Columbia lOtniversitie JJeacbers Collese Series \iiMim ■liiiiii ^m& mmm Class_J^Bjj££:5 Book £^2.^ CopyiightN^. COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. Columbia IHnivetsft^ Contributions to Ebucation tteacbere College Series mo. 18 SYSTEMATIC STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY Lida Belle Earhart, Ph. D. M Instructor in Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Published by TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY New York City 1908 Morwgraph L^ USKARVof OONGHESS I wo CoDies Keceive«! JUL 3 1^08 :2- o 6 i // I COKY B. Copyright, 1908, BY LIDA BELLE EARHART Press of Brandow Printing Company Albany, N. Y. SYSTEMATIC STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY Lida Belle Earhart, Ph. D. Instructor in Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Published by TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY New York City 1908 Copyright, 1908- BY LIDA BELLE EARHART Press of Brandow Printing Company Albany, N. Y. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Nature of Logical Study Page I. An important phase of a teacher's work. 2. The necessity of knowing the logical and the psychological basis of the process of studying. 3. Meaning of study. 4. The kind of thinking employed in studying. 5. The origin of the incentive to thought — the problem. 6. Thinking, memorizing, and habit-forming. 7. Relation of the problem to the person who is to study. 8. Need of definiteness of aim. 9. Recognition of the problem the first factor in logical study. 10. Collecting of data a factor in logical study. 11. Organization of ideas a factor in logical study. 1 2 . Results of the selection and organ- ization of data. 13. Scientific doubt a factor in logical study. 14. The tentative nature of hypotheses and theories. 15. Verifica- tion, or the application of theory, a factor in study. 16. Memorizing a factor in logical study. 17. The preservation of self in and through studying 5 CHAPTER II The Nature of Logical Study — Continued I. The deductive form of logical study. 2. Necessity of under- standing the problem. 3. Judging the adequacy of a principle or theory. 4. Application of theory. 5. Self-expression and self- development through deductive study 23 CHAPTER III Relation of Logical Study to the Study of the Textbook I. Conciousness of the author's problem or purpose the first factor in textbook study. 2. Gathering data a factor in textbook study. 3. Organization of ideas a factor in textbook study. 4. The necessity of deferred judgment in the study of books. 5. Consideration of the soundness of statements a factor in the study of a book. 6. Verifica- tion, or the application of theory a factor in the study of the textbook. 7. Memorizing as a factor in study. 8. Deductive study of books. 9. Relation of proper textbook study to initiative and self-develop- ment 27 CHAPTER IV The Ability of Children in the Elementary School to Study I. Problems involved. 2. Factors influencing the [preparation of the experiments to determine the ability of pupils to study. 3. The 4 Table of Contents Page nature of the tests employed. 4. Test A. 5. Factors of logical study shown in Test A. 6. The extent to which the pupils tested found the subject. 7. The ability of the pupils to find the subject. 8. The tendency and ability of pupils to organize subject-matter. 9. The extent to which pupils questioned or verified the author's statements. 10. The ability to supplement the text of the lesson. II. Nature of some of the questions asked. 12. Indefiniteness in questioning. 13. The ability to see problems relating to the lesson. 14. Grouping related ideas. 15. What Test C required. 16. How the pupils proposed to solve the problems. 17. Sources of informa- tion named by pupils. 18. The formulation of hypotheses by pupils. 19. Summary 36 CHAPTER V Are Pupils Being Taught to Study Systematically in the Elemen- tary Schools I. The waste of effort shown by the tests. 2. Reasons why the factors of logical study are not employed more generally. 3. Lack of clearness as to the process of studying. 4. Summary of results of teachers' questionnaire. 5. A second means of investigating pres- ent procedure in teaching children to study. 6. Observations of classes in reading. 7. Nature of the lesson assignments in the classes in reading. 8. The recitations in reading. 9. Questioning in the reading recitations. 10. Supplementary material in the reading classes. 11. The study of words. 12. The exercise of initiative in reading classes. 13. Observations of classes in history. 14. The recitations in history. 15. Observations of classes in arithmetic. 16. Observations of classes in geography. 17. Observations of recitations in language. 18. Summary of qtiestionnaire and ohserva.- tions 52 CHAPTER VI Can Pupils in the Elementary School be Taught to Study Systematically I. The attempt to train pupils in the use of the factors of logical study. 2. Comparison of grades in regard to finding the subject. 3. Verification of statements. 4. Supplementing the lesson. 5. The improvement of the classes not trained. 6. Comparison of the results of test C. 7. Comparison of the trained and untrained groups in test E. 8. Summary of comparisons of trained and untrained groups. 9. An experiment in teaching pupils to study a reading lesson. 10. Conclusions based upon tests and experiments 67 Appendix 81 CHAPTER I The Nature of Logical Study One important phase of a teacher's zvork. Not the lightest of the duties required of children in school is the preparation of lessons from day to day through a series of years. Since not only the product but also the process of study- ing is of value to pupils who are preparing for life in an environ- ment which furnishes frequent occasion for the use of both, it is an important part of the teacher's mission to see that the children know how to prepare their lessons intelligently and sys- tematically. The necessity of knozving the logical and psychological basis of the process of studying. Should teachers desire to give their pupils training in correct habits of studying, they must possess a knowledge of the logi- cal and psychological basis of the studying process in order to be scientific in their procedure. It might be added that their interest and their enthusiasm in the cause also depend upon this knowledge, since a subject which is not well understood, or which is misunderstood, is not likely to arouse an attitude of enthusiasm toward itself, or intelligent zeal in its application. The question then is pertinent, what are the logical and also the psychological bases for the process of studying? Meaning of study. Before answering this question, a definition of the term study- ing is necessary in order that misunderstanding may be avoided. Studying in its highest sense is the process of assimilating knowl- edge, of reorganizing experience. As ordinarily employed, the term studying often means much less than this, and includes any mental activity directed towards the accomplishment of some end, whether that end be the memorizing of facts in a geography lesson, the learning of a story in reading, or the mastering of a list of words in spelling. In this common usage of the word 6 The Nature of Logical Study. it includes the mind's activity that is directed towards the ac- quisition of ideas, whether these ideas become an organic part of knowledge or not. Learning dates in history, and committing poems and definitions to memory do not always involve the as- similation of knowledge, yet teachers call the effort to accomplish these tasks by the same name that is applied to the mental efforts of a philosopher who is engaged upon some weighty problem. The two kinds of studying are quite different. The one is more mechanical than the other and results largely in accretion of facts. The other is organic and results in rearrangement and assimilation of ideas : in short, it involves thinking. It is this latter form of mental activity, which is generally acknowledged to be of a higher type than the first, that is the object of in- vestigation and discussion in this paper. While any form of studying might be called psychological, because it involves the employment of mental processes, only that form of studying can be called logical which involves a thought-situation or problem, and thinking which is influenced by the nature of such a situa- tion. The kind of thinking employed in studying. j The thinking which is employed in studying is reflective or purposive thinking as distinguished from spontaneous thinking. In the latter sort, the ideas are not controlled by the thinker. They come and go at random. But in reflective or purposive thinking, there is a definite end in view and the ideas are selected and controlled so as to accomplish this end. When a person gives the rein to fancy and lets his thoughts wander where they will, his thinking is of the spontaneous kind ; but when he sets himself to accomplish some task, to solve a problem, or to find the way out of some difiiculty, he controls his thoughts and chooses or rejects the ideas which come into consciousness, taking as the basis of his choice the bearing which these ideas have upon the end he is trying to reach. The origin of the incentive to thought — the problem. But back of the pi^ocess of reflective thinking lies the deter- mination of the problem or purpose which causes the thought and governs its course. In this determination of the problem lies The Nature of Logical Study. 7 the logical basis of study, hence it is important to know whence this problem is derived and by whom it must be felt as a problem if it is to influence thought. If we search our own minds to find out what it is in our everyday life which sets us to thinking, we find that it is some break in the even course of our experi- ence which requires adjustment. Facts thrust themselves upon us in books, or apart from them, and we do not at once see their relation to our previous knowledge. Emergencies arise in which our habitual ways of doing things fail us and yet activity of some sort is desirable, or, it may be, imperative. We find our- selves lacking in the knowledge needed to direct our actions or to explain a situation which has presented itself ; or we find discrepancies existing among ideas, and feel it necessary to bring about some reconciliation. It may be that our faith in the validity of our own knowledge is shaken and we are at a loss to know what to believe. Needs of all sorts press upon us, from those which are most primitive to those which are the re- sult of education and experience. Some of these needs function at the present time and demand immediate attention. Others belong to the future, but require effort now in order that they may be met when they arise. These needs are a part of experi- ence both in school and in life aside from school, and whenever they are sufficiently imperative they give rise to thought or study. Again, tension in experience may arise because of lack of power to apply knowledge already possessed. This lack may be due to a need of insight into the relations existing between our knowledge and the concrete instance involving its use. This of itself is a thought-situation and an occasion for study. Or, the lack of power may be due to lack of skill ; it demands concen- tration of attention and repetition of some process, rather than the exercise of the higher mental activities in order to meet the situation, though thinking is involved in determining the cause of the difficulty, in selecting the means to overcome it, and in judging of the efficiency of the latter when they are employed. In both of these cases, therefore, real study is necessary. The aim of thought is to readjust experience so that tension or friction shall disappear and harmony prevail. Each specific situation presents its own peculiar incentive to thought and fur- nishes the occasion for its exercise. It is clear that the thinking 8 The Nature of Logical Study. thus occasioned cannot be of the spontaneous kind but must be reflective, purposive in its nature. Its course, too, is not com- plete until the validity of its results has been tested in some way. Conclusions and theories must be tried by further experi- ence before their validity can be affirmed positively. When, however, their use has become habitual so that they have reached the mechanical stage of application, they present no further aim to thought, and the problem is regarded as solved; i. e. the " studying " is completed. Thinking, memorizing, and habit- forming. In this connection, the relation between thinking and memoriz- ing, and thinking and habit-formation should be noted. In think- ing, ideas are associated according to their meaning, and when the process is ended, memorizing is at least partially accom- plished, and that, too, in its best form. Reviewing the associa- tions thus established completes the process. This is rational memorizing as distinguished from that which is purely mechani- cal. In habit-forming, thinking may be very prominent during the first stages. The form of activity to be learned, the way of responding to a certain situation must sometimes be chosen as the result of reflection, and progress in efficiency must be watched with care until the mind is freed from conscious over- sight of the process. Relation of the problem to the person who is to study. It is self-evident that in normal conditions the tension, the lack of harmony, or want of completeness must be within the experi- ence of the person or persons who are to do the thinking, since the thinking arises from personal motives. A thing is of interest and worth doing, and demands to be done because in some way it affects our own welfare and the equilibrium of our ideas. Pro- fessor James, in discussing interest, says : " You will under- stand this abstract statement easily if I take the most frequent of concrete examples — the interest which things borrow from their connection with our own personal welfare. The most natively interesting object to a man is his own personal self and its for- tunes. We accordingly see that the moment a thing becomes connected with the fortunes of the self, it forthwith becomes an interesting thing. Lend the child his books, pencils, and other The Nature of Logical Study. 9 apparatus : then give them to him, make them his own, and notice the new Hght with which they instantly shine in his eyes. He takes a new kind of care of them altogether. In natural life all the drudgery of a man's business or profession, intoler- able in itself, is shot through with engrossing significance be- cause he knows it to be associated with his personal fortunes."^ If the problem is to have interest, and is to be a motive power to the child, it must grow out of his own experience, some situa- tion in relation to himself, otherwise no genuine thinking will result. For a teacher in the elementary schools to assign a lesson without first preparing the class so that the pupils go to their work with a definite problem in view, and that problem one which touches them vitally, one which they have some interest in accomplishing, is to invite mechanical memorizing, and that, as has been said, is not study in the higher sense because it is not the assimilation of knowledge. When the teacher gives the problem to the class, which is usually the case when there is any aim present at all, the pupils may have a motive for thoughtful work and they may not. It depends upon the extent to which they recognize the problem as valid for them, as involving their own needs, as possessing personal interest, as presenting a situa- tion which they accept as theirs. Thoughtful study will depend upon their appropriation of the problem as given by the teacher. But if the teacher can so direct the experience of her pupils that this problem arises in their own consciousness of need, then it is felt to be theirs and the situation is most favorable for think- ing. Need of deHniteness of aim. Another point of importance to note in regard to the problem is the fact that it should be as clearly defined as possible before its solution is undertaken. To be aware that there is a crisis or tension in experience is one thing; to have analyzed the situation so as to see just where the difficulties lie is quite another ; and to determine possible modes of accomplishing the solution is still another. It is as if a person, who has seen a long pendulum set swinging in a north-and-south direction, discovers after sev- eral hours that the record shows a change in direction, and being ijames, Talks to Teachers, pp. 94-95. lo The Nature of Logical Study. puzzled, should ask, not " Why does it swing?" because he saw it set in motion ; but " Why, having been started to swing in one direction, does it now swing in another?" Probably several an- swers suggest themselves, some to be rejected at once as mani- festly contrary to fact and consequently impossible. Only those hypotheses are accepted tentatively for investigation which show some possibility of furnishing an adequate solution. It may be necessary to look into the nature of the problem itself before a solution is sought. Analysis is employed to dis- cover its meaning and its applications ; and reflection, reading, investigation may be required to make clear what is to be done, and the ways by which the solution is to be attempted. This process of defining the problem and formulating hypotheses for its solution may require a very short time, or it may occupy an extended period. Children's guesses as to what things are, or why things are so and not otherwise, are simply childish hy- potheses intended to meet natural situations. The trouble with their studying is that they frequently end their mental efforts merely with the formulation of their problems, rather than ac- cept such formulation as starting points on the way to positive knowledge. The clear understanding of the problem furnishes the criterion for the acceptance or rejection of material, and for its organization. The keener the individual's sense of need, and the more intense his desire to acquire a certain body of knowl- edge, the clearer his statement of the problem will probably be, and the more definite his demand for what he wants. Recognition of the problem the first factor in logical study. This recognition of a problem is a factor in proper study, that is, in study in the sense in which we are here considering it ; and since it precedes the other steps, it may be called the first factor in study. The problem must originate within the experience of the students, or be appropriated by them in order to arouse thought, and it must be defined clearly in order to furnish a definite guide to thought. Summary. The points presented thus far are as follows : ( i ) Teachers should strive for results not only in knowledge of facts but also The Nature of Logical Study. ii in knowledge of the process of getting facts. (2) Studying, in its higher meaning, is mental activity directed towards the as- similation of ideas, the reorganization of experience. (3) Proper study involves purposive thinking, since it is thinking that is directed towards some end. (4) Back of the psychological steps involved in studying is the logical basis of the process. This is the tension in experience which constitutes the aim or purpose of thinking, and furnishes the criterion for the acceptance or re- jection of ideas in the attempt to readjust experience. (5) The recognition of a problem is the first factor in proper study. (6) This problem must be felt as such by those who are to study, or else the motive and guide for thought are lacking. (7) In order that the thinking may be accurate, the problem must be clearly defined in the mind of the person who is to do the thinking. Its requirements must be plainly perceived, and some hypothesis formed as a tentative explanation. This hypo- thesis determines the direction which the solution of the problem will take. It should conform to known facts. It should have some reasonable basis. Collecting of data a factor in logical study. When in the course of experience such a problem as has been described becomes a part of consciousness it controls the nature of the mental process which succeeds it, unless it is inhibited from so doing. One of the most prominent aspects of this proc- ess is the gathering of material bearing upon the problem in hand. This collecting of data is a most important factor in logical study ; for through its agency we are furnished the means whereby we may prove, amend, or reject the hypotheses formu- lated for the solution of the problem, and arrive at more definite theories. The material brought together for these purposes may be drawn from several sources. It may be a part of previous experi- ence that is recalled. It may be information gained from others by inquiry or through reading. It may be material derived through the processes of experimentation and observation. All the resources at our command may be drawn upon in the effort to readjust experience so as to restore harmony. In general, it may be said that too great a reliance upon any one source is unwise. The person who knows nothing but books, and the per- 12 The Nature of Logical Study. son who relies entirely upon his own observations are both de- priving themselves of material that is valuable; so, also, is the person who is content with what he already knows as the basis for the solution of problems which arise in his life. There is a one-sidedness in such an attitude which defeats the very pur- pose of thought, i. e., the discovery of truth. It frequently happens that in this gathering of data, many ideas enter consciousness which are not relevant to the problem and which, therefore, must be rejected ; but having clearly defined the problem in the beginning, the sorting process is simplified. We cannot prevent the obtrusion of these irrelevant ideas and it is consequently all the more necessary to learn to discriminate between that which bears upon the problem and that which does not, and to accept or reject accordingly. For example, if a person begins to plan a trip to Europe, the details of other trips are recalled or read, or they may be suggested by friends. Many of these ideas will doubtless be valueless, because they have no bearing upon the problems of the proposed trip, while some may be very helpful. Unless the prospective traveler can sift out the latter and neglect the rest, he will probably do some foolish things, and omit to do some wise ones in making the prepara- tion for his journey. A consideration of very great importance in regard to data is that they must be gathered from such a number and variety of individual instances as to be sufficiently representative, and hence reliable. For example, data in regard to the physical measure- ments of Europeans would be very unreliable if obtained from the Anglo-Saxon nations alone, even though many individuals in those nations should be measured. And similarly, measurements to be representative of the English should include all classes of English and not merely a selected group. Likewise, to base all study of the phenomena of the adolescent period upon observa- tions limited to high school students would be manifestly un- scientific since high school students are a selected group. Only a small per cent, of pupils entering the first grade ever enter high school. .There is a weeding-out process all along the elementary school course, so that by the time the high school is reached, those who have survived are a chosen few. Studies based upon them alone would not be truly representative of all young people of the same age. It is thus important to remember in consider- The Nature of Logical Study. 13 ing the reliability of data that they must represent enough in- dividuals and classes to make conclusions based upon them valid. Summary: The collecting of data is a factor in logical study. Significant facts may be brought into consciousness by recall, by conversation with others, by reading, by experimenting, or by observation. It is unwise to depend upon any one source ex- clusively. These ideas, however gained, must be judged on the basis of their relevancy to the problem, and accepted or rejected accordingly. Organisation of ideas a factor in logical study. A very important element in logical study is the grouping of related ideas. It is a natural process for ideas to become as- sociated in groups, but in purposive thinking this process must be consciously aided. The ideas accepted because of their bear- ing upon the problem are examined to discover the nature of their relations to each other. Certain elements of similarity cause cer- tain ideas to form a group, as when concepts are formed. Other ideas are attracted to each other because of the similarity of the relationship which they bear to some other idea. The idea of the navigation laws and the idea of the tax on tea are very dis- similar in nature; but because they both bear a functional re- lationship to the idea of the Revolutionary War, they are fre- quently associated in people's minds. Then there is the causal relationship among ideas, when the value of one idea depends upon the value of some preceding idea or series of ideas. For example, the idea of weather-of-a-certain kind becomes asso- ciated with the idea of wind-blowing-from-a-certain-direction. Also, in studying parts of speech, the idea of pronoun becomes associated with the idea of noun because of their logical relation- ship. These relationships of sinlilarity, of function, of cause and effect, and of place in a logical series, all of which are of import- ance in the solution of the problem on hand, should be sought out and established. The natural tendency to associate must be supplemented by conscious effort. Furthermore, as a matter of convenience and clearness in dealing with ideas, it is frequently helpful, especially with a long or difficult problem involving much material, to prepare a classification showing the main topics ar- ranged in order, with the subordinate points properly grouped under them. In most of the situations which present us with 14 The Nature of Logical Study. some problem, no such formal classification is necessary, but un- doubtedly much incoherency and lack of logical treatment would be overcome by the more careful arrangement of material em- ployed in attempting to work out some hypothesis. Results of the selection and organization of data. As the result of the selection and organization of data, the hypothesis, which in the beginning was merely a more or less intelligent guess, is much more positive in its nature and has become a theory. Starting with an hypothesis based merely upon the facts immediately connected with the problem, there has been a wide search for data, a careful elimination of the irrelevant, and an organization of that which has been found to bear significantly upon the solution of the problem. During this process, the original hypothesis may have been altered, re- jected, or confirmed as a whole or only to a certain extent. With- out these two steps, collecting and organizing, the hypothesis would have remained a mere guess. Both hypothesis and theory must be looked upon as tentative conclusions and must be put to the final test of application before being accepted as prin- ciples. Scientific doubt a factor in logical study. In the paragraph on the selection of data, it was said that data relevant to the solution of the problem should be accepted. This statement must be modified somewhat. The data must be not only relevant but reliable. Whatever is accepted should be ac- curate. It frequently happens that material is presented in the working out of a situation which would apparently meet every difficulty, but it lacks the most necessary characteristic — that of accuracy. If the problem to be solved is of any importance to the person who engages in its solution, it is obviously of con- siderable importance to that person that he accept none but re- liable data. He must, then, scrutinize with care that which he accepts, and his attitude in general must be that of doubt. The greater the significance of the problem the more important doubt, scientific doubt, becomes as a factor in study, since freedom from error depends largely upon its existence and exercise. Because much of the information which is obtained from others, whether through their books or their spoken utterances, is based upon in- The Nature of Logical Study. 15 correct ideas obtained from others, upon faulty experiments, im- perfect observations, or false reasoning, and because it is some- times wilful misrepresentation of facts to accomplish some ulter- ior motive, those who avail themselves of such sources without investigating the truth of the information imparted are fre- quently led into error. Ordinary gossip and unprincipled news- papers which are published for political purposes are extreme in- stances of unreliable sources of information. But even books which are written thoughtfully and with every intention of be- ing accurate contain statements which are biased or untrue. The path of learning is strewn with discarded ideas, theories, hypo- theses, which fuller knowledge has shown to be false. The at- titude of scientific doubt which opposes blind acceptance of in- formation makes for advance in true knowledge. It should be cultivated so as to counteract the tendency of people in general, especially of young people and of others inexperienced in prov- ing hypotheses and in working out carefully the solution of problems, to accept without question the statements found in books, papers, and magazines, even though they may have learned to exercise some discrimination in regard to what they hear. There are reasons for this attitude of receptivity, but they are not sufficient to warrant the continuance of unquestioning be- lief since that frequently leads to inaccurate solutions of prob- lems, and quite distorted views of facts. Our judgment as to the validity of data offered by any author is influenced, or should be influenced by his source of informa- tion. In scientific studies, direct observation and experimentation are valued as insuring accuracy. In historical subjects, the use of written evidence, or original sources is a basis for acceptance of statements. In either case, if the author has gained his in- formation through hearsay, there is greater doubt of his relia- bility as an authority than if he had employed research to obtain his ideas. It is an impossibility to test every statement made by the people to whom we go for information and we therefore must either reject all statements which we cannot verify or else we must place sufficient confidence in the men consulted to ac- cept their presentations. There is a place for the experts in various lines of knowledge; and when men are known to have investigated thoroughly and in scientific spirit in their respective fields of research, there are good reasons why their results should 1 6 The Nature of Logical Study. be accepted as authoritative for the time being, at least. There is no loss of self-respect to the student in so doing, and as for verifying data, there is still sufficient opportunity for that since not all people are experts, and not all the problems are yet solved. The reliability of data can be tested in different ways. Close observation is sometimes all that is necessary ; or reflection, com- parison, and, in some cases, experimentation may at times be em- ployed. We may recall the results of our own experience and use them as a test for the new ; or we may compare one man's statements with those of another in whose methods of working we have confidence, for in weighing evidence it is not so much the men as their methods of working which are to be accepted as authoritative. But, after all is said and done, some doubt is still in place. The tentative nature of hypotheses and theories. It is very important in studying to recognize the fact that both hypotheses and theories are tentative in their nature although they may differ greatly in degree of probability. An hypothesis is a guess. It may be more or less scientific but it is still a guess. A theory, on the other hand, is an hypothesis which has been carried through the stages of investigation, and perhaps ex- perimentation, and which has been modified or confirmed by the process. It is based upon the study of data, and consequently possesses a greater degree of certainty. Theories may vary in probability. Where data are lacking, or where there is grave doubt as to their validity, the formation of judgment or theory may be quite suspended for the time being. When evidence is ample in amount and variety and is of such a nature as to warrant it, a very positive, definite theory may be formed. Between these two extremes are theories of varying degrees of certainty. Such theories or judgments are more tentative in nature than those based upon evidence that is complete and positive, though all theories must be looked upon as tentative until verified by experience. When thus verified, they become principles, and serve as bases for decisions in future thinking. Whenever evidence is doubtful, and yet is accepted because of lack of opportunity for proving it, or for any other reason, the conclusions based upon such data should be regarded as hypo- The Nature of Logical Study. ly thetical rather than theoretical, until doubts of the validity of the data can be removed. Sometimes the material used as the basis for judgment is accurate, but it is not sufficient because it does not meet every requirement of the problem. Conclusions based upon incomplete data should also be held to be lacking in posi- tiveness. While such judgments have value in that they furnish temporary explanations, their incompleteness should be recog- nized so that the mind of the student may be left open for further progress. Not to recognize them as partial, as tentative, is to become fixed and dogmatic and to close the door to investiga- tion and development. It is equally detrimental to character and learning to accept judgments based upon doubtful or inadequate evidence as final in their nature and to make no further eflforts towards positive theories. Summary : As a precaution by which the way to accuracy of results should be hedged, scientific doubt, or the consideration of the accuracy and reliability of data, must be valued as a factor in study. The data selected in the process of studying because of some bearing upon the problem must be known to be reliable be- fore there can be assurance of validity in the conclusion. This is true of all data, regardless of the source from which or the method by which it is obtained. But even most reliable data are still properly subject to some doubt. Both hypotheses and theo- ries should be regarded as tentative in their nature, and as such, subject to further investigation and proof. Verification, or the application of tJieory, a factor in study. Since it was the need of readjustment of some phase of ex- perience which furnished the problem for thought, the verification of the theory formulated must consist in its application to the specific situation which gave rise to the thought-process, or to similar situations. The process of logical study is not completed until the theory has been expressed in some form so as to test its validity ; therefore expression, or the execution of theory must be regarded as an element in study. Application of theory is the only means by which we can be sure that the tension in experience has been removed and the problem solved. Conclusions which cannot stand this test must, of course, be revised or thrown aside, and those which meet the requirements in a satisfactory manner may be accepted. Further- 2 l8 The Nature of Logical Study. more, the application of theory, if repeated, tends towards facility in its use, and makes it more thoroughly a part of the person who thus employs it. As was stated in an earlier paragraph, the application of theory may be carried out very carefully, close attention being given both to process and results. If repeated frequently enough without too great a lapse of time between the applications, the process reaches the mechanical stage and becomes a habit which requires little or no conscious effort for its execution. The occurrence of a favorable opportunity for its use usually calls it into activity unless it is inhibited for some reason. The testing of theories may take the form of using the con- clusions as bases for further thinking; it may take the form of some act of construction, the execution of some design embody- ing the ideas worked out in the thinking process ; or it may mani- fest itself in oral or written expression, in some social activity, or in some other way. A person does certain things because of the conclusions reached ; or by an act of will he refrains from doing because his thinking has led him to decide that it is best to do so. Both definite choice and intelligent action are based upon the mental product, and these test the value of that prod- uct, and serve as a corrective for careless or inaccurate think- ing. In general, the more genuine the problem has been to the in- dividual who has been studying, the more vital will be the con- clusion reached, and the keener the desire to put the results into practice as soon as possible for the sake of verification. In life outside of school, the opportunity for application is sometimes delayed, but if the judgments are strong and clear, they will sur- vive delay and will even force an occasion for use. In school, conditions can frequently be so managed that pupils may apply the results of study immediately ; but even there delay is some- times inevitable. This possibility of postponement is a strong argument in favor of making circumstances as favorable as pos- sible for the formation of clear, vigorous judgments. Summary : In review of this topic, it may be said that appli- cation in some form constitutes the test of theory and is therefore a part of the study process. It is indispensable as a means of verifying, correcting, and fixing conclusions, and of giving facil- ity in their use. Application frequently follows the formulation The Nature of Logical Study. 19 of theory immediately, though it must sometimes await an op- portunity. This possibiHty of delay increases the necessity of strength and clearness in judgments. Memorizing a factor in logical study. It is sometimes advisable to remember things in a certain wording or order, and for that reason memorizing forms an important element in study. Whatever conscious memorizing is done to give permanence to thought naturally follows the com- pletion, or at least the partial completion of the thinking process involved in the working out of a situation. The act itself of establishing relationships of meaning among ideas tends to make the ideas thus associated easy of recall, so that by the time a certain problem has been thought through carefully, the ideas involved are already partially memorized in their proper order. Thinking the steps over repeatedly, reviewing the relations al- ready established, completes the memorizing process. Thus mem- orizing is seen to be a very thoughtful procedure. Its misuse arises in the attempt to substitute it for thought instead of basing it upon thought, and in making it the sole, or at least the main factor in study. All memorizing takes place through the forming of associa- tions of some kind. These associations may be of a very me- chanical and arbitrary nature, as when we learn words in col- umns, or commit sentences to memory with no idea of their meaning. Mechanical or arbitrary memorizing has its place in school work, since words must be spelled, the principal parts of verbs learned, and other matter of similar nature so fixed that it may be recalled readily when needed. This memorizing in- volves concentration of attention, the perception of the correct order, and then repetition to fix the ideas in the perceived order. The memorizing which is a factor in the higher form of study- ing is based upon associations of meaning among the ideas in- volved in the study. Similar or contrasting ideas are associated, as are also groups of ideas relating to some one subject; also ideas bearing the relation of cause and effect, and ideas in a logical series. Thus, if a history lesson is to be memorized, it is better to memorize the important facts or topics which have been thought out and associated than it is to learn to recite the words glibly without having had any glimpse into the signifi- 20 The Nature of Logical Study. cance of the ideas expressed. In learning a poem, the process is usually well advanced when the thought of the poem has been mastered. In geography the causal relations, and in mathema- tics the logical order may form the basis of the memorizing process. Summary : In general, it may be said that while mechanical memorizing has a certain place in school work, it should be limited to its own legitimate sphere. Thoughtful memorizing is of a higher type and should be employed much more exten- sively than it now is. It is accomplished by placing emphasis upon associations of meaning rather than upon associations of place. When employed consciously it follows the other steps in proper study. The preservation of self in and through studying. The studying which has been described in the preceding pages afifords an opportunity for self-preservation and self-development which mechanical study can never yield. While preservation and development of the individuality are not a separate factor in study, they should be present in study and should be advanced to some extent at least, through its agency. Human beings vary greatly in native endowments. This vari- ation manifests itself in differences of interests, of capacities for working, and in ways of working. Any method of study which disregards individuals, disregards also these fundamental differ- ences. It subordinates the human being to the subject-matter, and aims for the acquisition of facts rather than for the assimila- tion of knowledge. In proper study, the individuality of the student has a chance to assert itself. One may respect his own ideas if he has tested them and has found that they satisfy the requirements. He need not yield ready acceptance to all that he hears or reads or thinks, but may reject what is false or irrele- vant. He need not lose his identity or his respect for himself even though he does accept the ideas of others, provided the acceptance follows judgment of value. He need be no one's tool or blind follower, but may learn to esteem ideas because of their worth rather than because of their source. He needs to learn the distinction between beliefs and convictions, but having the latter, he may have courage in the face of any amount of opposi- tion. To be alone in one's views is not necessarily to be in error. The Nature of Logical Sti4dy. 21 while to fall in with popular views is to place one's self very fre- quently in the wrong. Even though a number of people should start to solve the same problem and should employ in general the factors of study here presented, their procedure would vary from stage to stage because of differences which would manifest themselves at every step. A very important element in the development and preserva- tion of self is the exercise of initiative ; the higher form of study affords excellent opportunities for the manifestation of this ac- tivity. The recognition of a problem, the selection and discrim- ination of data, the organization of ideas, the deferring of judg- ment, the formulation of theory or hypothesis, the considera- tion of the truth or falsity of statements, and the final testing of theory involve its use. The highest ideals formulated by edu- cational theory include the right training of whatever initiative man has been endowed with ; hence so excellent an opportunity for its proper use as is furnished by logical study should not be neglected. Summary : In studying, it is an important consideration to preserve and develop one's personality, to exercise initiative, and not to subordinate one's own ideas to those of others without due consideration ; otherwise one becomes a mental nonentity, a " passive recipient," and the whole process of study loses its value as a means of training and as a means of arriving at truth. General summary : The points made thus far are, in brief, as follows: (i) The first factor in logical study is the recognition of a problem. The problem must be clearly understood and its implications recognized. To arrive at a clear understanding it may be necessary to reflect, consult others, read, or experiment and observe. Some hypothesis or hypotheses may be formulated as possible solutions of the problem. (II) A second factor in study is the gathering of data bearing upon the problem. This material may be gathered from many sources, but only that which bears a relation to the problem should be accepted. (HI) The organization of material into groups of related ideas is a third factor of study. It tends to take place naturally, but should be carried on consciously with close attention given to the re- lationships estabHshed. As the result of (II) and (III) w^e are able to formulate a theorv which is intended to satisfy the 22 The Nature of Logical Study. problem. (IV) A fourth factor in study is the exercise of scientific doubt, or judging as to the soundness of statements. Whenever significant facts bearing upon the problem are pre- sented to consciousness, their validity should be determined in order that the theory based upon such evidence may have value. All hypotheses and theories must be considered as tentative judg- ments until verified by experience. The value of such judg- ments is that application or further investigation is encouraged, and the tendency to form positive judgments upon a slight or faulty basis is discouraged. (V) In order to verify the con- clusions reached in the process of logical thinking, a fifth factor in study is needed. This is application, or the execution of theory. Through the use of this factor of study, theories are rejected, corrected, or accepted according as they meet the con- ditions of the original problem which gave rise to the thought- situation, or of similar problems. Through use, also, the theory is fixed as an element of knowledge and the expression becomes habitual. (VI) To fix knowledge in a certain form memorizing is necessary, and this process, accordingly, makes a sixth factor in study. Thoughtful memorizing is accomplished in part dur- ing the course of the thinking process. It is completed by con- sciously attending to the relationships to be fixed in mind and by reviewing them in their logical order. (VII) Throughout the process of logical study, there is opportunity for the preser- vation and development of the individuality of the student. This is as it should be since training in process is fully as much needed in life as the accumulation of facts, though the facts are not to be despised. Logical study calls for individual effort and individual judgment and affords opportunity for the exer- cise of initiative. Training in its use is training in the use of native power and ability to the best advantage. Like results need not be expected, therefore, in all cases, since minds differ in native endowment, in the nature of the store of knowledge al- ready acquired, in the ways of judging data and in the modes of making application. Note. — For a fuller discussion of the ideas in regard to the thought-situation presented in this chapter see Studies in Logi- cal Theory, by Professor John Dewey. CHAPTER II The Nature of Logical Study — Continued The deductive form of logical study. The logical study thus far described has begun with some problem and has advanced toward the formulation of the theory which provides the solution for it. The process is inductive in nature, knd being so, is applicable in the large number of oc- casions in life in which the formulation of some theory is neces- sary to explain facts. However, problems are not always of this nature ; they sometimes require the employment of theories or principles which have already been formulated. The facts are before us and call, not for the formulation of a new theory, but for the use of one which is known. Examples of this form of thinking are seen in recognition, interpretation, and in any use of formulated knowledge. Effort in such cases is directed towards identifying the fact present in consciousness with some group of facts for which a satisfactory theory already exists. Through this identification, we read into the fact the significance or meaning of the principle which is applied to it. The mathe- matician who sees that the facts given in his problem involve a certain principle or rule ; the scientist who identifies some plant or animal as belonging to some group he already knows ; and the pupil who recognizes some part of speech as a noun, and who consequently attributes to it the properties of nouns, — all these are employing principles, theories, or classifications already for- mulated. The process is one of application rather than of dis- covery of theory. It is deductive in its nature. It is very fre- quently employed in giving explanations of facts or situations, though the full form of deductive reasoning is often cut short by assuming part of the steps. For example, in determining the climate of a given place, certain facts about location, physio- graphy, winds, and altitude are cited, the assumption being that all places having these features have a certain kind of climate ; and that the given place, having these conditions, must therefore have the same kind of climate as all the other places similarly conditioned. 24 The Nature of Logical Study. Necessity of understanding the problem. In this deductive process of studying there is the same need of recognition and analysis of the problem as in the inductive study. Without a clear understanding of the situation, there is no adequate criterion for the selection of the theory or prin- ciple which is to furnish the solution, since its relevancy is not apparent until the problem has been made plain. Judging the adequacy of a principle or theory. In the purely deductive process of studying, the factor — judg- ing the soundness of statements — may not play so important a part as in the inductive study. It depends upon the extent to which data are employed. In deductive study it is the theory which must undergo criticism, and we must judge of its ap- plicability, its adequacy, to the solution of the problem. A theory or principle may be relevant but not adequate, and it be- comes necessary to discriminate between that which is sufficient to furnish the desired solution, and that which is not. Sometimes, however, a final judgment as to the theory or principle must be deferred, either because the problem itself has not been completely analyzed, or because no adequate theory has been formulated, or because we are not able to find the right theory. We must then either accept a judgment or classifica- tion tentatively, or we must try to remove the difficulty which has prevented the definite acceptance of a solution as adequate and final. This may be done by further study of the conditions of the problem itself, by an inductive study of the theory, or by a further search for a theory which has already been formulated. Application of theory. The test by which the adequacy of a theory is determined is its application to the situation which caused the search for a theory. As long as theories are never applied to problems, it matters little which ones are selected ; but little progress is made by this plan. The more genuine and vital the problem, the greater the need of the application of whatever theory is selected after careful examination. Thus the chemist or physician who attempts to produce a serum for tetanus or rabies, proceeds upon certain principles believed to have been established through the discovery of other serums. Having obtained the serums accord- The Nature of Logical Study. 25 ing to principle, he usually applies them first to some animals to test their efficacy. The bridgebuilder or the boatbuilder who seeks to meet a new or peculiar situation, not only searches for his theory or principle, but frequently tests it in the manufacture of a model before using it in the actual situation. The final test, however, is its use in the connection for which it was intended. The collection and organization of data, factors of study em- ployed when the process was inductive, are present in deductive study also. They appear in the analysis and delimitation of the problem itself, and in the selection and study of other examples manifesting the same peculiarities as the one which gave rise to the problem. The search for data and their careful study leads to the discovery of the principle whose application they illustrate. The expression " discovery of principle " as here employed, does not mean formulation of theory, but rather the finding of a theory which has already been formulated and which furnishes the explanation of the problem. Logical memorizing is also present in deductive study, though it may not always be as prominent or as necessary as in the inductive process. The results of previous memorizing are em- ployed and thus the thoroughness of the process is tested. In the new work, the relation of the data giving rise to the problem to the theory which solves the problem, may call for memorizing to fix the relation for future use. In such cases it should not be neglected. Self-expression and self-development through deductive study. Whenever there is a genuine problem present which is felt as such by the student, and whenever the factors of logical study are employed freely by him, there is opportunity for the expres- sion and development of self. It requires initiative in deductive study as well as in inductive, to discover the problem, see its im- plications and conditions, and find and test the solution. Where, however, the process is purely formal, and is carried on under the direction and dictation of another, the higher thinking powers of the student remain inactive, and consequently undeveloped. Such formal use of theory is seen in the application of rules, principles, or definitions in mathematics, grammar, or physics when the pupils have little idea of the meaning of the problems and possibly none at all of the rules, definitions and principles. 26 The Nature of Logical Study. In conclusion, we may say that the factors present in inductive study are present in deductive study also, though they may be modified to suit the changed purpose of the study, which is to apply principles rather than to formulate theory. CHAPTER III Relation of Logical Study to the Study of the Textbook In the preceding chapters, the steps or factors in logical study, both inductive and deductive, have been described and illustrated. The discussion has been general in its nature, as it was thought best to see the broad significance of study before confining the attention to the form it takes under certain limitations. Schoolroom conditions and traditional procedure are the limita- tions which hedge in the pupils in the years devoted to so-called study. In the ordinary schoolroom we find a group of pupils of nearly the same age, pursuing the same subjects from the same books, and with freedom of physical activity at least greatly re- stricted. The question is pertinent here as to whether the factors present in purely logical study are possible in the study of the textbook. Some reflection upon the nature of textbook work shows that to a large extent these factors may be employed, though in a modified form. Consciousness of the author's problem or purpose the first factor in textbook study. First of all in systematic textbook study, as in other study, there is the necessity of some problem. In ordinary experience aside from books, the problem is found in some life situation, but in the book the author provides it and the student must find and appropriate it. An author may have written a chapter of psychology to show the nature, kinds, and uses of interest ; of geography to show how the mountains of Europe affect the climate and drainage of that continent ; or of history to show how New England came to be settled by the Puritans. The problem was present in the author's mind and was worked out by him in some section of his book. The student must re-discover it, and appropriate it for his own in order that he may benefit by his study. His question to himself must be, " What was the author's purpose in writing this ?" or " What is the main thought of this section?" or "What underlying idea runs all through this chapter, connecting the various parts ?" Through some such 28 The Nature of Logical Study. self-questioning and self-directing of thought, the author's pur- pose or problem is revealed, whether in geography, history, grammar, arithmetic or some other subject. Gathering data a factor in textbook study. When the author's aim has been grasped, the gathering of data is necessary in textbook study, just as it is in any situation where there is a problem to solve. In the use of the book, how- ever, the author supplies much of the material that is to be used, and the student must look upon it as data presented with the idea of solving the author's problem. The student is not limited to the author's text, however, but may draw upon his own experience and upon his imagination. He may read books, papers, magazines, and may talk with people who are informed in regard to the subject he is studying. He may perform ex- periments and make observations. In any or all of these ways he may supplement the author's text and add largely to the material bearing upon his problem. The criterion for acceptance is here as in other study the relevancy to the problem of the facts presented to consciousness. That which is irrelevant should be rejected, and only the relevant accepted. If, for example, the problem is, " How the mineral products of the western states have influenced the development of those states," then students engaged upon such a problem may neglect all the statements made by the author which do not bear upon this problem, but they must sift out and accept that which contributes to its solu- tion. Organization of ideas a factor in textbook study. The step of organizing ideas differs in textbook study from the organizing that is done when the student must seek and accept data which have not already been organized. Textbooks present a certain form of organization and the student must dis- cover it in order to see fully the author's treatment of his problem. This includes finding the main points in the chapter or paragraph involved in the problem, and in grouping the related minor points about these main points. This organization of the text may be extended or otherwise changed by the use of supple- mentary material which the student has gathered and accepted as bearing upon the author's problem. An example of organi- The Nature of Logical Study. 29 zation of textbook material is tiie following: Examination of a section in a textbook in United States history shows the author's problem to be the explanation of how slavery was introduced into the United States. Further study shows a number of de- tails which group themselves into a few points : I. How slavery was introduced into the United States. 1. Reasons for its introduction, 2. The introduction of negroes as slaves. A. Time. B. Place. C. Agency. 3. The introduction of indentured servants. A. Reason for practice. B. Character of these servants. C. The end of white slavery in America. Such organization not only shows the author's mode of treat- ment of his subject but it also enables the student to handle his material more conveniently. It brings out the main points clearly, and about these can be grouped the needed details. The irrelevant and the unimportant are weeded out. As a result of organization the author's theory as to the solution of his problem should have been grasped by the person who is study- ing. Th£ necessity of deferred judgment in the study of books. The same caution which is necessary in logical study in gen- eral in regard to accepting hypotheses and theories as pro- visional rather than final conclusions, is necessary also in the study of books. The same conservatism, also, in forming such theories is necessary. Forming hasty judgments and jumping at conclusions are of frequent enough occurrence in such subjects as literature, history, and other subjects to show the need of greater discretion in this direction. It frequently happens that judgments of persons or actions, or of other matters, are formed before the situation has been sufficiently worked out by the author to make the formulation of theory possible. To anticipate the course of history so as to introduce the results of a movement at the place where its beginning is described is not always feasible 30 TJie Nature of Logical Study. or advisable, and so final judgment of its significance should be deferred until adequate knowledge has been acquired. Any other judgment must be regarded as mere hypothesis. Final judgment of character in literature or history must await the development of events sufficiently to warrant it. The results of some treat- ies and laws are so far-reaching that immediate judgments as to their value would probably be erroneous. Geography, also, frequently calls for the use of caution in drawing conclusions. To judge of climate on the grounds of latitude alone, and to think that because the people of the Western States are far removed from the Atlantic seaboard they are therefore uncultured and live in primitive style, are manifestly rash acts of judgment, yet such judgments are not uncommon. Further data would doubt- less cause the correction of one hypothesis and the abandonment of the other. If children are permitted to do so, they frequently ask their teachers for reasons and explanations, showing that they are aware of lack of fulness in their books and that they desire further data. Here again it happens that the forming of a posi- tive theory must await the right opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge. In the end, the ideas gathered may not be suffi- cient to warrant the formulation of theory, and if any judgment is formed it must be an hypothesis. But the elements of tenta- tiveness in both hypotheses and theories must not be lost sight of, nor the need of final verification. Consideration of the soundness of statements a factor in the study of a book. The attitude of scientific doubt which manifests itself in the consideration of the soundness of statements and the validity of data of any kind is quite as essential a factor in textbook study as in any other. If it was necessary to scrutinize statements with a critical eye when the textbook was but one of several sources from which facts were sought, it is the more necessary to exer- cise care when the book becomes the main source of data bear- ing upon the problem. Histories, grammars, geographies, and other texts have been known to contain inaccurate material, and even the truth is at times so startling as to cause a challenge in the mind of the readers. For example, a certain text in gram- mar gives the following definition of a phrase : " A phrase is any The Nature of Logical Study. 31 combination of words that does not include both subject and predicate."^ Then any group of words selected at random might form a phrase, if only no subject and predicate are included. This second definition makes the weakness of the first one more clear: "A phrase is a group of related words without subject and predicate, and having the use of a single word."^ The fol- lowing statement in regard to the Russian peasants is taken from a geography textbook published before the recent Russo-Japan- ese war and still in use: "It was not until 1863 that serfdom was abolished. Hence it is no wonder that the masses are with- out education ; but great progress is now being made."^ A certain textbook in United States history, in treating of the opening events of the Civil War, says : " But the attack on Fort Sumter changed the whole situation. Doubt was at an end on both sides. Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas forced now to take one side or the other, soon joined the Con- federacy."* The question might well be asked, " What was the situation in the border states where both sides were represented? Was all doubt ended there by the attack on Fort Sumter?" Furthermore, the statements that " We are to remember that, though the war was caused by slavery, it was not at first about slavery, but about secession,"^ and " The Southerners were nat- urally more military than the Northern people,"^ are somewhat startling to the pupils who have been taught up to this time that slavery was the cause of the war and have heard little or noth- ing of secession, and who have believed the Northern men to be in every way equal if not superior to the men of the South. Such statements should challenge pupils to question and investi- gate their worth. The author's accounts or explanations may be compared with one's own experience. His use of sources and his method of treating problems need to be considered to determine whether he works cautiously or is hasty in his judgments. It is often worth while to ask the question, " What is the writer's authority for the statements he makes ?" " Does he base his conclusions upon observation, upon written evidence, or is he relying upon hearsay?" These questions are frequently in order iWelsh, Lessons in English, p. 34. 'Webster, Elements of English Grammar, p. 39. 'The Werner Grammar School Geography, Part I, p. 244. ^Eggleston, Household History oj the United Statts, p. 310. 'Ibid, p. 311. •Ibid, p. 312. 32 The Nature of Logical Study. in the study of history, geography, and the natural sciences. Other books and sources of information may be consulted as a means of verification or correction. Caution is especially neces- sary if magazine articles and newspapers are used as texts in studying certain subjects or phases of subjects. It is not intended that pupils shall question everything they read or hear. Usually they will not need to have doubts as to the reliability of the statements made. But the attitude of ready acceptance of everything needs to be replaced by the attitude of mind which questions that which seems out of harmony with previous experience, which is startling in its nature, which seems to lack sufficient evidence, or which seems too general in its scope. Such instances, and possibly others, furnish occasion for thought and investigation as to the validity of the material of- fered. In this respect, textbook study does not differ from any other study in which data are presented to throw light upon some situation. Judgment as to the soundness of statements is usually necessary though due crpdence should be given to the results of the labors of experts in the several fields of knowledge. Verification or the application of theory a factor in the study of the textbook. The use of verification as a factor in studying" books is fre- quently modified by the fact that the author makes his own ap- plication of the theory he has advanced. But because the books are textbooks they are limited in the amount of space that can be devoted to any part of a subject, and consequently that which is given to verification of theory is usually small, and the amount and variety of material presented for giving facility in the ap- plication is often inadequate. There is much that can and should be done to apply the theories presented in the books and re- discovered by the pupils to life-situations in which the latter par- ticipate. Real occasions for the use of arithmetical ideas and cor- rect grammatical constructions are possible. x\ll of the forms of expression described under this topic in the consideration of logical study are applicable in textbook study, whether it be oral or written expression, constructive work, social activity, some application to the aflfairs of ordinary life, or even the use of the theory as the basis for further thought. One need only recognize the value of application as a factor in higher study The Nature of Logical Study. 33 and look for opportunities for employing it and frequently some appropriate form will be found. As was said in a previous chap- ter, the time for using the theory may be delayed until a favor- able opportunity arrives, but often the verification may be made as soon as the theory is clearly understood. Strength and clear- ness of the ideas are very necessary in order that these may function when there is an opportunity for them to do so. Memorising as a factor in study. With ideas selected and associated through the use of the factors of study already discussed, memorizing of the logical type has already been included to some extent. Its further use in the study of material selected from textbooks does not differ from the memorizing described under logical study. Its use is both possible and advisable in such a connection. Deductive study of books. So much of the study of books in school is deductive in its character that but little time need be devoted to its explanation here. Parsing and sentential analysis in grammar, the solution of problems in mathematics, the explanations of geographical phenomena, and the interpretation of history all involve the call- ing up of principles, rules, theories or other general forms of knowledge and the application of them to concrete instances. The criticism has been made that this form of logical study has been over-emphasized in school and that pupils have been ex- pected to apply general ideas which they do not clearly under- stand. Since both inductive and deductive study are possible in school work, it may be said in general that when pupils are found to lack the general knowledge needed for the solution of problems, the inductive form of study should be employed ; but that when the pupils possess the principles needed for explana- tion or interpretation the deductive form of study should be used. The two methods might thus be used in the same study period in connection with the same lesson, or they may not thus occur. It depends upon the nature of the lesson and the mental equipment of the pupils how frequently and closely they are associated. 34 The Nature of Logical Study. Relation of proper textbook study to initiative and self-develop- ment. Although the use of books does not afford the same opportun- ity for the use of one's own powers, nor provide the same mo- tives and interests as the study which arises from Hfe-situations where the problems are felt to be of moment, yet they do furnish a means for self-development and self-expression if they are rightly used. It is for the purpose of furthering this right use that the explanations of this chapter have been given. If one would be helped by the use of books, he must master them and not be mastered by them; i. e. he must weigh, judge, test before he accepts their statements, or else he loses his own individuality. It requires the exercise of initiative to discover the problems in books, just as it does to discover them in logical study aside from books. It requires it, also, to select, accept, reject, and organ- ize data, and grasp the author's theory. One of the highest expressions of the self will be found in the testing of statements and in the recognition of judgments as tentative because of faulty or inadequate data. And so, also, in the form of application which the student employs there is opportunity for the develop- ment of his own personality, provided he be free to exercise choice as to its form. If textbook study be limited to rote learning or to deductive study, the opportunities for the exercise of initiative and self- expression are greatly limited. Since the school's recognized function is to further the wise development of these powers of the pupils, it should not neglect so valuable an agency as the higher form of study offers. If study could be directed in gen- uine life-situations where problems of real importance to pupils abound, the opportunities for self-expression and development would be most favorable. But textbook study is not devoid of possibilities in this direction and these possibilities should be recognized and utilized. Before leaving this discussion of the use of systematic study in connection with school work, the question should be considered as to whether all of the factors of higher study are necessary in all study. The answer must be a decided negative. First of all, as was pointed out in the first chapter, a great deal of school work does not deal with the assimilation of knowledge but with the mastery of technique: for example, spelling, mechanical The Nature of Logical Study. 35 i work in arithmetic, and the formal side of reading. There the mechanical side prevails and the readjustment of ideas based upon their thought-relations is not involved. In the second place, much of the subject-matter which does involve the relationship of ideas based upon meaning is of such a nature as to present little of value in the way of problems. It is intended to enter- tain, or to cultivate taste and sentiment rather than to furnish food for thought. Some school histories, books about nature, and a good deal of the reading matter and literature put before pupils belong to this class. They present few logical problems of value and call for little purposive thinking. Whether they should do so to a greater extent than is now the case, is a question worthy of consideration, as is also the question as to whether the logical possibilities, slight though they are, should not be more fully realized. Even in subjects or subject-matter which call for systematic study there are great differences in the nature and importance of problems presented from time to time. Not all problems are worth the time and effort involved in the use of all the factors of study ; and some may not require the use of all in order to reach a solution which is entirely satisfactory. Frequently minor problems present themselves during the study of larger ones. It is sometimes necessary to ignore them en- tirely or to postpone their consideration to some other time. If their solution is indispensable to the main problem in hand, then time and attention must be given to them as to other prob- lems. It may be said, further, that some problems may involve sev- eral or all of the factors of systematic study and yet be solved quickly, while other problems may require a long time for solu- tion, being taken up for consideration from time to time as cir- cumstances determine. For some reason the gathering of data may be deferred, and meanwhile the problem rests unsolved ; or delay may be due to some other cause. In general it may be said that the length of time spent in studying problems varies. Several may be disposed of in one study period, or one may extend through a long period, being considered from time to time as the work develops. CHAPTER IV The Ability of Children in the Elementary School to Study Having seen the nature of logical study and having followed the application of its various steps to the mastery of a lesson in a book, it is of great importance to know whether children are capable of studying in the manner described. Can children see the author's problem, or find the underlying thought running through a lesson? Can they collect material bearing upon this problem? Can they find the important points in a chapter, or paragraph, or other section, offering a problem ? Can they ques- tion statements, and see discrepancies in the material offered? Can they, in general, employ the various factors of logical study? If mechanical study is the only kind of which children in the ele- mentary schools are capable, then the whole discussion of study down to this point is irrelevant as far as they are concerned. Factors influencing the preparation of the experiments to deter- mine the ability of pupils to study. The attempt to find an adequate answer to the questions in the preceding paragraph involved the consideration of many seri- ous difficulties. The grades, the number of children, the loca- tion of the schools, the subjects to be used in testing, the nature of the exercises, and the manner of conducting them — all these and various other points had to be determined before the tests could be given. The situation was made even more complicated by the desire to train part of the classes in systematic study after the first tests had been given, and then to give all pupils, both trained and untrained, a second series similar to the first, with the purpose of finding out what differences were to be observed in the results obtained from the two classes of pupils. The desire to give part of the pupils some training in syste- matic study necessarily determined the location where some of the tests should be given, since the training must be conducted under the direction of those who were familiar with the theory of study which was the subject of experimentation. This theory The Nature of Logical Study. 37 had been presented in the year 1905-06 by Professor F. M. McMurry before a class in Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity. This class was composed entirely of experienced teachers, and to these teachers the appeal for assistance was made during the year 1906-07. Only part of those appealed to were able to promise help, but through these teachers certain classes in Bal- timore, Md., Passaic, N. J., Westport, Conn., and in the Train- ing Department of the State Normal School in Macomb, 111., were secured. Two teachers in the Speyer School, the School of Practice of Teachers College, agreed to attempt the training of their classes, also. In addition to the classes already men- tioned, others were obtained for testing without training in the public schools of New York City, of Passaic, N. J., and of In- dianapolis, Ind. The subject of geography was chosen for the tests, both be- cause it furnishes abundant opportunities for proper study, and also because it is a subject which is quite sure to be taught in all of the higher grades of the elementary schools. History is not taught so generally as geography, and for this reason was not selected for the experiments. The ideal procedure would have been to train the pupils in the method of study in connec- tion with all of their school subjects, and to test them in all of these, but while the teacher might have trained them in all branches offering opportunities for logical study, the testing would have been too arduous and too time-consuming, especially since more than a thousand pupils were tested. The tests were given to pupils of the sixth and seventh grades only. Pupils in these grades are supposed to be able to express themselves sufficiently well in writing to be able to work upon the material given. The eighth grade was not chosen because of the possibility of wishing to give similar tests during the fol- lowing year, in which case, the eighth grade pupils would not have been available because they would have left the elementary school. In order to make the results as general as possible, the tests were given to as many classes as could be obtained for the pur- pose. More than twelve hundred pupils wrote upon the first series, which was given early in the year 1907. When the second test was given three months later, several classes dropped out, and the number was reduced to about eleven hundred. In each 38 The Nature of Logical Study. pair of tests, only those results were considered which were ob- tained from pupils present in both of them. The nature of the tests employed. Five different kinds of tests were given so that both the sub- jective and objective sides of the studying might be observed. It seemed as if the studying process employed might be more clearly seen if the pupils not only described their way of study- ing but also performed some work which tested their ability to employ the various factors of study. The tabulation of the re- sults of two of the tests has not yet been completed. The subject-matter used in the tests was selected from geo- graphy textbooks intended for use in the elementary schools. The Redway and Himnan, the Tarr and McMurry, the Frye, the Dodge, and the Werner texts were all drawn upon for ma- terial. Ten tests were given to each of the two grades selected, five being given in the first series, and five in the second. The re- quirements for the corresponding tests in the two series were alike in nature. In preparing each one of these tests, material was selected for five tests, as nearly equal in interest and diffi- culty as possible. Each of these fifty tests was prepared as if to be presented to a class, and then from each of the ten groups of five, two tests were drawn at random, the first one drawn be- ing laid aside for the first test in that group, and the second one drawn being used for the second series. Each test with direc- tions as to how it was to be used was then printed, so that each pupil who wrote the tests had his own printed slip containing the subject-matter and directions. The first test in each series was probably the most difficult. It consisted of a short selection from one of the geography text- books and was accompanied by the following requirement: " Here is a lesson from a book such as you use in class. Do whatever you think you ought to do in studying this lesson thoroughly, and then tell (write down) the dififerent things you have done in studying it. Do not write anything else." If the other tests had been given first, they would probably have in- fluenced the pupils in the preparation of this one ; so this one was given first. It was hoped that the results would show whether any pupils were employing the factors of logical study, and to what extent they were employing them. The Nature of Logical Study. 39 In connection with this test, which was called test A,^ these directions were sent to the teachers : " When test A is given, the class should be observed as it works, and notes should be taken as to what the different pupils do. If a pupil gets one or more books for reference, consults the dictionary, sits and thinks, etc., it should be noted, so that the teacher's notes can be com- pared with the child's account of what he has done. These notes should be forwarded with the test papers when they are com- pleted. Test A is the only one in which the pupils may be per- mitted to consult books, and they are to do that in test A only if they think of it themselves." The second test in each series, test B,- consisted of a few para- graphs of subject matter from a textbook. The pupils were in- structed to write a list of the important questions whose answers were found in the lesson. This exercise was intended to test the pupils' ability to discriminate between the important and the rela- tively unimportant ideas in the lesson. In the third test, test C,^ the pupils were given a question with this direction : " Do not answer this question, but write down everything you think you ought to do in finding the answer to it." For the first series in the sixth grade the question was, " Why is Pittsburg such an important commercial and manu- facturing city?" For the second series, it was the following: " Tobacco used to be grown almost entirely in the Southern States, but now it is grown extensively in the Northern States as well. Why has this change come about?" In the first series for the seventh grade the question was : " Why do terrible fam- ines occur in India every few years?" In the second series, the pupils were asked, " If you were a voter and a governor was to be elected in your State, how would you decide which of the candidates to vote for?" Test C, like test A, instead of making some definite require- ment of the pupils, emphasized the subjective side of the prob- lem. In test A the pupils were to tell what they had done ; in test C they were to tell what they would do. The object was the same, that is, to discover to what extent the pupils were employ- ing the factors of logical study. In the fourth test, test D,* the pupils were given the slip con- iSee Appendix. ^See Appendix. 'See Appendix. ■*See Appendix. 4G The Nature of Logical Study. taining subject-matter from a text-book. The accompanying direction was : " Study this lesson until you think you know it, and then return it to your teacher." When the first slip was re- turned, a second one was given to the pupils. This second slip contained questions about the text which had just been studied. These questions were of such a nature that they did not permit of verbatim answers, but required rather that the important facts stated in the lesson be used in framing the answers. This exer- cise was intended to test the mastery of the main points in a lesson, rather than the memorizing of the words. The last test in each series, test E,^ called directly for systema- tic study of a lesson. It consisted of a slip containing subject matter from a textbook, and an accompanying slip containing the directions and requirements, both slips being given to the pupils at the same time. The pupils were to find the answers to the following questions, numbering them as the questions are num- bered : 1. What is the subject of this lesson? 2. Write a list of the principal topics in it. 3. What do you think is the most important thing in this les- son? 4. What are your reasons for thinking this so important? 5. What other facts do you know about any of these topics? 6. What questions would you ask in regard to anything in this lesson that is not clear to you or that you would like to know more about? This test was placed at the end of the series so that it might not serve as a clue in the writing of any of the other exer- cises. Directions in regard to the manner of conducting the tests^ were sent to each principal in whose building the tests were to be given. In general, these directions were intended to exclude all talking by the teacher ; to provide that the pupils work with- out assistance of any kind from any person ; that each child should have all the time he needed for the completion of the test ; and that the tests should be given during the forenoons of successive days. Instructions were given as to how the head- ^See Appendix. 'See Appendix. The Nature of Logical Study. 41 ing of all papers was to be written, and in regard to other de- tails of the preparation of the papers. Each child's time record was to be indicated on the heading, and the directions said : " Each child should have as much time as he needs for each test, * * * Begin to count time after the heading is written. Be sure each child indicates it." These directions proved not to be sufficiently explicit, so that the time records do not all have the same meaning. They therefore pos- sess little value as a basis for comparison. Test A. Table P shows the results obtained by an examination of the papers written for test A. The sixth and seventh grades are separated in this report, as are also the classes in each grade which were trained in systematic studying during the three months which elapsed between the first and second series of tests. In preparing this test, most of the pupils did one of four things. They followed the directions exactly, or they wrote down the results of their study, or they told what they would do in studying a lesson, or they wrote the facts of the lesson either in the form of a verbatim reproduction or more briefly. Some- times two or more of these modes of treatment were found com- bined on the same paper. The reports of what the pupils said they would do were kept quite distinct from the reports which showed what had been done ; but they were considered as having value in that they revealed the ideas of the pupils in regard to studying. Probably some of the pupils actually did the things which they laid they would do, and used the wrong tense in reporting it. It may have been the case, also, that some of the pupils either did not have their textbooks and books of refer- ence, or they may not have felt free to use them without per- mission. One teacher reported that the pupils used books " stealthily," and in that class only a few reported that they had used books, and the number who said that they would use them was not much larger. .Another teacher reported thus : " Before the pupils were permitted to look at the printed test, they were told that ordinarily they must wait for permission of teachers to take books out, or to go to the closet for material. For this ^See Appendix. 42 The Nature of Logical Study. work they had permission to do anything they found necessary in order to do the work." This teacher did not follow the direc- tion about refraining from all explanations or talk of any kind, but her suggestion and the freedom permitted to the class re- sulted in more than forty per cent, of the class using books of some kind, while others reported that they would use them, bringing the total per cent, up to nearly fifty. Factors of logical study shown in Test A. The various items in Tables I, II, and IIP were arranged after an examination of several sets of papers, and not according to some preconceived scheme. Those in Table I which show most clearly the use of the factors of logical study are the ones in re- gard to finding the subject, finding the most important points, verifying statements, supplementing the lesson, and preparing questions. The extent to which the pupils tested found the subject. In the first series, a total of 14 reported that they had found the subject, or the work on their papers showed that they had found it. In the second test, 25 reported similarly. If we add to these totals the number who reported that they would find the subject, they become 16 and 26 respectively, or 1.9% and 4.3% of the whole number of pupils writing both tests. How many pupils unintentionally concealed what they did by saying that they " thought," or " tried to understand," or that they " studied the lesson," cannot be estimated ; but the number of those who possessed the ability to find the subject is shown by an examina- tion of Table III. The ability of the pupils to find the subject. In test E, the results of which are included in Table III, the requirement was made to find the subject of the lesson, and the total results are very different from those given in Table I. In test E of the first series, 301 pupils or 36.4%, found a subject which was considered adequate; and in the second series, 114 answers or 13.8% of the whole, were similarly marked. The sixth grade in writing test E of the first series gave in most cases a subject which included but part of the lesson, many of them ^See Appendix. The Nature of Logical Study. 43 giving Rivers as the subject. In the second series, they reversed themselves, and gave a subject which was too general, most of them saying that Georgia was the subject. On the whole, but few of the subjects were irrelevant, and there were almost no failures to give a subject of some kind. The results of the two tests indicate that while these pupils do not find the subject of the lesson to any great extent when studying without definite directions, they are capable to a con- siderable extent of finding it when they are required to do so. The tendency and ability of pupils to organise subject-matter. In regard to finding the most important points or facts in the lesson. Table I shows that in test A the number of pupils who either actually gave these facts, or said they found them, is 88, or 10.4%, for the first series, and 171, or 2.0.2,% for the second. Adding those who said they would find them, the numbers be- come 109, or 12.9% for the first series ; and 226, or 26.8% for the second. In test E, where the pupils were directed to write a list of the prmcipal topics, the response was better, even though in this test, the replies were classified as adequate or inadequate. Table III shows that in the first series 265, or 32%, prepared adequate lists of topics ; while in the second series 214, or 28.8%, did so. The number of those who prepared no lists is very small, being less than 2% in either test. In judging of the adequacy of a list of principal topics, two questions were kept in mind: Do the topics cover the entire lesson? Do they include the main points only, or are they too detailed? Some pupils gave topics which were very good as far as they went, but they left out some important section of the lesson. For example, in test E of the second series, a num- ber of children omitted to include a topic which would cover the last paragraph, the paragraph which tells about the homes of the different races, or, how the houses of the races are sepa- rated from each other. On the other hand, some pupils pre- pared a topic for nearly every sentence in the lesson. Such lists as these could not be reckoned as adequate because they were either too meagre or because they were too detailed in nature. However, even such lists show some degree of ability, and taken into consideration with those who prepared adequate lists, they 44 The Nature of Logical Study. show that these children are able, in varying degrees of efficiency, to analyze a lesson and find the essential facts in it. The extent to ivhich pupils questioned or verified the author's statements. Table I shows that few children thought of questioning the author's statements while writing test A. In the first series 7, and in the second series 10, reported that they either had veri- fied or would verify the text. One boy reported, " The next thing I did was to find out if everything was true what the paper said." Others referred to the maps or texts to see if the state- ments about the proximity of Africa to Europe and Asia were true. One child said, " I found out that Europe and Asia were really almost near each other. I found this out in my Natural Advanced Geography." In test E, the opportunity for doubt was given in the sixth question : " What questions would you ask in regard to any- thing in this lesson that is not clear to you or that you would like to know more about?" A good many questions were asked which are answered in the text placed before the pupils. These might indicate doubt as to the reliability of the statements read, but probably few of them' do so. For example, in the sixth grade, in test E of the second series, the following questions were writ- ten : " Was Atlanta the capital of Georgia ?" " What is Sav- annah noted for?" "Is Savannah situated on the coast of Georgia?" "What is eighteen miles from the ocean?" "What are the chief exports?" These are probably merely memory questions asked rather as a matter of form than because the pupils wished confirmation of the statements of the exercise. A very few pupils showed genuine difficulty in accepting the text. One child wrote : " The question is not clear to me because you say that Savannah was taken by the British during the Revo- lutionary War. And when I studied the geography I found that Savana was in Georgia and belonged to the U. S. So please let me no how it happened that U. S. got it back." One pupil in the seventh grade, when writing about the races of people, expressed herself as follows : " It says that America is the home of the Indians, and down below it says that the land of the Indians is bounded on all sides by the sea. I disagree with this answer." The Nature of Logical Study. 45 On the whole, the pupils accepted the subject-matter placed before them without questioning its accuracy. .The tests do not reveal any power the children in these classes may possess of seeing discrepancies between what they read and what they know. Whether they really possess this power and would exer- cise it if permitted or required to do so is a point left, undecided by these two exercises. The ability to supplement the text of the lesson. The evidence in regard to the ability of pupils to supplement the text is stronger than it is regarding the factors already con- sidered. In test A of the first series for the sixth grade, the pupils used geographies, books of reference, and maps, and some wrote that they tried to imagine the map of Africa which they had previously studied, and tried to see the location of the places mentioned. In the second series, in the corresponding test, the pupils showed by their questions, and by the citation of facts already known about the Puritans, that they were adding to the text placed before them or that they were tending to do so. The seventh grades supplemented in similar ways, i. e., by naming books to which they had referred, by giving additional facts, and by asking questions which showed that they were reaching out beyond the lesson. A few teachers stated in these reports on test A of the first series, that not all of the pupils who said they had used books, had really done so. On the other hand, one class, at least, that usually made frequent use of references did not do so in con- nection with this test. The reports of many of the pupils con- tained evidence of outside reading, so that a large part of the children must have made use of references in the preparation of the test. In the first series 173, or 20.5%, supplemented the text, or reported that they had done so. In the second series, 269, or 31.89^, gave evidence of having done so. These num- bers would be considerably increased by adding those who said they would refer to other books, or in some other way add to the statements given. In test E, the supplementing is shown by the questioning in response to the sixth question of the test. In making the tabu- lation, all questions not relevant to the lesson were included under 46 The Nature of Logical Study. the heading, '" Did not understand." If, then, from the total number of questions asked in each test, the number of questions answered in the text be subtracted, we have left the number of questions which tend to further the pupils' understanding and knowledge of the texts given. The results thus obtained show that in test E of the first series, 454 supplementary questions were asked, and that 597 were asked in the corresponding test of the second series. Part of these questions were about the mean- ings of words, part about facts, and part about reasons, the fact questions largely predominating. In the first series, 45 pupils asked about the meanings of words ; in the second test 33 asked similar questions. Questions about facts were asked by 251 pupils in the first test, and by 294 in the second. Reasons were called for by 145 pupils in the first test, and by 104 in the second. Thus not only the number of the questions, but their nature as well, and the number of pupils asking them show that pupils possess the ability to supplement the text given them for study. Nature of some of the questions asked. Some of the questions are of great value. Many children asked what rosin and 7iaz>al stores are. They asked for the loca- tion of Atlanta, and wanted to know why and how Atlanta was destroyed. They asked if Atlanta and Savannah are on the Fall Line, and wanted to know how Savannah could have so deep a harbor when it is so far from the coast. They inquired whether the coal and iron mines, which the text says are in the north, are in the northern part of Georgia, or in the Northern states. Why has Atlanta grown rapidly? How can Georgia manufacture so much with such poor harbors? How do they get the rosin and turpentine? All these are questions asked by sixth grade pupils writing test E in the second series. In the lesson about the races, given to the seventh grades, some of the questions asked were : Who are the people along the Kongo ? How do they live ? Where is the original home of the white race? Why did some of the people migrate into other countries and others stay in their own country? Why don't the mountains of our country separate any races of people? Who came to know about these different races of people? Why do the races differ from each other? In the lesson about India, some of the questions asked by the seventh grade were as follows : What are Aryan people The Nature of Logical Study. 47 and what are jute goods? In what part of India is the manu- facturing? What right has the British government to rule over India? Could the people of India do more for themselves if so disposed? If the British government didn't have control over India, would it get along as well? Indefiniteness in questioning. Many more questions were intended which were not expressed as questions. In the first series, 288 pupils, or 34.8%, indicated subjects about which they would like to ask questions, but did not ask the questions. Sometimes they simply gave topics, and it was not clear what the question was intended to bring out about the topics. In the second test, 243 pupils, or 29.3%, were so lacking in clearness that the questions were not understood. It is evident, however, that many pupils in these grades can ask questions, and questions of value. Other pupils need training in clear expression so that they may be more exact in their questioning. As it is, they merely hint as to the direction in which their thoughts tend. Further evidence of the ability of children of the grades tested to add relevant matter to the text given is seen in the answers to the fifth question in test E. This question reads : What further facts do you know about any of these topics? In the first test, about 28% of the pupils gave facts that were relevant; in the second test the number who gave related facts was a little more than 29% of the whole number. A very few pupils gave irrele- vant matter, and more than one-third in each test gave facts from the text used in the test. The latter probably misunderstood the question. The ability to see problems relating to the lesson. That children in the sixth and seventh grades can see prob- lems related to the subject which they are studying is shown by the questions quoted above in the discussion of the sixth ques- tion in test E. Their ability to sense the author's problems is revealed in a curious way. In writing test A, a number of pupils began to write a list of the important facts or topics in the les- son, and gradually changed their statements to questions, indi- cating that they had confused the statement of facts with the questions which called for them. They were feeling the author's 48 The Nature of Logical Study. questions or problems which had brought about the statements in the text. The following paper, given verbatim, illustrates this tendency : " When studing I put down the chief parts, as follows : When they settled. W4iat goods they imported. What we see know from olden generations. What the settlers began to do. What aded the manufacturing and industry. What sprang up along the coasts. In time what did New England become. What are the most important goods. What did the waterfalls do too help manufacturing. On what chief thing did New England became a great country." In some papers, statements or topics only were given. In others, there were questions only ; but a good many were of the mixed type shown above. The questions asked in the two kinds of tests, A and E, indi- cate strongly that pupils can feel the author's problem, and can see problems growing out of the lesson presented, i. e., supple- mentary problems. Grouping related ideas. In test A of the second series, 12 pupils in a certain seventh grade said that, in studying the lesson, they had grouped related ideas together. Six others in the same grade said that they would do so. Five pupils in the sixth grade representing four different classes said they would group related ideas in study- ing the lesson assigned. As no pupil actually put any of this work on his paper, the ability of these pupils in this direction cannot be estimated. All that can be said is that at least 23 pupils of the whole number whose papers were counted had some idea of grouping together ideas which are related in some way. What test C required. Test C differs radically from tests A and E in nature. In the two latter, the text was given and the pupils were required to find the problem, if any problem was found. In test C, how- ever, only the problem was given and the pupils were to show how thev would solve it. The Nature of Logical Study. 49 How the pupils proposed to solve the problems. In examining Table 11/ which gives the results of this test, it is noticed that very few children wrote facts or questions, pos- sibly because the text was not before their eyes to suggest either procedure. The things which they did most frequently were to give the topics which they would try to study, and to tell the sources to which they would go for information. In the first series 539, or 61.3%, of the pupils indicated the sources to which they would go for information ; in the second series 473, or 53.8%, did so. These numbers do not include those who said they would ask teachers, parents, or other people for the facts needed to answer the questions. Sources of information named by the pupils. The sources named by the pupils of the sixth grade include geography textbooks, supplementary geographies, maps, ency- clopedias, histories, newspapers, the library, the almanac, and the dictionary, most of these being given repeatedly. One child suggested asking a man from Pittsburg why that city had be- come so important ; and another said he would ask the cigar dealer why tobacco is now grown extensively in the North. The first and second series of test C for the seventh grade are very different and while not furnishing a good basis for comparison of results, served to show whether the pupils were thinking of what they were doing, or were working mechani- cally. In the first series, this grade gave about the same refer- ences as the sixth, but gave magazines instead of the almanac. One pupil suggested writing to an editor to find the answer. In the second series, most pupils said they would read papers, or magazines, or letters about the candidates for office, and would look up the records of the men. Six said they would use the history, geography, encyclopedia, or dictionary in answer- ing the question. They did not mention what they expected to find about the candidates in these books. Several of these sev- enth grade pupils gave answers which showed good thinking. They would listen to people talking, would hear lectures and speeches ; would try to see the candidates and ask them ques- tions ; they would try to get acquainted with friends of the can- didates and learn about the latter from them; or they would 'See Appendix. 4 50 The Nature of Logical Study. write to the newspapers. While a very few declared boldly that they would vote for the candidate of the party to which they belonged and would work for his election, many pupils said they would investigate the private and political life of the can- didates, and would vote for the best man. The following paper, written by a boy, is typical of a good many of the papers writ- ten: " I would first see which one seemed to be the best one to govern. I would find out all about their characters personally. Then I would see if they were able to do their business. I would then size them up very close, and then vote for the one I thought was the most fit for the office." About one-sixth of the whole number who wrote this test expressed themselves in such a way that it seemed as if they in- tended to find out about one candidate only. This test about the selection of a candidate, test C of the sec- ond series for the seventh grade, gave more opportunities for originality and independent procedure than the others, since it was decidedly out of the beaten track of the rest of the work. Though only about one-third of the pupils writing this test gave answers which were considered adequate, many more showed intelligent, original efforts as far as they went. Unfortunately they stopped short of fulfilling the requirement of the question. The formulation of hypotheses hy pupils. An unexpected result of this test was the manifestation of the ability of the pupils to form hypotheses as a basis for solving the problem presented to them. More than a score of children in each of the two grades volunteered explanations which were quite relevant. This was especially noticeable in the sixth grade test about tobacco growing in the North, and in the seventh grade test about famines in India. Some of the explanations given by the sixth grade are as fol- lows: I. Change in climate either in the South or in the North. 2. South needs land for cotton. 3. Better facilities for manufac- ture and transportation in the North. 4. Cheaper to grow to- bacco in the North than to have it shipped from the South. 5. Increased demand for tobacco. 6. Changes in economic con- ditions in the South due to the Civil War. 7. People of the The Nature of Logical Study. 51 North have learned how to cultivate tobacco. 8. Possibly a better quality can be grown in the North than in the South. In regard to the frequent famines in India, the seventh grade pupils hazarded the hypotheses that they might be due to clima- tic conditions, to the nature of the surface, to poor soil, to un- favorable winds, to inability to obtain sufficient water for irriga- tion, to occasional floods, to some insect which destroyed the crops, to oppressive government like that of Turkey, to density of population, to lack of knowledge of farming, to indolence, to lack of foresight or thrift, or to lack of adequate means for transportation and communication. Not all the theories advanced were as relevant or sensible as those just given ; but the fact that so many were given is indi- cative of the ability of children in these grades to form hypotheses- which are worth considering as possible explanations of the prob- lems demanding solution. Summary. On the whole, the three different kinds of tests in geography given pupils in the sixth and seventh grades show that these pupils can employ the various factors of higher or logical study to a considerable extent. They were evidently not conscious of the steps in systematic study ; yet supplementing their account of what they had done or would do in study by the results pro- duced when they were called upon to employ the various factors, a sufficiently large number gave evidence of their use to warrant the conclusion that these pupils can find the subject or leading thought of a lesson ; they can organize the material presented ; they can supplement the textbook intelligently ; they can ask in- telligent questions involving valuable problems ; and they can to^ some extent formulate sensible hypotheses for the solution of problems. The ability to work in characteristic ways is shown by the sources employed for information, by the theories advanced, by the questions asked, and, to a lesser degree, in various other ways. ' - CHAPTER V Are Pupils Being Taught to Study Systematically in the Elementary Schools The ivaste of effort shown by the tests. In the preceding chapter it was shown that a sufficiently large number of pupils in the grades tested employed the steps of logi- cal study to warrant the conclusion that it is within the power of pupils of at least the sixth and seventh grades to make use of •them. Aside, however, from the indefiniteness of the language ■employed, which often quite concealed the pupils' meaning, Tables I, II, and III reveal the fact that there is great waste in studying. In test A of the first series, 14% described their pro- cedure in studying in indefinite terms, saying they would " think," " study," " try to understand." About 38% of the pupils thought the thing to do was to write a more or less literal version of the text, and about 29% memorized the text to some extent. Nearly j noissaJdxa ua^tjiM JO \eio aA!{) fC ^ 3 8.8 4 15.4 1 4.2 3 "8^6 3 10. U5 00 8zuoni3i^ e^ z 3 8.8 1 3.8 1 4.2 1 6.3 1 2.9 3 10. CO o 3ZU -Bramns io Mauay Oh' 2 01-* -co ■ ■ lOO -ZO ■ ■ sasBjqd 4 11.8 3 11.5 3 12.5 1 6.3 5 14.3 3 10. OS ?X3!( SHI )ii3ma]ddng 16 61.5 2 8.3 3 18.8 3 8.6 1 3.3 s^aain -a^B}g JO Bsaupnnos 3TH 01 su 33pnf 1^ 2 7.7 4 16.7 -3pnf mojj luosBay z 9 26.5 3 11.5 1 4.2 2 12.5 4 11.4 2 6.7 aniSvni! :3Z!|vns!A z 3 8.8 7 26.9 1 4.2 1 6.3 4 11.4 3 10. 05 33U3! -J8dx3 qiiM ajBdniOQ z 7 20.6 3 11.5 7 29.2 3 18.8 3 8.6 2 6.7 (M 3A!33J9ddB ;ilTO3H z 17 51.5 3 11.5 9 37.5 6 37.5 14 40. 1 3.3 CO uossa] JO SniuBara puB^sjapUj-j Z 13 39.4 6 23.1 8 33.3 7!20" 19 63.3 sno!!)s3nb Jjsy z 2 7.7 2 8.3 3 18.8 4 11.4 CO ?il§noqi JO ssnanbas aanjx a; z •♦ -co .CO lO .' CO ^ CO CO CO CO wapt pa^Bisj dnojr) z 6 17.6 17 65.4 10 41.7 3 18.8 5 14.3 3 10. CO 5 EfUIOd lUBiiodtni am pujj a; z 8 23.5 12 46.2 10 41.7 3 18.8 15 42.9 7 23.3 CO CO CO raaiqoJd JO mSnoqi unm aqi pui^ z COM •— icM . oio -cqoo • sz^lBuy z CQ . . CO o> • ■ -co CO CO CO 3{oqm B SB uossaj JO sap! }3r) z oo (Mr^io t^ 00 OS CONOCO M ._, ^H C^CSI >O-*Coco 05 ■jsaja^ni asnoiy P-, zj ■«■ 05 . ^co &\\qv^ nuoj Oi nTO PL, Z: ■*" (M 33paiiion3[ jC(ddy 7 20.6 4 15.4 8 33.3 2 12.5 4 11.4 azijoma^ p^ 2; 3 8.8 3 11.5 1 4.2 1 6.3 4 11.4 6 20. o 00 noissaJdxa na^'jiiji JO jBjo aAij) 7 20.6 9 34.6 6 25. 2 12.5 6 17.1 3 10. CO azusmratis iMaiAajj z; rtCO oo "J" oo snoi^BJisnji! pni^ S •* az!|Bns!A. 0^ z" CD CO SniuBara pnB^siapnfi Plh z O5 00CO »«cooo coco -*'eo CO aivdmo^ z 05 CO oo eo SSnDSlQ PL( z CO to a^B3 -nwAni 'SAiasqo is^natauadxa ajjcpi z CD 00 O5C0 oico CO o ((xaj aq? ^uaraaiddng z 5 14.7 4 15.4 2 8.3 2 12.5 2 5.7 2 6.7 CO o sBap! pa^Bjaj dnojQ p; z oo-h'm ■*eo 00 2 siniod ^UB^jodtni aqi pnij p4 z 9 26.5 5 19.2 3 12.5 2 12.5 7 20. 5 16.7 oo 00 CO snoi^sanb aa^isaB puB nuoj Israajqojd aA]og p, z' COQO 00 CO COrt CO N Ertnaraa^Bis s.aoqins aq^ ^JI-iaA 0^ z 00 CO CO 00 CO 'jqSnoq') a q i puBiaiapufi p.; z toco 00 CO CO-* CO s^qSnoq^ n 1 ra aq^ pni^ p^ z 02C0 (MCO t- }xa? aqi prag p^ z' o N o CO eo ss«)o ni jaqmnj^ § en CO ■< 'c IC >•* CC z u c at 96 The Nature of Logical Study. TABLE IX CLASS 1 "o ■s- '2 11 ■§1 1 1 o, s a o 3 1 J3 a 1 3 02 1 o 01 g > a ■a S 'i "3 i -a i 1 1 a ■§! ■"a £ ^ & § |l II 3 |l i a Q N. P. N.P. N. P. N. P. N.P. N. P. N. P. N.P. N. P. N.P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. 1 2 34 26 24 16 35 30 4 11.8 1 3.8 1 4.2 2 12.5 ■6"26." s's.'e 5 14.7 3 11.5 4 16.7 2 12.5 3 8.6 5 16.7 8 23.5 5 19.2 8 33.3 4 25. 2 5.7 3 10. i'h'i 3 8.6 1 3.3 3 8.8 1 3.8 1 4.2 2 12.5 1 2.9 1 3.3 7 20.6 1 3.8 3 12.5 2 12.5 1 2.9 1 3.3 2 5.9 2'8.'3 2 5.9 4 15.4 4 11.8 3 8.8 1 2.9 2 5.9 2 5.9 3 2 8.3 2 8.3 4 1 6.3 6 1 2.9 4 13.3 1 2.9 1 3.3 6 Totals.. 165 14 8.5 3 1.8 22 13.3 30 18.2 6 3.6 9 5.5 15 9.1 4 2.4 11 6.7 4 2.4 3 1.8 1 .6 6 3.6 6 3. The Nature of Logical Study. TABLE IX— Continued 97 ■g § 1 1 5 1 is o c ■3. a < -0 c E Pi •a Is i S a 2-2 "So * > > 1 6 OS "S c c: < |i a Si M || N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. N. P. 11 32.4 2 5.9 2 7.7 3 8.8 3 11.5 2 5.9 11 32.4 3 11.5 15 62.5 5 31.3 10 28.6 12 40. 2 5.9 1 3.8 2 5.9 7 20.6 2 7.7 3 12.5 1 6.3 3 8.6 4 13.3 5 14.7 6 17.6 3 11.5 2 8 3 '3'ii:5 2 8.3 '5'i4;.3 1 3.3 2 5 9 6 23.1 8 30 8 7 29.2 4 16 7 8 50. 1 6.3 4 11.4 1 3.3 4 25 2 5.7 1 0.3 3 18 8 1 6 3 9 25.7 9 30. 3 8.6 3 10. 2 5.7 1 3.3 1 2.9 4 11.4 1 3.3 3 8.6 'i'3^3 2 5.7 9 30 50 30.3 10 6.1 12 7.3 3 1.8 56 33.9 9 5.5 5 3. 20 12.1 6 3.6 5 3. 3 1.8 15 9.1 11 6.7 26 15.8 JDL 3 1908