280 AMERICAN HISTORY Thus the bank issue became one of the leading features of the political campaign. Although there was still much respect for the National Bank, yet the Democratic policy of Jackson became more and more popular; and he was reelected. In 1832 a bill was introduced into Congress granting a renewal of the charter of the bank in 1836. The bill passed both houses, but Jackson vetoed it. Thus the state banks came into existence. Removal of the Deposits. — The old charter of the bank provided that the Secretary of the Treasury had the right to deposit the revenues of the government with other banks at his discretion. Congress had to know of these deposits, and the clause had been put into the charter so as to allow the government to deposit funds in state banks where the United States Bank had no branches. Jackson used this part of the charter as the means for withholding the gov- ernment funds from the bank until the charter should ex- pire. Instead of withdrawing funds, he secured a treasurer who was willing to make the deposits in state banks that had no connection with the national bank. Thus, before the charter expired, the United States Bank began to feel the lack of support of the government's funds and it suffered greatly. It was obliged to call in its large loans, an action which almost plunged the business of the United States into serious straits before the financial affairs could be properly adjusted. The money that was withheld was placed in private state banks called " Pet Banks " because of Jackson's preference for them. Congress felt so indignant over the President's action in removing the funds that the Senate publicly censured him. Later on when Jackson's friends were a majority in the Senate they had the condemnation erased from the records. Distribution of the Surplus. — In 1835 the last payment on the public debt was made and the government was in REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 281 an excellent financial condition. Not only did the revenues from the tariff, internal taxes, and sale of public land, give ample funds to run the needs of the government, but there was an annual surplus of about thirty-five millions. The question now arose as to the disposal of this surplus. Congressman Benton of Missouri urged that this money should be devoted to internal improvements. But Jackson did not believe that Congress had the power to handle the money in this way. Calhoun suggested that the money be distributed among the several states in proportion to their population. This latter plan prevailed; and three different amounts were paid ; but before a fourth payment could be made, the country faced a great financial crisis in which the government shared the failure of lack of funds. Panic of 1837. — This crisis in money affairs was caused by a series of circumstances. The first of these was the wild speculation of the times. This speculation was stimulated by the splendid prosperity of the country. Money was in free circulation. The banks were now ready to lend on even meager security. Paper money was issued by the state banks in every community. The price of all government lands was low. The splendid crops of the western farms gave an impetus to the purchase of new lands, and it was a time of rapid buying and selling of these lands. Many persons mortgaged their eastern property to banks and went west to secure favorable holdings. In almost every instance the loans were made in paper money, which was paid into the land offices until in a little while there was a vast amount of this paper money held by the government. Specie Circular. — Taxes were also paid in this currency, hence it was not long before the national government began to fear the security of the paper money. There was an unusual amount of general business carried on in this same 282 AMERICAN HISTORY way. The entire country seemed much more prosperous than ever before. At last President Jackson deemed it ad- visable to limit the payment of paper money for government debts. Senator T. H. Benton drafted the Specie Circular. This act provided that the United States government would not receive anything but specie, that is, gold or silver coin, in payment for public lands, taxes, debts, etc. This caused a profound disturbance, for if the government did not wish to be paid in the usual bank paper money, then the general public did not wish to accept this currency. Paper Money Depreciates. — So great was the feeling, that paper money began to depreciate in value, many depositors demanded coin from their banks, and mer- chants refused to accept the bank bills. There was not enough gold and silver in the country to meet the sudden demand. Banks all over the United States began to fail. Persons who had borrowed money were utterly ruined. Business houses also felt the effects ; factories were closed ; projects, like canal and railroad building, were stopped ; and thousands of persons were thrown out of employment. Effects of the Panic. — In every walk of life the distress- ing effects of the panic were felt. It was deemed the great- est financial trouble that had befallen the United States. During the winter following the panic, untold hardships fell upon the poor and unemployed, and the price of food went up ; flour rose to eleven dollars a barrel and corn to a dollar and fifteen cents per bushel. In some of the larger cities "bread riots" occurred, and the public urged the government to lend aid, but the government's finances were also in a bad condition and no assistance could be given. The Specie Circular was issued at the close of Jackson's administration. His successor, Martin Van Buren, entered upon his presidential career with the crash of this widespread financial disorder in every state in the Union. REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 283 Van Buren's Administration. — President Van Buren was from New York, where he had long taken part in the state's politics. He was a close friend of Jackson's and had supported the latter in his successive elections. Van Buren had served as Vice President during Jackson's last administration and was thoroughly a Democrat in all his ideas and policies. When he came to office, he was immediately occu- pied with the financial dis- asters of the time. Thus as conditions grew from bad to worse, he was held responsible for the hard times on the ground of supporting the Specie Cir- cular and of suggesting a plan for protecting the government's finances which did not meet the approval of the public. Subtreasury System. — The President held fast to the idea that the money of the United States should be kept separate from banking institutions, and he advo- cated what was known as the United States Subtreasury system. Under this plan the money of the United States was to be kept in strong vaults or places of deposit, and all financial affairs run on a specie basis. The President and his colleagues were sharply criticized for this plan, as it kept a large amount of money out of circulation while the hard times were demanding some relief. The Inde- pendent Treasury bill failed to go into effect until 1840 ; and although it was lightly regarded, it later developed into a Martin Van Buren. 284 AMERICAN HISTORY plan that the United States government has considered safe enough to continue. The New Campaign. — The Whig Party was convinced that the Democratic policies of State Banks and the Distribution of the Surplus were the causes of the panic, and that Jackson and Van Buren were responsible for the hard times in the country. This sentiment began to grow. In 1839 a Whig convention met in Ohio and nominated General William Henry Harrison for the Presidency. General Harrison. — General Harrison, like Jackson, was one of the great heroes of the War of 181 2. And, like Jackson, he had won dis- tinction as an Indian fighter. Harrison's ad- ministration as governor of Northwest territory had been so successful that his friends and neighbors had confidence in his executive ability. He was a plain, unaf- fected man whose whole life had been spent in the West, and whom the sim- ple life of the new coun- try had given a broad view of the resources and opportunities of the United States. The campaign in his favor was one of the most enthusiastic that the nation had known. Stories of his log-cabin home, his victories over Proctor and Tecumseh, were told and retold with ardor. Symbols of the Whig Party. — When a Democratic paper sneeringly declared that Harrison was the type of man who could be easily satisfied with a barrel of cider and a log cabin, the Harrison adherents took up the re- William Henry Harrison. REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 285 mark and promptly made these the symbols of the Whig Party, and the campaign became known as the " cider and log cabin " era. Miniature log cabins were hauled about on wagons, meeting houses were built in this style, women pieced quilts from a log-cabin design, and the country felt that the common people were to be benefited by the new movement. Van Buren was often very bitterly assailed. As the can- didate on the Democratic ticket he was described as the One of the Symbols of the Whig Party. " wealthy aristocrat " who always held rich political posi- tions and who lived in a palace and drank French wines. It was an exciting time with lively meetings, stirring songs, and hearty enthusiasm. Harrison's Death. — In the early part of the campaign no discussion was opened on the subject of the bank ques- tion, for it seemed that Harrison himself was the main issue. Upon his election, however, the Whigs now con- fidently believed that their principles would be carried out, but they were doomed to be disappointed, for within a month after Harrison had been inaugurated he was taken ill and died. 286 AMERICAN HISTORY John Tyler. — He was succeeded by John Tyler, a Democrat of the old type, who had split from the Jack- sonian Party, but who held the old Jeffersonian idea of tariff for revenue only, opposition to the United States Bank, and other principles that were not in accord with the Whig Party. Tyler's Policies. — When Tyler was placed on the ticket with Harrison, he was selected because of his power with the Democrats who did not favor Jackson or Van Buren and who were not willing to go over to the Whig Party entirely. Harrison was the great thought before the Amer- ican people, and no one considered the probabil- ity of a Tyler adminis- tration; thus a strange political situation arose that had to be met and rearranged. Clay and Webster, with a number of other leading Whigs, John Tyler. dominated both houses ; and, with the election of Harrison, they proceeded to put forward certain Whig measures, such as the revival of the National Bank charter and the national control of public improvements. A revision of the tariff was also to be an issue. Tyler, proving himself to be a true Democrat, promptly vetoed the Whig measures, thereby causing great disappoint- ment to the party and making many enemies in both houses. He quarreled with the members of his Cabinet so that all resigned with the exception of Webster, who remained in REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 287 order to settle some important international matters be- tween the United States and England. Character of Tyler's Administration. — The whole ad- ministration was one of great unrest and caused the country to suffer many perplexities through the political disagree- ments. Tyler gathered about him a few chosen friends of the Democratic Party, who advised him on many questions, but, with conditions so unsatisfactory, the issues became only more vexed. There were a number of open asser- tions of individual rights which seemed to show the spirit of the times. Among these was an uprising in Rhode Island known as Doris Rebellion. Dorr's Rebellion. — In Rhode Island there was an early .colonial law that limited the right of voting to the property holders. By this many men were debarred from taking part in the political interests of the state. A number of public meetings were held. The law was openly denounced. But nothing was done to revise the state constitution. Finally a man named Dorr led an insurrection of the people against the authorities, and the United States troops were called out to suppress the uprising. Dorr was arrested and tried for treason, but was acquitted. A little later the people secured a new constitution which granted more liberal suffrage privileges. Peace and order were in this way restored. Anti-rent Riots. — Another uprising was among the ten- ants on the old colonial estates along the Hudson. These estates were in the form of the original grants given to the Patroons by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. Here the descendants of the old families still held the land and demanded rent in the form of a share system. The tenants wished to purchase the land, and made every effort to secure this right, but failed. They then refused to pay rent. Officers were sent to collect the rents, but the " Anti-rent " leaders refused to pay, and the trouble continued for several 288 AMERICAN HISTORY years. Finally it was decided to allow the tenants to pur- chase the land. Thus the difficulty was adjusted. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. — One of the most impor- tant international events of this administration was the settlement of the boundary between Maine and Canada. The old treaty of 1763 had defined the boundary in a general way. This had been accepted by the English and A Mormon Temple. Americans at the close of the American Revolution, but it was not a well-defined boundary, and after months of care- ful consideration of the subject, the present boundary was fixed in 1842. The treaty also provided for the extradition of fugitive criminals from one country to the other. The Mormons. — During this period an interesting migration to the West was made by a band of people called the Mormons. These people had accepted a new religion founded by Joseph Smith. In 1827 Smith declared that he had received a vision from an angel telling him of certain plates containing divine revelation. Smith translated REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 289 these writings, which proved to be a version of the Bible with another book called The Prophecy of Mormon included within the text. Large numbers of people accepted the teachings of Smith and formed a new church under the title of congregations of Latter Day Saints. The first of these societies was formed in Palmyra, New York, but the members were not looked upon favorably by the commu- nity and were at last obliged to move from the state. They then migrated to Illinois, where they were again attacked. Here Joseph Smith and his brother Hiram were killed. Under the leadership of a new prophet, Brigham Young, the Mormons made their way into the far West until after great hardship they reached the basin of Great Salt Lake, where they built a city called Zion, which has since been commonly called Salt Lake City. Here the Latter Day Saints began a new and undisturbed life. They prospered and built other towns, and in the course of time gained large holdings of land in the West. They established a government under the direction of the church and adopted among their customs the practice of polygamy. The Mormons were not in harmony with the ideas of the American people. For many years they remained entirely without the interest and cooperation of the na- tional government. They became renowned for their energy and thrift and showed fine judgment and superior taste in the development of their cities. When the terri- tory of Utah finally asked for admission into the Union, the United States government forced the abolition of polyg- amy and required a state constitution providing for a government independent of church authority and in accord- ance with the national Constitution. 29O AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline National Republican and Jacksonian Democrats. I. Candidates for Presidency in 1814. II. Election of Adams. III. The Tariff. IV. Jackson's Political Campaign. V. Administration of Jackson. VI. Spoils System. VII. Tariff Issue — Nullification — States' Rights. VIII. Compromise, 1833. IX. Jackson and the United States Bank. X. Removal of Deposits. XI. Distribution of Surplus. XII. Specie Circular. XIII. Panic of 1837. XIV. Van Buren's Administration. XV. Subtreasury System. XVI. The Harrison Campaign. — Symbols of Whig Party. XVII. Death of Harrison. XVIII. Tyler becomes President. XIX. Tyler's Policies. XX. Dorr's RebeUion. XXI. Anti-Rent Riots. XXII. Webster- Ashburton Treaty. XXIII. Mormons. Review Questions 1. Who were the candidates for the presidency in 1824? How was the President elected ? 2. What issues were taken up at this time ? 3. Describe Jackson's political campaign. 4. Tell something of the character of Andrew Jackson. 5. What is the " spoils system " ? What were the political con- ditions under which it developed ? 6. What were the bad results of this system? 7. Give an account of the tariff controversy of 1832. How was it settled? 8. What was meant by the Doctrine of Nullification? REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 291 9. Give a brief outline of the assertion of States' Rights theory. 10. What was Jackson's position on the tariff question? 11. What was meant by the Force Bill? 12. What was Jackson's attitude toward the national bank? 13. (a) Why was the specie circular issued ? (b) State the result. (c) What is meant by the Independent Treasury System ? 14. Give an account of the election of President Harrison. 15. Wlio succeeded Harrison? What were the policies of this President ? 16. What were Dorr's Rebellion and the Anti-rent riots? 17. Tell something of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty? 18. Who were the Mormons? References Stanwood : American Tariff Controversies. Peck : The Jacksonian Epoch. Shepard : Martin Van Buren. CHAPTER XVIII NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Population. — During this era (1840-1860) the tide of immigration increased and the population of the northern and eastern cities was materially affected by this influx of foreigners. The terrible famines in Ireland caused great numbers of people from this unfortunate country to come to America, and the crowded conditions of European cities also prompted a large migration to the United States. For the main part the newcomers settled in the North, where free labor alone was employed, and where there was a diversity of trades. Manufactures were now increasing. The demand for skilled mechanics assured work for many of the trained fac- tory hands from the Old World. So rapid was the growth of the cities that new problems of housing and educating the masses became questions of vital importance. Public schools grew more popular and more practical in their courses. The foreign children who were educated in these institutions rapidly learned the manners and customs of the American people, and soon came under the influence of the American system of government. The newcomers did much to foster nationalism. They came to this country with the intention of making their home in the United States of America. Often they landed without any definite idea of settling in a special city or state. In this attitude they felt a general interest in the whole country, hence in the general 292 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 293 influence of their opinions they were wholly lacking in sectional feelings. In the South the population was still largely made up of the old American stock, whose deep-rooted convictions in regard to local interests dated through generations, whose personal regard for certain communities made sectional pride an innate feeling. The plantations were still worked mostly by slave labor. Thus the farming classes of Europe were not attracted to this district because of competition with the bond labor. Reforms. — In this period of American history, certain reforms were started that left marked improvement upon the social life of the country. Among these was a wide- spread temperance movement. There had been a great deal of drunkenness over the land. The distress and hard- ship caused by this evil habit were brought home to many persons who dispensed liquors on all social occasions. Clergyman, cultured, refined people, and highly moral citizens, all thought it good form to keep decanters of wine and other intoxicating beverages on their sideboards and serve to young and old this symbol of hospitality. Temperance lecturers took up the question and held public meetings where earnest talks were made in favor of " Teetotal Abstinence." These meetings were held all over the United States, and Washingtonian Societies and other temperance associations were formed whose members pledged themselves not to use nor serve any intoxicants. It was estimated that 600,000 drunkards signed the pledge in one year, and that many were reformed entirely from this direful condition. The effects were definitely felt in the reduction of crime, and in the great moral uplift that swept over the land. Prison Reforms. — In the early part of the eighteenth century the penal systems throughout the world were wretched in their plans for caring for the criminal classes. 294 AMERICAN HISTORY Many persons were thrown into prison for debt and forced to languish in confinement without any opportunity to work and pay their indebtedness. In most instances the prisons were foul and unsanitary and bred loathsome dis- eases. The prisoners were kept in idleness, and were fre- quently whipped and mistreated ; no attempt was made to separate the classes of criminals, nor was any opportunity offered to them to reform. The indigent insane were also confined in prisons, and their distress was very great. Among those that sought to remedy these conditions in American prisons was a splendid woman, by the name of Dorothea Dix, who talked and wrote on the subject and kept up the work until Prison Reform Asso- ciations were organized, and many changes were made. States began to make appropriations for insane asylums ; prisons were made more cleanly and sanitary ; prisoners were taught useful trades ; young criminals were separated from the older prisoners; and debtors were no longer sentenced to long-term imprison- ment. Nor has this great reform movement ceased, for to-day it is one of the most active forces in improving the condition of this unfortunate part of our population. Woman's Equal Rights. — Another social movement that was started at this time was the Woman's Equal Rights campaign. Among the leaders of this issue was Frances Wright, who earnestly sought to secure higher education for woman. In the early days women's educa- DOROTHEA DlX. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 295 tion was limited to the study of a few subjects. It was usually completed in a high school, or young ladies' sem- inary, where the basis of the work included a course in cer- tain accomplishments that laid the foundation for social success. The broader fields of work were entirely closed to young women, and it took a great amount of earnest appeals to secure higher education for them. Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first to open its doors for coeducation. In time, other colleges gradually opened certain classes, until to-day nearly every university has all of its departments open to women. Later the leaders in this work took up the question of equal suffrage, and formed what is known as the Woman's Suffrage Association. This organization has a large mem- bership in every state in the Union. So influential has been their work that a number of states have granted their request already. In these communities women vote and hold office on the same basis as men. The suffrage question, however, has not been the only issue taken up by the Equal Rights' Association, but widespread plans for the bettering of conditions for women and children have been undertaken, and better wages, shorter hours for workers, child-labor protection, juvenile courts, day nurseries, and other interests pertaining to the welfare of women and children have been organized. Religious Revivals. — This era was also marked by ear- nest religious revivals. Protracted meetings were held by the different denominations in cities. Strong appeals were made for more active interest in church work. Out in the country, camp meetings were held that were largely attended by persons coming for miles to listen to the earnest sermons of evangelists and circuit riders. Sunday schools were organized where children were systemati- cally instructed in religious doctrines. Bible Societies for 296 AMERICAN HISTORY the distribution of Bibles were formed with the motto " A Bible in Every Home." About this time some students in Williams College dedi- cated their lives to Christian work in foreign countries. It was through this movement that the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions was organ- ized, that has become world-renowned. Education. — The greatest advancement in the field of education was made in the reorganiza- tion of the public school system. Horace Mann advocated the idea that the public school should be the people's school, and that it should be patronized by rich and poor alike and supported by the state. This idea took hold of the Ameri- can people. The pat- ronage of the public schools increased, the course of study was re- vised, larger appropria- tions were made by communities, and wealthy men made munificent bequests to the cause of common education. During this period John McDonogh, a wealthy citizen of New Orleans, died and left the bulk of his fortune for public education in his native city, Baltimore, and in New Orleans. A splendid technological school was opened in the city of Baltimore. More than thirty-two public schools McDonogh Monument. Decorated by the Public School Children of New Orleans. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 297 have been erected in New Orleans. The interest on the remainder of the McDonogh Fund is used to repair the present buildings. The courses in colleges were also changed to meet the needs of the country. The University of Virginia was the first college in America to establish the European idea of university training, whereby separate courses were intro- duced such as law, medicine, technology, etc., so that pro- fessional training was under- taken by colleges. Now this system has become the regular plan of the Ameri- can college. Normal training schools were also inaugurated, in which care was given to the preparation of teachers. Evening schools were opened in some of the cities, in which any and all persons who were employed during the day might attend night classes, and improve their opportunities for more lib- eral education. Lyceum lecture courses were also organized and series of lectures given in many cities. These lectures covered a wide range of subjects ; some of the most eminent men in America were employed in this circuit ; and much information was given to those who wished to accept this opportunity. Literature. — This period was also renowned for the activity of the American people in literary work. Among the most noted of the poets were the following : Longfellow. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who con- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. AMERICAN HISTORY tinued his literary work, at this time published another volume of verses, including The Building of the Ship, Evangeline, The Courtship of Miles Standish, Hiawatha, and The Tales of a Wayside Inn. The latter contains the Ride of Paul Revere and other incidents of American history. For many years Longfellow was instructor in Harvard College, and his influence caused deeper interest in litera- ture to be taken by some of the rising generation. Longfellow also made contributions to the prose literature of the period. Poe. — Another poet of this time, who be- came internationally re- nowned for the exquisite beauty of his lyrics, was Edgar Allan Poe, whose poems, The Raven, The Bells, and The Ballad of Annabel Lee, have be- come familiar in all of our American homes. Poe's greatest contribution in the field of prose literature has been a series of short stories, some of which are classed as the greatest specimens of this form of writing. Perhaps it is more largely due to Poe than any other writer that the short story has become one of the most popular forms of literary expression of to-day. Among Poe's contributions to essay writing was an exposition of the form and struc- ture of the short story that has been accepted as one of the bases of the study of this feature of literature. Edgar Allan Poe. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 299 Holmes. — One of the most genial writers of this era was Oliver Wendell Holmes, whose contributions to the field of poetry in- clude The Chambered Nautilus, Old Iron- sides, The Last Leaf, and The Deacon's Masterpiece. Holmes also wrote several novels, the best known of which is Elsie Vernier. Among his other prose works are the sketches entitled The Autocrat of the Breakfast Sidney Lanier. Oliver Wendell Holmes. Table and The Professor at the Breakfast Table. Whittier. — John Greenleaf Whittier, like Longfellow, also came from New England, and in his own community he is sometimes spoken of as New England's Quaker Poet. All of Whittier's poetry is well known throughout America because of its charm in narrative and descriptive qualities. Snow Bound, The Bare- foot Boy, Thanksgiv- ing Hymn, Barbara 3°° AMERICAN HISTORY Francis Parkman. Frietchie, are among the best known of his selections. Whittier was an ardent advo- cate of freedom and was prominently con- nected with the aboli- tion movement in America. Some of his poems written in interest of this cause are Voices of Freedom. Lanier. — Sidney Lanier was also of this period. Born and reared in the South, Lanier has a more intimate and sympathetic interpretation of the natural setting and atmosphere of this part of our country than any other writer of this time. His beautiful poems entitled The Marshes of Glynn, The Plaint of the Mock- ing Bird, and Corn have earned for him the envi- able position of being rated as " the greatest of the American poets " by some of the modern literary critics. Parkman. — Among the best-known Ameri- can historians of this period was Francis Parkman, whose study of French pioneer life is John Lothrop Motley. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 301 the most comprehensive and authentic in this field of research. Parkman's style is polished and brilliant; his interpretation is sincere ; and his work is one of the greatest contributions to American history. The titles of some of his works are : Pio- neers of New France, La Salle, Montcalm and Wolfe, and The Jesuits in North America. Motley. — Another historian of renown of this time is John Lo- th rop Motley, whose study of the history of the Netherlands has resulted in the volumes The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic, and The History of the United Netherlands. These works have been internationally ac- cepted as authority on this subject and have brought to Motley the honor of being one of the greatest of the Amer- ican historians. Prescott. — William Hickling Prescott is also classed as one of our leading historical writers and his field of research has been in the history of Spain in America. His best- known works are The Conquest of Peru, The Conquest of Mexico, and the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. William Hickling Prescott. 302 AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline National Development. I. Industrial and Social Conditions. i. Population. 2. Manufactures. II. Reforms. i. Temperance Movement. 2. Prison Reforms. 3. Woman's Rights. 4. Religious Revivals. 5. Educational Changes. 6. Literature. Review Questions 1. Why was there a large increase in population in the United States between 1840 and i860? 2. What attempts were made to improve the conditions in the prisons in the United States ? 3. What was meant by woman's equal rights movement? 4. Tell something of the development of education in the United States during this period. 5. Why should the following men be remembered : Longfellow, Poe, Holmes, Whittier, Lanier? 6. Who were some of the leading historians of this period ? Reference Matthews : American Literature. CHAPTER XIX TEXAS REVOLUTION Colonists to Texas. — When the United States purchased Florida from Spain in 1819, the boundary between the Spanish and American line on the southwest was fixed by the Sabine River. Just ._____--_ across this line was the district of Texas, one of the provinces of Mexico. The Spanish govern- ment, anxious to develop this state, offered large tracts of land to any one who would settle a cer- tain number of families within a definite area. Many Americans took advantage of this offer. Among the earliest im- migrants was Moses Austin, of Missouri, who led a colony of families into the fertile region. It was not long after this that Mexico re- volted from Spain and became an independent republic. The government was very unstable, and most of the early presidents were tyrannical and usurped many privileges. 303 Stephen F. Austin. 3°4 AMERICAN HISTORY Santa Anna. — Among the most successful of these dic- tators was Antonio de Santa Anna. He succeeded in con- trolling all of the local state governments except Texas, and made himself so unpopular that many of his enemies moved into the state of Texas, where they planned a revolt. Santa Anna removed the capital of Texas from San Antonio to Saltillo, a town in a neighboring state. This caused so much inconvenience that the Americans took up the question and sent Stephen Austin, son of the early pioneer, to Mexico City with a peti- tion asking that San Antonio be restored as the capital. Austin. — Austin was thrown into prison in the city of Mexico, and kept there for a year and a half. The Americans in Texas were so indig- nant that they joined in a plan for a revolt. Hearing of this, a garri- son of Mexican soldiers attempted to seize a cannon belonging to the defense of Gonzales, a Texas town. The Texans resisted and forced the Mexicans to leave the field. This occurred on October 2, 1835. Thus hostilities were begun that continued for three months. During this time the citizens of Texas met, formally declared war against Mexico, and elected General Samuel Houston commander of the army. The Alamo. — Santa Anna was ready to take up the attack and march upon San Antonio. In this town there Gen. Samuel Houston. TEXAS REVOLUTION 305 was a fortified convent, known as the Alamo. William B. Travis was in command of this garrison of about one hun- dred and fifty men. When he heard of Santa Anna's approach at the head of one thousand troops, Travis pub- lished a message to the people declaring that he was sur- rounded by an army far outnumbering his own, and that Santa Anna was demanding unconditional surrender. The Alamo. Travis urged that aid be sent at once, but before any assistance arrived, he and his entire force were killed. Independence Declared. — Just at the time of this unfortunate incident, the Texans formally declared their independence. David G. Burnett was made president and a Mexican, Lorenzo de Zavala, was chosen vice president. Goliad. — Santa Anna continued his campaign ; and be- fore General Houston could prevent it, the Mexicans surprised a force under Captain Fannin at Goliad, and destroyed this garrison in the same brutal manner as in their attack upon the Alamo. 306 AMERICAN HISTORY ..W?*l c 9, p >., •..,', A Vera Cruz^ San Jacinto. — These acts were so cowardly that they aroused the whole population to arms. A most gallant attack was made by General Houston at San Jacinto, where Santa Anna and his army were defeated and the former taken prisoner. Independence Won. — Later Santa Anna was released ; and, after signing a treaty in which he agreed to discontinue war upon Texas and recognize its independence, he was allowed to return to Mexico. Thus Texas won its independence, and a new republic was estab- lished in America. The United States recognized the new state ; when, in a short time, France and England did the same, trade relations with these countries were opened. Annexation of Texas to the United States. — It was not long after the Texas Revolution that the people of the new republic began to consider the annexation of their state to the United States. The majority of the population were Americans, whose interests had always been closely identified with the United States. As soon as this plan became known, England began to discourage the idea and to attempt to secure better relations between Mexico and Texas. Santa Anna, having already repudiated his treaty, was collecting an army for further invasion. It was hardly possible that there could be any friendly agreements between the opponents. Many of the immigrants to Texas were from the South and their cause particularly appealed to the southern people. As time went on, the question of annexation was to be- TEXAS REVOLUTION 307 come a national issue upon which the people of the North and South were to take definite sides. The Abolitionists of the North and East were especially opposed to annexation on the ground that Texas was a slaveholding community, and that the addition of this vast territory would greatly increase the area of the slaveholding states and retard the chances of abolition of this institution of labor. President Tyler and his Secretary of State, Abel P. Upshur, and John C. Calhoun were earnest advocates of annexation, but the President did not publicly make known his plans until April, 1844, when he sent a message to the Senate proposing a treaty of annexation. The majority of the members of the Senate were Whigs, who promptly rejected the treaty. The Democrats were largely in favor of the movement, indorsed it in their national convention, and nominated James K. Polk, of Tennessee, as their candidate for Pres- ident. Polk, an enthusiastic advocate of Annexation, made this the chief policy of his campaign. The National Republican Party, which was largely Whig in its principles, nominated Henry Clay as their candi- date. Clay's popularity as a public speaker, and as the " great pacificator," had secured him wide admiration and a large number of friends. Since his position on the bank and tariff questions found favor with many voters in the North and East, it seemed as if there would be no difficulty in securing his election. But Clay, unfortunately, partially committed himself in favor of Annexation, which his party bitterly opposed ; and later, when he declared against the issue, the Annexationists were disgusted. The Abolitionists held a convention in Buffalo, New York, there organized their forces under the name of the Liberty Party, and nominated James G. Birney for the presidency. Birney and his followers, emphatically opposed to Annexation, succeeded in winning to their side many Whigs who were 3 o8 AMERICAN HISTORY not sure of Clay's position on this question. Polk was elected. Shortly afterwards plans for the annexation of Texas were completed. MEXICAN WAR Boundary Dispute. —As soon as Texas was annexed a dispute arose as to the boundary between Mexico and the United States. In 1803 the Rio Grande River had been recognized as the boundary of the Spanish state of Texas ; but when Mexico de- clared its independence from Spain, the Nueces River was the boundary between Texas and Mex- ico. The boundary line had never been defi- nitely fixed, however, and when Texas was an- nexed President Polk in- sisted upon the Rio Grande as the western boundary of Texas, and Santa Anna declared for the Nueces River. Declaration of War. — President Polk ordered General Taylor to oc- cupy a position on the Rio Grande to defend the territory. The Mexicans crossed the border, and a skirmish took place in which some of the American scouts were killed. A report of this incident was sent to Washington and proved the cause of declaration of war, May 13, 1846. Santa Anna gathered an army of con- siderable size and planned to attack the Rio Grande fron- James K. Polk. TEXAS REVOLUTION 309 tier. The Americans arranged three campaigns. The first, to defend the disputed territory, was commanded by Gen- eral Taylor. The second, against New Mexico and the northern part of Mexico, was under the command of Gen- eral Kearny and Major Doniphan. The third, a plan to capture the city of Mexico, was in charge of General Win- field Scott. Buena Vista. — Many of the American soldiers were well trained and did excellent service. The most important engagement of the war was the battle of Buena Vista in the Rio Grande district. Here both forces fought valiantly for many hours. Fi- nally Santa Anna was defeated. End of the Campaign. — The campaign against New Mexico was easily carried out, as there was little opposition to the army, and the small towns and villages sur- rendered without resist- ance. General Win- field Scott captured the outlying fortresses lead- ing to the city of Mexico and forced the surrender of this city. It was in this campaign that General Robert E. Lee gained his first military distinction. Generals U. S. Grant, Braxton Bragg, and T. J. Jackson also rendered services that gave promise of the later success that was to attend their mili- tary careers. Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed at Guadalupe- Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. By this agreement, the Gen. Winfield Scott. 310 AMERICAN HISTORY United States secured the Rio Grande River as the boundary of Texas and also received the district of New Mexico and Upper California, for which Mexico was paid fifteen million dollars. The United States also paid three million dollars to American citizens holding claims against Mexico. Shortly after this a dispute arose over the boundary marked by the Gila River and a special purchase was made of this tract. This act is known as the Gadsden Purchase. Occupation of Oregon. — In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Francis Drake visited the western coast of North America in the neighborhood of Oregon, and named the district New Albion. The English government laid claim to the region, but no settlements were made there and little interest was taken in the district. An American sea captain explored the Columbia River in 1792, and by this expedition gave the United States her first claim to the territory. Later when Lewis and Clark explored the Louisiana territory, they reached the Pacific by way of the Columbia River and reported the advantages of the country. This account attracted interest in the Northwest. Astoria was built at the mouth of the Columbia River by some traders sent out by John Jacob Astor, of New York. The seal fisheries and the fur trade attracted other Americans to the country and gradually occupation was begun. By the treaty of 181 9, when Florida was pur- chased, Spain agreed to cancel her shadowy claim to the Oregon territory in favor of the United States. As a Part of the United States. — When Russia attempted to push her interests along the coast below Alaska, occupa- tion of the far Northwest became a question. Just about this time the President asserted the Monroe Doctrine which warned European nations against further colonization in America. Through these discussions of the question, Oregon became recognized as a part of the United States. In the meantime, an English corporation known as the TEXAS REVOLUTION 311 Hudson's Bay Company, which had been carrying on the fur trade in British America for many years, pushed their camps far into the interior of the West. It was not very long before there was some rivalry between the Americans and the English in this region. The British ministry took up the question and asserted that the southern boundary of the English claim was the Columbia River. The United States claimed as far north as the Russian boundary of Alaska at 54 40'. Long and tedious international nego- tiations began, but no definite conclusion was reached. In the intervening years a new interest sprang up that was to bring the question to a final settlement. Influence of Religion into the Settlement of Oregon. — The story was told of how some Indians had heard the early settlers speak of a wonderful " Book " which contained the secret of all things. The Indians were so impressed with the idea that they were seized with a great longing to secure the precious volume. Presently four of their braves undertook a journey into the East to search for the " Book." They came to the city of St. Louis, but they did not tell their mission to any one. They remained in the city for some days silently looking for the treasure, but, failing to locate it, they returned. By chance, some person heard of their mission, and knew that they were searching for the Bible. The story was told and it was not long before a movement was started to send missionaries to the Indians in Oregon. Men and women were eager to go, and although the way was long and full of dangers, they were willing to brave the perils and carry the gospel into the new field. English Interest Aroused. — As the missionaries went on their way some were attacked by hostile Indians and massacred, and others were overcome by the hardships of the journey ; notwithstanding these discouragements, others took up the work and continued on the way. On July 4, 1836, a company of upward of two hundred persons reached 312 AMERICAN HISTORY the South Pass, in the Continental Divide. Here they raised the American flag, and after a service of prayer took possession of the Oregon country in the name of the United States. When this movement was reported to the English, new interest was aroused and some efforts were made to force the Americans out of Oregon. Whitman's Influence in Oregon Settlement. — One of the leading missionaries, Marcus Whitman, heard of this and made a memorable ride over the mountains and through heavy winter snows to the East in order to warn our gov- ernment. Whitman's self-sacrificing ride was rewarded by the taking up of the cause by two of the leading missionary organizations. The American Board of Foreign Missions and the Methodist Board of Missions raised large funds to aid the work. Many volunteered to go into the West, and when Whitman started back over the Oregon trail, he was accompanied by a thousand immigrants (1843). Boundary Fixed. — In 1844, the occupation or annexation of Oregon became a joint issue with the Texas annexation. Along with the campaign cry of " Polk and Texas " and " Clay and No Texas " was the slogan " Fifty-four Forty or Fight." After further negotiations with England a compromise was finally accepted, and the boundary between the English and American possessions fixed at the forty- ninth parallel, June, 1846. TEXAS REVOLUTION 313 Topical Outline I. Texas Revolution. 1. Spain Invites Americans to Settle in Texas. 2. Moses Austin and his Settlements. 3. Mexico Gains Independence from Spain. 4. Texas Revolts from Mexico. 5. The Alamo. 6. Goliad. 7. San Jacinto. 8. Independence of Texas. 9. Annexation of Texas. II. Mexican War. 1. Boundary Dispute. 2. War Declared. 3. Three Campaigns. a. Disputed Territory. b. City of Mexico. c. New Mexico. 4. Buena Vista. 5. End of War. 6. Treaty of Peace, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, February 2, 1S48. III. Occupation of Oregon. 1. American Claim. 2. American Missionaries in Oregon. 3. English Interest Aroused. 4. Marcus Whitman's Influence. 5. Oregon Boundary Fixed. Review Questions 1. Give an account of the American colonization of Texas. 2. Why did the Texans revolt from Mexico? 3. Describe the attitude of the American people in regard to the annexation of Texas to the United States. 4. What was the boundary dispute between the United States and Mexico? 5. What was the plan of campaign used by the Americans? 6. Describe the principal engagement. 7. Mention some of the leading generals in this war. 3 X 4 AMERICAN HISTORY 8. What were the terms of the treaty of peace? o. Give an account of the early history of Oregon. 10. How many nations claim this country? What was the result ? 1 1 . How did the Americans get control of Oregon ? References Garrison : Texas. Burgess : The Middle Period. Howard : General Taylor. Wright : General Scott. CHAPTER XX STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE Wilmot Proviso. — During the Mexican War, many of the antislavery advocates became alarmed lest the pos- sible acquisition of new territory on the part of the United States might lead to the extension of the institution of slavery. In order to avert this, David Wilmot, a Demo- crat from Pennsylvania, introduced a bill in Congress pro- viding that slaveholding should be prohibited in all the territory that might be acquired from Mexico. At once, the question of the right of Congress to extend the Missouri Compromise line became the issue of the day. Public opinion was swayed, first on one side and then on the other, by the sharp debates in Congress and the comments of the press. The Wilmot Proviso failed to pass, but this did not settle the point. Free Soil Party. — Other phases of the slavery contro- versy were developed. In 1848, after the treaty with Mexico had been signed and the United States was in pos- session of a vast territory extending west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, a new political faction was formed that took the name of the Free Soil Party. The members held a convention in Buffalo, and adopted a platform de- claring that " the settled policy of the American people has been to discourage and not encourage slavery." They also announced that they opposed any interference by Congress with slavery within the limits of any state where it existed, and they advocated the prohibition of slavery 315 316 AMERICAN HISTORY in all free territory. The Free Soil Party took as their motto : " Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men." They nominated Martin Van Buren for President and Charles Francis Adams for Vice President. Other Nominations of 1848. — In the same year, the Democrats met and nominated Lewis Cass, senator from Michigan, for the Presidency, and William O. Butler, of Kentucky, for Vice Presi- dent. They made no reference to slavery in their platform. The Whigs also held a nominating convention ; and, although their strongest numbers were in the North, they se- lected as their candidate for President, General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana. The Whigs also omitted any refer- ence to slavery in their platform. General Tay- lor, like President Jack- son, had won distinction as a soldier, and his re- cent success in the Mexican War gave him special popu- larity. Taylor was elected. Then the Whig policies began to take shape. Discovery of Gold in California. — On January 19, 1848, gold was discovered by some workmen at Captain Sutter's sawmill on the Sacramento River, and immediately a new interest sprang up in California. It was said that the whole population turned their attention to this discovery. Men who were engaged in farming and in cattle raising ,-■^9 |v fe -mm k "n| /m 1K1|' Hi ¥ ■ ~-^^St '"'■ " ■•^^^\ji. ,JjlC - ' v ' ' Zachary Taylor. STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 3 J 7 gave up their work to dig for gold. Soldiers, located at forts in California, abandoned their posts and rushed to the gold fields. Ship captains, entering the California harbors had difficulty in keeping their crews long enough to unload the cargoes. In fact, all of the population of California were roused by this wonderful discovery. It was not long before the rest of the states were in- formed, and then great numbers of travelers began to make their way to the Pacific coast. They came over- land in wagons and stages across the difficult mountain • & . .~„„^-J v 3u.-> '*.*«-'* The Conestoga Wagon. passes and through the desert, enduring all manner of hardships to make their way to the gold fields. Others came by way of the. sea route around Cape Horn, until by the autumn of 1849 the population had increased to upward of one hundred thousand. Most of these settlers were from the North and East, and those from the South were very few. There were no slaveholders among the new population. The white laborers who came to California did not favor the idea of slave labor. When a convention was called to adopt a state constitution which prohibited slavery, the delegates unanimously adopted it. 318 AMERICAN HISTORY Compromise of 1850. — To the South the admission of California as a free state meant a grave situation. The state was both above and below the southern line of Mis- souri, which fixed the boundary between the slaveholding and free states. To admit the new state on the appeal of the California convention meant a repeal of the Missouri Compromise line. By this repeal all of the remaining territory could be admitted in the same way. This would also give a majority of votes to the free states in Congress, and this majority vote could abolish the whole system of labor throughout the South. Such a condition would sweep away the entire industrial basis of the southern states, and, without recompense or adjustment, bankrupt and impov- erish the district. The largest investments in the South were in plantations and negroes, both interests which were involved with banking and commercial affairs of the cities and towns. It presented to the people of the South a problem that was most difficult to solve, as it involved almost every interest of the people. Growth of Abolition Feeling. — In the meantime, other phases of the question of slavery were stirring the nation. Antislavery agitation was daily increasing and societies for the abolition of slavery in the United States were formed which did active work in shaping public opinion against the institution. Much of the literature published by these societies was extreme in its sentiments, and it was heartily resented by the South. There had been considerable encouragement of runaway slaves by some of the Abolitionists. Now the South de- manded national protection of this property. A movement was also started to pass a law prohibiting the sale of slaves in the District of Columbia. All of these ideas aroused much feeling on both sides. The old differences between men who advocated states' rights and those who stood for the old national party's plan for Federal control of certain questions STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 319 were again revived. These issues were also taken up by the press. John C. Calhoun, who had so earnestly stood for South Carolina's position of states' rights on the tariff issue, now came forward as the champion of the States' Rights Party of the South. He was one of the oldest leaders in the country, but his zeal was as eager and his mind as deter- mined as in the earlier years of his eventful career in Congress. Henry Clay, who was seventy-three years of age at this time, had retired from public life, and was at his home, SEP Henry Clay's Home at Ashland. Ashland, Kentucky. But the situation in Washington seemed so grave that the Kentucky legislature unanimously elected him to the United States Senate in order that he might take part in the important measures that were before the national government. He, too, like Calhoun, was worn and infirm from the strenuous political life that he had led, but as soon as he reached the national capital, he at once plunged into the events of the hour, and prepared the last of his great compromises. 320 AMERICAN HISTORY Main Features of Compromise of 1850. — This is known in history as the Compromise of 1850. It included within its scope the following recommendations : First, that California should be admitted as a free state. Second, that the territories of New Mexico and Utah should be formed without reference to slavery. Third, that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia. Fourth, that new and more stringent laws should be adopted for the return of runaway slaves. Fifth, that Texas should be paid for cer- tain lands claimed by New Mexico, and dis- puted over for some time. The Great Debate. — Never in the whole history of the United States Congress had there occurred so momentous an oc- casion as this, when the great masters of oratory and logic presented their arguments for and against the Compromise. Clay opened the debate with a defense of the Com- promise. He argued for the preservation of the Union and reasoned that disunion would mean war. For two days his eloquent oratory and strong personality thrilled the eager listeners. He arose to the height of his old strength ; and at the conclusion of his defense he had won many to his side. When Calhoun followed, a great feeling of sympathy and pathos overcame the listeners. The old leader was too ill to speak. With indomitable courage he had prepared his last speech, a defense of southern rights and an opposition STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 321 of the Compromise ; and though it was read by a friend, Senator Mason, of Virginia, while Calhoun sat through the reading with the shadow of death upon him, his sym- pathetic adherents closely followed the trend of his argu- ments. The position taken by Calhoun, after he had care- fully traced the history of slavery in the South and defined its position at that time, was that " the Union could be saved only by conceding to the South an equal right in the acquired territory by causing the stipulations relative to fugi- tive slaves to be faith- fully fulfilled ... to cease the agitations of the slave question, and to provide for the inser- tion of a provision in the Constitution, which would restore to the South, in substance, the power she possessed of protecting herself." He concluded his speech with " If you of the North will not do this, then let our Southern states separate and depart in peace." Daniel Webster's Atti- tude. — While the debate Daniel Webster. was in progress, many persons wondered why Daniel Webster had not spoken. He was one of the great trio. There were many persons throughout the country waiting to hear his presentation of the question. Finally, on the 7th of March, he arose and made a supreme effort in behalf of the Union. He declared that he did not represent any section on the question, but that he spoke " for preservation of the union." Y 322 AMERICAN HISTORY He denounced the antislavery agitators, and rebuked those of both sections who had advocated the separa- tion of the Union. He recognized the right of the South on the question of the Fugitive Slave Law. For this he lost many of his adherents among the northern voters who felt that he sympathized too generally with the South. His speech was one of the greatest that he had ever delivered. It was eloquent in its figures and deliber- ate in its arguments. This event seemed the last rally of these masters of debate and rivals in politics. A younger generation was also heard in the persons of William E. Seward, of New York, and Salmon P. Chase, both ardent antislavery speakers. New leaders who ably represented the South were Robert Toombs, of Georgia, and Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi. They zealously carried forward the policies of Calhoun. Fillmore becomes President. — While the debate was in progress, President Taylor sud- denly died. He was succeeded by Millard Fillmore. Fillmore fa- vored the Compromise. Although thirteen states also sup- ported the bill, it did not pass as a whole, but the parts taken separately were carried and became laws. The Breach Widens. — The debates in Congress on the Millard Fillmore. STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 323 Compromise had a far-reaching effect in creating wide- spread interest in the political plans of the period. In order to counteract the effects of the Fugitive Slave Law many persons gave secret aid to runaway slaves and helped to make their passage to Canada comparatively easy. Underground railroads, as these routes to Canada were called, gave no end of expense and thought to the United States government. Whenever cases of return were taken up by the government, then there would follow a sharp campaign against slavery by the Abolition adherents. The idea of national interference in the abolition of slavery was constantly keeping the South on the alert. Antislavery Literature. — Another influence that was very strong at this time was the work of the antislavery societies in publishing literature that created interest in the Abolition movement. Among the most striking works of the day was a volume of fiction by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, entitled Uncle Tom's Cabin. The book had a wide- spread sale. Hundreds of people, reading the graphic descriptions given by the author, were convinced that the scenes were true pictures of slavery in the South. In this way, many were won to the cause of the Abolition ranks, while, on the other hand, the whole text was severely cen- sured by the southern people ; they regarded the author as an antislavery advocate, whose vivid imagination had caused her to exaggerate real conditions Poems on slavery by Whittier also kindled the flame of the Abolition societies. Press writings in magazines and newspapers also added fuel to the fire, until the whole period seemed aflame on the subject. By this means the spirit of antagonism continued, until many were weary of the strife and longed to have the question put aside. Triumph of the Democrats, 1852. — When the presi- dential election occurred in 1852, the Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott ; and the Democrats, Franklin 324 AMERICAN HISTORY Pierce, of New Hampshire. Pierce carried twenty-seven states and Scott four. It was the greatest presidential victory since the days of Monroe. Perhaps the defeat of the Whigs was due to the fact that the great leaders of this party, Clay and Webster, had passed away during this campaign, and no strong party members had risen to take their place. The neutral policy of Pierce pleased the people. Many hailed his inauguration as the beginning of a second " era of good feeling." Kansas-Nebraska Act. — But peace was only temporary. Some one raised the question, " If the Missouri Compro- mise line was removed in order that New Mexico and Utah might have the right to decide for themselves as to whether or not slavery should exist within their borders, why could not this privilege be granted to the undeveloped ter- ritory of the Louisiana Purchase? " The idea grew ; and Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, made the question national by introducing a bill into Congress giving the district in question the right of " popular sovereignty." The bill planned that the district should be divided into two territories ; namely, Nebraska and Kansas. It was definitely understood that the set- tlers in each state should decide for themselves whether the state should be free or not. The bill brought out fierce debates in Congress. Charles Franklin Pierce. STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 3 2 5 Sumner and Salmon P. Chase were bitterly opposed to it. Alexander H. Stephens, Robert Toombs, and Jefferson Davis spoke in its favor. In many places in the North mass meetings were held denouncing Douglas and the measure. Newspapers North and South published edi- torials against and for it. The bill finally passed. But then came the plan of putting it into force. Emigrant Aid Socie- ties. — As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska bill passed, preparations were made by both the pro- slavery and antislavery factions to gain control of the new territory. Missouri, which was a proslavery state, was nearest to the border and was the first to send settlers into Kansas. These immigrants established themselves on the Missouri River. Shortly after others came over and opened up settle- ments on the same stream. While these towns were developing, Eli Thayer, of Massa- chusetts, organized what was known as Emigrant Aid Societies for the purpose of encouraging emigration of anti- slavery men to Kansas, in order to establish the Free Soil movement in the territory. A large tract of land was secured; many persons of wealth and influence gave liberally to the cause ; and, in a short time, the first transfer of settlers began. Territorial government was organized by Congress, but it was not long before political differences began. Kansas War. — Both factions tried to gain control. Kansas and Nebraska (1854). 326 AMERICAN HISTORY And when the proslavery voters claimed the election of territorial representatives for their side, the election was questioned, and an appeal made to Congress to seek an investigation of the election. Differences continued and strife began in earnest. John Brown, an ardent advocate of Abolition, with several companions made an attack upon a proslavery settlement on the Wakarusa Creek, and killed several settlers. This aroused the proslavery men, who in turn struck a prompt blow at Lawrence, the Free Soil settlement, and destroyed some property belonging to an antislavery newspaper, but did not kill any one. The reports of the struggle spread all over the country. Greater enthusiasm than ever was shown in the Emi- grant Aid Societies ; and Missouri urged the South to send proslavery set- tlers to help hold the state. Each faction called conventions for the purpose of adopting a state constitution. The antislavery men assem- bled at Topeka, and drew up their constitution prohibiting slavery within the state. The proslavery advocates called a constitutional convention at Lecompton, and adopted a constitution, permitting the institution of slavery to exist within the limits of Kansas. Since neither would ratify the other's constitution, both were sent to Washington. The pro- slavery men proved that they had a majority of the votes in Kansas, and President Buchanan recommended the adop- Stephen A. Douglas. STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 327 tion of the Lecompton constitution. But Douglas and a number of other members of Congress refused to accept this constitution on the ground that it did not represent "popular sovereignty," in other words, all of the people. The question agitated Congress until 1861, when the state was finally admitted as free soil. Presidential Election. — While the struggle in Kansas was going on, the presidential election approached, and the Kansas question became a part of the interests of the cam- paign. The Democrats chose James Buchanan as their candidate for President and John C. Breckinridge for Vice President. A new party rose in the North, known as the Republican Party. It was composed of northern Whigs and Demo- crats, who were opposed to slavery in Kansas. The Free Soil Party also cast their lot with this faction. The Re- publican convention was held in Philadelphia. John C. Fremont was selected as their candidate for the presidency, and William A. Dayton was named for Vice President. A branch of the Whig Party had been reorganized under the title of the American Party. The members of this party were afraid that the large numbers of foreigners that were coming to America would prove a menace to American institutions, so they advocated a policy of America for Americans. When questioned about their plans, the members of this party always answered : "I know nothing," hence they received this unusual name, " Know-Nothing Party." They were instrumental in di- viding the vote of the country. The Democrats won the election. Buchanan's Administration. — President Buchanan, like his predecessor, hoped to restore harmony in the country ; and, in his inaugural address, he declared that the question of slavery would soon be settled. Another issue, however, came up in the light of the celebrated test case on the Fugi- 328 AMERICAN HISTORY tive Slave Law. This case is known as the Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott Decision. — Dred Scott was a negro who belonged to an army surgeon, Dr. Emerson. Scott had been held in bondage in Missouri, and was carried from that state to Illinois by his master, and later was taken by Dr. Emerson to Fort Snelling, Minnesota, where the doctor was located. This was rec- ognized as free terri- tory ; and when Scott was later taken to Mis- souri, he sued for his freedom on the ground that he had been living in free territory. The case was decided by the Supreme Court in March, 1857, with the result : firstly, that Dred Scott was not recognized as a citizen of the United States, but under the law as property ; sec- ondly, that a slaveholder had a right to hold slaves in a territory ; and, thirdly, that neither Congress nor the people of the territory had a right to interfere in such cases. The South hailed this decision with delight ; the North, with indignation. The issue entered into an election that was to make a memorable impression upon the people of the United States ; namely, the Lincoln and Douglas campaign for the United States Senate. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — In 1858, Stephen A. Doug- James Buchanan. STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 329 las and Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, were candidates for the United States Senate. The opponents agreed to meet in joint debate on the issues of the time. A series of seven meetings were held in different towns of Illinois, where crowds of persons gathered to hear the views of these two statesmen. Reporters followed up the speakers, taking notes of their opinions, in order that those too far removed from the towns to attend the meetings might be informed of the points of view offered by the two men. Douglas was one of the most brilliant speakers in the country. He spoke rapidly and emphatically, and carried his hearers with him by his convincing arguments. Lin- coln, in contrast, was a deliberate speaker, keen in reasoning powers and clever in devising questions for his opponent. By carefully shifting his questions, he was able to force Douglas either to yield to the opinions of the people of the South, or stand by the sentiments of the people of the state of Illinois. To do one or the other meant the loss of in- fluence in either case. When the election took place, Douglas represented Illinois in the United States Senate, but he lost his following in the South. Lincoln lost the election, but he won many friends who favored free soil, and he paved the way by his speeches for his nomination on the Republican ticket as President in the next year. John Brown's Attack on Harper's Ferry. — During the year 1859 a most unfortunate event occurred which pro- voked deeper feelings between the two sections. This was a movement to incite the slaves of the South to rebellion against their masters. The plan was worked out by John Brown, an ardent Abolitionist, who had taken an active part in the Kansas War. Brown succeeded in collecting funds with which to carry out his plan, and went into the region of northern Virginia where he rented a farm and established headquarters for his followers. He then made an attack upon Harper's Ferry, seized 33° AMERICAN HISTORY the United States Arsenal, and proceeded to use the arms to equip the slaves of that district and prepare them for an attack. The slaves were indifferent to his scheme. In- stead of leading an insurrection, Brown was faced by groups of indignant citizens, who called upon the United States to suppress his plans. The United States troops were called out. Brown was arrested and tried for treason and Harper's Ferry. murder. He was found guilty and was executed in Decem- ber, 1859. The news of Brown's attempt to start so dangerous a movement as this insurrection caused the South great alarm. The agitator of this movement was looked upon as the representative of others who were supporting the plan. Throughout the entire South the feeling of alarm grew into great indignation. The truth was that John Brown was simply carrying out his own ideas and that he STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 33 1 was not the representative of any movement. On the other hand, the execution of Brown produced among the anti- slavery men the most bitter feelings toward the South. Brown was looked upon as a martyr to the cause, and his fanaticism was regarded as earnest zeal for the good of an unfortunate race. The result was that this event aroused still greater feelings of bitterness on both sides. At this crisis the country seemed absolutely divided into two distinct sections. Topical Outline Question of Slavery. I. Wilmot Proviso. II. Free Soil Party. Other Nominations of 1848. III. Discovery of Gold in California. IV. California Asks for Admission. V. Compromise of 1850. VI. Great Debate. VII. Breach Widens. VIII. Antislavery Literature. IX. Triumph of Democrats, 1852. X. Kansas-Nebraska Act. XI. Emigrant Aid Societies. XII. Kansas War. XIII. Presidential Election. XIV. Buchanan's Administration. XV. Dred Scott Case. XVI. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. XVII. John Brown's Attack on Harper's Ferry. Review Questions 1. What political conditions led to the introduction in Congress of the Wilmot Proviso ? 2. Give an account of the discovery of gold in California. 3. Describe the ways in which people traveled at the time of the discovery of gold in California. 4. (a) What were the events leading to the adoption of the Com- promise of 1850? 332 AMERICAN HISTORY (b) What is meant by the term Nullification ? (c) The Doctrine of States' Rights. 5. (a) Describe the great debate on this subject. (b) In this debate, what part did each of the following take Clay, Calhoun, Webster? (c) Who were the other speakers in this debate ? (d) What was the effect of the debate? 6. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act ? 7. What was the Free Soil Party? The Know-Nothing Party? 8. Give a description of the settlement of Kansas. 9. W T hat is meant by the Kansas War? 10. What was the Dred Scott Decision? State the effect. 11. Give an account of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. 12. Tell something of John Brown's attack on Harper's Ferry. References Spillman : Seeking the Golden Fleece. Spring: Kansas. Brown : Lower South in American History. Phillips : Georgia and States Rights. Mumford : Virginia's Attitude toward Slavery and Secession. CHAPTER XXI A NEW CONFEDERACY Presidential Election. — In May, i860, the Republican Party held a convention in Chicago, and nominated Abra- ham Lincoln, of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine. The party adopted a platform declaring for the Union of the states, admitting the right of each state to control its own " domestic institutions " ; in other words, legislate as it pleased regarding slavery, advocating the expulsion of the institution of slavery from the territories, and recommend- ing the admission of Kansas on the Topeka constitution. The party also declared for a higher tariff and revived the Whig policy of internal improvements. This platform met with hearty approval in many sections of the North. Division of the Democrats. — The Democrats met in Charleston, but there was a division in their ranks and the meeting was disbanded without the adoption of a platform. Later both divisions met in separate conventions in Balti- more. One adopted the principles of popular sovereignty as their platform and selected Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, for President, and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia, for Vice President. The other Democratic Party stood for the Dred Scott Decision, and organized a platform for the protection of Southern States' Rights. Their candidate was John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. Fourth Party. — The country was so widely divided on these issues that a fourth faction was formed under the name of the " Constitutional Union " Party. They nomi- 333 334 AMERICAN HISTORY nated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. They made no reference to slavery, but adopted the platform, " The Constitution, the Union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." The election was one of the most bitter in the history of our country. Strong sectional feelings raged on both sides. The coun- try seemed more divided than ever before. Lincoln Elected. — Lincoln was elected, having carried all of the northern and western states except New Jersey. There were few votes cast for Lincoln in the South, and al- though Breckin- ridge secured the majority of the votes from the southern states, yet a number of votes were given to the other can- didates. This indicated that the South was not united on all of the issues of the time, but there was one point of common interest and that was the opposition to the domination of the Repub- lican Party. The leaders of the South feared the outcome of the policy that the new administration might put into effect. Secession of South Carolina. — The strongest feeling was expressed in South Carolina. As soon as the election returns were known, this state called a convention to con- sider separation from the Union. The convention assem- Abraham Lincoln. A NEW CONFEDERACY 335 bled in Columbia, but later removed to Charleston, where active measures for the withdrawal from the Union were made. The state militia was increased by the organization of new companies. Federal buildings were declared to be a part of the state property. All the South Carolinians holding government positions, as well as the Congressmen, resigned. Representatives of the convention were sent to other states to invite consideration of an act of secession. On December 20, i860, the convention unanimously adopted an ordinance of secession, declaring that the Union between South Carolina and the other states was dissolved. New Compromises. — When the news of South Carolina's secession from the Union was received in Washington, President Buchanan hesitated about what course he should follow. He was not in sympathy with the movement, but he felt that he had no right, under the Constitution, to prevent it. Lewis Cass, the Secretary of State, advised the President to use force in stopping secession. When he refused to do so, Cass resigned. John B. Floyd, Secretary of War, advocated the cause of South Carolina, and urged that the President grant South Carolina the right to control Fort Sumter. Presi- dent Buchanan also refused to do this and Floyd resigned. The moment was most critical. Finally the President sent a message to Congress, and brought the question formally before the Senate and the House. Congress attempted to bring about a reconciliation. Many compromises were proposed and in turn rejected. The most prominent of these was one brought forward by John C. Crittenden, of Kentucky. It recommended that the Missouri Compromise line should be extended across the continent, thus extending the division of slaveholding and free territory; it also proposed that the " Personal Liberty Laws should be declared unconstitutional." But this compromise fell 336 AMERICAN HISTORY through and the movement for secession went forward. During the month of January these states followed the example of South Carolina : Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana. Peace Congress. — At this critical moment, Virginia led a movement for peace among the disorganized states. The " Peace Congress," as it was called, was opened in Washington, on February 4, 1861. Representatives from twenty-six states were present. Here resolutions were adopted. But the time was too late. The southern states that had withdrawn from the Union were sending their dele- gates to Montgomery, Alabama, where a convention was to be held that was to draft a new constitution for a new nation. Confederacy Formed. — The convention held in Mont- gomery organized the seceded states into " The Confererate States of America " and adopted a constitution which was similar in general construction to the United States Con- stitution, but which omitted those features that were unsatisfactory. It provided for a six-year term for the President, and limited the powers of the central govern- ment. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected Presi- dent ; and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice Presi- dent. Montgomery was selected as the capital. The Inauguration of Lincoln. — Just one month follow- ing the organization of the Confederate States, President Lincoln was inaugurated. In his address on this occasion he expressed the following sentiments : that " The Union of the states is perpetual . . . that no state upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union. I shall take care . . . that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States." " The power confided in me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the gov- ernment, and to collect the duties and imposts ; but beyond what may be necessary for these objects there will be no A NEW CONFEDERACY 337 invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere." Fort Sumter becomes the Test. — The harbor of Charles- ton is protected by a number of islands upon which forti- fications have been placed from time to time. When South Jefferson Davis. Carolina seceded, the most formidable of these posts was Fort Sumter. At this time the fort was occupied by workmen who were mounting the guns and putting the place in order. Not far from Fort Sumter was the old Fort Moultrie, that was not as strong as the former, so Major Anderson requested the United States to send him supplies and reported that he was removing his troops to Fort Sumter. As soon as South Carolina realized this, a general feeling prevailed that Charleston was menaced and 338 AMERICAN HISTORY that the state should promptly take charge of the fortifi- cations on the bay. It was not long before a steamer entered the harbor with supplies for Fort Sumter, and the state militia fired upon the boat and forced her to retreat. Major Anderson, who was in charge of the fort, continued to ask for supplies, and Gov- ernor Pickens of South Carolina requested Pres- ident Buchanan to give the fort to the state and to remove the national garrison. This the Pres- ident refused to do, but it was generally under- stood that he would not reenforce the position, and the affair was quiet. When President Lin- coln began his administration of the government, it was rumored that Fort Sumter would not be relieved. One of the first acts of the President, however, was to give notice to Governor Pickens that Fort Sumter would be supplied and held by the United States. Thereupon Governor Pickens referred the matter to President Davis. All the land forts were now occupied by the forces of the Confeder- ates. President Davis advised Governor Pickens and General Beauregard to prepare for an aggressive campaign. In April, 1861, the news came that a fleet with men and provisions was on its way to Fort Sumter. As soon as the news of the fleet's approach was learned, Major Anderson was advised by a series of messages from the Confederate authorities that if " faith with Fort Sumter " was not kept, it would be taken by force unless it surrendered. Major Charleston Harbor. A NEW CONFEDERACY 339 Anderson refused to agree to this and as soon as the fleet appeared in the harbor, the bombardment of the fort began. Major Anderson attempted to hold his position and returned fire ; but, after thirty-four hours of bombardment from the Confederate batteries, he was obliged to surrender. Before leaving the fort, the Federal troops were permitted to itlMtlllMWIliifflfflliitotoili^M The Bombardment of Fort Sumter. salute the flag. Under the escort of the Confederate forces, they were given transportation to a ship, and al- lowed to sail for New York. The War Begins. — When the news of the fall of Fort Sumter was received, there was a feeling that a war between the states had actually begun. In the North the greatest excitement prevailed. When it was reported that an at- tack was to be made on Washington, the militia of the northern states began to assemble. In less than a week, 340 AMERICAN HISTORY the Massachusetts state troops were on their way to protect the national capital. As they passed through Baltimore, they were met by opposing forces that fired upon them. A slight skirmish took place. This added to the excite- ment, and caused many persons in the North who had sym- pathized with the South in the defense of her rights, now to turn with favor toward Lincoln and the preservation of the Union. Douglas hurried to Washington and offered his help to the national government in the crisis. Throughout the country the news of these incidents spread. Petty differences were now set aside in both sections. The na- tion divided itself into two determined factions with the simple names, North and South, defining them. Each were electrified by the idea that war had really begun. When President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to help in the situation, more than 100,000 responded ; and, on the other hand, when President Davis issued a call for troops, thousands came forward from all of the Confederate states and pledged fortune and life to the cause of protect- ing the South's interests. President Lincoln's appeal to all of the states to furnish troops to subdue the seceded states prompted Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee to join the Con- federacy rather than bear arms against it. At this time it was decided by the southern leaders to remove the capital from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. The Great Conflict not Realized. — After all, neither side realized the vast proportions that this impending struggle was to assume. President Lincoln and his closest friends looked upon the situation with grave concern, but to them it was a " gigantic riot that could be suppressed within ninety days." To the southerners, the crisis would pass after a brief struggle. They were sure of victory and believed that the Confederate States would be recognized shortly as one of A NEW CONFEDERACY 341 the representative nations. But succeeding events were a strange contrast to these prophecies. All over the South- land a proud, spirited people had risen in all their strength to defend their rights, whom it would take months of des- perate righting and days of dire privation and distress to dissuade from their firm purpose. It had been their full intention to organize peaceably a southern republic that would carry out its own policies and uphold its own insti- tutions. Now the denial of this plan by force of arms meant the rally of its greatest strength for the purpose of holding its own. On the other hand, the old message of Jackson, " The Union must and shall be preserved," became the war cry of the northern states. Over and over it was repeated ; and men of all ranks and occupations of life came to the call of the Federal government with a stern determination to recover the southern states and readjust the Union. Topical Outline A New Confederacy. I. Presidential Election. II. Division of Democrats. III. Lincoln Elected. IV. Secession of South Carolina. V. New Compromises. VI. Peace Conference. VII. Confederacy Formed. VIII. Inauguration of Lincoln. IX. Fort Sumter Becomes the Test. X. War Begins. XI. Great Conflict not Realized. Review Questions 1. (a) Describe the presidential campaign of i860. (b) What parties nominated candidates? 342 AMERICAN HISTORY (c) Who were the candidates ? (d) What attitude did each party take toward slavery? 2. (a) Why did South Carolina secede from the Union? (b) What action did the President and Congress then take toward South Carolina? 3. (a) Name the states that followed South Carolina's example. (b) Were any efforts made to heal the breach between the North and South at this time? 4. Give an account of the organization of the Southern Confeder- acy. 5. What is meant by the expression "Fort Sumter becomes the test"? 6. (a) When did the war between the states begin ? (b) Did either side realize the extent of the conflict ? References Wilson : Division and Reunion. Richardson : Messages of the Presidents. Davis : The Confederate Government. CHAPTER XXII THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES Neutrality of the Border States. — At the opening of the war the border states, Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri remained in the Union, but they desired to S K^ ft l '■ JO r\v 1- \ T~- - — __ : L -\ <£VS Sf~~ z:i GULF OF MEXICO 1 | Loyal Slave States \ ^^Controlled by the Union. □ Controlled by the Confederate armies 105 Longitude 100 West 95 from 90 Gr Williams Eng.Co., The Confederacy, May i, 1861. take a neutral position on the question of the war. Their governors refused to answer President Lincoln's call for volunteers. Yet in all of these states there were men who 343 344 AMERICAN HISTORY were strongly inclined to take one or the other side of the issue. In Maryland this feeling went to the degree of serious preparations on the part of the secessionists to surround Washington and to cut it off from communica- tion with the North. Many northern regiments hastened to the relief of Washington. With these stationed in and about the national capital, it was impossible for Maryland to take any further measures toward secession. Struggle in Missouri. — In the month of May, 1861, sharp encounters took place between the Federal and Confederate factions in Missouri ; and for a time it seemed hard to decide which side would get control of the state. Captain Nathaniel Lyon of the United States army organ- ized the Federal forces and broke up the Confederate camp near St. Louis. The governor, who was in favor of the southern cause, was driven from the capital. It was not long before Missouri became one of the military bases of the Federal government. West Virginia Organized. — Forty-five counties of west- ern Virginia refused to join their state when she seceded. In May they called a convention at Wheeling for the pur- pose of adopting a separate constitution. President Davis made an attempt to put down this state rebellion, but the small detachment of Confederate troops that were sent into the district were defeated by General McClellan, and a Federal military base established at Wheeling. Later the discontented counties organized themselves into the state of West Virginia. Comparative Strength of the Opponents. — In 1861 the opposing sides stood in the ratio of eleven southern, or Confederate, states, and nineteen northern, or Federal, states. The North had the advantage of large numbers. At the outbreak of the war she had a population of twenty- two millions. Then the South had barely nine millions, of which three million and a half were slaves. But the South THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 345 presented the best organization of sentiment. All of the North had not become entirely sympathetic with President Lincoln and his policies. This was due, perhaps, to the fact that in the North one in every fifteen of its population was foreign-born, but in the South the people were upon the whole native southerners, whose ancestors had lived for years on southern soil and who were identified with southern interests. The northern states had greater wealth in diversified farming and manufactures than the South. In the early days of the war there was but one foundry in the South that could make cannon and not a powder mill in the Con- federate states ; on the other hand, there were many flourishing arms factories and powder mills in active opera- tion in the northern states. The North had a number of vessels in her merchant marine ; and besides this there were many branch companies of foreign vessels located in her cities which were a great aid in the import and export trade of the country. The northern leaders had also control of the Federal government, which gave them the advantage of international treaties, control of the army and navy, the ownership of ordnance works, the collection of exten- sive revenue taxes on foreign and domestic trade, and of many other minor details that became advantageous as the war proceeded. The South was on the defensive and had the advantage of position. Most of the fighting was done on southern soil in regions comparatively well known to the southern forces. The fact that southern territory was being invaded by a hostile army roused the feeling of patriotism and home protection to the highest pitch. When war was declared, southerners in the United States army and navy resigned and cast their fortunes with their native states. So large was the number of resignations among the higher officers that it was necessary for the United States government to reorganize its forces. 346 AMERICAN HISTORY In the matter of well-trained forces, the South had the most experienced and efficient officers. The rank and file of the Confederate army were men who were reared more or less in the open, on plantations and farms, or in cities closely allied with agricultural interests, and they were accustomed to horseback riding and hunting. In the recent war with Mexico most of the volunteers had come from the South, so that many of the Confederate soldiers had had some experience in army life. The resources of the South were limited to agriculture. " Cotton was king " throughout most of the states. Sugar, tobacco, rice, and corn were raised ; and, if trade with foreign countries could be continued, these products might be exchanged for army and civil supplies. The plantations were worked by slaves, so that in the event of the men's leaving for active service in the army, the cultivation of the estates could still be carried on by the trained negro work- men. But the South had no vessels ; in her manufactures she was very limited ; and she was totally dependent upon outsiders for arms and munitions of war. Her wealth was centered in agriculture ; and, if this were not adequately continued, or if there were blockades to prevent the export of raw material, then conditions would be direful. The Confederate government was too new to have attained any foreign treaties or commercial recognition as a nation. Both England and France were friendly and desirous of seeing the new republic established, yet no definite treaties were made except a general proclamation of neutrality. The Theater of the War. — The South was geographically divided into three regions that were destined to become the scenes of the active campaigns. The first was the long, narrow strip of coast lying east of the Alleghany Moun- tains. This was of marked political value because within this section were Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy ; THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 347 Washington, the seat of the Federal government; and southern cities of active political force. The second region was the rich cotton and plantation area lying between the mountains and the Mississippi River. This was the source of most of the southern sup- plies. The district contained an important railroad that extended from Memphis on the Mississippi to Chattanooga, where it divided into two branches. One of these went northward to Richmond and thence to Norfolk on the coast ; and the other extended toward the South and found two terminals, one at Charleston and the other in Savannah. This railroad with its numerous short lines made a network of complete transportation for the bulk of the cotton trade for export. If the Mississippi River were blockaded and the railroad kept open, the trade with Europe might be carried on through the Atlantic ports. The third region was that west of the Mississippi River. This section was not important in a political sense, nor was it as strategic a military position as that of the center, but like the latter it was valuable because of its resources in agriculture. Its chief means of transportation was by way of the Arkansas and Red rivers to the Mississippi and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. There was an overland route through the state of Texas that connected with the Mexican trade routes of the Rio Grande. The Lines of Defense. — The South planned to make its defenses as soon as war was declared. In Virginia an army was arranged between Richmond and Washington. It was known as the army of Northern Virginia and was a protection to Richmond and at the same time a menace to Washington. General Joseph E. Johnston was commander of this division. Later when General Robert E. Lee was given charge of it, he made his famous defenses of Rich- mond through its service. In the middle region, a line of defenses was arranged 348 AMERICAN HISTORY about one hundred and fifty miles north of the Memphis- Chattanooga railroad. This defense consisted of a series of forts beginning at Columbus, Kentucky, and extending to Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, and thence to Bowling Green, Kentucky. General Albert Sidney Johnston was in charge of this line. The Mississippi was defended by Forts St. Philip and Jackson below New Orleans, and fortifications were raised at Vicksburg, Island Number 10, and New Madrid above. THE PLANS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Battle of Manassas, July 21, 1861. — Hearing that the Confederate government had ordered the defense of Rich- mond, President Lincoln directed General Irwin McDowell to make an aggressive attack. McDowell's army, consist- ing of about forty thousand men, was near Washington. It was supported by another army of twenty thousand troops under General Robert Patterson, located on the Potomac at the upper end of the Shenandoah Valley. The Confederates had an army of about twenty thousand under the command of General P. G. T. Beauregard. This divi- sion was encamped on Bull Run Creek not far from Manassas Junction, twenty-five miles south of Washington. This served to oppose McDowell's advance toward Rich- mond. General Joseph E. Johnston with a Confederate force of ten thousand men was located in the Shenandoah Valley to deter the movements of Patterson. General McDowell ordered Patterson to hold Johnston's forces in the valley to prevent them from joining Beaure- gard at Manassas. Patterson was unable to do this and Johnston with a portion of his army slipped away and joined Beauregard just before the engagement began. McDowell left a small force in defense of Washington THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 349 and advanced to make the attack on Beauregard's division. This undertaking was looked upon as an easy enterprise. The Union army left Washington, accompanied by many members of Congress who followed the army to see its easy success. The succeeding events were far more serious than had been anticipated. The armies met in a desperate struggle on Sunday, July 21. In the beginning of the en- gagement the Confeder- ate lines were driven back. General Bee of one of the divisions turned to General Jackson, in a rear line, and exclaimed, " They are beating us back." "Well, sir," replied Jackson, " we will give them the bayonet." This gave new courage and Bee called out to his retreating men : " See Jackson's line standing like a stone wall." - The effect was instan- taneous. The Federal forces were driven back. Upon the arrival of the remainder of Johnston's forces from the valley, the Union army was obliged to withdraw from the field and retreat toward Washington. The name " Stone- wall " remained with Jackson and to this day is perhaps better remembered than any other. This battle was a signal victory for the Confederates, the news of which filled the South with enthusiasm. Instead General Stonewall Jackson. 350 AMERICAN HISTORY of pushing the engagement on toward Washington, the southern leaders turned their attention to strengthening the western lines of defense and increased their efforts to build foundries for casting cannon and other arms. The result of .the battle of Manassas, or Bull Run, was a dis- tinct surprise to the North. Plans were made to reorganize the army and an offensive campaign was planned as follows : First, to blockade the Southern ports to prevent the Confederacy from receiving foreign aid. Second, to control the Memphis-Chattanooga railroad, and thus seize the cotton trade. Third, to gain control of the Mississippi Valley, divide the southern states, and break the western line of defense. Fourth, to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, and break up the plans of this government. As the war went on other minor plans were developed, but for the main this program was carried out. We shall now briefly consider each part of the plan. BLOCKADE AND ITS EFFECT The Blockade. — Here and there along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico there were scattered a number of forts guarding the principal seaport towns of the South. When the states seceded, they declared their right of control of these fortifications, and as the organization of the Confed- erate government took shape, plans were made to utilize these forts for coast defenses. No Navy in the South. — The South had no navy and very few local ship companies. There were no shipyards of any consequence and but a limited number of ship car- penters. President Davis issued " letters of marque " to privateers. The most effective work of all was done by light- running boats that were built in England for the Confeder- ate government and were known as the " blockade runners." THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 351 The Importance of Cotton Exportation. — There was a great demand in England and France for cotton, and it was estimated that, at the opening of the war, the South shipped annually to Europe upwards of four and a half million bales of cotton. If this shipment could continue, there would be no trouble in getting the necessary supplies to keep up the defenses of the Confederacy. Northern Movements to Block- ade. — When the war opened Presi- dent Lincoln declared the entire South under blockade, but the Fed- eral government was not prepared to maintain this plan. Boats were ordered built, however, and efforts The Blockade of the Southern Coast. were made to enforce the system. In 1861 Fort Hatteras on the North Carolina coast and Hilton Head on the South Carolina coast were taken. In the next year a large fleet under Admiral Farragut took a position at Ship Island and planned to attack Mobile and New Orleans. New Orleans Taken. — In this year the fleet bearing an army under General Benjamin Butler made its way up the Mississippi, and, after heavy bombardment from Forts 352 AMERICAN HISTORY St. Philip and Jackson, managed to pass these fortifications and approach New Orleans. Heavy chains were stretched across the river to impede the progress of the fleet, but these were cut and the city taken April 29, 1862. By the Federal control of New Orleans, the Confederacy lost one of its largest cotton ports. The Florida and the Alabama. — In this same year, agents sent out by the Confederate government bought in England several vessels that were used to destroy Federal Battle between the Virginia and the Monitor. commerce. The most famous of these were the Florida and the Alabama. The latter was commanded by Admiral Raphael Semmes, assisted by Lieutenant Breedlove Smith. These vessels were light and swift; and, under cover of night, they would slip through the blockade with a load of cotton and make their way to the Bahamas or West Indies, where they sold the cotton to foreign ships. They frequently followed up the ships from the North and made many captures of rich cargoes both going to and coming from the North. All together two hundred and sixty THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 353 American merchant vessels were captured on the open sea by these Confederate cruisers. In order to escape the attacks of these vigilant lighters, a number of Americans owning ships sold them to foreigners to avoid having them captured. It was estimated that the damage done to northern shipping amounted to upwards of $20,000,000. The Virginia and the Monitor. — When Virginia seceded from the Union, she took the naval base at Norfolk and there raised a sunken wooden war vessel named the Merri- mac. The old hulk was repaired and covered with a double coat of iron and armed with a heavy ram that projected from the prow. When completed, the boat was named the Virginia and placed in command of Captain Buchanan. It was taken to Hampton Roads to attack the Federal fleet that was blockading this harbor. From batteries on shore and ships in the harbor came volley of shot and shell, but without the slightest effect upon the Virginia. Cap- tain Buchanan made an attack upon the United States vessel, Cumberland, and, after ramming her side, caused this ship to sink into the sea with all her flags flying and her guns firing. The Congress was next attacked and set on fire. With this as a day's work, the Virginia withdrew to the Con- federate forts for protection and waited until the next day. In the morning, March 9, 1862, a curious-looking craft appeared in Hampton Roads ; This was the Monitor, an iron-clad vessel constructed in the Brooklyn navy yard by a Swedish inventor, John Ericsson. The deck of the boat was only three feet above water. Upon this was a revolving turret of iron from which projected two heavy cannon. The turret was easily shifted by means of ma- chinery, so that the Monitor could turn upon her enemy from side to side. When the Virginia appeared in the harbor, a battle began between the two boats which lasted for two hours without 2A 354 AMERICAN HISTORY serious injury to either. Later the Virginia withdrew to Norfolk, where it was finally sunk to keep it from falling into the hands of the Federals. The Monitor was lost off the coast of North Carolina the next year. The great effect of this engagement was that it taught nations the value of iron-clad vessels and in a short time revolutionized all the navies of the world. It was the beginning of the Dreadnought with its heavy covering of armor plate and the rise of numerous inventions of more powerful guns and armament. Effects of the Blockade. — As we have noted in the beginning of the conflict, the South shipped annually to Europe upward of four and a half million bales of cotton. Within two years, notwithstanding the work of the " block- ade runners," only one bale in a hundred reached the European ports. The price of the staple steadily rose in foreign markets, and in the South its price rapidly declined. There were few cotton mills in the southern states, so that there was practically little use for the commodity in great quantities. In many homes old-fashioned spinning wheels and hand looms were brought out from attics into active use, and homespun goods was made to meet the needs of the times. As the war progressed the blockade became more and more effective, and the South was almost utterly cut off from outside communication. The lack of textile factories and ordnance works, the limitations in diversity of crops, and the absence of skilled mechanics in the cities, made the problem of demand and supply more complex than before. FEDERAL PLAN TO BREAK WESTERN LINE OF DEFENSE Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — After the first struggle in Missouri, Union forces were established at St. Louis under General Henry W. Halleck. This city proved THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 355 a splendid military base, as armies could be conveniently mobilized here and distributed into the Mississippi Valley or over into the district of western Kentucky. Another Federal base was located at Louisville under the command of General Don Carlos Buell. The eastern division was established at Wheeling, West Virginia. These three armies cooperated with one an- other and were the great- est menace to the center of the Confederacy. As we have mentioned, the Confederates estab- lished a line of defenses from Columbus, Ken- tucky, to Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, and thence to Bowling Green. These positions were ar- ranged to defend the Memphis-Chattanooga railroad, and to protect this rich interior district which was one of the southern sources of supplies. The first plan to break this line was made by General Halleck, who sent a force under General Ulysses S. Grant to seize the Con- federate camp at Paducah. In February, 1862, Grant was instructed to advance with a fleet of gunboats against Fort Henry. The force in charge of this position was small. Hearing of the approach of the Federal fleet, the commander was ordered to withdraw and add his garrison to the forces of Fort Donelson. After taking possession of Fort Henry, Grant sent his gunboats down the Cumberland River. He marched his army across country, a distance of twelve miles, and General Samuel Buckner. 356 AMERICAN HISTORY stormed the fort from the land, while the boats poured in shot and shell from the river. General Buckner, in com- mand of the southern forces, after a resolute siege of four days was obliged to surrender. This was a serious blow to the Confederates, for twelve thousand men were given up, besides much important artillery. With the fall of these forts, General Albert Sidney John- ston was obliged to withdraw the Confederate forces farther south and erect another line of defenses beginning at Jackson, Tennessee, extending to Corinth, and thence to Murfreesboro. By this adjustment, Nashville was given up and be- came a base for the Federal forces under General Buell. Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862.— After taking Forts Henry and Donel- son, Grant transported his army down the Ten- nessee River to a point called Pittsburg Land- ing ; here he arranged a camp two miles from the river at Shiloh Church, and waited for the arrival of Buell, when he planned to break the second Confederate line of defense. To the Confederates occupying the position at Corinth the time was critical. General A. S. Johnston, who was still in command, planned to defeat Grant's army before Buell could arrive, then to meet the latter, and thus by a series of manceuvers to regain the ground lost by the fall of the two forts. General A. S. Johnston. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 357 On Sunday, April 6, the Confederates made a bold attack upon the Federal camp at Shiloh. General Grant steadily resisted, but with great loss. By noon the remaining Federal forces were obliged to seek protection of the gun- boats at Pittsburg Landing, leaving most of their supplies at the camp. General Johnston was seriously wounded during the engagement ; and, while the South was rejoicing in this great victory, news came that this valiant officer had died. He was one of the great- est generals in the Con- federate army, and his loss was irreparable to the division of the army in which he was serving. Second Battle of Shiloh. — During the night following the first engagement, General Buell arrived with 20,000 reinforcements for Grant's army. Early the next day the battle was renewed with Gen- eral Beauregard in com- mand of the Confed- Statue of erate forces. The en- gagement that took place was one of the fiercest of the entire war. The loss of life on both sides was very great. The Confederates were unable to hold their position ; General Beauregard was forced back to Corinth ; and the second battle of Shiloh was a Federal victory (April 7, 1862). Island No. 10. — This success gave the Union army con- Gexeral Beauregard at the Entrance to City Park, New Orleans. 358 AMERICAN HISTORY trol of the western portion of Tennessee. On the same day that Grant won his victory at Shiloh, a Confederate posi- tion on Island No. 10, that guarded the lower Mississippi Valley, was taken by General Pope and Commodore Foote. General Pope now joined Halleck, who had taken charge of the army of Tennessee at Pittsburg Landing. With this immense force of 100,000 men he began a march southward toward Corinth, Mississippi. After taking Island No. 10, Commodore Foote then pro- ceeded to Memphis and forced its surrender. This literally opened up the entire territory from Memphis to Chat- tanooga. THE BLOCKADE OF THE MISSISSIPPI The Beginning of the Third Campaign. — After the battle of Shiloh, when Halleck gathered all of his forces at Corinth, Mississippi, he planned to close the Mississippi River and to cut off the fertile region of the South from sending sup- plies to Lee in Virginia and Bragg in eastern Kentucky. Just at this time Halleck was called to take command in Virginia and Grant was given charge of affairs in the West. Grant's Mississippi Campaign. — Grant now planned to capture Vicksburg and Port Gibson, two strong Confederate positions on the Mississippi, and at the same time carry out Halleck's plan of cutting off the Confederate army's resources. The Vicksburg district was defended by General Pemberton, who had fortified Port Gibson and Vicksburg and was watching carefully the movements of the Union army. General Grant attempted to advance upon Vicks- burg by way of Holly Springs, but Pemberton defeated his purpose, captured all the Federal supplies at this place, and retired toward Vicksburg. The Canal Plan a Failure. — Leaving Sherman in com- mand of the interior forces, Grant took an army by boat down the Mississippi with the hope of storming the city THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 359 from the river. Vicksburg is located upon high bluffs and these were fortified so securely that it was well-nigh im- possible to make an attack from the front. Grant's plan was to pass the town and then approach it from the south. In order to do this he had the Federal fleet sail close to the Louisiana side of the river opposite Vicksburg. Here Grant dug a canal, then cut the levee, and attempted to float his boats around this cut-off back into the river. But the attempt was a failure, the waters rushed in, and a crevasse was formed that devastated the rich cotton district of Louisiana and at the same time made the passage impossible. Federal Boats taken past Vicksburg. — Commodore Porter, who was in charge of the fleet, suggested making a night run in front of the batteries. This plan was put into effect. The decks of the vessels were piled high with cotton bales and sacks of grain to keep the shot from the batteries from injuring the machinery of the boats and to conceal their fires. The fleet then started. Just as it approached Vicksburg, a cannon sounded the alarm and all along the hilltops bonfires were started in order to light up the river. The fleet came in full view and the batteries opened fire upon the boats, but speed was doubled and the fleet hastened by with scarce a moment's time to fire a broadside. In two hours the vessels passed the town and made their way to- ward Port Gibson. Grant captured this position and drove Pemberton's forces toward Vicksburg. Champion Hills. — The Federal army then advanced northward almost to Jackson, the capital of Mississippi. Grant made a stand at Champion Hills between Jackson and Vicksburg, and won an advantage over Pemberton, who retired to Vicksburg. Grant, aided by Porter's gun- boats, stormed the city, but was repulsed with great loss. Reinforcements were sent to the aid of the Union army, which steadily advanced against the Confederate position until Vicksburg was completely surrounded. 360 AMERICAN HISTORY Siege of Vicksburg. — For six weeks the city was be- sieged. Day after day the gunboats made a fearful assault upon the town. Buildings were destroyed and the inhabit- ants became so alarmed that they resorted to digging caves in the sides of the hills in order to secure safety from the bursting shells. The army was in- trenched around the city, making every defense possible. But their position was desperate. Exposed to all kinds of weather, without shelter, poorly provisioned, and scantily clothed, they were reduced by illness until more than a third of their number were too sick to render aid. As the weary days of the siege continued, provisions ran low and the most meager rations were given to the soldiers, while the townspeople denied themselves to the point of starvation. Horses and mules were killed for food, and grain was almost entirely exhausted. In all the history of the United States there is not a more horrible picture of dire suffering of men, women, and children than in this awful siege. At last on July 3, white flags were seen fluttering over the intrench- ments of the soldiers. General Pemberton sent word to General Grant that he wished to know the terms of surrender. These were honorably granted. On July 4, 1863, the Con- federate forces laid down their arms, placing Vicksburg in the hands of the Federal troops. SCALE OF MILES , 10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100 The Lower Mississippi, showing the campaign around Vicksburg. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 36 1 In less than a week, Port Hudson surrendered. Thus the United States government once more controlled the Mis- sissippi River from its source to the gulf. The plan of the government in the West was successful. The Red River Campaign. — After these successes of the Federal army, there was but one important trade route that was left to the Confederates in the far South. This was an overland route through Louisiana and Texas that connected with the Mexican trade in the Rio Grande dis- trict. The supplies over this route entered Louisiana at Shreveport and were distributed from this point by way of Red River to the Mississippi into the Confederacy. As the blockade became more complete, this trade route rose in importance. Now special efforts were made to keep it open. President Davis appointed Lieutenant General E. Kirby Smith to take charge of the entire Trans-Mississippi division, including Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, and some of the territories. In March, 1863, General Smith established headquarters at Shreveport, Louisiana. From this place he directed his forces against the Federal invasion of the district. Battle of Mansfield. — Early in 1864 two Federal forces were ordered against Shreveport. One under General Banks was to operate in Louisiana, and the other under General Steele in Arkansas was to move toward Shreve- port and cooperate with Banks against the position. General Richard Taylor, son of President Taylor, was in command of the Louisiana division of the Confederate army. He was ordered to meet the Federal forces under Banks and prevent their cooperation with General Steele's division. Taylor took a position at Mansfield, Louisiana. Here on April 8, 1864, he defeated Banks's army. Battle of Pleasant Hill. — On the next day, April 9, Taylor renewed his attack by following Banks's army to 362 AMERICAN HISTORY Pleasant Hill, where another battle was fought. Banks with the remainder of his army now withdrew to Alexan- dria, Louisiana. While these events transpired, General Steele with seven thousand men moved south through Arkansas toward Shreveport. On April 25, 1864, General Smith defeated General Steele's forces at Marks' Mill, Arkansas ; and five days later Smith had another success at Jenkins's Ferry (April 30). Steele was obliged to withdraw to Little Rock, Arkansas. This move ended the Red River Campaign. Gen- eral E. Kirby Smith continued the defense of Texas until the close of the war. He was the last Confederate general to surrender. Bragg 's Kentucky Campaign. — After the battles at Shiloh and Corinth, General Beauregard, who was ill, was succeeded by Gen- eral Braxton Bragg. The latter planned a campaign in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee in order to draw the Federal forces from the Mis- sissippi Valley and the southern cotton belt. He did this by suddenly changing the Confederate base. He moved his army rapidly across Tennessee into Kentucky, where Gen- eral Kirby Smith had gained an advantage at Richmond, and planned to take Louisville as a military center. Bragg was hurriedly followed by Buell. The movements of the two armies took the form of a race across the country. General Braxton Bragg. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 363 Buell reached Louisville first and Bragg engaged him in a battle October 8, 1862, at Perryville. Bragg was success- ful and captured a large amount of BuelPs supplies, but he was forced because of inferior numbers to make his way toward Murfreesboro, where his army went into winter quarters. Battle of Murfreesboro. — Buell was now removed. General Rosecrans was placed in command of the eastern division of the Federal army in Tennessee. Rosecrans attempted to follow Bragg' s army into Ten- nessee. On the last day of 1862 he succeeded in beginning a battle near Murfreesboro, on Stone River, which last- ed three days. It was a period of severe fight- ing, and both armies lost many of their forces. After the battle Bragg removed his army far- ther south near Chat- tanooga. With the ex- ception of skirmishes, there were no important engagements taken up until Sep- tember, 1863. In this long period of rest both armies made efforts to recover their organization. Battle of Chickamauga (September 19-20, 1863). — Late in the summer Rosecrans prepared to meet Bragg near Chat- tanooga. On September 19-20, 1863, one of the fiercest engagements of the war took place on Chickamauga Creek just outside of Chattanooga. Lee had sent General Long- street from Virginia to assist Bragg in holding his position. With these forces Bragg dealt a crushing blow to Rose- General George H. Thomas. 3 6 4 AMERICAN HISTORY crans's army and drove the Union forces into the town of Chattanooga. General George H. Thomas, who com- manded the left wing of Rosecrans's army, made a splendid defense of this position. He was repeatedly attacked, and each time he held his ground. Ever afterwards his soldiers called him the " Rock of Chickamauga." The loss of life in this engagement was very great. The Confederates lost nearly twenty thousand men and the Federals upward of seventeen thousand. Bragg now surrounded Chattanooga and held Rosecrans and his forces within the city, almost entirely cut off from sup- plies. The situation now looked desperate. A feeling of alarm spread over the North. Presi- dent Lincoln ordered immediate relief for Chattanooga ; and Gen- erals Hooker, from the army of the Potomac, and Grant and Sherman, from the Mississippi division, were sent to assist Rosecrans. Bragg then sent Longstreet to oppose Burnside, who had taken Knoxville and was also preparing to march toward Chattanooga to assist Rosecrans. This loss of men weakened the Confederate lines and gave the Federal forces an advantage. Grant was made commander of the Tennessee divi- sion of the army ; and, with the same skill and perse- verance that he had shown in the Mississippi campaign, General Joseph E. Johnston. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 365 he now forced open the way for supplies to reach Rosecrans. Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge (No- vember 24-25, 1863). — Just outside of the city Bragg's army occupied a strategic position on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Grant now planned to drive the Confederate forces from this position. Late in Novem- ber he directed Hooker to storm Lookout Mountain. Hooker climbed the mountain by a roundabout path, and, hidden by bushes and trees, he was able to get his soldiers in position before his movements were discovered. Bragg attacked him and here occurred the struggle known as the " Battle above the Clouds." Hooker gained the position and Bragg moved his forces to the Ridge. The next day the battle was resumed, Sherman advanced upon the northern end of the Ridge, and Thomas made a brilliant assault upon the front of the Confederate position. The southern army was driven from the mountain, and Bragg was obliged to withdraw into Georgia, where he surrendered his command to General Joseph E. Johnston. Grant then sent Sherman to relieve Burnside at Knox- ville. From here General Longstreet, who had begun the siege of this city, was forced to withdraw. He returned to Virginia to aid Lee in the defense of Richmond. With the victory at Lookout Mountain, the Federal forces after three years' righting controlled the western lines of defense. THE CAMPAIGNS AGAINST RICHMOND Further Plans against Richmond. — The Federal gov- ernment planned six definite campaigns against Richmond, of which the battle of Manassas, July 21, 1861, was the first. After this attack failed the United States arranged a strong military base at Harper's Ferry. It was in charge 3 66 AMERICAN HISTORY of Generals McClellan and McDowell and was known as the army of the Potomac. Another army was placed at Wheeling, West Virginia, in charge of General Don Carlos Buell. Second Attack against Richmond. Peninsular Campaign (May, 1862). —After the Federal forces secured control of Chesapeake Bay, The Peninsular Cam- paign. the following plan was made to capture Richmond. General McClellan took 120,000 men down the Potomac and landed them on the Yorktown Penin- sula preliminary to an attack on Richmond. He was to be joined by another army under General McDowell which was to move southward from Fredericksburg and attack Richmond from the North. In this way the two armies could meet and effect a complete surrender of the Confederate forces. In the meantime General Joseph E. Johnston brought most of his forces close to Richmond and waited for the attack. A small detachment of the Confederate army, under General Magruder, arranged themselves on the Pen- insula in front of McClellan so skillfully that they gave the THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 367 Robert E. Lee. 368 AMERICAN HISTORY impression of a large army. General McClellan, urging President Lincoln to send him more reinforcements, spent a month getting his army ready to make an attack on Magruder's forces. As soon as the Federal forces threatened, Magruder withdrew and led McClellan into the interior. When they came to the Chickahominy River, the Con- federates crossed ; and a part of McClellan's army followed ; but before the rest could ford the stream heavy floods raised the volume of water so that they were unable to join the forward division. General Johnston took ad- vantage of this situation, and, hastening to the Chicka- hominy River, gave the Union forces battle at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. For two days McClellan was forced into heavy fighting, while he barely saved his army from defeat. Johnston was wounded and obliged to retire and General Robert E. Lee took command. Jackson's Valley Campaign (May and June, 1862). — While McClellan was waiting for McDowell to join him, General " Stonewall " Jackson carried out one of the most brilliant military campaigns of the war. Hearing that McDowell was moving southward, Jackson advanced through the Shenandoah Valley and by a series of quick engagements defeated two Federal armies, the first under General Fremont and the second under General Banks. Other forces were summoned to go into the valley and cap- ture Jackson ; but with the same rapidity that characterized his first engagements, Jackson wheeled about and made other vigorous assaults, defeating Fremont again, and the next day routing a force under General Shields. For a while it looked as if this fearless leader would get between McDowell and Washington and take the capital ; but instead Jackson hurried toward the South and joined Lee in the Seven Days' Battles. In less than six weeks Jackson had marched four hundred miles, fought four regular battles. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 369 engaged in numerous skirmishes, defeated four large armies, captured many supplies, and prevented McDowell from sending 60,000 troops to join McClellan in his attack on Richmond. At no time did Jackson's army number more than fifteen thousand men. When McClellan withdrew to wait for McDowell, Gen- eral Lee marched against the Federal forces and engaged them in a terrible struggle known as the Seven Days' Battles. On the second day a fierce assault was made at Gaines's Mill, in which General Fitz John Porter held the Federal forces in a splendid defense. Shortly after this, McClellan gave orders to shift the plan of the army. Then for four days the Federal forces made their way to the James River followed by the Confederates under Lee and Jackson. The last stand was made at Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. Here the Confederates sustained terrible loss and retired to Richmond ; General McClellan and his forces made their way back to the protection of the Federal gunboats. The loss of the Federals was 23,000 men and that of the Con- federates 27,000. Richmond was saved and the Peninsular Campaign was a failure. The Federal government lost faith in General McClellan and removed him. General Pope was placed in command of the army of the Potomac. Third Attack against Richmond. Second Battle of Manassas. — As soon as Pope took command he re- organized his forces and made a direct march into Virginia toward Richmond. Lee heard of his approach and hurried forward. Jackson carried out another most brilliant plan. Hastening northward, he swept completely around Pope's army, got between him and Washington, and destroyed the Federal supplies at Manassas. Lee was ready with an attack at the front. Pope was surrounded, and another desperate battle took place on the old field of Manassas, or 2B 370 AMERICAN HISTORY Bull Run, August 29-30, 1862. Pope was defeated and was obliged to retreat toward Washington. After this battle the Federal authorities looked about for another commander for the campaigns against Richmond. Lee plans an Invasion of the North. Battle of Antietam. — Early in September, 1862, Lee decided upon a plan of invading the North. He went into Maryland and issued a proclamation asking the people of this state to join the Confederacy. This was not put into effect, and he planned to take his army through the state. He forbade his men to pillage any of the farms or places of supplies and offered to pay the people for provisions for his army, but the farmers refused to accept Confederate money. It was a difficult task to get the necessary supplies. When Lee reached Sharpsburg he had less than 50,000 men in his ranks, while across the Antietam Creek was the army of the Potomac numbering more than 95,000. Jackson had moved northward into Virginia and had captured Harper's Ferry with 12,000 soldiers and army supplies, but even this successful exploit could not help the situation at Sharps- burg. General McClellan was again in command. On the 17th of September the armies met in the battle of Antietam. The Federal forces were twice as many as the Confederates. Although it was a sharply contested field, it was an indeci- sive battle. Lee, after waiting all day for another attack, withdrew and returned to Virginia. If he had defeated the Federal forces and marched on to Washington, the situa- tion would have taken a different aspect ; but with the re- treat toward Virginia came the Confederate plans for another defense of Richmond. Fourth Attack upon Richmond. Fredericksburg. — Al- though Antietam was claimed as a Union victory, McClellan was blamed for not following Lee's army into Virginia and making another attack before the Confederate forces could THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 371 make their way toward Richmond. He was relieved of his command. Next General Ambrose E. Burnside was placed in charge of the army. Burnside eagerly and vigor- ously pushed forward into Virginia to make up for McClel- lan's hesitation. Lee's army was located in Fredericksburg, where, on December 13, 1862, Burnside madea bold attack to storm the heights. This was one of the most futile ef- forts of the war. Burn- side arranged his army with great care, and over and over again did these forces throw themselves against the Confederate lines, but all without effect. The Federals were forced back several times and at last Burn- side's men urged him to withdraw from the field. After great slaughter the Federal forces finally gave up and made their way across the Rap- pahannock. Once again Lee and his army held the defenses north of Richmond. The armies were greatly shattered by the last campaign. They now went into winter quarters and planned to recover their organization. General Joseph E. Hooker, one of the most superior officers of the Federal army, was placed in command of the Union forces ; and for months he carefully arranged his corps and made preparations for an attack in the spring. Fifth Campaign against Richmond. Chancellor sville General Ambrose E. Burnside. 372 AMERICAN HISTORY (May 2- j, 1863) . — Lee and the army of Northern Virginia encamped near Chancellorsville on the Rappahannock. Hooker was both aggressive and fearless in his plans. During April, he gathered about him one of the largest armies that the Federal government had placed in the field, and with stern determination endeavored to get around Lee's army by marching up the banks of the Rappahannock River. His army numbered upward of 130,000 men, and Lee's forces were be- tween 50,000 and 65,000 men. Lee sent Jackson forward to engage the rear of Hooker's army while he planned to make an attack from the front. With the same intrepid boldness that had characterized all his other attacks, Jackson now hastened forward and by a flank- ing march reached the rear of the Federal army and threw the soldiers into confusion. The General Joseph E. Hooker. disorganization was effective, and while Lee made the attack from the front the vast army, so outnumbering its oppo- nents, was defeated with great loss. Hooker himself was stunned by a cannon ball and for a time was unable to give out commands. In this way part of his forces were never brought into active service. This was one of the most serious battles of the war, and the loss of life on both sides amounted to thirty thousand men. Death of General Jackson. — Brilliant as the victory of Chancellorsville was for the South, yet the Confederate THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 373 army sustained a tremendous loss in the death of General Stonewall Jackson. After reconnoitering for his army, Jackson rode back in the darkness toward the Confederate camp ; and on his way he was mistaken by his own men for the enemy and was shot. The wound proved serious and within the week he died. When General Lee heard of this great disaster he wept and declared to his men that he had indeed lost his right arm. The whole South mourned General Jackson's loss, and the soldiers felt that one of their greatest sup- ports had been taken away. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863.— While the Confederate forces in Virginia were suc- ceeding in their defense of Richmond, the west- ern lines of defense were being broken, and the Union armies were clos- ing around the southern sources of supplies. In order to attract the Fed- erals from that section of country and thus relieve the pressure, Lee planned another invasion of the North. He took his army into Pennsylvania and was followed by the army of the Potomac under General George G. Meade, who had succeeded General Hooker at the latter's request. General Meade was an able soldier, who had taken an active part in the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. On July 1 the forward columns of both Lee's and Meade's armies met in battle at Gettysburg where fighting went on General ( Meade. 374 AMERICAN HISTORY all day. Two divisions of the Federal army were defeated. The others were forced back from the field through the town of Gettysburg. The armies now arranged themselves outside of the town on two long ridges that faced each other. The Federals were to the southwest on Cemetery Hill, while the Con- federates occupied Seminary Ridge. Intrenchments were thrown up. From this position the armies faced the guns of each other and most of the righting was done on the side lines. Finally on the third day Lee determined to storm " Little Round Top," one of the Federal strongholds. This position was held by General Winfield Scott Hancock, whose forces were se- curely intrenched behind a stone wall and embankments of earth- works. If this position could be taken and the army dislodged, a Confederate victory might be pos- sible. It was a desperate under- taking and Lee hesitated before putting it into effect. Generals Pickett, Pettigrew, and Trimble answered the call to lead the way, and fifteen thousand men came forward and cheer- fully offered themselves to almost certain death. With their colors flying the lines of gray, with military precision, moved forward down Seminary Ridge, to Ceme- tery Heights, a mile away. It was one of the most thrilling incidents of the war. Both armies watched with admira- tion as these brave men moved steadily down one hill and up the other. Charge after charge from the Federal cannons roared down into their midst, and the ranks began to grow thin, but with the most wonderful poise the uninjured closed in shoulder to shoulder, and without dismay charged sSN J \# | V *} $* ^SMs^T**^ 7 7 Hi T // Jlji§lAtU Round Top~) SOHMAV.N.Y. §$RouJd Top L_ Gettysburg Battlefield Last Day. Union forces = Confederate forces THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 375 forward to the top of the hill. Hundreds perished in this daring undertaking, but some of the remnant managed to get over the ramparts and engage in a hand-to-hand en- counter. The effort was futile, however, and the remainder of the brave company turned back and slowly made its way to the Confederate lines. The loss of life at Gettysburg was very great. It was estimated that forty-three thousand men were lost on both sides. Lee took his forces back into Virginia and during the rest of the year the active fighting between the army of the Potomac and that of Northern Virginia ceased. In the fall of this year the field of Gettysburg was dedi- cated as a national cemetery, and President Lincoln made his memorable address that stands as one of the most nearly perfect of speeches in all the range of English literature. IMPORTANT NATIONAL QUESTIONS The Emancipation Proclamation. — Shortly after war was declared, Congress passed a law declaring that slaves were to be confiscated in all states that were on the Con- federate side. To many people in the North, this seemed the right plan of emancipating the negroes, and the idea grew as time went on. President Lincoln was frequently urged to" carry out this plan, but he insisted that the Con- stitution did not delegate to him the right to interfere with the institution of slavery in states where it already existed. As the war progressed the President came to the con- clusion that the Confederate army was being supplied with food that was raised by the slaves, and as a war measure he contemplated setting the negroes free. So many of the white men of the South were on the battlefield that if the negro farm hands were released from labor, there would follow a condition that would necessitate the surrender of the Confederate forces. 376 AMERICAN HISTORY In March, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation encour- aging all of the loyal states to free their slaves, as the gov- ernment would pay for them. This was not done, and in the fall of 1862 Lincoln issued a warning that all persons held in slavery in any state, or part of a state, that was still in arms against the United States on January 1, 1863, would then be free. On January 1, 1863, he issued another proclamation declaring that " all persons held as slaves in any state, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall then, thenceforward and forever be free." This measure was entirely a war measure. It did not go into effect in any of the neutral states, and was put into effect only where the Union army was in control in the seceded states. Conscription Law. — At the opening of the war both armies were made up of volunteers who offered their serv- ices to their country. As the war went on the loss of life so depleted the ranks that it became necessary to pass conscription laws requiring all able-bodied men between certain ages to serve in the army. In the South, the need for soldiers became so great that recruits were made from the ranks of old men as well as mere youths. This was one of the greatest vicissitudes of the war. Draft Law. — In 1863 the Federal government also felt the need to recruit its ranks by compulsory military aid. The method used was known as drafting. Under this system a certain number of names of citizens was chosen, and the government drew lots as to who should go to the front. While the great engagement at Gettysburg was taking place, this plan of conscription was going on in New York City. It was bitterly opposed by many of the citi- zens, and in July a riot occurred in which upward of a thousand persons were killed and more than a million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. Cost of the War. — Besides the great loss of life on both THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 377 sides, the cost of the war was enormous. In 1864, the Federal government was spending more than three million dollars per day in continuing the struggle, while the entire South was taxed to the utmost to sustain its part in the struggle. The invasions of the South had caused great hardship, and the country was becoming more and more impoverished. The North was more fortunate in this respect, and with its farms unmolested and its cities free from military dangers, the opportunities for making a live- lihood were practically secure. Presidential Election. — In 1864, with the increased cost of the war, loss of life, and " draft " acts, came a period of grave discontent in the North. This led to divisions among the political parties, and new factions were formed which stirred up agitation against the government. Among these factions was a division of the Republican Party known as the Radicals. These men were dissatisfied with the war policy and gave their support to General John C. Fremont. Fremont declined to lead the party, and the opportunity for its principles to dominate was lost. Many northern Democrats opposed the President's war policy and, in their convention in Chicago, they declared that the four years of war for the Union had been a failure and that peace ought to be made. They further asserted in regard to the President's emancipation policy, that " the war was changed from one for the preservation of the Union to one for freeing the slaves." They selected as their candidate, General George B. McClellan. The National Union Party renominated President Lincoln and indorsed the President's policies during the past four years. The election was unanimously in favor of Lincoln. He received four hundred thousand more votes than McClellan. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was chosen Vice President. Hampton Roads Peace Conference. — As the great struggle went on, many persons both North and South 378 AMERICAN HISTORY earnestly desired peace. This sentiment grew until ar- rangements were made whereby a meeting of representa- tives of both sides could be held to discuss the question. In February, 1865, a conference was held on board a steamer in Hampton Roads. The peace commissioners from the South were Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Con- federacy, John A. Campbell, and R. M. T. Hunter. Presi- dent Lincoln and Secretary Seward represented the North. The meeting lasted for four hours and was harmonious in its proceedings. Mr. Stephens suggested that it might be well for the sections to arrange an armistice in order jointly to assert the Monroe Doctrine in Mexico, where France had stationed an army to support Maximilian in his control of Mexico. Mr. Stephens argued that the joint efforts of both governments to maintain these American principles would perhaps tend toward reconciliation and that, during the period of cessation from hostilities, the heated passions of both sides would abate and a kindlier feeling be kindled. Mr. Lincoln felt that he could not recognize the Confederacy in the position mentioned, and declared that he most earnestly desired peace, but that it could come only through a willingness on the part of the South to come under the rule of the Union and that the abolition of slavery should be officially recognized. Although the South was sorely affected by the heavy blockade, the great loss of life, and the dire poverty of its people ; yet the principle of self- government and the determination to be free from the domination of Federal rule was still so strong that the proposals of President Lincoln could not be accepted, and the war moved on into the year 1865. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR Grant becomes Lieutenant General of the Army. — Conditions in Virginia had become more and more dis- THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 379 couraging to the Federal army. The North was indignant at the " inefficiency," as it was called, of the commanders of the army of the Potomac. President Lincoln was criticized for his selection of generals for the Virginia cam- paigns. He had found great difficulty in choosing a man for the head of the army that would please the soldiers and the public at the same time. There was no one in the Union ranks who had been more success- ful in carrying out mili- tary plans than General Grant, and finally the President determined to trust Grant with full control of the United States army with the rank of Lieutenant Gen- eral. This title had been given only to Washington and Scott. Grant was in Tennessee when he was called to fill the position. He promptly set to work to carry out plans that would probably bring the war to a close. Plans against Atlanta. — General Grant now determined to begin what he termed " a hammering campaign." He was to go into Virginia and steadily attack Lee's army of Northern Virginia, while Sherman was to make his way to Atlanta and thence to Charleston and Savannah, to destroy the Confederate sources of supplies. Thomas and Burnside were left to control Kentucky and Tennessee. The Attack on Atlanta. — Atlanta was now second in General U. S. Grant. 3 8o AMERICAN HISTORY importance only to Richmond. It contained factories and foundries and was one of the few places in the Confederacy that could furnish supplies to the southern army. To capture this city would be a heavy blow to the Confederacy, and would mean much toward defeating Lee in Virginia. The defense of Georgia was in the hands of General Joseph E. Johnston. General Johnston was one of the most effi- cient officers in the Con- federate army. His military genius com- pared well with Lee's. His skill in foiling the enemy and conducting retreats saved his army from a number of dis- asters. The district that he was now defending was one of the last avail- able sources of supplies for the Confederate army. Johnston's forces were very few and it was impossible for any reinforcements to be sent to him. He held a position at Dalton, Georgia, with a force of sixty-five thousand men. Sherman, with an army of one hundred and twelve thou- sand men, left Tennessee and started toward the South. He ordered the army of the Cumberland, a force equal to Johnston's entire army, to advance and make an attack from the front. He then sent the army of the Ohio and that of the Tennessee to close in on the sides of Johnston's forces and if possible get in the rear of his ranks. This plan would have surrounded this division of the Confederate army and separated it from the rest of the defense. Not General William T. Sherman. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 381 only would it force the surrender of these men, but it would also cut off Lee's source of supplies from the South. The situation was desperate. Johnston realized the danger and by a series of movements delayed the advance of Sher- man's divisions and prevented an open battle. As the Federal forces began their flanking movement Johnston fell back to Resaca, Georgia, where on May 14 and 15 hard righting ensued. Sherman again moved toward the rear of the Confederate army and Johnston fell back to Dallas, Georgia, where three battles were fought near New Hope Church on May 25, 27, and 28, 1864. Johnston now took a position on Kennesaw Mountain, and here, on June 27, the Federals made a vigorous assault but were driven back with severe losses. Sherman rearranged his forces and again began a flanking movement against the Confederate army. Johnston retired to Atlanta and prepared to fortify this city against Sherman's oncoming forces. These events greatly discouraged the South, and the Confederate gov- ernment, disappointed because the Federal forces had pene- trated so far into the interior, removed Johnston and gave his command to General John B. Hood. Hood's Tactics. — The Union army appeared before Atlanta just as General Hood took command of the city. He immediately began a vigorous aggressive campaign. With every movement of Sherman's army Hood made an attack. Three battles took place near Atlanta which de- layed the plans of Sherman. They were Peachtree Creek, July 20; Atlanta, July 22; and Ezra Church, July 2s; but these did not save the city. Sherman managed to get control of the railroad that brought -supplies to Hood's army, and after an attempt to regain control of the railroad, Hood was obliged to leave Atlanta and the Federal forces occupied the city. Hood now planned to attract Sherman from further in- vasion of the South by going northward toward Chattanooga. 382 AMERICAN HISTORY He succeeded in gaining control of the Chattanooga Rail- road over which Sherman obtained his supplies, but Sher- man did not follow. Instead he trusted to the Union forces in Tennessee to withstand Hood's aggressive policy. Hood continued his northward journey, hoping that he might defeat the Federal forces in Tennessee, then move over into Virginia, and aid Lee in his opposition to Grant. General Thomas, who was in command of Tennessee, had opened a military base in Nashville. This was supported Sherman's March. by an army under General John M. Schofield, a former classmate of Hood's at West Point. As Schofield's army was moving toward Nashville it was overtaken at Franklin, November 30, 1864, by Hood. Here a hard-fought battle took place, with great losses on both sides but without definite advantage. The Federals moved on toward Nash- ville, and Hood followed to the suburbs of the city. Thomas was now reenforced, and with an army of fifty- four thousand defeated Hood's force of thirty-five thousand THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 383 men and forced the remnant to withdraw into Mississippi where they went into winter quarters. Hood now resigned from his position, and General Johnston was again placed in command. Sherman's March and Raid. — After destroying most of Atlanta, Sherman with his army of sixty thousand troops started out on a march to the sea that swept through the country for a width of more than forty miles. Towns were overrun. Public buildings, mills, houses, and barns were burned. Agriculture and manufacturing were destroyed. Railroads were totally destroyed by wrecking the engines, burning the cars, and heating and twisting the rails into useless iron. The devastation was complete and extended through the heart of the most fertile region of the South. It was estimated that upward of one hundred and twenty millions of dollars' worth of property was lost. The South to this day has not recovered from the injury committed during this terrible march. Grant in Virginia. — As these events were taking place in the South, Grant moved into Virginia and planned an attack against Richmond. With an army of one hundred and twenty thousand experienced soldiers, Grant crossed the Rapid an River and met Lee in a woodland thicket called the " Wilderness." Lee had a force of sixty thou- sand men. For two days the armies fought in detached squads without either side's gaining an advantage. Grant now determined to approach Richmond and made a flank- ing march toward Spottsylvania Court House. Here he was faced by Lee and for several days hard lighting went on with heavy losses, but Grant failed to dislodge Lee from his position. This was in May, 1864, and at this time Grant sent a dispatch to Halleck in which he declared, " I propose to fight it out on this line (the bloody angle) if it takes me all summer." This determined soldier now made another flanking r,. E' '.;'.,. .N N C, Y L V A N V /l ''" l '' 1 "-'X"o J X'ooo>S> ; ooV'lH-tt\sl.ur S \ i^*^^rii ■■■> 4 SCALE OF MILES 10 20 30 40 N O R T H WILLIAMS ENGRAV'NG CO., N.Y. Virginia Campaigns, 1862-1865. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 385 march toward Cold Harbor and again made a heavy assault against the Confederate intrenchments. Here he failed. Then his great losses caused profound disappointment through the North, for in less than two months he had lost more than fifty thousand men in the Virginia campaign. The futility of the fighting and the apparently never ending disasters were causes of grave discontent. Grant now took his army across the James River and began an attack upon Petersburg. Here a siege was begun that lasted for months. Final Attack upon Washington. — In order to relieve this desperate situation, Lee sent General Early with nearly 20,000 men into the Shenandoah Valley to attack Wash- ington. Early managed to outwit the Federal forces de- fending the city and soon came within the very limits of the national capital. The whole city was thrown into a state of alarm, and Grant hurriedly sent aid to the city, but Early slipped back through the valley, bringing with him timely supplies for Lee's impoverished army. Third Invasion of the North. — The Confederate forces were so encouraged by this success that they made another attempt to invade the North. Pennsylvania was entered and Chambersburg was burned, but nothing really came of the plan. Sheridan's Ride through the Valley. — Realizing that the Shenandoah Valley was the main source of supplies for the army of Northern Virginia, General Grant sent Sheri- dan into the valley to destroy all supplies and limit the resources of the army. With the same spirit of complete devastation that prompted Sherman's march through Georgia, Sheridan raided the beautiful Shenandoah Valley. Houses, mills, barns, and grain were destroyed. Cattle were driven ahead of the army, and so little food was left that the inhabitants suffered greatly. Sheridan himself remarked after the 386 AMERICAN HISTORY ride, " A crow will have to carry his rations if he flies over the Valley." As this was going on, Early returned and defeated a Federal army at Cedar Creek. Sheridan, hear- ing the noise of the artillery, hurried to the scene and forced the Confederate troops to retreat. He then went toward the east and destroyed, within a few miles of Richmond, the railroad running from Lynchburg toward Richmond, so that Lee would be cut off from supplies from that direc- tion. Sheridan then joined Grant in the siege at Petersburg. He so arranged his forces that it was impossible for John- ston to render Lee any aid from the South. On April 2, 1865, Lee withdrew from Petersburg and Richmond. During the evening President Davis and the other ofhcers of the Confederate government gathered up their state papers and made their way toward the South. Richmond was set on fire, and that night the capital of the Con- federacy fell into the hands of the Federal forces. The Surrender at Appomattox. — For three days the Union army pursued the last weary remnant of Lee's army. Without food, without munitions of war, without any possible hope of aid from anywhere, the last of the army of Northern Virginia with their faithful commander laid down their arms at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. General Grant allowed the men to keep their swords, horses, and baggage, and forbade any salutes to be fired in honor of the surrender. He then generously sup- plied Lee's men with food from his own commissary. A few days later General Johnston surrendered to Sherman near Durham, North Carolina, and in the next month General Kirby Smith surrendered his army in Texas to General Canby. The war was now over and the weary, impoverished soldiers of the " lost cause " made their way to their respective homes, while the tired Union soldiers gathered in Washington for a final review. For two days THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 387 the ranks filed through Washington city on their way home, and it was estimated that upward of a million soldiers were reviewed by President Lincoln. Arrest of President Davis. — At the close of the war President Jefferson Davis was arrested in southern Georgia on charge of treason. He was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years and finally released on bail. Topical Outline War Between the States. I. Neutrality of the Border States. 1. Maryland. 2. Struggle in Missouri. 3. West Virginia Organized. II. Comparative Strength of the Opponents. III. Theater of the' War. 1. Atlantic Seaboard. 2. Middle West. 3. Mississippi Valley. IV. Lines of Defense of the South. V. Plans of Federal Government. 1. Federal Plan to Blockade Southern Ports. a. No Navy in South. b. Importance of Cotton Exportations. c. Atlantic Coast Blockade Begun. d. New Orleans Taken. e. The Florida and the Alabama. f. The Virginia and the Monitor. g. Effects of Blockade. 2. Plan to Break the W r estern Lines of Defense. a. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. b. Battles of Shiloh. c. Capture of Island No. 10. 3. The Control of the Mississippi. a. Beginning of the Third Campaign. b. Grant's Mississippi Campaign. c. Siege of Vicksburg. d. Red River Campaign. a. Battle of Mansfield. b. Battle of Pleasant Hill. 388 AMERICAN HISTORY 4. Along the Western Line of Defense. a. Bragg's Kentucky Campaign. b. Battle of Murfreesboro. c. Battle of Chickamauga. d. Battle of Lookout Mountain. 5. The Campaigns against Richmond. a. Battle of Manassas. b. Peninsular Campaign — Jackson's Valley Campaign. c. Second Battle of Manassas. Lee Plans Invasion of North. d. Battle of Fredericksburg. e. Battle of Chancellorsville. Death of General Jackson. /. Battle of Gettysburg. VI. Important National Questions. 1. Emancipation Proclamation. 2. Conscription Law. 3. Draft Act. 4. Cost of War. 5. Presidential Election. 6. Hampton Roads Peace Conference. VII. Close of War. 1. Grant Becomes Lieutenant General. 2. Plans Against Atlanta. 3. Hood's Tactics. 4. Sherman's March and Raid. 5. Grant in Virginia. 6. Early Threatens Washington. 7. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. 8. The Surrender of Appomattox. 9. Arrest of President Davis. Review Questions 1. What states desired to remain neutral? Give an account of their struggles. 2. Compare the North and the South in regard to numbers, or- ganization, resources, foreign influence. 3. Describe the theater of the war. 4. What defenses were prepared by the South ? 5. State clearly the Federal plan for subduing the Confederacy. 6. Discuss one of these topics : Importance of Cotton Trade, Capture of New Orleans, The Work of the Alabama, The Struggle between the Virginia and the Monitor, The Effect of the Blockade. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 389 7. How was the first western line of defense broken? 8. Describe the siege of Vicksburg. 9. Give an account of the Red River campaign, noting its effect. 10. What was the object of Bragg's Kentucky campaign? 11. Describe the engagements around Chattanooga. 12. How many campaigns were planned against Richmond? 13. Describe the Peninsular campaign. 14. Give an account of Jackson's valley campaign. 15. Why did General Lee plan an invasion of the North? What was the effect ? 16. Describe the battle of Chancellorsville. What great loss did the Confederates sustain at this time? 17. Why is the battle of Gettysburg considered one of the most important of the war ? 18. Describe Pickett's charge. 19. Under what circumstances did President Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclamation? 20. What efforts were made to recruit both armies? 21. What was the Hampton Roads Peace Conference? 22. What Federal officer was promoted to the position of lieuten- ant general ? Why ? 23. What were the Federal plans in 1864? 24. Describe Hood's tactics. 25. What were the effects of Sherman's march to the sea? 26. Describe Grant's campaign in Virginia. 27. Give an account of the surrender at Appomattox. References Gilman : Robert E. Lee (True Story Series). Trent : Robert E. Lee (The Beacon Biographies). Hart : Source Book of American History, Vol. IV. The Romance of the Civil War. Hapgood : Abraham Lincoln. CHAPTER XXIII CONDITIONS AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR The South at the Close of the War. — The conditions in the South at the close of the war were deplorable. For the most part all the righting had been done on southern soil. The damage due to bombardments and to invasions of soldiers was enormous. Public buildings and private homes, churches and schools, had been destroyed. Rail- roads and their equipment had been wrecked. Steamboat transportation was crippled by the worn condition of boats which the owners were too poor to repair. Gins and ware- houses were out of commission, and merchants in towns and cities failed, while business was in a state of collapse. There was no capital, no money to revive the old lines of trade nor to put new plans in operation. Land was reduced to one half its value, and the wealthy southerners were ren- dered poor by the worthlessness of Confederate money. In the same proportion, the entire population suffered from the financial depression. In many instances, homes and plantations were sold for taxes, the owners being unable to pay the sums. The entire white population of army age had been enlisted in the fighting ranks, and at the close of the conflict more than one third of these had been killed or incapacitated. While the loss of life on both sides was nearly equal, the proportionate loss was far greater in the South because its population was much smaller. The most highly educated 390 CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 391 and representative men of the South had gone forth and laid down their lives in the struggle. This sacrifice had an effect of far-reaching influence. The emancipation of the negroes caused a complete upheaval in all the agricultural districts. The old plantation system, that had been the most lucrative of all of the southern industries, was rendered useless until labor conditions could be readjusted. The Lincoln Appropriation. — President Lincoln had foreseen these conditions, and he realized the great distress upon the southern states in the matter of poverty. He saw how this poverty would be increased by the large numbers of recently emancipated slaves who had nothing but their meager knowledge of labor to stand between them and the vicissitudes of life. As early as February, 1865, Lincoln proposed to help the South by asking Congress to appropriate four hundred million dollars to be paid the southern states, provided war should cease by April 1, 1865. Congress refused to take up this plan and the matter was dropped. The atti- tude of Congress was a great disappointment to the Presi- dent. In his last public address he said : "It may be my duty to make some new announcement to the people of the South. I am considering and shall not fail to act when action will be proper." Beginning of Reconstruction. — Before Lee made his surrender, President Lincoln began the plan for restoring the Union. Throughout his administration he had stead- fastly considered his office of President of the United States to cover the entire country, North and South. He had refused to acknowledge the Confederate government. Although he worked toward the end of restoring the Union, he held aloof from all sectional feelings. Lincoln's Plan. — Lincoln's idea of reconstruction was to establish provisional governments in the seceded states until the states would lay down their arms and accept the 392 AMERICAN HISTORY oath of allegiance to the United States government. Where the Federal troops were in control, President Lincoln had taken steps to readjust the political relations with these states by issuing a proclamation of amnesty by which he pledged himself to pardon all persons (with a few excep- tions) who would take an oath " to support, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States and all acts of Congress, including the Emancipation Proclamation." He further promised that when the voters in any sta te taking this oath were not less than one tenth of the number who had voted in the presidential election of i860, they might set up a state government and elect members of Congress. Congress's Attitude. — The states of Tennessee, Louisi- ana, and Arkansas accepted these terms and held elections and prepared to reenter the Union ; but Congress refused to accept their electors. This brought about a disagreement between the President and that body on the ground that Lincoln refused to accept the reconstruction plan of Con- gress, which was to consider the southern states as con- quered territory to be divided and governed as Congress should define. Division of the Republicans. — The question brought out very bitter sectional feelings on the part of the National Republic Party, and before it could be settled there was a division in its ranks, and those members supporting the President's policy became known as the Liberal Republicans, while those favoring the Congressional plan were called the Radicals. But an unfortunate event occurred which rendered the situation even more serious than before. The Assassination of President Lincoln. — While peace was being restored and the return of soldiers to their homes brought a sense of thankfulness into the hearts of the people, North and South, a great calamity fell upon the country that caused profound sorrow throughout the land. This was the assassination of President Lincoln by a fanatic CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 393 named John Wilkes Booth. When the President was at- tending a performance in Ford's Theater in Washington, about ten o'clock in the evening Booth, who was an actor, slipped into the box where the President was seated and shot him. It was a most cowardly act and shocked the entire nation. The President died the next morning. Booth was shot twelve days later in a barn near Fredericks- burg, while trying to make his escape. On the same evening that the President was shot, an attempt was made on the life of Secretary Seward, but this was not effective. The accomplices in the assassination of the President were brought to trial and convicted. The death of the President was a distinct loss to all of the people. His ideas were so just, his aims so direct, and his sympathy so sure that the entire country lost a great guide and counselor. FOREIGN NEGOTIATIONS Trent Affair. — In the early part of the war, the Con- federate government sent James M. Mason, of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, as Commissioners to England to treat with that government concerning neutrality. They managed to get through the blockade and reached Havana, where they took passage on the English steamer Trent. The vessel was stopped between Cuba and the island of St. Thomas by the United States cruiser San Jacinto. The captain of the latter ordered the surrender of Mason and Slidell as prisoners of war, and took them to Fort W r arren in Boston harbor. The matter was reported to the English government and a feeling of hot indignation arose over the incident. England demanded their release, and for a little while it looked as if a breach might occur between Great Britain and the United States. The United States agreed then that Mason and Slidell were passengers 394 AMERICAN HISTORY on the Trent and as such had the protection of the English government and accordingly released them. Settlement of Claims. — Shortly after the war a number of issues between England and the United States required settlement, but the United States was not willing to take up these questions until Great Britain should make some reparation for the damages done to Federal commerce by the Confederate cruiser Alabama, which had been built and equipped in England. After some delay, commissioners of both countries met in Washington in 1871 to settle the controversies then pending. The boundary between British America and Washington territory was in dispute, and this was satisfactorily settled. The right of American fishermen in Canadian waters was also adjusted, and the Alabama claims were opened, with the result that the question was referred to a Board of Arbitration which met in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1872. At this tribunal, the United States was awarded damages amounting to fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars, which England later paid. Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. — While the war between the states was going on, a revolution took place in Mexico, and in the midst of the political turmoil, France came forward and assisted Maximilian, the Arch Duke of Austria, to secure control of the government in Mexico. The Mexican government was heavily in debt to France, so there was little resistance to the French army that came into Mexico to secure the claim of Maximilian. President Lincoln had observed the situation with grave concern, but was so occupied with the affairs in the United States that he was unable to give his attention to the Mexican question. It was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Before President Lincoln could remonstrate with the contending powers, he was assassinated. President Johnson took up the matter and requested France to CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 395 remove her soldiers. He also sent General Sheridan to the Mexican border with a number of troops to watch the situation. France took the suggestion and recalled her army. The Mexicans then deposed Maximilian and tried him for treason. He was later executed in Mexico City (1867). Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 the United States govern- ment made negotiations with Russia for the purchase of Alaska. The territory included more than five hundred seventy-five thousand square miles. The land was espe- cially valuable because of the seal fisheries, which abounded along its shores. It was advantageous for the United States to secure this district as it controlled the north Pacific Ocean, and its occupation by a foreign nation might prove a menace to the United States. Its ownership by the United States made the enforcement of the Monroe Doc- trine more certain. The price paid for Alaska was seven million two hundred thousand dollars. At the time of the purchase this amount was thought to be a very high price for a barren, frozen district, as it was described. Since its acquisition, it has greatly enriched the United States by the dis- covery of valuable mines of gold and coal. The seal fisheries have continued to be a lucrative trade and the investment has paid for itself several times. Topical Outline Conditions in South at the Close of War. I. The Lincoln Appropriation. II. President Lincoln's Plan for Reconstruction. III. Assassination of Lincoln. IV. Foreign Negotiations. 1. Trent Affair. 2. Alabama Claims. 3. Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. 4. Purchase of Alaska. 396 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. Describe the conditions in the South at the close of the war: (a) As to the condition of homes, churches, and schools ; (b) As to the condition of railroad lines and steamship lines ; (c) As to agriculture, manufacturing, and trade ; (d) As to laborers to carry on the industries ; (e) As to capital to build new industries. 2. Describe the conditions in the North at the close of the war. 3. What was the Lincoln appropriation? 4. How do you think the South would have received Mr. Lincoln's proposal of this appropriation ? 5. What was President Lincoln's plan for reconstruction? 6. Give an account of the assassination of President Lincoln. 7. How do you think the assassination of President Lincoln affected the reconstruction of the South ? 8. How did the people of the whole country feel about the assas- sination of President Lincoln? 9. Discuss the following topics : Trent Affair, Alabama Claims, Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine, The Purchase of Alaska. References Foster : A Century of Diplomacy. Dans : Rise and Fall of the Confederacy. Wilson : Division and Reunion. Fleming : Documentary History. Coman : Industrial History of the United States. The South in the Building of the Nation. CHAPTER XXIV RECONSTRUCTION Vice President Johnson and his Plans. — Upon the death of President Lincoln, Vice President Johnson took up the office of the Chief Executive. Like Lincoln, Johnson was a self-made man of the people. He had risen to the high posi- tion which he had oc- cupied through energy and strong determina- tion. He lacked Lin- coln's wisdom and tact, and was bold and self- assertive in his manner. This period was, per- haps, the most critical in American history and required a man with clearness of aim, sincer- ity in method, and a shrewd knowledge of men to cope with the problems of the hour. Johnson was born and reared in the South ; and, although he was consistently a Union man, a non-slaveholder, and entirely in sympathy with Lincoln's plans, yet his position was difficult. If Lincoln had lived, he perhaps could have 397 Andrew Johnson. 398 AMERICAN HISTORY brought Congress to his point of view in regard to recon- struction, but with Johnson the situation was more un- certain. Congress was not in session when Johnson was inaugurated. Without waiting for further advice, the new President began to set in motion his plans in the South. Amnesty Proclamation. — He issued an Amnesty Proc- lamation similar to that of Lincoln's and offered full citizen- ship to all ex-Confederates who would take the oath of allegiance to the United States. High officials and all persons who had left the service of the United States to serve under the Confederate government were excepted, but these might have their rights restored to them by mak- ing personal application to the President. Organizing State Governments. — Johnson appointed provisional governors in all of the southern states and re- quested them to call, for the purpose of organizing state governments, conventions of those citizens who had taken the oath of allegiance. This was promptly done. Many ex-Confederates accepted the plan and immediately began to organize state governments that would be acceptable to the United States Congress. In many of the states the Thirteenth Amendment, which legally abolished slavery, was ratified. By this act the amendment became a law. The Attitude of Congress toward the South. — With the close of 1865, an tne southern states, except Texas, had adopted reconstruction measures and were recognized by the President. In December of this year these states sent their delegates to Washington to be admitted into Congress, but a very different situation met the southern delegation. When Congress convened, it promptly re- jected Johnson's plan and refused to admit either senators or representatives into Congress. Moreover, this august body appointed a joint committee from both houses to take up the plan of reconstruction, and to decide all ques- tions concerning the admission of the states. RECONSTRUCTION 399 The factions that had come into existence just before the death of President Lincoln now began to work against each other, but the extreme Radicals were in a majority in Congress and their policy was put into effect. Congressional Plan of Reconstruction. — The South was to be divided into five military districts. Military rule was then to be established. Under this new regime all rights of citizenship were withheld from any one who had taken part in the defense of the Confederacy. The negroes were given full rights of suffrage. And all debts incurred by the Confederate states were to be repudiated. The result of this was a heated controversy between the President and Congress. The latter, led by Thaddeus Stevens, an extreme Radical from Pennsylvania, succeeded in passing a number of measures in Congress, among which were the " Civil Rights " bill, giving negroes full citizen- ship, and another bill providing that Congress should control the Freedmen's Bureau. The President vetoed these meas- ures, and Congress passed them over the President's veto. Johnson grew indignant, and he made many vigorous pro- tests against this method. The people in both sections of the country were alarmed lest another civil war might ensue. Fourteenth Amendment. — The most extreme act passed by this Congress was the Fourteenth Amendment. Its important features were : First, the negroes were declared citizens of the United States. Second, representation was apportioned according to their re- spective numbers. Third, the ex-Confederates who had borne arms against the United States were denied the right to hold office. Fourth, the debt incurred by the United States during the war should not be questioned, and the debt incurred by the Confederate states should be considered illegal and void. President Johnson sent an urgent message to Congress asking that the amendment be set aside ; but Congress 400 AMERICAN HISTORY ignored the request, at once passed the act, and proceeded to take up the work of reconstruction. States were notified that if they would accept the Fourteenth Amendment and ratify the same they would then be admitted into the Union. Tennessee was dominated by Radicals who ac- cepted this proposition ; and, under these circumstances, this state was readmitted by a joint resolution of Congress. When Congress adjourned, President Johnson took his cause before the people. He made a tour of the country, and in violent and abusive language denounced Congress. He was no respecter of persons. His criticisms were so bitter and so extreme that he injured his cause. Many persons who were strongly opposed to the general plans of Congress became more lenient toward this national body because of Johnson's personality. Congress also brought its cause before the people. In the fall elections many of its members were returned to Washington. The Radicals again dominated the country. In order to carry out their plan, a number of office seekers from the North made their way into the South. In most instances these were unscrupulous, untrained men whose sole belongings could be carried in a carpetbag, and whose only purpose of coming into the South was to gain a good position under the government. They held themselves in office by the negro vote, and rewarded the negroes by giv- ing to them certain minor offices and general support. Freedmen's Bureau. — At this time there were es- tablished certain offices where unemployed and indigent negroes might obtain employment and support. These were known as the " Freedmen's Bureau." In some in- stances these proved a source of real help to the negroes ; but in many cases the aid was abused, as the negroes imagined that these stations of supplies were perpetual, that no one really needed to work, and that all that was necessary was to apply for food and clothing and the sup- RECONSTRUCTION 401 ply would be forthcoming. Hundreds of negroes drifted into towns and cities where these centers were located. The sad result was the demoralization of the race. They grew idle, shiftless, became the tools of unscrupulous politicians, and fell into all sorts of temptations. They became insolent and many degenerated into criminals. The very promoters of the plan of aiding these needy people began to realize the evil effects. In the course of time they abandoned it and began a more reasonable and uplifting method of helping the negroes. Many generous persons gave liberally for the support of schools for the education of the negro, and Home Mission societies of various Protestant denominations in the North collected large sums for this purpose. " Carpetbag Rule." — The era that came into effect with the Congressional plan of reconstruction in the South was as direful as the war. " The Carpetbaggers," as the officials were called, levied and collected exorbitant taxes. Without regard, they sold property after property for taxes and brought the people into greater poverty than before. The moneys thus collected were squandered in the most reckless fashion. Bills piled up and the state debts became enormous. One of the most baneful effects of this distorted rule was placing of ignorant negroes in positions of trust and re- sponsibility. They were allowed and encouraged to occupy positions in the legislatures and in Congress. They served on police and school boards. Yet the majority of them were wholly illiterate and unfit to fill the most unimportant places. They were as reckless and extravagant as children. The white population grew alarmed and indignant at the wild paces set by these conditions. The gravity of the situation was increased by the fact that the militia in each district gave support to the offenders. But the negroes were not to blame for this wretched state 402 AMERICAN HISTORY of affairs. For generations as slaves they had obeyed the dictates of the white man without question ; and, when the franchise was suddenly thrust upon them, they were wholly unprepared to assume this duty. As was their habit they followed blindly the advice and encouragement of white men. In this case their leaders seemed to be callous to the direful effects their methods would have on a com- munity of white citizens. Many of the negroes did not follow their new " masters," but remained loyal to their " white folks " and old homes ; and " mammy " and " uncle " remained an integral part of many southern households. Tenure-of-office Act. — In order to carry out their plan of military control, Congress passed an act known as the " Tenure-of-office Act," which prevented the President from removing any member of his Cabinet without the consent of the Senate. The object of this act was to keep Edwin Stanton in the office of Secretary of War, because it was known that Stanton was in favor of carrying out the plans of Congress, and through this means the President would be prevented from opposing the Radicals' policy. Johnson was not to be outwitted, and as soon as Congress adjourned he asked for Stanton's resignation. Stanton refused to resign, whereupon the President sus- pended him and made General Grant Secretary of War. Impeachment of the President. — When the next Con- gress met, Stanton was reinstated over the President's removal. Johnson, thereupon, appointed a new Secretary of War, General Lorenzo Thomas. Stanton was determined to stand by his position and Congress was willing to support him. He now appealed to Congress, and the House of Representatives impeached the President for " high mis- demeanors in office." The case was unusual and perhaps the most celebrated in the history of our country. It was tried before the United States Senate with the Chief RECONSTRUCTION 403 Justice presiding. For two months the proceedings went on with the most able lawyers of the day represent- ing each side. The public was intensely interested. Finally when the decision was made, the senators voted individually and acquitted • Johnson. Stanton then resigned. Readmission of the States. — While these events were taking place, the Congressional plan of reconstruction had been carried out in the South. The Radicals, with the aid of the negro vote, were able to establish new state con- stitutions. Thus by the middle of 1868, Alabama, North and South Carolina, Florida, Arkansas, and Louisiana were readmitted into the Union. In all of these states negro rule continued as a part of the program of the Carpet- baggers. Their extravagance knew no bounds and the evils of the reconstruction period became greater and greater. Grant elected President. — In the fall of 1868 General Grant was elected on the Republican ticket. His popularity as a soldier gave him a majority of the votes, making it generally believed that he would be thoroughly acceptable to both factions of the Republican Party. The Liberals hoped that the new administration would succeed in modifying the extreme Radicalism in the South, but their hopes were doomed to disappointment. Fifteenth Amendment. — In 1869 the Fifteenth Amend- ment was passed, which reenforced the Radical Rule in the South. It forbade any state to deny the right of suffrage to the negro, and further, by the Force Bills, provided fines and imprisonment for any one who tried to prevent the negro from voting or tried to keep his vote from being counted. In every southern state the legislatures were still con- trolled by these means and the white men denied the right to manage the affairs of government. The extravagance 404 AMERICAN HISTORY of the negroes and the Radicals was enormous. As the months went by they continued to increase the state debts until in 1872 the sum of $300,000,000 burdened the South besides the unpaid, unrecognized debt of the war. The great injury thus inflicted upon an already im- poverished people was unlimited in its influence. In most of the southern states to-day the definite effects are still felt. Here the advancement of public improvements, education, development of the natural resources of the country, and many other interests have been retarded and unfinished. Results of This Rule. — The situation wrought a most lamentable effect upon some of the negroes. They thought themselves too good to work, and their taste of public life left them with the impression that manual labor was de- grading. They were wholly unfit to govern themselves and thoroughly irresponsible in trying to govern others. They lost the confidence of their own people and became objects of contempt in the eyes of the white people. In contrast to this condition was the conduct of the negroes who remained on the plantations during the war, of whom Henry W. Grady, of Georgia, wrote : " History has no parallel to the faith kept by the negro in the South during the war. Often five hundred negroes to a single white man, and yet through these dusky throngs the women and children walked in safety, and the unprotected homes rested in peace. Unmarshaled, the black battalions moved patiently to the fields in the morning to feed the armies their idleness would have starved, and at night gathered anxiously at the big house to ' hear the news from marster/ though conscious that his victory made their chains en- during." Ku-Klux Klan. — As the insults and abuses continued and the overbearing conduct of the negro was increased by the presence of United States troops to aid and enforce RECONSTRUCTION 405 his political and civil rights, and to redress any grievance that he might make, the situation became desperate. At last the white population could stand it no longer. In many communities secret societies were formed for the protection of the South from the Radical and negro domina- tion. Among the most prominent of these organizations Assembling the Ku-Klux Klan. A scene taken from " The Birth of a Nation " by courtesy of the management. were the White Camelia Society of Louisiana and the Ku-Klux Klans of other southern states. These associ- ations restricted their membership to persons of good reputation, whose intentions were to establish white su- premacy. They became the foundation of the white Demo- cratic Party and steadily devoted themselves to gaining control of their local government. In the case of the Ku-Klux Klan the members were bound to strict secrecy. In communities where the negroes had 406 AMERICAN HISTORY become particularly insolent, the Ku Klux would take ad- vantage of the superstitious fears of the negroes. On any night when the negroes were holding a meeting, some of the members of the Klan would suddenly appear in the room, clothed in sheets and wearing hideous masks of skulls and crossbones. In deep tones they would order the meet- ing to adjourn and warn the negroes to keep out of politics. In some instances the Klans went so far as to use violence and request objectionable negroes to leave the community. Reaction against Radicalism. — In 1870 there seemed to be the dawning of a better day when the Liberal Repub- lican Party increased in strength and many northern men began to realize ,the gross injustice of the Radical Party in trying to keep the white people of the South from voting. A convention was held in Cincinnati in 1872, at which the Liberals adopted a platform that denounced the Radi- cals for keeping up deep sectional strife in order to hold themselves in office and to reap the benefits for such office- holding. The platform further attacked the party for keeping the southern people from their political rights " the enjoyment of which is indispensable to a successful ad- ministration of their local affairs. " They also demanded the immediate removal of disabilities imposed on account of the war. Work of Greeley and Schurz. — Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, was nominated for President. Greeley had been one of the most active opponents of the Radical control in the South. It was largely through his editorials in the Tribune, as well as through the writ- ings of Carl Schurz in the New York Post, that the issues of the day were brought before the American people. As public opinion was thus rapidly shaped, the Radi- cals began losing power. At last the Liberals succeeded in carrying out their point for general amnesty. This RECONSTRUCTION 407 act was finally passed. By it more than 150,000 prominent men in the South regained their political rights. Grant Elected a Second Time. — At the same time that Greeley was nominated on the Liberal ticket, the Rad- cal Republicans renominated President U. S. Grant and adopted a platform indors- ing the government's plans in the South. In the follow- ing campaign, they openly denied the charges made against the Republican Party by conditions in the South. With their forces still well organized as a political ma- chine, they were successful and elected Grant for a second term. Greeley died shortly Through his death the Liberals lost advocate of their principles. Greeley. after the election, an able and active Topical Outline Reconstruction. I. Vice President Johnson and His Plans. II. Congressional Plan of Reconstruction. III. Fourteenth Amendment. IV. Freedman's Bureau. V. " Carpetbag " Rule. VI. Tenure of Office Act. VII. Impeachment of President. VIII. Readmission of the States. IX. Grant Elected President. X. Fifteenth Amendment. XI. Ku-Klux Klan. XII. Reaction against Radicalism. 408 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. What were the plans of President Johnson in regard to re- organizing the Union? 2. In what respects were President Johnson's plans for reorgan- izing the Union similar to the plans of President Lincoln? 3. What did President Johnson's Amnesty Proclamation offer? 4. What steps did the President take toward the organization of state governments in the South ? 5. How did Congress regard Johnson's policies? 6. What were the principal features of the Fourteenth Amend- ment? 7. What was meant by the Freedmen's Bureau? 8. Describe the so-called CarpetbL^ Rule in the South. 9. (a) Give an account of the controversy between President Johnson and Congress. (b) How did this result ? 10. Who succeeded President Johnson? What were the leading events of this administration ? 11. Give an account of the reaction against Radicalism. References Linn : Horace Greeley. Dewey : Financial History. Wilson : The American People. CHAPTER XXV GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION Downfall of Radicals. — After the defeat of the Liberals, the Radicals continued in office for four years more and the past experiences of " carpetbag " rule continued with the same dishonesty and offense as before. The white people of the South, becoming more and more disgusted, or- ganized themselves into a solid Democratic Party. Even the better class of negroes abandoned the Radical ranks to side with the whites. Throughout the North there was grave discontent against the old Republican Party. Many of its members then withdrew to enter the ranks with the Liberal faction. Still others joined the Democratic Party. At this time Massachusetts elected a Democratic gov- ernor. Shortly after this other northern states followed her lead. So great was the discontent among the members of the Republican Party that active opposition was made against the Radical policies of James G. Blaine, Speaker of the House of Representatives and the possible candidate of the Republican Party at its next nominating convention. Fifth Avenue Conference. — In May, 1876, an important meeting of distinguished northern men met in the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City and declared against Radicalism. They charged Blaine with fostering sectional antagonisms and declared that they would leave the Re- publican Party if Blaine were nominated for the presidency. The result of this meeting was the reorganization of the 409 4io AMERICAN HISTORY Republican Party and the nomination of Rutherford B. Hayes, former governor of Ohio. The Whisky Ring. — Grant was conscientious in trying to hold the country under good government, but the era was marked by notorious frauds committed against the United States. Among these was the Whisky Ring. This was made up of a number of corrupt politicians who stood in favor with certain rich distillers in this country, and who defrauded the government out of large sums of money by not reporting the true quantity of whisky manu- factured, and thus allowing the distillers to go on manu- facturing large quantities of liquor without paying the re- quired revenue tax. In return for not reporting correctly on the quantity, the tax collectors were given sums of money as bribes. This system of grafting, as it was called, was discovered. Then Grant ordered that every one detected be brought to speedy trial and convicted. Over two hundred convictions were made and the offenders fined and imprisoned. Indian Troubles. — When the war was over the gov- ernment of the United States gave large sums of money and vast areas of land to certain railroad companies, provided that they would undertake the construction Sitting Bull. q £ a transcontinental road. This work was taken up and successfully carried on, but with it came some serious outbreaks of the Indians. The most important of these troubles was with the Sioux, whom the government attempted to remove from their lands to other reservations farther west. The Indians ob- GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 411 jected. Led by their chiefs, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and Rain-in-the-Face, they made a number of fierce pro- tests against removal. The government was obliged to send out troops to suppress the Indian outbreaks. Their most notable stand against the Indians was made by General Custer with six hundred men on the Little Big Horn River, Montana. Custer and all of his men were caught in the valley and within a half hour they were massa- cred by the Indians. Not one of their num- ber escaped. Later on General Canby suc- ceeded in suppressing the Indians and removed them to the reservations that were assigned to them. Great Disasters. — During this administration two great fires occurred that were awful in their consequences. One took place in Chicago, and was caused by a cow overturning a kerosene lamp in a stable and setting fire to the premises. A stiff breeze was blowing from the lake, and before the fire could be controlled, the flames had spread into the neighborhood. For two days and nights the flames raged, consuming all grades of property. It was estimated that thirty thousand houses were destroyed, two hundred mil- lion dollars' worth of property lost, and one hundred thousand persons were left homeless. In the following year another disastrous lire occurred in the city of Boston, Massachusetts. Large numbers of properties in the business center of the town were consumed. The loss of which was estimated at eighty millions of dollars. General Custer. 412 AMERICAN HISTORY In both cities the residents began rebuilding ; and in a short time splendid fireproof and modern buildings took the place of the lost property. Better facilities for manag- ing fires were devised. Laws for fire prevention were also established in many states. Organization of Labor. — On Thanksgiving Day of 1859 the garment cutters of Philadelphia met and organized the " Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." Their object was to reduce the hours of labor to eight per day and to secure a weekly pay day, better legislation for the protec- tion of laborers in factories, mines, and workshops, and protection of women and children's labor. Their member- ship was open to all trades and nationalities, both men and women. The movement was received throughout the country with cordial appreciation. Within a very few years the Knights of Labor numbered millions of wage earners. The organization did not form a political party, but its members voted with the political faction of their own choice. In all of the states and cities where the organization was formed, the members worked steadily and effectively for proper legislation for the working classes. The result of their efforts was the establishment of the United States Department of Labor, the organization of bureaus of arbitration in some of the states, and child labor laws. To a certain extent, they succeeded in getting the United States to prohibit the immigration of the Chinese. American Federation of Labor. — Somewhat later the organized trade unions in the United States planned to establish the American Federation of Labor. This asso- ciation encouraged the laboring classes to form separate trade-unions for the promotion and protection of their respective trades. This organization has not been political in its plans and its members have been generally conserva- tive in their ideas. Like the Knights of Labor, the Ameri- GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 413 can Federation has been drawn into labor strikes that have been of serious moment in the United States. Great National Strikes. — After the panic of 1873, a number of leading railroads reduced the wages of their employees. This was the cause of widespread discontent. For some time the issues were discussed by both sides ; but no agreement could be reached; and a strike was threatened. Thousands of railway employees appealed to their unions. A sympathetic strike was declared in which many men took part. The railroads attempted to import laborers into the districts where the strike was on, in order to take the places of the strikers. This led to intense feeling between the railway workmen and the railroad managers. Riots took place in some of the cities. In Pittsburgh the situation became markedly serious. Several million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. Here the state and national troops were ordered out to restore order. Two years later another great strike occurred in St. Louis. It spread to other cities. Again all transportation was tied up and business interests delayed, while riots oc- curred, and there was considerable loss of property. The national troops were summoned as before, and the troubles suppressed with some loss of life. Chicago Anarchists. — In the same year, 1886, that the St. Louis strike occurred, the Labor Unions in Chicago demanded an " eight-hour day." In order to secure this demand thousands of men quit work, and refused to let others take their places. Important public meetings were held in various parts of the city where the working- men gathered and discussed their grievances. One of the speakers declared that the men should use force, if necessary, to gain their rights. His speech was so inflammatory that he was arrested ; and, while he was on his way to the police station, an anarchist threw a dynamite bomb into the crowd 414 AMERICAN HISTORY and killed several persons. This act of violence was con- demned by the workingmen, as well as by the public. The unwise teachings of the anarchists, that the government and the laws were wrong and unjust and should be destroyed, were also condemned throughout the country. Panic of 1873. — At the close of the war there was a renewed interest in business. Enterprises of larger magni- tude were planned. Capitalists began now to organize their money into corporations for the purpose of making large deals and rapid dividends on their investments. Rail- roads were merged into trunk lines. Mines were con- solidated into extensive stock companies. Manufacturing interests were combined. Thus the entire country was in the heyday of a new business activity. National Debt Decreased. — While this industrial and financial energy was stimulating the country, the govern- ment decreased the national debt by taking one hundred million dollars of paper money out of circulation. At this time the value of a paper dollar had decreased until it was worth only seventy cents instead of one hundred. This depreciation was beginning to be felt, as the national supply of gold and silver in circulation was reduced in 187 1 over sixty million dollars. This was because a large amount was taken to Europe in exchange for European goods, and the sale of American products in Europe did not make up the difference. The great fires in Chicago and Boston destroyed millions of dollars' worth of property. These fires also caused a depression in business. Many investors became reckless in their plans and built railroads beyond the needs of the population, so that great sums of money were going out in all directions, and there was not a cor- responding return. Financial Reaction. — ■ The consequence was that all of these influences brought about a rapid reaction in money circles. Rich firms began to fail. Many people drew their GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 415 savings out of the banks to meet obligations. The banks, in turn, were unable to meet the urgent demands and failed. Numbers of factories, mines, and workshops were shut down because of the financial panic that fell upon the country. The entire United States felt this crisis. Many persons were thrown out of employment. Still others who had been accounted independently rich became im- poverished by the conditions. The government was severely criticized for its actions, and the newspapers and magazines called attention to the " Salary Grab " act, whereby the salary of the President was raised from twenty- five thousand dollars to fifty thousand, and Congressmen's salaries proportionately increased and made to date from the beginning of their terms. Public opinion was aroused. The entire administration was condemned for corruption in politics. The result was that, in the elections of 1874, the House of Representatives had a Democratic majority, the first since before the war. Specie Payment Act. — In 1875 Congress passed a law requiring the Secretary of the Treasury to pay coin for all paper money presented to the Treasury. This provided for the resumption of specie payment for the first time since the war. Although it meant a security to the business world, many persons feared that it was merely a political trick to secure popular favor. The Election of 1876. — In the election of 1876, the Democrats put forward Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, a man who had made a splendid record as the leader against the corrupt Tweed Ring of New York City politics. Tilden had many friends and his campaign against political vice had given him a national reputation. The Democrats adopted a platform calling for reforms in the tariff and civil service. They denounced political corruption and they also urged white supremacy in the South. 4i6 AMERICAN HISTORY As we have mentioned before, the Republicans selected Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio. They adopted a platform indorsing the resumption of specie payment and reforms in civil service. They advocated the standards of the old Republican Party. A spirited election followed that aroused the whole country. Many of the southern states had thrown off the Radical rule, and were in a position to take part in the national election with the same freedom as had existed before the conflict be- tween the states. The Republican forces were reorganized. When the votes were counted, Til- den received one hun- dred and eighty-four un- disputed electoral votes, and Hayes secured one hundred and seventy- two. But there were three states that were contested by both par- Samuel J. Tilden. ties. These were Lou- isiana, Florida, and Oregon. These votes amounted to thirteen and they were closely claimed by both factions. Tilden had a popular majority of over 250,000 votes, and many persons firmly believed that he was duly elected. South Carolina was also claimed by both factions, but later this claim was abandoned by the Democratic members of the Congres- sional investigating committee. The disputed question was referred to Congress. Here GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 417 a deadlock ensued, as the Senate was Republican and the House of Representatives Democratic. The issue could not be settled. The debate over the election was carried on here with considerable bitterness. At the last it was referred to an electoral commission composed of five Sena- tors, five members of the House, and five judges of the United States Supreme Court. The vote stood seven to seven, and then Justice Bradley, who was presiding, cast the deciding vote in favor of Hayes. Hayes was declared elected by one hundred and eighty-five electoral votes against Tilden's one hundred and eighty-four. Contested State Elections. — In 1876 local elections also took place in some of the states, and in these the returns were contested. This was the case in Louisiana, where the Democrats, who had been joined by a number of freedmen, carried the state by eight thousand majority for General Francis T. Nicholls. The Republicans also claimed the elections of their candidate, L. B. Packard. For a while two governors and legislatures existed, each claiming to be legally elected. When President Hayes withdrew the United States troops from Louisiana, Packard, left without support, retired. In South Carolina a similar situation occurred. Through the efforts of the White Democratic Party under the leader- ship of General Wade Hampton, the complete downfall of the Radical rule was secured in this state. In 1877 white domination was secured in Florida. Topical Outline Grant's Second Administration. I. Downfall of Radicalism. II. Fifth Avenue Conference. III. Whisky Ring. IV. Indian Troubles. V. Chicago and Boston Fires. 2 E 418 AMERICAN HISTORY VI. Organization of Labor, i. Knights of Labor. 2. American Federation. 3. Great National Strikes. 4. Chicago Anarchists. VII. Panic of 1873. VIII. Specie Payment Act. IX. Election of 1876. X. Contested State Elections. Review Questions 1. Discuss one of the topics: Fifth Avenue Conference, Whisky- Ring, Custer's Last Stand. 2. What great disasters occurred during Grant's second adminis- tration? 3. Describe the organization of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. 4. Describe the great labor strikes of this time. What is the meaning of the term anarchist ? 5. How was the national debt decreased? What was the Specie Payment Bill? 6. Describe the election of 1876. How was the contest settled? References Wilson : Division and Reunion. Ford : National Problems. Brown : The Lower South. CHAPTER XXVI THE NEW ERA End of Radicalism in the South. — When President Hayes made his inaugural address he declared that the negro question should be set- tled by the respective states, and not by the National government. He declared for peace, denounced sectional animosities, and promptly began the work of removing the Federal troops from the southern states. He al- lowed the southern people to take up the readjustment of their local affairs. He en- couraged a better feel- ing between the two sections of the country and went so far as to appoint a Southern Democrat, David M. Key, Post-Master General. President Hayes's attitude made him many friends, but it also raised up a number of enemies who took advantage of his liberal policy and used this as an argument against his administration. The Republican Party became divided upon the question. 419 Rutherford B. Hayes. 420 AMERICAN HISTORY Recoinage of Silver. — During these years rich silver mines were discovered in the West, and there immediately arose a demand for the coinage of silver. Congressman Bland, of Missouri, introduced a bill into Congress that required the government to coin every month, not less than two, or more than four, million dollars. The President refused to sign the Bland bill, but Congress passed it over his veto. During the next year, the Resumption of Specie Payment Act went into effect. From now on the value of the American paper money was fixed at one hundred cents on the dollar. It has become a perfectly secure medium of money. The credit of the United States govern- ment was also strengthened so that it can borrow all the money it desires at a low rate of interest. Election of President Garfield. — In 1880 General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, were elected on the Republican ticket, and the Republican Party also gained control of the House of Representatives. Garfield was only in office a short time, when he was assas- sinated by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker. The President lingered for three months with the entire country watching with great sympathy and concern for his recovery; but he died on September 19, 1881, at Long Branch, New Jersey. His death was deeply regretted. He was a man above reproach. The people had believed that his administration would be wise and successful. Garfield was succeeded by Vice President Arthur. Civil Service Reform Bill. — There had been a general demand for a reform in political appointment, and the death of President Garfield emphasized more than ever the need to change the " Spoils System," the Jack- sonian method of appointing members of the President's political party. In 1883 Senator Pendleton, a Democrat from Ohio, introduced a bill creating a Civil Service Com- mission whose duty it was to provide examinations for THE NEW ERA 421 those applicants desiring positions under the United States government. The act at first applied only to a few posi- tions, but as time has demanded, the number has increased, and to-day the Civil Service law applies to almost all of the minor positions under the government. It has been a great success in many instances. It has also improved the general service of the government. Its popularity has also increased all over this country. At present many cities and states have adopted local laws based upon the same principle. Other Reform Meas- ures. — A number of other reform measures were passed by Congress during Arthur's adminis- tration. Among these were an act prohibiting polygamy in the United States, an act prohibit- ing Chinese laborers from coming into the United States for a period of ten years, and a bill provid- ing a reduction in post- age from three cents to two on ordinary letters and reduction of one cent for post cards. In 1883 the railroads adopted " Standard Time." By this system the country was divided into sections of fifteen degrees of longitude, which means an hour's difference in time in each section. The divisions were known as Eastern, Central, Western, and Moun- tain. When it is nine o'clock in the Eastern division, it is eight in the Central, seven in the Western, and six in the Mountain. Chester A. Arthur. 422 AMERICAN HISTORY Cleveland's Administration. — In the campaign of i\ the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, and Senator John A. Logan, of Illinois. Blaine had been Speaker of the House of Representatives for three terms and had gained a good support from the Radical Republican Party, but the Prohibition issue became important in many states at this time, and the Repub- lican ranks were di- vided on this issue. The Prohibition Party put forward John P. St. John, of Kansas, on their ticket. Then another faction of the Republican Party known as the Greenback Party named Benj. F. Butler, of Massachu- setts, as their candi- date. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The main issue of the campaign was the tariff. So thoroughly was this question discussed from every standpoint by press and campaign speakers that this campaign has be- come known in history as the " Educational campaign." Cleveland was now elected . For the first time in twenty- five years the Democrats went back into office. It was a period of most active legislation when many important measures were brought before Congress during Cleveland's administration, Among these was a law arranging the Grover Cleveland. THE NEW ERA 423 Presidential succession in case both the President and Vice President could not serve. The arrangement by the new law was first the Secretary of State, and then the other members of the Cabinet in the order of the creation of their offices. Interstate Commerce Commission. — Another law of great value to the public was a provision for the establish- ment of an Interstate Commerce Commission, appointed by the President of the United States. This was to have power to investigate all charges brought before it as to the regulation of passenger and freight rates between states, and the question of unjust discrimination between persons and rates ; that is, to keep the railroads from favoring one state or a person and overcharging another. This law has given uniform freight and passenger rates in the country and has granted to towns and cities uniform facilities above those that were formerly granted. To-day the Commission has even greater problems and more perplexing details of legislation to regulate, but each year the system of service seems greater than before. Immigration Laws. — During the Civil War an act was passed allowing American agents to go abroad and secure foreign laborers under contract and to arrange for their transportation to this country. Many overcrowded Euro- pean cities yielded up their surplus population under these circumstances. Within the next twenty years thousands of Italians, Poles, Hungarians, and Swedes were imported into this country to work on the construction of railroads. Other countries also furnished large numbers of laborers. The result was that many persons in the United States began to realize the danger of the great increase of foreign population, many of whom were ignorant, poor, and in many instances of the criminal class. As labor began to grow cheaper, the American laborers discovered that they were being underpaid because of this large foreign 424 AMERICAN HISTORY population. There were many sides to the question that appealed to the American people, such as social, political, and industrial problems that were bound to come up if something were not done to restrict the unlimited immi- gration. In 1875 an act was passed forbidding the importation of Chinese laborers. And in 1882 the Passengers Act ex- cluded " convicts, lunatics, idiots, or any person unable to care for himself or herself without becoming a public charge." This act did much to relieve the strain on our prisons, asylums, and alms- houses. In 1885 an- other act was passed which also restricted im- migration. Now from time to time the ques- tion is brought to the attention of Congress for improved legislation. Tariff Revision. — At the close of Cleveland's administration the gov- ernment had paid all of the national debt and there was now a sur- plus in the treasury. The question arose as to what should be done with the sur- plus. There had been many suggestions about its distribu- tion, but the President favored a reduction of the tariff which would lessen the income of the United States but at the same time would benefit the general public by reducing the cost of living. A bill was introduced in Congress for the reduction of the tariff, but it was defeated and the tariff Benjamin Harrison. THE NEW ERA 425 question again became the important issue in the next presidential campaign. Harrison Elected. — The Democrats renominated Cleve- land for a second term of office and the Republicans named Benjamin Harrison from Indiana at the head of their ticket. The Prohibitionists nominated Clinton B. Fiske, of New Jersey, and two labor parties were formed which also placed candidates in nomination. Cleveland had lost political ground during his adminis- tration as he had not favored the Democrats but had placed a number of Republicans in office. The Republicans were not in favor of his low-tariff measures. Many of the Civil War veterans were also against him because he had vetoed several pension bills that they were particularly anxious to secure. Harrison was the grandson of William Henry Harrison. Many of his followers attempted to repeat the Tippe- canoe campaign of 1840. Harrison won a majority of the electoral votes, but Cleveland secured a majority of the popular votes. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION Pan-American Congress. — There was a feeling among the Americans that we should have a larger share of foreign trade, especially that of the South American countries. In order to try to secure this trade, James G. Blaine recommended to the President that we should have an understanding with the South American countries in regard to the future trade relations. Accordingly a con- ference was arranged to meet in Washington, to which delegates from all of the American states were invited. This was known as the Pan-American Congress. One of the questions brought up was the status of the independence of each of the Central and South American 426 AMERICAN HISTORY states and an agreement that all differences between these states should be settled by arbitration and not by war. It was, however, difficult to solve the trade problem. The American tariff stood in the way of open trade and was always in competition with the free trade of Great Britain and other European nations. We were not so well equipped with merchant marine as other nations, and hence lacked the capacity for carrying trade. The Con- gress ended with very cordial friendship on the part of the several states represented. McKinley Tariff. — One of the results of this Congress was the passage of a new tariff act known as the McKinley Bill. An important feature of this act was the Reciprocity Agreement. This gave the President the power to make reciprocity agreements with other nations. That is, if foreign nations would agree to reduce certain tariffs on our goods, then we would agree to do the same. One of the new proposals was the removal of the tax on imported sugar. Protests against the McKinley Bill. — Among those that protested against this act were the cane growers of Louisiana and the beetroot farmers of the Middle West. They con- tended that if the tariff were removed from sugar they should not be able to compete with the sugar industry of the West Indies and other tropical countries. The com- pensation for the reduction on sugar was made by giving the sugar planters a bounty of two cents per pound, and the government became the only loser by the act. The bill was very complicated and proved unpopular. The net result of the measure was that the Treasury instead of having a surplus now sustained a deficit. Farmers' Alliance. — The farmers of the West were par- ticularly discontented ; when there was no increased market for their products and the price of wheat fell from eighty cents a bushel in 1890 to forty-nine in 1894, and other THE NEW ERA 427 farm products in proportion, the farmers organized the Farmers' Alliance. With them joined all the forces of the Labor Party, with the result that the next election found a new party created from this combination and known as the People's Party. Sherman Act. — ■ During Harrison's administration a bill was introduced into Congress by Senator John Sherman, which amended the Bland Silver Act by providing that the government should buy four million five hundred thousand ounces of silver each month, keep it in the Treasury, and issue paper money to that amount. Cleveland Reelected. — The People's Party came for- ward with many features in its platform. Among the most important were : First, the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen to one. Second, an income tax ; that is, any person whose income was more than four thousand dollars should pay a tax on it. Third, the national ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and similar interests. Fourth, the lending of money by the government to citizens at two per cent on the security of certain farm products. Fifth, the issuing of money by the government alone, and not banks. They selected as their candidate General James B. Weaver. The Democrats nominated Cleveland for the third time and named Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for Vice President. The Republicans renominated Benjamin Harrison as their candidate. The election returns were in favor of Cleveland, and his second term of office began. Topical Outline The New Era. I. Removal of Troops from the South. II. Recoinage of Silver. 428 AMERICAN HISTORY III. Election of President Garfield. IV. Assassination of the President. V. Reform Measures : i. Civil Service. 2. Reduced Postal Rates. 3. Adoption of Standard Time. VI. Cleveland Elected. VII. Interstate Commerce Commission. VIII. Immigration Laws. IX. Tariff Revision. X. Harrison Elected. XL Pan-American Congress. XII. McKinley Tariff. XIII. Farmers' Alliance. XIV. Sherman Act. XV. People's Party. XVI. Cleveland Reelected. Review Questions 1. Why was President Hayes's administration called a new era? 2. What was meant by the recoinage of silver? 3. Under what circumstances was President Garfield killed? Who was his successor ? 4. What was the Civil Service Reform Bill? 5. What other reform measures were adopted at this time? 6. What party came into power when Cleveland was elected? 7. Discuss one of these topics : Interstate Commerce Commission, Immigration Laws, Tariff Revision. 8. Who succeeded Cleveland? 9. What was the Pan-American Congress? How did this Con- gress influence tariff legislation ? 10. What were the principles indorsed by the People's Party? References Ford : National Problems. Dewey : Financial History. Taussig : Tariff History. Hadley : Railroad Transportation. Wright : Industrial History of United States. Bogart : Economic History of United States. CHAPTER XXVII NATIONAL PROBLEMS Panic of 1893. — Between the years 1873 and 1893 there were important discoveries of silver in the West. The output of this metal was so great that the market price of silver went down all over the world. The government of the United States had continued its purchases of silver, and the coinage of silver brought this money into wider circula- tion. There was a feeling of uncertainty lest the silver dollar might now depreciate in value. Many persons began to fear the consequences. Just at this time, European banks and business firms refused all money except gold. Many of these recalled certain loans that they had made in the United States, and demanded gold in return. Financial Flurry. — Suddenly there was a distrust in business circles. Numbers of persons began to make de- mand upon the government to exchange their paper money for gold. This depleted the amount of gold. A feeling of alarm spread over the country lest the United States would pay in silver instead of gold. Overproduction of Wheat and Corn. — While this flurry was taking place in financial circles, there was an over- production of wheat and corn in the country and prices decreased. On the farm and in the city conditions grew desperate. Men lost confidence in their investments. Business grew stagnant, mills and factories were inactive, and hard times began. Banks and business houses were unable to meet their obligations and failed. Many people 429 430 AMERICAN HISTORY were thrown out of employment and great distress filled the land. Dissension over Sherman Act. — President Cleveland called an extra session of Congress. An attempt was then made to repeal the Sherman Act. There were many stirring debates on the subject. The People's Party bitterly op- posed the repeal of the Sherman Act and they were joined by the Congressmen from the silver-mining states. The price of silver continued to fall, adding greatly to the depres- sion in business. A Bimetallic League was formed in some of the states. The object of this league was to urge the free coinage of silver and to support the Sherman Law. Sherman Law Repealed. — This movement failed. The Sherman Act was repealed 1893. But this did not remedy conditions of hard times. In its endeavor to readjust business prosperity Congress turned its attention to a revision of the tariff. Wilson Bill. — Congressman Wilson of West Virginia presented a bill which reduced the tariff. It was thought that this would make the cost of living less. In order to secure sufficient funds to run the expenses of government, a special feature of the bill provided for a tax upon all incomes above four thousand dollars. This feature of the bill was declared unconstitutional and was discontinued. In the course of time, the revenues were not sufficient to meet the needs of the government. Labor Strikes. — Thousands of persons were thrown out of employment by the panic of 1893. A number of these formed themselves into an " army of the unemployed." Led by their leaders they prepared to march to Washington to demand aid peaceably from the government. This and other similar movements were but indications of the unrest of the times. The labor situation resulted in two great strikes that involved many workmen. One took place in western Pennsylvania where upward of two him- NATIONAL PROBLEMS 43 1 dred thousand coal miners stopped work because of cer- tain reductions in their wages. Many factories were closed because of lack of fuel. Once again great distress filled these communities where the unemployed suffered from poverty. This strike lasted several months and riots and bloodshed were experienced before it was ended. Another strike occurred in 1894 when the employees of the Pullman Car Company near Chicago refused to work because of objectionable terms. These workmen were members of the American Railway Union, one of the larg- est trade-unions in the country. Their officers, represented by Eugene V. Debs, President of the National Union, offered to take up the matter with the Pullman Company in order to arbitrate the question. The Pullman Company refused to consider the offer on the grounds that they had nothing to arbitrate. After further consideration, Presi- dent Debs ordered a general or " sympathetic " strike of the employees of the railway companies. All of the rail- roads handling the Pullman cars were involved in the strike. The transfer of passengers and freight was stopped along many lines of travel. There was such serious interference with the distribution of the United States mail that. the President ordered United States troops to Chicago where a number of lives were lost in the conflicts between the strikers and the troops before the strike was " called off." FOREIGN RELATIONS Monroe Doctrine Reasserted. — In 1895 the United States was called upon to reassert the Monroe Doctrine. The English settlers in British Guiana had extended their plantation interests into the district of Venezuela. The government of Venezuela felt alarmed at the movements of the British, and asked England to remove from this territory. England asserted her right to the control of this territory, 432 AMERICAN HISTORY Then Venezuela asked that the matter be referred to a board of arbitration. England refused to arbitrate and sent a fleet to the Venezuela coast to assert her claims. The United States intervened by opposing England's right to extend her claim in South America. When England refused to withdraw her fleet, President Cleveland sent a message to Congress in defense of Venezuela's claim and declared his intention of definitely asserting the Monroe Doctrine. The position of the United States caused intense excitement in America and England. Arbitration was finally secured, and England withdrew her control from the disputed area. Bering Sea Controversy. — For many years there was a dispute between the United States and Great Britain in regard to the control by the United States of the seal fisheries in Bering Sea. This industry had become very extensive. There was serious fear as to the utter destruc- tion of these animals. The United States attempted to regulate the seal catching and sent vessels into the Bering Sea to capture vessels that violated these regulations. Some of the boats captured belonged to the English. As Great Britain protested against this interference, the matter was referred to a board of arbitration. This decided that the United States had no right to control the Bering Sea region. The commissioners, however, fixed certain regulations for the protection of the seals that were to be observed by both countries. The Mafia in New Orleans. — During the year 1890 a number of crimes were committed among the Italian colo- nists in New Orleans. The origin and cause of these crimes, as well as the perpetrators, were very difficult to trace, as much of the work was supposed to have been committed under cover of an Italian secret society, called the Mafia. David C. Hennessey, chief of the police in the city of New Orleans, was untiring in his efforts to ferret out the NATIONAL PROBLEMS 433 wrongdoers and restore peace and confidence among the distressed Italians who were constantly threatened by so- called " black-hand letters." On the night of October 15, 1890, Chief Hennessey, walking on one of the streets of New Orleans, was shot by several assailants who suddenly disappeared before they could be identified. Twelve Ital- ians were indicted for direct or indirect complicity in the murder. These were brought to trial and nine of them were tried separately. The jury failed to convict the prisoners. The verdict was openly condemned in New Orleans ; here a meeting of citizens was called ; and, in the light of the many outrages that had been committed, the assembly determined that the law should be vindicated. At an appointed hour a large crowd assembled and proceeded to the parish prison, forced an entrance, and shot the accused. The Italian minister at Washington took up the question on the ground that some of the slain were Italian citizens. A long investigation and correspondence followed in which the relations between the United States and Italy were almost severed. A formal declaration of regret on the part of the United States was made, and an indemnity of twenty- five thousand dollars was paid by our government to be divided among the families of those who had been killed. Friendly relations between the United States and Italy were restored and have existed ever since. Topical Outline National Problems. I. Panic of 1893. II. Sherman Law Repealed. III. Wilson Bill. IV. Labor Strikes. V. Foreign Relations. 1. Monroe Doctrine Reasserted. 2. Bering Sea Controversy. 3. Negotiations with Italy. 434 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. What were the causes of the panic of 1893 ? 2. What effect did the panic have on business? 3. W T hat effect did it have on laboring people? 4. What labor difficulties followed the panic? Why did they follow ? 5. How was the tariff regulated during Cleveland's second ad- ministration ? 6. What led President Cleveland to reassert the Monroe Doctrine ? 7. How was the difficulty with England in the Venezuela case settled? 8. What was the Bering Sea controversy? How was it settled ? 9. What negotiations were carried on at this time with Italy? 10. How was the Mafia society case settled? References Curtis : United States and Foreign Powers. Dewey : Financial History. Hart : Contemporaries, Vol. IV. CHAPTER XXVIII ERA OF EXPANSION The Election of 1896. — The presidential election of 1896 was one of widespread interest both at home and abroad. The crisis of 1893, the discontent among the American laboring classes, the overproduction of the farms, and the attitude of foreign nations toward our financial system, all brought out the keenest criticism and most vigorous determination to right conditions. One of the active discussions centered on the issue of adopting a new standard of currency. This was known in the campaign meetings as the Silver Question. The regular Republican Party advocated a gold stand- ard on the basis that this was the accepted rule in most of the countries and that our international trade demanded that we preserve the uniformity of this standard. The Democrats declared that there was European con- trol over our financial system and urged independence from foreign banking interests that could, without notice, work havoc upon our business and national enterprises. It was asserted that silver was a reliable, convenient metal for the constant exchange to which money was subject, and that the Democratic Party advocated the free and unlimited coinage of silver on the basis of sixteen to one. There were many subtle arguments for and against both sides of the question. In the course of these events there was a split in both the Republican and Democratic parties over the issue. Those of the Republican Party favoring the 435 436 AMERICAN HISTORY gold standard nominated William McKinley of Ohio. The Democrats favoring the free coinage of silver named Wil- liam Jennings Bryan of Nebraska on their ticket. The " Silver Republicans," as they were called, joined the Demo- crats. Now the " Gold Democrats " adopted another platform and nominated John M. Palmer of Illinois and Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky as their can- didates. The People's Party supported Bryan, but named Thomas E. Watson of Georgia as their candidate for Vice President. After an ex- citing campaign, re- nowned for the spirited speeches on both sides, McKinley was elected and the gold standard was adopted (1897). Dingley Tariff.— Shortly after his inau- guration, President McKinley called an extra session of Congress to consider the revival of a protective tariff. In 1897 the Wilson Bill was repealed and the Dingley tariff adopted. This raised the tariff rate higher than it had been for a number of years. William McKinley. WAR WITH SPAIN Spain's Loss of Her Colonies. — While the United States was growing into an important nation, with widespread ERA OF EXPANSION 437 interests throughout the world, the influence of Spain was declining. This began in America with the loss of first one and then another of her Central and South American colonies. As early as 1823 Spain had lost all of her exten- sive possessions in the West, until finally she was reduced to the limited ownership of Cuba, Porto Rico, and a few small islands in the West Indies. These were often in a state of revolt over the harsh laws that were frequently enforced. Cuban Misgovernment. — In 1895 Spain's government of Cuba became excessively tyrannical. It was almost military in character, and the loss of civil privileges as well as the unjust taxation aroused the Cubans to another re- volt. Spain sent General Weyler to Cuba to suppress this insurrection. Weyler was most cruel in his plans. He ordered thousands of innocent Cubans into military camps where he could easily control them. But it was not long before disease broke out in these crowded and unsanitary quarters where men, women, and children were poorly fed and scantily clad. These unhappy people suffered untold hardships. Many of them died under the treatment. This concentration system also had a serious effect upon the economic conditions of Cuba ; for many plantations and farms were crippled by the loss of laborers, and famine threatened the inhabitants. America's Step to alleviate Cuban Distress. — The dis- tress continued until finally the American press brought the matter to the attention of the public through graphic descriptions and photographs of the camps and the vic- tims. The whole world was forced through the defense of humanity to interfere. At first the President of the United States offered to arbitrate between Cuba and Spain, but the latter refused, and rumors went abroad that the United States was planning to annex Cuba. American property was threatened. The inhumanitv to the Cubans continued 438 AMERICAN HISTORY for some time until Congress, upon the recommendation of President McKinley, appropriated fifty thousand dollars to relieve the distress in the concentration camps. Many private subscriptions were made by American citizens ; and members of the American Red Cross Society, led by Miss Clara Barton, entered the fever-stricken camps and rendered timely service to the suffering people. Recall of Weyler. — After earnest protestations from America, Spain recalled Weyler and promised some reforms, provided the Cubans would lay down their arms and submit to Spanish rule. But the Cubans were determined to accept nothing less than independence. Destruction of the Maine. — While the struggle went on, the American battleship Maine was sent to Cuba to watch over our interests. On February 15, 1898, the whole United States was shocked by the news that the Maine had been blown up in the harbor of Havana, and that two hundred and sixty of the crew had perished. There was no clew to the perpetration of the deed, but all America was fired by the thought that it was the work of a Spanish submarine mine. Immediately the slogan of " Remember the Maine " was taken up in every quarter. President McKinley ordered an investigaion ; and, before the commis- sion could make a report, Congress made an appropriation of fifty million dollars for military purposes. They further declared that the independence of Cuba should be assured, and granted the President authority to use the United States navy and army to assist the Cubans in their struggle. Spain withdrew her minister from the United States, and gave the American minister his passport. This meant a declaration of war. Military Arrangements. — War was now declared, and Congress planned to borrow two hundred million dollars and voted to raise other amounts by a revenue stamp act. The President called for two hundred and fifty thousand ERA OF EXPANSION 439 volunteers. This call was answered by more men than could be used . Special defenses were made along the Ameri- can coast ; and one squadron was placed along the eastern defense and another sent to blockade Cuba, while a third was sent to operate in the Pacific. Battle of Manila. — Before regular preparations were made for war, Commodore George Dewey, in command of the Pacific squadron off the coast of China, was ordered to leave Hongkong and proceed to the Philippines. On Sunday, May i, 1898, Dewey sailed into Ma- nila Bay at day- light, and began bombarding the Spanish fleet guarding the bay. In less than four hours he completely destroyed the enemy's fleet and silenced the shore batteries at Cavite without losing a man and with but eight wounded. The Spaniards lost several hundred men, and their entire fleet was disabled. Dewey's victory was hailed with great delight. The government now advanced him to the rank of Admiral. Dewey then blockaded the city of Manila and waited for the arrival of land forces under General Merritt before taking the city. Blockade of Santiago. — Although the island of Cuba was carefully watched by Admiral Sampson and Commo- dore Schley, yet a Spanish fleet under Cervera managed The Philippine Islands. 440 AMERICAN HISTORY to slip by and to enter the harbor of Santiago. When this was discovered, an attempt was made by Lieutenant Hob- son to bottle Cervera's fleet in the harbor so as to render it useless in the general defense of Cuba. Six men were elected from a long list of volunteers to assist Hobson in his perilous task. His plan was to take the coaling vessel Merrimac into the narrow entrance of the harbor and to The Harbor of Manila. sink it so that the harbor would be closed. It was a most dangerous undertaking, as Hobson and his men were exposed to heavy fire from the Spanish batteries when they slipped into position. The Merrimac was sunk, but instead of sinking laterally, so as to blockade the harbor, it sank in such a position as to allow room enough in the narrow en- trance of the harbor for the Spanish fleet to slip out. Hob- son and his men were captured by the Spaniards, but were kindly treated by Cervera and his officers, who praised them for their daring. Battle of Santiago. — General Shafter decided to attack ERA OF EXPANSION 44 1 Santiago from the rear, so he landed on the southern coast of the island and marched with an army of sixteen thou- sand troops toward the city. The approach was made by ascending two hills, San Juan and El Caney. These were fortified by blockhouses from which the Spanish fired. The Americans dashed forward, made a splendid assault, and carried the position with little loss of life. It was in Blockading Squadron Fleet \j ■A I.I. The Santiago Campaign. this attack that Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and his com- pany of " Rough Riders " won fame by their daring ride up the hill. Cervera Defeated. — Realizing that Santiago could not be aided from the bay, Cervera made a dash for the open sea in order to escape capture. He raised full steam and sailed out of the harbor at highest speed, only to be met by Commodore Schley, who was watching the bay. Again the Americans were singularly successful. In this defeat Spain lost six war vessels and upward of six hundred lives, as well as twelve hundred men as prisoners. The Ameri- cans lost one man and had three wounded, and their ships were comparatively uninjured. Both Dewey's and 442 AMERICAN HISTORY Schley's victories gave evidence of the first-class condition of the American fleet and the accurate marksmanship of the American gunners. Surrender of Santiago and Manila. — Shortly after the battle of San Juan Hill the city of Santiago surrendered. At about the same time the city of Manila was invested by the Americans. Porto Rico Surrenders. — The island of Porto Rico was also in a state of revolution. As soon as General Miles landed an American army on the island, the troops were welcomed by the Porto Ricans and the island surrendered without difficulty. Treaty of Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. By its terms Spain agreed to recognize the independence of Cuba and cede to the United States the islands of Porto Rico, Guam (one of the Ladrones), and the Philippines. In recompense, the United States should pay Spain the amount of twenty million dollars. The United States was also to assume the pro- tectorate over Cuba until the island could secure a stable government. It was further stipulated that the inhabit- ants of the new possessions should be guaranteed religious freedom, and that their political rights should be deter- mined by Congress. Effects of the War. — The national debt was increased many million dollars and the expense of keeping a larger army and navy was incurred, besides the large expenditure necessary to establish and maintain forms of government in the newly acquired possessions. By the treaty, the United States gained a vast amount of insular territory. The Philippines alone numbered upward of fifteen hun- dred islands. We were brought into a new and strange experience ; namely, the control of colonies and the gov- ernment of thousands of foreign people living miles away from the central power. The population of these new ERA OF EXPANSION 443 possessions were not only alien races, but they were entirely unacquainted with American manners, language, customs, and government. It required a heavy expense as well as far-sighted statesmanship to bring these people under a realization of the possibilities of the protection of the United States. Rebellions were to be faced and suppressed, American ideals were to be developed, and the relations of other nations to the possessions were to be reckoned upon. Advantages of Expansion. — The newly acquired terri- tory gave us a permanent place in the West Indian and Oriental trade and laid the foundation for a world-wide commerce that gave an impetus to the expansion of home industries. The new lands gave the United States an oppor- tunity to establish the liberal ideas of a republican form of government where despotism had prevailed. The plan of expansion gave a larger privilege for the spread of free education and the extension of Christianity among ignorant and heathen people. The achievements of the American army and navy secured for us the respect of all nations. Our prompt restoration of the independence of Cuba gained for us the confidence and good will of European nations who had looked with doubt upon the sincerity of our purposes in the beginning of the war. Annexation of Hawaii. — Among the other possessions that we secured during the Spanish-American War were the Hawaiian Islands. These islands lie out in the Pacific, midway between the United States and the Orient, and have a Malay population of upward of two hundred and fifty thousand. For some years the government of the island was in the hands of Queen Liliuokalani, who brought her people forward in civilization and gave to them a good administration of government, but she and her ministers were determined to exclude foreigners from political control. At this time a number of Americans who had settled on 444 AMERICAN HISTORY the islands had invested in large and lucrative estates. As permanent residents and taxpayers, these people claimed the right to political privileges. In 1893 a new constitution was adopted in Hawaii that excluded foreigners from political advantages. This caused much discontent and revolts in which the Americans took part. With the aid of the United States minister, and assistance from an American war vessel, the party succeeded in establishing ( - . .;•>.-.*> i|Hn^ : ~ v "* m ^ ^^BH9 HEBpn i=, r . ' ''- ^^H^' £g^** \ '.HBPjfe-. Sfe^": *JiH The Government Building, Honolulu. Taken at the time of annexation. an independent government, and asked the United States to annex Hawaii. President Harrison sent a message to Congress recom- mending the annexation. But before action was taken President Cleveland was inaugurated, and he withdrew the treaty of annexation from Congress. From time to time the political interests of the island were in a state of unrest. Finally, in President McKinley's administration, another ERA OF EXPANSION 445 petition was presented for annexation, and the United States accepted the terms and annexed these possessions during the Spanish-American War. Hawaiian Islands. — The Hawaiian Islands form a splendid naval base in the Pacific and are of great advan- tage as coaling stations. Honolulu is the chief city, and has an excellent harbor. The islands produce sugar, rice, bananas, pineapples, and wool. Many Americans have removed to the islands. The white population there is rapidly increasing. A territorial government was organ- ized by the United States in 1900. Besides these insular possessions, the United States owns one of the Samoan group, and also Wake Island in the Pacific. Insurrections in the Philippines. — After the Americans had taken control of the Philippines, the inhabitants of Luzon, led by General Aguinaldo, demanded their inde- pendence. This was refused. A revolt was then started which was partly suppressed by General Otis. The Filipino forces, organized in small bands, continued to carry on guerrilla warfare, causing untold annoyance to the Ameri- cans. At last Aguinaldo, the leader of these forces, was captured. This greatly weakened the plans of the in- surgents. Philippines. — The control of the Philippines was diffi- cult, as the Americans were unacquainted with the geog- raphy of the country, and the insurrections continued to break out in unexpected quarters. This necessitated the continuance of a regular army in the Philippines and caused much criticism of the policy of this administration. Government and Education in the Islands. — Shortly after the treaty of peace was signed, President McKinley sent a commission to the Philippines for the purpose of planning a satisfactory government for this new posses- sion. Judge William H. Taft, President of the Com- mission, was made governor of the islands, and was given 446 AMERICAN HISTORY a staff of assistants who formed a cabinet to govern the country. Military rule was set aside in many places as soon as possible, and regular civil government established. The new government also gave the right of citizenship to all male persons over twenty-one who could use the English or Spanish language and who owned two hundred and fifty dollars' worth of prop- erty or paid taxes amounting to fifteen dollars. The new government also established a sys- tem of public schools and several normal schools for the training of native teachers. Good roads were built, and experimental sta- tions established for the promotion of greater skill in agriculture. Campaign of 1900. — In the presidential cam- paign of 1900 the Re- publicans nominated President McKinley for a second term, with Theodore Roosevelt, governor of New York, as Vice President. The party adopted a platform indorsing the gold standard. They advocated the policy of imperialism ; that is, the extension and control of our for- eign possessions and the construction of an interoceanic canal. The Democrats renominated Bryan and named former Vice President Stevenson for Vice President. The Demo- A Filipixo Girl. ERA OF EXPANSION 447 crats again endorsed the free coinage of silver. They also advocated the independence of Porto Rico and the con- struction of the Isthmian canal. The Prohibition and Socialist Parties also entered candi- dates in the race. President McKinley was elected by a larger majority than he had received in the last election. He entered his new term with the promise of a fortunate administration. Assassination of President McKinley. — During the first year of McKinley's second administration the Pan- American Exposition was held at Buffalo, New York. Here while he was attending the fair on " President's Day," the President was brutally murdered by a young foreign anar- chist, named Leon Czolgosz. The unfortunate act was committed in the presence of thousands of persons who thronged the fair grounds on the occasion of the President's visit. President McKinley lingered for a week and then suc- cumbed to the fatal wound on September 14, 1901. This was the third time that a President of the United States had fallen a victim to an assassin. Throughout his admin- istration, President McKinley had acted with great sin- cerity and careful judgment, and his death was deemed a serious loss to the country. All over the land there was a demand for severe punishment for such a crime, and an earnest effort was made to teach greater loyalty to the government and to denounce the principles of anarchy. Topical Outline Era of Expansion. I. Election of 1896. II. Administration of William McKinley. III. Dingley Tariff. IV. War with Spain. 1. Causes. a. Spain's Loss of Her Colonies. 448 AMERICAN HISTORY b. Cuba Misgoverned. c. Americans Attempt to Alleviate Cuba. 2. Events. a. Destruction of the Maine. b. Battle of Manila. c. Blockade of Santiago. d. Battle of Santiago. e. Cervera Defeated. /. Surrender of Santiago and Porto Rico. g. Treaty of Peace. V. Effects of the War. VI. Annexation of Hawaii. VII. Control of the Philippines. VIII. Political Campaign of 1900. IX. Assassination of President McKinley. Review Questions 1. What was one of the important issues before the American people in 1896? Explain. Who was elected at this time? 2. What were the causes of the War with Spain? 3. State briefly the American military plans. 4. Locate the island of Cuba, the Philippines. 5. Describe the battle of Manila, the blockade of Santiago. 6. What did the United States gain by this war with Spain? 7. State the general effects of the war. 8. What is meant by the terms expansion and imperialism? 9. Under what circumstances was Hawaii annexed ? 10. Was there any opposition to the American occupation of the Philippines ? 11. What methods did the United States use to organize and govern these islands? 12. Give an account of the assassination of President McKinley. References Coolidge : The United States as a World Power. Churman : Philippine Affairs. Foster : American Diplomacy in the Orient. Latane : America as a World Power. Brooks : War with Spain. McClay : United States Navy, Vol. III. Mahan : Lessons of the War with Spain. CHAPTER XXIX NEW PLANS The Roosevelt Policies. — Upon the death of President McKinley, Vice President Roosevelt took the oath of office and proceeded with the affairs of national government. This administration was marked by several im- portant movements in the development of American life. The new President took a perso- nal interest in all the social and economic questions of the day as well as in actively guid- ing the domestic and for- eign political interests of the nation. As a soldier in the Spanish- American war, an official in New York state government, and a man of letters, Roosevelt had many friends and admirers. He came into office with the good will of the American people, and his adminis- tration was destined to be marked by certain legislation that had long been needed. Theodore Roosevelt. 2G 449 450 AMERICAN HISTORY Pennsylvania Strike and Arbitration. — One of the first issues that occupied the attention of the President was the great strike that occurred among the miners in the anthra- cite coal regions of Pennsylvania. The strike was of grave concern to the workingmen of America and was led by John Mitchell, one of the most eminent labor leaders in the country. The struggle had been marked by unusual bitterness and severe suffering, and the delay in furnish- ing coal to the industrial world bade fair to produce a fam- ine in fuel. The President, without any legal right to do so, intervened in the situation and appointed a special commission on arbitration that succeeded in adjusting the differences. The strike was abandoned and work was resumed. Antitrust Legislation. — Within recent times the mer- cantile world has experienced many changes in methods of carrying on business. Instead of many individuals pro- moting the same industry, there has developed the tend- ency to merge all the individual holdings into one big company or corporation. While this plan has succeeded in producing a larger output of the articles needed, devised better grades of workmanship, and secured larger distribu- tion of the goods, yet this system has made possible the accumulation of enormous wealth by the successful cor- porations, has limited the expansion of personal effort and in many instances secured control of the entire market for its goods. In this way it has . manipulated wages of workers and prices of goods to suit circumstances. This monopoly plan caused great discontent among our people. For months magazines and newspapers conducted dis- cussions of all phases of the subject with the hope that some solution of the problem could be obtained. One of the most popular reforms of the Roosevelt ad- ministration was the passage and enforcement of certain laws limiting the organization of business interests which NEW PLANS 451 menaced the general open market and " cornered goods " so as to control the price. This movement was known as the antitrust legislation and to the American people it seemed like a deliverance from an aristocracy of wealthy corporations. The movement prevented the merging of railroads, as well as other large corporation interests, and required that all corporations doing interstate business should be open to government inspection. Panama Canal. — As early as the discovery of the Pacific by Balboa, the Spanish government considered the idea of constructing a canal across the Isthmus of Panama in order to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Four differ- ent routes were in turn proposed, but, owing to certain opposition to the project, they were abandoned. As years went by various European nations were seized with the idea of taking up the plan of canal building in Central America, but each time the scheme proved unsuccessful. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. — The United States from time to time had also considered the idea of constructing an interoceanic canal, and various surveys were made; but definite plans did not take shape until after the discovery of gold in California, and the advisability of a shorter route to the Pacific coast became a pertinent issue. Two routes were in consideration, one across the state of Nicaragua, and the other across the Isthmus of Panama. About this time England was also contemplating the same work and this country and the United States formed an agreement known as the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (1850) providing that, whichever route was selected and whichever nation undertook the work, both England and the United States should control it jointly. It was not long after this that the United States became involved in the issues that led to the Civil War, and for a number of years the canal question was dropped. French Work on the Panama Canal. — In the meantime, 452 AMERICAN HISTORY the government of France authorized the organization of an interoceanic canal company. This company was headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had recently success- fully completed the Suez Canal. The French company selected the Isthmus of Panama as the more desirable location and began work. President Hayes was deeply concerned over the plans of the French and sent a message to Congress urging immediate action. The President declared that he deemed the control of this canal by a foreign power to be a menace to the peace and safety of the United States. But no action was taken by the Ameri- can people, and for some time the matter was set aside. In the course of time, the De Lesseps company be- came bankrupt and abandoned work. Dur- ing the Spanish- Ameri- can war an imperative need for this water route was developed. Pres- ident McKinley was considering this matter at the time of his death (September, 1901). Hay-Pauncef ote Treaty. — In Novem- ber, 1 901, the United States was able to negotiate another treaty with England which took the place of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. By this new agreement, which was known as the Hay- Pauncef ote treaty, England gave up all right to a part management of the canal. Another problem that had to be solved was the French John W. Hay. NEW PLANS 453 claim. After special negotiations, the United States paid $40,000,000 to the French company for their claims. Thereupon our government began arrangements for secur- ing a site. The Panama Treaty. — The republic of Panama had just secured its independence from Colombia, when the United States recognized it as a separate nation, and shortly A Portion of the Panama Canal. after made a treaty, purchasing all property rights to a. strip of land ten miles wide and extending from sea to sea. While there was some criticism of this treaty on the ground that it savored of the violation of the Monroe Doctrine, no definite opposition was made to the negotiations. It was generally conceded that it was expedient for the United States to undertake the canal building. Large appro- priations of money were made by Congress for the con- struction of the canal, and this stupendous piece of engineer- ing work was begun. 454 AMERICAN HISTORY The United States went to great expense to protect its workmen from exposure to malarial and yellow fevers and to furnish comfortable and sanitary homes to all connected with the enterprise. The work was completed in 19 14 and put into regular operation in the following year. By this new water route the distance from New York to San Fran- cisco was reduced more than seven thousand miles, and the distance from New Orleans to San Francisco several thou- sand miles, while in the same proportion the distance from European ports was greatly reduced. Reelection of President Roosevelt. — In the presiden- tial election of 1904, Theodore Roosevelt was reelected and he entered upon his new administration with greater energy than ever in his efforts to carry out his party's plans and policies. Among the important laws passed during this administration were the Elkins Act, which abol- ished rebating, a system whereby favored shippers were given the advantage over other patrons of certain railroads ; and the Pure Food Law, which was passed to protect the public against the purchase of adulterated foods, and which required labels to be placed on all goods, showing the per- centage of adulteration. Large appropriations were made to conserve the American forests. Congress thereupon established a national Bureau of Forestry for the protec- tion and extension of our timber resources. Vast sums of money were also used in the irrigation of arid deserts of the West, and similar amounts were set apart to build levees in the overflow districts. Both of these latter expenditures have resulted in the development of large areas that have become the means of extensive pros- perity in our country. Treaty of Portsmouth. — In 1905 President Roosevelt tendered the services of the United States to Russia and Japan to arbitrate between these two nations who were at war in the Orient. Both belligerents accepted the offer NEW PLANS 455 and sent envoys to America. The meeting was held at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and peace terms, which ended the Russo-Japanese struggle, were satisfactorily arranged. Taft elected President. — In the campaign of 1908 the Democrats again placed William J. Bryan at the head of their ticket and the Re- publicans selected Wil- liam H. Taft, of Ohio, as their choice. It was a hotly contested cam- paign in which Presi- dent Roosevelt strongly supported the Repub- lican candidate. Taft was elected, and the Re- publican policies contin- ued to dominate the country. Bryan had openly declared that the Republicans had taken the Democrats' policies and adopted and fur- thered them during Roosevelt's administra- tion. Be this as it may, the country was still anxious for further reforms. Among these was a revision of the tariff. Payne- Aldrich Bill. — The Payne- Aldrich Bill which was presented at this time was violently opposed by many who felt that this act did not reduce the duties as much as they should be reduced. In spite of the opposition of his faction of the Republican Party, Taft signed this bill, and it be- came a law. A feature of this law was the Corporation Tax, which laid an annual tax of one per cent on the earn- ings of all corporations. William H. Taft. 45^ AMERICAN HISTORY Champ Clark Speaker of the House. — In 1 910 the Con- gressional elections returned a majority of Democrats to the House of Representatives. This faction succeeded in electing as their Speaker Champ Clark, of Missouri. This was the beginning of the strength of the Democratic Party, who were des- tined to gain control of the government in the next election. During Taft's admin- istration two arbitration treaties were signed. One was with England and the other was with France. They were practically identical and " resolved that no fu- ture difference shall be a cause of hostilities be- tween them or interrupt their good relations and friendship ; " in other words, that they would submit their differences to arbitration instead of going to war. Arizona and New Mexico Admitted. — In 191 1 two new states were admitted to the Union. These were Arizona and New Mexico. With these admissions the United States now numbered forty-eight. Federal Judiciary. — In 1911 the task of appointing certain judges to the United States Supreme Court fell upon President Taft. With absolute freedom from party feelings, the President made his choice, selecting men irrespective of party affiliation. Among the appointments was the promotion of Edward D. White, of Louisiana, to be supreme justice. Champ Clark. NEW PLANS 457 Election of 1912. — In the campaign of 191 2 there was a definite split in the Republican Party, and one of the fac- tions, commonly known as the " Insurgents," took the name of " Progressives " and nominated as their candidate former President Roosevelt ; the other faction of the party continued under the name of Republican and named Taft as their choice. The Democrats selected Governor Wood- The United States Supreme Court. The Chief Justice, Edward D. White, stands in the center at the back. row Wilson, of New Jersey, as their candidate. The cam- paign now began with activity. Governor Wilson had been former President of Princeton University ; and in his brief career as governor of New Jersey he had won renown for his fearless denunciation of corruption in politics and also for his strong opposition to vice. The Democrats adopted a platform advocating a reduction of the tariff, urged the adoption of a law providing for an income tax, and advo- cated the election of senators by popular vote instead of selection by state legislature. The party went on record as urging further legislation against trusts and advocated exemption from tolls of American ships passing through the Panama Canal. 458 AMERICAN HISTORY Wilson Elected. — In November, 191 2, Woodrow Wil- son was elected by a vote of 435. Roosevelt received 88 votes ; and Taft, 8. WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION Inauguration of the President. — On March 4, 1913, President Wilson was inaugurated with unusual enthusiasm. © Undericood and Underwood. President Wilson taking the Oath of Office. With the advent of a southerner in office came the feeling to many that the old era of sectionalism had entirely passed away, and that the American people were facing an epoch of larger national union than had been experienced before. The North and West had given generous support to the President in his election. With this support came an abiding confidence and trust in his management of the nation's destinies. Instead of sending a written message to Congress, the NEW PLANS 459 President appeared before a joint session of both houses and read to them his policies for the year. This custom had not been used for more than a century. In its revival came the significance of bringing to the personal attention of the members of Congress the aims and purposes of the new administration. Mr. Wilson had been for years a close student of Amer- ican institutions and economics. As he as- sumed the responsibility of administering the gov- ernment, he determined to recommend certain modifications of existing laws as might promote the larger welfare of the American people. One of the first plans that came into effect was the revision of the tariff sys- tem. Underwood Tariff Bill. — The work of revis- ing the tariff law was taken up by Senator Oscar L. Underwood of Alabama. Under his direction a number of changes were made in the law that lowered the duties on many imports. Al- though the bill injured some of the manufacturing inter- ests of the country, yet upon the whole it was deemed the means of aiding in reducing the high cost of living. It was passed by Congress and duly signed by the President. Regional Banks. — In 1907 another business panic occurred that called to mind the need for reforms in our banking laws. In the next year Congress appointed a Oscar L. Underwood. 460 AMERICAN HISTORY national Monetary Commission to investigate the work- ing of the existing currency and banking laws. About this time President Taft suggested that one of the needs of the country was a central bank of issue which he thought " might automatically regulate the supply and distribu- tion of the currency and thus prevent such a crisis as that of 1907." Many leading bankers throughout the United States believed that such a bank would aid materially in relieving the financial strain that usually came at certain periods of the year, as for example the moving of crops, etc. When the Monetary Commission made its report through its chairman, Senator Nelson Aldrich, it recommended that " a National Reserve Association or Central Bank with fiscal relations to the national government, and com- posed of representatives from smaller but similar district associations, would assist in avoiding financial crisis." Some of the recommendations of this commission have been adopted and incorporated in a banking law that pro- vides for a central reserve bank and several regional banks to be located centrally in various districts of the United States. Parcel Post. — One of the most helpful means of assist- ing the general public has come through the establishment of the Parcel Post. This is an adjunct of our postal serv- ice that enables persons to send packages at greatly reduced rates and guarantees speedy delivery of same. This inno- vation has been highly appreciated by the American people, and its possibilities are being exploited daily. One of the most interesting features has been its use in the " farm to table " service by which farmers are enabled to send to town patrons fresh products from the farm without using the intermediate system of commission merchants, jobbers, and retailers, and without the losses incurred through slow delivery of perishable goods. NEW PLAXS 461 Foreign Relations. — Owing to the great conflicts exist- ing in other parts of the world, this administration has been brought into many diplomatic relations with foreign coun- tries. Mr. Wilson's policy has been along the line of strict neutrality, and as certain complications have arisen over commercial interests, there has been a firm and discreet investigation and adjustment of these delicate international problems. Topical Outline New Plans. I. Roosevelt Policies. II. Pennsylvania Strike and Arbitration. III. Antitrust Legislation. IV. Panama Canal. V. Clay ton-B ill wer Treaty. VI. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. VII. Reelection of Roosevelt. VIII. Reforms: 1. Pure Food Laws. 2. Protection of Forests. 3. Irrigation of Western Lands. 4. Opposition to Trusts. IX. Treaty of Portsmouth. X. Election of William H. Taft. XL Payne-Aldrich Bill. XII. Champ Clark, Speaker of the House. XIII. Arizona and New Mexico Admitted. XIV. Federal Judiciary. XV. Election of 191 2. XVI. Wilson's Administration. XVII. Underwood Tariff Bill. XVHI. Regional Banks. XIX. Parcel Post. XX. Foreign Relations. Review Questions 1. Note the principal plans of President Roosevelt. 2. What action did President Roosevelt take in the Pennsyl- vania Strike? 462 AMERICAN HISTORY 3. How was that strike settled ? 4. What is meant by antitrust legislation? 5. Why was this legislation started ? 6. Give an account of the building of the Panama Canal. 7. What international treaties were arranged in order to secure control of this construction ? 8. What work had been done on this canal by the French? 9. What company had charge of the work of the French ? 10. Who was the French engineer in charge of the company? 1 1 . Who succeeded President Roosevelt ? 12. Who became Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1910? 13. Give a brief account of the election in 191 2. 14. What are the leading events of President Wilson's administra- tion? 15. What is meant by the Regional Banks? Parcel Post? References Dewey : National Problems. Mitchell : Organized Labor. Elliot : American Contribution to Civilization. Johnson : Four Centuries of the Panama Canal. CHAPTER XXX STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION Disasters and their Effects. — Like other countries of the world, the United States has suffered from serious dis- asters that have wrought severe havoc and suffering in the country. We shall mention some of these unfortunate events and call to mind the ways and means used by the American people to remedy the direful conditions that have been produced by these unexpected calamities. Fatal Diseases : Yellow Fever. — For a number of years the seacoast cities, particularly those in the South, suf- fered from epidemics of yellow fever. This disease was exceedingly fatal in 1878, when New Orleans and many cities on the gulf coast were stricken by this malady. Every effort was made to control the disease, but with little effect. It was firmly believed that this malady was imported from Central and South America, where it con- stantly prevailed. Finally it was decided to establish a strict national quar- antine service among the coast towns where only local quarantine had existed. By this system all vessels from fever-ridden ports were detained for a sufficient number of days to ascertain if there were any signs of the disease among the incoming passengers and crew. This system proved so effective that for many years the situation has been controlled. This rule was also enforced in regard to other diseases and has proved a timely benefit to the United States. 463 464 AMERICAN HISTORY Public Health Service. — In order to further the work of protecting the health of the country, the United States has organized a department known as the Public Health Service. Eminent surgeons and physicians as well as expert chemists are employed in this division of the national government. This Service has done a vast amount of good by making close investigation of the causes of dis- ease, and has fur- nished remedies to heal and means to eradicate many mal- adies. Dr. William Gorgas. — Among the most eminent of the United States surgeons that have been successful in this field of work is Dr. William Gorgas, who discovered that the stegomyia mos- quito transmitted the germ of yellow fever. Dr. Gorgas made his tests in Central and South America under the most heroic circum- stances ; and finally, after a series of patient and courageous experiments, he gave his report to the United States. The government in turn transmitted this report to all parts of the United States and foreign countries. Then regular cam- paigns were begun in some of the Central and South Ameri- can countries to try to eradicate the disease by exterminat- William Gorgas. STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 465 ing the mosquito. It was largely through the efforts of Dr. Gorgas that the safe construction of the Panama Canal was made possible ; for the district of Panama was frequently affected with yellow fever of a type so malignant that alien workmen were often stricken. It was estimated that one foreign workman of every five died of this pesti- lence when the Panama railroad was in construction. Dr. Gorgas instituted a campaign against the mosquito and adopted against the disease methods of protection which were so effective that it was not long before all danger from infection had passed. Bubonic Plague. — When it was discovered that rats were largely responsible for the extension of the bubonic plague, the United States Health Service took up this work and has vigorously guarded against this terrible disease. To-day active work in rat proofing is carried on in all parts of the country, and signs of pestilence are watched, so that the public health can be safely cared for. The work of the Public Health Service has attracted wide- spread attention, and many private citizens have aided by establishing special hospitals and foundations for further aid. Among the most noted of these movements are the Rockefeller and Russell Sage foundations, whose work is fast becoming world renowned. One of the most liberal lessons that we can learn from history is the law of cooper- ation in trying to help our Health Service keep our cities and countryside sweet, clean, and wholesome. Earthquakes. — Within the past thirty years the United States has been visited by two disastrous earthquakes. One occurred in the city of Charleston, South Carolina, in August, 1886, and the other in San Francisco, in April, 1906. The first took place at night and came without warning. The inhabitants were suddenly alarmed by houses shaking and falling. The earth was torn apart; and from deep cracks, streams of hot mud and sand were 466 AMERICAN HISTORY thrown out. The destruction was widespread, and public buildings, private property, and railroads were completely demolished. A number of persons were killed and scores were rendered homeless. The people of the entire country sympathized deeply with this stricken district, and large sums of money were collected and sent to Charleston to relieve the suffering. The earthquake in San Francisco was even more disas- trous. This, too, came without warning and occurred Union Square, San Francisco. One of the Scenes of the Earthquake. at about daylight. The damage included the loss of hun- dreds of lives and the destruction of more than one third of the important business districts of the city. To add to the horror, fires broke out in different parts of the city; and as the water mains were all rendered useless by the earthquake, it was utterly impossible for the fire depart- ment to render aid. Thousands of persons were rendered STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 467 homeless and had to be accommodated in tents in the parks of the city. Congress made a special appropriation to assist the sur- vivors, and help from all parts of the United States poured in to aid the unfortunate people. Shortly after the dis- aster, the remaining population returned to the scene of confusion and began to rebuild their city with even greater faith than before. To-day all signs of the disaster have been removed, and San Francisco stands as one of the most attractive and modern of our American cities. Severe Floods. — One of the most unfortunate disasters occurred at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, on May 31, 1889. During the early spring unusually heavy rains fell and rilled the mountain streams until they became surging torrents. At this time a heavy rain occurred and increased the volume of water in a reservoir north of Johnstown until the dam broke and the entire flood, at the rate of two and a half miles per minute, dashed down the valley. The volume of water was. fifty feet high and it spread out half a mile wide. As it surged through the valley, trees, bridges, locomotives, mills, and villages were swept on. When the crest of the flood struck Johnstown, the entire city was nearly demolished. More than two thousand lives were lost and ten million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. This terrible destruction cast a gloom all over the country, and again the whole nation hastened to render aid to those in affliction. Galveston Tidal Wave. — Even greater than this flood was the terrible tornado that struck the city of Galveston, Texas, on September 8, 1900. Located on a low shallow island, the city was but a few feet above sea level ; and when the terrific storm surged across the Gulf of Mexico, the waves rose far above the high- water mark and swept over the island, quickly submerging the town under a disastrous flood. Seven thousand lives were lost and seventeen mil- 468 AMERICAN HISTORY lion dollars' worth of property was destroyed. Surgeons and Red Cross nurses hurried to the scene of devastation, and aid was supplied as speedily as possible. Entire families were lost, and many children were separated from their parents. The distress was of the most intense character. The national government sent special aid, and in the course of time Congress made a liberal appropriation to build an immense sea wall on the gulf side of the island. Within this wall Galveston has been rebuilt with all modern improvements, and the people have placed greater confi- dence than ever in their city. Other Disasters from Floods. — Within recent years severe damage from floods has been experienced in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys as well as along tributary streams. Each year an enormous volume of water rushes down these valleys, often in excess of the carrying capacity of the streams. It is believed that this unusual condition has been caused by the improved drainage systems in cities, which carry off the rainfall more rapidly than formerly when much of the water was absorbed by the unpaved city streets. Another cause mentioned is the destruction of vast forest areas which were formerly natural means of consumption of this water supply. The problem of prevention of disasters by floods and overflows has become so vexed that Congress has been concerned with new remedies besides the construction of large levees or embankments to hold the onrushing tor- rents within the banks. One of the means recently suggested is the construction of reservoirs that shall hold the surplus water and a system of connecting irrigat- ing canals that can be used to conduct this surplus water to dry and arid regions that could be reclaimed by irri- gation. Among the members of Congress most active in the inter- est of these projects have been Senator Joseph E. Ransdell, STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 469 president of the Rivers and Harbors Commission, Senator Humphreys, and Senator Newlands. The Newlands bill especially referred to the conserva- tion of the water supply. Although such projects entail great expense, yet the government may some day see its way to put into effect some plan for more complete prevention of floods. Storm Signal Service. — In order to aid the coast towns, the United States government has established along the shores a series of storm signal stations. Here expert scientists watch the signs of the weather and send out in advance weather reports to warn seamen of an oncoming storm. Special signals are also raised to serve as warn- ings, and as a result thousands of people prepare and seek places of safety. The Mississippi Jetties. — Among the greatest of the national government projects for improving water ways was the establishment of a jetty system at the mouth of the Mississippi River. For many years the delta of the Missis- sippi River was often so choked with debris and sand that it was impossible for ocean-going vessels to make a safe entrance into the main stream. This condition had often perplexed mariners, and, as early as 1722, a French engineer, named Pauger, suggested a plan whereby the channel of the river at its mouth could be deepened. The idea was not carried out until 1874, when James B. Eads, a United States civil engineer, submitted a plan for a jetty system. These jetties were to be built in the South Pass of the delta, and to consist of heavy piling driven into the banks and a channel dredged out so as to force the swift current through this pass. In this way the current forced the debris out into the gulf, and a clear entrance was secured sufficient in depth to accommodate the largest ocean-going ves- sel. It took four years to complete the jetties, and the cos.t was more than six million dollars. The expenditure 470 AMERICAN HISTORY has amply paid for itself, as through this port great vessels from all parts of the world are able to secure the output of productions from the Mississippi Valley. ARBITRATION AND THE PEACE CONFERENCE Although the history of the world has been marked by many pages recording bloody conflicts between nations, yet there have been earnest efforts to settle international disputes by peaceful measures rather than by force of arms. The United States has led in this work of arbitration, and during the century of its diplomatic relations with other countries more than one hundred and fifty cases of disagree- ment have been settled by candid investigation and peace- ful adjustment ; as, for instance, the Oregon Boundary, the Alabama Claims, the Bering Sea Controversy. In 1872, a Peace Conference was held in Paris, where the military code then in use was somewhat improved. At this time there was an agreement that all springs and streams furnishing drinking water were to be protected, that there should be careful consideration for the Red Cross Service on the battle field, that brass and rough-edged bullets should not be used. These measures were prac- tically adopted by many nations, although they continued their plans for active defense. In 1899 the Czar of Russia called a meeting of delegates from all parts of the world to consider forming an inter- national Peace Conference. The meeting was held at The Hague and plans were discussed to form a permanent move- ment to do away with the horrors of war. Suggestions were made, but nothing definite was accomplished in arranging for permanent peace. But the delegates returned home and told of the work proposed, and newspapers, magazines, social and civic associations took up the work and began the plan of educating the public to desire world-wide peace. STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 471 Unfortunately differences arose between nations and the peace movement was not strong enough to prevail, and again the disputes were settled by warfare. Later, greater efforts were made to further the work of arbitration and the International Conciliation Association was formed, whose purpose is to work toward educating the world to consider thoughtfully the plan of inter- national arbitration. The American branch of this Asso- ciation publishes many pamphlets on international ques- tions and widely distributes these with the view to giving the American people a fair and just view of these issues, and " to arouse the interest of the American people in the progress of the movement for promoting international peace . . . and good fellowship between nations." Andrew Carnegie, a philanthropist of nation-wide repu- tation, has been deeply interested in this work, and, within recent years, has given a million and a half dollars for the erection of a magnificent " peace palace " at The Hague in which the Peace Tribunal holds its regular meetings. There is no question of greater importance to us than this splendid movement for international peace, and every effort should be made to aid in promoting and advocating this work. Topical Outline Strength of the American Nation. I. Disasters and their Effects : 1. Fatal Diseases, Yellow Fever, the Work of Dr. William Gorgas. 2. Bubonic Plague. Public Health Service. 3. Earthquakes. 4. Severe Floods. 5. Storm Signal Service. II. The Mississippi Jetties. III. Arbitration and the Peace Conference. 472 AMERICAN HISTORY Review Questions i. What efforts have been made by the United States to prevent the development and spread of disease? 2. What is meant by the public health service? What should be the duty of every citizen toward this service ? 3. Tell something of the work of Dr. William Gorgas. 4. Mention some of the severe disasters that have occurred in the United States in recent years. 5. How have the American people met these calamities? 6. Why were the Mississippi jetties built? 7. Give an account of the efforts made to secure international peace. CHAPTER XXXI A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS Inventions. — The nineteenth century stands out as remarkable in the number and success of labor-saving ma- chines that were invented during this era. All over the world new and clever devices were made to aid in reducing manual labor and to help mankind in the promotion of larger and more comfortable living. The United States took the lead in the number and importance of the inven- tions that were made, and the history of the country was enriched by the effects of these devices upon the develop- ment of our nation. McCormick Reaper. — For centuries the grain crops of the world were harvested with the small hand sickle. This work was slow and tiresome and required many laborers to harvest a crop. In the beginning of the century a tool called a " cradle " was invented. This consisted of several blades that were attached to a long handle like a scythe, which cut a larger amount of grain than the sickle. For some time this was considered a great advantage over the sickle and many of these implements were put into use. The man who was destined to revolutionize harvesting tools was Cyrus Hall McCormick, who was born in Virginia on February 15, 1809. McCormick was reared on a farm, and at the age of twenty-one he invented two valuable plows. In 183 1, after several years of experimenting, he invented a practical reaping machine which he improved and pat- ented a few years later. In 1847 ne removed to Chicago 473 474 AMERICAN HISTORY and there built large works for the construction of his reaping machines. The new harvesters were a splendid success. They cut many times the amount of grain that could be harvested by hand and so economized labor that vast areas of western lands were rapidly put under culti- vation. McCormick exhibited his invention at various The Combine. A combined harvester-thresher. international fairs, where he received numerous prizes and honors. Since the first invention many improvements have been added, and to-day the modern machines not only cut but bind the grain. Within recent years a steam threshing machine was in- vented that could be operated in the fields. This supple- mented the work of the reaper and was the means of increas- ing the grain production of the United States many fold. Both of these machines are also used in the harvesting of rice, and to-day they are found in all civilized grain-pro- ducing countries. Within recent years still other labor-saving farm imple- ments have been invented, such as the steam plow, the automatic seeder, and the steam harrow. A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 475 Sugar Machinery. — In the southern sugar districts new methods have been introduced in the manufacture of sugar. Among these is the " Centrifugal process." This process consists in pouring the cane sirup into huge vessels that are rapidly turned by steam power. The rapid turning of these vessels granulates the sugar. Another important invention in this manufacture is the " bagasse burner." Bagasse is the name given to the stalks of cane after the juice has been extracted from them. In times past, quantities of this refuse would accumulate about the cane rollers and require constant labor to remove it. Now a furnace has been invented in which the bagasse can be burned, and the waste is not only consumed, but it becomes valuable fuel for generating the steam that runs the machinery of the sugar house. The Cotton Gin and Press. — The invention of a ma- chine to separate the cotton seed from the lint, which was made by Eli Whitney in 1793, has continued in use until the present day. Although steam and electric power are now used to operate the large cotton gins, the principles of the invention have varied but little since earlier times. As early as 1816 a successful cotton press was made for the purpose of compressing raw cotton into smaller bales. To-day this system has been so successfully developed that thousands of pounds of cotton are easily stored on ships and trains when formerly the bulky bales afforded less opportunity for transportation of this product. Sewing Machine. — Sewing machines of small size had been in use in many countries for years, but none of these was a success because the stitch was a loose chain stitch that did not hold the cloth firmly. In 1846 Elias Howe, of Massachusetts, invented a machine that made a close lock stitch. This was done by placing the eye of the needle in the flattened point. The shuttle was then adjusted to 476 AMERICAN HISTORY catch the short thread and knot it securely. This stitch was firmer and the seam more permanent than hand sewing. From time to time other devices have been added to the machine until to-day all grades and variety of sewing, from the simple seam to elaborate hemstitching and embroidery, are made. Within recent years electric power has been used to operate many of the sewing machines in garment factories. Vulcanized Rubber. — One of the most valuable dis- coveries of modern times is the process of hardening India rubber so that it will stand extreme heat and not melt or crack. This process was discovered in 1839 by Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, Connecticut. After five years of careful experimenting, Goodyear found a process of hardening rubber by treating it with sulphur. This is known as vulcanizing. Goodyear received special prizes at the large international expositions where he exhibited many useful articles made by this new rubber process. Goodyear lived to see his discovery applied to more than five hundred uses. To-day vulcanized rubber has world- wide use, not the least of its uses' being vulcanized tires for automobiles and roofing for buildings. Automobiles. — Another invention of world-wide fame is the automobile run by electric or gasoline motor power. As early as 1680 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a carriage to be propelled by steam, and from this time until 1884 many models for such vehicles were made. At last a practical demonstration of an automobile was made by a German inventor, and later models were introduced by other inven- tors that were more perfect in their plans. The idea has become so popular that the automobile is fast taking the place of horse-drawn vehicles. It is estimated that in 191 5 upward of 2,000,000 automobiles are now in use in the United States. The use of these machines has led to the development of better roads, has given more rapid A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 477 transit, and has helped to solve the problem of the convey- ance of heavy loads with ease and comfort. Aeroplanes. — To-day, the dream of long ago has come true in the successful flights of flying machines, or aero- planes. The earlier aerial navigation was made by the use of balloons. These were neither adequate nor practical and were simply used for scientific and exhibition purposes. Throughout the world many scientific experiments were made by inventors in seeking to secure a practical aeroplane. At last two brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, of Day- ton, Ohio, constructed a gasoline or motor aeroplane that was successful in making a flight of some distance. In 1908 a prize was given to Glenn Curtiss for a flight of over a mile. Other experiments have been made by daring aviators, and the near future will probably reveal even more practical use of this wonderful machine. The Telegraph. — One of the most noted inventions of this century is the " Magnetic Telegraph " made by Samuel F. B. Morse. After working for many years, this inventor finally perfected his machine and then he waited four years before he could get either the United States or European governments to promote the patent. In 1843 Congress voted thirty thousand dollars to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. It was completed the next year and proved a success. Almost immediately other nations took up the patent, and it was not long before many lines of the Morse tele- graph were started. Atlantic Cable. — In 1848 Commodore Maury suggested the idea of a submarine telegraph to Cyrus Field. The plan was taken up by Field, while business men in England and America subscribed money to promote the enterprise. The United States Congress made a special appropriation to the fund, and work was begun. Three experiments were made before the cable was a success. At last, in 1858, 478 AMERICAN HISTORY Field succeeded in laying the cable between England and America, and the first message sent was greetings between President Buchanan and Queen Victoria. Unfortunately this cable broke within three weeks and the expensive and tedious task was again undertaken by Field. After three years of patient labor the cable was completed and has since remained as a regular means of communication between the United States and foreign countries. To-day cable systems connect all parts of the world and are the means of bringing international questions to a more speedy settle- ment. Marconi Telegraph. — Even more wonderful than the magnetic telegraph has been the invention of the " wireless telegraph " by Marconi, an Italian. To-day every vessel is equipped with its own station, while from land and sea flash the waves of messages across the air. This system has been of special value to ships at sea, and the signal service has served to send speedy relief to boats in danger. Telephone. — To-day the telephone is such a household, as well as business, convenience that all are practically acquainted with its use. This invention was made by two inventors, Bell and Graham. Each succeeded in mak- ing an instrument that served to carry the human voice across the wires to more distant places. Within recent years Thomas Edison has improved the invention, and to- day the use of the telephone has been extended to trans- mitting messages for long distances with as much success as those sent to nearer range. Thomas Edison. — The mention of the great inventions of the present day would indeed be incomplete if one should omit the work of the greatest inventor that America has produced. This wonderful genius, Thomas Edison, has devoted his life to making many unique as well as useful inventions. Edison's greatest work has been in the field A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 479 of electricity. Here he has not only made original investi- gations, but he has taken older and undeveloped experi- ments and has evolved many Thomas Edison. perfect patents. Among these inventions that have been of vital importance to the world are Edison's incandescent electric light, the improved arc light, im- proved dynamos and en- gines for power force, the phonograph, and the vita- graph. These are but a few of the many devices that he has brought forward, but they serve to illustrate the varied range of inventions that to-day are of vast commercial and social value. The Making of Books. — Since the epoch-making dis- covery of the art of printing, many centuries ago, there has been a steady development of ways and means to im- prove the process of making books. The ancient hand press has been set aside by the steam press invented by Hoe. Many other inventions and processes, such as the lino- type machine, lithographing, and electroplating, have helped to make books cheaper and more attractive than ever before. This has given to the world an opportunity for every one to own and use books, and through this wide use of books the world has become more civilized and up- lifted. The modern newspaper, numbering many pages and selling for a few cents, is an illustration of the marvelous advance made in the line of printing. Medical Research. — In the realm of medicine we also find a number of important discoveries that should be men- tioned in connection with the progress of our country. 480 AMERICAN HISTORY Within recent years skilled physicians have discovered that many contagious and infectious diseases are trans- mitted by germs or microbes. In order to eradicate these germs special antitoxins have been made which have had a powerful effect in arresting epidemics and in curing suc- cessfully maladies that were formerly considered almost' fatal. Antiseptics have also been discovered, and their use in surgical operations, as well as in simpler ways, have been the means of securing speedy recoveries by removing the dangers of blood poison. In 1846 Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Boston, discovered the value of anaesthetics, or certain gases that produce artificial sleep and render the patient insensible to pain. This discovery has been one of the greatest blessings to mankind, for by this process many serious surgical opera- tions have been performed without apparent pain to the patient. There has been a prior claim to this discovery made by Dr. Crawford W. Long, of Georgia, who discovered in 1842 that ether could be used to make a patient insensible to pain. Dr. Long's discovery was not known to many medical men at the time, and within a few years similar discoveries and experiments were made by other physi- cians. In 1847 an English physician discovered the value of chloroform as an anaesthetic. The Roentgen or X-Ray Treatment is another valuable method used by physicians to-day, and the discovery of Radium has also produced a profound effect upon medical science. In many of the hospitals of our country students are working daily in the department of medical research, and from time to time their untiring efforts have resulted in wonderful discoveries for the healing of the nation. A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 481 Topical Outline A Century of Inventions. I. McCormick Reaper. II. Sugar Machinery. III. Cotton Gin and Press. IV. Sewing Machine. V. Vulcanized Rubber. VI. Automobiles. VII. Aeroplanes. VIII. The Telegraph. IX. Atlantic Cable. X. Marconi Telegraph. XI. Telephone. XII. Thomas Edison. XIII. The Making of Books. XIV. Medical Research. Review Questions 1. Why is the nineteenth century called the century of inventions? 2. What are some of the most important labor-saving inventions? 3. Describe some of the new methods used in transportation. 4. Who invented the telegraph and the telephone? What is the value of these instruments? 5. Who is the greatest American inventor? Mention some of his inventions. 6. Give a brief history of the invention of printing. 7. What are some of the most noted discoveries in medicine? 21 CHAPTER XXXII AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS The Purpose of Fairs. — Among the means used by governments to promote the development of their people is the inauguration of state and international fairs. This custom has been in vogue in Europe for centuries and has given a large opportunity for the display of the products and manufactures of the country as well as the expansion of ideas and interests. The United States has also realized the advantages of these fairs and has held a number of them in different parts of our country, with the result that our people have become better acquainted with the natural resources of the country. They have been introduced to new sections of the United States, and they have been brought to recognize the importance of the country as a whole. Within the past fifty years the United States has opened some of the largest international fairs that have ever been given Philadelphia Centennial. — The first important inter- national fair was the Centennial Exposition of Philadelphia, held in 1876, in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Many foreign countries contributed beautiful exhibits, includ- ing loan collections of rare works of art that were seen in this country for the first time. This fair revealed the possi- bilities of the agricultural resources of this country and was the means of encouraging larger immigration to the South and West. It was the means too of bringing our people 482 AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS 483 together and creating a stronger bond of friendship between the states. Cotton Centennial. — After the Philadelphia exposition, another world's fair was held in New Orleans in 1884. This was known as the " Cotton Centennial Exposition," and was held in celebration of the one hundredth anni- versary of the shipment of the first bale of cotton from America. This exposition was also largely attended and the display of foreign and domestic manufactures was especially interesting. The main building covered thir- teen acres and here was shown a complete exhibit of cotton- manufacturing machinery. The exhibit sent by the United States government included many of the rare specimens of the Smithsonian collection. Columbian Exposition. — One of the most magnificent expositions ever held in the world was the World's Fair of Chicago, opened in 1893, and commemorating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. Its buildings were covered with a composition similar to plaster and so constructed as to give the idea of white marble. It received the justly earned title the " White City." The buildings were very graceful and ornate, and no pains were spared in planning the construction. The artistic effect was one of the finest ever produced, and the United States won the admiration of the world by this splendid effort. The art exhibit was the finest. ever shown in America, and the completeness of the foreign exhibits gave the fair a large international importance. The patronage was enor- mous, and the practical lessons learned from the exposition have produced splendid results in the development of our national art and industries. Pan-American Exposition. — Perhaps one of the most attractive of the smaller fairs was that held in Buffalo in 1901. It was known as the Pan-American Exposition, and was designed to bring together the interests and re- 484 AMERICAN HISTORY sources of all of the American countries. The buildings were largely patterned after the Spanish architecture used in the Mexican and South American States. The warm tones used in the buildings and the setting of beautiful grounds gave a charming effect of rich, harmonious colors. The electrical display was one of the finest ever made, and the night illuminations were beautiful beyond compare. Louisiana-Purchase Exposition. — This fair was held in St. Louis in 1904, and was a rival to the wonderful fair held in Chicago. The buildings and grounds were excellently ar- ranged, and the lavish display of beautiful flower beds lent an added charm to the grounds. The " Court of Foun- tains " was one of the loveliest conceptions in the arrange- ment of the plans. The keynote of the Exposition was education. Up to this time, no other world's fair had ever given so complete an exhibit of the development of education as this mag- nificent fair. Besides the exhibits of the elementary and secondary schools, showing every phase of the courses of study pursued in these schools, there were elaborate exhibits showing systems of education for the blind, deaf, dumb, and other exceptional classes. Vocational schools were largely represented, and the ideas of industrial education displayed at this time found a responsive note in many sections of the United States, where this work has since been pursued with eminent success. The state exhibits at this fair were especially noteworthy, and the foreign exhibit was interesting and extensive. One of the principal features of the fair was the temple of music, where a series of organ recitals were given by the most famous musicians of the world. These music treats attracted thousands of visitors. Panama-Pacific Fair. — In 191 5 the Panama-Pacific Fair was held in San Francisco in honor of the comple- tion of the Panama Canal. This also ranks as one of the AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS 485 important international fairs held in this country. Here the development of the various systems of transportation had been the leading thought. The fair was located on the bay and by the natural surroundings given an attrac- tive setting, water, land, and air crafts of all descriptions View of the Panama Pacific Exposition. were exhibited. One of the most interesting of these ex- hibits was the aviation field, where varied and skillful exhibitions of aerial navigation were shown. The floral and agricultural exhibits of this fair were unsurpassed, and the electrical display was the most elaborate and complete that the world has seen. 486 AMERICAN HISTORY Topical Outline An Era of Expositions. I. The Purpose of Fairs. II. Philadelphia Centennial. III. Cotton Centennial. IV. Columbian Centennial. V. Pan-American Exposition. VI. Louisiana-Purchase Exposition. VII. Panama-Pacific Fair. Review Questions i. What is the purpose of state fairs ? International fairs? 2. Mention some of the most noted of the expositions held in the United States. What event did each commemorate ? CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE (For use as a blackboard outline and a guide to study) uropean Background of American < History Causes leading to Discovery of America. i. 2. 3- 4- Loss of Oriental Trade. Inspiration of Crusades. Fall of Constantinople. Effects of Renaissance. 5- Portuguese Maritime Efforts. Discovery of New World, i 000-1504 1. Northmen, 1000 A.D. Gunnbjorn, Greenland. Eric, Greenland. Bjarni, Greenland. (Unimportant in history.) Leif, Labrador, New England. ' West Indies, 2. Columbian Voyages, 1492-1 502 and Central South America. 3. The Cabots, 1497-1498, Labrador, New Eng land. 4. Vespucius, 1498, South America. 5. Cabral, 1504, South America. Proof of the Rotundity of the Earth by Circum- navigation. Era of Ex- ploration, 1 500-1 600 Spanish 1. Magellan and Del Cano, 1520. 2. Sir Francis Drake, 1580. De Leon, Florida, 151 2. Gomez and d'Allyon, Atlantic Coast, 1519-1526. Cortez, Mexico, 1519. Pizarro, Peru, 1523. Coronado, Kansas, Nebraska, 1540. Cabrillo, California, 1540. De Soto, Mississippi Valley, 1 539-1 540. 487 4 88 AMERICAN HISTORY French Era of Ex- ploration, i 500-1600 (Cont.) French Fishermen visit North America, 1500. John Denys, Newfoundland, 1506. Verrazano, North Atlantic Coast, 1524. Cartier, St. Lawrence River, 1534-1541. Champlain, St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, Great Lakes, 1605-163 5. Joliet and Marquette, Mississippi Valley, 1673- La Salle and Tonty, Mississippi Valley, 1678-1682. Iberville and Bienville, lower Mississippi Valley, 1699-17 18. The Cabots, Atlantic Coast of N.A., 1498. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New England, 1583. Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow (Raleigh enterprise) Carolina Coast, 1584. Bartholomew Gosnold, New England, 1602. Martin Frobisher, Northwest Passage, Frobisher's Inlet, 1576. Sir John Davis, Northwest Passage, Davis Strait, 1586. Henry Hudson, Northwest Passage, Hudson Bay, 1610. . Sir William Baffin, Baffin's Bay, 161 5. Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588, gives England larger Sea Power. English Spanish, ' Florida and 1 540-1 760 . Texas. 'Carolina, 1562; Florida, 1564 (Hugue Period of nots). Coloniza- • Acadia, 1604. tion French Quebec and Montreal, 1605-1608. Texas, 1685 (Matagorda Bay). Mississippi, Biloxi, 1699. Alabama, Mobile, 1702. , Louisiana, New Orleans, 17 18. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 489 Dutch German Period of Coloniza- tion {Cont) English The Struggle for Supremacy New Netherlands ( New York), 1609 1660. Connecticut River, 1633. Delaware, 1655. Louisiana (German Coast), 1726. Georgia (Ebenezer), 1734. Pennsylvania (Bethlehem). Swedes New Sweden (Delaware) 1638-1655. f Virginia, 1607. Southern CarolinaS; l6o3 . Colonies | Georgia> iy ^ New Endand Middle Colonies Massachusetts, 1620. New Hampshire, 1623, Connecticut and New Haven, 163 5-1638. Rhode Island, 1636. Maryland, 1632. Delaware, 1638. New York, 1664. New Jersey, 1664. . Pennsylvania, 1681. The American Revolution 1. Indian Conflicts 2. Intercolonial Wars Indirect Causes Powhatan and Opecancanough in Virginia, 162 2-1644. Pequot War (1637), King Philip's War in New England. Creek War, Georgia. King William's (1689-1697)- Queen Anne's (1702-17 13). King George's (1 744-1 748). French and Indian (1 7 54- 1763) • Remoteness from England. Colonial Self-government. Colonial Trade Expansion. Burden of the National Debt. Church Administration. 49Q AMERICAN HISTORY The American Revolution (Cont.) Direct Causes Colonial Protests i. Opposition to National Taxa- tion. a. Navigation Laws ; b. Stamp Act ; c. Townshend Duties ; d. Grenville Duties. 2. Objection to National Inter- ference. a. Quebec Act; b. Quartering Act ; c. Transportation Act ; d. Closing of Ports ; e. De- nial of Charter Rights. First Continental Congress. Work of the Committees on Cor- respondence. Military Events of Revolution Early Struggles British Plan of Campaign First Plan Second Plan Third Plan North Carolina. Lexington. Ticonderoga. Lord Dunmore's War. ' Cut off New England from other Colonies. Blockade American Ports. Capture Philadelphia. To organize Tory Forces and over- run the South. Bunker Hill. Siege of Boston. Attack on Quebec. Battle of Long Island. Campaign in New York. Battle of Saratoga. Capture of Boston. Capture of New York. Capture of Savannah. Trenton. Princeton. Brandy wine. Philadelphia taken. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 491 Military Events of Revolution (Cont.) Fourth Plan British use Savannah as military Base. Partisan Leaders defeat British Plans. Battle of King's Mountain. Greene's Success in South. Surrender at Yorktown. Treaty of Peace Civil events of the Revolution First Continental Congress. Second Continental Congress. Mecklenburg Declaration. Declaration of Independence. Articles of Confederation. Foreign Treaties. The National Government First Plans for Union Articles of Confeder- ation The Constitutional Conventions The Constitution Albany Congress. Stamp Act Congress. Continental Congress. Taxation. Foreign Treaties. Ordinance 1787. {Mount Vernon Conference. Annapolis Meeting. Philadelphia Convention. C Sources of the Constitution. < Needs for Constitution. I The Compromises. The Form : Executive, Legislative, Judiciary. Ratification. Amendments forming Bill of Rights. Interpretation : Strict and Loose Construction. 492 AMERICAN HISTORY Establish- ment of Na- tional Gov- ern- ment Washington's Adminis- tration, i 789-1 797 Adams, 1797-1801 Organization of Govern- ment. Political Parties. Foreign Treaties. Local Issues. ' Foreign Troubles. Alien and Sedition Laws. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Downfall of Federalists. Development of the Nation Growth of Democ- racy Jefferson, 1801-1809 Madison, 1809-1817 Monroe, 1817-1825 War with Tripoli. Louisiana Purchase. Free Trade and Sea- men's Rights. The Embargo. War of 1812. Rise of American Manu- factures. Protective Tariff. Controversy over Admis- sion of Louisiana. Era of Good Feeling. Florida Purchase. Missouri Compromise. Monroe Doctrine. J. Q. Adams, f The Tariff Controversy. 1825-1829 l Rise of New Democracy. Jackson, 1829-1837 Van Buren, 1837-1841 Spoils System. Rise of Western Inter- ests. Tariff and Nullification. Opposition to Bank. Distribution of Surplus. Panic of 1837. f Effects of Panic. < Independent Treasury [ System. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 493 Tariff Issues. Harrison- Tyler, The Bank Question. Webster- Ashburton 1841-1845 Treaty. Annexation of Texas. Polk, Mexican War. 1845-1849 Oregon Question. Wilmot Proviso. The Slavery Con- Taylor and Fillmore, < 1849-1853 The Compromise of 1850. tro- versy . and its Pierce, 1853-1857 1 Kansas-Nebraska Act. Relation ' Kansas War. to Buchanan, Dred Scott Decision. States' 1857-1861 Lincoln-Douglas Debate. Rights John Brown Raid. Development of the Nation {Cont.) Lincoln, 1861-1865 ' Secession. War between the States. . Emancipation Act. - Reconstruction. Radicalism. Johnson, Tenure of Office Act. 1865-1869 Impeachment of Presi- dent. ' Carpet-bag Regime in South. Grant, Centennial Exposition. 1869-1877 Whisky Frauds. Growth of Expansion of Western Interests. Ameri- can Na- f Contested Election. tion Hayes, < Restoration of Southern 1877-1881 I Political Rights. Garfield and f Civil Service Reform. Arthur, < Immigration Acts. 1881-1885 [ Reduction in Postage. 494 AMERICAN HISTORY Development of the Nation (Cont.) Growth of Ameri- can Nation (Cont.) Cleveland, 1885-18. Harrison, 1889-1893 Cleveland, 1893-1897 McKinley, 1897-1901 Roosevelt, 1901-1908 Taft, 1908-19 1 2 Wilson, 1912- Tariff Issue. Interstate Commerce. Chinese Exclusion. Pan-American Congress. McKinley Tariff Act. Sherman Bill. AustralianBallot System. Chicago World's Fair. Panic, 1893. Tariff Bill. Strikes. Bering Sea Fisheries. . Civil Service Bill. Spanish-American War. Annexation of Hawaii. Government of Philip- pines. Strike Arbitration. Panama Canal. New Business Methods. Anti-Trust Legislation. . St. Louis Fair. Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill. Arbitration Treaties. Reform Measures. ' Regional Banks Es- tablished. Parcel Post Law put into Effect. . Diplomatic Relations. APPENDIX THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (Adopted by the Continental Congress, July 4TH, 1776.) In CONGRESS, July 4, 1776. The unanimous declaration of the thirteen united States of America. When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separa- tion. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organiz- ing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under ab- solute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 495 496 APPENDIX the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- sary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise ; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of in- vasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and rais- ing the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment, for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States : APPENDIX 497 For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent : For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves in- vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- tection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely parallel in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has en- deavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms : Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legisla- ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have re- minded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice 49 8 APPENDIX and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be free and Indepoident States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm re- liance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. JOHN HANCOCK. 1 [New Hampshire.] Joslah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. [Connecticut.] Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington. W t illla.m Williams, Oliver Wolcott. [Massachusetts Bay.] Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbrtdge Gerry. [New York.] William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. [Rhode Islajid.] Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. [New Jersey.] Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 1 This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The States are not mentioned in the original. APPENDIX 499 [Pennsylvania.] Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. [Delaware.] Cesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. [Maryland.] Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. [Virginia.] George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thom\s Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. [North Carolina.] William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. [South Carolina.] Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Mlddleton. [Georgia.] Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We the people of the L T nited States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Preamble. Objects of the Consti- tution. 5°° APPENDIX Congress. Two houses. House of Represent- atives. Term and election. Qualifica- tions — age, citi- zenship, • residence. Method of apportion- ing repre- sentatives. (Part in brackets super- seded by Sec. 2 of Amend- ment XIV.) Census. Tempo- rary appor- tionment. Vacancies. Officers. Article I. Section i . All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall con- sist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. [1] The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. [2] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. [3] [Representatives and direct Taxes shall be ap- portioned among the several States which may be in- cluded within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of, Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.] The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre- sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plan- tations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. [4] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. [5] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. APPENDIX 50I Section 3. [1] The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. [2] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Conse- quence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expira- tion of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Ex- piration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resigna- tion, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. [3] No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- tained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. [4] The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. [5] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice Presi- dent, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. [6] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Im- peachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath of Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- rence of two thirds of the Members present. [7] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not ex- tend further than to removal from Office, and dis- qualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Senate. Election and term. Division of Senators into three classes. Vacancies. Qualifica- tions — age, citi- zenship, residence. Vice-presi- dent. Officers. Trial of impeach- ments. Judgment in cases of impeach- ment. 502 APPENDIX Both Houses. Times, places, and method of electing members. Time of meeting. Member- ship regu- lations. Quorum. Rules of each house. Journals. Special adjourn- ments. Members. Compen- sation and privileges of mem- bers. Disabili- ties of members. Section 4. [1] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. [2] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. [1] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Mem- bers, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the atten- dance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalities as each House may provide. [2] Each House may determine the Rules of its Pro- ceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. [3] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. [4] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. [1] The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascer- tained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. [2] No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which APPENDIX 503 Bills and resolutions. Revenue bills. Veto of President on bills. shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section 7. [1] All Bills for raising Revenue shall orig- inate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. [2] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Re- consideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall be- come a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respec- tively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. [3] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Con- currence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have Power [1] To lay Powers of and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay Con & ress - the Debts and provide for the common Defence and Veto on resolutions. 504 APPENDIX Taxation. Borrowing. Regulating commerce. Natural- ization and bankruptcy. Coins, weights, and measures. Counter- feiting. Post offices. Patents and copyrights. Inferior courts. Piracies. War. Army. Navy. Land and naval forces. Militia, in service. Militia, organization. general Welfare of the United States ; but all duties, Im- posts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; [2] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; [3] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; [4] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; [5] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Meas- ures; [6] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States ; [7] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; [8] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Dis- coveries ; [9] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; [10] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies com- mitted on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; [n] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Re- prisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; [12] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropria- tion of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; [13] To provide and maintain a Navy; [14] To make Rules for the Government and Regula- tion of the land and naval Forces ; [15] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; [16] To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- ing, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of APPENDIX 5°5 and stations. the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. [17] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases Seat of whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles government, square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress become the Seat of the Govern- ment of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legisla- ture of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erec- tion of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And [18] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Office thereof. Supplemen- tary legisla- tion. Section 9. [1] The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. [2] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or In- vasion the public Safety may require it. [3] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. [4] No Capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration here- inbefore directed to be taken. [5] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. [6] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. [7] No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a reg- ular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Ex- penditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. Limitations on powers of Congress. Slave trade. Habeas corpus. Bills of attainder and ex post facto laws. Direct tax. Tax on exports. Uniform commercial regulations. Finance. 506 APPENDIX Titles of nobility and presents. Limitations on powers of States. Specific pro- hibitions. Limitations on imposts. Prohibitions removable with consent of Congress. [8] No title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10. [i] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Al- liance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit, make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in. Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. [2] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, ex- cept what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. [3] No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay. President. Term. Presidential electors and method of choosing President. Article II. Section 1. [1] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : [2] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representa- tives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be APPENDIX 507 appointed an Elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.] [3] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. [4] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. [5] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall (Part in brackets superseded by XII amendment.) Dates of elections. Qualifica- tions, citi- zenship, age, and residence. Presidential succession. 5 o8 APPENDIX Compensa- tion. Oath of office. Powers of President. Military, supervisory, and judicial. In treaties and in appoint- ments. devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resigna- tion, or Inability, both of the President and Vice Presi- dent, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Dis- ability be removed, or a President shall be elected. [6] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be en- creased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. [7] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will tG the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. [i]"The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeach- ment. [2] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two- thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Depart- ments. APPENDIX 509 [3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Temporary Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the a PP° lnt - Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Legislative Congress Information of the State of the Union, and powers, recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- ters; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Liability to Officers of the United States, shall be removed from impeach- Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, ment - Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. Article III. Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, Judiciary. shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such Courts. inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme Judges: and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good term an 1 to to compen- Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their sat ion. Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. [1] The judicial Power shall extend to all jurisdiction. Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitu- tion, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — *■ to all cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of 5i° APPENDIX Original and appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court. Jury trial. Place of trial. Treason : definition, punishment. another State ; — between Citizens of different States — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or subjects. [2] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Juris- diction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. [3] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeach- ment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been com- mitted; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Con- gress may by Law have directed. Section 3. [1] Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. [2] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Nation and States. Interstate comity. Interstate citizenship. Extradition of criminals. Article IV. Section 1 . Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceed- ings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. [1] The Citizens of each State shall be en- titled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. [2] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found 5ii APPENDIX in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. [3] No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, Fugitive under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in slaves. Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Serv- ice or Labour may be due. Section 3. [1] New States may be admitted by the Admission Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be of new formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other States - State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. [2] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and Government make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the of national Territory or other Property belonging to the United temtory - States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every Protection State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, oi States, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses Amendment shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to OF Consti- this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legis- TT - TI °- latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; 512 APPENDIX Miscel- laneous. Preexisting national debt. Supremacy of Constitu- tion, treaties, and national law. Oaths of national and state officials. Ratifica- tion. Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suf- frage in the Senate. Article VI. [i] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Con- stitution, as under the Confederation. [2] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. [3] The Senators and Representatives before men- tioned, and the Members of the several State Legisla- tures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Quali- fication to any Office or public Trust under the United States. Article VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitu- tion between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, Go Washington — Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia [and thirty eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.] APPENDIX 513 ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMEND- MENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. [Article I ! ] Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- Prohibitions ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; on Congress or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; res P? ctin s i • 1 r i t 11 111 religion, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to speech, and petition the Government for a redress of grievances. the press. [Article II J ] A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the se- Right to curity of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms- bear Arms, shall not be infringed. [Article III J ] No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any Quartering house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of soldiers. of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. [Article IV *] The right of the people to be secure in their persons, Right of houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches search, and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. [Article V *] No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or Protection otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or of accus ed indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in cases 1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789. Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1 791. 5i4 APPENDIX Rights of accused regarding trial. Jury trial in lawsuits. Bail and punishment. Unenu- merated rights. Undelegated powers. the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be com- pelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. [Article VI *] In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con- fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- sory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. [Article VII *] In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. [Article VIII *] Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in- flicted. [Article IX 1 ] The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. [Article X 1 ] The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, 1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789. Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791. APPENDIX 515 are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article XI 1 The Judicial power of the United States shall not be Exemption construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- ° f States menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Sub- jects of any Foreign State. from suit. Article XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the Presi- dent of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Represent- atives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as Presi- dent, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- diately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the repre- sentation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President when- 1 Proposed September 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8, 1798. New method of electing President. (To super- sede part of Art. II, Sec. 1, cl. 2.) (Proposed Dec. 12, 1803. Declared in force Sept. 25, 1804.) 5i6 APPENDIX ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Abolition of slavery. (Proposed Feb. i, 1865. Declared in force Dec. 18, 1865.) Citizens of the United States — protection of. (Proposed June 16, 1866. De- clared in force July 28, 1868.) New basis of representa- tion in Con- gress. (Superseding part of Art. I, Sec. 2, cl. 3.) Article XIII Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XIV Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de- prive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective num- bers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial APPENDIX 17 Disabilities of officials engaged in rebellion. officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Represent- ative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office', civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the Validity of United States, authorized by law, including debts war debt - incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Article XV l Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States Voting rights to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United of citizens of the U. S. Proposed February Declared in force March 30, 1870. 5iS APPENDIX States or by any State on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XVI 1 Income tax. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, with- out apportionment among the several states, and with- out regard to any census or enumeration. Direct elec- tion of senators. Method of election. Temporary appoint- ments. Article XVII 2 The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for. six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the quali- fications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided that the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. Proposed July 12, 1909. Declared in force February 25, 1913- Proposed June 12, 191 2. Declared in force May 13, 19 13. INDEX Abolition Societies, in District of Colum- bia, 318. Acadia, 124. Acadians, 124. Adams, John, 176, 215, 223. Adams, John Quincy, 271. Adams, Samuel, 166. Agents, Colonial, 156. Aix la Chapelle, Treaty of, 117. Alabama Claims, 394. Alamo, The Siege of, 304-305 • Alaska Purchase, 395. Albany Congress, 121. Albemarle, 7°- Alien and Sedition Laws, 225. Allen, Ethan, 167. Amendments to Constitution, 399, 403. America, Origin of Name, 30. American Federation of Labor, 412. American Neutrality, 221. American Party, 327- American Tariff System, 251. Amherst, 126. Amnesty, 398. Anarchists, 413. Anderson, Major Robert, 337-339- Andre, Major, 187. Andros, Sir Edmund, 95. Anne, Queen, 116. Annexation of Texas, 306. Antietam, Battle of, 370. Anti-Federalist Party, 223. Anti-Rent Riots, 287. Anti-Slavery Movements, 323. Appomattox, 386. Arbitration and Peace Conference, 470. Arizona, 456. Arkansas Secedes, 340. Arnold, Benedict, 172, 182, 184, 186. Art. American, 269. Arthur, Chester A., 420. Articles of Confederation, 193. Astoria, 310. Atlanta, Capture of, 370-381- Atlantic Cable, 478. Austin, Moses, 303. Austin, Stephen, 304. Automobiles, 476. Bacon's Rebellion, 69. Baffin, 56. Balboa, 33. Baltimore, Lord, 103. Baltimore Secession Troubles, 340. Bancroft, George, Historian, 268. Bank of U. S., 218, 252, 278-281. Beauregard, General P. G. T., 348, 357- Bell, John, 334. Bemis Heights, Battle of, 182. Bering Sea Controversy, 432. Berkeley, Sir William, 68, 69. Bienville, Sieur de, 49. Bill of Rights, 209. Birney, J. G., 307- Blaine, J. G., 422. Bland Silver Bill, 420. Blockade, Southern, 35Q-357- Blok, 98. Bon Homme Richard, 198. Booth, John Wilkes, 392-393- Bore, Etienne de, 210. Boston Settled, 83. Boston Siege, 170, 171. Boston Massacre, 161. Boston Tea Party, 159. Braddock, General, 121, 122. Bradford, John, Gov., 82. Bragg, Braxton, General, 309, 362. Brandywine, Battle of, 183-184. Bread Riots, 282. Breckinridge, John C, 327- Brown, John, 326, 320-331- Bryan, William Jennings, 436, 446, 455. Bryant, William Cullen, 268. Buchanan, James, Pres., 327- Buell, Don Carlos, Gen., 355, 357- Buena Vista, Battle of, 3°9- Bull Run, Battle of, 348. 519 5 20 INDEX Bunker Hill, Battle of, 168. Burgoyne, General, 181, 182. Burke, Edmund, 160, 163. Burnside, General A. E., 371. Burr, Aaron, 226, 234. Business Panics, 281-282, 414, 429. Butler, Benj. F., 351. Cabinet, President's, 216. Cable, Atlantic, 478. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 53. Calhoun, John C, 240, 307, 319. California, 316-318. Calvert, Cecil and George, 103. Canals, 262-263. Capital of United States, 217. Carolinas, 57, 70-73. "Carpetbaggers," 401. Carteret, George, 102, 107. Cartier, Jacques, 42. Carver,. John, 82. Catholics, Maryland Settled by, 103. Cemetery Hill, 374. Centennials, 482-486. Cervera, Admiral, 439, 441. Champlain, Samuel, 43, 44. Champlain Lake, Battle on, 243. Chancellorsville, Battle of, 371-372. Charles I, 105. Charles II, 69, 85, 93, 102. Charleston, S. C, founded, 70, 71, 72. Attacked by British, 1S7. Earthquake, 465. Charters, London Company and Plym- outh Company, 63. Massachusetts, 83, 93, 95. Rhode Island, 93. Connecticut, 93. Pennsylvania, 109. Chase, Salmon P., 322, 325. Chattanooga, 363-364. Chesapeake, American Frigate, 235. Chicago fire, 411. Chickamauga, Battle of, 363. Christiansen, 98. Civil Rights Bill, 399. Civil Service Reform, 420. Civil War, 343-387. Claiborne, William, 105. Clark, Champ, 456. Clark, George Rogers, 194. Clark, William, with Lewis Exploration of Louisiana Territory, 233. Clay, Henry, 271, 307, 319, 324. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 451, 453. Clermont, 211. Cleveland, Grover, President, 422, 427. Clinton, Sir Henry, 168, 186. Coal Miners' Strike, 430-431. Coinage, 415, 420. Colleges, 137, 297. Colombia, Panama Canal, 453. Colonial Assemblies, 65, 79, 84, 87, 104, no. Colonies, American, Struggle for Inde- pendence, 150-205. Columbus, Christopher, 20-30. Commerce Commission, Interstate, 423. Committees of Correspondence, 15S. 163. Compact. Mayflower, 82. Compromises — Constitution, 208. Missouri, 255-258. Compromise 1850, 318, 320. Concord, 166, 167. Confederacy, Southern, 336. Confederation, Articles of, 193. Congress, Continental, 163, 168, 183. Congress, Stamp Act, 157. Connecticut, 85. Constitution, American Frigate, 246. Constitutional Convention, 207. Constitution of United States, 208. Convention, Albany, 121. Hartford, 247. Cooper, James Fenimore, 268. Corinth, Battle of, 357, 358. Cornwallis, Lord, 188-193. Coronado, Francisco, 35. Corporations, 426, 430, 431, 450, 455. Cortez, Hernando, 44. Cotton, 346, 351. Cotton-gin, 209, 257, 475. Cowpens, Battle of, 189. Crawford, William H., 271. Crittenden Compromise, 325. Cromwell, Oliver, 68, 105. Crown Point, 121, 124. Cuba, 437. Custer, General George A., 411. Da Gama, Vasco, 20. Dale, Sir Thomas, 65. Dare, Virginia, 62. Davis, Jefferson, 322, 325, 336, 387. Davis, John, 54. INDEX 521 Dawes, William, with Paul Revere, 166. Declaration of Independence, 175. Declaratory Act, 157. Deerfield, Mass., 116. Delaware, no, 343. De Leon, Ponce, 34. De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 452. Democratic Party, 333. Democrats, 323. De Soto, Hernando, 35, 36. Detroit, Surrender of, 242. Dewey, George, Commodore, 439. Dias, Batholomew, 19. Dingley Tariff Bill, 436. Dinwiddle, Governor, 118, 119, 120. District of Columbia, 318. Dix, Dorothea, 294. Donelson, Fort, 354. Doniphan, Major, 309. Dorr's Rebellion, 287. Douglas, Stephen A., 324, 327, 333. Drake, Francis, Sir, 57, 58, 61, 310. Dred Scott Decision, 328. Dunmore, Lord, 172. Duquesne, Fort, 120, 121, 122, 124. Dutch, 55, 85, 86, 99, 100, 102, 106. Dyer, Mary, 91. Early, Gen. J. A., 385. East India Company, 158. Edison, Thomas, 479. Education, 134-137, 151, 296-297. El Caney, 441. Electoral Commission, 417. Electricity, 479. Elizabeth, Queen, 54, 57, 59. Emancipation Proclamation, 375. Embargo Act, 235. Emigrant Aid Society, 325. Endicott, John, 83. Ericson, Leif, 12. Ericsson, John, 353. Erie, Lake, Battle of, 242. Erie Canal, 262-263. Eutaw Springs, 191. Expansion, 443. Exploration, Period of, 5-79. Expositions, 482-485. Fair Oaks, Battle of, 368. Farmers' Alliance, 426. Federalist Party, 223, 238. Ferguson, Major Patrick, 189. Field, Cyrus W., 478. Fifteenth Amendment, 403. "Fifty-four forty or Fight," 312. Fillmore, Millard, President, 322. Florida, American Frigate, 352. Florida Discovered, 34. Acquisition of, 253. Force Bill issued by Congress, 278. Foreign Relations with England, 234, 236, 431-432. With Spain, 432-433. With France, 1S5, 192, 224-5. With Russia, 258, 454. Forest Reserves, 454. Forts, Donelson, 348, 354. Henry, 354. Jackson, 348, 352. St. Philip, 348, 352. Sumter, 337. Fourteenth Amendment, 399. France, Claims in America, 49, 113, 114. Aids American Colonies, 185. Franklin, Benjamin, 176, 185, 199- 201. Fredericksburg, Battle of, 370. Freedmen's Bureau, 400. Free-Soil Party, 315. French in Mexico, 394. Frobisher, 54. Fugitive Slave Laws, 322, 328. Fulton, Robert, 211. Gadsden Purchase, 310. Gage, General, 166, 170. Galveston, 467. Galvez, Bernardo, 201-202. Garfield, James A., President, 420. Gaspee Incident, 160. Gates, Horatio, 182. Genet, Edmond, French Minister, 222. George III, 152. Georgia Established, 73. Germans Settle in Pennsylvania, 131. Gettysburg. Battle of, 373. Ghent, Treaty of, 246. Gilbert, Humphrey, Sir, 59. Gold Discovered in California, 316. Goliad, 305. Gorgas, Wm., 464. Gorges, Ferdinando, 84. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 62. 522 INDEX Grant, U. S., General, 309, 355, 378, 383, 402. President, 403, 407. Great Britain, impresses American Sea- men, 234-235. Venezuela Arbitration, 431. Greeley, Horace, 407. Greene, Nathanael, General, 188. Greenland visited by Eric, 12. Grenville, George, Colonial Policy, 155. Grenville, Richard, 58. Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty, 309. Guerriere, 246. Guilford Court House, Battle of, 191. Gustavus Adolphus, no. Hague Conference, 470-471. Halifax, 170. Halleck, H. W., 354, 358. Hamilton, Alexander, 217, 218. Secretary of Treasury, 216. Federalist, 223. Death, 234. Hampton Roads, 377. Hancock, John, 166. Harper's Ferry, 329-331, 365. Harrison, Benjamin, President, 425. Harrison, William H., 240. Succeeds Hull, 242. Elected President, 284-285. Death, 285. Hartford Convention, 247. Harvard College, 137, 298. Hatteras Inlet, 351. Hawaii, 443, 445. Hawkins, John, 57. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 268. Hayes, R. B., President, 416. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 452. Henry, Fort, 354. Henry, Patrick, 194, 195. Hobson, R. P., 440. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 269, 299. Hood, J. B., General, 381. Hooker, Joseph, General, 373. Hooker, Thomas, 86. Houston, Sam, 304, 305, 306. Howe, Robert, 188. Howe, William, General, Boston, 171. New York, 181. Brandy wine, 183. Philadelphia, 184. Hudson, Henry, 55. Huguenots, 50, 51. Hull, William, General, 242. Hutchinson, Anne, 91. Iberville (Pierre Le Moyne), 49. Iceland, n. Immigration, 265, 421, 423. Impeachment of Johnson, 402. Income Tax, 427. Indian, American, 4-11, 82. Treaty, no. Troubles, 411. Interstate Commerce, 423. Intolerable Acts, 160. Inventions, 473-481. Ironclads, 354. Iroquois, 103. Irving, Washington, 268. Isabella, 23. Island No. 10, 348, 357-358. Jackson, Andrew, 271. Defeats British at New Orleans, 245. President, 272. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, 309. (Stonewall), 349. Battle of Manassas, 348. Valley Campaign, 368. Captures Harper's Ferry, 365. Battle of Chancellorsville, 371-373. Death, 372. James I., 63, 68. Jamestown, 64. Japan, 454- Jay's Treaty, 222. Jefferson, Thomas, 176. Secretary of State, 216. Kentucky Resolutions, 226. President, 228, 234. Retirement, 236. Johnson, Andrew, Vice President, Am- nesty Proclamation, 398. Removal of Stanton, 402. Impeachment, 402. Johnston, Albert Sidney, 348, 356-357. Johnston, Jos. E., General, 347, 380. Jones, John Paul, 197-199. Judiciary, Federal, 456. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 324. Kansas War, 325-327. Kaskaskia, 195. Kearny, Stephen W., General, 309. INDEX 523 Kentucky, 226, 343. Key, Francis Scott, 244. King George's War, 117. King Philip's War, 88. King William's War, 115. King's Mountain, 189. Knights of Labor, 412. Know Nothing Party, 327. Ku Klux Klan, 404. Lanier, Sidney, 300. La Salle, Robert Cavalier de, 46-40- Lawrence, Kansas, 326. Lecompton Constitution, 326. Lee, Charles, 179, 188. Lee, Richard Henry, 175. Lee/ Robert, Mexico, 309, 347. Six campaigns against Richmond, 365- 372. Surrender, 386. Leon, Ponce de, 34. Lewis, Andrew, 172-173. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 233. Lexington, 166. Lincoln, Abraham, Douglas Debates, 329. Elected President, 234, 377. Emancipation Proclamation, 375. Reconstruction Views, 391. Death, 392. Lincoln, 188. Literature, 138, 267-271, 297-301, 323. Livingston, Robt. R., 176, 232. Locke, John, 71. London Company, 63, 81. Long, Crawford, Dr., 480. Longfellow, Henry W., 124, 297. Longstreet, James, General, 363, 365. Lookout Mountain, 365. Louisburg, 122, 126. Taken by English, 126. Louisiana Admitted, 239. Secedes, 336. Louisiana Purchase, 230-233. Lowell, J. R., 269. McClellan, George B., General, 344, 377. McCormick Reaper, 473. McDonogh, John, 296. MacDonough, Thomas, Victory on Lake Champlain, 243. McDowell, Irwin, General, 348. McKinley, William, President, 436, 446. Spanish-American War, 436. McKinley, William, Death, 447. McKinley Tariff, 426. Madison, Dolly, 244. Madison, James, Virginia Resolutions, 226. President, 236, 238. Mafia, Italian, in New Orleans, 432. Magellan, 31. Magruder, J. B., General, 366. Maine, the Battleship, 438. Maine Settled, 84. Manassas Battle, First, 365. Second, 369. Manhattan Island, 98. Manilla Bay, Dewey's Victory, 439, 442. Mann, Horace, 296. Marion, Francis, 188. Marshall, John, 224. Maryland Settled, 103. Remains neutral, 343. Mason, James M., 300. Mason, John, 84, 90. Massachusetts Bay Company, 83. Massasoit, 82. Maximilian I. in Mexico, 301. Mayflower, The, 81. Meade, George, General, 373. Mecklenburg Declaration of Independ- ence, 174. Mexico-Texas Revolution, 303-308. War with U. S., 308-310. Minuit, Peter, 100. Mississippi Secedes, 336. Missouri Compromise, 255-258. Missouri remains neutral, 343. Monitor and Virginia, 313. Monroe, James, President, 256. Monroe Doctrine Announced, 258. Reasserted against France in Mexico, 394- In regard to Venezuela, 431. Montcalm, Marquis de, 126. Montgomery, Richard, at Quebec, 172. Montgomery Confederate Convention, 336. Montreal, 42, 243. Morgan, Daniel, 189. Mormons, 288-289. Morris, Robert, 180, 183. Motley, John Lothrop, 301. Moultrie, Fort, 337. Murfreesboro, 363. 524 INDEX Nashville, 382. National Bank, 278-281. National Republicans, 279, 307. Navigation Laws, i53~i55- Negro Slavery, 255. Negro Suffrage, 399. New Amsterdam, 55, 100. New England, settled, 81-98. Confederation Manufactures, 141, 209. Newfoundland, 40. New Hampshire, 85. New Haven, 88. New Jersey, 105-107. New Jersey Plan, 208. New Mexico, 456. New Orleans settled, battle of, 244. Taken by Federals, 351. New York (City) becomes English, 102. Taken by British, 178. Non-Intercourse Act, 236. North Carolina settled, 70-73. Revolt, 159. Secedes, 340. Northwest Territory, or domaine of, 206, 210. Norsemen, n-13. Nueces River, 308. Nullification Act, 275. Oglethorpe, James, 73-76. Omnibus Bill. See Compromise of 1850. Opecancanough, 66. Ordinance of 1787, 210. Oregon Boundary Question, 310-312. Otis, James, 154. Pacific Ocean discovered by Balboa, 34. Paine, Thomas, 181. Pakenham, General, at New Orleans, 245. Panama Canal, 451. Panama Treaty, 453. Pan-American Congress, 425. Panic, Financial, 281-282, 414, 429. Parcel Post, 460. Paris, Treaty of, between France and Great Britain, 129. Paris, Treaty of, between Great Britain and America, 193. Treaty of, between Spain and U. S., 442. Parkman, Francis, 300. Patroons, 100. Payne- Aldrich Tariff, 455. Peace Conference, The Hague, 470-471. Peace Congress, 336. Peace Movement, 377, 470. Pemberton, J. C, General, at Vicksburg, 358. Penn, William, 107. Pennsylvania Settled, 107. People's Party, 436. Pequot War, 87. Perry, O. H., Victory in Lake Erie, 242. Perryville, 363. Philadelphia, captured by British, 183. Centennial Exposition, 482. Philip, King, 88. Philippines, 445. Pickett, George E., Gettysburg, 374. Pierce, Franklin, 323. Pike, Zebulon, 233. Pinckney, Charles C, Minister to France, 224-225. Pitcairn, John, Major, 167. Pitt, William, 157, 160, 162. Pizarro, Francisco, 35. Plymouth Company, 63, 79. Plymouth settled, 81. Pocahontas, 66-68. Poe, Edgar Allan, 298. Polk, James K., President, 307, 308. Polo, Marco, 21. Pope, John, at Island No. 10, 358. Porter, Daniel, Commodore, 359. Port Hudson, 361. Porto Rico, 442. Port Royal, Acadia, 43. Port Royal, S. C, 73. Portsmouth, Treaty of, 454. Post Office, 460. Potomac, Army of the, 370, 375. Potomac River, 118, 217. Powhatan, 66. Prescott, W. H., 301. President and Little Belt, 240. Presidential Succession Act, 422-423. Princeton College, 457. Prison Reforms, 293. Progressive Republican Party, 457. Prohibition Party, 422, 447. Proprietary Colonies, 76, 118. Providence Settled, 92. Pullman Car Strike, 431. Pure Food Law, 454. Puritans, 79. Putnam, Israel, 168. INDEX 525 Quakers, 107. Quartering of Troops, 160. Quebec, 126. Queen Anne's War, 116. Quincy, Josiah, 239. Railroads, 263-265. Raleigh, Walter, 59-62. Ransdell, J. E., 468. Randolph, Edward, 94. Rapidan River, 383. Rappahannock River, 371, 372. Reconstruction, Lincoln's Plan, 391. Johnson's Policy, 397. Congressional Plan, 392, 399. Red River Campaign, 361. Renaissance, The, 7-8. Representation in Congress, 207-208. In Parliament, 150-164. Republican Party Organized, 327. Revere, Paul, 166. Revolution, 150-215. Rhode Island Settled, 92. Ribault, Jean, 50. Richmond, Virginia, 340, 348, 365-373- Rochambeau, Count, 185. Rolfe, John, 67. Roosevelt, Theodore, President, 446, 449. Rosecrans, W. S., 363. Russia, Holy Alliance, 258. Purchase of Alaska, 395. Ryswick, Treaty of, 116. Sampson, W. T., Battle of Santiago, 439. San Jacinto, 306. San Juan, 441. Santa Anna, 304-305. Santiago de Cuba, 439. Saratoga, 182. Savannah, 188. Schley, 441. Schurz, Carl, 406. Scott, Dred, Decision, 328. Scott, Winfield, General, 309. Secession of S. C, other States, 334, 340. Sedition Act, 225. Seven Days' Battles, 369. Seven Pines, Battle of, 368. Shafter, W. R., General, 440. Shannon and Chesapeake, 235. Sharpsburg, Battle of, 370. Sheridan, P. H., 385. Sherman, W. T., 383. Sherman Silver Act, 427, 430. Shiloh, 356-357- Silver, 420, 435. Smith, E. Kirby, 361. Smith, John, 64, 66. Smith, Joseph, 289. Smuggling, 153. Socialist Parties, 447. Social Life in Colonies, 143-148. Of the New States, 212, 213. Soto, de, Hernando, 35, 36. South Carolina, 70-73, 334. Spanish claims in America, 37. Spanish, Success in War of (Queen Anne's War), 116. Specie Circular, 281. Specie Payment, 415. Spoils System, 274. Spottsylvania Court House, Battle of, 383. Stamp Act, 1 55-1 57- Stamp Act Congress, 157. Stark, John, 168, 182. Star-Spangled Banner, 244, 268. States Rights, 276-278, 315-333- Steamboats, 210, 265. Stephens, Alexander, 325, 336. Steuben, F. Von, 184. Stevens, Thaddeus, 399. Stowe, Harriet B., 323. Stuart, Gilbert, 269. Stuyvesant, Peter, 101. Subtreasury System, 283. Suffrage, Right of, 294-295. Sumner, Charles, 324-325. Supreme Court, 216, 328, 456. Swedes, no. Taft, W. H., Gov. of Philippines, 445. President, 455. Tariff, 272, 275, 278, 424. The Protective, 251. Democratic Reduction, 424. Mckinley Bill, 426. Wilson Bill, 430. Aldrich Bill, 455. Underwood Bill, 459. Tarleton, Banastre, General, 190. Taxation, 152-164. Taylor, Richard, 361. Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 308. President, 316. 526 INDEX Tecumseh at Tippecanoe, 240. Killed in Battle of Thames, 243. Tenure of Office Act, 402. Territory, Northwest, 206, 210. Texas Annexation, 306. Revolution, 303-306. Thames River, Battle of, 243. Thomas, George H., General, 364, 379, 382. Ticonderoga, 126. Taken by Ethan Allen, 167. Tilden, Samuel, Jr., 415. Toleration, Religious, 72, 93, 105. Toombs, Robert, 322, 325. Topeka Constitution, 326. Tories, 174. Toscanelli, 22, 23. Townshend Acts, 152, 153, 154, 155. Transportation Act, 160. Trent Affair, 393. Trenton, Battle of, 179. Tripoli, War with, 229-230. Trumbull, 269. Tyler, John, President, 286. Underground Railroads, 323. Underwood, Oscar W., 459. Union, needs for, 205, 206. Utah admitted, 289. Valley Forge, 184. Van Buren, Martin, 283, 316. Venezuela, 431. Verrazano, John, 40. Vespucius, Americus, 30. Vicksburg, 358-361. Vinland, 12. Virginia, 64, 66, 68, 226. Virginia and Monitor, 313. Virginia Plan, 207. War of 1812, 238-248. Warren, Fort, 300. Warren, General, 169. Washington, George, in French and Indian War, 119, 120, 122, 125. Commands American Army in Amer- ican Revolution, 168, 170-172, 17/ 179, 181. President of Constitutional Conven- tion, 207. Elected President, 215. Death, 223. Washington City taken by British, 244. Wayne, Anthony, 219-220. Webster- Ashburton Treaty, 288. Webster, Daniel, 321, 324. West, Benjamin, 269. West Virginia, 344. Weyler, General, 438. Whisky Rebellion, 218. Ring, 410. White, Edward, 456. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 312. Whitney, Eli, 200-210. Whittier, John Greenleaf, 299. Wilderness, Battles of the, 383. William, King, War, 115. William and Mary College, 137. Williams, Roger, 89, 92. Wilmot Proviso, 315: Wilson, W. L., Tariff, 430. Wilson, Woodrow, President, 457. Winthrop, John, Sr., 83. Witchcraft, 133. Wolfe, James, General at Quebec, 126. Woman's Suffrage, 294. Wright, Frances Bell, 294. Wright, Orville, 477. Wright, Wilbur, 477. Writs of Assistance, 153, 154. X, Y, Z Affair, 224-225. Yeamans, John, 70. Yeardley, George, 65. York, Canada, 243. York, Duke of, 102. Yorktown, Siege of, 192. Yorktown Peninsula, 366-368. Young, Brigham, 289. Printed in the United States of America.