P' 1 p b. *r^7* A *<°- ■' .0> I' J +<■. * a •bV" •o* " -# % **'' *»** .*>**, • e5 ^ - 4.V] v~-y j<> "o. % T7T« A 'ol? * V . iT .1 •^ *•. • <* p .& J. **- \ ^°* *V* : V »1*° *.>%«?„% V A * * A v *$v 'I/OT THE TESTIMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION TO THE BEING, PERFECTIONS, AND GOVERNMENT OF GOD. Rev. HENRY FERGUS, Dunfermline. IUTHOR OF THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, TILJ- THE TERMINATION OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, IN LARDNEIt's CYCLOPEDIA. The living God, which made heaven, and earth, and the sea, ami all :inngs that are therein."— Acts, xiv. 15. "Estenim animoruni ingeniorumque naturale quoddam quasi pabulum consideratio contemplatioque nature: eriginiur ; elatiores lieri videinur." Cicero. Jlcad. Qi«rs< PHILADELPHIA : KEY & BIDDLE, 23 MINOR STREET. 1S33. r? i - PREFACE. The proofs of the Being, Perfections, and Government of God, may be indefinitely increased ; for, as our knowledge of creation extends, the evidences of design multiply upon us. It is the aim of the following Treatise to show, within nar- row limits, that contrivance, wisdom, and goodness, appear not in one province only, hut in every department of the Uni- verse which falls under our observation. Rav, Derham, and Paley, have distinguished themselves in this branch of learning; and of their excellent works the Author has occa- sionally availed himself. The subject is of universal interest, and has a paramount claim to earnest attention. Without reverence for Deity man is a degraded and forlorn prodigal : but religion felicitates and exalts our nature; and it is the first step in religion to believe that God is, and " that he is the rewarder of them who diligently seek him." Creation declares the existence of the Creator, invites us to contemplate his perfections in the works of his hand, reminds us of our relation to Him in " whom we live, and move, and have our being," and claims our grateful adoration for his unwearied kindness towards us. To accustom ourselves to recognise the hand of God in the appearances of nature and the events of providence, to ob- serve the adaptation of parts to each other, and the combina- tion of means for the attainment of ends, is an exercise wor- thy of the high faculties which our Maker has bestowed upon us, and cannot fail to promote both our intellectual and mo- ral improvement. To whatever quarter we turn our eye, we find ample mate- rials for this study. Animate and inanimate nature are alike A* \i PREFACE. instructive ; and their relation to each other indicates that unity of counsel which presided in the formation of the world. The atmosphere, for example, though invisible, connects dis- tant and dissimilar parts of the system, and combines them for the accomplishment of beneficial purposes. Without it no animal could live, no plant grow, no light shine, and no sound be heard; all would be sterility, desolation, and silence. But the earth is fitted up as a pleasant habitation for its noblest inhabitant ; and, in order to understand the plan of the Almighty with regard to him, it is necessary to attend to his character and condi- tion. He is a rational, immortal, and accountable being, in a course of education for a higher stage of existence. He is subject to trials ; and those trials have been eagerly seized, and plausibly urged, as inconsistent with the attributes of a benevolent Creator. The structure of the earth, the quali- ties of some of the inferior animals, and the vices and mise- ries of mankind, have been favourite arguments amono- infi- dels. To meet and answer the sceptical conclusions which have been drawn from these facts is the design of a consider- able portion of the following work ; but we trust its limits will not be considered as exceeding its importance. After an attentive examination of the phenomena, we may not be able to explain every difficulty ; but we are not left in doubt and uncertainty, for God has favoured us with an explicit revelation of his will in the Holy Scriptures. The Gospel is closely allied to Natural Religion, and its accord- ance with the appearances of the world, and the constitution of the human mind, is a proof of their common origin. It brightens our prospects under the trials of life, and gives clearer and more comprehensive views of faith and duty than the volume of Creation affords. There are many valuable works on evangelical truth in common circulation ; and there- fore, instead of enlarging on this part of the subject, the Au- thor has satisfied himself with giving a general view of the evidences of divine revelation, of its harmony with the inti- mations of nature, and of the duties of piety and obedience PREFACE. VU to which it leads. In delivering his pages to the Public, he indulges the hope, that the serious consideration of the whole may, under the blessing of God, help to confirm the faith, comfort the heart, and encourage the pious exertions of those who love the truth, and desire to obey it. Dunfermline, 20th March, 1833, CONTENTS. BOOK I. of the origin of the -wohid. Page Chap. I. Of the General Belief of Mankind, - - 1 H. Of the Eternity of the World, ... 3 IE. Of Chance, - 9 IV. Of Design, ... - 11 EVIDENCES OF DESIGN IN NATUHE. Chap. I. General Observations, - - 16 n. The Human Eye, - - - 20 III. General View of the Human Body, IV. The Inferior Animals, - - - - 41 Sect. 1. Form of the Inferior Animals, - 43 2. Clothing 1 of the Inferior Animals, - 51 3. Defence of the Inferior Animals, 52 4. Food of the Inferior Animals, - 55 5. Adaptations of the Inferior Animals, 58 6. Sexes of Animals. - - - 60 Insects, .... 62 Chap. V. Instinct, ..... 64 Sect. 1. Means of Defence and Safety in the Infe- ■ rior Animals, ... 66 2. Means of procuring their Food, - 67 * CONTENTS. Pioi Sect. 3. Their Habitations, - - 68 4. Continuation of the Species, - - 70 Chap. Vl. The Ocean, ... . 73 1. General "View of the Ocean, - - ?9 2. Uses of the Ocean, - - 83 VII. The general Appearance of the Earth, and Vege- tation, - VIII. The Atmosphere, .... IX. Light, X. Astronomy, .... Forms of the Heavenly Bodies, Arrangement of the Heveanly Bodies, Motions of the Heavenly Bodies, Fixed Stars, .... BOOK III. OF THE PERFECTIONS OF DEITT. Chap. I. Of the Unity of Deity. - . . us II. Of the Power of Deity, - - . 122 ni. Of the "Wisdom of Deity, - - - 123 IV. Of the Goodness of Deity, - - . 125 V. Of the Character and State of Man, - 130 Man an immortal Being, - - - 130 Man an accountable Being*, - - 135 \ F. Evil in the World, - - . - 142 Sect, 1. Evils of Imperfection, - - 144 2. Moral Evil, .... 146 3. Natural Evil, - - . 155 Physical Constitution of the Earth, 161 Nature of Some of the Inferior Ani- mals, - . . - 176 The Pains and Sorrows to which Man is exposed from his Constitution, and the Circumstances in which he is placed, .... 184 BOOK IV. THE GOSPEi. Page '. I. The Gospel a Message from God, - - 192 Miracles performed by Jesus attest his Divine Mission. Prophecies relating to, and uttered by him. His Character. His Doctrine. II. Harmony of Nature and Eevelation. 207 III. Christian Duty, - - - - 217 Our Duty to God, to our Neighbour, and to Ourselves. BOOK I. OF THE ORIGIN OF THE WORLD. CHAPTER I. OF THE GENERAL BELIEF OF MANKIND. Crantz, in his History of Greenland, tells us that a native of that country once addressed him in the following; manner : " It is true we were ignorant heathens and knew little of God till you came. But you must not imagine that no Greenland- er thinks about those things. A kajak (a Greenland boat), with all its tackle and implements, cannot exist but by the la- bour of man. But the formation of the meanest bird requires more skill than that of the best kajak, and no man can make a bird. There is still more skill required to make a man : by whom then was he made 1 He proceeded from his parents, and they from their parents. But some must have been the first parents, and whence did they proceed 1 Common report says they grew out of the earth. If so, why do not men orrow out of the earth still 1 And whence came the earth itself, the sun, the moon, and the stars'? Certainly there must be some Being who made all these things ; a Being more wise than the wisest man." Such was the reasoning of the untu- tored inhabitant of the frozen coast of Greenland, and in some such way, have mankind always reasoned ; for no truth has been more universally received than the existence of God. "Who," says ./Elian, " does not admire the wisdom of the barbarians, none of whom ever fell into the atheistical absur- dities of Eumenes, Diagoras, Epicurus, and other philoso- phers'? Nolndian, Celt, or Egyptian, ever questioned whether there were Gods, or whether they concerned themselves with the affairs of men." Some errors and some vices characterize society in parti- cular stages of its progress, or when placed in peculiar circum- stances : but atheism is never the error of society, in any stage or in any circumstances whatsoever. It is the hypothesis of a few thinly scattered individuals in civilized nations, at times 1 2 GENERAL BELIEF OF MANKIND. when from caprice, vanity, and ostentation, the most obvious truths are denii d, and the mosl whimsical and pernicious pa- radox) - are zealously published and defended. Belief in the existence of God has prevailed in every age, and in every quarter of the world, and in every stage of society. In this point the savage and thesage have agreed. The rude hunter of the wilderness, and the polished inhabitant of the magnifi- cent city, between whom there is a vast difference of habits, of knowledge, and of opinions, unite in the belief of the exist- ence of Deity, and with equal earnestness supplicate his fa- vour. On this subject the great error has been not the denial of one God, but the belief of many: polytheism, however, has been a popular and poetical rather than a philosophical error. Men have entertained false notions of the nature of God, but still they have believed in his existence; and the erroneous conceptions which have accompanied this belief, instead of attaching any discredit to the interesting truth tend to confirm it. They show that the existence of Deity is so plainly engraven on the face of nature, and so consentaneous to the dictates of reason, and to the unperverted feelings of the human mind, that it meets with a ready reception, even when accompanied by absurdities. Is it alleged that some tribes of human beings have been found among whom no traces of belief in the existence of Deity were discoverable? The allegation is questionable. Of these tribes we know too little to speak with certainty of their creed : and even supposing the affirmation founded on fact, it must not be forgotten that those tribes are in a state of extreme degradation; and that they are not to be consi- dered as denying the existence of God, but as being so brutal as to have no opinion or belief on the subject. Belief in the existence of Deity has all the authority which it can derive from opinion : it has the general suffrage of the human race. This is no slio-ht presumption of the truth of the thing believ- ed ; for where mankind, in all the different circumstances in which they have been placed, have generally agreed on any (rreat point relating to their common interest, their agreement may fairly be interpreted as the dictate of their nature, and consequently may be considered as having a rational claim to general reception. ' For the creneral belief in the existence of God there must be an adequate cause. Where shall we find such a cause but in the appearances of the universe indicating a powerful, wise, and good Being, the Creator of all things 1 It is in vain to attribute this belief to tradition. Tradition cannot account for OF THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. 3 the fact ; for the question immediately occurs, what was the origin of the tradition 1 Besides, no mere tradition could have been so widely and permanently diffused : it could not have been preserved among all tribes of men, and amidst all the vicissitudes of the human race. The flimsy allegation which ascribes the origin of this belief to the artificers of in- terested politicians is unworthy of notice, and may be dismis- sed with contempt. If general opinion and belief, then, could place any truth beyond the reach of controversy, the question concerning the being of God would long ere now have been finally determined ; for on no other points have mankind so generally agreed as in believing the existence of God, and the immortality of the soul. But although belief in the exist- ence of God has been general, yet it has not been universal ; for the fool, says an ancient sage, has said in his heart there is no God. The general belief of mankind is not of itself decisive evi- dence of the truth of the thing believed. But, even as evi- dence, it is not hastily to be dismissed from our minds, un- less we can point out in a clear and satisfactory manner the causes of general error. Men have been led to the conclusion that there is a God by the appearances of the universe ; and if those appearances, when calmly and rationally contempla- ted, justify the conclusion, then the opinion which it esta- blishes is entitled to a cordial reception by the candid and se- rious inquirer after truth. It has, indeed, been attempted in different ways to evade the conclusion now mentioned. It has been alleged by some that the world is eternal ; and others have been of opinion that the universe is a casual production. These speculations claim some notice, although they need not detain us long-. CHAPTER II. OF THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. The belief of the first men of whose opinions we have any record, the progressive population of the world, the recent ori gin of arts and sciences, ancient tradition and early history, all militate against the eternity of the world. We are not now 4 OF THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. speaking of inert matter only, but of the whole system of things as we see it. Forifil bi admitted that any part of the sysi.in is nol eternal, then the whole hypothesis tails to the ground. Either all is eternal, or we h ive no reason to con- clude that any part is so. But how can the human race be eternal ? 1 exist ; bul I do uot necessarily exist, for once I was not. I did not bring myself into existence. My parents were not their own creators I and although I go back as far as the wing of imagination can bear me, still I am as unable sa- tisfactorily to account for the existence of those whom I then find alive, as I am to account for my own existence, orforthe exist, me of those who have lived at any intermediate period. By going backward I remove the difficulty from one point to another ; but still, at any given point, that difficulty is just the same as when it first met me. According, however, to the constitution of my nature, I cannot rest satisfied till I come either to a self-created or to a necessarily existing being. But a self-cn involves a contradiction. It involves ex- istence and nonexistence at the same time. I must, there- fore, arrive at a necessarily existing, and consequently eter- nal being, as the first must of my own existence. Thus I think, that according to the constitution of my na- ture, I must either believe in an eternal and intelligent first cause; or, in something at least equally incomprehensible, and also altogether absurd. To talk of an infinite succession of beino-s such as man, is merely an unphilosophical attempt to push out of sight the difficulty of accounting for our first formation : but that difficulty it in no degree removes. For, according to this hypothesis, how high soever we ascend, we find no animated being but what has derived its existence from a being of the same kind with itself. Still we meet with plain marks' of design; hut the designing cause we have not found. Contrivance is obvious ; but the contriving mind which must have existed before the contrivance, we have not discovered. It may he added, that the speculations of those who have attempted to trace the vestiges of the human race to a very remote antiquity have not been successful. There is no reason to believe that men have existed on the earth above six or seven thousand years. Our globe has undergone some great revolutions. This ,1,,. structure of iis parts, and the organic remains found in it, clearly prove Bet these revolutions were antecedent to of VI, uu. The organic remains indicate no traces of human beings. Neither reason nor revelation require us OF THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. 5 to believe, that the matter of this world was first called into existence at the time of the creation mentioned in the Jewish Scriptures. It may have existed before in different forms, and may have undergone many changes. But having- been deranged and reduced to a chaotic mass by some mighty ca- tastrophe, it was then fitted up for the reception of new inha- bitants and the exhibition of new scenes, and was subjected to laws adapted to the new order of things. Geological speculations can never be successfully employ- ed in ascertaining the antiquity of the human race; for how shall we determine the state of matter when our globe was first subjected to the operation of those laws under which it now exists 1 To apply the result of observations on the pre- sent order of nature to a state of things anterior to, and per- haps altogether different from the present system, can lead to no correct conclusions. In an investigation of this kind, the very first point to be ascertained is, the state of matter when the present system of laws began to operate : a point which no human industry or ingenuity can ascertain ; and without which, any speculations on this subject, with a view to de- termine the antiquity of the world, are mere illusions. Nay, from the phenomena of the existing system, rash and hasty conclusions may be drawn, which, although at first sight plausible, will not bear the test of examination. The argu- ment of Recupero, founded on the lavas of ^Etna, mio-ht have been considered decisive, had not the ruins of Herculaneum demonstrated its fallacy. The astronomical arguments which have been adduced on this subject, are as deceitful and unsatisfactory as those of a geological kind. Astronomy is incomparably the more ad- vanced of the two sciences ; but the history of astronomy is imperfect, and on some points very uncertain. Much has been said of the high antiquity of the Indian astronomical tables ; but the eloquence of Bailly and the science of Play- fair have not succeeded in proving them to be founded on observation. There is good reason to believe that they were formed by computation. This is the opinion of La Place, and it is strongly supported by the arguments of Bentley. The probability is that Indian science, instead of being of high antiquity, was derived from the Arabians, through the Greeks and Persians. According to Montucla, the distinguished historian of science, the most ancient Chinese observations are 2155 years before the Christian era; being, according to Usher's chronology, about 160 years before the birth of the patriarch Abraham. If the Fohi of the Chinese be the Noah 1* 6 OF THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. of the Hebrew Scriptures, he may have transported into that country the feint lights of antediluvian Bcience.* An argument in favour of the high antiquity of the human lice has been founded on the zodiacs in the temples of La- topnlis and Tentyra, two ancienl cities in the Upper Egypt. This argument rests on a great astronomical fact, the pre- of the equinoxes. The equinoctial and solstitial points do not invariahly occupy the same places in the eclip- tic, but have a retrograde motion of about 50s" in a year ; by which they \\ ill accomplish a revolution in about 35,750 years. Now", in the zodiac of Latopolis, the modern Esneh, Leo, we are told, is represented as the last implies such an agent. Law is not an agent. It is not endowed with ac- tive power, and therefore cannot he a cause in the proper sense of the word. Law is the expression of mind, and the rule according to which intelligence acts. Without the agent the law is nothing, Without his agency it never could have existed, for it merely expresses the manner of his proce- dure. Where is the proof that Nature has formed all her produc- tions after long periods of time 1 Show us an example of the first rudiments of organization, or a spontaneous genera- tion. Show us any one of those rudiments in the first stage of its progress, or undergoing any of those metamorphoses, through which it passes in advancing to a more perfect form. At any assumed point, tell us what was its last form, and what will be its next. Men and other animals are still such as they have always been. But a hypothesis countenanced by no known fact in nature, has no legitimate claim to the character of philosophy, and may be fairly dismissed as a dream. CHAPTER III. Some persons have been of opinion that Chance was the au- thor' of all things. What is Chance ? In common language, by this word we express our ignorance of a cause, or our want of intention. When we say a thing happened by chance, we do not mean to describe chance as the cause of the fact or event ; but merely to say that we are ignorant of the cause, or that the event happened without intention on our part. The Atheist, however, uses the word to the exclusion of an intelligent and designing cause from the formation of the uni- verse. But how did chance produce either matter or motion? We may indeed be told that we are equally ignorant how an, intelligent cause operated in the production of those effects. It may be so. But by the introduction of Deity we assign an intelligent and sufficient cause for all the phenomena, al- though we may not comprehend the manner in which this cause operated in their production. But although matter and motion be given, the difficulties of 10 OF CHANCE. the chance philosopher are little diminished. How do chance, matter, and motion, produce an organized substance? How do they form a sentient being? How do they constitute and maintain a system of animated and rational existence? We confidently affirm that chance, matter, and motion, have never formed, and never will form, an organic structure. Let all the men of the world employ the best efforts of their reason and ingenuity in arranging and combining matter in thousands and millions of different ways, still they cannot produce a single plant or a single animal in any other than the common way. By a proper adjustment of the temperature, they may supply the incubation of the bird; but without the bird they cannot form the egg. Has chance, then, produced that rich, and beautiful variety of vegetable, sentient, and rational na- ture, which adorns and felicitates our eartb ; and is Man, with all his reason and science, unable to succeed in a single instance? That unthinking and undesigning chance should produce intelligent and designing beings, is a notion utterly unfit for gaining admission into the human mind. The un- derstanding of mankind revolts from it. Their observation and experience pronounce it untrue. If the fortuitous concourse of atoms has formed all things ; if the different orders of sentient beings have sprung from accidental combinations of matter ; bow happens it that al- chymists and chemists, in all their mixtures for discovering the philosopher's stone, or even for making phosphorus, have not hit upon any new combination which produced a living creature; a fly or a frog, a monkey or a man? Franklin has taught us to rob the clouds of their lightning. Galvani and Volta have discovered combinations of matter by which, even after the vital spark is extinguished, the animal frame ean he thrown into violent contortions. But no philosopher has discovered a new process for forming any one living creature. It is not unreasonable, however, to think that if the system of the chance philosophers had any foundation in truth, new processes for making living creatures would long ere now have been discovered ; and that he would have been as well acquainted with receipts for forming animals of new kinds, and also with different ways of making those that formerly existed, as we are with prescriptions for procuring oxygen gas, or pulvis fulminans. If chance produced all things at first, why do we not see chance operating still? If chance reared the world, why do we never see it building a palace or a cottage? If chance made man, why does it never draw a portrait? If all things OF DESIGN. 11 be the offspring of chance, how happens it that we do not see new forms rising into life; animals unheard of before ap- pearing in the world ; and all the fictions of the poets real- ized? How happens it that the casual concurrence of atoms does not derange the system which it had formed, and alter it in a thousand different ways; that we never see a tree changing into a man, nor a man dwindling into a mushroom; nor a human head united to a horse's neck \ Has chance stumbled blindly on till it reared the beautiful and magnifi- cent fabric of the Universe ; till in every instance, through- out the whole extent of nature, it hit upon the only possible combinations from which such noble results could proceed, and then for ever ceased from its blind and stumbling - opera- tions 1 The supposition is too extravagant to gain admission, for a moment, into a sober and rational mind. Indeed the whole hypothesis of the chance philosophers is rather to be considered as an instance of the strange vagaries of the hu- man imagination, than as a system capable, in any degree, of bearing the test of reason, or satisfying the mind of the serious and candid inquirer after truth.* CHAPTER IV. OF DESIGN. The opinion that the system of the world has been eternal cannot bear examination: and the hypothesis which ascribes the origin of the universe to a casual concurrence of atoms is utterly unsatisfactory. To arrange and organize matter, as we see it arranged and organized in the fabric of the world, is the work of mind ; for in the fabric of the world, we every where see plain indications of design and contrivance. But where there are design and contrivance there must be intel- ligence. The intelligent being may act either mediately or * The ancient chance and atomic philosophers were not agreed among themselves. Some of them, as Epicurus, supposed the atoms, which, by their fortuitous concourse, formed all things, were inanimated: others, as Democritus, believed them animat- ed; teaching a doctrine, perhaps essentially the same with the living organic particles of more recent times. Whence did these atoms derive their animation ? 12 OF DESIGN. immediately; but still he must exist and act. It may be as- sumed as the dictate of our nature that every effect must have an adequate cause. Such is the constitution of our minds, that this is equally the conviction of the savage and the sage. Wherever we see the fit combination of means in order to the attainment of an end, we thence, invariably and without he- sitation, infer the existence of a designing cause.* The possibility of discovering design by its effects has been denied; but there are some things which by the very constitution of our nature we are compelled to believe. The conviction is universal and irresistible, and can neither be weakened by metaphysical fallacies, nor strengthened by demonstration. The man who attempts to make me doubt my own existence, or that of matter around me, may puzzle my understanding by the subtlety of his reasoning, or dazzle my imagination by the splendour of his eloquence; but he makes no impression on my belief. The same is the case with him who tells me that I can have no conception of active power, or who labours to persuade me that I cannot discover design in its effects. In spite of his distinctions and his acuteness, my belief remains unchanged. He no more alters the convictions of my mind than the colour of my skin. For by attending to my own voluntary actions, I have a concep- tion of active power. I am conscious of my own volitions, and experience teaches me that these volitions are followed by corresponding effects. Now, although I am unable to understand or explain the manner in which mind acts upon matter, yet I have all the evidence of which the case admits, or which my nature requires, that my volitions and exertions are the efficient cause of the effects produced. Wherever I observe mutual adaptation, reciprocal dependence, the relation * Without entering into any abstruse speculations about cau- sation, we may, with Dr. Reid, remark, that in common lan- guage, cause is a very vague word, and is applied to any antece- dent that is connected with the effect. In Natural Philosophy when we speak of a cause, we mean a law of nature from which the phenomenon results. This is a physical cause: it means the law or rule according to which the efficient cause acts. But by a metaphysical or efficient cause, we mean a being with under- standing, will, and power, equal to the production of the effect. Nothing but an efficient cause can give existence to that which had no existence before: and in a series the efficient cause must begin it, and establish the law by which it is carried on. OF DESIGN. 13 of parts to one another and to a common end, there I believe there has been design. The belief is invariable and it is certain. I am led to it by all my notions resulting from con- sciousness, perception, testimony, and inference. Experience proves it invariably true. Aristippus was shipwrecked on an island, where he and his companions were apprehensive of being destroyed by barba- rians, or torn to pieces by wild beasts. He perceived some geometrical figures roughly sketched on the shore. "Let us take courage, my friends," exclaimed lie, "for I see the ves- tiges of civilized men !" The judgment which he formed was instantaneous and certain. He never suspected that those figures had been scratched by the talon of the eagle, the paw of the lion, or even by the finger of a savage. If, how- ever, upon landing on an unknown shore, instead of a few figures roughly sketched on the sand, we were to find a geo- metrical treatise, such, for instance, as the first six books of Euclid, with all the propositions, diagrams, and demonstra- tions, would any one hesitate, for a single moment, to pro- nounce that this was the work of some civilized and intelli- gent being? No man capable of exercising reason would pronounce it the work of chance. Would a voyager, landing on an uninhabited island, and finding a magnificent and splen- did city, adorned with palaces, and temples, and towers, ima- gine, because he saw no inhabitants, that the city had risen up there without the operation of an intelligent agent? No : a native of oriental climes might pronounce it the work of the genii; but no person would imag-ine that it had come there without a designing cause, a contriving mind. It is by the inference of design from its effects, that, in many instances, we form our opinions and regulate our con- duct. How do we distinguish a man of sagacity from a fool ? A person of integrity from a villain? Why do we punish the incendiary and the murderer? It is because our opinions are formed and our conduct regulated by the inference of design from its effects. And before we cease to think in this man- ner, we must divest ourselves of our nature; we must cease to be men. This principle, which is forced upon us by the very constitution of our nature, and which is confirmed by daily experience, we must carry along with us when we sur- vey the universe. We cannot divest ourselves of it. If, therefore, in our examination of Nature, we perceive combi- nations and relations which, according to all our notions, in- dicate design, then we are irresistibly led to infer the exist- ence of a designing cause. This is no wanton hypothesis, 2 14 OF DESIGN. no gratuitous assumption. It flows from a principle deeply rooted in our nature, and which influences many of our opi- nions, and much of our conduct. It may, perhaps, be said that our knowledge of the design of the artist in any piece of mechanism, or of the architect in planning and building a palace or a city, arises from our hav- ing seen other things of the same kind, and having been in- formed of the design ,■ but that the universe is something of its own kind ; that it is one only ; that there is no fair analogy between it and any work of man ; and that, therefore, we cannot trace design in it. It is true, indeed, that the universe is but one. It consists, however, of many parts ; and if, either in the whole, or in any of the parts, we perceive those kinds of combinations and relations which, according to the constitution of our nature, and all our observation and expe- rience, we consider as indicative of design, then we are as irresistibly led to infer the existence of a designing cause in the one case as in the other. And in proportion as the uni- verse, or any part of it, is superior to any effect of human contrivance and power, so the designing cause must, in the same proportion at least, be superior to man in wisdom and might. A watch is but one, yet it consists of many different parts, and plainly indicates design and contrivance. And though there were only one watch in the world, no man in the possession of his understanding would pronounce it a casual production. The distance between the construction of any piece of me- chanism, and that of the vast system of the universe is, in- deed, immeasurably great. This, however, does not destroy the analogy; but ft greatly weakens the impression of that analogy on our minds. In comparing a mite with an elephant, we, in some measure, lose sight of the comparison by the immense disparity between the tilings compared. This is much more the case in comparing the world with a piece of mechanism. In order to see and feel the full force of the comparison, there must be something like equality between the things compared; or, at least, we must be able to com- pute the inequality. For, it is only in proportion as we are able distinctly to see, and accurately to compute the differ- ence between the things compared, that we feel the force of the comparison. But the disparity between the universe and the effects of human ingenuity and power are incalculable, and therefore the argument from analogy does not make a due impression on our mind. We do not pretend fully to understand the designs of God OF DESIGN. 15 in his works ; but to argue that we can know no part of those designs, because we cannot comprehend them in all their variety and extent, is attempting to draw a general conclu- sion from partial premises. Because we do not fully under- stand the economy of the comets, can it, be logically inferred that we know nothing of the solar system, or of the design of the sun ] Will any man assert that we are ignorant of the design of the organs of sertse, because we cannot explain how the nerves connected with different organs produce different sensations ] Such conclusions, drawn from such premises, are not entitled to much consideration. To state them plainly is a sufficient refutation. The man who denies that it is any part of the design of the sun to enlighten, warm, and fertilize the earth ; or of the eye to see, and of the ear to hear ; or who seriously maintains that, from the effects, we cannot fairly infer such a design, is unquestionably under the influence of very powerful prejudices. In these instances the relations are obvious; and every unperverted mind must be fully satis- fied that it is the design of the sun to communicate light and heat to the earth, of the eye to see, and of the ear to hear. These we may confidently assume as designs of the Deity ; and may reason concerning the fitness of the means to accom- plish the ends, and from that fitness may form our estimate of the attributes of the Supreme Intelligence. In inquiring into the designs of the Creator in his works, there is no presumption. Our inquiries ought to be conducted with profound reverence for the Being who formed and who up- holds the universe ; and, when so conducted, instead of being indications of impiety or audacity, they are expressions of admiration and homage. The essence of Deity is not the ob- ject, of our senses ; but he exhibits himself to us in his works, and in these he invites us to contemplate the proofs of his existence and the glory of his perfections. To trace the hand of the Almighty in the fabric of the universe, is a suitable exercise of the noble faculties with which he has endowed us ; it is a tribute of homage to him who made us ; and must be the means of much improvement and happiness to ourselves. "The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein."* * The apriori argument I have not introduced, because to my mind it has never appeared very satisfactory. Dr. Ried (Intell. Powers, p. 314, 4to ed.) says, " Sir Isaac Newton thought that the Deity, by existing" everywhere, and at all times, constitutes time and space, immensity and eternity. This probably suggested BOOK II. EVIDENCES OF DESIGN IN NATURE. CHAPTER I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. We shall now proceed to consider some of the evidences of design in the fabric of nature ; and, instead of selecting a to his great friend Dr. Clarke what he calls the argument a priori for the existence of an immense and eternal Being. Space and time, lie thought, are only abstract or partial conceptions of an immensity and eternity which forces itself upon our belief. And as immensity and eternity are not substances, they must be the attributes of a Being who is necessarily immense and eternal. These are the speculations of men of superior genius. But whether they be as solid as they are sublime, or whether they bethe wanderings of imagination in a region beyond the limits of human understanding, I am unable to determine." Professor Dugald Stewart, in his dissertation on the progress of Metaphysical, Ethical, and Political Philosophy, in the En- cyclopaedia Britannica, Part II., p. 65, says, "How far the pecu- liar cast of Newton's genius qualified him for prosecuting suc- cessfully the study of mind, he has not afforded us sufficient data forjudging; but such was the admiration with which his trans- cendant powers as a mathematician and natural philosopher were universally regarded, that the slightest of his hints on other subjects have been eagerh seized upon as indisputable axioms, though sometimes with little other evidence in their fa- vour but the supposed sanction of his authority. The part of his works, however, which chiefly led me to connect his name with that of Clarke, is a passage in the Scholium annexed to his Principia, which may be considered as the germ of the celebrated argument a priori for the existence of God, which is commonly, though, I apprehend, not justly, regarded as the most import- ant of all Clarke's contributions to metaphysical philosophy. I shall quote the passage in Newton's own words, to the oracular conciseness of which no English version can do justice. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 17 few insulated examples from particular departments of the world, shall take a rapid but wide survey of the universe, and " « iEternus est et infinitus, omnipotens et omnisciens; id est, durat ab seterno in sternum, et adcst ab infinite in infinitum. Non est jeternitas et infinitas, sed xternus et infinitus; non est duratio et spatium, sed durat et adest. Durat semper et adest ubique, et existendo semper et ubique durationem et spatium constituit.' Proceeding' on these principles, Dr. Clarke argued, that as immensity and eternity (which force themselves irresisti- , bly on our belief as necessary existencies, or, in other words, as existencies of which the annihilation is impossible) are not sub- stances, but attributes, the immense and eternal Being, whose attributes they are, must exist of necessity also. The existence of God, therefore, according to Clarke, is a truth that follows with demonstrative evidence from those conceptions of space and time which are inseparable from the human mind." After quoting the passage from Dr. Ried, cited at the begin- ning' of this note, Mr. Stewart proceeds and says, " After this candid acknowledgment from Dr. Ried, I need not be ashamed to confess my own doubts and difficulties on the same question " Dr. Thomas Brown in his 92d lecture says, " If the world had been without any of its present adaptation of parts to parts, only a mass of matter, irregular in form, and quiescent, — and if we could conceive ourselves, with all our faculties as vigorous as now, contemplating such an irregular and quiescent mass, with- out any thought of the order displayed in our own mental frame, I am far from contending that, in such circumstances, with no- thing before us that could be considered as indicative of a par- ticular design, we should have been led to the conception of a Creator. On the contrary, I conceive the abstract arguments which have been adduced to show that it is impossible for matter to have existed from eternity, — by reasonings on what has been termed necessary existence, and the incompatibility of this neces- sary existence with the qualities of matter, — to be relics of the mere verbal logic of the schools, as little capable of producing conviction, as any of the wildest and most absurd of the technical scholastic reasonings, on the properties, or supposed properties, of entity and nonentity. Eternal existence, the existence of that which never had a beginning, must always be beyond our distinct comprehension, whatever the eternal object may be, material or mental, — and as much beyond our comprehension in the one case, as in the other, though it is not impossible for us to doubt, that some being, material or mental, must have been eternal, if anything exists." Sir James Mackintosh, in his dissertation on the progress of 2* 18 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. endeavour to show that evidences of design occur everywhere throughout the vast system. Such evidences appear not merely in a few thinly-scattered phenomena of a dubious aspect, pressed into the service, and constrained to give a re- luctant and suspicious testimony; but they abound in every province of nature, and upon many occasions force themselves upon the notice even of the careless observer. Such a gene- ral survey is not necessary to prove the being of Cod ; but it will serve to familiarize this great truth to our imagination, and accustom us to associate the existence and perfections of Deity with the contemplations of his works. Moreover, we may often have occasion to remark the indications of wis- dom and goodness which appear in every department of nature, and the frequent recurrence of these indications cannot fail to make a deep impression on the mind, and to fortify it against objections to those attributes of the Creator. Before enter- ing, however, upon this extensive survey, it is proper to pre- mise, 1. That although we may not understand every phenome- non, or be able to point out design in every appearance of nature, yet this can form no objection against what we are able to explain. Our ability to prove the existence and illus- trate the perfections of Deity from the fabric of the universe, ethical philosophy, in the seventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, speaking of Dr. Clarke, says, " Roused by the pre- valence of the doctrines of Spinoza and Hobbes, be endeavoured to demonstrate the being 1 and attributes of God, from a few axioms and definitions, in the manner of geometry; an attempt in which, with all his powers of argument, it must be owned that he is compelled sometimes tacitly to assume what the laws of reasoning- required him to prove; and that, on the whole, his failure may be regarded as a proof that such a mode of argument is beyond the faculties of num." In a note, Sir James adds, " This admirable person had so much candour as in effect to own his failure, and to recur to those other arguments in support of this greattruth, which have in all ages satisfied the most elevated minds. In Proposition VIII. (Being- and Attributes of God, p. 47), which affirms that the first cause must be 'intelligent,' (where, as he truly states, 'lies the inaiu question between us and the atheists,') he owns, that the proposition cannot be demonstrated strictly and properly a priori." Having mentioned these high authorities, I shall add nothing of my own respecting the argument a priori. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 19 will be commensurate with our knowledge of creation. We may be able to show design in many phenomena; but beings of greater knowledge may show wisdom and goodness in many more, perhaps even in those very instances which to us appear most perplexing and unaccountable. Hence we may see the folly of condemning what we do not understand. Perceiving so many indications of wise and benevolent con- trivance everywhere around us, we ought rather to distrust our own knowledge than to deny the existence of wisdom and goodness in any particular instance. The celebrated Alphonsus X.,king of Leon and Castile, was well acquainted with the astronomical doctrines of Ptolemy, but had he no conception of the true principles of the solar system. Proud, however, of his attainments, and misled by his imaginary science, he is said to have exclaimed, that if he had been of God's council he would have instructed him better in the construction of the universe. What the royal astronomer ridiculed was not the work of Deity, but the phantom created by his own ignorance. His example should operate as a caution to us. 2. Although I err in my account of one phenomenon, and although my argument, in so far as it depends on that erro- neous account, must fall to the ground ; yet this, in no degree, invalidates arguments founded on facts and appearances cor- rectly stated. It is not. here as in the demonstration of a geo- metrical theorem, where if one link be broken the demonstra- tion fails. In the present case, the reasoning upon every fact, or combination of facts, is separate and independent ; and, therefore, although in any one instance, the statement of fact may be incorrect, and the argument, in so far as it depends on that incorrect statement, unsound, yet other facts, and arguments founded on them, stand in full force. Every fact, or every combination of facts, may be considered inde- pendently in the great mass of evidence ; and in proportion as we bring forward appearances indicative of design, we accumulate arguments in proof of the existence of a design- ing cause. If we can show a harmonious combination of all the phenomena in order to the construction of one whole, then the conclusion which results from the contemplation of particular parts will appear with the most attractive lustre and commanding majesty. ( 20 ) CHAPTER II. THE HUMAN EVE. In- glancing at the evidence of design in nature, I shall first select a particular instance and explain it at considerable length, in order that the force of the evidence may be more fully felt. The instance which I select for this purpose is the Human Eye; ami in reviewing this organ I shall give a description of it, which, though not minute enough for the anatomist, may suffice for an exhibition of its construction and excellence as an optical instrument. The Eye, which communicates so much beauty and viva- city to the human countenance, is a small but admirable in- strument of vision formed in the bulb of the optic nerve. Its position, construction, and the provision made for its adjust- ment and preservation, plainly indicate a designing cause. It is placed in the upper part of the face, occupying a com- manding station ; and, like a sentinel posted on a hill, per- ceiving, at a single glance, everything around. It is lodged in a strong-hold, or bony cavity, called its orbit ,• and is sur- rounded by several parts, which serve either to protect it from injury, to assist and facilitate its motions, or to supply it wdth moisture. The optic nerves proceed separately from the brain : they afterwards unite; then separate again, and each of them enters the orbit, on the nasal side, and forms the integuments of the eye, so that the coats or tunics of the eye are expansions of the optic nerve, or at least membranes intimately adhering to it. The optic nerve has two coats, one above the other, enclosing its medullary substance. The exterior coat is named the aura mater, the interior the pia mater. The outer coat of the eye, called the sclerotica, is a continuation and expansion of the dura mater, and is white and opaque, excepting the anterior part, called the cornea, which, unlike the part behind, is transparent, and is fixed in the sclerotica, like the jrlass of a watch in its case. The Choroides, which lines the sclerotica, may be consi- dered as a production of the pia mater. Its anterior part, be- hind the cornea, but not close to it, is of a very different structure from its posterior part ; and, on account of the va- riety of its colours, lias been named the Iris. The Iris, or anterior part of the choroides, is an assemblage of muscular fibres; some of them tending like the radii of a circle towards its centre, and others forming a number of concentric circles THE HUMAN EYE. 21 round the same centre. In the middle of the iris is a per- foration known by the name of the pupil, which is diminish- ed by the contraction of the circular fibres of the iris, when a very luminous object is presented to the eye; and dilated by the contraction of the radial fibres, for the admission of a greater number of rays in a faint light. Even they who do not admit the fibrous structure and muscularity of the iris cannot deny its contractibility, which they ascribe to its sym- pathy with the retina. But, as the contractibility is unques- tionable, a dispute about the manner in which it is produced does not affect the argument resulting from it. At the anterior border of the choroides, there is a ring of sensible thickness, named the ciliary ligament, from which proceed numerous productions called ciliary processes. The posterior surface of the iris, the ciliary processes, and part of the choroides, are spread over with a black mucus, which absorbs the lateral rays, and contributes to distinct vision. The medullary portion of the optic nerve, in dilating, forms a white and very thin membrane, or congeries of nervous ter- minations, applied upon the choroides and named the retina; upon which, according to the general opinion, the object is painted. In these coats or tunics are set three transparent humours or lenses, of different refractive powers ; and the whole forms the organ of vision in the human body. The foremost of the humours is the aqueous. It is placed immediately behind the cornea, and occupies the whole space between it and the crystalline humour, both before and be- hind the iris. The aqueous humour has the transparency of the purest water, but it is not altogether so liquid. Its spe- cific gravity is rather greater than that of water. It has been remarked that notwithstanding the great fluidity of the aque- ous humour, and its exposure to the cold, it does not freeze. Behind the aqueous humour is placed a double convex lens, having its axis corresponding with the centre of the pupil. It is somewhat more convex towards the bottom of the eye than in front. It is called the crystalline humour; and appears to be composed of a great number of very thin laminae, and of extremely minute fibres, very transparent and closely united together. It is tolerably solid, and both its specific gravity and refractive power are greater than those of either of the other two humours of the eye. It is attached to the ciliary ligament, by means of the fibres of which it can, probably, be altered in a small degree in position, and per- haps in figure also. The crystalline is placed behind the aqueous, and in front of the vitreous humour; in which last it 22 THE HUMAN EVE. is sot liko a jewel in a ring. The vitreous humour, situate at the back part of the socket, occupies about three-fourths of the globe of the eye. It is of the form of a jelly, colour- less, and of trrcat transparency. Its specific gravity is little more than that of the aqueous humour; therefore, as, gene- rally speaking, the refractive powers of different mediums are as their densities, the refractive powers of these two humours are not very different. Each of the humours is contained within its own membrane, which is very delicate and equally transparent with the humour itself. At the back of the whole is the retina. The eye, thus formed, is provided with muscles which move it in all directions, and accommodate its focal distance to different objects, in a degree of perfection incomparably superior to the mechanism of the most ingeniously mounted telescope. By the action of six muscles, it has not only the horizontal and vertical motions, but it can be turned to any oblique angle with the rapidity of lightning. The eyeball is much less than the cavity in which it is lodged ; but the interval is filled up with cellular substance, furnishing a soft and warm bed to the eye, and facilitating its motions. Besides, by means of the lachrymal gland, situate between the ball of the eye and the upper vault of the orbit, on the temporal side, the eye is supplied with a perpetual fountain for moistening and keeping it clean : the superfluous mois- ture passes through a perforation into the nostrils, and is drained off. The eyelids, in connexion with the bony cavity in which the ball is lodged, form a soft and strong covering to the eye, and can be instantaneously put on or withdrawn. The eyelashes serve as a protection against insects and mi- nute bodies floating in the air : they also give warning of ap- proaching danger, and help to guard against it ; and they mo- derate the rays of light in their passage to the eye. Observe, then, what a variety of circumstances, and what an exact combination and nice adjustment of these circum- stances there must be in order to distinct vision ; and after attentively considering the whole, nothing, I think, but blind stupidity or obstinate perversity, can deny design and skilful contrivance in the structure of the eye. How happens it that the cornea is transparent, and not opaque like the sclerotica, of which it is the continuation'? If it were opaque there would be no vision ; and I see no way of accounting for its transparency, but by acknowledging a wise designing cause. How shall we account for the transparent part being placed in front, and not towards the bottom of the socket? Light THE HUMAN EYE. 23 does not give transparency to the cornea, nor does the cornea give existence to light ; they exist independently of each other : yet between the two there is an unquestionable relation, as much so as between the window and the room, the fire-place and the chimney, the lock and the key. How happens it that the iris is of a different structure from the rest of the choroides, of which it is apparently the con- tinuation : that the iris has the perforation called the pupil, and that it is not a continuous envelope like the cornea : that the centre of the pupil corresponds with the axes of the crys- talline lens : and that the iris has a power of contraction and dilatation, either lessening or enlarging the pupil according to circumstances ? A change in any of those conditions would be fatal or highly injurious to vision. The light does not create the pupil, yet the pupil is formed for the admission of light. Light does not confer on the iris the power of contrac- tion or dilatation, yet the pupil has the power of ad justing itself to the quantity of light. If it be alleged that the light irritates the eye, and by that means occasions the contraction, still we may inquire who so organized the pupil that it should be af- fected in such a manner by the action of light; who con- trived the mechanism by which the changes in the sizes of the pupil are effected 1 How shall we account for the ciliary liga- ment and its processes, but by resorting to a wise designing causa, which has in this way provided for the adjustment of the crystalline lens 1 Who provided the retina, like a fine white canvas, to receive the picture 1 How shall we account for lenses of different refractive powers to correct the chroma- tic aberration 1 Light did not create these several lenses, for they were created ere light shone upon them ; nor did these lenses establish the law by which rays of light are re- fracted from the straight line in passing obliquely through mediums of different densities, and by which some of the rays of the solar beam are more refrangible than others ; yet the lenses of the eye are accurately adapted to the optical fact or law. How happens it that the lenses are so exactly ad- justed that the rays form a distinct picture on the retina? If the configuration or refractive powers of the lenses had been such as to bring the rays to a focus sooner, or if the retina had been placed more forward, or at the smallest distance farther back in the socket ; in any of these cases vision would have been indistinct. But the place of the retina is exactly ad- justed to the focal distance of the lenses. By fixing a lens in a hole of the window-shutter of a dark- ened room, we see an inverted picture of external objects, 24 THE HUMAN IVF.. formed on a white sheet of paper, behind the lens. But, in or- der to have the picture distinct, we must move the paperback- wards and forwards till we find the exact focal distance. The retina, which corresponds to the sheet oi' paper, is placed ex- actly at the due distance. The eve is convex and not a plane. If it had been a plane, the Held of vision must have been extremely limited. But the most advantageous of all forms is adopted ; and I know of no rational way of accounting for this, but by having re- course to a designing cause. In order, however, to have a fuller view of the subject, we shall compare the eye, in some particulars, with a telescope ; and give a more copious illus- tration df some things already mentioned. 1. Let us consider the eye as an achromatic instrument. Light moves in straight lines ; but in passing obliquely out of one medium into another of different density, it is refracted towards the perpendicular in passing into a denser medium, and from it in passing into a medium more rare. Besides, the white light issuing from the sun is not a homogeneous fluid, but consists of several differently-coloured rays ; and these rays are not equally refrangible, the red being the least re- frangible, and the violet the most so. Unless, however, these refractions be corrected, tie re eannol be distinct and colour- less vision. Such is the fact in nature. How, then, is the matter managed in the eye ? The refractions areoorroeteH by lenses of different refractive powers, so that all the rays meet in a focus on the retina, and there delineate a distinct and achromatic image, of the object from which the rays proceed. How is the difficulty managed in the telescope] This was long a desideratum in natural science, and exercised the ge- nius and industry of the most distinguished philosophers. The telescope, by the prismatic action of the lenses of which it was composed gave the objecl a coloured appearance about the edges, and consequently presented an indistinct image. This was a great delict, and it was of much importance to remedj it. The celeb-ated Mr. James Gregory perceived that the eye had the same difficulty to encounter. How, he asked, is it surmounted there 1 He perceived that this was accomplished by a combination of lenses of different refrac- tive powers. Hence that ingenious philosopher was led to throw out a hint concerning the construction of what has since been called the achromatic telescope. The subject employed .1 powers of Newton and the vigorous mind of Euler, and the execution of the plan has conferred a lasting celebri- ty on the name of Dollond. Here, then, we find Gregory, THE HUMAN EYE. 25 Newton, Euler, Dollond, names of high distinction (and many- more might be mentioned), turning their minds to the for- mation of the achromatic telescope, acknowledging the struc- ture of the eye to be their guide, and yet employing much in- genuity, and performing many experiments, ere the last of them happily succeeded in accomplishing the object in view. Now the cases under consideration arc precisely parallel ; the difficulty to be surmounted is the same. Shall we, then, ad- mit design and contrivance in the one case, and deny them in the other? Shall we admit that Gregory, Newton, Euler, and Dollond, were designing and contriving beings, in their schemes and efforts to construct an achromatic telescope; and yet contend that the eye, which was their model, was formed without design and contrivance'? Shall we admit design and contrivance in the imitation, and yet deny them in the pattern 1 This were absurd in the extreme. In the structure of the eye design and contrivance are obvious, and that organ could not have been formed but by a designing and contriving Being. 2. In using a telescope, for instance a three feet refractor, if we wish to try the powers of the instrument in reading a book, we may have distinct vision at the distance of twenty or twenty-five yards. But, if Ave turn the telescope, in the same state in which we have, been reading the book, upon an object a mile or two distant, we see nothing. In order to have distinct vision, we must, either by managing the tube with our hand, or by the action of a screw, adjust the instru- ment to the new distance. In what way soever we perform the operation, it requires time and observation to find (he focus. But the eye adjusts itself in a moment, whether the object which we look at be six inches from it, or six thousand times that distance. Now, is there design and contrivance in form- ing the adjusting screws of the telescope to fit it to the focal distance 1 No man in his senses denies it. How, then, can any man in his senses deny design and contrivance in the mechanism of the eye, by which the same end is accomplished ; and not only accomplished, but accomplished in a far more easy and expeditious manner than in the telescope 1 For no de- gree of practice or dexterity in the use of the instrument, will enable us to adjust its focus to different distances, with the same ease and quickness as we do in the eye. If design and contrivance be admitted in the one case, they cannot be denied in the other, but by obstinate and irrational perversity. 3. The form of the eye indicates a wise designing cause. It is of a spherical figure, and by this figure several important ends are answered far better than they could have been by 3 26 THE HUMAN EYE. any other. It affords the most convenient lodgment for the humours of the eye,and gives the largest field of vision. If the from d' the eye had been a flat surface, there could have been no distinct vision, bemuse all the parts of it could not l i;ur been at the due focal distance from the lenses ; some parts must have been too near, or some too far off. Besides, it is obvious that the spherical figure of the eye is best adapted for motion in all directions. We may farther remark, thai the Optic nerve enters the eve, not at the bottom of the socket, bul en the nasal side of it. This contributes to dis- tinct vision, and may fairly be considered as an evidence ot design. . . , 4. The eye occupies a most commanding position, and sur- vey's with ease everything around. It could have been sta- tioned in no other part of the body with equal advantage. If it had been placed in the occiput, the form and articulation of the arms and legs would not have harmonized with it ; but, at present, they are fitted for acting in the direction in which the eye sees. The eyes were formed before the light shone upon them, and the limbs before they had room for action; yet they are admirably adapted to each other. They exhibit a striking instance of relation and prospective contrivance. Indeed, relation and prospective contrivance meet us in al- most every department of nature, whether we attend to the structure of animals, or to the combinations and adjustments of the different parts of the universe. Thus the eye occupies its due place in the body, as part of one harmonious whole, and all the members are fitted for co-operating with it. It is stationed near the brain, and communicates with that great source of sensation and motion by means of the optic nerve. 5. We have an evidence, not of design only, but of good- ness also, in the number of the eyes. They are two. In this way we can take in a larger angle than if we had one eye only; and although one- be injured, we are not entirely deprived of the use of this cheering organ. And we may ob- serve the consummate skill of Him who formed the eye, in this circumstance, thai although an object be seen with both eyes yet it appears single, perhaps because painted on the corresponding part of each retina, or perhaps because the nerves unite; but in what manner soever we account tor it, the fact is certain ; and the argument resulting from it is not affected by any doubts respecting the manner in which it is accomplished. Although the picture of the object is inverted on the retina, vet we see objects erect; and this, I appre- b, ml, happens by a law of our nature antecedent to e\ r n- THE HUMAN EYE. 27 ence. The rays of light pass to the retina on optical princi- ples ; but we know not in what way impressions are made on the mind. It may he added, that the eyeball is of a commo- dious size, serving the purposes of distinct vision, and yet not exposing a large surface to the injuries to which such a delicate organ is liable. All the objects in the large field which the eye takes in are accurately represented on the retina. The whole scenery of some miles is painted on a canvas of an inch diameter ; and yet how distinct and cor- rect is the picture ! This circumstance bears a strong testi- mony, not only to the existence, but also to the wisdom and goodness of the Creator. 6. The motions of the eye cannot fail to attract the notice of every attentive observer and inquirer. These motions are performed by the action of six muscles, four of which are straight, and two oblique. The straight muscles elevate or depress the eye, turn it in towards the nose, or out towards the temple ; the oblique muscles perform the more complex motions. The origin and insertion of those muscles, and their comparative strength, are fitted with the most consum- mate mechanical skill for turning the eye in all directions, with the utmost ease and rapidity ; and if the nice adaptation of means to the accomplishment of an end be a proof of de- sign, the muscles of the eye demonstrate the existence of a designing cause. From this eursory view of the eye, it obviously appears to be an organ of most exquisite workmanship. Its numerous parts are adapted to each other with the most skilful contriv- ance and minute precision, and the whole serves the noblest and most beneficial purposes. Take the eye altogether, its position, its ingenious and accurate construction as an instru- ment of vision, its instantaneous adjustment of itself to dif- ferent distances, its capacity of accommodating itself to dif- ferent degrees of light : the ease, rapidity, and variety of its motions, and the provision made for keeping it clean and safe ; and it plainly demonstrates the existence of an intelli- gent first cause. I hesitate not to affirm that, although there were not another mark of design in the universe, yet the ap- pearance of even a single eye would be an irrefragable evi- dence of a designing cause ; for nothing that we either see or know, nothing in our own experience or in the authenticated testimony of others, nothing resulting from consciousness, perception, or reasoning, gives us the least ground for believ- ing that even a single eye could be formed in millions of ages, by any casual combinations of matter. Every eye, then, 28 THE HUMAN EYE. bears a strong testimony to the existence of a wise designing cause. But supposing that one eye might have been produced by casual combinations, how shall we account for the appear- ance of a second ! There is just as much difficulty in account- ing for the second as for the first, and as much difficulty in accounting for the third as for the second, and so on for every eye that is in the universe ; for the existence of one eye is neither a necessary nor a physical cause of the exist- ence of another, and it is not in the nature of chance to esta- blish a series. There are. then, as many distinct witnesses of the existence of an intelligent first cause as there are eyes in the world. And let me add, that it is a most uuphiloso- phical, yea an absurd subterfuge, to allege that one being with eyes has produced another being with eyes, and that the series has gone on from eternity. This can be consider- ed only as an acknowledgment on the part of the atheist that he knows nothing of the matter, and as a silly attempt to plunge into darkness, and conceal himself from pursuit. But, go where he will, he cannot escape from the dilliculty. Every step that he retires it still presses upon him. It pur- sues him through eternity, and every moment treads on his heels, with the same force as in the first instance. Still a a voice sounds in his ear, " Here is design, where is the de- signing cause 1 Here is contrivance, where is the contriver! Point out the planning mind ; show the hand that with such dexterity has adapted means to the attainment of an end." Go where he will, he has not accounted for the first eye ; he has not accounted either for the origin or continuation of the series ; and in no way can they be accounted for, but by the admission of a powerful, wise, and good first cause. We give much credit to the artist who makes a few good instruments. The fame of Dollond as an optician is high, and not undeservedly so; although causes over which he had no control contributed to aid his genius and exalt his fame; for we art> told that the glass employed by him in the con- struction of his best telescopes was a fortunate treasure, all of one melting. But what should we have thought of his genius and art, if he had made telescopes which produced other telescopes, of undiminished excellence, through an un- limited series ! We should have pronounced them above all encomium. What then shall we say of Him who formed the eye, and established the law by which a vast succession Is generated 1 Must not he be a designing Beinsrl Yea, must he not be unspeakably powerful, wise, and good] GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN BODY. 29 If I were brought into a court, before an enlightened jury, where I should lose my cause unless I could adduce some plain mark of intelligence and design in the works of nature, I should boldly contend, after bringing forward the human eye, with all its apparatus, that I had made good my cause, and should confidently expect a verdict in my favour; and such a verdict, any jury, competent to decide upon the sub- ject, would assuredly return. How the eye conveys sensation to the mind I cannot tell. If in this there be machanism, it is such a mechanism as eludes our notice and defies our investigation. All sensation is conveyed to the mind by an unknown influence of the nerves. If the optic, or any other nerve distributed over an organ of sensation, be cut or rendered paralytic, the animal instantly loses that particular sense. The fact is fully esta- blished by observation and experiment. But how the nerves, which are perfectly similar in every part of the body, should convey to the mind feelings so different, when distributed over the eye, the ear, the tongue, and the nose, is what we can neither understand nor explain. Here reason and philo- sophy are set at defiance. Indeed, in everything around us, we may proceed a certain length with success in our inqui- ries ; but we soon reach a limit which neither our industry nor ingenuity can pass. We perceive an end accomplished ; but Iww,we are often unable fully to explain. Some parts of the process elude our utmost penetration, and on those parts we can pass no judgment. But a good effect is produced. The means, so far as we can trace them, are admirably adapt- ed to the end. In such circumstances, it is truly character- istic of a fool to condemn the whole, because he can under- stand and explain a part only ; or to deny design, because he cannot fully trace the mechanism throughout the whole process. CHAPTER III. GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN BODY. We might now proceed to the organs of the other senses, and show that in them there is a wise adaptation of means to the attainment of beneficial ends ; that the ear is an excellent instrument of hearing, and that design plainly appears in the senses of smelling, tasting, and feeling. We might also con- sider the different members of the body ; as the hand, which 3* 30 GENERAL VIEW Aristotle pronounced the "organ of organs. " Its excellence depends in no small degree on the position, strength, and ac- tion of the thumb, which can be brought into a state of oppo- sition to the lingers, and hence is of great use in laying hold of bodies. We might also show that the foot is well fitted for the support and progression oi' the body, and exhibits a noble display of benign intention and skilful contrivance. But instead of entering on such an extensive field, we shall merely take a general view of the human body. The bones, amounting, in a full grown person, to about two hundred and forty, constitute the frame of the machine; and, in order to retain them in their places, and enable them to perform their several functions, they are strongly and inge- niously bound together by elastic ligaments, membranes, or muscles, according to the several situations and uses of the parts. Some of the joints have a free, easy, and obvious mo- tion; while that of others is less evident. In the joints, the articulating surfaces, being exposed to friction, are lined with a smooth elastic substance, named cartilage, which is lubri- cated with synovia, as the wheels of machinery are with oil. Now, if the oiling of the axles of machinery be the effect of design, we think it unreasonable to deny design in the lubri- cation of the joints. The articulations of the several joints are very different; and, in every instance, are happily suited to their places and purposes. Let us, for a moment, glance at the spine. How different is its formation from that of the thigh bone, and its articulations from that of the hip or knee joint! And is not design, yea, are not wisdom and goodness obvious in the structure of each, and in the difference between them'? Had the spine been formed of a single bone, like the thigh, it would have been much more easily fractured than at present, and utterly incapable of incurvation. Had it consisted of only two or three bones, articulated like the hip or like the knee joint, the spinal marrow would have been bruised at every joint, and the motion could not have been so free, nor the pillar so strong as it is. The spine consists of twenty- four pieces, called vertebrae, with cavities and protuberances for locking into each other, so as to prevent luxation and yet provide for the flexion of the body. The spinal marrow, which is of essential importance to life, is lodged in the ca- vity secure from injury; and corresponding notches in the vertebra 1 leave a passage for the entrance of the blood-vessels, and for the departure of t lie nerves, which proceed from the spinal marrow to the different parts of the body. OF THE HUMAN BODY. 31 This bony column, which thus affords a canal through which the spinal marrow, the production of the brain, proceeds in security towards the extremities, also supports the head ; where the brain, the throne of sensation, motion, and intel- lect, is lodged in the a-aniu/u, as in a fortress skilfully and artificially constructed, and the organs of seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting, are placed like so many watchmen on the walls, while the sense of feeling is diffused over the whole body. The spine also serves to connect the framework of the body. In short, let any person attend to the way in which the different bones are united, and consider how both their forms and articulations are varied and adapted to diffe- rent situations and offices, all advantageous to the strength and motion of the frame, and he will feel himself constrained to admit the existence of a wise designing cause. If the bones evince intelligence, gracious design, and skil- ful contrivance, the muscles and tendons also bear testimony to the being of God. The muscles act by contractions and relaxations ; and the insertion, the action, and strength of each is nicely proportioned to its place and office in the body. The action of most of the muscles is subject to the will; and, at pleasure, we can put them in motion, or allow them to remain in a state of rest. This indeed is not the case with them all; but design, and wisdom, and goodness, are equal- ly obvious, whether their action be voluntary or involuntary. Several motions and processes go on within us, without any volition on our part. The action of the heart and of the lungs, the circulation of the blood, the digestion of the food, the peristaltic motion of the viscera, and the various secre- tions, go on when we are asleep as well as when we are awake, and do not depend on the will. This is a wise and gracious provision, for these motions and processes are neces- sary to life and health; but, if these nice and complicated movements had been dependent on the will they must have occupied much of our attention; in many instances they must have been but partially performed ; and in sleep they must have been neglected and suspended. Therefore, by a wise appointment, these vital motions are involuntarily performed. But other motions depend on the will, and in them wisdom and goodness are as conspicuous as in those that are involun- tary. At pleasure we can open our eyes, to see the light, or shut them on the approach of danger: we close them invo luntarily in sleep. By an act of my will I can speak or be silent; rise up or sit down; walk or stand still. The body is nourished by the circulation of the blood, 32 GENERAL VIEW which, flowing from the heart as the fountain, like a genial and fertilizing stream, conveys life and nutriment to the whole system. The heart is a hollow muscle, of a conical shape, which involuntarily contract- and relaxes more than sixty times in a minute. It consists of four distinct cavities: the two largest are called ventricles; the two less auricles. The right ventricle, hy its contractions, propels the hlood, by the pulmonary artery and its numerouus ramifications, through the Lungs, where it throws out carbonic acid and takes in ca- loric; a process essential to life. The blood on leaving the lungs passes into the left ventricle, which sends it out, by proper arteries, to carry the vital aliment through the system. The blood is undergoing, every moment, a great change in the lungs ; and the heart acts as a forcing-pump in propelling it into the arteries. But the circulation does not depend on the propulsive action of the heart alone : it is aided by a pe- ristaltic motion in the arteries, which are of a muscular struc- ture, and much stronger than the veins, by which it is con- ducted back to the heart. Both the arteries and veins are furnished with valves. The arterial valves are so constructed ■ as to allow a tree passage of the blood from the heart towards the extremities, but to prevent its return by the same chan- nel. In the veins, the valves are so formed as to permit the blood to flow freely from the extremities towards the heart, but to hinder it from moving in the opposite direction. These valves are most numerous in the small branches, where the impetus of the blood is least. In the structure of the valves of the blood-vessels, design and contrivance are obvious. It was by attending to this circumstance that Harvey was led to the discovery of the interesting fact of the circulation of the blood, by which he has acquired a lasting celebrity. Can it then be imagined for a moment, that the peculiar structure of the arterial and venous valves, by observing and reason- ing on which that distinguished physician was led to the dis- covery of a great fact in nature, happened without design and skilful contrivance"? This imagination cannot be entertained but by the stupid credulity of atheism. The blood, sent from the left ventricle of the heart, and conveyed through the system by the branches and capillary, ramifications of the arteries, returns by the veins. The ar- teries, in proceeding from the heart, branch out and become smaller and smaller; and the veins, in advancing towards it, gradually unite and are enlarged, till the whole of those re- turning channels, by reiterated unions, are formed into one large trunk, through which they pour their contents into the OF THE HUMAN BODY. 33 right ventricle of the heart. The blood, having thus com- pleted the circulation, instantly sets out again on its tour, to imbibe, in passing through the lungs, a fresh portion of vital aliment, and in its progress to diffuse it through the body. The blood-vessels are so wonderfully ramified that scarcely a spot can be punctured but the blood will appear. The whole of the blood, however, does not perform this circulation. The ultimate ramifications of the arteries, in many instances, are so minute as not to afford a passage to the red parts of the blood, but transmit the thin and pellucid part of it only; and those ramifications, instead of commu- nicating with the veins, lodge their contents in bones, mus- cles, ligaments, and other parts of the body, where, by an in- scrutable process named assimilation, this fluid is converted into a substance of the same specific character and properties with the parts to which it is conveyed. On seeing corn, fruit, herbs, and roots, in the various stages of their growth, who would imagine that they could be changed into blood, and flesh, and bones % The process carried on in this secret laboratory eludes our investigation ; but it indicates the hand of a wise and mighty Chemist, who constituted the wonder- ful apparatus by which the surprising change is accomplished, and endued all its parts with a suitable activity. Besides, these minute vessels pour their contents into all the cavities, and into the glands, where they are afterwards changed into fluids of different qualities, and which answer different pur- poses. Some of the glands prepare a fluid for lubricating the joints, and the parts in motion; some furnish fluids to promote digestion, and to assist in the preparation of aliment ; some yield a fluid to protect the skin, and to preserve it in a proper state for performing its several offices; some give a fluid which is the means of continuing the species; and some prepare a fluid for nourishing the infant after its birth. But the whole contents of these capillary arteries which wander from the circulation, cannot be allowed continually to accumulate in the bones, muscles, and other parts to which they are conveyed : accordingly we meet with a set of vessels, w T hich, on account of the transparency of the fluid which they contain, are called lymphatics. They begin from surfaces and cavities in all parts of the body as absorbents; and, like the veins, they form, by the union of many smaller vessels, large tubes, and terminate in two trunks, which empty their contents into the veins a little before the veins enter the heart. Thus the lymphatics throw back into the circulation part of the blood which has not been taken up in 34 GENERAL VIEW the process of assimilation. What is unfit for being returned into the circulation is carried off by vessels which open ex- ternally upon the surface of the skin, or on the internal sur- face of the lungs, or in the kidneys and intestinal canal. By these outlets, by perspiration, by exhalation from the lungs, by the urinary and feecal passages, everything unfit for re- maining in the system is drained off. The lungs, which are so essential to life, consist of different lobes, and are composed of a great number of membranous cells, and of numerous ramifications of blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, all connected by cellular substance. The cells, which constitute the greatest part of the bulk of the lungs, are irregular in their shape; they are very small, and have been estimated at a fiftieth part of an inch in diameter. The number of them is very great; but neither their number nor dimensions can be accurately determined. It is evident, however, that in extent they greatly exceed the surface of the body. The cells are closely connected and freely communicate with each other, but have no communication with the cel- lular substance which unites and strengthens them. From the cells there arise small hollow tubes, called bronchise, which are enlarged by gradual junctions, till, at the upper part of the thorax, all the tubes on each side unite in one ; and the two branches joining together from the wind- pipe. The numberless ramifications of the pulmonary artery and vein are spread over every part of the cellular substance of the lungs, and carry the circulating fluid throughout the whole of those spongy bodies, so that the blood in the ves- sels and the air in the cells are brought into such a state of contiguity that they can act on each other. Each of the ribs is moveable between the bodies of the vertebrae with which it is connected ; and the breast bone, by its connexion with the ribs, partakes of their motion ; consequently the cavity of the chest, in which the lungs are lodged, is susceptible of considerable dilatation and contraction ; and these changes in its dimensions are much assisted by the contractions of the diaphragm, or by the action of the abdominal muscles press- ing the bowels upwards. Anatomical minuteness is not the object of the present treatise, and therefore what has now been said may suffice for a general account of the organ of respiration; and the structure and functions of this organ exhibit decisive evidence, not only of design, but of admira» ble contrivance also. An animal which has once respired cannot exist without OF THE HUMAN BODY. 35 the continuance of the process. Some animals need more at- mospheric air, some less; but none can live long without it. The assertions that can be opposed to this fact are few and doubtful. We have been told of serpents and worms that have been found alive in the heart of stones, and of toads en- closed in trees and rocks. But, admitting this, it is obvious that there must have been some communication between the external air and the bed of the animal. Air insinuates itself into the cell constructed by the mason-bee for the lodgment of its eggs, although that cell seems hermetically sealed ; and there is every reason to believe that it likewise penetrates to the animal embedded in a rock or tree. Experiment shows that this is not mere supposition, for the toad expires under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump ; and, if put into a ves- sel large enough to contain it with ease, but which is herme- tically sealed, it does not long survive. The frog leaps away wanting its head or its heart, and it survives the loss of the greater part of its spinal marrow. Eels and serpents can move for some time even after evisceration. Snails and chameleons can live long on air alone. But the life of all animals is soon extinguished on the exclusion of air. Such is the fact in nature ; and accordingly, every animated being, in one way or another, can imbibe or absorb atmo- spheric air. What is the provision made in man for the ac- complishment of this essential purpose? He has lungs, consisting as we have already seen of a vast multitude of communicating cells, for the reception of the air, and by means of them that invisible fluid is brought into such a state of contiguity with the blood that they can act upon each other ; and by a process, which the present state of our know- ledge does not enable us fully to explain, the blood extracts a vital nutriment from the air, or the air carries off' a delete- rious substance from the blood, or both. The lungs instantly expel the portion of air that has thus discharged its office, and take in a fresh portion to pass through a similar process. This inspiration and expiration are essential to human life. It may be added that while air thus taken into the lungs sup- ports life, if it be thrown into the vascular system it quickly brings on agitation, convulsions, and death. It is now a well known fact that atmospheric air is not a homogeneous fluid, but consists of three different gases, called oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, which though of different specific gravities are always found together; and an atmosphere thus constituted is the best fitted for supporting animal and vegetable life. The lungs did not form the at- 36 GENERAL VIEW mosphere, nor did the atmosphere create the lungs, yet the organ of the body and the external element are admirably adapted to each other; the lungs to bring the air into a state of contiguity with the blood, and the blood and air to exercise a reciprocal action. There is always a large proportion of blood in the lungs, and consequently in a state of contiguity with the air in the cells. The blood performs a complete circulation in a short time, and during that space the whole of it passes through the lungs. It is not long since respiration was in any degree under- stood, and still there remains much room for investigation and discovery. But we know that the air undergoes a great change in the lungs, and produces a remarkable effect on the blood. Air does not issue from the lungs in the same state in which it entered them. Its quantity is somewhat dimi- nished ; it has lost a portion of its oxygen, in the room of which it has gained about eight per cent, in bulk of carbonic acid, thrown out probably from the exhalent vessels of the lungs; and it is loaded with aqueous vapour. Besides, it is a well known fact that arterial and venous blood are not of the same colour. The blood has more of a vermilion redness on leaving the heart to proceed in the circulation than on its re- turn to the right ventricle. This change of colour is produced in the lungs, and is occasioned perhaps by the ejection of car- bon, and the absorption of the disengaged caloric of the oxygen that has disappeared in that organ. Whatever theory we adopt with respect to respiration, whether we consider it as acting by absorption or exhalation ; as the means of im- parting a vital nutriment, or of carrying off something which, if allowed to remain in the system, would almost instantane- ously extinguish life; or whether we combine these notions, in any case we see a grand purpose accomplished. We clearly see the end, although the physiological process be not fully understood. Respiration is likely the chief cause of animal heat, for the temperature of arterial blood is higher than that of venous; the temperature of the left side of the heart than that of the right; and the temperature diminishes as the distance from the heart increases. That atmospheric air contains a consi- derable portion of caloric is no hypothetical assumption. It can be demonstrated ; for air, when rapidly compressed, gives out both light and caloric ; and an instrument has been constructed for procuring fire by this process. It is probable that the portion of oxygen gas which disappears in respira- tion is converted into the carbonic acid which is thrown out OF THE HUMAN RODY. 37 of the lungs. But the specific caloric of this last is greatly inferior to that of the former; consequently a large quantity of heat is set free in the lungs when the conversion of gases takes place. This liberated heat passes into the blood, and is given out by it in the circulation. Thus a quantity of caloric is disengaged in the lungs in every respiration, and by means of the blood is diffused throughout the bod)-, -warm- ing and enlivening it. What wonderful adaptations are here presented ! What a gracious provision for supporting human life! There seems to be a correspondence between the respira- tion and comparative heat of different animals. The temper- ature of fish which occidate the blood by gills, is not much above that of the surrounding medium. In man, the ordina- ry temperature near the surface of the body is about 96° Fah- renheit ; and in most of the mammalia it is somewhat higher. In birds, the lungs of which are differently constituted, and much larger in proportion to the size of the animal, the tem- perature is still higher than in the mammalia. We may add that birds are exceedingly delicate as to air, and die in air where a mouse lives without any perceptible inconveniency. The fetus in utero is nourished by the respiratory organs of the parent. Any interruption between those organs and the fetus would soon prove fatal to the latter, on the same princi- ple as the stoppage of respiration, after the animal has once breathed, soon extinguishes life. The respiratory organs are provided before they are needed, and are ready to act as soon as there is occasion for them. In respiration we have both the planning and the execution of an extensive and complica- ted process. AVe see wonderful combinations and adapta- tions in order to the accomplishment of a beneficial end ; and, by the constitution of our minds, we are constrained to acknowledge design and skilful contrivance in the combina- tions and adaptations. In connexion with respiration, we may take notice of the voice and the faculty of speech. The principal organ of the voice is the larynx : if it be injured, the air passes through the windpipe without emitting any sound. Besides the larynx, the org-ans of speech are the tongue, palate, and teeth. With what promptitude does the tongue obey the understanding and will, and communicate a vast variety of impulses to the air ! Alphabetical writing, in which we paint sounds, and express all our thoughts by the varied combination of a few arbitrary signs, is justly accounted an astonishing invention. It is a brilliant display of design and skilful contrivance. But is i 38 GENERAL VIEW not that combination of organs by which we readily utter such a variety of articulate sounds far more wonderful 1 How great is that wisdom which formed the organs of speech ! The continual drain by perspiration, and by the urinary and faecal passages, requires a constant supply. This supply is bountifully furnished by nature around us ; appetite tells us when it is needed, and what quantity is sufficient, and we are provided with a wonderful apparatus for its reception and elaboration. Let us then take a cursory view of the intestinal and alimentary canal. The food is received into the mouth, and masticated by the teeth. Now, the food does not make the teeth, but the teeth are evidently formed for the masaca- tion of the food. They are also of importance in aiding the articulation of the voice. Infants, for whom a liquid aliment is provided, and who have not acquired the use of speech, have them not ; but they make their appearance when they are wanted. The organs of taste are stationed in the mouth, with those of smelling in their vicinity, to warn us against the admission of anything noxious into the stomach ; and these senses, when they are not vitiated by unnatural habits, are not only faith- ful monitors, but sources of much enjoyment. Are there no marks of intelligence, design and contrivance, in fixing the teeth just where they are needed, and in the only place where they can be useful! Is there no wisdom and no benignity in guarding the avenue to the stomach, not only by the eye, which inspects every substance presented to the mouth, but also by the organs of smell and taste, posted at the very en- trance of the alimentary canal, to detect everything unwhole- some in the food which may have escaped the vigilance of the eye 1 No man in the right use of reason can affirm it. In tracing the food in its progress, the marks of trracious design and skilful contrivance still accompany us, and multi- ply as we proceed. The tracht a or windpipe, the upper part of which is called the larynx, communicates with the (esopha- gus, or passage to the stomach. If the minutest part of our food pass into the trachea, it never fails to produce a violent cough, and sometimes very alarming symptoms. This acci- dent, however, seldom happens. How is it prevented 1 By a very simple but skilful contrivance. A neat, elastic, carti- laginous lid, called epiglottis, is so attached to the mouth of the windpipe as to he pr< ssed down by the food, which it pre- vents from passing towards the lungs, wiiile the passage to the stomach remains unimpeded. At the same time the velum pnlati, drawn backwards by its muscles, closes the openings OF THE HUMAN BODY. 39 of the nose and of the Eustachian tubes, and so prevents the food from returning through the nose, which sometimes hap- pens partially in drinking. Moreover, in the ad of degluti- tion, tlic larynx, u hich being composed of cartilaginous rings', in its ordinary state compresses the oesophagus, is carried for- wards and upwards by muscles destined fur the purpose, and consequently dilates the opening of the gullet. On reaching the gullet, the food is carried down by the principle of gravity : and a mechanical contrivance also lends its aid. The muscu- lar fibres of the oesophagus contract from above, and press the aliment forward to the stomach. This is obvious in drink inn with the head downwards, when deglutition can be performed by the muscular action of the oesophagus only. The food soon reaches the stomach, a membranous bag, or dilatation of the alimentary canal, where it is accumulated and undergoes new processes. In its process towards the stomach the food is broken and divided by the teeth, and at- tenuated by the saliva, a powerful solvent. On reaching the stomach it 4s subjected to the operation of a new chemical agent, the gastric juice, a liquid secreted chiefly by that organ. The nature of this liquid is not yet fully known. Its taste, colour, and solvent powers are different in different classes of animals. Some living creatures cannot digest that which is the food of others. Some animals, such as sheep, live wholly upon vegetables; their stomachs do not digest animal sub- stances. Others, as the eagle, feed entirely on animal sub- stances : their stomachs do not digest vegetables. Hemlock is poisonous to man; but goats eat it without injury. The gastric juice does not continue always of the same na- ture, even in the same animal. It is in some measure modi- fied according to the age, the health, the habits, and the differ- ent aliments on which the animal subsists. Sick persons and children are incapable of digesting the food which is nutri- tious to a healthy man. Some graminivorous animals may be brought to live on animal food, and to reject grass ; and some carnivorous animals may be accustomed to vegetables. But still the gastric juice, although it in some measure accom- modates itself to the substances subjected to its operation, evidently appears to have peculiar qualities in certain classes of animals. In the dog it dissolves hard bones, but, in equal times, makes no great impression on potatoes, parsnips, and other vegetable substances. On the other hand, in the sheep and ox it speedily dissolves vegetables, but makes little im- pression on animal bodies. Different tribes of animals are distinguished by their gastric juice as well as by their exter- 40 GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN BODY. nal form, and both are well suited, in every instance, to the habits of the creature ; for in many cases there is an astonish- ing correspondence In i\\ een tin' teeth and tiiat liquid. The teeth of graminivorous animals are differently formed from those of the carnivorous tribes ; and in both they are wonder- fully suited to the food and to the gastric juice of the animal. He who can believe that all these adaptations are the result of chance is no enemy to credulity. The gastric juice, while it dissolves food, even although enclosed in perforated metallic tubes, spares the living sto- mach. But, when life ceases, this liquid often acts on the very organ from which it has been secreted. It differs froma che- mical solvent, in havingan assimilating power, by which it re- duces all substances, whether animal or vegetable, into a soft pulpy mass named chyme, and prepares them for passing from the stomach into the intestines. If the food has been pro- perly digested in the stomach, on reaching the lower orifice of that organ, named pylorus, it is freely allowed to pass. But if it is not fully reduced to chyme, then, by a sort oft instinctive sensibility of the pylorus, it is thrown back into the stomach to undergo more thoroughly the action of the gastric juice. In the intestines, the chyme is mingled with the bile ami pan- creatic juice. In short, from one extremity of the alimentary canal to the other, fluids are perpetually flowing into it from the glands and other sources. By the action of these fluids, and of the intestines, the chyme is formed partly into chyle, which is absorbed by the lacteals, and thrown into the circu- lation, and partly intoexcrementitious matter, which is ejected from the body. Here then we see an astonishing process carried on by the instrumentality of many different parts, all nicely adapted to each other, all co-operating in the same work, and tending to the accomplishment of the same end; the support and nou- rishment of the body. The mastication and deglutition of the food, and the moistening of it with the saliva before it enters the stomach ; the great change which it undergoes in that or- gan, chiefly by means of the dissolving and assimilating ac- tion of the gastric juice ; the changes induced upon the ali- ment after it passes from the stomach ; the separation of chyle from the excrementitious part; the absorption of the chyle by the lacteals, which throw it into the blood ; the mysterious process of assimilation ; the peristaltic motion of the viscera ; the mucus which is continually secreted for their protection against the acrimony of their contents ; and the ejection of the excrementitious matter from the body; these, when all taken THF INFERIOR ANIMALS. 41 together, exhibit an astonishing- process. They furnish an undeniable proof not only of (lesion and admirable contrivance, but of great benignity also. What an amazing structure is the body of Man! Hew wonderful the absorbent, the circu- latory, secretory, and excrementory apparatus of the human system! We are wonderfully made, and the marks of wis- dom and goodness are deeply impressed on every part of our frame. To sum up all, on this part of the subject, in a few words ; let any person contemplate the human body; let him atten- tively examine the skeleton, the figure and structure of the bones of which it is composed, with their articulations ; the muscles, their origin, insertion, strength, and action ; the or- gans of sense, the eye, the ear, the nostrils, the tongue and palate, and the sense of feeling diffused over the whole body; the structure of the jaws, the stomach, and other viscera ; the structure and action of the lungs, and organs of speech ; and if he can retire from the examination without a deep im- pression of intelligence and design, yea of wisdom and good- ness, in the human frame, there can be but little doubt that his understanding is singularly obtuse, or his heart singu- larly depraved. Every mind, open to the force of evidence and to the impressions of truth, must join in the exclamation of an ancient sage, " I am fearfully and wonderfully made." It may here be remarked, that as food nourishes the bod}'', so sleep refreshes both body and mind. This mysterious phenomenon we are unable to explain ; but its periodical re- turn is necessary to life, and by it a beneficial end is accom- plished. There is an obvious relation between sleep and the rotation of the earth on its axis. They are harmonious parts of one whole. CHAPTER IV. THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. Man is evidently the noblest inhabitant of the earth. He is not, indeed, so strong as the elephant, nor so swift as the antelope ; his eye is not so piercing as that of the eagle, nor his sense of smell so exquisite as that of the dog : but the high faculties of his mind give him superiority and dominion over the whole animal creation. Around us we see a vast 4* 42 THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. variety of objects, possessing very different qualities. These objects do not stand at a great distance from each other : they are wonderfully linked together, rising above each other by almost imperceptible degrees. The system of nature is a system of insensible gradations. The two extremes of or- ganic and inorganic matter, perhaps, meet at a common point. Corals and corallines seem to unite the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. The boundaries of animal and vege- table life are obscurely defined, and the interval between the polypus and man is filled up with an amazing gradation of animated beings. The progress from unorganized to or- ganized matter, from vegetable to animal, and from animal to rational existence, presents an astonishing and gradually- ascending series. In the whole progression we see a strik- ing uniformity of plan, with a rich variety in the execution : beautiful analogies and nice distinctions everywhere occur. It is animal existence which, at present, claims our atten- tion. The earth, the air, and the water, are all abundantly replenished with sentient beings, differing in their external appearance, their habits, and their dispositions; and all en- joying happiness according to their several constitutions. Man unquestionably stands at the head of this system of ani- mated being ; and there seems to be a much larger interval between him and the most sagacious of the inferior animals, than what occurs in any other part of the gradation. It is true, indeed, that in a number of instances, we find man in a state little superior to that of the brutes : but, in the view un- der consideration, Ave must take his capacity of improvement into our estimate. My full conviction is, that if we were to examine animals in every gradation from the polypus to man, we should meet, with incontrovertible evidences of design, and wise and benevolent contrivance, in every stage of our progress. 15ut a field of this kind is greatly too extensive for our present purpose. It would be, no doubt. both pleasant and instructive leisurely to pass through the whole animal kingdom, and to examine with minute attention everything that fell in our way. This, however, would lead into vo- luminous details, instead of a concise treatise. My limits con- fine me to a few remarks : and as neither comparative anato- my nor natural history is my object, I shall pay no attention to systematic arrangement, but shall endeavour to show. I. That the form of the inferior animals is admirably adapt- ed to their manner of life. II. That they are provided with suitable clothing. FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 43 III. That they possess means of defence suited to their condition. IV. That they are qualified for procuring their food. V. That we meet with surprising adaptations of animals to peculiar circumstances. VI. That each kind is capahle of continuing its species. Under each of these heads, I shall mention a number of particulars respecting the inferior animals: these particulars will be of a very miscellaneous nature; but, I presume, will all tend to show wise design and benevolent contrivance in nature. I. The form of the inferior animals is admirably adapted to their manner of life. 1. In the form of the different kinds of quadrupeds there is great variety ; but amidst all the variety we perceive the same general plan ; the same great outline appears in the skeleton, in the articulations of the bones, in the disposition, form, and insertion of the muscles ; and in several other cir- cumstances, all accommodated to the peculiar nature and habits of the animal. The organs of sense, of digestion, of circulation, and of generation, occur in all the species, but are varied according to the destination of each. In order to support the head of quadrupeds, they are fur- nished with a very strong ligament firmly bracing the head to the vertebrae of the back. This ligament arises from the spines of the dorsal and cervical vertebrae, which are length- ened out for that purpose, and is fixed to the middle and pos- terior part of the occipital bone. It is of great strength and size in all quadrupeds; but is remarkably so in the elephant, where the great weight of the head requires a strong support. This ligament is wanting in man, because he did not need it ; but it is of great use to quadrupeds, and they are provided with it. Here, as in every other department of nature, the provision is suited to the exigency of the case. In graminivorous animals we see a remarkable correspond- ence between the length of the legs and the length of the neck. According to the ancient fable, Tantalus was set up to the chin in water, and apples were at his lips ; but he had no power to stoop to the one to quench his thirst, or to reach up to the other to satisfy his hunger. There is nothing like this in nature. All animals are capable of gathering their food. Herbage is abundantly provided for the graminivo- rous tribes, and there is such a correspondence between their necks and their legs that they can easily reach it. 2. The external figure of birds is excellently adapted to 44 FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. the mode of life which they are destined to pursue. They can either walk on the ground, or by the action of their wings rise buoyant on the air, and pass through it with great rapidity, somewhat like lish in water. Their wings are moved by remarkably strong muscles, and their tail serves as a rudder to direct their course. In most cases their heads ill. The proper bones of the cranium, at least in adult animals, are not joined by sutures, but are consolidated into a single piece. This small and compact head generally terminates in a sharp-pointed beak; and the breast-bone is formed somewhat like the prow of a ship, so that the bird can pass easily through the air. The wings are placed more forward than the middle part of the body ; and, at first sight, we should be ready to imagine that, in Hying, the posterior parts would hang down, and that the bird would be unable to preserve the body in a horizontal position. But by stretch- ing out its head, which acts upon the lever of a long neck, by filling its abdominal sacs with air, and by expanding the tail, it alters the centre of gravity, and keeps its body nearly in the plane of the horizon. The legs of birds are placed far back in their bodies; but. by erecting the head and neck, they throw the centre of gravity on the feet. As birds are destined to pass rapidly through the atmosphere, so their in- ternal configuration, as well as their external form, is hap- pily fitted lor volitation. They harmoniously conspire for the purpose, and so run into each other that I shall consider them together. Receptacles of air pervade the whole bodies of birds, and their respiratory organs constitute one of the most singular structures in the animal economy. Their respiration is per- formed by means of lungs which are fixed to the back-bone, and which have a communication with air cells spread over the whole abdomen, and also with hollow bones, which, in- stead of marrow, are filled with air. And not the hollow bones only are filled with air. but the pinions also: in some cases, the communication even extends to analogous cavities in the musch s. In those birds which soar highest, such as . . the hawk, and the lark, the cavities in the bones and below the muscles are very large. This great diffusion of air throughout the bodies of birds makes them specifically lighter than otherwise they would have been, and so fits them for supporting themselves in that medium through which tin \ are destined to pass. If we consider the rare- faction of the included air by the heat of the animal, we will easily perceive that these air cells enable the bird to fly with FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 45 much more ease than it could have done if it had been form- ed Like quadrupeds. The air cells seem likewise to supply the place of a dia- phragm, and of strong- abdominal muscles. Without adding anything to the weight of the body, they produce the same effect on the viscera as those muscles would have done. Pro- bably they are also of much importance to the respiration of the bird. The ostrich, indeed, which does not fly, is pro- vided with them ; but from the use which it makes of its wings in running, they no doubt contribute to the rapidity of its motion. The bat has them not; but its structure is pecu- liar, and its flight is never long. Birds have no bladder of urine ; but an ureter proceeds from each kidney, and termi- nates in the rectum, consequently the urine is discharged along with the faeces. This seems to be a contrivance for making the animal lighter. Here we see a conformation of parts evidently fitted to the bird's manner of life. The wings did not form the pointed beak and sharp breast bone, nor did they create the air vesicles : and, on the other hand, the pointed beak and the air vesicles did not give existence to the wings. They exist independently on each other ; yet they all harmonize and contribute to the same end. The in- ference is obvious and irresistible. 3. Of the inhabitants of the water there is a prodigious variety : but one general figure, subject to different modifica- tions, prevails among fish. Their form is well fitted for tra- versing the fluid in which they reside ; and, by means of their fins and tails, many of them can pass through the water with great- rapidity. Men, in some measure, imitate the shape of fish in the construction of fast-sailing vessels. But many fishes, with the greatest ease, overtake a ship under sail, play around it as if it were motionless, and dart off before it at pleasure. The tail is the great instrument of progressive motion ; the fins serving chiefly to keep the body upright. Fish are furnished with organs of respiration suited to the element which they inhabit. Instead of lungs they have gills, or branchiae, which are placed behind the head on each side; and, in most instances, have a movable gill cover. By means of these organs, which are connected with the throat, the animal draws its oxygen from the air contained in the water, as animals with lungs derive it immediately from the atmosphere. Fish discharge the water through the bronchial openings, and thus their expiration and inspiration are per- formed through different passages. The heart of fish is very small in proportion to the body. Its structure is simple, con- 46 FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. sisting of a single auricle and ventricle, which correspond with the right side of the heart in warm-blooded animals. The ventricle gives rise to a single arterial trunk, going Btraight forward' to the bronchia, whence the blood passes into a large artery, analogous to the aorta, which goes along the spine and supplies the body of the animal. It is returned by the venae cavx into the auricle. The temperature of the inhabitants of the water is nearly the same with that of the element in which they reside; and fish need less air than hot-blooded animals. Still they need a certain portion of air, and soon expire under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump. Berzelius, indeed, has stated that a fish may continue alive for several days in water which is void of air, and that it cannot be observed that the least de- composition of the water has taken place by its respiration. But he has not told us whether he means to assert that this takes place under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, or only when there is a free communication between the water and the atmosphere. A fish lives in a narrow-mouthed vessel filled with water, so long as the communication with the ex- ternal air remains open ; but soon dies if that communication be completely shut up. If a hole be broken in a frozen lake, the fish quickly repair to the place. Hence, in winter, the North American Indians, when their provisions fail, break a hole in the ice, and commonly succeed in obtaining a fresh supply by fishing.* As fish have no lungs, so we have already seen their heart has only one auricle and one ventricle. Now the heart did not create the respiratory organs, nor did the respiratory or- gans form the heart ; yet they are evidently adapted to each other. Many fishes are provided with a swimming bladder, which lies close to the back-bone, and has a strong muscular coat. The fish can cither contract or dilate this bladder; and, rendering itself specifically lighter or heavier, can de- scend or ascend at pleasure. Flounders, and some other fishes, which want this bladder, are always found grovelling at the bottom of the water. This, however, is not universally the case; for fishes of the cartilaginous kind want air blad- ders, and yet they easily rise to the top or sink to the bot- tom ; and although most of the eel kind have air bladders, * River water has rather less than J- of its bulk of air. This air contains about ^ of oxygen; from ^ to -^ carbonic acid i the remainder is nitrogen.— See Ellis, Inq. No. 551, &c. FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 47 yet they cannot raise themselves in the water without diffi- culty. It is probable, therefore, that this bladder serves other purposes in the economy of the fish besides enabling it to rise and sink in the water. The natatory bladder is largest in such fishes as swim with considerable velocity. It is wanting in flat fishes, where the large lateral fins supply its place, and in the shark, where its absence is compensated by the size and strength of the tail. It does not exist in the lamprey, which possesses none of these compensations ; and therefore it creeps slowly at the bottom of the water. In fresh-water fishes, the air bladder, accord- ing to Erman's experiments, contains nitrogen gas mixed with varying proportions of oxygen gas ; but this last is never found in it in the same proportion as in atmospheric air. Biot found that in salt-water fishes, it contained oxygen gas increasing in proportion as the fish was in the habit of living at a great depth.* This bladder communicates ge- nerally with the oesophagus, and sometimes with the stomach. The whale tribe and the web-footed mammalia, which breathe by lungs, must often rise to the surface for the purpose of respiration. Some of the inhabitants of the water present, a singular ap- pearance. Their bones, instead of being placed internally, form their exterior covering. They stand low in the scale of animal existence ; but even in them we see a wise and gra- cious provision for the preservation of the creature. The muscle, for instance, has a locomotive power : on looking at it we should be apt to imagine that it would be the sport of the waves, and be dashed to pieces against the rocks in a storm. It, however, has the power of securing itself against this danger, and of providing for its safety, by forming cer- tain viscous threads, about two inches long, by means of which it firmly attaches itself to the rock, as by a cable and anchor. Upwards of a hundred and fifty of these cables are sometimes employed in mooring a single muscle. Here we see means of preservation well adapted to the state and cir- cumstances of the animal. 4. In the different classes of animals there is a wonderful * Between the tropics, Humboldt found in the natatory blad- der of the flying - fish 0.94 azote, 0.04, oxygen 0.02 carbonic acid. Some fish inhabiting the lower strata of the ocean have as much as 0.92 of oxygen in their air bladder. — Humbolut, Personal Narrutive, v. ii. p. 16. 48 FORM OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. adaptation of the organs of sense to the structure of the rest of the body, and to the animal's peculiar manner of life. Of this I shall take the eye as an example. All animals have two eves: some insects have more. In man the eyes are directed forwards, harmonizing with the form and articulations of the upper and lower extremities, and with the configuration of the whole body. In most of the inferior animals, the eye has an oblique direction. The simia; and the owl look straight forward. The motions of the human eye are performed by six muscles : quadrupeds have a seventh, named, from its office, the suspensory mus- cle. It sustain* the weight of the globe of the eye, and pre- vents the optic nerve from being too much stretched, when the animal is obliged to hold its eyes in a hanging posture, and to look downwards in choosing and gathering its food. In man, on account of his erect posture, this muscle is not needed, and in the human subject it is not found; but to quadrupeds, by reason of their prone posture, it is of great utility, and they are provided with it. Now the suspensory muscle does not occasion the prone posture of the animal, and the prone posture does not create the suspensory muscle, for it comes into the world with the quadruped ; yet the one is adapted to the other. Is there not design, yea benevolent design, and skilful contrivance, in this adaptation? Many animals, but especially birds, whose eyes are much exposed to injury in passing through woods and thickets, are provided with a somewhat transparent covering for the eye, called the nictating membrane. It admits as many rays as render objects visible, and protects the organ of vision in cir- cumstances of danger. It screens the eye when the bird is flying directly against the rays of the sun; and by means of it, according to Cuvier, the eagle is enabled to look at that luminary. It also serves to cleanse the cornea, an rip. ration which man ran perform with his hand. It is drawn over the globe of the eye by the combined action of two very singular muscles, which are fitted for the purpose with much mecha- nical skill. The eyes of fish, being much exposed to danger in the in-> constant element in which they reside, always have a cuti- cle or firm pellucid membrane over them. Indeed their eyes differ, in several respects, from those of other animals, and are wonderfully accommodated to the medium in which fish exist. The vitreous humour is very small, and the aqueous sometimes scarcely perceptible. The water, in a great mea- sure, supplies the place of those two humours ; but, that re- FORM OF THE INFERIOR A.NIMALS. 49 fraction may be duly earned on and vision accomplished, the crystalline is verj Large, almosl spherical, -.aid more dense than in terrestrial animals. In birds these circumstances are reversed; they are often in a somewhat elevated region of the atmosphere, and the rays which pass through that rare medium are refracted by the aqueous humour, which in birds is of a large size. Man, and the mammalia, living on the surface of the earth, hold a middle place between these two extremes. The tapetum, or mucouawhich Hues the posterior surface of the iris, the ciliary processes, and part of the tu- nica choroides, is of different colours in different kinds of animals; and in each it is admirably fitted to the creature's manner of life. White reflects the rays of light; black ab- sorbs them. Accordingly the tapetum is either white, or of some vivid colour which reflects the light strongly, in those animals which seek their prey by night. The cat and the owl have the tapetum whitish, and the pupil capable of much contraction and dilatation. On the other hand the tapetum of birds in general, but especially of eagles, hawks, and other birds of prey, is black; by which means they are enabled to see with the greatest distinctness, but only in clear daylight. Man is designed to labour chiefly by day, and his tapetum is neither so black as that of birds, nor so white as that of those animals which make the greatest use of their eyes in the dark. Animals which are much under ground, as the mole and the shrew, have the eyes very small. In the former of these its existence has been altogether denied ; and it is not, in fact, larger than a pin's head. In some reptiles, the com- mon integuments form, instead of eyelids, a kind of firm win- dow, behind which the eyeball has a free motion. 5. Quadrupeds are divided into the carnivorous and the herbivorous. As their food is different, so a difference in the teeth indicates the class to which the animal belongs. As the teeth of the graminivorous, parti uilarly of the ruminating kinds, are more constantly employed than those of the car- nivorous kinds, so they are more thoroughly provided with enamel. There is also a considerable difference in the arti- culations of the jaws of quadrupeds. In the feras the articu- lation admits only of the hinge movement : but in the her- bivorous quadrupeds, particularly in the ruminating kinds, the articulation admits of a very free lateral motion. Here there is an obvious correspondence between the form and the habits of the animal. There is a striking relation between the teeth, and the other instruments of mastication, and the stomach. The sheep, 5 50 FORM OF THE INFERIOR AXIMAL9. deer, and ox tribes, are destitute of foreteeth in the upper jaw : but the trituration of their food is completed by rumi- nation. The horse and ass do not chew the cud, but they are provided with suitable t< eth in the upper jaw for masti- cating the food and preparing it for the action of the gastric juicer The gastric juice of ruminating animals does not per- form its specific operation upon the food till the cud has been chewed ; and the animal seemd to have as much gratification in chewing the cud as in pasturing. It then appears to be in a state of the most tranquil enjoyment. Birds have no teeth; but the herbivorous and graminivo- rous kinds are furnished with the gizzard, a powerful instru- ment for grinding the food, and preparing it for the action of the gastric juice. This juice does not act on the unbroken grain, but the animal is provided with the means of grinding it. Now the gizzard did not form the bill of the bird, nor did the bill give existence to the gizzard ; yet they are exact- ly fitted to each other. Teeth and a gizzard are not found to- gether. Instead of extending these remarks, I shall close this section by inserting some of the conclusions of Cuvier, so distinguished by his knowledge in comparative anatomy. " Every organized individual," says he, " forms an entire system of its own, all the parts of which must mutually cor- respond, and concur to produce a certain definite purpose, by reciprocal reaction, or by combining towards the same end. Hence none of these separate parts can change their forms without a corresponding change in the other parts of the same animal, and consequently each of their parts taken separately indicates all the other parts to which it has belonged. Thus, if the viscera of an animal are so organized as to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh only, it is also requisite that the jaws should be so constructed as to fit them foi devour- ing prey; the claws must be constructed for seizing and tear- ing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pur- suing and overtaking it ; and the organs of sense for discover- ing it at a distance. — The shape and structure of the teeth regulate the forms of the condyle, of the shoulder-blade, and of°the claws; so that a claw, a shoulder-blade, a condyle, a leer or arm bone, or any other bone separately considered, enables us to discover the description of teeth to which they have belonged ; and so also reciprocally we may determine the forms of the other hones from the teeth. Thus com- mencing our investigations by a careful survey of any one CLOTHING OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 51 bone by itself, a person who is sufficiently master of the laws of organic structure may, as it wore, reconstruct the whole animal to which that bone had belonged. — The smallest frag- ment of bone, even the most apparently insignificant apophy- sis, possesses a fixed and determinate character, relative to the class, order, genus, and species of the animal to which it belonged ; insomuch that, when we find merely the extre- mity of a well preserved bone, we are able, by careful exami- nation, assisted by analogy and exact comparison, to deter- mine the species to which it once belonged as certainly as if we had the entire animal before us."* II. The clothing of the inferior animals is completely adapt- ed to the climate which they inhabit, and to the different seasons of the year. In Kamtschatka, Lapland, and the higher latitudes of North America, they are clothed with thick and warm furs; but in tropical climates they are almost naked. The musk-ox, a native of high latitudes, is provided in winter with a thick and fine wool, or fur, which grows at the root of the long hair, and shelters him from the intense cold to which he is exposed in that season. But as the summer advances this fur loosens from the skin, and by the animal's frequent rolling himself on the ground, it works out to the end of the hair, and in clue time drops off, leaving little for summer clothing except the long hair. As the warm weather is of short duration in those high latitudes, the new fleece begins to appear almost as soon as the old one drops off, so that he is again provided with a winter dress before the cold becomes intense. The clothing is suited to the season. Where are the animals found which furnish materials for the fur trade ? Not within the tropics ; but in countries border- ing on the Arctic circle. The elephant is a native of hot climates, and he goes naked. Rein-deer abound in Lapland and in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, and they have a coat of strong dense hair. The white bear is found on the coast of Greenland, and his shaggy covering is suited to that high la- titude. In a word, if we pass from the equator to Spitzber- gen and Nova Zembla, we shall find in all the intermediate degrees, that the clothing of quadrupeds is suited to their climate, and accommodates itself to the season of the year. Man is the only naked animal in all countries ; and he is the only creature qualified to provide clothing for himself, and to accommodate that clothing to every climate, and to all the * Cuvier's Theory, p. 90, &c. 52 DEFENCE OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. variety of the seasons. In this, as in every oilier respect, bis condition is suited to his nature, as a b( ing whose improve- ment and happiness are promoted by labour of body and ex- ercise of mind. If we pass to the clothing of birds, we still find benevolent contrivance, suited to the circumstances and providing for tin welfare of the animal. This clothing consists of feathers, which arc very bad conductors of heat, and which consequent- ly permit the heat of the animal to pass off very slowly into the circumambient medium. The feathers are so inserted into the skin as naturally to lie backwards from the head, and to lap over each other, like tiles on a roof, allowing the rain to runoff. When the head of the bird is turned towards the wind, the feathers are not discomposed by the most violent storm. The rump of birds terminates in a large gland, which secretes an oily substance ; and when the feathers are too dry, or any way disordered, the bird squeezes the oil out of this gland, and dresses them with it. Thus the admission of water is prevented ; and the bird, by means of its feathers, is sheltered both from cold and rain. "Water-fowls have their breast covered with warm and soft clothing, suited to their circumstances. The eider-duck abounds on the coasts of Iceland; and the warmth of eider-down is well known. While the feathers of birds thus preserve them from cold, they are also a sort of defensive armour, and excellent instru- ments of motion. The temperature of fish is not much above that of the me- dium in which they reside; and they have not, in general, any great occasion for warm clothing. Nevertheless they are provided with a scaly coat of mail, and are covered with a slimy and glutinous matter, which not only defends their bodies from the immediate contact of the surrounding fluid, but probably facilitates their motion through the water also. Under the scales, and before we come to the muscular part of the body, we meet with an oily substance, which contri- butes to the preservation of the requisite warmth. The whale is a hot-blooded animal, and resides chiefly in polar regions ; but he is wrapped up in a thick coat of blubber, which de- fends him from the cold. Other inhabitants of the water in high latitudes, as the walrus, enjoy a similar security against the rigour of the element to which they are exposed. Can we seriously attend to the clothing of animals, without re- cognizing in it the hand of a wise and beneficent First III. Every animated being is endued with the love of life, DEFENCE OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 53 and the desire of self-preservation; and is also furnished with the means of acting in conformity to this instinctive principle of its nature. Every animal can search for its food, and choose what is proper for its subsistence. But, at present, I shall shortly attend to the means which different animals possess of securing themselves against danger, and of de- fending themselves from their enemies. Every animal pos- sesses, in a certain degree, the means of self-preservation, either by resistance or flight. Some animals have formidable instruments of offence in their horns, teeth, claws, hoofs, or sting : others trust for safety to the swiftness of their course, or velocity of their flight ; and some defend themselves by emitting a repulsive odour. In gregarious animals, although the individual, in some instances, is weak and timid, yet the herd or flock can assume an imposing attitude, and make a vigorous defence. No creatures are more timid and defenceless than sheep, when under the protection of man. In the natural state, however, the rams, constituting the half of the flock, place themselves in battle array against the enemy, and dogs can make no im- pression upon them. Even the lion or tiger is unable to re- sist their united impetuosity and force ! A single goat can choose his position on the rock, and set the dog at defiance. Horses join heads together, and fight with their heels; oxen join tails and fight with their horns ; all place their young in the centre, that they may be safe during the battle. In pe- rilous cases elephants march in troops ; the oldest in front, the young and feeble in the centre, those of middle age and mature vigour in the rear. When at a distance from danger they travel with less precaution, never however separating so far but that they can hear one another's cries, and afford timely assistance. The mole is well-formed for digging, and escapes from its pursuers by penetrating into the earth: the hedge-hog rolls itself up in a prickly envelope : the hare is well-fitted for running, and trusts to its swiftness for safety. The inno- cuous lama, which uses neither feet nor teeth against its ene- mies, is not destitute of means of defence. It is provided, we are told, with an acrimonious saliva, which, when offended, it can eject to the distance of several yards. This saliva oc- casions troublesome cutaneous eruptions where it touches.* * Ulloa, Voyage au Perou, liv. vi. ch. 8. Wilcock's Hist ory of Buenos Ayres, p. 458. 5* 54 DEFENCE OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. Some animals are furnished with peculiar glands and hags at the end of the rectum, which secrete and contain a remarka- bly fetid substance; and this substance the animal can at pleasure throw out against its pursuers. The z>irilta, a species of weazel about the size of a rabbit, found in several parts of South America, emits, when angry, such a pestilential vapour as beats oif the most formidable adversary. Another incon- veniencv. savs De Panes, which awaits the traveller in this country (betwi ii i and Mexico), is the abomina- ble smell of an animal, without the agility, but nearly of the size of a rabbit. This creature, when hardly pressed and in jeopardy of being taken, emits a most intolerable stench, which threatens suffocation to his pursuers, and which is eluded only by a precipitate flight. The squash, or Armenian polecat, when pursued or irritated, squirts upon its pursuers an excrementitious liquor of so horrible a smell that neither man nor dog can endure it. Birds by their different ways of flying often escape from their enemies. If the pigeon had the same way of flying as the hawk, it could scarcely ever escape his claws. If, from the earth and ;he air, we pass to the ocean, we shall find its inhabitants possessing, in like manner, means of defence and safety. The cuttle-fish, when closely pursued, ejects a fluid black as ink, and conceals itself and escapes by discolouring the water. The excretory duct of the bag which contains this singular secretion opens near the anus. The fluid itself is thick, but so miscible with water that a small quantity of it discolours a considerable body of water. Ac- cording to Cuvier, the Indian ink is made of this fluid. Some fishes have fins so large and flexible, that, when pursued, they can spring out of their native element, and dart through the air to a considerable distance. Some of the inhabitants of the water possess peculiar means of defence, by giving electrical shocks. The electrical fluid is widely diffused in nature; and seems to be lodged, in greater or less quantities, in all animals. That there is a considerable portion of it in the human body is evident. Some persons are naturally so much electrified as to sive obvious signs of the presence of this fluid, when a delicate electro- meter is applied to them ; and if their hair is combed, when they are placed on an insulating stool, they emit sparks. But only a very few animals have the power of giving shocks. So far as is at present known, they are all of the aquatic kind : the torpedo, gymnotus electricus, and silurus electrtcus. This property oi' the torpedo has been known since the FOOD OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. 55 days of Theophrastus. It has the power of giving- a smart shock to the person who touches it. According to Humboldt and Guy Lussac, the contact must be immediate. The shock depends on the will of the animal, which must be irritated before it exerts its peculiar power. The electrical apparatus of the torpedo has some resemblance to a galvanic trough, and seems to act in a similar manner. The gymnotua electricua is a species of eel peculiar to vSuri- nam river, and is said to be a fresh-water fish only. When of the largest size it is about four feet long, and from ten to fourteen inches in circumference in the thickest part of the body. Its electrical power is greater than that of the torpedo. It gives even the most violent shocks without any movement of the head, eyes, or fins. But when the torpedo gives a shock, a convulsive motion of the pectoral fins may be ob- served. The ailurua electricua, a fish about twenty inches long, found in some of the rivers of Africa, gives a shock like the torpedo and gymnotus. By means of this singular power, these animals can stun their adversaries and escape by flight. Insects appear a feeble race; but some of them possess formidable means of defence and annoyance. Their sting is a spear, which they can wield with dexterity in repelling aggression. The fine polish of this little piece of armour has often been remarked, and adduced as an instance of the dif- ference between the workmanship of the Creator and the pro- ductions of art. When viewed through a microscope, the point of the finest needle seems rough and blunt; but the sting of a bee, when examined by the glass, is seen to be smooth and beautifully polished. The first displays all its beauties to the naked eye ; the instrument reveals its deform- ities : but the beauty of the last appears the more conspi- cuous the more narrowly it is inspected. In short, every animal is endued, in a greater or less degree, with the means of self-preservation. If any species be singularly exposed to danger it has the advantage of some great compensating principle, by which it is preserved from extinction. Many of the weaker or more timid animals can elude pursuit by the rapidity of their motions : some are very prolific and can bear a great waste. Here, as in every other department, we see a uniformity of plan, which can only be the fruit of de- sign ; and such an adaptation of means to ends as can result from nothing but benevolent intention. IV. There is a great variety in the tastes and appetites of different kinds of animals; and there is a corresponding 56 FOOD OF THE INFERIOR ANIMALS. variety in the productions of the earth. There seems to be nothing in the wide extent of the vegetable kingdom, but wlr.ii will yield sustenance to animals of one kind or other. Each species finds food agreeable to its taste and proper to its nature, and animals of one class cannot deprive those of another of thi ir means of subsistence. Accordingto Linnaeus, the hon tor himself, lb' tramples upon the and p iws them with his tore feet, till the prickles are masl< 'or rubbed off'; and so completely does he the work, that the food thus prepared might be squeezed by the hand with impunity. Gass informs us, that in the country towards the source of the Missouri, wolves, in packs, hunt the antelope, which is too swift to be win down by a single wolf. The wolves take their station ; part of the pack begins the chase, and running in aciri intervals relieve each other. From Le Page de Pratz, in his History of Louisiana, we learn that wolves discover a similar sagacity in hunting the buffalo. The arctic gull, which is somewhat larger than the common gull, often pursues it. The gull, after flying for some time, with loud screams and evident marks of terror, drops its dang, which its pursuer immediately darts at, and catches before it falls into the sea.* In insects that undergo several transformations, the instinctive propensity changes with the appearance of the animal. Some that in one stage feed on dung and putrid bodies, in another extract a delicious aliment from herbs and flowers. This instinctive sagacity appears throughout all animated nature. III. Many animals live without any fixed habitation, and the dwelling which others frequent is of the simplest kind; as the form of the hare's. Some animals have no particular place of residence during winter, as many kinds of birds. but prepare a place in spring for bringing forth and rearing their young. Others, as the beaver, have no fixed residence in summer, but provide a comfortable habitation against the severity of winter. In the construction of their houses many animals display much sagacity; and as an example of this we may select thi beaver. He is a native, chiefly of high latitudes, and, though not possessed of all that surprising sa- gacity and ingenuity which some distinguished naturalists have ascribed to him, is endued with wonderful instincts. * Cook's Third Voyage, vol. iii. p. 239. The beavers, when numerous, construct their houses on the margin of ponds, lakes, and rivers. They always choose a place where the water is so deep as not to freeze to the bot- tom. When they build on small rivers, where the water is liable to be drained off, by a failure in the sources which sup- ply the stream, they provide against the evil by making a dam quite across the river at a convenient distance from their houses. This shows the foresight and sagacity of an engi- neer in erecting a fort, or marking out the ground for the site of a city. The shape of the dam varies according to circum- stances. If the current of the river be slow, the dam runs almost straight across ; but if the current be rapid, the dam is formed with a considerable curve towards the stream, so that the different parts of it support each other, like an arch. The materials employed are drift wood, green willows, birch and poplars, if they can be gotten ; also mud and stones, intermixed in such a manner as contributes much to the strength of the dam, which, when the beavers are allowed long to frequent a place undisturbed, by frequent repairs be- comes very firm. The beavers always cut theirwood higher up the river than their houses, so that they enjoy the advantage of the stream in conveying it to the place of its destination. On the mar- gin of lakes, where they have always a sufficient depth of water, they construct no dams. Their houses, however, are built of the same materials as the dams ; and their dimen- sions are suited to the number of inhabitants, which seldom exceeds four old, and six or eight young ones. The great aim of the beaver is to have a dry bed ; and their houses, which are but rude structures, have only one door, always opening to the water.* The otter, likewise, discovers much sagacity in forming his habitation. He burrows under ground, on the banks of rivers and lakes. He always makes the entrance to his house under water, working upwards towards the surface of the earth, and forming different chambers in his ascent, that in case of high floods he may still have a dry retreat. He forms a small air hole reaching to the surface, and, for the purpose of concealment, this air hole commonly opens in a bush. The marmot also displays a surprising instinct in preparing his habitation. In the declivity of a hill he digs two small subterraneous passages, opening at some distance from each See Hearne's Journey to the Coppermine River. 70 INSTINCT. other. They gradually ascend, and approach each other, till they meet in a common trunk. In this common trunk, the marmots form a level dwelling, and carpet it carefully with moss and hay. One of the passages forms an entrance to the house; in the other the excrements are deposited. A number, of marmots lodge in the same house, which is formed by their united labour. On feeling the approach of winter, they closely shut up the passages to their house, and sleep till the return of spring. In the marmot, Spallanzani found living action to cease in' a temperature about 29° or 30° Fahrenheit. IV. In this section we shall take notice of instincts re- latino- to the continuation of the species. Throughout the wide extent of animated nature, so far as it falls under our observation, individuals die, butthe species continues. The author of that constitution of things, which carries into execution the first of these, has made an adequate provision for the last. The reproductive powers of the dif- ferent kinds of animals are admirably adjusted to their natural term of life, and to the dangers to which they are exposed ; so that no species ever perishes. Even where the life of the individual does not extend beyond the short space of a day, there is as sure a provision made for the continuation of the species, as where the life of the individual extends to a hun- dred years. The kinds which are liable to great peril and waste are very prolific, and the fecundity of those which are less exposed to danger is confined within narrower limits. Hares and rabbits bring forth far more young than lions and tigers; wrens are much more prolific than eagles; and the fecundity of cod-fish and salmon greatly exceeds that of the whale. The earth exhibits some wonderful organic remains. The bones of those animals to which the names mammoth, megathe- rwn, kr. have been assigned, indicate skeletons unlike to those of any living creature presently known ; and we pretend not fully to account for the remains described by Cuvier and others. Some of them, at least, seemed to have belonged to the globe, under a constitution anterior to the present. But although we cannot satisfactorily explain these phenomena, yet we are acquainted with no clear evidence of the destruc- tion of any species of animals that ever belonged to the earth under its pr< senl forms. For the production and rearing of their young, there is, in every Kind of animals, a most astonishing combination of or- ganization and instinct. Neither of these is sufficient by it- INSTINCT. 71 self. The organization without the instinct would be unpro- ductive, and the instinct without the organization would be of no avail; but united, they fully accomplish the end. We are satisfied that nothing like legitimate evidence can be ad- duced to prove that the organization is the cause of the in- stinct. They are wonderfully conjoined ; but we believe they are independent on each other, as much as the candle and the candlestick, the ink and the inkhorn. Is not, then, the combination of two such independent circumstances, for an important purpose, a decisive evidence of intelligence and design ] If it be urged that the organization is the cause of the instinct, we wish to know who formed this constitution of things. Who formed the organization which is accom- panied with such instincts 1 It was not chance surely, but an intelligent and wise cause. All creatures are desirous of propagating their kinds. So strong is the desire, and so efficient the means, that no species fails in accomplishing the end. In some the season of love is periodical, and on its return what a striking scene is ex- hibited ! In describing it we may employ the language of Lucretius, the poet of chance philosophy. Nam simul ac species patefacta est verna diei, Et reserata viget genitalis aura Favoni; Aeriae primum volucres te, Diva, luumque Significant initum percussse corda tua vi : Inde ferse pecudes persultant pabula lseta, Et rapidos tranantamneis; ita capta lepore, Illecebrisque tuis omnis natura animantum Te sequitur cupide, quo quamque inducere pergis: Denique per maria, ac montes, fluviosque rapaceis, Frundiferasque domos avium, camposque virenteis, Omnibus incutiens blandum per pectora amorem, Efficis, et cupide generatim saecla propagent* We shall make a few more remarks on the instincts re- lating to the continuation of the species, under the heads of pairing, the nidification, and incubation of birds, providing food for the young, and defending them. 1. When the offspring require, for some time, the attention and industry of both parents to support them, animals are found to pair ; but, in cases Avhere the female alone is able to raise her progeny, the sexual intercourse is promiscuous. De rerum natura, lib. i. 1. 10. 72 INSTINCT. The affectionate attention of the parents is always adapted to the condition of their young, and is continued towards them till they are capable "to provide for themselves. Man is a pairing animal. Some quadrupeds pair, and pairing is com- mon among the leathered tribes. In winter, indeed, birds in general are without any fixed habitation; and many kinds of them appear in great flocks, without any particular attention of one individual to another. On the return of spring-, how- ever, the scene changes. The general society is dissolved, and many partnerships, consisting each of a male and female, are formed. The pair fix on a suitable spot, and by their joint labour construct a habitation. 2. Most birds prepare their nests with much care; and many of them discover ingenuity in the design, and neatness in the execution. But the ingenuity and the neatness belong to the species, and in no degree characterize individuals. They have no need of an apprenticeship. The nest of those birds which have paired for the first time is not more rude or in- convenient than that of those which have repeated the labour of nidification for a number of years. There is no deficiency in the first from want of instruction and practice, and the last have gained nothing by observation and experience. The dove that perch'd upon the Tree of Life, And made her bed among its thickest leaves; All the wing'd habitants of Paradise, Whose songs once mingled with the songs of Angels, Wove their first nests as curiously and well As the wood-minstrels in our evil day. The crow and the magpie, the lark and the linnet, and every other kind, has each a peculiar manner of building its nest; and every individual of the same species, in similar circumstances, follows the same model, and uses similar materials. The instinctive propensity seems, in various in- stances, to accommodate itself to peculiar circumstances, both in building the nest, and in the process of incubation. In countries infested by monkeys, some birds, which in other climates build in bushes or in the clefts of trees, suspend their nests upon a slender twig, and so elude the mischievous propensities of the monkey. With us, ravens build on trees ; but in the cold climates of Iceland and Greenland, they con- struct tljeir nests in the holes of rocks. The nest is always suited to the size of the bird, and to the number of its eggs and young. Many small birds display INSTINCT. 73 much sagacity in concealing- their nests by tufts of grass, or by twigs and leaves. In the nest we see a receptacle pro- vided for eggs before they come to maturity, yea before the bird knows that it is to lay them. Each species lays a de- terminate number: and it appears that, in this process, some birds, at least, do not act under the influence of physical ne- cessity, but have, to a certain extent, an instinctive volition. The solon goose,if undisturbed, lays only one egg; but if that be taken away, she lays a second; if the second be removed, she lays a third ; but no more for the season. In a number of instances, if one egg be daily abstracted from the nest, the bird continues laying till she obtain her complement. In this way a swallow has been made to lay nineteen eggs in one season. In general, the smallest kinds of birds are most prolific ; but from this general rule there are some exceptions. The eagle lays one, sometimes two eggs; the crow four or five; the titmouse seven or eight; the small European wren fifteen : the humming bird, however, a very little creature, lays only two; and yet the humming birds are more numerous in Ame- rica than the wrens in Europe, being protected by the small- ness of their size, the rapidity of their flight, and their daring courage. After the complement of eggs is provided, a new and interesting scene is exhibited. All the former habits of the birds seem at once to forsake it. The animal that before was almost in perpetual motion, hopping from twig to twig, flitting from tree to tree, rising into the air, flying to conside- rable distances, chirping and singing, becomes at once mo- tionless and mute. She takes possession of her nest, and with assiduity broods on her eggs. In some instances, as in rooks and in crows, the male supplies her with food ; and in others, as in pigeons, relieves her by filling her place. In this way. the small eggs, which otherwise would soon lose their heat, are always kept at the due temperature. We may add that the albumen, or white of the egg, is a feeble con- ductor of caloric, and consequently tends to preserve, during the occasional absence of the parent bird, that equable tem- perature which is so necessary to the evolution of the ovular embryo. The eggs of the larger birds, on account of their greater size, retain heat longer than those of the smaller birds ; ac- cordingly the larger birds occasionally leave their nests for some time, without injury to the process of incubation. Some of them, however, when they go to feed, cover their eggs ; the eider duck does it with down taken from her own breast. 7 74 iKpnscT. But small birds sit most assiduously, otherwise their eggs could not be hatched. Here we find an amazing adaptation of instinct to the circumstances of the animal, for which we see no rational way of accounting, without ultimately resort- ing to a wise first cause. The bird does not understand the process which it is carrying on: it does not know the end to be accomplished ; yet it carries on the process with the most minute precision, in opposition to all its habits during the other seasons of the year, and in the absence of disastrous accidents, arising from foreign causes, it accomplishes the end with infallible certainty. Fish, with a few exceptions, are oviparous ; and generally, after depositing their eggs, pay no farther attention to their progeny. There are, however, some striking exceptions. The female cayman repairs to the banks of a river ; forms a large hole in the sand, and there deposits her eggs. She covers them carefully, and rolls herself on the place to smooth it, that it may not be discovered. She leaves her eggs to be hatched in the sand ; but her instinctive propensity prompts her to return, at the exact time, to uncover them and break the shells, when the young caymans come forth. 3. The instinctive propensities of animals do not terminate with the appearance of their progeny in the world, but con- tinue as long as the aid of the parent is needful for rearing the offspring. Most animals have a strong affection for their young, which manifests itself in providing food for them. And in order to the supply of this food, there is, in many in- stances, a wonderful physical constitution in the parent, as well as surprising instincts in the progeny. Thus in the human race, such is the constitution of the mother, that she secretes a nutritious fluid for the support of her child, and the secretion of this fluid accompanies the need for it. It does not depend on volition. It does not exist at any other time. And in the child what a wonderful instinct displays itself in the complicated muscular action by which this fluid is obtained. Sucking is an operation in which the infant soon becomes expert ; but few grown persons can perform it. The instinctive skill is lost, when the need for it ceases. In many quadrupeds, as well as in the human race, the mo- ther secretes a nutritious fluid for the support of her offspring, and she can yield nourishment to her young while she her- self is feeding. There is a remarkable correspondence be- tween the instinct of the young animal, and the provision made for its support. Almost as soon as it comes into the world, it seeks for the teat from which it is to draw nourish- INSTINCT. 75 ment. Now, how happens it that this fluid is secreted just at the time when it is needed"? Who established that con- stitution of the animal by which the secretion takes place? How shall we account for the young animal, almost at the moment of its birth, groping for the organ from which it is to receive food, and employing the means necessary for obtain- ing that food 1 Human infancy is long, and we find a corresponding affec- tion and solicitude on the part of the parents. If a child be delicate and sickly, the parents feel for it a more tender af- fection, and exercise towards it a more assiduous attention than towards the infant of a more robust constitution. The watchful care accommodates itself to the exigency of the case, and generates a degree of affection, without which the anxiety and toil would be altogether insupportable. We may trace this process in the human mind for a little way, but it ultimately terminates in the instinetive principles of our na- ture. Young persons are capable of receiving instruction as well as food from their parents, and accordingly in the human race parental affection is permanent. After it has ceased to display itself in nourishing and defending, it appears in in- structing and directing. Birds do not secrete a fluid for the nourishment of their young; but they are diligent in providing food for them, which is earnestly solicited and greedily received. We may here remark, that it is the albumen chiefly which is expended in the formation of the chick; the yolk of the egg, without undergoing any considerable change, being wrapt up in its intestines to nourish it, till it receives or is capable of gather- ing other food. In most instances young birds would inevi- tably perish, without the nursing care of the parents. In some cases, however, the young can provide for themselves almost as soon as they escape from the shell, and in these in- stances the fostering instinct of the parent soon disappears. Some insects display an astonishing instinct in providing food for their young before they are hatched.* Others, which make no such provision, lay their eggs in places where the young, when they appear, can easilyfind subsistence. These instincts, must proceed either from the animals themselves, or from some Being possessed of reason and intelligence; but they cannot originate with the inferior animal itself, for it is obviously destitute of reason, and incapable of that foresight See Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History, v. i. p. 148, 76 INSTINCT. and wisdom which its cares and precautions indicate. In order to account for these instincts, we must ascend to a wise and benevolent Intelligence. 4. All animals defend their young; and, in obeying this instinctive impulse, the mother se< ms, in many instances, to lose her natural habits, and to assume a new character. The domestic hen, a stupid and timorous bird, becomes fierce and violent in defending her chickens. Even the harmless and inoffensive ewe assumes a menacing air, stamps with her foot, and seems to bid defiance to those who approach her lamb. But as the lamb acquires strength, and is able to run with its mother, her assumed character forsakes her, and she has recourse to flight. Hinds anxiously conceal their fawns, and, in order to draw the dogs away from them, present them- selves to be chased. It is at once amusing and affecting to observe the artifices employed by the lapwing to decoy the intruder to a distance from her young. The Kamtschadales never venture to fire upon a young bear when the mother is near ; for if the cub falls, she be- comes enraged to a degree little short of madness, and if she gets sight of the enemy, will only quit her revenge with her life. The same instinct is remarkably apparent in some in- habitants of the waters. The morse and the polar white bear have a great affection for their cubs, and are courageous and active in defending them.* The sea otter pines to death at * Speaking of the morse, Captain King 1 says, "On the ap- proach of the boats towards the ice, they took their young ones under their fins, and attempted to escape with them into the sea. Some whose cubs were killed, and left floating on the surface of the water, rose again and carried them down, some- times just as our men were on the point of taking them into the boat, and could be traced bearing them to a considerable distance through the water, which was stained with their blood. They were afterwards observed bringing them at intervals above the surface, as if for air, and again plunging under it with a horrid bellowing. The female, in particular, whose young one had been killed and taken into the boat, became so furious, that she struck her two tusks through the bottom of the cutter." The affection between the polar bear and her cub is so great, that they will die rather than desert each other. " We saw two white bears in the water, to which we immediately gave chase in the jolly boat, and killed them both. The larger, which pro- bably was the dam of the younger, being shot first, the other would not quit, but remained swimming about, till after being INSTINCT. 77 the loss of its young, and breathes its last on the spot where they have been taken from it. Throughout every province of animated nature we meet with wonderful instincts, all direct- ed to the preservation of the individual, and to the continua- tion of the species. Every instinct appears exactly in its proper place. Were the instincts to be altered, or those be- longing- to one species transferred to another, the harmony of the system would be deranged, and disorder ensue. For in- stance, were the sheep, its time of gestation continuing the same as at present, to come in season at the same time with the mare, it would bring forth at a period when the inclemen- cy of the weather would destroy both the mother and her young. If instincts result, as some have imagined, from conforma- tion of parts, who organized the animal 1 If they flow from mechanical impulse, who constructed the machine 1 Where is the moving power? To talk of attraction, gravitation, na- ture, appetency, &c. in order to account for the existence or characteristic propensities of living creatures, is merely dark- ening counsel by a multitude of words. It is a vain attempt to substitute sound for sense ; for where is there any rational way of accounting for the various instincts of animals, but by referring them to a powerful, wise, and good Intelligence 1 In the instincts of the creature we see the perfections of the Creator; and may apply to instincts in general what Dr. Reid says of bees in the construction of their cells. " They work most geometrically, without any knowledge of geome- try ; somewhat like a child, who by turning the hand of an organ makes good music, without any knowledge of music. The art is not in the child, but in him who makes the organ. In like manner, when a bee makes its combs so geometrically, the geometry is not in the bee, but in that great Geometrician who made the bee, and made all things in number, weight, and measure." If we do not see other animals displaying the geometry of the bee, we observe them, in a similar man- ner, employing suitable and effectual means for the accom- plishment of their ends. Thus, in our cursory glance at animated nature, we have seen great uniformity accompanied by surprising variety. The same general outline, with various modifications, pre- vails widely in the formation of living creatures. If we ex- fired upon several times it was shot dead." — See Cook's Third Voyage, v. iii. p. 248, &c. 7* 78 THE OCEAN. amine any one animal, we find its parts admirably adapted to each other. They form a harmonious whole. In every species we see an astonishing relation of the organs of one sex to those of another. By means of bodily conformation and in- stinctive propensity, an adequate provision is made for the preservation of the individual, and the continuation of the species. Everything goes on in a regular and uniform course. We never see any new species of animals appearing, nor any old kinds ceasing to exist. We inert with no me- tamorphoses of animals into a species different from that of their parents. By adventitious circumstances, the size, strength, and, in some measure, the instincts of animals, may be altered ; but still the character of the species remains es- sentially the same. There is an amazing gradation of animated beings, but even the classes that seem most nearly allied are distinct. Each kind continues what it originally was. W T e never see one species either suddenly, or gradually in a long succes- sion of ages, transformed into another. No species either rises or falls in the scale. Men, and all other animals, con- tinue such as they have been from the earliest records of time. The different species approach each other ; but still they are separated by an impassable barrier. Animated na- ture thus exhibits undeniable marks of design, and conse- quently leads us, with irresistible force, to a powerful, wise, and good Being, who created, and continues to superintend the system. We now proceed to inanimated nature,- and I apprehend we will find it wisely constituted, and bearing a gracious re- lation to living creatures. As nothing within the sphere of our knowledge gives us any reason whatever to believe that the one of these formed the other, we must attribute both to the power, wisdom, and goodness of a Supreme Intelligence, CHAPTER VI. THE OCEAN. The terraqueous globe is an oblate spheroid, having its equatorial diameter somewhat longer than the polar. The globular figure is the fittest for the steady motion of the earth in its orbit, and for its diurnal rotation on its axis : it is also the most capacious. The earth is so firmly compacted, that THE OCEAN. 79 although it moves in its orbit with the prodigious velocity of a thousand miles in a minute, yet no part of it is dissipated or shattered. It is a globe of great solidity. Some, indeed, have supposed that there are vast caverns in its bowels : but the experiments of Dr. Maskel/neand Professor Play fair, on the mountain Schehallan, seem to disprove the supposition ; as they show the earth to be mo"e dense than that mountain, and nearly five times more dens? than water. On a general survey of the earth, the first thing that strikes us is its division into sea and dry land, the ocean occupying more than two-thirds of the surface of the terraqueous globe. For the ocean there is no physical necessity. The globe might have existed without it, and probably some of the orbs of the solar system are not provided with a proportion of water equal to that which obtains on the earth which we inhabit. We may suppose earth and water to exist together without design. But if it shall appear that the ocean is a great component part of one whole, that it is not only admi- rably constituted in itself, but that it is essential to an esta- blished system, then we are entitled to adduce it as an evi- dence of design. If it be well fitted for accomplishing the purposes which it serves in the system, it is a proof of wis- dom : if these purposes be beneficial, if they contribute to the existence and happiness of sentient beings, we contend that it is a display cf goodness. Let us glance, I. At the ocean considered in itself. II. At the purposes which it serves in the system of our world. Under the first of these heads, we shall take notice of its saline qualities, its tides, and its inhabitants. I. — 1. In attending to the ocean, we are struck with the saltness of its waters. This is one grand means of resisting putrefaction, and of preserving the great fluid mass in a whole- some state; for if the sea were not impregnated with saline bodies, the putrefaction of the great mass of animal and of vegetable matter which it contains would soon prove fatal to the inhabitants of the earth. Fresh and stagnant waters soon putrefy. But in the waters of the ocean, stagnation and putrefaction are equally un- known. According to some, the ocean is Salter in tropical climates than in higher latitudes. But the observations and experiments of De Pages present a different result. The fact, however, is certain, that the water of the ocean is as free from putrefaction at the equator as toward the pole. And we 80 THE OCEAN. may observe, that if within the tropics, where the tempera- ture is highest and the tendency to putrefaction greatest, the Water is not more salt, it there feels most sensibly the current of rotation, or the general motion of the water from east to west, particularly observable within the torrid zone. The saltness of the ocean is everywhere proportioned to the need for it, in order to the preservation of the water in a salu- brious si To me it seems evident that the saline qualities of the ocean are a proof not of design only, but of wisdom and goodness also; for here we see means adapted to an end : these means answer the end ; and the end itself is beneficial. I see no physical necessity for the saltness of the ocean. The water, at first fresh and stagnant, might have become one great putrid mass, destroying sentient beings in the deep, and dif- fusing pestilential and deadly vapours over the dry land. In order^ then, to account for the saline impregnation of the ocean, we must have recourse to a designing cause. Some have endeavoured to account fur the saltness of the sea, by supposing that saline particles are washed down from the earth by the rivers, and that the ocean has derived its saltness from the accumulation of these particles. This hy- pothesis does not militate, in any degree, against the exist- ence of a wise designing cause ; for still we see adequate means employed for the accomplishment of a beneficial end, and whatever these means are, the argument in proof of design is the same. But to me the hypothesis seems pressed with insuperable difficulties. Were it true, we must either suppose the saltness of the sea to be increasing, or the saline particles of the earth to be exhausted. There is no proof, however, that either of these is the case. The last, indeed, is altogether out of the question : and as to the saltness of the sea, I believe it was the same five thousand years ago as at this day. According to Davy, almost all solids and fluids, even the * If the mean saltness of the sea were much greater under the equator than in the temperate zone, a current at the bottom, from the equator towards the pole, would be the result. The mean den it) of the water of the sea, on an average, is From 0° to 14° hit 1 From 15° to 25° 1.0282. From 30° to 44° 1.0278. From 54° to 6U° 1.0271. Humboldt, Pers. Nat, i. 64. THE OCEAN. 81 purest distilled water, contain saline matter. But I know of no proof that the accumulation of this matter in the ocean is derived from the rivers. If it were so, would not the sea be more salt towards the mouths of great rivers than at a dis- tance from them 1 This is not the case. Lakes, which have an outlet, are found to contain fresh water: those that have no outlet are generally salt. But if the sea derived its salt- ness from the rivers, then those lakes that are fed by rivers should discover the saline quality in their waters, even though they have an outlet; for I know of no principle by the operation of which the saline matter can be entirely car- ried off through the outlet. The water of Lake Ontario is as sweet as that of Lakes Superior or Michigan; and the inter- vening lakes, Huron and Erie, discover no more saltness than those from which they draw their supplies. We may add that the De la Plata, Mississippi, and Nile, are as sweet when they meet with the waters of the ocean as at their source. Lakes without an outlet, or inland seas where the surface of water is too small to feel, in any considerable degree, the attraction of the sun and moon, are very salt ; and, from the conformation of the adjacent lands, they are commonly much agitated by winds. The Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites, has been long famous on account of its saline impregnation ; and although many fables have been related concerning it by Josephus and others, it is true that its waters are of uncommon density. It contains upwards of forty per cent, of saline matter, chiefly muriate of magnesia and of lime. The Caspian Sea is, at least, as salt as the ocean, except where it is sweetened by the waters of the Volga, which is about the distance of ten leagues from the influx of that river. It is also much agi- tated by winds. The Black Sea is less salt than the ocean ; but several great rivers pour their waters into it, and a con- stant current sets through the Straits of Constantinople to- wards the Propontis. The Lake Aral is very salt. Thus, in small seas, there is a compensation, in one way or another, for the want of tides. Now, if the quantity of saline impreg- nation is, in every instance, proportioned to the circumstances of the case, is not this an evidence of design! 2. The tides keep the water of the ocean in perpetual mo- tion, and contribute to the preservation of its salubrity. They also afford a hint to man when investigating the laws of na- ture : they are an instance of the great law or fact of gravita- tion, which so widely pervades the universe. They depend chiefly on the ratio in which gravity acts, and form one in- 82 THE OCEAN. stance of the wisdom and froodness manifested in that ratio, fides are owing principally to the action of the moon. If that planet were quiescent, we would have high water twice every Jl hours. But the moon is continually in motion round the earth, and advances so far every 12 hours, as to make it about 25 minutes ere any meridian of the earth, after it has performed half a revolution, come under her centre; and con- sequently abont IS hours and 25 minutes intervene between the high water of two successive tides. Into the theory and phenomena ot the tides, it is not the object of the present treatise to enter. Suffice it. therefore, to say, that the tides contribute to the accomplishment of a beneficial purpose ; for, by the saltncss of the water, and the action of the tides, the ocean is preserved from stagnation and putrefaction. Here we see one purpose of a secondary planet attending a globe constituted as ours is. There are no tides, it may be alleged, in the Mediterranean and Baltic ; and yet these seas, although not uncommonly salt, are as free from putrefaction as any of the waters of the ocean. In the Mediterranean, however, there is a tide, though small and irregular. But there is gem-rally a current passing through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean; it sometimes sets out when the ebb tide in the Atlantic is great. In the Baltic the water is not so salt as in the ocean.° Its saltness is increased by a westerly gale, and the waters raised some- what like a tide. But a current generally sets out through the Sound, occasioned, no doubt, by the rivers which empty themselves into the Baltic. These currents prevent stagna- tion in the Mediterranean and Baltic. Where tides do°not act a substitute is provided. In connection with tides, we may mention the currents which abound in the ocean, and the causes of these phenomena are more numerous than at first sight might be imagined. They may be occasioned by the conformation of the ci of the channel of the ocean, by a difference in beat or salt- ness, by the melting of the polar ices, or by the inequality of evaporation in different latitudes. Several of these causes may at times concur. The Gulf-stream is a remarkable cur- rent, which leaves the coast of Africa about the latitude of the Cape de Verd islands, traverses the ocean to the American shore, sweeps the gulf of Mexico, stretches north as far as the bank of Newfoundland in 41°, and turns eastward to- wards Madeira. It forms a great sea-river in some | near eighty leagues broad. Its waters take about two years and ten months to perform their circuit ; and, in some p'laces THE OCEAN. 83 of their course, are at a much higher temperature than the waters of the surrounding ocean. 3. The ocean is a great scene of animal existence and en- joyment: and it is preserved in a fit state for being so by its saltness and its tides. It is replenished with innumerable inhabitants, all fitted for the element in which they reside ; and all, so far as we are capable of judging, enjoying a hap- piness suitable to their natures. Thus, I think, the ocean proves the existence of a powerful, wise, and good Intelli- gence, by the provision made for maintaining the salubrity of its waters, and by its innumerable inhabitants. II. Let us glance at the purposes which the ocean serves in the system of our world. Here we find it of essential importance. Without it the globe would be a barren and lifeless desert, presenting one uniform prospect of dismal sterility, and melancholy silence; adorned by no verdure, and cheered by no busy scenes of life and enjoyment. To the ocean we are indebted for the beauty and fertility of the dry land. It is the great fountain of moisture; refreshing and fertilizing the earth, and furnish- ing an abundant and wholesome beverage to man and beast. Water is exhaled from the ocean; floats in the atmosphere in the form of vapour; and is precipitated in dew, hail, rain, or snow, supplying the aliment of vegetation to plants and herbs, and yielding a salubrious drink to living creatures. By the channel of the rivers it again returns to the bosom of the ocean, and in this circle it perpetually moves, supporting a great system of animal and vegetable existence. It de- serves to be remarked, that water, although it proceeds from the sea, yet is fresh when it descends in rain ; an effect not easily produced by artificial means. If much ingenuity be required to render sea-water sweet, shall we deny the wisdom of Him who constructed the great laboratory, in which the process is carried on with unfailing precision and success, on the vast scale of nature 1 And if wisdom be displayed in the accomplishment of the end, that end is unquestionably a proof of goodness. It is the means of supplying a necessary aliment suited to our constitution, and to which, by admix- ture, we can communicate any taste or flavour that we please. The earth is so formed as to receive the water into reservoirs, to filtrate it, and to give it out in perennial streams, for the constant supply of our wants. At first sight the ocean seems an insurmountable barrier between different portions of the globe, separating them as ef- fectually from each other as if they were parts of different 84 VEGETATION*. planets. But we soon perceive that, even in this point of view, it harmonizes with the rest of the system, giving; scope to human ingenuity, and inviting to the exercise of vigorous exertion. Men soon learn to commit themselves to the sea, and to combat winds and waves. Even before civilization is far advanced, intrepid skill or casual misfortune carries them to great distances, and spreads them widely over the face of the earth. The inhabitants of the far-scattered islands of the Pacific Ocean speak nearly the same language; and must all, at no very distant period, have sprung from a common origin, and diverged from a central point. The ocean becomes the medium of a vast and boundless intercourse between nations. It facilitates the communica- tion between the most distant parts of the earth, and the ex- change of the commodities of different climates. No coun- try is supplied with such a rich variety of the necessaries and accommodations of life, but that it may admit the introduction of foreign superfluities, and even the poorest furnishes mate- rials for exportation. The ocean is the great medium of commercial intercourse. It also modifies the temperature of the atmosphere on the land, rendering it warmer than it would otherwise be in high latitudes, and cooling it in tropical cli- mates. It is, also, an inexhaustible storehouse of human food. How far, and in what particular manner, the ocean and the exhalations from it, contribute to the purification of the air that has been contaminated by the vegetation of plants, and the respiration of animals, 1 do not at present inquire; al- though I am satisfied that their operation, in this respect, is of essential importance. Thus, wisdom and goodness appear in covering such a portion of the globe with water, and in preserving it from stagnation and putrefaction. In this way an inexhaustible fountain of moisture and fertilization is es- tablished ; a fit place of residence for innumerable sentient beings is provided ; the means of facilitating the intercourse of distant nations are devised ; and a great storehouse is opened for supplying the wants, and diversifying the enjoy- ments of man. CHAPTER VII. THE GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE EARTH, AND VEGETATION. Had man and the inferior animals been cast upon a globe where naked sterility had established a perpetual empire, \ l-.c ETATION. 85 where no torrent rushed from the mountain, no shower dropt on the field, and no crops waved on the plain, they must have perished. Deep and mournful silence must have reigned on the dreary landscape, without anything to enliven the solitude or diversify the sad uniformity of the scene. But the earth is liberally provided with means of subsistence to its nume- rous and various inhabitants. It exhibits a variety fitted to charm the imagination, to exercise the industry and ingenuity, to supply the wants and multiply the enjoyments of man. It is a rich storehouse abundantly furnished with necessaries and comforts for every living being which it contains. It is indented by arms of the sea, which bring the treasures of the deep into the bosom of the dry land : it is watered by rivers, which at once drain off superfluous moisture and spread the aliment of vegetation over their banks, and which facilitate the communication between inland countries and the sea, and between the different places contiguous to their stream. Its surface abounds with gentle undulations ; sometimes sinks into deep valleys, or rises into lofty mountains : but, gene- rally speaking, the farther it recedes from the ocean, the higher it rises above the level of the waters ; so that rivers run towards the sea, and, in most cases, marshes may be drained. The high lands serve as a reservoir for supplying springs and rivers, and shelter the lower grounds. The mountain and the valley furnish each a proper soil for plants of different kinds. Even the bowels of the earth are replenished with mate- rials which can be turned to the comfort and accommodation of mankind. Thence is digged the ore of iron, the most use- ful, and the most abundant also, of all the metals. There are found gold and silver which serve as the medium of exchange. Several minerals are possessed of much medicinal virtue; and some fossil substances serve for fuel and other valuable purposes. The face of the earth is adorned and enriched with a great variety of vegetables, each propagating its kind ; for every plant, as well as every animal, proceeds in one way or another from a parent of the same kind with itself. The doc- trine of equivocal generation exists only in the visions of an unenlightened imagination : it has no place in the provinces of nature. The anatomy and physiology of vegetables might furnish us, even in the present imperfect state of our knowledge of these subjects, with many curious and interesting observations; but I purpose merely to make a few remarks, in order to show that the hand of the wise and good Being who manifests him- 8 86 VEGETATION. self in the creation of animals, is equally apparent in the ve- getable kingdom. Every vegetable is capable of bearing seed ; and seed, when properly deposited, becomes the germ of future plants. In many iirstanci a plants may he multiplied in different ways ; but we" must look to seeds as the great means by which vege- tables are propagated. And what a wonderful thing is a a h\ doi - it germinate more than a grain of sand on the shore, or a pebble in the channel of the brook? Must we not account for its configuration and vegetable power, by re- sorting to a wise and good First Cause? Without the ad- mission of such a cause, vegetable as well as animal life sets us completely at defiance. For the first seeds, then, we must have recourse to the great Intelligence who stands at the head of the universe ; and in his power, wisdom, and goodness only, can we discover an adequate cause for that constitution of things by which seeds vegetate and continue their kinds. Iif order to vegetation many independent conditions must meet together. We must have seed, and, generally speak- ing, a vegetable mould. If the surface of the dry land had been one°continuous plate of granite, it could not have af- forded nourishment to seed, it could not have imbibed mois- ture, no verdure could have adorned the hill, and no crop could have gladdened the plain ; but a vegetable soil is pro- vided. Water also must be present; for if seeds be dried, and moisture completely excluded, they will not germinate. As moisture then is requisite, this connects every seed with the ocean, the great fountain of waters. But seed, soil, and moisture, will not of themselves produce a single plant. There must be a certain degree of heat also ; for no seed will ger- minate and grow below the freezing point. This connects every seed with the sun, the source of heat in our system. Yet "after we have found seed, soil, moisture, and heat, some- thing farther i> -till requisite in order to vegetation. We must have air, yea atmospheric air, or something nearly re- sembling it; for seeds will not germinate, and plants will not grow, under the exhausted receiver of an air pump, nor without the presence of oxygen gas : the proportion of oxy- gen gas in atmospheric air is more favourable to germination than any other. Besides, the presence of light is requisite to give plants their peculiar colour and flavour.* Thus, to light * See Ellis' Inquiry into the changes induced on atmospheric air, p. 1> &c. The late Professor Robison of Edinburgh brought up from a VEGETATION. 87 and to the atmosphere which surrounds the earth, are we in- dehted for the beauty that adorns it. It is evident then that before we can procure a single stalk of grass many conditions are requisite, and the existence of any one of those conditions does not necessarily involve the existence of any other. They are independent upon each other. We can conceive a globe to have existed without a vegetable soil; a vegetable soil, without a seed; seed, without the sun ; the sun, without the ocean ; the ocean, without the atmosphere. But all these are requisite in order to germination and vegetation. What but a design- ing cause could assemble and combine all these independent conditions, so as to exert a harmonious action in the accom- plishment of an important end 1 If the means be adequate to the end, the designing cause must be wise ; for in what does wisdom consist but in choosing right ends, and in em- ploying proper means for the accomplishment of those ends ? And if the end promote the comfort and happiness of sen- tient beings, then the designing cause must be good ; for the diffusion of happiness is the characteristic feature in the at- tribute of goodness. Seeds consist essentially of three parts ; a cotyledon or co- tyledons, a radicle, and a plumula. The cotydelons constitute the most bulky part of the seed ; and as the yolk of the egg nourishes the embryo chick, so they contain a quantity of food for nursing the embryo plant, till by means of its radicle coal pit some whitish looking - plants; but nobody knew what they were. On being allowed to grow in the light, the white leaves dropped off, and were succeeded by green buds. It then appeared that the plants were tansy. On farther inquiry, he learned that the sods on which the plants grew had been taken down into the pit from a garden in the neighbourhood. Al- though the plant continued to grow in its new situation, yet neither in colour, odour, nor combustibility, did it at all resem- ble plants of the same species which had vegetated under ex- posure to light. He made the experiment, with great care, on lovage, mint, and other plants. They all throve in darkness, but with a blanched foliage, no way resembling'the ordinary foliage, of the respective plants. Even after the g'reen colour in plants is formed, it disappears on the exclusion of light. Captain Parry, in his First Voyage, tells us, that at Melville Island, he raised mustard and cress in his cabin by the heat of the stove; they were colourless from want of light, but had much ol the same pungent achromatic taste as if they had grown in ordinarv circumstances. 88 VEGETATION. and plumula, which become the root and the stem, it is able to absorb nourishment from the earth and the air. The fond laid up in the cotyledons nourishes the radicle, which increases in size, and is converted into a root. The cotyledons now assume the appearance of leaves, and show themselves above the ground, forming what are called the seminal leaves of the plant. The roots absorb food from the earth; but this food, before it can be applied to the purposes of vegetation, requires to be digested. This process it un- dergoes, at first, in the seminal leaves. It is then carried to the plumula, which increases in size, rises out of the earth, becomes the stem of the plant, and puts forth branches and leaves. The seminal leaves now become useless, and decay and drop off; but the plant cannot be deprived of them sooner without destruction. When thus perfecl in all its parts, the young plant conti- nues to absorb food from the earth. This food, under the name of sap, is conveyed in appropriate vessels to the leaves, where it is digested, and converted into the peculiar juice of the plant. The sap. after undergoing digestion in the leaves, is returned to nourish and increase the plant, which it does by depositing a layer of new matter round the old wood. The new layer, or unhardened wood of the present year, is named alburnum. It is probable that the food, extracted from the earth, is imbibed by the extremities of the roots only. Hojv this food is made to enter into the roots and ascend through the. sap-vessels, I do not pretend to explain. The fact is cer- tain; and whether we attempt to account for it by capillary at- traction, or any other way, we see adequate means employed for the accomplishment of an important end. The sap of most plants, when collected in the spring, ap- pears to the sight and taste little else than water; but it soon undergoes fermentation and putrefaction. The perspiration from the leaves is, for the most part, a clear watery liquor, like the sap, and subject to similar chemical changes. The sap increases in density in ascending the tree towards the leaves, Mr. Knight thinks this is owing to its being mixed with a quantity of matter previously deposited in the albur- num for that purpose, and ready to be assimilated to the dif- ferent vegetable organs. According to him, plants are em- ployed in the latter part of the summer in preparing food for the expanding of the buds and blossoms in the succeeding spring. This food when prepared is deposited in the albur- num. There it is lodged during the winter, and next spring, VEGETATION. 89 mixing with the ascending sap it affords nourishment to the buds and leaves. In plants, the leaves perform the office both of the stomach and lungs in animals. While they receive the sap from the roots and sap-vessels they imbibe nourishment from the cir- cumambient air. While absorption is carried on by the ex- tremities of the roots, the leaves seem to concur in the same process, chiefly by their under surfaces ; and they transpire by their upper surfaces. Some plants imbibe moisture with the greatest facility, and transpire very sparingly : thus they are fitted for inhabiting sunny rocks and sandy deserts. The sap, in its passage through the leaves and bark, becomes quite a new fluid, possessing the peculiar flavour and qualities of the plant ; and not only yielding woody matter for the increase of the vegetable body, but furnishing various secreted sub- stances, more or less numerous, and different among them- selves. We have already observed the great principle of assimila- tion in the human body; that mysterious process by which the aliment is converted into blood, and flesh, and cartilage, and bones. We meet with the same mystery in the vegeta- ble kingdom. Plants secrete sugar, gums, and various resi- nous substances, from the uniform juices of the earth, or per- haps from mere water and air. We observe, however, this difference in these two great departments of organized nature ; sentient beings feed only, or chiefly, on what is, or has been organized matter, either of a vegetable or animal kind ; but plants have a power of drawing nourishment from inorganic matter, mere earths, salts, or airs (substances incapable of serving as food for animals,) though not from these exclusive- ly. Thus, vegetables are the great link between inorganic matter and animal bodies, preparing the former for becoming a constituent part of the latter: and, as vegetables take in their food in the shape of sap, it appears that the transition from inorganic to organized matter is through the medium of fluidity. From the same soil different plants secrete each their pe- culiar fluids; but how sweet and nutritious herbage should grow among the acrid crowfoot and aconite; how the leaf of the vine and sorrel should digest a wholesome acid, and that of a spurge or manchineel a most virulent poison, is some- thing which we can neither understand nor explain. For this, chemical principles will not account. In the living labora- tories of nature wonders are performed, immeasurably sur- passing all the processes of art, and plainly indicating the 90 VEGETATION. existence and operation of an Intelligent Cause, powerful, wise, and good. Of the peculiar secretions of plants we can form no cer- tain opinion from the mere configuration of their parts. If these secretions depend on internal organization, the secrets of that organization have hitherto eluded investigation. At times, under tin sam< external appearance, or at least such as r-veii men of science cannot easily distinguish, they tson- ceal very different qualities. The sweet and hitter orange- trees have the same appearance. Between the sweet and bit- ter jatropha there is a great resemblance; although the root of the one may be eaten with safety, while that, of the other is an active poison. Here, as in every other department of nature, we meet with an order of things calculated to awaken the attention, exercise the vigilance, and solicit the intellec- tual energies of man. The brutes judge by their senses, and their senses do not deceive them. Man is endued with higher powers, and these must be brought into action; although his senses, if unperverted, will not mislead him. As every vegetable is capable of bearing seed, so for the dispersion of seeds there is a wonderful provision. Some are widely sown by birds and other animals ; others, as those of the thistle, are fitted with a wing or a sail, and wafted on the wind ; and some are shot from their places by the elastic spring of a pod, in which they have been ripened. Many seeds, when kept dry or deeply buried in the earth, retain the power of germination for an unlimited period. If the ground in old botanic gardens be digged deeper than ordinary, it not unfrequently happens that species which have been long lost are recovered, by the seeds which have been buried in the earth being brought into a proper situation for germina- tion. Seeds and plants possess "something analagous to the in- stincts of animals, for the preservation of the individual and the continuation of the kind. Tn what position soever a seed be deposited in the earth, the radicle always pushes down- wards in quest of nourishment and to fix the plant into the ground; and the plumula, with unvarying steadiness, rises upwards. We may attempt to account for this, by saying that the radicle is stimulated by moisture, and the plumula by air, and that each elongates itself where it is most excited. Be this as it may, we see a constitution of things adequate to the accomplishment of important ends. A constitution of this kind is wise, and must have proceeded from a wise au- VEGETATION. 91 thor ; and if it produce beneficial effects its author must be good. The roots of trees, it is well known, alter their direction in quest of nourishment; and the leaves, which perform such an essential part in vegetation, if disturbed, soon adjust them- selves, and turn their upper surfaces to the light. If a leaf be smeared over, so that its communication with the atmo- sphere is cut off, it dies, like an animal when respiration is stopped. Some animals are adapted to particular climates and circumstances. The same is the case with vegetables ; in some of which, as the tillandsia, a very curious provision is made to fit them to peculiar circumstances.* Some have tubular leaves which receive the rain like a funnel, and some are so formed as to prevent evaporation from their cisterns. Wisdom is strikingly displayed in the wonderful structure of plants, and in the provision made for the preservation of the individual and the continuation of the kind. Wisdom and goodness likewise appear in the admirable relation between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Vegetables might exist without animals, but many animals could not exist without vegetables; and of vegetables there is a variety to suit the peculiar taste of every creature, and an abundance to supply the wants of them all. Those that are the most generally re- lished, and consequently the most useful are the most common ; and there is reason to conclude that there is no vegetable on the earth but what contributes, or may contribute to the sub- sistence, or comfort, and accommodation of man, or of the infe- rior animals. The earth produces nothing that is useless. Ve- getables that are unpalatable to one class of animals are grate- ful to the taste of another ; and the more that the leaves of perennial grasses are eaten, the more do they creep by the roots and send forth offsets. Trees furnish a lodging to va- rious tribes of animals; and, besides yielding food, are made subservient to many useful purposes by the human race. * The tillandsia is a parasitical plant (a kind of mistletoe) which grows on the tops of trees in the deserts of America. It has its leaves turned at the base into the shape of a pitcher, with the extremity expanded: in these, rain is collected. — See Ency. Brit. voc. Nat. Hist. p. 657. ( 92 ) CHAPTER VIII. THE ATMOSPHERE. Having glanced at this earth and its inhabitants, let us now for a little turn our attention to the thin, elastic, and transpa- rent fluid which constitutes the envelope of our globe.* Had the earth been formed by a casual concurrence of atoms, or by any undesigning cause, the probability is that it would have remained forever a naked mass, like the lonely blighted oak on the barren desert. But we see it a beautiful globe, adorned by verdure, enriched with plenty, and exhila- rated by life and enjoyment, and all these depending on the atmosphere with which it is surrounded, as an essential con- dition. Atmospheric air consists in bulk of twenty-one parts in the hundred of what is at present called oxygen gas ,■ about seventy-nine of azotic or nitrogen gas ; and a small, but some- what variable, portion of carbonic acid gas. The two last of these, namely, the azotic and carbonic acid gases, can support neither life nor flame. If an animal be immersed into either of them, it almost instantly dies. Oxygen gas alone will sup- port the vital functions for some time ; but animals confined in it expire long before the whole of it is consumed. The proportions of these gases in atmospheric air is the best fitted foT supporting both animal and vegetable life. An excess of any of them is injurious or fatal. But while the proportions of the gases in atmospheric air are best adapted to the economy of the animal system, that system is so constituted, as to be capable of bearing conside- rable variations in the composition of the air, without imme- diate injury to the powers of life. Are not design and skilful contrivance manifested in the constitution of atmospheric air 1 The proportions of its constituent parts are nearly the same in all places, and at all heights. The azotic is lighter than the oxygen gas, and this last has less specific gravity than carbo- nic acid gas; yet these two last are found in about the same * The most distinguished philosophers of ancient times taught thut nature in the formation of her various productions, employ- ed only four elementary substances, fire, air, water, and earth. Uut the doctrine of the four elements, so famous in former times, is completely exploded by the discoveries ofmodern science. If, therefore, we speak of atmospheric air, or any of the other sub- stances now mentioned, as an element, it is only in a loose and popular sense. THE ATMOSPHERE. yd proportions at the greatest heights to which the genius and in- trepidity of man have ascended, as at the level of the sea. What astonishing contrivance raises the oxygen and carbonic acid gases to every height in the atmosphere ; to the summit of Chimboraeo, and to the loftiest region visited by the bal- loon ? Is there no design, no skilful contrivance in the won- derful adjustment of the affinities and specific gravities of these different aeriform fluids 1 Did Priestley, Scheele, and La- voisier, act without design, contrivance, and skill, in the pro- cesses by which they decomposed atmospheric air, and disco- vered its component parts 1 No one thinks so. And shall any person be so absurd as to deny design, wisdom, and goodness, in the adjustment of those proportions, and in fitting them for the benevolent purpose of supporting life. There is no physical necessity for the atmosphere. The earth might have existed without any such invisible robe flow- ing around it. The moon is not provided with an atmosphere ; at least not with one so dense as ours. Might not the earth have been constituted in the same manner? But, if it had been so, it could not have been a place of residence for its present inhabitants. Without the atmosphere neither animals nor vegetables could have existed : withdraw even its oxyge- nous part, constituting only about a fifth of the bulk of the whole, and every organized being dies. If any person, then, deny design and wisdom in the formation and constitution of the atmosphere, we are entitled to call upon him to show the physical necessity of an atmosphere, yea of an atmosphere constituted as ours is. It is undeniably adapted to the other parts of the system, and is an essential part of one beautiful whole. What a mighty difference is there between the earth and the atmosphere ! The one is a dense, opaque, and incom- pressible body ; the other a thin, transparent, invisible and highly elastic substance. Yet between the two there is an obvious relation. Dissimilar as thej are in themselves, they harmoniously combine for the accomplishment of the most beneficial purposes. Respiration, the propagation of sounds, the conveyance of odours, combustion, the support of vapo.urs, the refraction and reflection of the rays of light, all depend on the atmosphere. The atmosphere cannot form a single living creature; no being on earth formed it; yet without it no animal could ex- ist. Without the lungs man could not live ; but without the atmosphere the lungs were a useless organ. The lungs did not apportion the constituent parts of the atmosphere ; yet no other proportions are so well suited for supporting animal 94 the ATMOspin.nr.. life. The ear did not form the atmosphere, nor did the at- mosphere create tlie ear : they < • \ i - 1 independently on each oilier; yet there is an admirable relation between them. Without the atmosphere, the ear had been bestowed in vain. Decisive experiments prove thai air is the medium by which sound is propagated. To it we are indebted for the pleasures of speech, and the charms of music. Without it, the organs of speech and of hearing would have been useless; but the introduction of this element gives interest and utility to the tongue and to the ear.* The atmosphere conveys smells; and. in this way, is a source of pleasure, and a monitor against danger. There is an obvious relation between the atmosphere and the wings of birds. He who formed the wing of the eagle evidently fitted the bird for rising buoyant on the air. Without the air, wings would have been a cumbrous appendage ; but, according to the present constitution of things, wings are of great import- ance to the bird, and are suited to all its habits. Even the ostrich, though it does not fly, is impelled in its rapid career by the action of its wings. Air is necessary to lire. Whatever theory of combustion we adopt, we must admit the atmosphere is requisite to the process. The air supports vapour, which is exhaled from the earth and from the ocean by the heat of the sun. Evaporation is a great process of nature, which is continually going on, and is essential to the system. The quantity of water raised into the air in this manner, is much greater than, at first sight, we would imagine. Dr. Watson, by inverting a glass vessel on the ground in the time of a considerable drought, found that even then, about 1G00 gallons of water were evaporated from an acre in 24 hours. On repeating the experiment, after a thunder-shower, he found that an acre yielded about 1900 gallons in 12 hours. This process is carried on not only from the ground, but also from the leaves of trees and plants, as well as from the sur- face of rivers and lakes, and the ocean. A great part of the mojsture exhaled during the day descends in dew during the * The air by the conveyance of sounds furnishes us with the means of measuring distances. In any terrestrial distance, the passage of light may be considered as instantaneous; but sound travels at the rate of about 1142 feet in a second. Hence we may measure the distance of the cloud, from which the lightning and the peal of thunder proceed. THE ATMOSPHERE. 95 night, and is absorbed by the vegetables which had before given it out. In this way the earth is not so soon desiccated, even for a little way below the surface, as we might be aptto imagine from the quantity of water raised by evaporation. If all the moisture, exhaled during the time of a long drought, left the earth, not to return to it for the space of several weeks or months, all plants which do not strike their roots very deeply into the ground must of necessity be destroyed. But nothing of this kind takes place, excepting with the most ten- der grass, when on elevated situations, and much exposed to the rays of the sun. The water that is carried into the air by evaporation, re- turns again to the earth in dew and fogs, rain, hail, or snow, according to the climate and the season of the year. It does not descend in impetuous spouts, nor yet in large sheets. Had it done so, instead of being the messenger of plenty and of joy, it would have been the author of desolation and mourn- ing, mangling the vegetable kingdom, overthrowing the habitations of man, and destroying himself. Can we con- template the invisible drops of dew, the drizzling shower, reviving and refreshing the thirsty plants, and the copious rain moistening the earth, and not be filled with grateful ad- miration of the wisdom and goodness manifested in that con- stitution of things by which dews and rains descend as from a colander? The phenomena of rain we are unable fully to explain : but we see a beneficial end accomplished ; and al- though we have not yet discovered all the steps of the pro- cess, or the precise operation of the different agents employ- ed, we have sufficient reason to believe that the constitution of this meteor was framed by a wise and beneficent First Cause. The atmosphere also serves to refract the light of the sun, and to reflect it in all directions. To the refraction of the rays of light by the atmosphere, we are indebted for the morning and evening twilight. Without this refraction, thick darkness would prevail in the morning till the sun were above the horizon, and, in the evening, would immediately follow the disappearance of his orb. At the equator the twilight is short, because thexe the earth moves with great rapidity in its diurnal rotation, and consequently its rotundity soon in- tervenes. The refraction of light is very serviceable to those who live in polar regions. By means of it their long night is abridged, and they see the returning light sooner than otherwise they could have done. The sun was visible to some Dutch navigators, who wintered in Nova Zembla in 1682, 96 THE ATMOSPHERE. sixteen days sooner than he could have been seen if there had been no atmosphere to refract the rays of light. If the refractive power of the atmosphere be beneficial to the inhabitants of the earth, its reflection of light is much more so. Without atmospheric reflection we would see no light, but when our eye was turned to the sun. Solid bodies, indeed, thai reflected the rays, would glitter: they would glitter, however, in the midst of darkness. But from the re- iflection of the solar rays, in all directions, by means of the air, the hemisphere is as completely illuminated, as if the sun were commensurate with it. and were fitted tip over our globe like a semispherical cap. Here, in the simplicity of the means, we may recognize the wisdom of the Agent. Every aeriform fluid would not answer all the purposes of the atmo- sphere. Some of them are too rare for supporting vapour ; most of them are unfit for the purposes of respiration. But the atmosphere is admirably adapted to the globe which it surrounds : it serves many different purposes, and is essential to a vast system of life and enjoyment. It is a well known fact that atmospheric air is deteriorated, and rendered unfit for the support of life, by combustion, the germination of seeds, the vegetation of plants, and the respi- ration of animals. Were this deterioration to go on continu- ally increasing, without counteraction or compensation, the atmosphere would daily become more unfit for the purposes of respiration, till, at length, the whole mass of air would be- come contaminated, and life be extinguished. But it exists at this moment in as pure a state as it ever did. It is as fit as ever for supporting both animal and vegetable life. Hence it is evident that a great restorative process is continually going on, by means of which the purity of the general body of the atmosphere is preserved. This process, which is an exact counterpoise to the causes of contamination, the pre- sent state of our knowledge does not enable us fully to ex- plain. Dr. Priestley observed that, in vegetation, leaves have the property of absorbing carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere; and hence he concluded thai vegetation was a great restorer of the purity of the air contaminated by respiration. This doctrine has been controverted ; but, after much investigation, it appears, to a certain extent at least, to be true. In germi- nation, indeed, seeds absorb oxygen, and give out carbonic acid. A similar process goes on in vegetation when plants are in the shade, or in the dark; but when they are exposed to the action of the solar beam the process is different. Then, THE ATMOSPHERE. 97 by the joint agency of the plant and of light, the carbonic acid is decomposed and oxygen gas developed. In the shade, or in the dark, plants convert oxygen into carbonic acid ; and, when confined in a given quantity of air, this conversion goes on till all the oxygen disappears. But under the action of the solar rays, in conjunction with the leaves of the plant, carbonic acid is decomposed, and oxygen gas is formed. This conversion and re-conversion of gases go on simultaneously: in what proportion has not yet been determined. Thus, if plants deteriorate atmospheric air, they likewise contribute to its restoration to purity ; but how far this con- tribution extends, on the great scale of nature, cannot be easily ascertained. By experiment and careful observation we may discover the processes of nature ; but from the minute scale on which our experiments are performed, in many cases, it is not easy, from their results, to make any exact calcu- lations respecting the processes in the vast system of the world. In the case under consideration, I know of no expe- riments which will enable us to make even an approximation to the degree in which vegetation purifies the atmosphere. In all probability, its influence in restoring is at least as great as in contaminating the air; perhaps much greater. We may still say, that, in this respect, there is a continual circulation of benefit between the animal and vegetable kingdoms.* Water lends its aid in purifying contaminated air. It ab- sorbs carbonic acid when brought into contact with it, and the rapidity of the absorption is much increased by agitation. It seems likewise to give out oxygen gas ; and to act in both of these ways, more or less powerfully, according to different circumstances. Now, water and air are brought into a state of contact by the exhalation of vapour, the descent of dew and rain, and the action of winds. The very processes, which are necessary in order to vegetation and life, contain in them the principles by which the purity of the atmosphere is pre- served. Although we were wholly unable to discover any part of the process by which contaminated air is restored to purity, still the argument from the fact would remain unan- * It has been said, that the oxygen produced by plants arises solely from the decomposition of the carbonic acid, and that this production of oxygen depends altogether on the chemical effect of light on the leaf, and is unconnected with the functions of vegetation. Be this as it may, it is certain that the conversion of gases accompanies the process of vegetation. 9 LIGHT. swerahle. That ;i great process of restoration is continually the air is preserved in a state of purity, cannot be denied. Our igm means merely proves the narrowness of our capacity, or the imperfection of our science. Wind is air in motion, or a current of air, and is occasion- ed chiefly by the disturbance of the equilibrium of the at- mosphere, by the unequal distribution of heat. The winds ime important purposes in nature, and are great agents in carrying on the economy of thai system of which they form a part. Confined and motionless air soon becomes un- favourable to respiration ; but the winds agitate the atmo- sphere and maintain its salubrity, purifying what has been contaminated, and removing noxious emanations. They trans- fer from place to place the clouds destined to scatter over the face of the earth those rains which moisten and fertilize it. They are the vehicles of many seeds, which, being provided with wings or down, arc wafted to all parts in autumn, and keep up a constant circulation of vegetable riches b different soils. They modify the temperature of the air, bringing the beat of the equator towards the poles, and carry- ing the polar cold towards the torrid zone. They also main- tain an intercommunity of temperature between the sea and land. In tropical climates the sea-breeze bears in its bosom a refreshing coolness, and fans the traveller panting under a ver- tical sun; the wind blowing over the ocean serves to mitigate the cold of high latitudes. Like many other parts of nature, the winds solicit the ingenuity, and aid the industry of man. Without them navigation must have been almost unknown, and the commerce of distant nations altogether impracticable. CHAPTER IX. Light is a most astonishing phenomenon, and between it and the eye there is an obvious relation. Without light the eye had been an useless organ; and without the eye light had been to sentient beings, in some respccts.au unprofitable emanation. But, by the genial operation of light, the eye beholds creation in all its magnificence, beauty, and variety. Light did not create the eye, for it was formed in darkness; nor did the eye give existence to light; yet there is such an LIGHT. 99 adaptation of the one to the other, as compels us, by the very constitution of our nature, to believe thai Ll is the result of design. And the designing cause must be wise and good, for the means are happily fitted to the end, and the end is beneficial. The air is the' vehicle ol and by means of the ear enables us to carry on an intercourse of thought with our fellow men; but bow greatly is this intercourse extended, diversified, and improved by light and the eye ! It may here be assumed as a fact, that light is emitted from the luminous hotly, and moves in straight lines. Its prodigious velocity cannot fail to engage our attention. It travels about twelve millions of miles in a minute. The dis- covery of this fact is a noble proof of the exalted powers of the human mind ; and yet it depends on circumstances so in- telligible that every person may understand the matter. The eclipses of Jupiter's moons can be exactly calculated ; and Roemer, a Danish astronomer, observed that these eclipses are seen sixteen minutes sooner when the earth is in that part of its orbit which is nearest Jupiter, than when it is farthest from him. This shows that light takes sixteen minutes to travel through a space equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit, and consequently eight minutes to pass from the sun to the earth; a distance which, with Dr. Maskelyne, we may estimate at ninety-five millions of miles. This wonderful fact was afterwards confirmed by Bradley's curious discovery of the aberration of the fixed stars. Even the initial velocity of a cannon-ball seldom reaches 2000 feet in a second ; but in the same time light moves about 200,000 miles, consequently with upwards of 500,000 times the greatest initial velocity of a cannon-ball. Unless the particles of light were inconceivably minute they would dash in pieces everything that came in their way. But such is their extreme exilit}^ that, notwithstanding their amazing velocity, they strike even the delicate pupil of the eye with- out injuring it. The person who can reflect on this without a strong conviction and a grateful impression of an Intelli- gent Cause, and without admiration of ths wisdom and good- ness of that Cause, must have a mind inaccessible to moral evidence, and destitute of the noblest feelings of humanity. The beneficial effects of light are too extensive to be over- looked, and too obvious to be denied. They force them- selves on the notice of the careless, and command the assent of the sceptic. The particles of light seem strongly to repel each other, und are never found cohering together so as to form masses 100 LIGHT. of any sensible magnitude. Thorp arc several differently coloured rays in the solar beam, which can be separated by the prism, and the colour of bodies depends on their affinity for particular rays, and their want of affinity for others. Thus to light arc we indebted not only for seeing nature around us, but for all that charming variety of colours, all those delicate tints, which diversify and adorn the vegetable kingdom. The upper surface of leaves is of the most pleas- i. and the exquisite tints of flowers are inimitably beautiful. The most skilful painter cannot so mingle and temper bis colours as to rival their native hues. Light is the i I agreeable variety which we meet with in the taste and odour of plants, and is the main source of their combustibility. It is not in the vegetable kingdom only that the influence of light is felt : it acts also on animals, and considerably affects their colour. The bellies of fish, being always turned from the light, are white; but those parts of their bodies which are exposed to it exhibit various colours. Tropical birds are more brightly coloured than those of higher latitudes ; and the parts of the feathers have more or less variety of colour, as they are more or less ex- posed to the action of light. The upper part of the feathers of the wings have more brilliancy than those of the breast. A similar observation applies to the hairs of quadrupeds ; and light and heat seem to be powerful agents in producing that variety of colour which is observable in the human race. Whether light and caloric, or the matter of heat, be the same substance under different modifications or combinations, I shall not inquire. Suffice it to say, that they are found to- gether in the solar beam. Heat is the cause of fluidity, and is essential to the existence of our earth in its present form. The great law of attraction pervades the universe, so far as our observation extends; and had it alone acted, all must have been one solid mass. In order to constitute a system such as ours, it was necessary to introduce a principle of repulsion, which, in a propi r di gri e, should counteract the law of attraction. This principle of repulsion we find in heat; by the action of which solids are converted into fluids, and fluids into vapour. Here we may remark the wisdom displayed in so nicely balancing the principles of attraction and repulsion against each other. Had there been any con- siderable difference in either of these from what now obtains, tin- world would nol have existed in its present form, nor yield- ed subsistence to its present inhabitants. Had the power of attraction and cohesion been much greater, and the degree ASTRONOMY. 101 of heat the same as at present, we should have heen in want of fluidity : had the quantity of heat been much greater, and attraction, as well as the pressure of the atmosphere, the same as at present, all our fluids would have been converted into vapour. But these powers are exactly adjusted to one another and to the rest of the system. Heat is necessary both to vegetable and animal life ; and it appears a decided evidence of the wisdom and goodness of the Supreme Being, that the living functions, both of plants and animals, disengage the portion of heat necessary for their well-being: this they seem to accomplish by converting oxy- gen into carbonic acid gas, in which process a quantity of heat is evolved. CHAPTER X. ASTRONOMV, Having taken a cursory view of the terraqueous globe with its productions and inhabitants, of the transparent and elastic fluid with which it is invested, and of light and heat which beautify and enrich it, let us now for a little quit the earth, and contemplate the splendid orbs that bespangle the vault of heaven. At an early period, the Chaldean shepherd, watching his flocks, under an unclouded sky, on the exten- sive plains washed by the Euphrates and the Tigris, atten- tively observed the stars in their silent revolutions. He marked the brilliancy of Sirius, and the majesty of Orion. With a vigilant eye, he followed the Twins and Arcturus in their course : and learned the unvarying relative position of these twinkling ornaments of the sky. But the planetary motions perplexed him by their apparent intricacy and irre- gularity, and defied his sagacity to unravel their seeming confusion. The Phenician mariner turned his eye to those stars which appear to describe very small circles, or with stately majesty to remain motionless in the firmament. Some of the stars of the Dragon, or of the Great Bear, it is likely, were his guides in creeping timidly along the shores of the Mediterranean, or of the Arabian Gulf. The star Alruccabah, in the tail of the Little Bear, which, by the precession of the equinoxes, is now near the immovable point of the heavens, probably did 9* 102 ASTRONOMY. not attract much of his attention.* These Chaldean shep- herds and Phenician navigators, although they could impress, in some measure, the stars into their service, had but a very limited and partial knowledge of astronomy. There is a vast distance between their rude observations and the noble disco- veries of Newton and La Place. For, with the exception of the comets, the solar system is now well understood; and the motions of all the great bodies connected with it are ascertained with the utmost precision, and can be explained by the laws or facts of projection and gravitation. Astronomy bears a strong testimony to the existence of God, and furnishes clear proofs of his mighty power, con- summate wisdom, and great goodness. " My opinion of as- tronomy has always been," says Dr. Paley, "that it is not the best medium through which to prove the agency of an intelligent Creator." The opinion is not without some foun- dation. But I must acknowledge that no part of Dr. Pa- ley's masterly work on Natural, Theology made a deeper im- pression on my mind than the chapter on astronomy. We are not, indeed, acquainted with the inhabitants of the plane- tary bodies, and consequently cannot trace minute contri- vance and mechanical adaptation in their organization, or in the provision that is made for their subsistence, accommoda- tion, and comfort. We can reason only on the forms, arrange- ments, and motions of the planets. But, even within this range we meet with decisive proofs of design, power, wisdom, and goodness. I. The forms of the heavenly bodies are all spheroidal, whatever be the diameter of the sphere. This holds from the sun, the largest, to Pallas, the least, perhaps, of the bodies in our system. The spheroidal figure is best fitted for the motion of the planets, whether in their orbits or on their axes. It is best adapted for the equal diffusion of light; and, judg- ing from the inhabitants of our earth, it is also most commo- dious for furnishing a residence to living- creatures. Now, was there any physical necessity for the spheroidal figure? I may perhaps be told that it results from the mo- tions. Passing over, at present, the difficulty of accounting for the motions without an Intelligent Cause, I should like to know what is the evidence that the planets were not spheres at their first movement, as well as at present. In my appre- hension, I have as good a right to allege that the sphericity * Yoyez Bailly, Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancicnne. ASTRONOMY. 103 was prior to the motion, as another has to say that the motion generated the sphericity. Supposing, however, that the pla- nets were not spheres originally, we may inquire how they moved before they assumed the spheroidal form. What was their original figure? Supposing them to have been cubes, parallelograms, or very irregular figures, how did they revolve till they acquired their present shape? Must not the axis of rotation have been perpetually shifting? And would not this shifting have prevented them from acquiring their present figure? Besides, if our earth, for instance, was as dense at first as it is now, its rotation on its axis would have had very little influence on its figure. The solid parts of the earth do not appear to be affected by its rotation. But we may be told, perhaps, that the matter of the pla- nets was struck off from the body of the sun in a state of fu- sion, and thus assumed the globular form by rotation. This, however, is a purely hypothetical assumption countenanced by no one known fact in nature. We do not know that the sun himself is an ignited body. We do not know that any great masses, in a state of ignition and fusion, exist in the universe. We have no evidence that our earth, or any other planet, is gradually cooling. To assume principles, which receive no countenance from the existing phenomena of nature, may do with the dreaming theorist who surrenders himself to the guidance of a loose imagination; but such a practice can never be admitted into the school of sound philosophy. We may add that it is unreasonable to expect that every wild hy- pothesis devised by a fertile fancy should be seriously refuted. In order to entitle a theory to attention, it must be counte- nanced by known facts. Without this it is, at best, but an amusing fiction. According to La Place, a body with the same time of ro- tation, may put on two very different forms, which will pre- serve their equilibrium : the one of them is very near a sphere ; the other, very far from it. In the case of our earth, supposing it to have been originally a homogeneous body, the parts of which would all freely yield to the centrifugal force, one of the forms would have the ratio of the polar to the equatorial diameter, as 229 to 230, which is near the ratio that actually obtains ; and the other as 1 to 680.* In all the planets, we * See Vince's Confutation of Atheism, p. 66. The fig-ure of the earth is not yet precisely ascertained. It appears certain that the equatorial diameter somewhat exceeds the polar axis. 104 ASTRONOMY. find that form which is nearest to the sphere, and which in point of utility and convenience is unquestionably the more advantageous of the two ; for the other form is nearly a flat circular body, having a convex edge. If it be alleged that roidal form results from gravitation, we may ask such g as the following. Will gravitation account for all ! Is gravitation a necessary or a contingent fact I Is ii essential to matter? That it is essential to mat- ter cannot be proved. And if it be not essential to matter, ratio in which it is observed to act be not essential to matter, then every advantage resulting from gravitation, and from the particular law which it observes, may be rea- sonably attributed to design. There is one phenomenon in the planetary figures, for which neither rotation, nor gravitation, nor both of them, will in any decree account; I refer to the ring or rings of Saturn. Al- though rotation and gravitation may preserve these rings in their°placesi they will not account for their formation. Ga- lileo was the first who observed something uncommon in the shape of Saturn ; and the ring was more fully discovered by ' Huygens about forty years afterwards. It is now found that this planet is encompassed with two thin fiat concentric rings, lying edgewise, towards the planet, and at some dis- tance front it. °The plane of these rings passes through Sa- turn's equator. The rings revolve in their own plane, in about ten hours and a half; and, not being of a regular figure, their centre of gravity is at a small distance from the centre of Saturn. The centre of gravity being carried about Saturn by the rotation of the rings, gives them a centrifugal force, which is combined with their gravitation to the planet ; and they are retained by these two forces, in the same manner as a planet is retained in its orbit. The formation of these rings must have been either instan- taneous or gradual. But how will gravitation, or even gra- vitation and rotation combined, account for their formation in either of these ways. Gravitation could never have produced bodies of such a figure. It could not form them instanta- neously: there is no known property of gravity capable of producing such an effect. Neither could it do so gradually ; The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters seems to lie between 300 to 301, and 310 to 341. The French astronomers have made _jL Moxtucla, vol. iv. p. 170. Others, 3 ] --. PiATFAiB, Out. vol. ii. p. 302. ASTRONOMY. 105 for what was to support them, in an unfinished state, during a gradual formation'? I see no way of accounting for the figure of those rings, by matter, gravitation, and motion. And if their figure cannot in this way be accounted for, the question becomes still more complicated and perplexing, when we attend to their motion. To produce the rotation, the force applied must act in the plane of the rings; but a single force acting thus would have disturbed their position, and carried them "up to the planet. There must have been impressed equal and opposite forces, at equal distances on each side of the centre, in order to give them rotation without altering their position. The figure of the rings is not regular : La Place has shown that if it had been regular, the rings could not have preserved their position, but must have been disturbed by the slightest force, such as the attraction of a comet or satellite, and fallen upon the planet; and that it is owing to those irregularities that they are supported in their proper situations. In the other bodies of the system, regu- larity of figure tends to insure uniformity of motion, and there regularity prevails. But here irregularity is found to exist, and it was needful in order to permanency. The rings are of a form which could not have arisen from the gravita- tion of their parts. They are concentric, placed exactly in the same plane, and in the plane of Saturn's equator. Their progressive velocity is exactly adjusted to the velocity of Sa- turn in his orbit, both in respect of quantity and direction: and they have a certain degree of inequality in their figures, which, with a corresponding period of revolution about the planet, is the means of securing them in their position. Here, then, we see such a complication of adjustments, as must irresistibly impress us with the belief of an Intelligent and Wise Cause. II. Design appears in the arrangement of the heavenly bo- dies. The sun is the central body of our system. Of the phy- sical constitution of that luminary we cannot speak with cer- tainty. But, whether we consider it as an ignited hody, or as an opaque orb surrounded, at a distance from its surface, with clouds emitting luminous and calorific rays, the fact is certain, that it is the great fountain of light and heat to the system. Design, wisdom, and goodness, are obvious, in this single fact. Had the universe been the result of any unde- signing cause, what probability is there that there would have been any luminous body in the system 1 At present, besides comets, we know of eleven primary and eighteen se- 106 ASTRONOMY. condary planets. These are all opaque orbs. How, then, but by the admission of an Intelligent Creator, shall we ac- count for one, and only one, luminous body in our group of worlds. But supposing one luminous body to have some- how appeared among the opaque planets, how shall we ac- count for its being a large body, yea larger than any, or all of the rest? What is there in light and caloric to attach them to the largest body exclusively, or to make the body to which tb. y arc attached assume a central position? It' gra- vitation be alleged as the cause, we answer that it will not account for the phenomena. How, on this supposition, are light and heat emitted? If there had been no sun, it is obvious that the present or- der of things eould not have existed. Without light and heat there could be neither vegetable nor animal life. The light and heat of the sun cannot create a single seed, but by means of one previously existing: they cannot form any ani- mal without the intervention of a seminal principle from a parent animal. The sun, then, has not created anything lure; and nothing here created the sun: yet between the sun and the earth there is an obvious relation. For, if j'ou remove the sun, you at the same time extinguish vegetable and animal life on the earth. Have not wisdom and good- ness, then, provided this essential condition of animal and vegetable existence 1 If the luminous body had been small compared with the other orbs in the system, like Juno or Pallas, or even like our earth ; if it had not been a central, but a revolving body round the centre, then light and heat could not have been in the same quantity, nor could they have been so equably dis- tributed as they presently are. But the sun is a vast globe, and stationary, or nearly so, in the centre, diffusing light and heat, and life and joy, over all his attendant worlds. It is needless to enter into any calculation of the probabilities, that in a system of thirty bodies (leaving the comets out of the question) grouped together by the law of gravitation, one, and one only, should be luminous, and that iliai one should be largest, and in the centre. To me it appears that, on the very face of tin- thing, there is a plain evidence of design; and not of design only, but of wisdom and goodness also. The very large bodies, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, are placed at a great distance from the centre. Had they been nexl the sun, their joint attractions would have greatly disturbed the less and more distant planets in their revolu- tions. I3ut. travelling in orbits at such an immense distance ASTRONOMY. 107 from the centre, they attract the sun and the inferior planets almost equally ; which, in point of perturbation, is nearly the same as if they attracted neither. This results from the law which gravitation observes, decreasing in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances. The distances at which the planets arc placed from each other are an indication of wisdom. Had not the bulk and distance of the circumvolving bodies been wisely arranged, the attraction of one would have drawn another from its orbit. They would have met together in terrible and destructive collision : confusion and ruin would have ensued. But so wisely are the bulks, velocities, and distances of the pla- netary orbs adjusted to the established law of gravitation, that, though they act on each other, they do not act so pow- erfully as to derange the system. The perturbations are par- tial, limited, and periodical. A great compensating princi- ple pervades the universe, and keeps the disturbing- powers within harmless limits. The vast extent of the system gives room for the bodies to move, without endangering its perma- nency by their mutual attractions : it likewise prevents those great tides which would have happened, if the large planets had moved near each other. In all the planets, so far as we know, the axis of rotation forms a greater or less angle with the plane of the orbit. For this there is no physical necessity. But in our earth, where we have the best opportunity of observing and judging, it is productive of beneficial effects. To it we owe the variety of seasons. Had the axis of rotation been parallel to the plane of the orbit, each hemisphere, in its turn, would have been long in darkness. If the axis had been perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, light would, indeed, have been diffused from pole to pole; but the equatorial regions would have been scorched with perpetual and unvarying heat, whilst in the higher latitudes the influence of the sun would have been too faintly felt to bring vegetation to maturity. But, by the inclination of the axis, light and heat are more beneficially diffused over the globe. Under the head of arrangement, we may take notice of the provision of moons. Mercury and Venus, moving in orbits at no great distance from the fountain of light, are provided with none of those attendants. One accompanies our earth ; and, as its orbit forms but a small angle with the ecliptic, it is ver}^ beneficial to its primary. The time of the moon's revolution round the earth is j ust equal to the time of her rotation about her own axis. 108 ASTRONOMY. The same holds of all the satellites of Jupiter; and of one, at least, of Saturn. From the uniformity which prevails in the other parts of the system, it is likely that the same is the ease with all the secondaries, although it has not yet been ascer- tained by observation. In this way, the secondary always keeps the same face towards the primary. Now, in this con- stitution of things, we may perceive plain indications of de- siini, wisdom, and goodness. When we consider the num- ber of nice adjustments that are necessary in the secondary always keep the - wards the pri- mary, and attend to the number of bodies in which tl stitution obtains, it is impossible to attribute it to anything but design. The end is good ; for had the constitution of those bodies been different, the primary would have occa- sioned injurious or destructive tides on the secondary; but by keeping the same face of the moon always towards the earth this evil is avoided. Whatever may be the elevation of the waters upon the moon, it always remains the same, or nearly so. Mars has no satellite. The four newly discovered planets, Juno, Vesta, Ceres, and Pallas, are very small bodies, and unable to carry moons along with them. But Jupiter, a vast globe, moving in an orbit about 490 millions of miles distant from the sun, is provided with four satellites, placed at dif- ferent distances from his centre, and performing their revolu- tions in different periods. Saturn, revolving in an orbit twice as distant from the sun as that of Jupiter, besides the apparatus of his rings, has no less than seven moons attend- ing him. Uranus, about 1800 millions of miles distant from the sun, is known to have at least six moons. Light decreases as the squares of the distances increase, consequently in those distant regions the solar rays must be very sparse. But the remote planets are amply provided with satellites t" n fleet the light; and, to me, the provision of moons in the system appears to afford no slight evidence of design. The most distant planets are capable, by their mass, of supporting moons, and they are provided with them. Perhaps, in the other plam satellites serve other beneficial purposes besides that of illumination, as the moon does to our earth. Distant as they are, they are ui'advantage even to us : the moons of Jupiter assist us in determining the longitude. 111. The motions of the planets afford plain proofs of de- sign, whether we attend to their revolutions in their orbits, or to their rotation on their axes. ASTRONOMY. 109 The adjustment of the centripetal and centrifugal forces, so as exactly to balance each other, is a wonderful fact in nature. The planets all move in ellipses, not greatly remov- ed from circles, having the sun in one of the foci. The general law or fact, in nature, so far as we can observe, is that all bodies attract each other in the direct ratio of their masses, and in the inverse ratio of the squares of the dis- tances. It has, indeed, been asserted that this is a necessary fact. But we know too little of gravitation to authorize us to make any such assertion. We do not know that gravitation is essential to matter. We neither know what it is, nor how it acts; and, for anything we know, it might have followed one ratio of action just as well as another. Therefore we have at least as good a right to attribute the established ratio to choice, as others have to attribute it to necessity.* But, without dwelling on this point, how shall we account for the velocity with which each planet moves, being so pro- portioned to the quantity of matter in the planet, and to its distance from the sun, as to retain it exactly in its orbit. Take any planet, and make an alteration in any of those con- ditions, and you derange or destroy the system. If you greatly increase the matter of any planet, leaving its dis- tance and velocity the same as at present, it will fall into the sun. If you considerably increase the velocity, leaving the planet with the same, or less quantity of matter, and at the same distance from the central body, it will no longer move in an orbit nearly circular, but will describe a very eccentric ellipse, or fly off into the immensity of space. Here, then, design, nay consummate wisdom, is displayed, in so finely balancing the centripetal and centrifugal forces, that the pla- nets should move in orbits nearly circular. In order to the accomplishment of this, both the direction and the velocity of the projection lay within extremely narrow limits. Al- though the direction in which the body was projected had been right, yet a small difference in the velocity would have made a great change in the orbit; and supposing the velocity to have been just what it is at present, if the projection had not been in one particular line, the effect would not have an- swered. No direction would have cured a wrong velocity, and no velocity would have cured a wrong direction. Both must be right, and the right point lay within extremely nar-' * See Professor Robison in Supplement to 3d edition of En- cyclopaedia Britannica, voc. Astronomy, p. 53. 10 110 ASTRONOMY. row limits. Now, that two such independent circumstances should be found so exactly united, in so many different bo- dies, is evidently the result of contrivance and wisdom. There is a fixed relation between the periodic times of the primary planets, and their mean distances from 1 lie centre* I lares of the periodic times arc to each other as the cubes of the mean distances. That this should obtain in all the planets cannot be accounted for but by resolving it into and the fact is the more worthy of attention, when we consider that one of the conditions requisite to tl bility of the system is, that the planets should perform their revolutions in different periods. The framers of theories have amused themselves and their readers with dreams of comets striking off fragments from the sun. and of these fragments becoming planets. But, accord- ing to the great law of gravitation, a revolving body returns into its own path; and consequently, if the planets had been struck off from the body of the sun. they must in every re- volution have returned to the body of the sun again. It is of no avail to allege, that the blow which struck off the frag- ments from the sun, removed the sun himself from his place ; for, even in this ease, as the supposed stroke acted on the fragment as well as on the sun. so the fragment must, in every revolution, return to the surface of the bodv from which it was broken off. As a revolving bodv, according to the law of gravitation, must return to the place from which it was projected, it follows that the planets must either have been formed in their orbits or carried to them, and received the projectile impulse there. They must all have begun their mo- tions in their orbits. We may here remark, that it has been said, that the four newly discovered planets are fragments of a large bodv that formerly revolved in an orbit between those of Jupiter and Mars, but which, by some unknown cause, perhaps by a Bhock of electricity, had been broken in pieces; and it has been supposed thai the meteoric stones, which sometimes fall on the earth, are the splinters of that large orb which gave birth to the newly discovered plam is. On this fanciful theory, I shall just observe, that if a large planet has been broken, it must have been many ages ago ; for the history of astronomy does not inform us of any planet that has disappeared. .Me- teoric stones, however, have lately fallen on the earth. Are we not, then, left to suppose that the larger fragments, by some good fortune, have been honoured with a place among the planets, whilst the unlucky little splinters have been ASTRONOMY. Ill wandering up and down for ages, without finding a resting place, till at length chance conducted them to this earth for repose ] Suppose a large planet to have been shivered, no matter how, we may inquire in what manner the large fragments acquired their spheroidal form] How did they find their way to their respective orbits,? Whence did they receive their projectile force, so exactly in the direction and with the velo- city requisite to ensure their continuance and steady motions in their orbits, amidst so many soliciting and disturbing powers ] How came they to move so near each other, and yet to remain so distinct] Till these and similar questions be satisfactorily answered, it will be as philosophical to be- lieve that the four newly discovered planets were formed in their orbits, and projected by a powerful and wise Intelligence, as to embrace the theory now mentioned concerning their origin. After the planets are projected in a direction and with a velocity so exactly proportioned to the quantity of matter in each, and to its distance from the sun, as that they shall nearly describe circles, still there is no physical necessity for their revolving on their own axes. But that most of them do re- volve on their own axes we certainly know. That this should happen in so many different bodies, must be the result of de- sign. Those persons who are best acquainted with the doc- trine ofprobabilities, will not, I apprehend, ascribe it to chance. By this constitution of things a beneficial purpose is served, in our world at least, and w r e have not the means of judging so fully of any other. To it we owe the agreeable vicissi- tude of day and night, a vicissitude accommodated to our na- ture, as it gives us the opportunity of refreshing ourselves with sleep by night, to prepare for the toils and enjoyments of returning day. Here design is obvious ; and benevo- lence characterizes the designing mind, for the end is be- neficial. Wisdom, also, plainly appears in the contrivance. All the twenty-nine primaries and secondaries, belonging to our system (if the moons of Uranus, the planes of which are nearly at right angles to the orbit of their primary, be not considered an exception), perform then - revolutions in the same direction. In the zodiac they all proceed from Aries to Taurus : none of them moves in the opposite direction. The diurnal rotations, so far as we know, all follow the same course. It is impossible to ascribe this to chance : it must he the effect of design ; for, considered as casual productions, the chances of their all moving: in a direct, and none of them 112 ASTRONOMY. in a retrograde course, are almost incalculable.* That the planets should all move in the same direction, in their orbits, is essential to the stability of the system. f For, had it been otherwise, the inequalities would not have had their regular periods of increase and decrease, as at present, but would have gone on increasing till they brought on the destruction of the whole fabric. It may be inquired, whether the planetary system be steady and permanent. Are then' no principles of dissolution ope- rating in the apparently harmonious combination of globes'? Are there no soliciting and disturbing causes which shall ultimately accomplish the overthrow of the whole? To such queries we answer, that in every system of bodies gravitating towards a centre, and reciprocally acting upon each other, there will be perturbations; and such perturbations exist in our system. The planes of the planetary orbits are subject to a variation in their situation ; the inclinations of the orbits to the ecliptic are liable to a change : the figure of the earth's orbit is approaching towards a circle ; and, owing to this cause, the mean motion of the moon is increasing: the obliquity of the ecliptic is diminishing. But have these changes no limits 1 Will they go on increasing till they terminate in the dissolu- tion of the system 1 To these questions the investigations of modern science enable us to reply, that these changes have limits; and that the variations, irrregularities, or inequalities of the solar system are periodical, and return into themselves. The whole oscillates round a certain quantity from whieh it can never greatly depart. These variations travel their rounds in fixed periods. The periods of some of them are short, while those of others involve hundreds of years. But still, at the close of their respective periods, each returns to the point from which it set out, and is found in its orbit as if no such disturbance had happened. After certain periods the planes of the planetary orbits will return to the positions from * La Place has calculated, that the probability of the motions of the- solar system have taken place without the operation of a superintending mind is so small, that it may be considered as nothing. It is as 2 : 2-*a — 1 ; i. e. it is as 2 is to 4398046511103. These motions alone furnish an almost decisive proof of the ex- istence of a designing cause. f As the planes of the satellites of Uranus are nearly per- pendicular to the orbit of the planet, the direction of their mo- tion, whether retrograde or otherwise, can have no sensible in- fluence upon the system. ASTRONOMY. 113 which they departed ; the inclinations of their orbits to the ' ecliptic will return into themselves ; the figure of the earth's orbit will come back to its original form ; and the mean mo- tion of the moon will decrease by the same steps by which it has increased. The obliquity of the ecliptic will never change above two degrees ; and, vibrating within such narrow limits, the seasons will never be sensibly affected by it. For the permanency of the system necessity cannot be plead- ed, as it depends on conditions which are not necessary. These conditions are, that the attraction be inversely as the squares of the distances; that the orbits be not far removed from circles ; that the planets all move in the same direction; and that the planes of their orbits are not much inclined to one another.* These conditions are not essential to a system of bodies mutual]} 7 gravitating towards each other. They do not necessarily arise from the action of any physical cause known to us. Any of them might be changed, while the others remained the same. The appointment of such conditions, therefore, as would ensure the stability and permanency of the system, is not the work of necessity : it cannot be the work of chance, for chance could never have brought together such an assemblage of independent conditions. It must, therefore, be the work of design ; yea of boundless wisdom, which, at one comprehensive glance, saw the system in all its variety, and perceived the conditions essential to its permanency. The comets are bodies of little density, and consequently their disturbing power is little felt on the planets.f Having made these observations on the solar system, let us now glance at the fixed stars. * This last condition, it may perhaps be alleged, does not bold in some of the new planets; but these planets are very small bodice, and their action on the system must be altogether insensible. f The very different positions and inclinations of the orbits of comets to the ecliptic seems not to be the effect of chance ; but give us reason to acknowledge and admire the wisdom of Deity. If the planes of their orbits had been in that of the ecliptic, or very near it, then every time that a comet descended towards the sun, or returned from its perihelion, we would have been exposed to the danger of being struck by it, if unhappily the earth had then happened to be at the points of intersection ; or at least, according to Whiston, we would have run the risk of being inundated by its tail. But according to the present con- stitution of things this risk is avoided.— See Moxtucla, vol. ii, p. 636, 2d edition. 10* 114 ASTRONOMY. On departing from the orbit of Uranus, the remotest of the planets, so far as we at present know, we must traverse, in all probability, between two and three hundred thousand times the distance of the earth from the sun, a space which we may compute in numbers, but which imagination can scarcely con- ceive, before we reach the nearest of the fixed stars.* From that point, sound would take millions of years to travel to our earth. Notwithstanding- this immense distance, some of the fixed stars, probably the least remote, such as Sirius and Arc- turus, shine with great brilliancy. In a clear nig-ht, by reason of their twinkling, they seem to be innumerable. But, in reality, the number discernible by the naked eye is not very great, being- only about three thousand ; and it is but seldom that one-third of that number can be seen, even by a good eye, at the same time. On using a powerful telescope, however, their numbers exceed calculation. They are clustered through- out the immensity of space in such multitudes as to bewilder the imagination in their countless number, and in the incon- ceivable extent of the universe. f They shine by their own light. The delicate discovery of the aberration of the fixed stars shows that the velocity of their light is the same as that which comes from the sun. It is also capable of the same modifications as the solar light, being reflected and refracted according to the same laws. Hence it appears that the sun and the fixed stars are bodies of the same nature : and, according to the opinion of the most enlightened philosophers, these stars are so many suns, each surrounded with its own planetary system ; although, on ac- count of their immeasurable distance, these planets are alto- gether invisible to us. We speak of these stars as fixed, because they preserve the same relative position with respect to one another. But there is no clear evidence of their absolute immobility. Sirius, Arcturus, and Aldebaran, have been observed to make a small * The annual parallax of the fixed stars has not yet been as- certained. But if we suppose it not to exceed 1", the distance of the fixed stars cannot be less than 206265 times the radius of the earth's orbit. As light traverses the latter in 8' 13", it will require 3 years and 79 days to come from a fixed star to the earth. — See Playfaiii's Outlines, vol. ii. p. 217. f The more powerful the telescope, the greater is the number of stars seen. La Lande computed, that, with a forty foot tele- scope, a hundred millions were visible — Mo.xtccla, vol. iv. p. 29. ASTRONOMY. 115 change in their places ; and, according to some, the solar sys- tem is not confined to a certain region in absolute space, but has a progressive motion. Perhaps all the great bodies of the universe are grouped together in systems mutually support- ing each other, and moving in orbits round a central point in the immensity of space ; or they maybe supported in their stations in a way of which we have no conception. For al- though we see processes of vast extent going on, and princi- ples of wide operation established, yet we are not to confine the Supreme Architect to these principles and processes only, because we know of no other. We see enough to convince us that He can vary his means as circumstances require, and that no end is beyond his powers of execution. What a great and glorious scene, then, do the heavens ex- hibit to our view ! Millions, and tens of millions of suns are stationed at convenient distances throughout the immensity of space, enlightening, and warming, and fertilizing hundreds of millions of worlds, all wheeling in busy and silent revolu- tion round their several points of attraction ; or bound together in systems of mutual gravitation. Judging from analogy, and from all that we can perceive of the operations of him who never works in vain, we are constrained to conclude that all these worlds, formed, and projected, and guided by the potent arm, and under the immediate inspection of the Almighty Sovereign, are inhabited by different orders of beings, with organs accommodated to the different circumstances in which they are placed, and endued with different degrees of intel- lectual capacity. What a noble scene ! How ambitious ought we to be to extend our acquaintance with it in the progress of our existence ! If creation be so great, O how great must the Creator be! He not only made, but he upholds and governs the mighty system of the universe. Not a movement of any orb but is guided by his hand ; and not an action of a rational creature that escapes his e3>-e. How well is he entitled to our homage and obedience ! Our earth, in all its beauty, variety, _and magnificence; oceans, lakes, and rivers, mountains, valleys, and plains, cloth- ed with verdure and enriched with plenty, diversified and enli- vened with numerous inhabitants, presents a rich and charm- ing scene to the imagination. But when we contemplate the number and magnitude of the heavenly orbs, the myriads of worlds profusely spread throughout the immeasurable regions of space, upheld by Almighty power, arranged and directed by consummate wisdom, replenished with inhabitants, many of whom, no doubt, occupy a higher station, are endued with 116 ASTRONOMY. nobler powers, and clothed with a brighter glory than man, then the magnificence of oor earth dwindles away, and the dignity of our nature and race seems absorbed in the brilliancy of the mighty constellation of intellectual beinjr. Instead of overpowering our faculties, or damping our energy, let the view elevate the soul, awaken the ambition, and invigorate theexertions of rational and immortal man. Let him rejoice forms a part in such a mighty scheme ; that he stands so hirrh on the scale of existence. Other beings m:.' dued withm >re vigorous and enlarged faculties; butheisnot doomed to remain stationary in the place which he now occu- pies. His powers are capable of high improvement ; and who shall set limits to his progress in the pursuit of excellence ] What attainments are within his reach, how far his faculties • expand, what noble rewards may yet crown his dili- gence and activity, and with what dignity hemayyet appear among the chosen of the universe, no language can express, tion conceive ! The wise and benevolent Sovereign of Nature, reigning with vigilant affection over innumerable worlds, peopled with inhabitants whose organs are suited to their respective situa- tions, all rejoicing in the existence, adoring the perfections, and grateful for the goodness of the bountiful Creator; what a magnificent and ennobling scene ! While the melody of praise and°the incense of thanksgiving ascend from all quarters of the universe towards the throne of the Almighty, what shall we think of those few beings, perhaps of our race chiefly, who refuse to join in the general symphony, and who not only withhold the tribute of adoration and gratitude, but audacious- ly deny the existence of the Creator? Guilty and miserable creatures ! they cast themselves out from the great society of blessed intelligences, and forfeit the felicity prepared for the grateful and obedient subjects of the Universal Sovereign. In our cursory glance at Nature, we have seen a wonderful scene : minute precision, and splendid magnificence : striking uniformity, and endless variety; apparent carelessness and irregularity, and the next perfect order and exquisite arrange- , all united, la examining the parts, we meet with skilful contrivance, admirable workmanship, and exact ad- justment. As there is an accurate adaptation and reciprocal dependance of the parts, so those parts are combined in one harmonious and magnificent whole. Obvious traces of design everywhere occur; and as certainly as design proves a de- signing cause, so certainly do we prove the existence of an intelligent Creator. We do not, indeed, see or feel the Deity, ASTRONOMY. 117 in the same manner as we see or feel a material object. But although he himself is invisible, his operations are manifest. Creation proclaims the being of the Creator. The attributes of mind are evidently displayed, and the existence of God is as fully ascertained, as if we saw him with his right hand up- holding the sun, with his left directing the stars in theii courses ; and heard his voice proclaiming, " I form the light, and create darkness; I the Lord do all these things " BOOK III. OF THE PERFECTIONS OF DEITY. CHAPTER I. OF THE UNITY OF DEITY. Design and contrivance are fully established by the facts and arguments stated in the preceding part of this treatise. But design and contrivance are acts of mind, and their exist- ence in the universe plainly proves it to be the pioduction of an Intelligent Cause. We now, therefore, proceed to inquire into the character of the Supreme Intelligence, in so far as it is discoverable in the works cf his hand. We, indeed, know, and perhaps at present we can know but little about the Di- vine Essence, and the manner in which the Deity exists and acts ; but our ignorance or imperfect knowledge of those things is not even a shadow of argument against the exist- ence of the Supreme Being. It is nothing more than a proof of our limited capacity. In investigating the character of the Deity, as discoverable from his works, we may assume it as a principle, that whatever qualities appear in the design and contrivance, may justly be ascribed to the designing and contriving Mind, in the degree, at least, in which they are manifested in the design and execution. For instance, the pla- nets, bodies of vast magnitude, have been projected with pro- digious velocity ; and that velocity and the direction have been so nicely adjusted to the quantity cf matter in each of the planets, and to their respective distances from the sun, as to make them describe such orbits as shall ensure the stability and permanency of the system. We cannot err in ascribing to the Author of the system a power equal to the projection of the planets in their orbits with the requisite velo- city, and a wisdom equal to what was necessary in order to the establishment, of such conditions as are sufficient for the security of the system. And in so far as the constitution of remotes the happiness of sentient beings, the attri- bute of goodness must also be admitted. THE UNITY OF DEITY. 119 Although we cannot err in ascribing to the Deity those at- tributes which are manifested in creation, and in that deo-ree in which they are there displayed, yet we are not to limit the perfections of God by his works. Before we can pi from the works of Deity, to set limits to his attributes, iv> ! conditions seem to be requisite. First, we must completelj understand the work in all its extent. Secondly, , perceive some defect in the obvious plan, which coi I only from a limitation of the perfections. If the plan be per- fect in its kind, we are not authorized to infer that he who contrived and executed it was unable to have contrived and executed a nobler plan. Because the architect has built a cottage, we are. not to conclude that he was incapable of con- structing a palace. He has executed his plan , and we have no evidence of his incapacity for a more extensive and splen- did work. If the present work be well finished, according to the obvious design, the presumption is, that he could equally well have built a more superb mansion if he had un- dertaken it. In like manner, while we ascribe to God all the per, manifested in his works, we are not to imagine thai all the resources of his perfections were exhausted in the execution of those works which fall under our inspection. 1 1 ercised all that perfection which his plan required, and the presumption is, that he could have exercised more if more had been needful. For example, mighty power is displayed in the projection of the planets; but we are not authorized to infer that all the power of God was exerted in that projec- tion. The power requisite in order to the accomplishment of the end was exerted; the exertion of a greater decree < :f power would have been subversive of the end, and,° there- fore, the exercise of power was regulated as well as directed by wisdom. A similar observation may be aoplied to the other attributes of God. In judging of his perfections from his works, we must not lose sight of his plan, and we are to ascribe to him all the perfections manifested in the plan, and all that by legitimate reasoning can be deduced from the exe- cution of it. It is reckoned a fundamental rule in philosophy, not to sup- pose more causes than are needful to produce the effect. This principle conducts us to the unity of Deity ; for the necessi- ty of finding an adequate efficient cause does not compel us to have recourse to a plurality of gods. The power that was equal to the creation of a part was equal to the creation of the whole. But we are not obliged to rely on a principle of 120 THE VXITY OF DEITY. this kind, in order to establish the unity of Deity. The uni- formity of plan that pervades the system indicates unity ot counsel, ;it least in its formation. We can trace unity ot plan in the greal fabric of the universe, so far as we are ca- pable of observing it. The law of gravitation prevails through- out the solar system. All the bodies in that system seem to revolve on their own axes: all the planets move in the same direction in the zodiac. The light of the fixed stars aflects in the same way as that of the sun ; and it travels at the same rate, as we learn from the delicate discovery of their aberration. On descending to our earth we find a similar uniformity prevailing, and can easily trace the harmonious combination of many great parts into one magnificent whole. The earth is a component part of the solar system; and in it many independent conditions must meet, in order to ren- der it a convenient residence for beings organized as its pre- sent inhabitants are. It is a terraqueous globe, clothed with an invisible aerial robe; and the dry land is covered with a mould capable of imbibing moisture, and supporting vege- tation. The earth is enlightened and warmed by the sun, the central body of the system. If the earth had been a de- tached body, wholly unconnected with any other orb, dark- ness and sterility would have established upon itan everlast- ing empire. But the sun is provided ; a condition essential to \-eo-e table and animal existence. The atmosphere also was requisite. It refracts and reflects the beams of the sun in all directions, and sheds a flood of light on the earth. The sun exhales vapours from the ocean ; the atmosphere supports those vapours, and by its currents carries them to the dry land, where they descend in refreshing showers, aflording nourishment to vegetables, and a wholesome beverage to man and beast. With all the conditions mentioned, the earth niio-bt have been the mansion of melancholy silence and eter- nal sterility ; for, the sun, the atmosphere, the ccean, the soil, cannot produce a single pile of grass, or a single herb, or a sino-le tree, without seed. JJut seed is liberally provided ; and bence the earth is clothed with verdure and enriched with 1 ) 1 c 1 1 1 V • The sun, however, might have beamed in the firmament, the rain distilled on the tender plant, and luxuriant herbage crowned the mountain and waved on the plain, without a sin- gle sentient being to enjoy the scene, or partake of the rich feast which the bountiful Creator had provided. But God does not work in vain. Having fitted up such a noble habi- tation, he replenished it with tenants of many different kinds, THE UNITY OF DEITY. 121 all capable of enjoying the accommodations with which it is stored, and of relishing the happiness which it is calculated to afford. There are perhaps 20,000 different kinds of living creatures upon our globe. Among these there is a great va- riety; but at the same time an uniformity so striking, as to indicate the same skilful hand in their formation. They all respire by lungs, gills, or air tubes. All animals lake in food : in all, the processes of digestion and assimilation are carried on; and an excreinentitious part is thrown off. They all propagate their kinds. Vegetables draw sustenance from inorganic matter, and prepare food for sentient beings. Plants have their appro- priate vessels, for conveying the sap and peculiar juices through the stem, branches, and leaves : animals have blood- vessels for an analogous purpose. The gradations in the animal world all proclaim the workmanship of the same hand. Here we see a very complicated system : many independent parts are combined into one harmonious whole. The differ- ent parts of nature are admirably adjusted to each other. The relations between the different parts of the system ; between the sun, the earth, the air, and the ocean ; between the ani- mate and inanijnate parts of creation ; direct us to one power- ful Creator. One agent is often made subservient to many different pur- poses. One sun illuminates many worlds ; the light and heat which emanate from that luminary answer many valua- ble ends. To man the uses of air and water are multifarious. The ocean is also the seat of much enjoyment, and the air the chief scene of felicity to many a happy being. In travel- ling over the earth we meet with different climates ; nature puts on various aspects ; and nations differ in their appear- ance, maimers, and laws. Still we meet with nothing indi- cating the hand of a different artist, or the government of a different sovereign. All nature points to one great Author. Unity of plan pervades the universe; and from this unity of plan we may fairly infer the unity of Deity. One Supreme Mind planned the great system of nature, still upholds it in existence, and continually superintends the government of the whole, 11 122 ) CHAPTER II. OF THE POWER OF DEITY. That the Deity is an all-powerful Being evidently appears from his works. The Architect who could build the stupen- dous fabric oi the universe must be omnipotent. We can conceive do hounds to the power of him who was able to sta- tion the sun in the firmament, and to launch the planets with such velocity in their orbits. Limiting our view to the solar system, which is merely a speck in the immensity of space and amid the myriads of worlds with which space" is replen- ished, must we not be amazed on beholding the sun in ma- jesty occupying a central position, and presiding over the great globes, which in silent and unceasing revolution wheel around him. Think on the dimensions of the planets, and their rapidity in their orbits. What a potent arm must have projected, with such prodigious velocity, those vast bodies into the illimitable void ! Our earth, almost eiaht thousand mi es in diameter, travels about fifteen hundred thousand miles in a-day ; and, at the same time, it is spinning on its own axis, and turning up, successively, the vegetables and ani- mals which it nurses on its bosom, to the genial influence of the solar rays. And, with this inconceivable rapidity, how unceasing, steady, and uniform, are its motions. The same holds in the other planets, some cf them vastly larger than our globe. Each of them regularly and steadily performs its revolutions. The power capable of producing those effects is immeasurably greater than what we experience in our- or perceive in any visible agent, and may with pro- priety be described as Omnipotent; because nothing in our observation or experience authorizes us to set limits to it. We ascribe infinity to all the attributes of Deity. But in- finity is a word to which we can attach no precise concep- tions. 1 he very use of the word is an admission that the thing to which it is applied is above the grasp of our com- prehension; and when applied to any of the perfections of Deity, it means that those perfections go as far as our minds can follow them, and how much farther we cannot tell. \nd certainly, when we contemplate the power displayed in the universe, an* the numberless instances and incalculable va- riety of the manifestations of wisdom and goodness, we may with reverence, admiration, and gratitude, describe thi fections of Deity as infinite. THE WISDOM OF DEITY. 123 It is obvious that the power which could create the world is able to uphold it in being. God must preserve the world which he has created, for that which derived its existence from another does not necessarily exist. It could not so exist in the first moment of its being, nor yet at any future period ; and mast, consequently, owe the continuance of its existence to him from whom its being was primarily derived. There is no medium between necessary existence and depend- ance on a cause. A creature can no more preserve than make itself. There is an essential difference between creation and works of art. For though works of art cannot make themselves, yet, when made, they can continue to exist without the artist who made them. A house cannot build itself; but, when built, it stands as long as the materials and workmanship last. We must observe, however, that the artist merely gives a particular form to that matter which depends on the power and will of the Creator for the continuance of its exist- ence. The particular form given by the artist exists in sub- jection to the laws which the Creator has established for the government of that matter which he upholds in being. Al- though the facts that God at first created, and that he still preserves all things are clear, yet the manner of creation and of preservation are equally above our reach. CHAPTER III. OF THE WISDOM OF DEITY. Wisdom is manifested in employing fit and adequate means for the accomplishment of its ends. It obviously appears to have been the purpose of God that this world should be a proper place of residence for animals of many different kinds, and that all the animals should enjoy the means of preserv- ing for a time the life of the individual, and of continuing the species. These ends are completely accomplished, and accomplished by such a complicated and diversified combi- nation of independent circumstances as gives a most exalted, view of the Divine wisdom. This world was to be fitted up as a place of residence for its present inhabitants. For this purpose, light and heat, and air and moisture, were neces- sary. Accordingly, the sun was provided to enlighten and to warm the earth ; a vast basin was scooped out, and the waters 124 THE WISDOM OF DEITV. of the ocean poured into it; the atmosphere was thrown around the earth to be the carrier and dispenser of this mois- ture exhaled by the sun. Between the animated and inanimated parts of nature we see the most astonishing relations. There is a fine corres- pondence between the atmosphere and the respiratory organs of animals. '! - are very different in different liv- ing creatnn s; bul in each they are wisely accommodated to the configuration and circumstances of the animal, and in all they accomplish their great vital function. In the atmo- sphere, and in the organs of respiration in connection with the other parts o{ the constitution, we have an adequate provi- sion for the existence of the animal ; but it is subject to a daily and hourly waste, and needs a frequent supply. This supply is provided, as well as a complete apparatus for tak- ing it into the system. The earth is clothed with a great variety of vegetables which extract nourishment from inorganic matter, and afford sustenance to man and beast. All the different animals are furnished with means of subsistence ; and when we attend to the manner in which every animal is fitted for collecting, eating, and digesting its food, we perceive a display of con- summate wisdom in the admirable adaptation and combina- tion of means, in order to the accomplishment of an end. As wisdom undeniably appears in the complete provision made for the preservation of the individual, so it is equally mani- fest in the efficacious means which are employed for the con- tinuance of the species. Some classes of animals live longer and some shorter, but all are capable of continuing their kinds; and we see a wonderful system established, for nurs- ing and protecting the young till they are capable of provid- ing for themselves. No species perishes either through a failure of the means of subsistence to the individual, or from incapacity to continue the species; and the reproductive powers of the several kinds are adapted and proportioned to the term of their existence, and to the dangers to which they are exposed. When we, then, consider the boundless extent, and vast va- riety of things, the skilful adaptations that everywhere occur, and the beautiful order and regularity that prevail in nature, we must pronounce him who was capable of conceiving and executing such a plan a Being of infinite wisdom. His wis- dom no difficulty can baffle; it is equal to every emergency. In every possible combination of circumstances, he at once es the best plan, and the best means for carrying that THE GOODNESS OF DEITY. 125 plan into execution. But on the wisdom of the Creator we have already had frequent opportunities of remarking, when contemplating particular parts of his works ; and, with respect to man, considered as a moral agent, a number of observations relating to this attribute of Deity will present themselves in a subsequent part of the Treatise. . CHAPTER IV. OF THE GOODNESS OF DEITY. The same observations which prove the wisdom of Deity, may, in general, be adduced as evidences of goodness ; for if the end to be accomplished promote the happiness of sentient beings, then every display of wisdom in the accomplishment of that end is a demonstration of benevolence ; and, in most instances, the same facts which demonstrate wisdom, prove benevolenee also. In order to prove malevolence, or even the absence of goodness, it would be necessary to show that the life of the individual is a state of misery, or utterly destitute of enjoyment, and that the preservation of that life, and the continuation of the species, are merely a prolongation of suf- fering, or of insipid existence. It would be necessary to prove this, not in a few insulated cases only, hut to show that it predominates in the system of nature. A proof of this kind no person in the right use of reason will attempt. Dr. Paley rests the proof of the Divine goodness on the two following propositions : 1st, " That in a vast plurality of instances in which con- trivance is perceivable, the design of the contrivance is bene- ficial." 2d, " That the Deity has superadded pleasure to animal sensations, beyond what was necessary for any other purpose ; or when the purpose, so far as it was necessary, might have been effected by the operation of pain." Both of these propositions can be clearly established; and the establishment of them proves the goodness of Deity. I shall therefore make a few observations in illustration of them. 1st, " In a vast plurality of instances, in which contrivance is perceived, the design of the contrivance is beneficial." This proposition I am inclined to render more general than it is stated by Dr. Paley. For in animated nature, which is the 11* 126 THE GOODNESS OF DEITY. region where goodness is felt and enjoyed, I know of no in- stance of contrivance which is not beneficial to the being which is ; 'i<- objecl of that contrivance. The benefit of the contrivance is indeed more obvious in some cases than in others; in most cases, I believe, it may be perceived ; and in no instance can it be shown to be injurious. It is obvious in most of the organs of sense ; and all the organs of sense are undeniably beneficial. Are not the articulations of the bones beneficial? Is not the configuration of the alimentary and intestinal canal beneficial 1 Arc not the hoof of the horse, and the paw of the lion beneficial ? Take any animal, and in attending to the whole, or to any part of its organization, you will find it adapted to the manners and circumstances of the animal and conducive to its existence, security, and happi- ness. Consider the vast variety of sentient beings, as well as the various contrivances in their structure, and when you reflect that all these are conducive to their welfare, you must be astonished at the comprehensive beneficence of the Crea- tor. The goodness of Deity is manifested in the liberal provi- sion made for the subsistence of every living creature. There is a relation, strongly expressive of benignity, between ani- mated and inanimated nature; for the earth produces a suffi- ciency for the subsistence of all the living beings upon it; and in life all animals seem to have enjoyment. The heart of him who sympathizes with the inferior creatures in their pleasures, will often be delighted on contemplating their feli- city, and will feel its own happiness increased by witnessing their enjoyments. If we turn to mankind, they also enjoy much felicity. Even after all the evils that we bring upon ourselves by the abuse of our free agency, we are oftener in health than in sickness, oftener in joy than in sorrow. That there are sorrows and pains is evident; but in human life they do not preponderate. They will engage our attention in a sub- sequent part of the work. 2d, " The Deity has superadded pleasure to animal sensa- tions, beyond what was necessary for any other purpose; or where the purpose, so far as it was necessary, might have been effected by the operation of pain." If it be the will of the Supreme being that sentient crea- tures shall exist, he must endow them with the means and capacities requisite to the continuation of their existence. But those means might answer the end, without contributing in any degree, to the happiness of the animal. They might demonstrate power and wisdom, and yet be no proof of good- THE GOODNESS OF DEITY. 127 ness. For instance, food is necessary to the support of ani- mal life ; every animal, therefore, must be provided with the means of taking in food ; and if these means be well adapted to the end, they certainly demonstrate wisdom. But the act of eating' might be attended with no pleasure : nay, it might be attended with positive pain ; and the animal might be prompted to it merely by the desire of removing a greater pain by submitting to a less. If there be enjoyment in taking in food, which is certainly the case with all animals, then this is a demonstration of goodness in the Creator; for it shows that he has superadded pleasure beyond what was ne- cessary for the accomplishment of the purpose. The organs of sense were either necessary to the existence of the animal, or they were not necessary; but in either case they prove goodness in the Deity. For if we consider them as necessary, still they might have performed their office without communicating any positive pleasure ; but, in fact, they are all sources of enjoyment to the creature, and conse- quently proofs of goodness in the Creator. If we consider them as not necessarv, the proof of goodness is, at least, not weakened. For, in this case, they must have been bestowed merely as inlets to happiness, and are marks of gratuitous goodness. If we glance at the organs of sense, however, we will find them not only useful, but also sources of pleasure. What a variety of enjoyments do we obtain by means of the eye ! That it is a large inlet of felicity, no person in the right use of reason will deny. But if the Deity had been a male- volent being, this organ might have been the occasion of in- credible infelicity and pain. In a diseased state, it sometimes cannot bear the light. Unless the Deity had been benevolent, the eye, even in its natural state, might have been as much or more irritated by the action of light, than it presently is even when diseased. Compare, then, the difference between a sound and a diseased eye ; consider that the latter might have been the natural state of the organ, and certainly you will acknowledge the goodness of Deity. Our minds are so constituted, that we receive pleasure from the sight of many objects in nature: they might, however, have been so constituted that the sight of those objects would have been a source of perpetual irritation and pain. The ver- dure of the earth, which is so grateful to the eye, and the va- riegated landscape, the mountain and the wood, the valley and the stream, so exhilarating to the mind, might have pro- duced a contrary effect, and might have weighed as much in the scale of pain, as they now do in that of pleasure. What is 1 '28 THE GOODNESS OF DEITV. true with respect to the eye. also holds of the other organs of sense. The ear is a source of much enjoyment. .Music yields high gratification, and often soothes and cheers the mind un- der the anxieties by which it is assailed. But the ear might have been otherwise constituted. Jt might have been so formed, that the gentlest whisper would have acted as power- fully upon it as a peal of thunder now does ; and that the most melodious note would have been as grating as a piercing Scream. How much more felicitous is our present condition, than what it could have possibly been in such circumstances ! The sense of smelling, also, not only contributes to our se- curity, but greatly promotes our happiness. How exhilara- ting is the breeze impregnated with fragrant odours ! how sweet the scent of the fields after a gentle summer shower ! If the Deity had not been benevolent, we might have been so constituted that every object around us would have affected our olfactory nerves as disagreeably as asafcetida, or even the intolerable stench of the zurilla. Taste, likewise is a source of much pleasure. But if a malevolent being had been the author of our existence, everything might have been made to taste like gall and wormwood. Feeling, also, might have been the cause of great suffering; for everything we touched might have irritated like a nettle ; but at present it is the source of much pleasant sensation. All our senses are wisely and beneficently accommodated to our nature and circum- stances, and so formed as both to contribute to our security and to promote our happiness. When we enjoy health and the approbation of our moral nature, how cheerful and happy do we feel ! Notwithstanding the murmurings of the queri- monious satirist, or the complaints of the discontented philo- sopher, man really is, or may be a happy being. Nature around him wears the aspect of placid satisfaction, exhibits cheering scenes of active enjoyment, and utters the gladden- ing note of felicity. The goodness of Deity appears not only in the general structure of our body, and in the formation of the different or- gans of sense, but also in that constitution of animated beings in which there is an effort to heal wounds and expel disease. The slightest bruise might have festered, and, like the break- ing out of waters, might have increased till it demolished the organized fabric. But nature makes a healing effort, and often wonderfully succeeds. This, however, is not all. Me- dicinal substances are provided in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, of which man may avail himself to aid the efforts of liis constitution in healing wounds and curing dis- THE GOODNESS OF DEITY. 129 eases. Here, as in every department of nature, we meet with an order of things fitted to awaken the curiosity, invite the research, reward the ingenuity, and increase the happiness of man . The goodness of Deity has provided means not only for healing wounds and curing diseases, but also for aiding our organs of sense under the infirmities of nature and the decays of age. The eye, for instance, is a beautiful and useful, but delicate organ. It is liable to infirmity and decay; but spec- tacles may be made to assist the sight under almost every configuration of the eye, and in every period of life. Similar remarks may be applied to the ear ; and the eye and the ear are two great inlets of pleasure. An observation of the same kind may be extended to our bodily diseases. The malignity of the small-pox was greatly mitigated by inoculation, and appears to be still farther subdued by vaccination. These remarks show wisdom and goodness plainly engraven on the face of nature ; for those attributes evidently predominate, so far as our observations extend. But before we are able to explain all the phenomena, and to answer objections, we must have some conception of the plan of Deity, particularly in reference to man, who is unquestionably the chief living being on this earth. He stands at the head of the animal creation on our globe, and the scheme of government which he is under must, to a certain extent, affect the destiny of the inferior creatures. The uniformity of the system requires that, in so far as they share a common nature with man, they shall be under the operation of common laws. In forming an estimate of the perfections of God from his works and government, we must attentively consider the end he has in view. To form some imaginary scheme of our own, and to pretend by that scheme to measure the Divine perfec- tions as exhibited in the conduct of a very different plan, is altogether absurd. We must take the plan of God, as it may be fairly collected from the established system of things ; and if that plan and the means employed for carrying it on be compatible with wisdom and goodness, then all objections against the Divine perfections, arising from some imaginary plan of our own, are nugatory. I shall, therefore, in the fol- lowing chapter, attend to the character and state of man, which will lead to observations on the design and government of the Deity respecting him. ( 130 ) CHAPTER V. OF THE CHARACTER AND STATE OF MAN. Man is the lord of this world, and he is honourably dis- tinguished from its other inhabitants by peculiar qualities. In considering his character and stati . we observe that he is a rational and immortal being; that at present he is in a state of trial and discipline, under a system of moral government; and that his improvement and happiness are carried on and I by the exercise of his faculties. To each of these we shall for a little attend ; and a careful contemplation of the phenomena will enable us to discover and understand the plan of God respecting him. 1. Man is a rational being. While the inferior animals are under the guidance of instinct, he is endued with nobler prin- ciples. Besides appetites, which he has in common with the brutes, he is dignified with intellectual, active, and moral powers, which they do not possess. Reason, memory, and imagination; desires, affections, and a moral faculty, are wonderfully combined in his nature, and form a singular and interesting being. He can observe, compare, and judge : he can vary his means, and suit his operations to the circum- stances in which he is placed. He can turn in upon himself and trace the operations of his own mind. He can survey the vast system of the universe ; discover the laws by which it is governed ; and learn the attributes of the Creator and Governor from the works of his hand. He can surround himself by a new creation, and combine in endless variety the objects with which lie is acquainted. He remembers the past ; and the lessons of experience not only furnish him with instructions for the regulation of his present conduct, but also enable him to anticipate what he may expect from the future. He hopes and he fears; he loves, and desires, and pursues ; he dreads and he shuns. His moral faculty indicates the path of duty, and it applauds or condemns. His intellectual, active, and moral powers are finely adjusted to each other, and form a being capable of much present enjoyment, and of vast im- provement in intellectual and moral excellence. How ab- surd is it to allege that undesigning chance produced such an intelligent and contriving being as man ! 2. Man is immortal. The Creator has not constituted him an ephemeral being. He is destined to inherit eternity. And we are not driven to a future state in order to find a remedy THE CHARACTER AND STATE OF MAN. 131 against present disorders. The conclusion naturally results from a fair and candid consideration of the phenomena. First, Our bodily fabric dies and is dissolved; but an opinion in favour of the immortality of the soul has almost universally prevailed in every age, and in every nation, among all ranks of men, and in every stage of society. It is not the badge of a sect, but the creed of man. We may find him without arts and without laws ; but the sentiment of immor- tality seems everywhere, and in every period, to have been entertained. The mind is impressed with an involuntary pre- sage of existence; and although the notion of a future state has been differently modified, according to the different cir- cumstances of those who have believed it, still the same ge- neral notion has prevailed. On this subject, the joint opinion of mankind, respecting a matter of common interest, is the voice of their nature proceeding from the universal Parent, intimating to his children the happiness which they are formed to enjoy, and the dignity and perfection which they are capa- ble of attaining. Secondly, The doctrine of immortality, the grand problem respecting'the nature of man, is attended "with the same diffi- culty as the being of God, and arising from the same cause ; the invisibility of the immortal principle. We are so much accustomed to bring everything to the test of our bodily senses, and to be guided by their evidence, that we are dis- posed to withhold belief in cases where they are incapable of giving testimony. This, I believe, is a chief source of scep- ticism, both with respect to the being of God and the immor- tality of man. Some think that all the operations of mind are the result of corporeal organization, and hence they infer that mind must perish on the dissolution of the organized fabric. Our knowledge, however, is by far too limited to encourage us to lay much stress upon this inference, even although the premises from which it is deduced were correct. "I do not see," says Dr. Paley, "that any impracticability need be apprehended by these ; or that the change, even upon their hypothesis, is far removed from the analogy of some other operations which we know with certainty that the Deity is carrying on."* For anything we know, matter, under all its modifications and combinations, is incapable of intellectual operations. If the case should be otherwise, who can for a moment doubt the ability of him who could attach thought and volition to * Paley's Natural Theology, p, 591. 132 THE CHARACTER AND STATE OF MAN. jih. and moreen ^^feS^ enlarge- Theone,h^Aeo^may a continuation and ment of powers. | Aiier U1 ' . hich was formed enlargement of the same ^^J^^S^A^-. we before we saw the , light Th* abr ^^ ^ have no reason, how e^e, to con ^ ^^ thinking pnncip e Tl ejege ab e ^ ^ ^ same but it cannot be iairl) please i 1 1 veSon of God, evinces the expediency of a divine revelation ; and some of the wisest of the heathens were sensible of their need of such a blessing. The denial of the possibility of a revelation rerpiires no com- mon measure of effrontery : and an impartial review of the state of the world previous to the Christian dispensation must satisfy every candid and serious inquirer of the expediency of such a communication from heaven. Jesus Christ laid claim to the character of a teacher sent from God; and. if called upon to show his commission, instead of any abstract reason- ing, to which i'v\v would have attended, and which still fewer would have understood, he appealed to miracles, which mul- titudes could attest, and which force conviction equally on THE GOSPEL A MESSAGE FROM GOD. 197 the untutored and on the cultivated mind ; or to predictions contained in well known books, written many ages before. We have already taken notice of his resurrection, and shall now shortly attend to his miracles, and the prophecies con- cerning him. 1. The miracles performed by Jesus attest his divine mis- sion. We may consider a miracle as a transgression or suspen- sion of the established laws of nature. What those laws are, on any given subject, observation and experience must deter- mine ; and in some cases phenomena may occur, concerning which it may not be easy to decide whether they be miracu- lous or otherwise. In other instances there is no room for any doubt of this kind. The restoration of life to one really dead, giving sight to the blind, and health to the sick, instan- taneously, and by merely uttering a word, may, without doubt or hesitation, be pronounced miraculous. They are evidently out of the ordinary course of nature. I see no impossibility in miracles, either in a pl^sical or moral point of view. To talk of the unalterable constitution of nature is assuming everything. If the constitution of na- ture be unalterable, it must be so, either because the Creator is unable, or because he is unwilling to change it. That he is unable to change it is not true ; for, to suspend or to trans- gress the established laws of nature, cannot require a greater power than what was necessary for the establishment of those laws. We have already seen that an all-powerful Being con- structed the fabric of the universe, and it is obvious that he is able, at pleasure, either to suspend or to transgress the laws which he has established. We are not to conceive of mira- cles as intended to remedy any physical imperfection, any original or accidental defect in the system of nature, but as designed to manifest to the world the interposition of the Al- mighty for purposes of a moral kind; to prove to men that He addresses them. The general laws by which the world is governed were established for wise and good purposes ; and if, in any case, wise and good purposes can be served by a departure from them, what hinders the Creator from such a departure ? The laws are subject to the will of the Creator, and he may discover wisdom and goodness in occa- sional departure from them, as much as in varying and ac- commodating means to the accomplishment of ends in the ori- ginal constitution of the laws. That miracles are contrary to all experience is not true. To affirm it is a gratuitous assumption of the whole matter in 17*- 198 THE GOSPEL A MESSAGE FROM GOD. dispute. They are different from the experience of those only who have nol seen them; and we are never to set up our negative experience as the standard and measure of truth; for experience is only one source of knowledge. The kingot Siam refused to believe the Dutch ambassador, who told him that in his country water became so hard in cold weather that men walked upon it, and that it would bear even an elephant if he were there; but we know that water freezes. The South nders, when first visited by our circumnavigators, had no way of subjecting water to the action of fire, and had therefore no conception that water could burn them ; but they Learned the fact by painful experience. In like manner, al- though we have not seen miracles, this is no evidence that others have not seen them. From the very notion of a miracle, it must be something that seldom happens. What happens often, we have reason to think, happens according to a general law. A miracle, how- ever, is a deviation from the general law; it seldom happens, and consequently few, comparatively speaking, can be wit- nesses of it. The evidence necessary to prove miracles is of the same kind with what is necessary to prove any other matter of fact; the testimony of our own senses or the testi- mony of other men; and the proof is equally valid to all succeeding generations. In order to determine the truth of an event, it has been required that it be such as men's out- ward senses, their eyes and ears, may judge of; that it be done publicly in the face of the world ; and that there be memorials of it commencing from the time when the event happened. Events may have happened where all these circumstances do not meet ; but in cases where they all meet, no doubts can be entertained. All these marks apply to the miracles of Jesus. They were such as men's external senses could judge of. He instantaneously healed the sick and the lame, and opened the eyes of the blind; lie calmed the raging of the sea, and even raised the dead. Those miracles Jesus performed, not in a few instances only, or before a few individuals; not in the presence of friends and admirers merely : and not before the ignorant and credulous only: but he performed them frequently and pub- licly, and in the presence of promiscuous multitudes, many of whom were his most determined enemies, watching him with a jealous and malignant eye, scrutinizing every circum- stance, and ready to detect every fraud, if there had been any. Those hostile persons were the most enlightened men in the : nation, in an enlightened aire. THE GOSPEL A MESSAGE FROM GOD. 199 The account of the miracles was published immediately, and in the places where they had been performed. Those mira- cles the most malignant enemies of Jesus, and they who had the best opportunities of examining the facts, never pretended to deny. They admitted them, because they were so deci- sively proved that there was no room left for the suspicion of deception. If they, then, who were present on the spot at the time, aiid had the best opportunities of investigating- all the circumstances connected with those miracles, found them- selves constrained to admit their truth ; and if, in this admis- sion, Celsus and Julian, and other early infidels agreed, it is with a bad grace that any in our days pretend to deny them. They must be admitted, unless we set aside entirely the evidence of historical testimony ; and when admitted we must account for them in the best way we can. The enemies of Jesus, finding themselves unable to deny the reality of his miracles, were reduced to the necessity of endeavouring to account for them, in a way consistent with their opinion, that he was not a teacher sent from God. To their account of the matter let us shortly attend; and, consider, first, Whether any being but God has the power of working mira- cles ; and, secondly, Whether the miracles of Jesus are such as wicked spirits would willingly concur in performing-. First, The power of working miracles, so far as we know or have any reason to believe, is inherent in God only. He established the laws of nature ; he still superintends the work- manship of his hands ; and we know of no power, but that to which the laws ■ of nature owe their origin, which can either transgress or suspend those laws. If we, therefore, find any agent at pleasure transgressing or suspending them, we are led to conclude that he acts under the authority, and is sup- ported by the power, of Him by whom the laws were esta- blished. Miracles are visible proofs of divine power, in ap- probation of him by whom they are performed. They are the seal of Heaven, and show the concurrence of the great Ruler of the universe. Accordingly, mankind have always acknowledged them as evidence of a divine mission. The Jew, who had received his sight, reasoned agreeably to the general sense of men of every age. " We know that God heareth not sinners : but if any man be a worshipper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth. If this man were not of God, he could do nothing."* Second/i/, What are we to think of the allegation of those * John, ix. 31, 33. 200 THE GOSPEL A MESSAGE FROM GOD. Jews who ascribed the miracles of Jesus to the agency of wicked spirits. That such beings exist in the universe is no unreasonable supposition; ami revelation informs us of the fact. Free agents of a much higher order than man may- abuse their liberty, and may pervert and misapply their fa- culties to mischievous purposes. The devil and his angels do so. But we have no reason to believe that they are able to disturb the laws of nature in their operation, or to prevent their effects. We have no evidence whatever that any crea- ture, either good or bad, has power to suspend the laws of nature, without the authority of Him by whom those laws were established. No good being would make the attempt for a bad purpose ; no bad being would do so for a good pur- pose. Now, the doctrine of Jesus was so pure and heavenly, that no evil spirit would have attempted anything for its con- firmation. Here the external and the internal evidences of the gospel mutually support each other. If depraved beings had exerted their power for the confirmation of the doctrine of Jesus, their empire would have been divided against itself, and must have fallen into ruin. The supposition that the miracles of Jesus were done by ma in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them." 2. Nature shows us that the Creater upholds and rules the world. This doctrine is confirmed by the Holy Scriptures, which throw a clear light on the administration of the Al- mighty, and represent him as governing all his creatures, and all their actions. The Lord preserves man and beast: his HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. 209 kingdom rules over all : he reigns in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth. Nothing is so great as to resist his power; nothing so minute as to escape his notice. His vigilant eye is continually upon every province of his mighty empire : we can nowhere go from his presence, or flee from his spirit. All nature is under his direction and control : summer and winter, seed-time and harvest regularly return ; day and night continually succeed each other, and the moon with unwearied constancy travels in her appointed course. The just and the unjust equally enjoy the advantages of this constitution. The Lord employs the elements to accomplish the purposes of his will. He makes the winds his messengers, and causes the flaming fire to act in his service. He covers the heavens with clouds, prepares rain for the earth, makes grass to grow on the mountain, and clothes the plain with luxuriant crops : the eyes of all things wait upon him, and he gives them their food in due season. When he sees meet, he makes " the heavens brass, and the earth iron," and sends " cleanness of teeth" to a sinful people in all their borders. He poured the waters of the flood upon an impenitent world, and rained fire and brimstone on the guilt)' inhabitants of Sodom and Go- morrah ; but it is comfortable to know that the righteous Noah was saved from the deluge, and that an angel led Lot beyond the limits of the devoted cities. The elements, however, are not the only instruments of his providence. He can make the locust or the worm, as well as the winged seraph, execute judgment against a sin- ful nation. Without infringing free agency, he can influence his people ; and permit, check, or defeat the counsels of men, making them subservient to the accomplishment of purposes which they never intended. He causes even the wrath of man to praise him, and the remainder of that wrath he re- strains. War, and famine, and pestilence, are in his hand, and he can employ them to execute his will. He often bears long with a guilty people, warns and admonishes them ; but if they disregard the alarmsof judgment and turn a deaf ear to the invitations of mercy ; if they still continue obstinate in sin, he gives them up to the perversity of their own hearts, and the vanity of their own imaginations, sajdng, Let them alone, let them fill up their cup, the hour of retribution will come. When the ways of a nation please the Lord, he makes even their enemies to be at peace with them, and joy and plenty are in their dwellings. His providential care extends to individuals as well as na- 18* 210 HARMONY OF NATURE AND RF.VKLATIOX. tions. " Tlie very liairs of our head are all numbered." If we acknowledge him in our ways, he will direct our steps. He may subject us to trials, but it is to improve our hearts ; and we will not go unrewarded. Joseph long pined inobscurity and bondage ; but he was afterwards exalted. Job was se- verely tried ; but he bore all with patient fortitude and pious resignation, and his latter end was more prosperous than his beginning. On the other hand had men are not unfrequently subjected to penal visitations, and their own minds execute a terrible judgment against th'in. I'nder the reproaches of a guilty conscience, Cain was a miserable fugitive and vaga- bond on the earth; and the condemnation of his own heart made the treacherous Judas precipitate himself to his place. Angels also are the instruments of Providence ; they are the " ministering spirits sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation." The righteous government of God discountenances all sin, and encourages rectitude of heart and life : it accomplishes wise ends by the best means, and neither wicked spirits nor wicked men can defeat the purposes of the Almighty. The workers of iniquity may tremble at the holy administration of the Most High, for a retributive Providence watches over hu- man affairs; and although for awhile the wicked may flourish like the green bay tree, yet, sooner or later, judgment, like the whirlwind of the desert, will overtake them. The faith- ful, however, may rejoice that they are under an Omnipotent Protector, for the righteous Lord loveth righteousness ; with a pleasant countenance he beholdeth the upright, and will make all things work together for the good of them that love him. 3. The Scriptures inform us that man, by the abuse of his freedom, has fallen into a state of moral disease, and is a transgressor of the divine law. This truth is taught by the voice of nature, and has been generally acknowledged by the human race. Hence, in almost every nation, the priest, the victim, and the altar present themselves to our view ; but the unenlightened worshipper was utterly uncertain whether his services were accepted, and his sins forgiven. Accordingly we hear him in painful perplexity exclaiming, " Wherewith shall I come before the Lord, and bow myself before the high God? Shall 1 come before him with burnt offerings, with calves of a year old 1 Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, or with ten thousands of rivers of oil 1 Shall 1 give my ftrst-borfl for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul'?" Sacrificial expiations were HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. 211 admitted by divine authority into the Patriarchal and Mosaic dispensations. Under the law the priest officiated daily at the altar, offering sacrifices for his own sins, and for the sins of the people. These sacrifices expiated transgressions, of the peculiar laws of the theocracy, and entitled to a life in the land of Canaan ; but their value extended no farther. "It is not possible that blood of bulls and of goats should take away sins :" they derived all their saving efficacy from the great atonement which they prefigured. The fallen state of man, recognized by nature, and ac- knowledged in the Jewish Scriptures, is clearly taught in the gospel; sometimes in plain, but more frequently in figura- tive language. We are represented as wandering sheep which have strayed from the fold, and are in danger of perishing; as sleeping, and unconscious of the perils with which we are surrounded ; as blind, and not seeing the path which we ought to pursue; as sick and diseased ; yea, dead in trespasses and sins. The law, originally engraven on our hearts by the fin- ger of God, is partially effaced, but not obliterated: our fa- culties are weakened and disordered, but not destroyed nor wholly perverted ; " for when the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these, having not the law, are a law unto themselves ; which show the work of the law written in their hearts, their con- science also bearing witness, and their thoughts the mean- while accusing or else excusing one another." Whatever be the nature of our malady, the gospel reveals a remedy of suita- ble extent and efficacy. Jesus appears in characters adapted to our necessities. If we be guilty, his blood cleanses from all sin : if we be weak, his grace is sufficient for us, his strength is perfected in our weakness. He is a shepherd to bring us back from our wanderings, and to recover us when lost : he stands knocking and calling to awaken us from our slumbers : he has eye-salve to anoint our eyes that we may see : he is a physician to heal our diseases : he has power to quicken us when dead, and restore us to life. In order, how- ever, to reap these advantages we must be diligent in impro- ving the talents intrusted to our care ; for Jesus acts towards us as rational and accountable creatures. The wandering sheep must listen to the voice of the shepherd, and follow him ; the sleeper, when he hears the alarm at the door, must not fold his arms in sluggish indolence, and cry, "yet a lit- tle sleep, a little slumber ;" he must arise and be active : the sick must observe and obey the prescriptions of the physi- cian. 212 HARMONY OF NATTRE AND REVELATION'. The Scriptures exhibit God as a being- of immaculate holi- ness, impartial justice, unsearchable wisdom, and boundless goodness. Of these attributes, the mission of Christ, the great tact revealed in the gospel, is a brilliant illustration. From sovereign grace the Father sent his only begotten Son, who is one with himself, "the brightness of his glory, and the express image of his person;" he sent him to take part of flesh and blood, "thai through death he might destroy him that had the power of death, and deliver them who through dean were all their lifetime subject to bondage ;'' he sent him to hear our sins in his own body on the tree, to re- concile his offending children to himself, to demonstrate his detestation of sin, and, at the same time, encourage them to trust in his mercy, walk in his way, cherish those disposi- tions of mind, and pursue that course of action which he pre- scribes, in order that they may grow up in a meetness for a happy immortality. The mission of Jesus is a dispensation which we cannot at present fully comprehend, and of which it becomes us to speak with reverence and awe. All the purposes which it serves in the moral government of God, who can explain? It may teach great lessons to different orders of beings, and affect the iii! crests of others besides the human race. The vast range of its efficacy may extend far beyond our limited conceptions. It awakens the curiosity and increases the knowledge even of angels. It is the benevolent purpose of God, "in the dispen- sation of the fulness of times, to gather together in one all things in Christ, both which are in heaven, and which are on earth, even in him :" " And to make all men see what is the fellowship of the mystery, which from the beginning of the world hath been hid in God, who created all things by Jesus Christ: To the intent that now, unto the principalities and powers in heavenly places, might be known by the church the manifold wisdom of God, according to the eternal purpose which he purposed in Christ Jesus our Lord.*' "For it I the Father, that in him should all fulness dwell ; and. having made peace through the blood of his cross, by him to reconcile all things unto himself; whether they lie things in earth, or things in heaven." But although our knowledge of this dispensation is limited and partial, there are several great truths connected with it which we may in some measure un- derstand. These truths ought to engage our attention, make a deep impression on our minds, and have a powerful influ- ence on our lives. First, The mission and death of Jesus are a striking illus- HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. 213 tration of the divine nature and government; they form avast scheme for maintaining the honour of God's perfections in extending mercy to the guilty, and are designed to teach great lessons concerning his righteous administration. He set forth Christ, " to be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past through the forbearance of God ; that he might be just and the justifier of him which believethin Jesus." This dis- pensation is expressive of holiness, and wisdom, and good- ness. These attributes? are intimated by the voice of nature, and plainly taught in the law ; for the constitution of the na- tural world and of the human mind supports a moral govern- ment, and the divine law bears strongly on the same point, forbidding sin, encouraging righteousness, and being wisely and graciously fitted for preparing us for a more exalted state of existence. The violation of the law is dishonouring and displeasing to God, as it expresses a disregard of his sove- reign authority, and tends to defeat his gracious purposes to- wards us. Hence wisdom and goodness, as well as holiness, are concerned in maintaining its honour. A wise legislator supports the dignity of his enactments b)r suitable expres- sions of his displeasure on occasion of their violation; and the great interposition revealed in the gospel is a plan for maintaining the glory of the Divine administration in pardon- ing the guilty. Whether God, considered as an absolute sovereign, could have forgiven sin without any satisfaction, it does not belong to us to inquire. It is enough to know, that he has declared he would not do so ; for, if he had done so, men might have imagined that he was a being of mere mercy; that the benig- nity of his nature would always triumph over his justice and holiness ; and that he would never inflict punishment on transgressors. Iniquity, like an overflowing torrent, would have deluged the Avorld, and ruin must inevitably have over- taken our race. But the death of Christ, as an atonement for sin, corrects such false ideas, and has a strong tendency to prevent the fatal operation of such misconceptions. We see the only begotten Son of the Father, when the iniquities of us all were laid upon him, suffering deep humiliation and unspeakable agony ; but he triumphantly accomplished the blessed work given him to do. His sacrifice is as excellent as our sins are heinous ; his atonement is commensurate with our guilt ; his blood taketh away sin, has put an end to vica- rious expiations, and brought in an everlasting righteousness. His offering- was of a sweet smelling 1 savour to the Most 214 HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. High, who saw tlr.it by it his administration was vindicated in the Bight of nil his rational offspring. This dispensation clearly shows, that though God is merciful, yet that he is not merciful only, but that he is just and faithful, and holy also ; and that all his attributes are harmoniously exercised in the administration of his government. A wonderful provi- sion is made for the pardon of sin. for deterring from iniquity, and for encouraging rectitude of hearl and life. By the gra- cious operation of his Spirit. Jesus renews his people, and works in them " both to will and to do of his good pi As he was delivered for our offences, and raised for our justi- cation, so he is exalted as a Prince and a Saviour to give repentance and remission of sins, and to carry on to a Li'lori- ous consummation the blessed enterprise in which he is en- gaged. Secondly, The death of Christ is a powerful means of re- conciling us to God, of assuring us of his love, of winning our confidence, our affection, and our obedience. Man before his fall loved and trusted the Creator ; but when he sinned, he became conscious of guilt and apprehensive of punish- ment; fear, suspicion, and distrust, took possession of his mind. Adam in innocence listened to his Maker with delight ; but, on his disobedience, a melancholy change took place. He no longer heard the voice of God with joy, he no longer hastened to meet him, but anxiously sought concealment. This is a true picture of the state of fallen man, and its im- age is reflected from every breast. Now, the death of Christ is an amazing dispensation for banishing that fear, suspicion, and distrust of Cod, which consciousness of guilt inspires. Here we see the countenance of our heavenly Father beam- ing with benignity ; we see him manifesting inexpressible love to his prodigal children, and we hear his voice, in accents of lively compassion, inviting them to return to the bosom of his family, and share the provision and protection of the dutiful members of his household. Such a representa- tion of the divine character is well calculated to cast out our fear, win our love, and secure our confidence and obedience. In this point of view the death of Christ is held up by the Apos- tle : " All things are of God, who hath reconciled us to him- self by Jesus Christ, and hath given to us the ministry of reconciliation ; to wit, that God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them ; and hath committed to us the word of reconciliation. Now, then, we are ambassadors for Christ, as though God did beseech you by us : we pray you in Christ's stead, be ye HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. 215 reconciled to God." Attend to the argument which the sacred writer employs to encourage the reconciliation, " For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin ; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him." God has thus given the clearest proof, the most affecting de- monstration of his love ; and shall not we, then, be constrain- ed to love and to obey him 1 If his mercy fail to produce these effects, must not every other motive prove unavailing ? On the divine benignity the faithful and pious worshipper may place the most steady reliance, for " He that spared not his own Son, but delivered him up for us all, how shall he not with him also freely give us all things ?" 4. All the precepts of Christianity are agreeable to the dic- tates of a sound mind ; and its promises are happily fitted to calm the troubles of the human heart. The system of nature supports a moral government, and the doctrines and precepts of the gospel have a direct moral tendency. The Scriptures give clearer and fuller views of duty than what could be learned from the volume of creation, and enforce the dis- charge of what is incumbent upon us by the most powerful motives. From the perversity of their hearts, men are often inclined to lay the chief stress on external rites and ceremo- nial observances ; but the gospel teaches us that no ritual worship can be pleasing to God, without holiness of heart and life ; and that justice, mercy, and faithfulness, are indis- pensable matters of the law. Everything in the religion of Jesus, whether we consider the dispositions which it recom- mends, or the conduct which it enjoins, promotes the welfare of the individual and of society. In proportion to their obe- dience to his precepts will be the happiness of mankind ; for in proportion to this obedience will they discharge with fidelity all the duties incumbent upon them in the several relations of life. If men generally cherished the same mind that was in Christ ; if they were just and merciful, meek and holy, what a different picture would the world present from what it now exhibits ! How incalculably would the sum of human happiness be increased ! The beneficial influence of Christianity proves its suitableness to our nature, and strongly recommends it to our regard. The rites of our holy religion are few and simple ; Baptism and the Lord's Supper. It also sanctions the observance of one day in seven as sacred to the worship of God. Even the heathens were sensible that no man could stea- dily pursue a virtuous course without aid from on high ; but if the Christian, on contemplating the extent of his duty, is 216 HARMONY OF NATURE AND REVELATION. leady in despondency to exclaim, " "Who is sufficient for these things!" he is encouraged by a voice from heaven, say- ing, •• F( ur thou not, foi 1 am with thee; be not dismayed, for I am thy God; I will strengthen thee; yea, I will help thee; yea, I will uphold thee with the right hand of my righteousm ss." •• Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened unto you: for everyone thai asketh, receiveth ; and he that seeketh, find- eth ; and to him that knocketh, it shall be opened. If a son ask bread of any of you that is a father, will he give him a stone ? or it* he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a ser- pent? or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion? It ye, then, being evil, know bow to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him?" The Holy Spirit enlightens, comforts, strengthens, and guides the peo- ple of God on their way to the better country. 5. The immortality of the soul, as we have already seen, has engaged the attention of men in every age, and been recognized by people of every kindred and tongue. Many clouds, however, seemed to hang over this great truth, and to damp the fond aspirations of nature. But it' on this interest- ing subject the torch of reason shines with a dubious ray. the bright beam of revelation dispels the darkness. Jesus hath made light and immortality clear through the gospel ; he con- firms the consoling doctrine by new evidence, and sheds around it a glorious and animating splendour. Amid all the vicissitudes of life, the faithful are comforted with the pros- pect of joining an innumerable company of angels, and the spirits of just men made perfect, when they have finished their pilgrimage in this world. The gospel not only teaches the immortality of the soul, but also the resurrection of the body ; a point on which the voice of nature is silent. Lastly, The gospel informs us of a judgment to come, and a state of final retribution ; truths which the heathen nized : but Jesus sets them clearly bi fore us in majestic gra.i- deur, and awful solemnity. The Lord shall come in his own glory, in the glory of the Father, and of the holy angels ; the living shall be changed, and those who are in their graves shall hear the voice of the Son of .Man. and shall come forth. '-God hath appointed a clay, in the which he will judge the world in righteousness by that man whom he hath ordained ; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he bath raised him from the dead." " And 1 saw a great white throne, and him that sat on it, from whose face the OUR DUTY TO GOD. 217 earth and the heaven fled away; and there was found no place for them. And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before God : and the books were opened; and another book was opened, which is the book of life : and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works." The wicked shall be for ever banished from the presence of the Lord, and consigned to the place of punishment; but the righteous, under the conquer- ing banners of the Captain of Salvation, shall rise in triumph to the city of the living God, where through eternity they shall rejoice with joy unspeakable and full of glory. Thus, the gospel greatly enlarges our knowledge of the character and government of the Almighty ; and reveals an amazing scheme of grace, by which, in consistency with the glory of his perfections, and dignity of his administration, he can receive the returning penitent into favour. Benignity and mercy diffuse a lovely radiance over all his attributes ; and while the Scriptures assure us that he is a gracious Being, yea, that he is love, the death of Jesus Christ proclaims the same truth, in a manner that may convince every understand- ing, and affect every heart. " God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believefh in him should not perish, but have everlasting life." " O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God!" His love towards us passeth understanding. May love to this great and gracious Being reign in our hearts, and regulate our lives ! May we, in the spirit of cheerful obedi- ence, wisely improve our faculties and our privileges, and act suitably to the prospects which the gospel sets before us, so that at last we may meet with the approbation of our Lord, and inherit the kingdom prepared for the righteous ! CHAPTER III.: CHRISTIAN DUTY. Belief in the being, perfections, and providence of God, and in the gospel, does not terminate in mere speculation; hut is calculated to have a powerful and gracious influence on the heart and life. What, then, are the duties resulting from this belief? what are the dispositions which we ought to cultivate 1 what is the conduct which we ought to pursue ? 19 218 CHRISTIAN' DUTY. We may shortly answer, that it teaches us to live soberly, and righteously, and piously in the world ; or, in other words, tO perform our duty to God, our neighbour, and ourselves. All duty, indeed, may be considered as obedience to the will of God; for, if we obey the will of God, we will discharge our duty to our neighbour and to ourselves. Every devout affection, every social virtue, right temper, and right conduct, flow from a correct and steady belief in Cod, and in the gos- pel of his Son, as naturally 'as a stream from its fountain. But. in order that our conceptions on the Bubject may be more distinct, we shall consider our duty to God, to our neighbour, and to ourselves. While, however, we attend to these separately, we must not forget that in practice they go together, and operate on each other. They are harmonious parts of one whole. Even when performing our duty to our neighbour and to ourselves, we must be actuated by a devout regard to the will of our heavenly Father. Frequent meditation on the moral attributes of God cannot fail to have a salutary effect on our temper and conduct, and to promote in us a continual approximation to his moral image. Some of the lustre of the divine attributes will ad- here to our minds, like the glory which shone on the face of Moses when he came down from conversing with God on the mount. It is not enough to believe that God is, for it is es- sential to have correct apprehensions of his perfections and government. We must be acquainted with his attributes in order to know what affections to cherish, and what actions to perform ; for the ideas which we entertain of the divine cha- racter have much influence on our hearts and lives. False notions of God lie at the foundation of all false religions. Hence flow idolatry, superstition, fanaticism, and every cor- rupt mode of worship. Whether we look to the high places of Moloch, or to the temples of Venus; to the human sacri- fices bleeding at the altar of Odin, or to the self-devoted victim expiring under the wheels of the car of Juggernaut; to the Stylite on his pillar, or the Anchorite in his cave ; we see the unhappy effects of false conceptions of God. As misapprehensions of the character and government of the Almighty are the source of so much evil, it ought to be our steady aim to acquire just notions of the only true God, and of Jesus Christ his Son. For this purpose it behoves us to attend to the works of Creation, and to the Holy Scrip- There is an admirable harmony in their combined testimony, and they mutually elucidate each other. We are particularly to study the Bible, which is a treasure of pre- OUR DUTY TO GOD. 219 cious knowledge, and has a powerful tendency to make us both wise and good ; to enlighten the understanding, and to purify and comfort the heart. Defect in duty arises from imperfec- tion of knowledge, violence of appetite, or perversity of af- fection ; all of which the Scriptures tend to remove or rectify. If we have right apprehensions of God, we will cherish reverential awe, grateful affection, dutiful obedience, filial trust, and cheerful resignation. 1. If we have right apprehensions of the perfections and government of God, we will cherish a holy fear and reveren- tial awe of him. God is infinitely exalted above us. He is the Creator, we are the creatures of his hand : he is the So- vereign, we are his subjects : he is the Judge, we must stand at his tribunal, and hear our sentence of approval or condem- nation from his lips. He is wise in heart and mighty in strength. Shall we not then, with holy reverence, lift our eye to him, who built and upholds the magnificent fabric of" the universe, who leads the planets in their ceaseless revolutions, and who guides Orion and Arcturus in their courses 1 Shall we not revere him who sends forth the winds from their chambers, who presides over the tumults of the ocean, who commands the tempest and it is still, who shakes the earth, and the pillars thereof tremble 1 Shall we not re- vere him who is the author of our existence, and on whom we continually and entirely depend 1 We owe him incom- parably more than the respectful affection due to a parent, and incomparably more than the reverence due to a king. 2. Right apprehensions of the perfections and government of God will produce in us grateful affection towards him. God is amiable in himself, and he stands in the most en- dearing relations to us. He is the former of our bodies, the Father of our spirits, the preserver of both. On him we every moment depend ; he is our benefactor, and from him all our enjoyments flow. Life, and all that renders life comfortable, are the gift of his munificence : his bountiful hand supplies our wants ; his powerful arm shields us from danger. He bears long with our perversity, often preserves us from the consequences of our follies, extricates us from difficulties, delivers us from temptation, disappoints our fears, comforts us in grief, and puts songs of joy into our mouth. We are grateful to an earthly benefactor who has conferred on us some small and transient favour ; and not to feel such grati- tude argues a want of the best affections of our nature. Shall we not, then, love God for his excellencies and benefits ? Shall not the whole current of our soul flow towards him 220 CHRISTIAN DUTY. from whom we have received all, and on whom all our hopes depend ; yea, who lias s< at his Son into the world to enlighten our minds, to expiate our sins, to purify and save us ? Bless the Lord, O our souls, and all that is within us bless his holy name; who healeth all our diseases, who forgiveth all our iniquities, who redeem eth us from going down to death, and who erowneth us with loving-kindness and tender mercies ! 3. Grateful affection leads to dutiful obedience. We wish to please those whom we love and who are kind to us. But God is supremely amiable, and he is our great benefactor; therefore it is our duty, and ought to be our delight, to do what is well-pleasing to him. All his commandments are wise and good, worthy of him from whom they proceed, and divinely suited to make those happy who obey him. They are the dictates of unerring wisdom for regulating the conduct of creatures such as we arc, and must tend to advance our welfare. At present, the commandments which relate to re- ligious worship shall shortly engage our attention ; and we must remember, that God docs not require us to pay him homage because he derives any advantage from our adora- tion, but because it is beneficial to ourselves. It is the test of our allegiance, and the means of our improvement and happiness. The great design of religion is to promote in us a happy conformity to the moral image of God, and a conse- quent meetness lor heaven. This is the chief aim of all our religious observances, of our prayers, of our praises, of the whole of our worship, both public and private. In propor- tion as this end is gained, our religion is profitable: without it, speculative dogmas and ritual observances are unavailing, and will produce to the individual no ultimate advantage. Outward worship alone is by no means decisive evidence that the heart is right with God; but the habitual neglect of this worship affords a strong presumption that the person who is guilty of it has no correct sense of his duty, honour, and interest. Just apprehensions of the perfections and government of God lead to prayer, which is the aspiration of the soul to- wards the Almighty, and is the exercise of a weak, depend- ent, and guilty creature. It has been practised by men in every age of the world, in every condition of life, and in every stage of society. God invites us to pray: Jesus was often engaged in this pious duty, and he enjoins it on all his followers. It is the appointed means of obtaining blessings from heaven: we are to ask that we may receive. On this subject questions may be put, and difficulties started, which OUR DUTY TO GOD. 221 our limited capacity and knowledge do not enable us entirely to answer and obviate. This need neither surprise nor of- fend us, for in every department of nature we soon reach a barrier which no ingenuity or exertion of ours can pass. It ought to suffice us that a thing is reasonable in itself, though we are unable certainly to trace all the steps by which it is brought about, and we ought to be more intent on improving our privileges than in indulging a restless and unreasonable curiosity in things that are above our reach. Prayer is a powerful preventive of temptation, and is well calculated to promote humility, gratitude, watchfulness, and a lively sense of our continual and entire dependence on God. Our prayers are to be offered up in faith, and in the name of Jesus, the One Mediator between God and man ; while we are to be humble, fervent, and persevering, at a throne of grace, without any of that unceremonious familiarity which ignorant and vain persons have sometimes manifested in their addresses to their Maker. The instructions of Jesus and the example of his apostles are the best lessons for directing our prayers. With due attention to these, the pious mind, im- pressed with a lively sense of its mercies and its wants, will give way to the effusions of gratitude and the aspirations of prayer, in a manner that will not be disregarded by the God and Father of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Besides j oin- ing in the public prayers of the church, and exercising our- selves in private devotion, we are to pray in the family also, as family mercies are to be socially acknowledged, and the supply of family wants implored by joint supplication. Through impotency of mind, irregularity of affections and passions, and the avocations and cares of life, we are apt to forget the Author of our existence and enjoyments, as well as our own most important interests. In cases where we are not impelled by the instinctive propensities or physical ne- cessities of our nature, any duty which is not performed at stated periods is in great danger of being much neglected. Besides, men united in society ought to engage in social wor- ship, and for this purpose public places and solemn times must be set apart. Hence the Sabbath is a noble institution, periodically encouraging us to serious consideration, and to the elevating exercises of religion. It administers to our physical comfort, and is happily fitted to promote our moral improvement. To him who labours assiduously for six days, the rest of the seventh is a seasonable and grateful relaxation from bodily toil. It refreshes and prepares for the labours 19* 222 CHRISTIAN DUTY. of the week, and on it the inferior animals, which aid us in our toils, Bhare in our rest. But it is as a moral institute chiefly that the Sabbath at present claims our attention. We are not to consider this holy day as relating to a future state of existence merely, but as closely connected with our interest and happiness in the life; as a day for serious meditation on the temper we are to cherish and the social duties we are to perform, as well as a pious preparation for the life that is to come. The public servici s of the Sabbath carry on a system of moral ii. instructing us how to act as good members of the civil community to which we belong; and every sober and serious mind must be sensible of the value of such exercises. Our social duties, and the great concerns of our probationary state, ought never to be forgotten, but should be the principal aim of our lives, the daily subject of our private and family devotions. On the Sabbath we are more particularly called to those important considerations, and are invited to bestow upon them the most earnest, attention. One day in seven is no unreasonable portion of time allotted to this service. Six days are allowed chiefly for our secular avocations; the se- venth is more particularly devoted to our moral education, to the serious consideration of our present duties and future is. The duties of the Sabbath, as a day of religious exercise and rest from the ordinary business of life, no per- son who has correct notions of the perfections and govern- ment of God, and of his own nature, state, and duty, will either undervalue or neglect. We are anxious to secure our physical comfort, and shall we be careless of moral improve- ment ] None but the depraved beings who are lost both to a sense of duty and interest, will act this infatuated and guilty part. The public worship of the Sabbath, conducted by pious and enlightened ministers, is a happy means of intellectual and moral improvement, informing and strengthening the un- derstanding, and purifying and exalting the affections. A pious assembly united in prayer and praise, and in listening seriously to the solemn truths of religion, communicate to each other a sympathetic fervour, and their devout worship, like incense from the altar, ascends through the Mediator with acceptance to the throne of God. The repetition of this holy glow of piety after short intervals, makes the children of God grow up like trees planted by the rivers of water. A noble model for imitation, and a perfect standard for measur- ing their character are continually before their eyes; and OUR DUTY TO GOD, 223 drawing- refreshing- and invigorating draughts from the wells of salvation, they go on, like the ancient pilgrims, from strength to strength, towards the holy Zion. 4. Dutiful obedience inspires with filial trust. God in- vites us to trust in him, and we have every encouragement to comply with his gracious invitation. He is Almighty; his wisdom is unsearchable ; his goodness inexhaustible. Of these attributes we have clear evidence in creation and provi- dence. His wisdom and goodness shine with brilliant lustre in redemption ; and his truth and faithfulness endure to all generations. He has given us life, which is more than meat ; the body, which is more than raiment. Having bestowed the greater, will he withhold the less favour? He has given us many great and precious promises, and these promises he will fulfil, for in Christ they are all yea and amen. Nothino- befalls us without his knowledge. Without him not even a sparrow falleth to the ground, and all the hairs of our head are numbered. His eye is ever upon us. He knows all our wants; sees all our dangers, and will watch over the inte- rests of all his faithful subjects. He has been kind to us in time past, and this may encourage us to trust in him for fu- ture blessings. A dutiful child never suspects the good-will of his affectionate parent. And shall we in any degree dis- trust the Father of lights from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift? We will trust in him, in the full as- surance that he will make all things work together for our good. But while we place an unhesitating trust in his pa- rental affection and care, we must be careful never to tempt him either by indolence or temerity. Prudent caution and active diligence must characterize our conduct; and, in the dutiful use of means, it behoves us, under the shadow of his omnipotent arm, to proceed with a steady intrepidity in the way of righteousness. 5. Filial trust leads to pious resignation. In the day of ad- versity the unenlightened see and hear only the gloom of the firmament, and the howling of the tempest ; hut the eye of God's dutiful children penetrates the darkness, and behind the clouds which overcast the sky sees the Almighty parent sitting on his heavenly throne watching over their interests, and overruling all events for their good. The government of God extends over all. Our afflictions are part of a great scheme formed by unerring wisdom. Each of them appears in the place which the Sovereign disposer of events has as- signed. They are consequences of sin, and means of cor- recting our errors, and promoting our improvements In the- 224 CHRISTIAN DUTY. righteous administration of God, affliction is one of the great springs for moving the powers both of our intellectual and moral nature, li is the discipline which we undergo in the course of our education for a happy immortality, and never Is what is needful, or what may prove beneficial. When the sun of prosperity beams upon us, and our cup of enjoyment is full, we are too much disposed to forgot the fountain whence all our blessings flow. Hence God chastens us in mercy, to wean our affections from some idol, to awaken in us some neglected virtue, to make us look to him- self, become partakers of his holiness, and meet for a happy immortality. " Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and if we endure chastening, God dealeth with us as with sons." Often have the subjects of God's moral government had cause to say, " it is good for us that we have been afflicted." We cannot always avoid trials; but we may always apply thern to wise purposes, as instruments of spiritual education, and means of preparing us for future glory. Pride or insen- sibility may affect to disregard afflictions : it is the province of wisdom to improve them. They are inflicted by our Father for a gracious purpose, and that purpose it should be our constant aim to promote. The excellence of the end to be attained may reconcile us to the means employed to bring it about. The weary pilgrim travels cheerfully through a thorny path, when he knows it is short, and will soon con- duct him to the object of all his desire, and all his hope. And shall not the Christian bear with steady fortitude and pious resignation the transitory ills of life, seeing that they are the steps by which, he is ascending to the mansions in his Fa- ther's house 1 " Our light affliction, which is but for a mo- ment, worketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory." In the season of trouble the faithful draw strong consola- tion from the gospel. The world may frown, but they re- joice in the light of the Divine countenance. They may lose earthly substance, but they have an abiding inheritance in heaven. Friends may prove unkind, or die, but God's love is unchangeable : and if they on whom our affections rest close the journey of life before us, they rise Jo more exalted dwell- ings, and we shall soon overtake them in the peaceful habi- tations of the just, free from all the infirmities and imper- fections which depressed their hearts, or clouded their ex- cellence. Disease may come, and the hour of dissolution approach: but if this world fail them, better mansions are pre- pared for their reception. If they leave friends on earth, OUR DUTY TO OUR NEIGHBOUR. 225 they are about to join a nobler society: and those friends whom they leave behind, they can, in full confidence, com- mit to the gracious providence of God. The body must slumber in the house of silence and forgetfulness, but the last trumpet shall sound, and then shall this corruptible put on incorruption, and this mortal put on immortality. " O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory 1 ? Thanks be to God who hath given us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ." "What, O man, doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God'W The first commandment is, " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind; and the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." The gospel teaches us to "live soberly, righteously, and godly in this present world." Re- ligion consists of two great parts ; piety, or the duty which we owe immediately to God ; and morality, or the duty which we owe to our neighbour, and to ourselves. In pro- portion as either of these is wanting, our religion is defective. Piety without morality is hollow and deceitful; morality without piety is like a house built on the sand. Although God has joined these two together, yet men often attempt to tear them asunder. Some value themselves highly on their piety, but pay little respect to morality ; while others boast of their morality without any due regard to piety. Both are equally in error. Nothing more clearly shows the darkness of the human understanding, and the depravity of the human- heart, than the consideration, that though the character of the Pharisees is so plainly delineated, and so strongly condemned in the word of God, jret many who pride themselves highly on their religion are nothing more than mere Pharisees. If the)' give alms, a trumpet is blown on the occasion ; if they pray, they take care that men shall know of their devotions, as well as if performed at the corners of streets. They compass sea and land to make a proselyte, and are ill qualified to improve him. They pay tithes of mint, anise, and cummin, but neglect the weightier matters of the law, justice, mercy, and faith. All they do is to be seen of men. How much soever such persons may esteem themselves on their religion, it is neither consistent with reason nor Christianity, for if we love God for his own sake, we love our neighbour for God's sake. We are not enjoined to love our neighbour in the same ;, but merely with the same kind of affection which we 226 CHRISTIAN DUTY. bear to ourselves ; and to act towards him as we might fairly and r< asonahlv expect that, in similar circumstances, he should act towards us. All mankind are brethren. Every human being who comes in our way and stands in need of our aid is entitled to our sympathy. Human nature and distress form a legitimate claim to our friendly assistance. We are not to withhold our brotherly affection from any of our fellow men, because an imaginary line, a river, a ridge of mountains, or a channel erf the ocean, may have separated their birth-place from ours; because their manners, customs, and political instituti not the same with our own ; because, by reason of difference of climate and manner of life their skin is tinged with a dif- ferent colour; because they offer their tribute of homage to the Creator in a different manner; or because there is some difference or shade of difference between their religious rites and opinions and ours. The Jew is to love and do good to the Samaritan ; the Samaritan to do the same to the Jew. We are to do good to all men as we have opportunity, but especially to them who belong to the household of faith. Miracles have passed away; but faith, hope, and charity, the permanent glories of Christianity, remain, and the great- est of these is charity. The sentiment of universal benevo- lence expands the heart, humanizes the mind, and fosters every generous affection; but jealousy, malice, hatred, and other malignant passions pervert the soul, and cramp and de- teriorate the best feelings of our nature. They wage war with every manly and liberal principle. Instead of sweeping the globe with the guilty purpose of oppressing the weak, robbing the defenceless, exciting the sound of lamentation in the humble hut, and drawing forth the tears of the widow and the orphan, we will do what is in our power to promote the happiness of our fellow men. In the genuine spirit of bro- therly affection, we will smoke the pipe of peace with the untutored wanderer of the American wilderness, and partake of bread and salt with the hardy native of the African desert. In most instances it is to a very limited number of our fel- low men than we can actually do good ; but it becomes us to embrace them all in the arms of brotherly affection. Chris- tianity, however, is a practical institute, and teaches us that our first exertions ought to be in behalf of those with whom we are most immediately connected. Relations and those who are nearest to us are first entitled to our attention, and others in proportion to the fair claims which the uncorrupted dictates of humanity give them upon us. Throw a stone into OUR DUTY TO OUR NEIGHBOUR. 227 a calm transparent lake, and the circling undulations become feebler as they recede from the central point: so while our hearts vibrate with sincere good-will to all our fellow men, the vibrations are to be stronger towards those with whom we are more immediately connected. By acting as it be- comes the affectionate children of God, by mutual love, and friendly co-operation we greatly lighten the burdens, soothe the cares, and heighten the joys of life ; but by jealousy, ma- lice, envy, and hatred, we incalculably aggravate the sum of affliction. Mankind often complain that they are unhappy ; that they tread in a thorny path, and drink of a bitter stream. But whence do their sufferings and their sorrows flow 1 In a great measure from their own malignant passions. Remove the cause, and the effect will disappear. Banish malice, envy, hatred ; let genuine good-will towards each other pre- vail, and a great portion of human misery will fade away, like darkness before the rising sun. It will dissipate the gloom which often clouds the countenance, and remove the grief which often preys upon the heart. We love God from a sense of his perfections and his be- nefits. Love to God produces good-will to men ; and all the social virtues are emanations of benevolence. They are the operations of this divine principle according to the different relations in which we stand to our fellow men. If genuine benevolence reign in our heart, it will lead, under the direction of a sound judgment, to the proper discharge of the duties we owe to others, which are so many streams flowing from this sacred fountain. 1. True benevolence inspires with the love of justice, and prompts him in whose bosom it glows, neither to oppress the weak, to impose on the ignorant, nor to overreach the unwary ; but to give every man his due, and with steady and undeviat- ing steps to walk in the hallowed path of equity. Deceit and dissimulation, fraud, and falsehood, are far from the humble worshipper of God : integrity is enthroned in his heart, truth dwells on his lips, and an enlightened sense of duty regulates the whole of his conduct. He faithfully per- forms every promise, and fulfils every engagement. Others respect and trust his word, because he respects and holds it sacred himself. His life is characterized by the simplicity of truth, and the dignity of virtue; and, in dealing with him, they who have an opportunity of knowing his character place unbounded confidence in his justice and faithfulness. 2. Benevolence and integrity are accompanied by candour in our judgments of our fellow men, and lead us to be mode- 2*28 CHRISTIAN DUTY. rate in our expressions of disapprobation, even when their conduct is justly liable to blame. Jons lias said "ju that ye be not-judged;" and, therefore, his faithful follower does mil indulge in unnecessary, severe, and harsh censures of others. He does not triumph over their errors, nor need- lessly publish their failings. What is merely faulty he does not condemn as criminal ; where a worthy motive can be as- : r suspicions of a bad design, nor does he impute to malignant principles what may have pro- from rash and unguarded impetuosity. In most in- stances, the circumstances of our neighbour are but partially known to us : there may be many palliations of his actions of which we are not apprized, and, therefore, the judgment of the candid person is as favourable as the case will admit. He who is duly sensible of his own frailty makes every reason- able allowance for the infirmities, weaknesses, and errors of his neighbour. Unless it be in his power to commend, he bridles his tongue : detraction and slander do not pollute his lips. 3. The disciple of Jesus Christ tenderly sympathizes with his brethren in the different circumstances in which they are placed ; rejoices with them who rejoice, and weeps with them who weep. A humane and sympathetic disposition is the proper soil for the growth of every virtue: the absence of it is favourable to the growth of every vice. He whose heart is duly regulated, entertains a kindred feeling for all his fel- low pilgrims in the journey of life. Under a proper sense of the value of an immortal being, he is deeply affected when he sees a brother treading in the paths wherein destroyers go. He uses all the prudent means in his power to reclaim him : the offender may perhaps be obstinate and audacious in wick- edness, and discretion may advise to let him alone, and leave him to reap the fruit of his own doings. But if at times the good man turns away in hopeless melancholy from the obsti- nate transgressor, he never shuts his ear against the cry of the afflicted. The voice ot'a brother in distress always awakens the tender sympathies of his nature, and finds ready access to his heart. He yields to the impulse of his best feelings; hastens to the house of mourning to mingle his tears with those of the children of affliction, and administers that strong consolation which the gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ affords under the trials of frail humanity. While he comforts the mourner, he also, according to his ability, supplies the wants of the needy. With respect to them, simple condolence, fair words, and good wishes merely OUR DUTY TO OUR NEIGHBOUR. 229 will not do. "If a brother or sister be naked, and desti- tute of daily food, and one of you say unto them, depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled ; notwithstanding ye give them not those things which are needful to the body, what doth it profit ?" Fair words and good wishes, how proper soever they may be in their own place, will neither feed the hungry nor clothe the naked. Our sympathy must be active. We must stretch out our hand to assist and to relieve. Our means may be limited ; but if we make a wise use of those limited means, our exertions will not be disregarded before the throne of God. " Of a truth I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast in more than they all." " If there be first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, and not according to that he hath not." Compassionate sympathy and beneficence towards the afflicted are advantageous to ourselves. They exercise, strengthen, and exalt our best affections, and promote in us a happy conformity to the moral image of the Father of lights, from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift. If we visit the house of mourning, by the sadness of the countenance the heart is made better. We learn impressive lessons of our frailty and dependence, and are taught to lift our eye to the God of salvation. A deed of mercy to a distressed brother fills the heart with a sublime complacency, and is a kind of foretaste of the joys of a more exalted state. In deeds of be- neficence Jesus was much employed : he enjoins them on his disciples, and he will gloriously reward them. " When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory : And before him shall be gathered all nations : and he shall sepa- rate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats : And he shall set his sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, Come, ye blessed of my Father, in- herit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world : For I was an hungered, and ye gave me meat : I was thirsty r , and ye gave me drink : 1 was a stranger, and ye took me in : Naked, and ye clothed me : I was sick, and ye visited me : I was in prison, and ye came unto me. Verily I say unto you, inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me." 4. The spirit of benevolence will lead us to do what in us lies to live peaceably with all men. We will be careful not to offend either by injurious conduct, unreasonable preten- sions, or provoking language. While we cautiously avoid 20 230 CHRISTIAN DUTY. every just cause of displeasure, we will employ all fair and honest means to conciliate the respect and good-will of our neighbour. In our intercourse with others, we will be mild and* affectionate in our language, respectful and kind in our behaviour. In cases where we are exposed to provocation, we will be on our guard against irritable warmth and fierce im- petuosity of temper ; and will study on every occasion to act with the dignity of rational beings, and to practise the virtue of moral agents. We will never wantonly wound the feelings of a brother. Nay, even if he be fretful and irritable we v. ill bear with him. Perhaps his mind bleeds under some secret Avound which if known would entitle him to our sympathy and commiseration, and a remark which in other circumstances would produce little effect may pierce his soul like an arrow. "While we are peaceable ourselves, we will, to the utmost of our power, promote peace among others. Some take pleasure in throwing a firebrand into the midst of friends, and rejoice in the flame which they have kindled. But such persons are actuated by the demon of unrighteousness, and must at last share the condemnation of the wicked. Jesus not only en- joins us to follow peace with all men, but also pronounces the peace-maker blessed. 5. While we are humane to the afflicted, and endeavour to live peaceably with all, we will exercise forgiveness towards the injurious. The disciple of Jesus, acting in the spirit of his Master, imitating his example, and obeying his precepts, is careful to give no provocation, to offer no affront, to do no injury to any°man. He is not forward in taking offence, nor vindictive in the prosecution of quarrels that may be forced upon him. He overlooks affronts and injuries, so far as he can do so consistently with his own security and that of the public. Even when obliged to take measures to repel aggres- sion, or to obtain redress of injuries sustained, he harbours no rancorous malignity in his breast, but bears about with him the spirit of conciliation. He remembers the precept of his Master, "bless them that curse you, and pray for them which despitefully use you." The exercise of forgiveness may at times be considered a hard duty, but many motives combine to encourage and to en- force a forgiving disposition. It is the means of securing the approbation, respect, and good-will of our fellow men. It also contributes greatly to our own happiness; for all the malig- nant passions are as two-edged swords, and are generally as hurtful to ourselves as to our enemy. This is particularly the case with a vindictive disposition. In the mind that har- OUR DUTY TO OURSELVES. 231 bours revenge, the source of enjoyment is poisoned, and hap- piness withers like a blighted plant. Forgiveness conciliates the good-will even of an enemy, and the Christian must ex- ercise a forgiving disposition in imitation of the example, and in obedience to the precepts of Jesus. He taught his disci- ples to exercise forgiveness, and he nobly exemplified his own lesson in the most irritating circumstances, and under the most grievous injuries. A prayer for his enemies quiv- ered on his lips, even when expiring on the cross, " Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." " Put on, therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, bowels of mercies, kindness, humbleness of mind, meekness, long-suffer- ing; forbearing one another, and forgiving one another, if any man have a quarrel against any; even as Christ forgave you, so also do ye." The great duty which we owe to ourselves is to promote our real interests, not for any detached period, but through- out the whole of our existence. This cannot be done with- out performing our duty to God and to our neighbour. God has established a close connection betwixt our duty and our interest ; by performing the one we will assuredly promote the other. Duty is the grand means of happiness. But al- though our duty is one great whole, yet we may consider some things more particularly in reference to ourselves. And among these none is of more importance than due care in self-government, and in the formation of temper. This object, if wisely and steadily pursued, will greatly contribute to our present comfort, and must have a salutary influence on our future welfare. 1. It is not uncommon to imagine, that temper is as little dependent on the will as the length of the arm or the colour of the skin. But this imagination is an unfounded prejudice, and produces the most unhappy effects. Persons first permit themselves to think that they can do nothing in the forma- tion of temper, and then they attempt nothing, but allow it to grow up in wild and unpruned luxuriance. Notwithstand- ing all that may be said about natural constitution, and the influence of organic tendencies, I am fully satisfied that we can subject temper to the discipline of reason, and form it in any mould according to our pleasure. The irascible pas- sions appear as early, and are as difficult to subjugate as any others ; but we see that the most fretful and impatient per- sons, who are perpetually harassing their dependents with their peevishness and intemperate sallies, are able to restrain their ebullitions when in the presence of a superior, or in the 232 CHRISTIAN" DUTY. company of an equal who would chastise them for outrage- ous conduct. Some persons, indeed, seem to think that tem- per, in many respects, lias but little connexion with religion, and that care in the formation of it is of no great moment. If religion, however, consist in a happy conformity to the moral image of God, then the formation of temper is of es- sential importance, and is entitled to the most earnest atten- tion of all who aspire to the Christian character. There is nothing in which our temporal happiness is so much in our power as in the formation of temper, and nothing will more conduce to our future welfare than wise exertions on this point. A proud, irritable, discontented, and quarrelsome person can never be happy. He has thrown a tempestuous atmo- sphere around himself, and must for ever move in the region of storms. He has employed sure means to embitter life, whatever may be his external circumstances. He has been the architect of his temper, and misery must be the result of his labour. But a person who has formed his temper and dispositions of mind after a right model ; who is humble, meek, cheerful, and contented, can commonly find a conve- nient shelter when overtaken by the storms of life. It should, therefore, be our early lesson to subject the passions, appe- tites, and desires, to the control and guidance of reason. The first are the gales to impel us in the voyage of life, but the last ought still to sit at the helm and direct our course. The stream, when it slowly descends with a hoarse murmur from the mountain and ripples through the plain, adorns and enriches the scene; but when it rushes down in a roaring and impetuous torrent, overflowing its banks, it carries de- vastation and ruin along with it: so when the passions, appetites, and desires, are kept under due restraint, they are a useful and felicitating part of our nature; but when they are allowed to rage with unbridled fury, they commit fearful ravagea on the character which they were fitted to adorn and exalt. We must watch over the first movements of the heart, and not indulge with secret complacency in imaginations which we would be ashamed to avow. If rt-e wish the stream of life to be pure, it ought to be our aim to preserve the foun- tain whence it flows unpolluted. " Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life." 2. An humble, sober, and reasonable mind is of incalcula- ble value in performing the journey of life. Humility is no way allied either to that pusillanimity which shrinks from every danger, or to that meanness of spirit which pursues its own petty interests and selfish ends by low and unworthy OUR DUTY TO OURSELVES. 233 means. It admits of the noblest ambition, the ambition of virtue, of intellectual anil moral excellence, and of an emu- lous progress towards the perfection of our nature. Jesus has set us a noble example of humility, and he enjoins us to imi- tate him. " Learn of me, for I am meek and lowly." Hu- mility is well pleasing- in the sight of God, for it is founded on the manner of thinking concerning ourselves, which be- comes creatures such as we are. The proud in heart are an abomination to the Lord, but he has respect to the lowly. "Humble yourselves, therefore, under the mighty hand of God, that he may exalt you in due time." 3. Along with humility we should cultivate cheerfulness. Humility has no connexion with pensive melancholy or timorous dejection. While the truly humble guard against the distraction of all violent passions and inordinate cares, they cherish a cheerful disposition of mind. There cannot, indeed, be genuine cheerfulness without the approbation of our own heart. "While, however, we pay a sacred regard to conscience, it must be enlightened and directed by reason and revelation. And happy are the individuals who can say, " our rejoicing is this, the testimony of our conscience, that, in simplicity and godly sincerity, we have had our conversa- tion in the world." An approving mind will contribute greatly to cheerfulness, and that equanimity which results from it, from trust in God, and from the hope of a blessed immortality, is equally remote from sour dissatisfaction, de- sponding melancholy, and frivolous hilarity. It smooths our path and sweetens our cun, rendering duty easy and affliction light. 4. Cheerfulness and contentment are close companions. They mutually encourage and strengthen each other, and are seldom found in a state of utter separation. Patience is exercised in bearing well those evils which naturally and im- mediately give us uneasiness. Contentment relates to those things which disturb us by reflection and comparison only, and has a great influence on the happiness of our lives, and the respectability of our characters. Many of the mortifica- tions and disgusts which embitter life proceed not from any positive evils, hunger or cold, pain or disease, but from false estimates, fictitious wants, and imaginary grievances. Num- bers, instead of being grateful for the advantages which they enjoy, keep themselves in a state of perpetual irritation and infelicity, by cherishing lofty pretensions, making invidious comparisons, entertaining false notions, foolish pride, and vain ambition. But instead of imitating these trifling self- 234 CHRISTIAN DUTY. tormentors, we should remember that intellectual and moral attainments, knowledge and virtue, are the only legitimate grounds of personal respectability among moral agents. We axe under the wise and gracious providence of God, who watches over our welfare with parental affection, and, there- fore, while we are diligent in the use of means, we will cheerfully submit both to do and to suffer what our Father sees meet. Contentment is the great secret of happiness. Without it neither the gold of Ophir nor the dominion of Ahasuerus can impart felicity. It is the richest mine and the best empire. Contentment, however, has no connexion with indolence or indifference about our temporal concerns. The human mind is endued with an unwearied activity; and this principle, which is the source of our happiness and means of our improvement, should be rightly directed in the diligent prosecution of some honest employment. Lastly, While we are diligently pursuing our ordinary avocations, we ought ever to attend to the melioration of our moral nature, and to the improvement of our intellectual powers. Knowledge is honourable to a rational being. We have dominion over the inferior animals, not by our physical strength, but by our intellectual endowments ; and the exten- sion of our knowledge may be considered as an enlargement of our power. It is also instrumental in cultivating our moral nature; for unless our understanding be improved, our moral faculties will not be very exalted. In proportion as we are ambitious of moral excellence, we will, according to our op- portunities, be active in the pursuit of intellectual attainments. Ignorance resulting from carelessness or sloth indicates no small degree of degradation, and will be visited with due retribution. While we study to be growing in wisdom and in virtue, it becomes us frequently and carefully to examine the state of our mind. They who pay a prudent attention to their tem- poral concerns often look into the state of their affairs, that they may know whether they be in a thriving condition. This is as needful in our spiritual pursuits. It behoves us often to review the actions of our lives, and the affections of our hearts, and to inquire, as under the eye of God, and with a view to a state of future account, whether we be cherishing those dispositions and acquiring those habits which duty and interest demand. If this examination be conducted with due care, and in the light of revelation, it will be the means of discovering errors which otherwise might have passed unno- OUR DUTY TO OURSELVES. 235 ticed, and motives to diligence which may have been formerly unperceived. We have commenced the career of existence which shall never end. Every step we take in life is to have an influence on those that follow. We should therefore be careful never by our present conduct to injure our future interests. As we are daily advancing on our way to eternity, we will daily be growing in likeness to God and meetness for heaven. In youth we labour to acquire that knowledge, and those habits which are requisite for discharging the duties of maturer years ; in like manner, during the whole of life we should be employed in the diligent prosecution of that system of education which is requisite to qualify us for the duties and enjoyments of a higher stage of existence. We must never sit down content- ed with any attainments we may have already made either in knowledge or virtue. The wisest and the best have cause for persevering exertion, and room for growing improvement. Progress in excellence imparts present pleasure, and fits for future glory. We see what exertions the children of this world make to gain the objects of their ambition, honour, wealth, and power. For these they rise early and toil late. They traverse every climate, submit to every privation, en- counter every danger. And shall the candidate for high in- tellectual and moral excellence, and for a blessed immortality, be more timid in encountering difficulties and dangers, or less strenuous and persevering in his exertions, in order to gain the objects of his lofty ambition 1 The path of happi- ness and glory lies before us. Let us steadily pursue it. As we approach the close of life, we will draw near the gate of our Father's house, so that when this world fails us, we may find ourselves on the threshold of heaven ; and, when the voice of friends on earth dies upon our ear, we may hear the acclamations of the chosen spirits of the universe welcoming us to their dwellings in the paradise of God. NEW AND POPULAR WORKS, PUBLISHED BY KEY § BIDDLE, 23 Minor Street. GREAT NATIONAL WORK. Key £f Biddle have in course of publication, A HISTORY OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs. Embellished with 120 Portraits, from the Indian Gallery in the Department of War at Washington. By Col. T. L. M'Kenney. The public are aware that a most interesting and curious collection of Indian Portraits has been making since 1821, by the Executive of the United States ; and that this collec- tion forms a gallery in the Indian department at Washing- ton, numbering at this time about one hundred and twenty heads. The interest felt in this effort to preserve the like- nesses and costume of our aborigines — a work so intimately connected with the natural history of Man, is indicated by the immense numbers of citizens and foreigners, who visit the gallery ; and the uniform admiration they express of its valuable and interesting character. Believing the public will sustain the undertaking, the undersigned have made arrangements for publishing this unique group. That no- thing might be lost, the size of most of the original drawings have been preserved. The original drawings, it may be pro- per to remark, are principally by King, of Washington, from X NEW AND life ; and will be vouched by responsible names, to be perfect likenesses. An Essay suited to such a work, and calculated to throw a light upon the history of this interesting people, will ac- company the first number ; and as materials will authorize it, the remaining numbers will bo interspersed with biogra- phical sketches, andanecdotes of the original, and with a vo- cahulairc. This part of the undertaking will bo executed by Colonel M Konnov, of the Indian Department, whose long and fa- miliar intercourse with our Indian relations, and travels over the country inhabited by most of the tribes, and personal know. ledge of most of the originals, lit him peculiarly for the task. The work will be completed in twenty numbers — each number will contain six heads handsomely coloured. Terms of subscription, six dollars per number, payable in advance. The publishers avail themselves of the following flattering notice o*" this design, in a letter from Dr. Sparks, editor of the North American Review, to Col. M'Kenney. From a gentleman so distinguished as Dr. Sparks, so well, and so deservedly appreciated for his hisjh standing and attainments, his taste and science, and with such enlarged opportunities of judging of the importance of such a work, such a letter is very encouraging. " My dear sir, " I am heartily rejoiced to learn by your favour of the 39d instant, that there is so good a prospect for publishing the portraits of the red men. I do not consider that I have any claim, growing out. of our conversation, and, indeed, as my only motive was to be instrumental in bringing before the public, so rare and curious a collection, it is a double satis- faction for me to know, that the matter is in so good hands, and encourages hopes of entire success. In my mind, the whole glory and value of the undertaking, will depend on the accuracy and beauty, with which the heads shall be exe- cuted, and the completeness of the costume. You must write all that is known about the character and life of each person. Let us have a work worthy of the subject, and honourable to the nation, and just to the Indians. " Very sincerely your friend and obedient servant, (Signed) " Jared Sparks." Th. L. M'Kenney, Esa, It is in reference to the foregoing work that Peter S. Du- ponceau, Esq., the enlightened scholar and profound civilian, thug expresses himself: POPULAR WORKS. 3 "•'Dear Sir, " Philadelphia, 25th May, 1831. "I can not express to you how delighted I was, when I was kindly shown by Col. Childs, the f;ic similies of the. por- traits of some of our Indian Chiefs, which he has already prepared for your great and truly National work, and is sueh. an one as would do honour to the greatest sovereign of Eu- rope. It has often occurred to my mind, that such a work would have added mweh to the glory of the late Emperor Alexander, of Russia; and I yet wonder, that his friends did not suggest to him the idea of beginning a cabinet, or rather a museum of the nat u ral history of man, by collecting either in wax figures, or in paintings, in an immense hall, or gal- lery, exact likenesses, representing the shapes, colour, and features, as well as the various costumes of the numerous nations and tribes that inhabit his empire. I am glad he did not do it, and that our country will have the honour of laying the first foundation of an edifice, which must sooner or later be erected to the most important of all sciences, the know- ledge of our own species. The day will come, I have no doubt, when by the exertions of patriots in republics like our own, and the munificence of monarchs in other countries, the philosopher will have it in his power to take a view at one glance of the different races of mankind, their genera, spe- cies and varieties in well executed effigies, and thus to test the numerous theories to which differences have given rise. We are going then to begin by exhibiting the red race. Your knowledge of the Indian Tribes is not merely theoreti- cal; you have lived among them, and have had the means of becoming familiar with their habits, manners, and customs, as well as of their languages, therefore the historical part of this undertaking could not be confided to better hands. " The aborigines of the United States will soon disappear from the faee of the earth. I am unwilling to dwell upon this topic, so disgraceful to the white race — to the Christian race to which 1 belong — one consolation only remains. By means of this great work, the effigies of those former lords of the American soil, will at least after their destruc- tion, serve the purposes of philosophy and science, as the bodies of murdered men in the hands of the surgeon, serve those of humanity. " I am. respectfully, your friend and servant, " Peter S. Duponceau.. ■" Thomas L. McKenneTj Esq.." AN ADDRESS TO THE YOUNG, ON THE IM- PORTANCE OF RELIGION. By John Foster, au- thor of Essays on Decision of Character, &c. This is a good publication, well conceived and admirably executed, full of important truths and beautifully enforced. Our readers know, or ought to know John Foster, the Au- thor of "Essays on Decision of Character," one of the best writers that England has produced, suited to be compared in manv things with Robert Hall, he needs no higher praise. — U. S. Gazette. This work comprises a series of eloquent and affectionate exhortations, which, if carefully attended to, will make wise and good men of all who lay them to heart, and endeavour to accord with them in life and conversation. The author has acquired great celebrity by his former writings. — Satur- day Courier. We are not going to hold a rush-light up to a book of John Foster's, but only mean to tell what is its intent. It is an awakening appeal to youth of the refined and educated sort, upon the subject of their personal religion. There can be no doubt as to its currency. — The Presbyterian. John Foster is allowed by men of all parties, political and religious, to be one of the most original and vigorous think- ers of the age. His well tried talents, his known freedom from cant and fanaticism. And the importance of the sub- ject discussed, strongly commend this Book to the attention of that interesting class to whom it is addressed. All his writings are worthy of careful and repeated perusal; but his essay on " Decision of Character" and this " Address to the Young," should be the companions of all young persons who are desirous of intellectual and moral improvement. Foster's Address to the Young. — Perhaps no reli- gious book has issued from the American press which commanded more general and abundant patronage than one from the pen of the Rev. Jared Waterbury, called " Advice to a Young Christian." Aside from its intrinsic excellence, it was rendered valuable by the fact that it was exactly adapted to a particular class of society ; and all who wish to make an impression upon that class, was apprised by its very title that it was designed to be subservient to such a purpose. A work of precisely such a character from the pen of the celebrated Foster, and designed to operate upon a POPULAR WORKS. 5 different class of persons, will be found in the one of which the caption of this article is the title-page. The name of its author will supersede the necessity for all eulogium to those who have not read it, and to those who have, the book will abundantly commend itself. Permit me to direct to it the attention of such of your readers as may have careless young friends, into whose hands they would desire to place a so- lemn, affectionate, and fervent appeal on the indispensable necessity of religion. It is just published by Key and Bid- die, of this city, and can, I presume, be procured at any of the book-stores. May the great Head of the Church make it instrumental in the conversion of many souls. — Episcopal Recorder. A MOTHER'S FIRST THOUHGTS, By the au- thor of "Faith's Telescope." This is a brief miniature, from an Edinburgh edition. Its aim is to furnish religious Meditations, Prayers, and Devotional Poetry for pious ■mothers. It is most highly commended in the Edinburgh Presbyterian Review, and in the Christian Advocate. The author, who is a Lady of Srailand, unites a deep knowledge of sound theology, with no ordinary talent for sacred poetry. — The Presbyterian. "A Mother's First Thoughts," is a little work of great merit. It breathes a spirit of pure and fervent piety, and abounds in sound and salutary instruction. It contains also some excellent poetry. — Saturday Courier. A Mother's First Thoughts. By the author of " Faith's Telescope," 12 mo, p. 223. Key & Biddle, Philadelphia, 1833. A neat pocket edition which will commend itself to all parents who have the right direction of the minds of their children at heart. It is dedicated to religious mothers, " and may He," says the author, " who alone can, render it, in some degree, conducive to their edification." — Journal of Belles Letlres. BRIDGE'S ALGEBRA, 12 mo. In this work the hitherto abstract and difficult science of Algebra is simplified and illustrated so as to be attainable by the younger class of learners, and by those who have not the aid of a teacher. It is already introduced into the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia ; and the Western University at Pittsburgh *l It is also the text book of Gummere's School at Burlington, and of a great number of the best schools throughout the United States. It is equally adapted to common schools and colleges. Messrs. Key & Biddi.e have published in a very neat form, the 1st American, from the Gth London Edition of Bridge's Algebra; a treatise, which from a cursory examination, we think superior to any of the text books now in use, for perspi- cuity, simplicity of method, and adaptation to the comprehen- sion of learners. It contains several chapters on Logarithms and the subjects connected thereto, which, though interesting and important, are not usually appended to works on the subject. — Fredericksburg Political Arena. The publishers take great pleasure in presenting the ac- companying opinion of Profesor Adrain, of the University of Pennsylvania, who has introduced the work into that Institution. University of Pennsylvania, March 30, 1833. Gentlemen — In compliance with your request, that I would give you my opinion respecting your edition of Bridge's Algebra, I beg leave to say, that the work appears to me to be well adapted to the instruction of students. The arrangement of the several parts of the science is judicious, and the exam- ples are numerous and well selected. Yours respectfully, ROBERT ADRAIN. Philadelphia, March 1th, 1833. Bridge's Algebra is the text book in the school under my care ; and I am better pleased with it than with any which I have heretofore used. The author is very clear in his explanations, and system- atic in his arrangement, and has succeeded in rendering a comparatively abstruse branch of science, an agreeable ani interesting exercise both to pupil and teacher. JOHN FROST. POPULAR WORKS 7 THE CHRISTIAN LIBRARY, is published semi- monthly. The first number was issued on the first day of May. The design of the work is to publish, 1. The most valuable Religious and Literary works which appear from the English press. In selecting from the former class, sectarianism will be studiously avoided ; from the latter, such only will be chosen as Christians may with propriety circulate. 2. Translations of valuable works from the Continental press : and occasionally original productions of American writers. 3. Standard works which may be out of print ; and se- lections from such as are accessible to but few. 4. Brief reviews of such books as do not fall within the plan of this work ; so that the reader may be enabled to be- come speedily acquainted with most of the publications of the day, and to form, in some measure, an estimate of their value. The editors are pledged to favor no religious, much less any political party ; but to act on those great principles in which all Evangelical Christians agree. The degree of confidence which may be reposed in their faithfulness and ability will be learned from the attestations of the distinguished individuals given below. The publishers have made arrangements to receive from Europe copies of all popular works suitable for this publica- tion, as soon as they are issued from the press, and will be enabled on the above plan, to furnish, by course of mail, the most distant subscribers with their copies before the same book could be procured even in our cities, through the usual method of publication. The Christian Library is published semi-monthly, on fine paper, with a fair type, for five dollars a year. Each number will contain forty-eight extra-imperial or double me- dium octavo pages, in double column. The work will thus form two volumes of 576 pages each ; an amount of matter equal to thirty volumes 12mo, of 264 pages each. The 8 NEW AND usual price of such volumes is from 50 to 75 cents ; on the plan of this publication, subscribers will receive them at 16 1-2 cents each. The Postage on the Christian Library is 1 1-2 cts. per sheet under 100 miles, over that distance 2 1-2 cents. Terms. — Five dollars per annum, in advance, or six dollars at the end of the year. THE CHRISTIAN OBSERVER.— K.&B. also pub- lish the London Christian Observer ; same size and style as Christian Library ; subscription, $ 1 25 per annum, in ad- vance, or $ 1 50 if paid at the end of the year. The Ob- server and Library will be securely wrapped and mailed, so as to go to any part of the country. (The Observer has cost heretofore $ 6 per annum.) The Library & Observer are recommended in the high- est terms by the following distinguished gentlemen : — G. T. Bedell, D. D. ; Thomas M'Auley, D. D. L. L. D., Thomas Skinner, D. D., A. Nettleton, Author of Village Hymns, William T. Brantley, D. D., W. D. Snodgrass, D. D., G. R. Livingston, D. D., Stephen H. Tyug, D. D., A. Alexander, D. D., Rev. Charles Hodge, A. M., Rev. J. L. Dagg, Rev. Wm. E. Ashton, Samuel Miller, D. D., James Carnahan, D. D., Rev. J. Maclean, A. M., Rev. Albert B. Dod, A. M., Chas. P. M'llvaine, D. D. John Breckenridge, A. M., W. C. Brownlee, D. D., Rev. G. W. Ridgeley, A. M., Rev. Charles H. Alder, A. M., Cornelius D. Westbrooke, D. D., James Milnor, D. D., M. Eastburn, A. M., G. Spring, D. D., W. W. Phillips, D. D., Samuel H. Cox, D. D., R. M'Cartee, D. D., J. M. Matthews, D. D. If the first number, which we have received, is a fair spe- cimen of the work, we are prepared to speak of it in terms of the highest commendation. It contains the whole of the life of Robert Hall, by Dr. Gregory, and his character by Mr. Foster. We confess that we have shared in the alarm of many good people at the multiplication of books. We have been anxious to see " to what this would grow." We have felt alarm for the healthiness and vigour of the public mind. Such constant stuffing, such gorging with books, — surely, thought we, we shall have a generation of mental dys- POPULAR WORKS. 9 peptics, or at the best, of bloated, pot-bellied epicures, instead of the hale, racy, well-proportioned minds of a former age. We have had a feeling of absolute despair, as we have peram- bulated the choked aisles of a modern book-store, and have felt that we needed Virgil's " Centum lingute, centumque ora," with the hundred hands of Briareus, if we ever expected to read and handle the myriads of new books. But we are cured of such feelings. We are glad to see a new book, if it be a good one. And we rejoice at every new expedient to make them as cheap as possible. Every good book will have a circle of patrons and readers, even if we can not read it, and there will be more good done on the whole, than by a smaller number of books. Besides, the only way to meet the armies of infidel and licentious books, is to array against them an equal number of good books. The book mania which has seized the public, must be satisfied in some way; and if there are not good books enough, and that too in the newest and most popular style, to fill the social and circulat- ing libraries, and give occupation to the millions of active minds in the country, their place will be filled by such books as the novels of Bulwer, and the poems of Byron and Shelly and Moore. Messrs. Key and Biddle, if they execute their plan as they have promised and begun, will deserve the thanks, and receive the patronage of the community. — Journal of Humanity. The first part of Vol. 1, of this periodical is before us. It is made up of a most interesting Memoir of the eloquent di- vine, Robert Hall, and the commencement of a History of the Reformed Religion in France. It would really seem that knowledge is about to be brought to every man's door, how- ever distant, and served up to him in the most agreeable forms for a mere trifle. — Commercial Herald. We have received the first number of the Christian Li- brary, which contains an intensely interesting Memoir of Robert Hall, by Olynthus Gregory. The incidents of the life of such a man, in the hands of such a writer, could not be otherwise than captivating. — Fredericksburg Arena. Judging from the plan of the work, and also from the number before us, we believe it well calculated to disseminate the light of the gospel, and we think that every Christian's library would be enriched by it. We would particularly re- commend it to the ministers of our church, who. from their 10 NEW AND situation, being located in the " far west," have not an oppor- tunity of procuring the many valuable Looks which are issu- ing from the press in Europe and middle and eastern stutes. By subscribing for this work, in a few years, for a comparative trifle, they may possess an extensive and valuable religious library, calculated to impart to them useful and important in- formation, which is above all price; and to give them a per- fect knowledge of what is now doing for the extension of the Redeemer's kingdom throughout the world, and consequently, to keep them up with the spirit and improvements of the age. — Nash villc Revivalist. The Christian Library, of which Messrs. Key & Biddle, of Minor street, have just published the first part, is a work which will command the respect and patronage of all profess- ors of religion, irrespective of sects. The Library is con- ducted with a free, judicious spirit of selection; and if the first number may be deemed a fair specimen, will abound with instructive tales and useful matter. In so good a cause, the publishers deserve the hearty good will of those for whom they will furnish, at a price singularly reasonable, a large amount of most valuable information, on the most im- portant of all subjects. — Philadelphia Gazette. We beg leave to inform our country friends that the Chris- tian Library continues to deserve the approbation, and to de- mand the patronage of the religious and moral public. — American Sentinel. The plan of the Christian Library has met the decided approbation of the Clergy of various denominations, and as the selections made for it will be exempt from all tincture of sectarianism, we think it can not fail to be acceptable to Chris- tians of the different persuasions. — Berks art of this delightful tale is redolent of moral and natural oveliness. The writer belongs to the same class with Irving and Paulding ; and as in his descriptions, characters and incidents, he never loses sight of the true and legitimate purpose of fiction, the elevation of the taste and moral cha- racter of his readers, he will contribute his full share to the creation of sound and healthful literature. — United States Gazette. Key & Biddle have recently published another series of Tales — the Soldier's Bride, &c. by James Hall. The approba- tion every where elicited by Judge Hall's Legends of the "West, has secured a favourable reception for the present vo- lume ; and its varied and highly spirited contents, consisting of thirteen tales, will be found no less meritorious than his pre- vious labours. — National Gazette. "We have found much to admire in the perusal of this in- teresting work. It abounds in correct delineation of charac- ter, and although in some of his tales, the author's style is familiar, yet he has not sacrificed to levity the dignity of his pen, nor tarnished his character as a chaste and classical writer. At the present day, when the literary world is flooded with fustian and insipidity, and the public taste attempted to be vitiated by the weak and effeminate productions of those POPULAR WORKS. 27 whose minds are as incapable of imagining the lofty and generous feelings they would pouitray, as their hearts are of exercising them, it is peculiarly gratifying to receive a work, from the pages of which the eye may cater with satisfaction, and the mind feast with avidity and benefit. — Pittsburg Mercury. THE TESTIMONY OF NATURE AND REVE- LATION TO THE BEING, PERFECTIONS AND GOVERNMENT OF GOD. By the Rev. Henry Fer- gus, Dunfermline, Author of the History of the United States of America, till the termination of the War of In- dependence, in Lardners' Cyclopedia. The Rev. Mr. Fergus's Testimony of Nature and Reve- lation to the Being, Perfection and Government of God, is an attempt to do in one volume what the Bridgwater Trea- tises are to do in eight. We wish one-eighth of the reward only may make its way to Dunfermline. Mr. Fergus's Treatise goes over the whole ground with fervour and ability; it is an excellent volume, and may be had for somewhere about half the price of one Bridgwater octavo. London Spectator. TALES OF ROMANCE, FIRST SERIES. This is not only an uncommonly neat edition, but a very enter- taining book ; how could it be otherwise when such an array of authors as the following is presented. The work contains Ali's Bride, a tale from the Persian, by Thomas Moore, interspersed with poetry. The Last of the Line, by Mrs. S. C. Hall, an author who sustains a reputa- tion which every succeeding production greatly enhances. The Wire Merchant's Story, by the author of the King's Own. The Procrastinator, by T. Croften Croker. The Spanish Beadsman. The Legend of Rose Rocke, by the author of Stories of Waterloo. Barbara S , by Charles Lamb. A Story of the Heart. The Vacant Chair, by J. M. Wilson; and the Queen of the Meadows, by Miss Mitford. This volume has no pretentions to the inculcation of mawkish sensibility. We have read every word of it, and can confidently recommend it to our friends. — Journal of Belles Letters. 28 NEW AND YOUNG MAN'S OWN BOOK.— A Manual of Po- liteness, Intellectual Improvement, and Moral Deportment, calculated to form the character on a solid basis, and to in- sure respectability and success in life. Its contents are made up of brief and well written essays upon subjects very judiciously selected, and will prove a use- ful and valuable work to those who give it a careful reading, and make proper use of those hints which the author throws out. — Bostun Traveller. We cheerfully recommend a perusal of the Young Man's Own Book to all our young friends, for we are convinced that if they read it faithfully, they will find themselves both wiser and better. — The Young Mali's Advocate. In the Young Man's Own Book, much sound advice, upon a variety of important subjects is administered, and a large number of rules are laid down for the regulation of con- duct, the practice of which can not fail to ensure respecta- bility. — Saturday Courier. YOUNG LADY'S OWN BOOK, a Manual of Intel- lectual Improvement and Moral Deportment. By the author of the Young Man's Own Book. Messrs. Key and Biddle, of this city, have published a very neat little volume, entitled, The Young Lady's Own Book. Its contents are well adapted to its useful purpose. — National Gazette. The Young Lady's Own Book seems to us to have been carefully prepared, to comprehend much and various instruction of a practical character, and to correspond in its contents with its title. — Young Man's Advocate. The Young Lady's Own Book, embellished with beauti- ful engravings, should be in the hands of every young fe- male. — Inquirer. All the articles in" the Young Lady's Own Book are of a useful and interesting character. — N. Y. Com. Adv. WACOUSTA, OR THE PROPHECY; A Tale OF THE CaNADAS. 2 Vols. This work is of a deeply interesting character, and justly lays claim to be of the highest cast. We think it decidedly POPULAR WORKS. 29 superior to any production of the kind which has recently emanated from the press. It abounds with thrilling scenes, and the author has displayed a power of delineation rarely surpassed. — Daily Intelligencer. We have read it, and unhesitatingly pronounce it one of the most deeply interesting works of fiction which has met our eye for many a month. It is a historical novel — the scenes of which are laid principally at Detroit and Macki- na — and some of the tragic events which those places wit- nessed in the early settlement of the country, are given with historic accuracy — particularly the massacre of Mackina. — The author is evidently conversant with Indian strategem and with Indian eloquence ; and has presented us with spe- cimens of both, truly characteristic of the untutored savage. We would gladly present our readers with an extract from this interesting work, did our limits permit. In lieu of an ex- tract, however, we commend the work itself to them. — Com- mercial Herald. The principal personage of this novel is a savage chief, and the story of his retreat, bearing off captive the daughter of the Governor, is told with thrilling effect. It is well written throughout, and abounds with interesting scenes. — Commercial Advertiser. ZOE, OR THE SICILIAN SAYDA'.— As an his- torical romance, embellished with the creations of a lively imagination, and adorned with the beauties of a classic mind, this production will take a high rank, and although not so much lauded as a Cooper or an Irving, he may be assured that by a continuance of his efforts, he will secure the ap- probation of his countrymen, and the reward of a wide spread fame. — Daily Intelligencer. We do not call attention to this on account of any previ- ous reputation of its author; it possesses intrinsic merit, and will obtain favour because it merits it. It is historical, and the name and circumstances are to be found in the records of those times. The plot is ably conceived, the characters are vividly, and some are fearfully drawn. — Boston American Traveller. We lately spoke in terms of approbation of a new novel from the pen of a young American, entitled "Zoe; or the Sicilian Sayda." A friend, who has read it with great pleasure, and who speaks of its merits in strong terms of praise, has furnished us with the following notice ;— 3* 30 NEW AND "The book wherever read is admired, and among a con- siderable variety of persons, learned and ignorant, grave and gay, sad and serious, all have but one manifestation of feel- ing — and that feeling delight. Cooper has been called the Scott, and Irving the Addison of America; and the author of Zoe, without any imputation of vanity or arrogance, can justly lay claim to some of the attributes of both. With all the description, energy, and grandeur of the former, he possesses the classic graces, and elegant refinements of the latter. Comparisons, it is said, are always odious, but, as in this instance, we have brought forward the names of two of our most distinguished country- men in the field of American letters, not for the purpose of detracting from their high and justly appreciated merits, but for adding another one to the number of this small but bril- liant galaxy, we shall be acquitted of any sinister attempt to elevate another at the expense of those whose fame is widely spread and firmly established. Zoe is a production, which will rank among the highest and most successful creations of the imagination. It is replete with interest, from the first chapter to the last; the story never flags, the dialogues never tire ; and the varied charac- ters who figure in the plot, are invested with an individuality which at once impresses upon the mind the graphic skill, and vivid conceptions of the author. Interesting and all absorb- ing as the personages are, there is one, however, of whom to read is to love; the dark-eyed, feeling, beautiful and self-sacri- ficing Zoe. It is she that appears embodied before our eyes, in all the fascination of beauty ; and it is she that we part with in all the combined feelings of affection, admiration and regret. But it is not our purpose to pourtray the charming heroine of the story. For the nameless attraction of her mind, the glowing ardour of her feelings, and the thousand fascinating charms with which she was invested, — we must refer our readers to the book itself. In conclusion, we commend Zoe to all who are fond of an interesting romance — to all who desire to become acquainted with and encourage the merits of our native literature." — Pennsylvania Inquirer. POPULAR WORKS. 31 NEW WORKS, IN PRESS, BY KEY § BIDDLE, THE HOME BOOK OF HEALTH AND MEDI- CINE, being a popular treatise on the means of Avoiding and Curing Diseases, and of Preserving the Health and Vigour of the Body to the latest period: including a full ac- count of the Diseases of Women and Children. THE YOUNG MAN'S SUNDAY BOOK.— In con- tinuation of the Series commenced by the Young Man's Own Book. THE WORLD AS IT IS, AND OTHER TALES. THE YOUNG CHRISTIAN'S BOOK. By G. T. Bedell, D. D. THE JOURNAL OF A LUNATIC. PROGRESSIVE EXPERIENCE OF THE HEART. By Mrs. Stevens. YOUNG LADY'S SUNDAY BOOK. By the Au- thor of the Young Lady's Own Book. THE FAMILY BOOK; a series of Discourses, with Prayers for each Sunday evening in the year ; with an In- troductory Essay. By the Rev. John Breckinridge. HARPE'S HEAD. A Legend of Kentucky. By the Author of Legends of the West. LETTERS FROM THE NORTH OF EUROPE. By Charles Boileau Elliott, Esq. This is one of those remarkably pleasant tours which an intelligent gentleman, who has seen much of the world, is 32 NEW AND alone calculated to write — one of those productions which engage the attention and do not fatigue it, and which we read from first to last with the agreeable sensation, that we are gathering the information of very extensive travel easily, by our own fireside. — London Literary Gazette. One striking evidence of the rapid progress we are making in civilization is the constant and increasing demand for tra- vels and voyages. We are no longer contented to live within ourselves. The whole world is our theatre. We explore all its regions; nor is there a spot visited by the sun that is wholly unknown to us. Our enterprising countrymen go forth "to collect their intellectual treasures, and return home to enrich us with their stores. Every month adds something valuable to the general stock. We enjoy the benefit without encountering the peril. We sympathise with danger, while we feel that it is past, and luxuriate in pleasurable emotions, while our hearts thrill with the interest which the daring ad- venturer has thrown round himself. This species of writing has also a charm for every reader. The man of science and the rustic, the scholar and the mechanic, sit down with equal zest to participate in the mental feast; and thus knowledge is widely diffused — knowledge which invigorates the inward man, enlarging his capacity, and extending the sphere of his enjoyments, and which prepares a whole nation for liberal institutions, which invests them with political and commercial importance, and thus raises them in the scale of nations. The success of works of this description stimulates enterprise, and opens the largest field for the useful employment of en- ergies which might otherwise be wasted. Mr. Elliott justly ranks among the most enlightened and intelligent of his class. His unpretending volume discovers an enthusiastic love of nature, and the most liberal views of man in all his diversified conditions. We scarcely ever read a work in which there is so little to censure and so much to approve. Unlike many of his brethren, he is a good writer: his style is pure and classical. He is likewise a philosopher and a Christian. We first become his willing associates, and our intercourse soon ripens into friendship. We close the book with reluctance, and take leave of him with a sigh of regret. — London Xcw Monthly Magazine. Key & Biddle have now in press THE RELIGIOUS SOUVENIR— A Christmas, New Year and Birth Day Present for 1834. Edited by Gregory T. Bedell, D. D, POPULAR WORKS. 33 Most of the engravings are already finished, and we feel no hesitation in saying the volume will be much superior in every respect to that of the present year, the success of which may be learned from the perusal of the following literary notices. A gift book which unites the embellishments of fancy and imagination, with a strictly religious and moral tendency in the whole texture of the work — a Souvenir which no person of strictly religious principles, would hesitate to place in the hands of a valued friend. Such a work has been pronounced a desideratum by many, whose opinions are regarded with deference by the religious community. — The Revivalist. The literary character of this Souvenir is of a high order, many of the piecesbreathe a pure, devotional spirit and Chris- tian fervour, and the whole are entirely devoid of sectarianism, and clothed in attractive unexceptionable language. Taken altogether, the Religious Souvenir is a work that may be warmly and generally commended. Mechanically it is a beautiful volume, and intellectually, such as does credit to all who have contributed to its pages. — Boston Traveller. This is an elegant Annual. The pieces are generally of a moral and religious tendency, but not the less interesting on that acount. — Journal of Commerce. The Religious Souvenir is a very beautiful holiday pre- sent, is Edited by the Rev. G. T. Bedell, and is devoted to moral and religious subjects, all original but one by the artist illustrating his own picture. In the initials subscribed to the articles, we recognize several writers who have heretofore distinguished themselves by contributions to our periodical literature. — N. Y. Commercial Advertiser. This is really a superb volume; and one which we hope will be widely circulated throughout the community. Dr. Bedell has shown considerable judgment in the selection and disposal of his matter, and we thank him for presenting to the public in so inviting a form, a work which is well calcula- ted to form pious feelings, and establish religious principles. — Family Journal. We doubt not, but many people of piety and taste, who wish to ornament their parlour and instruct those who may read ; or who desire to bestow a religious remembrancer on some beloved friend, will call at some book store for Dr. Bedell's " Souvenir." — Tlie Philadelphian. 34 NEW AND A volume, too, which does not degrade or disgrace the sub- ject — a volume destined, not to pass away with the winter greens that adorn our Christmas parlours, but to maintain a lasting hold on the attention of the christian community, at least so long as good taste and wood sense shall have any vote in the selection of books. We have read the volume care- fully, and do not hesitate to pronounce it one of unusual in- terest as well as solid merit. — United Slates Gazette. Messrs. Key & Biddle have made a valuable present to religious parents, guardians and friends, in this elegant little volume. Why should all our gifts on these occasions be worldly or worse'? And why should religious truth always shun the aids of beautiful ornament 1 The embellishments are attractive, well selected, and well executed. The various papers which compose the volume are serious, tasteful, allur- ing, imbued with the spirit of the Gospel, in a word, such as we should have expected from one so zealous for the cause of Christ, and so inventive of happy thoughts as the Rev. Edi- tor. This annual may be safely recommended to the Chris- tian public. — The Presbyterian. To all, therefore, who desire intellectual improvement, and, at the same time, the gratification of a true taste — and to all who would make a really valuable present to their friends, we would say, in conclusion, go and procure the Religious Sou- venir, it is not merely a brilliant little ornament for the parlour centre table, but a book worthy of a place in every sensible man's library. — Cincinnatti Enquirer. The typography, embellishments, and general appearance of the work, render it fully equal in these respects to any of the kind published in our country, while its subjects are far more suitable for the contemplation of christians than the light reading with which most of them are filled. — Episcopal Recorder. The articles are not only interesting, but calculated to pro- duce a beneficial effect upon the minds of those who read it, therefore, a very proper work for the purpose for which it is designed, and hope it may meet with an extensive sale. — Baltimore Republican. We hail with much pleasure this attempt to convey religious truth in a garb at once pleasing and instructive. The popu- lar form of the annual is well adapted to the purpose, and may often invite the attention and make a salutary impres- POPULAR WORKS. 35 sion, where works of a graver character would fail of effect when perused, or more probably be never perused at all. We commend, therefore, this new effort of Christian philanthro- py, and think it likely to be followed by useful results.— Charleston Courier. In the general character of those fashionable, and as to ap- pearance, attractive volumes, the annuals, there is so much that is trashy and unprofitable, that it was with no little mis- giving we looked into the pages of one which is now before us, entitled " The Religious Souvenir." The matter is altogether of religious and moral tendency, not chargeable with sectarian bias, and such as the most scrupulous need not hesitate to admit into family reading. — The Friend. This little work is intended to furnish what was heretofore wanted — a Christmas and New Year's offering, which may be bestowed and accepted by the most scrupulous. — Pitts- burg Gazette. We are happy to announce the tasteful appearance and valuable matter of the Religious Souvenir for 1833. Dr. Bedell is as much distinguished for his belles-lettres attain- ment, as for the profoundness of his scholarship and the pu- rity of his motives. Ho has found himself at home in this tasteful enterprize and in good company with the associated talent of the contributors to his beautiful pages. — N. Y. Weekly Messenger. The engravings for the work are chiefly from English de signs, by the best American artists, and may challenge com- !>arison with any contemporary works of this country. The iterary contributions to the volume are in strict accordance with the name. — United States Gazette. This work is got up in an unusual style of neatness and beauty, and ornamented with engravings of great elegance. The contents of the work are, as might have been expected from the high character of the Editor, of a moral and religious description, intended to produce the best effects upon the minds of its readers. — Daily Advertiser. Messrs. Key & Biddle have published a handsome little volume, entitled Religious Souvenir, and edited by the Rev. Dr. Bedell. It is embellished with beautiful engravings, and printed with elegance. The literary contents are very good — soundly pious, and free of all invidious remark or allusion. True Christianity is that which purifies the heart, liberalizes the feelings, and amends the conduct. — National Gazette. 36 POPULAR WORKS. MEMOIRS OF DR. BURNEY, arranged from his own Manuscript, from family papers, and from personal re- collections, by his daughter, Madame D'Arblay. The Monthly Review in noticing the Memoirs of Dr. Burney, expresses the opinion " that a more amusing and profitable production has not appeared for many years." Several literary gentlemen on this side of the Atlantic who have examined the work, declare that next to Boswell's Life of Johnson, it is the most attractive and interesting memoir ever published. TRANSATLANTIC SKETCHES, comprising visits to the most interesting scenes in North and South America, and the West Indies, with notes on negro slavery and Cana- dian emigration, by Capt. J. E. Alexander, 42d Royal High- landers, F. R. G. S. M. R. A. S. etc. author of Travels in Asia, Persia, etc. THE ARISTOCRAT, by the author of Zoe, &c. W 132 82 r0 *- l J>L* ° ♦ &/l???2* V * -UK* / ** • a o **o* +* * ^* j4- t »_rf^ts^*. *e <* *'-•* ^6 ^o« ♦V-,/722?, • O V 9 *** 1*-. ^o« - ,0 ^ ^ "v j>* **ri- v V %p S ■ •. ^ A* \£ C, iP " S/V7 *^» Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 4J* .o •!• # ■*> Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide » ^ r » Treatment Date: July 2005 r PreservationTechnologies I A WORLD LEAOER IN PAPER PRESERVATION V. & ' * > 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township. PA 16066 (724) 779-21 1 1 5-°^ % i \/ %/ :'< ^0* *^j£z« +*0* m* , ^ * •